6 Implementation of the Proposed Action 

(Draft CCP) 

Refuge wetland complex. 

USFWS 

The draft CCP described in this chapter presents 

the details of how the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

would carry out its proposed action—alternative 

B—for management of Red Rock Lakes National 

Wildlife Refuge. The planning team recommends this 

proposed action as the alternative that could best 

achieve the refuge’s purposes, vision, and goals while 

helping to fulfill the Refuge System mission. 

Management under alternative B acknowledges 

the importance of naturally functioning ecological 

communities on the refuge. However, changes to the 

landscape have affected the ability of the Service to 

manage the refuge solely as a naturally functioning 

ecological community. Those changes resulted 

from human alterations to the landscape, past 

refuge management to create wetlands, and special 

management actions to protect species in peril. 

Because some of these changes are signifi cant, some 

refuge habitats will require “hands on” management 

actions during the life of this plan. 

Alternative B contains the following key elements: 

■	 There would be improved management of 

riparian habitats to benefit Arctic grayling 

and migratory bird species dependent on 

these habitats. There would be restoration of 

some modified wetlands (including Culver and 

McDonald ponds) back to riparian corridors. 

■	 Management actions (such as grazing and 


prescribed fire) would be directed toward 


specific habitat and wildlife objectives, with 

increased and improved oversight, monitoring, 

and research (when appropriate) conducted to 

assess if management objectives are being met. 

■	 Visitor service programs would be improved in 

order to increase awareness and understanding 

of refuge resources and management programs, 

which will result in garnering support for the 

Refuge System and the conversion of Red 

Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge and the 

Centennial Valley. 

■	 The following staff and facilities would be 

needed to carry out this plan: 

—	 one full-time GS-9 wildlife biologist and at 

least three temporary seasonal biological 

science technicians 

—	 one full-time GS-7 range technician 

—	 one permanent WG-6 seasonal maintenance 

worker 

—	 one temporary seasonal visitor services 


specialist
 

—	 one temporary seasonal offi ce assistant 

—	 Due to expanded refuge programs all grade 

levels for current staff will be evaluated. 

—	 up to four new residences for current and 

added staff 

—	 three additional concrete pads to 

accommodate recreational vehicles needed to 

recruit seasonal volunteers 
104 Draft CCP and EA,Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

The implementation of the final CCP begins once it 

has been approved by the regional director (region 

6) and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has notifi ed 

the public of its decision. If alternative B were 

selected by the director as the preferred alternative, 

the objectives and strategies presented in this 

chapter would become the final plan to be carried 

out over the next 15 years. The CCP would serve as 

the primary management document for the refuge 

until it is formally revised. The Service would carry 

out the final CCP with help from partner agencies, 

organizations, and the public. The management 

direction presented in this chapter would meet the 

purposes, vision, and goals of the refuge. 

6.1 PROPOSED GOALS, OBJECTIVES, 

AND STRATEGIES 

This section discusses goals, objectives, and 

strategies that serve as the steps needed to achieve 

the CCP goals. 

A goal is a descriptive, broad statement of desired 

future conditions that conveys a purpose but does not 

define measurable units. 

An objective is a concise statement that indicates 

what is to be achieved, the extent of the 

achievement, who is responsible, and when and 

where the objective should be achieved. 

The rationale for each objective provides context, 

such as background information, assumptions, and 

technical details. 

The strategies describe the actions needed to achieve 

the objectives. 

LAKE, POND, AND MARSH HABITAT GOAL 

Provide habitat for breeding and migrating birds, 

native fishes, and resident wildlife that maintains the 

biological diversity and integrity of montane wetland 

systems. Appendix E contains the draft compatibility 

determination for research conducted by partners 

outside the Service. 

Natural Lakes Objective 

Natural Lakes Objective 1: Maintain Upper Red 

Rock and Swan lakes in a SAV-dominated stable 

state (>35% and 60% SAV canopy cover, respectively) 

throughout the life of the CCP, for the benefi t of 

migratory birds and native fi shes. 

Strategies 

—	 Review existing water quality data to provide 

an understanding of the natural variation to be 

expected in Upper Red Rock and Swan lakes. 

—	 Develop a monitoring protocol with an emphasis 

on factors that could alter phosphorous and 

nitrogen levels, as well as turbidity (for 

example, upland management in surrounding 

watershed). 

Rationale 

Shallow lakes often exist in one of two stable 

states. The first, and current state of Upper Red 

Rock and Swan lakes, is a relatively clear water, 

SAV-dominated condition. The second state is 

characterized by turbid water and algal domination. 

These two states seem to fall along a continuum of 

abiotic and biotic factors such as total phosphorous 

concentrations (Bayley and Prather 2003) and 

presence of zooplankton grazers (Jeppesen et al. 

1998), respectively. Several of these factors can 

be altered by anthropogenic actions higher in the 

watershed. 

The refuge’s natural lakes provide foraging and 

brood-rearing habitat for a diverse group of 

waterfowl and waterbirds. Maintaining these lakes 

in a SAV-dominated condition increases the value of 

the lakes to foraging birds. Greater plant biomass 

directly benefits predominantly herbivorous species 

such as trumpeter swans (Mitchell 1994, Squires and 

Anderson 1995), as well as increases the abundance 

and diversity of invertebrates (Krull 1970, Voigts 

1976, Zimmer et al. 2000) for breeding ducks 

(Baldassarre and Bolen 2006) and largely carnivorous 

species such as eared grebe (Cullen et al. 1999) and 

Franklin’s gull (Burger and Gochfeld 1994). 

Upper Red Rock Lake also supports the last native 

population of lacustrine/adfluvial Arctic grayling in 

the contiguous United States (Kaya 1992, Unthank 

1989). This population migrates into Red Rock Creek 

during the spring to spawn and lives the remainder 

of the year in Upper Red Rock Lake (Gangloff 1996, 

Nelson 1954). There is limited evidence that a small 

component of the population migrates into Odell 

Creek during the spring to spawn (Gangloff 1996, 

Nelson 1954), although recent work indicates most 

Arctic grayling that spawn in Odell Creek spend 

the entire year in the creek (USFWS 2007). Aquatic 

invertebrates are a significant food source for lakedwelling Arctic grayling (Kruse 1959, Leonard 1939); 

therefore, this unique population of Arctic grayling 

would also benefit from maintaining Upper Red Rock 

Lake in its current SAV-dominated condition. 

Water-quality monitoring will be conducted to 

ensure the management of adjacent habitats would 

not adversely affect the lakes. Grazing and fi re are 

known to increase the nutrient cycling of nitrogen 

and phosphorous (Burke et al. 2005, Hauer and 

Spencer 1998, McEachern et al. 2000). Management 

of upland habitats adjacent to Upper Red Rock 

or Swan lakes could result in elevated levels of 

these nutrients. Elevated levels of phosphorous 

and nitrogen can lead to increases in algae and 

turbidity in shallow lakes, which may ultimately lead 

to significant losses of SAV communities. See for 

example, Egertson et al. (2004). 
Managed Wetlands Objectives 

Managed Wetlands Objective 1: Remove 

impoundments on Elk Springs Creek and the upper 

reach of Picnic Creek that create MacDonald and 

Culver ponds, respectively, within 15 years of 

CCP approval, to restore approximately 1.7 miles 

of riparian habitat for spawning Arctic grayling, 

migratory birds, and native ungulates. 

Managed Wetlands Objective 2: Throughout the life 

of the CCP, maintain Widgeon Pond at full pool to 

provide lacustrine habitat for Arctic grayling during 

nonbreeding periods of their life-cycle. 

Strategies 

—	 Use stream sections below each of the proposed 

restorations as representative sites (such as 

width to depth ratio, sinuosity, and riparian 

vegetation species composition and canopy 

cover) to determine when restoration has been 

successfully completed. 

—	 Define Arctic grayling spawning habitat based 

on cobble size, steam stretch classifi cation 

(riffle, pool, run), and water temperature and 

velocity to ensure suitable spawning habitat is 

provided in each restored stretch. 

—	 Until restoration is complete, maintain 

the current infrastructure on Culver and 

MacDonald ponds to allow water-level 

manipulations to (1) establish stream channels, 

(2) restore native riparian vegetation, and (3) 

provide the option of flooding out nonnative 

invasive plants such as Canada thistle. 

—	 Update the water control structure at Widgeon 

Pond to a design that will prevent emigration or 

immigration of fi sh. 

—	 Replace the culvert on Culver Road to make 

fish movement to the headwaters of Elk 

Springs Creek easier. 

—	 Remove nonnative fish from Picnic Creek and 

Widgeon ponds, throughout the life of the CCP. 

—	 Use remote-site incubators (Kaeding and 

Boltz 2004) in Elk Springs and Picnic creeks 

to reestablish Arctic grayling populations, 

throughout the life of the CCP. 

—	 Conduct annual Arctic grayling spawning 

population counts on Elk Springs and Picnic 

creeks, throughout the life of the CCP. 

—	 Restore Mallard Canal and Pintail Ditch. This 

will also preclude diversion of water to the 

West Pintail Ditch wetlands. Use the recently 

installed fish screen in the headgates to improve 

the water diversion structure at Red Rock 

Creek. 

Rationale 

Arctic grayling in Montana represent a glacial 

relict population from the Wisconsinan Ice Age 

Chapter 6 — Implementation of the Proposed Action 105 

(Redenbach and Taylor 1999). Two endemic Arctic 

grayling populations persist in Montana: a fl uvial 

(river-dwelling) form in the Big Hole River and 

a lacustrine/adfluvial (lake-dwelling and stream 

spawning) form in Upper Red Rock Lake. The 

population in Upper Red Rock Lake represents the 

last endemic population of lacustrine/adfl uvial Arctic 

grayling in the contiguous United States, although 

populations have been established in approximately 

60 lakes throughout western Montana (MFWP [no 

date]). Lacustrine/adfluvial Arctic grayling spend the 

nonbreeding season in lake habitats, while using lake 

tributaries for spring spawning activities. 

Early accounts by homesteaders show that Arctic 

grayling were common throughout the lakes and 

streams of the upper Centennial Valley (Unthank 

1989). The population began to decline in the 1930s 

(Vincent 1962), likely due to a combination of factors 

such as introduction of nonnative fish (such as brook 

trout), water diversion, and heavy grazing of riparian 

corridors (Unthank 1989). Upper Red Rock Lake 

Arctic grayling currently only spawn in Red Rock 

and Odell creeks, although historically they spawned 

in other Upper Lake tributaries. 

Restoring Elk Springs Creek and the upper reach 

of Picnic Creek would provide approximately 1.7 

miles of stream habitat that was traditional spawning 

habitat for Arctic grayling. To create a lake and 

creek complex to meet the life-history needs of 

lacustrine/adfluvial Arctic grayling, Widgeon Pond, 

an impoundment downstream of Culver Pond on 

Picnic Creek, would be maintained. The Picnic Creek 

and Widgeon Pond complex would be managed 

specifically for Artic grayling, which would include 

the removal of nonnative fish. This complex would 

provide a local refuge Arctic grayling population 

for other reestablishment projects in the valley. 

Additionally, Widgeon Pond is large enough and deep 

enough that it could possibly support a Westslope 

cutthroat population as part of the pond’s fi shery. 

Additionally, refuge willow habitats support one 

of the highest density winter moose populations 

in Montana (Warren and O’Reilly 2005). The 

population has been steadily increasing by about 2% 

annually for the period 1966–2008 (USFWS 2008a). 

However, there is evidence that the population is 

demonstrating density-dependent habitat limitation, 

for example, Ferguson et al. 2000). The increase in 

winter moose population has been concurrent with 

a significant decline in productivity, as measured 

by the ratio of calves to adults in annual surveys 

(Warren and O’Reilly 2005) Intense browsing of 

willow (Keigley and Frisina 2001, O’Reilly 2006) and 

aspen (Richard Keigley, research ecologist, USGS, 

personal interview) by ungulates has been observed 

within the refuge. This evidence suggests that the 

moose population may be limited by winter habitat. 

Restoring Elk Springs Creek and the upper reach 

of Picnic Creek would increase the available winter 
106 Draft CCP and EA,Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

habitat for moose on the refuge by approximately 40 

acres. 

The proposed removal of MacDonald and Culver 

ponds would eliminate 10–20 acres (varies depending 

upon ice cover) of winter waterfowl habitat. These 

ponds were historically used to feed wintering 

trumpeter swans. Winter feeding at the refuge 

occurred from 1935 to 1992, and was an important 

component of early trumpeter swan conservation 

efforts. The feeding program was terminated as 

part of a program to expand the winter range of the 

increasing Rocky Mountain population (RMP) of 

trumpeter swans (USFWS 1992). According to the 

“Midwinter Waterfowl Survey” the average number 

of wintering trumpeter swans on the two ponds 

during the 5 years before termination of winter 

feeding (1988–1992) was 348.1 ± 13.4 (mean ±SE); 

with peak numbers over 800 individuals. The ponds 

now provide winter habitat for 40.5 ± 7.8 swans, 

117.0 ± 10.6 ducks, and 2.1 ± 1.0 geese, based on 

10-year averages (USFWS 2008b). Restoring Elk 

Springs Creek and the upper reach of Picnic Creek 

would eliminate waterfowl winter habitat but would 

further efforts to expand the winter range of RMP 

trumpeter swans. 

Managed Wetlands Objective 3: Manage Shambow, 

Shorebird, Shoveler, Sparrow, and Tepee Creek 

ponds and Sparrow Slough with alternate, 

infrequent drawdowns to provide about 132 acres 

of semipermanent palustrine emergent habitat with 

30%-50% flooded emergent canopy cover for the 

benefit of breeding migratory birds over the life of 

the CCP. 

Managed Wetlands Objective 4: To protect riparian 

corridors, over the life of the CCP, divert water to 

North Tuck Slough in years when snow-water 

equivalent is above the 30-year average by the last 

day of snow-pack accumulation, as measured by the 

Lakeview Ridge (SNOpack TELemetry) site (USDA 

Natural Resources Conservation Service). This 

will provide 103 acres of semipermanent palustrine 

emergent habitat with 30%-50% fl ooded emergent 

canopy for breeding migratory bird habitat. 

Created wetland, North Tuck Slough. 

USFWS 

Strategies 

—	 Conduct a drawdown every 7 years (on 

average), in an alternating cycle, on managed 

wetlands, throughout the life of the CCP. 

—	 Begin monitoring emergent wetland vegetation 

to ensure the objective is being met, within the 

first year of implementation of the CCP. 

—	 Fill North Tuck’s Slough, via the Hansen 


diversion, as prescribed. 


—	 Throughout the life of the CCP, monitor Red 

Rock Creek for Arctic grayling fry upstream of 

the Hansen diversion weekly when diverting 

water to North Tuck’s Slough. The diversion 

will be closed when Arctic grayling fry are 

observed. 

Rationale 

Periodic drawdowns will be undertaken to increase 

productivity of these managed wetlands. Maintaining 

relatively static and high water levels, as has been 

done with the wetlands in recent history, lowers 

wetland productivity. Static water levels create 

anaerobic conditions within wetlands, thereby 

limiting decomposition and nutrient cycling (Brinson 

et al. 1981). The natural drought cycle of prairie 

glacial wetlands allows for infrequent aeration of the 

bottom substrate and decomposition of accumulated 

detritus (Mitsch and 

Gosselink 1986). Less 

is known about the 

effects of drought on 

montane wetlands, but 

key physical processes 

(such as decomposition 

of detritus and release 

of soluble nutrients) 

should function in 

much the same fashion. 

Therefore, drawdowns 

in managed wetlands 

are frequently 

recommended in 

order to mimic the 

natural drought 

cycle and stimulate 

the decomposition of 

accumulated detritus 

and nutrient cycling 

(Payne 1992). 
Chapter 6 — Implementation of the Proposed Action 107 

Persistent deep water in wetlands also alters 

plant communities. Many species of wetland 

plants do not germinate in deep water and cannot 

survive if continuously flooded (Bishop et al. 1979, 

Harris and Marshall 1963, Kadlec 1962, Weller 

1999). As a result, there are greater open-water 

areas, which reduces populations of aquatic 

invertebrates and lowers bird diversity (Weller 

and Spatcher 1965, Weller 1981). Although this 

open-water marsh stage is selected by various 

bird species such as American coot, lesser scaup, 

ruddy duck (Murkin et al. 1997), and grebes 

(Cullen et al. 1999, Muller and Storer 1999, 

Storer and Nuechterlein 1992), it represents a 

phase of the natural cycle marshes undergo, not 

a climax community. Drought conditions “reset 

the clock” for an open-water-stage marsh by 

lowering water levels, which results in exposed 

mud flats that stimulate plant germination. When 

reflooding occurs, dense stands of inundated 

emergent vegetation persist for a brief period 

before being flooded out. The period of open 

water, interspersed with emergent vegetation 

in roughly equal amounts, is known as the hemimarsh. Maximum bird numbers and the greatest 

diversity of dabbling duck species are associated 

with the hemi-marsh stage (Kaminski and Prince 

1981, Murkin et al. 1997, Weller and Spatcher 

1965). The continued flooding of the hemi-marsh 

stage results in the return of the marsh to the 

open-water stage. 

Lower Red Rock Lake and River Marsh 

Objective 

Lower Red Rock Lake and River Marsh 

Objective 1: Increase the percent coverage of 

pondweeds and Canadian waterweed, collectively, 

to >40% in Lower Red Rock Lake and River 

Marsh within 10 years of CCP approval. 

Strategies 

—	 Follow the “Adaptive Resource 

Management Plan for Lower Red Rock 

Lake, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife 

Refuge, Montana”, as long as the WCS is 

still functional. 

—	 Maintain the WCS for the life of this CCP, 

unless it it is determined that removal is 

warranted due to negative effects on the 

hydrological system. 

—	 Conduct ecological experiments to improve 

the understanding and management of the 

WCS and surrounding hydrological system, 

throughout the life of the CCP. 

—	 Continue to monitor submerged aquatic 

vegetation, climate, and water levels 

annually, throughout the life of the CCP. 

Rationale 

Historical survey data and the relative forage 

quality of SAV were the criteria used to 

determine the desired species composition 

of Lower Red Rock Lake and River Marsh. 

The SAV community is currently dominated 

by shortspike watermilfoil (USFWS 2008c). 

Historical records show this species was always 

present but that other species were also well 

represented. A 1922 field report (Sperry 1922) 

stated shortspike watermilfoil was abundant 

in Lower Red Rock Lake, as well as several 

pondweed species, star duckweed, and quillwort. 

Also recorded in the report were one large bed 

of Canadian waterweed and several large beds 

of arumleaf arrowhead. Importantly, these 

observations were made before any form of WCS 

was placed on Lower Red Rock Lake. 

A wooden WCS was built on the western outfl ow 

of Lower Red Rock Lake in 1930 by the state of 

Montana. This structure was in place for over 20 

years before the first refuge survey of the SAV 

community in 1955–56 (Beed 1957). The greatest 

percent species composition measured during 

that initial survey was Canadian waterweed at 

39%, followed by pondweeds (18%), and algae 

(12%). Shortspike watermilfoil was scarce in 

Lower Red Rock Lake (<2%). The wooden 

structure was replaced in 1957 with a concrete 

WCS with a sill height elevation of 6,607 feet 

above mean sea level. This new structure was 

built without headgates, preventing the refuge 

from being able to manipulate water levels. 

The SAV community of Lower Red Rock Lake 

changed little during the 15 years after the 

construction of the 1957 WCS. Paullin (1973) 

found that shortspike watermilfoil comprised 

2%-17% of the aquatic vegetation during 1956 

to 1971, while pondweeds comprised 18%-42% 

over that same period. However, the proportion 

of Canadian waterweed and arumleaf arrowhead 

decreased during this period, the former from 

60% to <1% and the later from 8% to 1.3%. 

Paullin (1973) attributed the decline of Canadian 

waterweed to overgrazing by trumpeter swans 

and macro-nutrient depletion. The decline of 

arumleaf arrowhead is likely related to the 

termination of seeding by the refuge. Arumleaf 

arrowhead was introduced to the Red Rock lakes 

shortly after the refuge was established, with 

seeding continuing for several years. 

The sampling plan established by Paullin (1973) 

was continued on an annual basis until 1985. 

By this time, the species composition of the 

vegetation comprised of shortspike watermilfoil 

had increased to 34%, while that of pondweeds 

remained within its historical range, also at 34%. 

The 1957 WCS was replaced in 1987 with a WCS 
108 Draft CCP and EA,Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

that facilitated water level manipulations via six 

adjustable headgates with a sill height of 6,604 feet 

above mean sea level. Unfortunately, SAV surveys of 

Lower Red Rock Lake were not conducted between 

1986 and 2001. When SAV surveys were conducted 

in 2002, shortspike watermilfoil had increased to 

57% species composition, while pondweeds declined 

to 12%. The Service believes that this result can be 

partially explained by recent Lower Red Rock Lake 

water levels. The 7 years preceding this most recent 

survey were marked by high water levels (>6,607 

feet above mean sea level) maintained in Lower 

Red Rock Lake throughout the summer. Relatively 

high static water levels during the growing season 

would likely favor shortspike watermilfoil, a species 

more common in lacustrine habitats. Additionally, 

consistently high water levels may negatively 

affect pondweeds, which are known to produce 

especially heavy seed crops under drought conditions 

(Muenscher 1936, Sharp 1951). Sago pondweed, an 

especially favored waterfowl food (Kadlec and Smith 

1989, Kantrud 1990), ostensibly lacks competitive 

ability in increased water levels (Harris and Marshall 

1963). 

Recent trends in local climate (increasing 

temperatures and decreasing precipitation) have 

raised concern for the future of refuge water 

resources. If these trends continue, the current WCS 

may provide important management capabilities to 

protect wetland habitats. For this reason, the Service 

will maintain the current structure; however, if 

studies determine that the current WCS negatively 

affects the hydrology of the system, the structure 

may be removed. 

RIPARIAN HABITAT GOAL 

Maintain the processes necessary to sustain the 

biological diversity and integrity of native riparian 

vegetation for breeding birds, native fi shes, and 

wintering ungulates. Appendix E contains the draft 

compatibility determinations for research (conducted 

by partners outside the Service) and cattle grazing. 

Moose depend on refuge riparian areas for winter 

survival. 

Mike Parker/USFWS 

Riparian Habitat Objectives 

Riparian Habitat Objective 1: Maintain at least 500 

acres of moderate to dense (>40% canopy cover) 

willow riparian habitat to benefit breeding migratory 

songbirds, spawning Arctic grayling, and native 

ungulates, throughout the life of the CCP. 

Strategies 

—	 Continue collecting data on willow canopy cover 

and shrub volume along Red Rock and Odell 

creeks as needed to determine and monitor 

management actions, throughout the life of the 

CCP. 

—	 Maintain existing riparian fences and use 

temporary fencing, as needed, to protect 

riparian habitats from cattle, throughout the 

life of the CCP. 

—	 Continue to cooperate with The Nature 

Conservancy to conduct annual monitoring and 

treatment of nonnative invasive plant species, 

throughout the life of the CCP. 

Rationale 

Riparian habitat refers to “plant communities 

contiguous to and affected by surface and subsurface 

hydrologic features of perennial or intermittent 

lotic and lentic water bodies (rivers, streams, lakes, 

or drainage ways). Riparian corridors have one or 

both of the following characteristics: (1) distinctively 

different vegetative species than adjacent areas; or 

(2) species similar to adjacent areas but exhibiting 

more vigorous or robust growth forms. Riparian 

corridors are usually transitional between wetlands 

and uplands” (USFWS 1997). 

Riparian habitats on the refuge are comprised of both 

woody and herbaceous vegetation. Woody vegetation 

includes Bebb, Booth’s, sageleaf, Drummond’s, 

narrowleaf, Geyer, Pacific, false mountain, and 

Wolf’s willows with scattered bog birch and shrubby 

cinquefoil, whereas the herbaceous community 

consists of various grasses, sedges, and forbs. Most 

of the woody species have the ability to resprout 

following disturbance. A large willow fen covers 

nearly 1,400 acres on the southeastern edge of 

Upper Red Rock Lake. Large stands of shrubby 

cinquefoil, totaling over 2,000 acres, occur throughout 

the refuge, with the largest stands occurring on 

the eastern portion. Red Rock and Odell creeks 

are the two largest streams on the refuge, with 

each supporting approximately 210, and 130 acres 

of willow-dominated riparian habitat, respectively. 

Additionally, each creek has several small tributaries 

with associated riparian habitat. 

Hydrology is the primary determinant of riparian 

vegetation composition and structure (Beschta 2003, 
Cary 2005, Cooper et al. 2006). The most important 

hydrological parameters include the time, duration, 

magnitude, and frequency of both surface and 

groundwater flows. Flow magnitude is important to 

consider in relation to creating suitable conditions 

(scouring and overbank flooding) for germination 

whereas duration and frequency of near-surface fl ows 

are critical to ensuring survival of newly established 

vegetation. 

Hydrology also indirectly affects the periodicity, 

severity, and intensity of fire, which can exert 

tremendous influence on both the germination 

conditions and the structure of existing vegetation 

(Dwire and Kauffman 2003, Pettit and Naiman 

2007). Fires in riparian habitats are typically less 

intense and occur at a lower frequency than the 

surrounding uplands due to higher moisture content 

and higher relative humidity (Dwire and Kauffman 

2003, Pettit and Naiman 2007). Typically, fi res enter 

riparian habitats from the surrounding uplands, 

creating patches of burned and unburned habitat, 

and the degree to which the riparian habitat burns 

is related to the intensity of the fire and the width 

of the riparian corridor (Pettit and Naiman 2007). 

The effect of fire on riparian habitats depends upon 

several characteristics, including local topography, 

stream size, vegetation structure and composition, 

and topographic aspect. Fire can also infl uence 

stream sedimentation and nutrient levels (Pettit and 

Naiman 2007). 

The current condition of riparian habitats on the 

refuge is variable, depending upon which stream is 

considered. Woody and herbaceous vegetation exists 

within most stream corridors, but visual observations 

suggest that new germination may be lacking in some 

areas. A potential cause for this disruption includes 

water diversions that have altered the hydrologic 

system. In addition, nonnative invasive plant species, 

especially Canada thistle and common tansy, have 

been introduced to many stream corridors. Many 

riparian habitats on the refuge have been fenced 

out to exclude cattle, although cattle are still able to 

access some streams. 

Plant communities associated with riparian habitats 

on the refuge have multiple natural resource 

values important in the Intermountain West and 

the Centennial Valley. These communities provide 

breeding and stopover habitat for migratory land 

birds, browse and forage for native ungulates, and 

travel corridors for various large mammals. In 

addition, riparian vegetation also provides many 

indirect values, including regulation of stream 

temperatures, and nutrient inputs to streams 

(particularly headwater areas) that form the basis of 

the food chain for invertebrates, fish, and herpetiles. 

Also, treefalls provide materials for beaver that 

influence bed load transport, streamfl ows, and 

various other processes important to sustaining 

stream systems. 

Dozens of migratory land birds that occur on the 

refuge depend on riparian habitats for breeding or 

migration. Breeding bird surveys were conducted 

over two breeding seasons (2006–2007) in refuge 

willow riparian habitats. Over 70% of all bird species 

detections were comprised of five species: yellow 

warbler, common yellowthroat, song sparrow, 

Lincoln’s sparrow, and white-crowned sparrow. 

These species represent a range of nesting and 

foraging requirements (table 6), demonstrating 

the habitat diversity currently provided by refuge 

riparian habitats. 

Data from vegetation measurements conducted 

along both Odell and Red Rock creeks, as well as the 

willow fen, show that along the creeks, tall-statured 

willow species predominate (primarily Booth’s, 

Geyer, and Drummond’s willow). The willow fen is 

comprised of a mosaic of low-statured (Wolf’s willow) 

and tall-statured willow species (primarily Booth’s, 

Bebb, and Geyer’s willow). Canopy cover of willow 

Table 6. Nesting and foraging requirements for the five most commonly detected bird species in willow riparian 

habitat at Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Montana. 

Species Nesting Habitat a,b Nesting Substrate c Foraging Substrate c 

Yellow warbler intermediate shrub shrub 

Common yellowthroat mesic, short willow, dense ground ground/low vegetation 

cover 

Song sparrow mesic, short willow, dense ground ground/water 

cover 

White-crowned sparrow xeric, tall willow ground ground/shrub 

Lincoln’s sparrow mesic, short willow, dense ground ground 

cover 

a Finch 1989 

b

 Douglas et al. 1992 

c

 Lowther et al. 1999, Guzy et al. 1999, Arcese et al. 2002, Chilton et al. 1995, Ammon 1995 

Chapter 6 — Implementation of the Proposed Action 109 
110 Draft CCP and EA,Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

averaged between 30% and 50%. The willow habitat 

along the creeks tended to have higher volume and 

structural heterogeneity than the willow fen. 

Riparian Habitat Objective 2: Maintain low to 

moderate browse levels, as indicated by a positive 

live/dead browse index, within willow habitats for 

the maintenance of willow volume, canopy cover, and 

structural heterogeneity, throughout the life of the 

CCP. 

Strategies 

—	 Cooperate with the MFWP to assess the level 

of browse within willow riparian habitats on the 

refuge at least every 3 years, throughout the 

life of the CCP. 

—	 If browse surveys show that browse levels are 

increasing (that is, if stems killed by browsing 

are taller than live stems), cooperate with the 

MFWP to develop an adaptive harvest plan 

for native ungulates, throughout the life of the 

CCP. 

Rationale 

Herbivory can also signifi cantly infl uence the 

vegetative structure and composition of riparian 

habitats. Riparian habitat on the refuge is critical in 

maintaining native ungulate populations, particularly 

moose. The refuge supports one of the highest 

densities of wintering moose in the northern Rocky 

Mountains. In southwest Montana, willow provides 

over three-fourths of summer and winter forage for 

moose (Dorn 1970). Dorn (1970) found Booth’s willow 

to be the preferred browse species for moose in all 

seasons, as well as the most common species on the 

refuge. Other work has shown that Geyer willow 

is most preferred, followed by Booth’s willow, with 

Bebb willow being the least preferred (Cary 2005, 

Hansen et al. 1995). Booth’s willow was the most 

common species observed in the fen during Dorn’s 

study; however, the majority of tall willow in the fen 

habitat is currently Bebb willow. This may show that 

at some point over the last three decades, a shift in 

willow species composition occurred in response to 

browse intensity. 

The current level of willow browsing by moose was 

estimated during two growing seasons (2006-2007) 

by comparing the height of live stems to the height 

of stems killed by browsing (LD index; Keigley et 

al. 2002). The LD index is an efficient method of 

assessing the level of browse pressure in the willow 

community and predicting related willow community 

trends. If live stems are taller than stems killed by 

browsing, this indicates light to moderate browse 

pressure. The estimated LD index across habitats 

and years was positive, indicating light to moderate 

browsing was occurring in refuge riparian habitats. 

Riparian Habitat Objective 3: Provide relatively 

shallow (<16 inches) gravel and pebble (0.1–2.4 

inches) dominated, moderate flow (0.9–3.0 feet per 

second-1) habitat for spawning Arctic grayling 

(Sempeski and Gaudin 1995) on Odell and Red Rock 

creeks within the refuge, over the life of the CCP. 

Strategies 

—	 Determine current spawning grounds within 

Odell and Red Rock creeks within the refuge, 

and identify any immediate threats to these 

areas within 2 years of CCP approval. 

—	 Restore irrigation ditches that infl uence 

the hydrology of streams currently used for 

spawning by Arctic grayling, while retaining 

ditches needed for restoration efforts. 

—	 Throughout the life of the CCP, work with 

adjacent landowners to reduce effects of cattle 

grazing on upstream sections of Red Rock 

Creek to protect and improve Arctic grayling 

spawning habitat. Encourage establishment 

of seasonal grazing and fencing systems. 

Encourage landowners to avoid trailing cattle 

through streams during peak spawning, and fry 

movement and dispersal. 

—	 Use visual assessments to examine the 

hydrologic function and riparian habitat quality 

of refuge streams in terms of the level of bank 

erosion, vegetation cover, and sedimentation, 

throughout the life of the CCP. 

—	 Work with adjacent landowners to reevaluate 

the current condition of spawning habitat 

contained in streams (particularly Red Rock 

and Odell) upstream of the refuge boundary. 

Native lake dwelling Arctic grayling. 

McLaury/USFWS 

Rationale 

The refuge provides habitat for the last known native 

population of lacustrine/adfluvial Arctic grayling in 

the conterminous United States. Historically, this 

species spawned in numerous tributaries of Lower 

and Upper Red Rock lakes. Currently, spawning 

occurs in only Odell and Red Rock creeks. Threats to 

Arctic grayling include water quality (sedimentation 

and nutrients), as well as water quantity. High 

overbank flows can strand spawning Arctic grayling 

on streambanks, whereas low flows can result in 

increased sedimentation and water temperatures 
Chapter 6 — Implementation of the Proposed Action 111 

(Nelson 1954). Competition with and predation by 

introduced fish species, especially brook and rainbow 

trout, has also impacted Arctic grayling populations. 

Water diversions used for irrigation purposes 

through the 1970s resulted in direct mortality 

of adult spawning Artic grayling and fry as they 

returned to the lakes. Finally, livestock grazing, both 

historic and current, has had a detrimental effect 

on Arctic grayling spawning habitat by removing 

vegetation and increasing sediment and nutrient 

loads, as well as trampling of Arctic grayling eggs 

and fry still in the stream gravels. 

WET MEADOW, GRASSLAND, AND 

SHRUB-STEPPE HABITAT GOAL 

Provide structurally-complex native meadow, 

grassland, and shrub-steppe habitats, within a 

watershed context, for sagebrush-dependent species, 

upland-nesting migratory birds, rare plant species, 

and other resident wildlife. Appendix E contains the 

draft compatibility determinations for research and 

cattle grazing. 

Wet Meadow Objective 

Wet Meadow Objective 1: Continue to provide 

nesting, foraging, and brood-rearing habitat for 

northern pintail, long-billed curlew, short-eared owl, 

sandhill crane, and greater sage-grouse by ensuring 

large, contiguous areas (5,000 acres or more) of wet 

meadow habitat dominated (70% or more of total 

canopy cover) by native graminoids (sedges, rushes, 

grasses) with a mosaic of relatively short (<1 foot 

in height) to moderately tall (1–2 feet in height) 

vegetation; moderate to high (30% to 70%) litter 

cover, and moderate (30% to 60%) canopy cover 

of forbs annually from mid-April to early August, 

throughout the life of the CCP 

Strategies 

—	 Implement a vegetation monitoring program to 

assess if focal species habitat requirements are 

being met within 5 years of CCP approval. 

—	 Determine long-billed curlew distribution, 

nesting densities, and nesting success on the 

refuge within 5 years of CCP approval. 

—	 Determine sandhill crane distribution, nesting 

densities, and nesting success on the refuge 

within 5 years of CCP approval. 

—	 Carry out a study of short-eared owls, 

examining their distribution, nesting densities, 

and nesting success and relate these to annual 

variation in small mammal abundance during 

the life of the CCP. 

—	 Implement a study to determine the infl uence 

of cattle grazing on the abundance and 

distribution of small mammals, the primary 

prey of short-eared owls, within 2 years of CCP

approval.

—	 Use prescribed cattle grazing or prescribed

fire, or both, in an adaptive management 

context to maintain vegetation characteristics,

particularly in areas invaded by smooth brome 

and Kentucky bluegrass, throughout the life of

the CCP. 

— Use fuels treatment (including prescribed 

fire or other mechanical means) to also reduce 

hazardous fuels, thereby minimizing the threat 

to life and property, throughout the life of the 

CCP. 

— Study the impact of participating in state 

repatriation initiatives, if bison become

reclassified as wildlife in Montana, determining 

the effects of free-ranging bison on the

resources of the refuge and the Centennial 

Valley. 

—	 Lethal control of carnivores (such as wolf,

grizzly bear, mountain lion) would not be 

permitted on the refuge to protect cattle used

in the prescribed grazing program without 

permission from the refuge manager and a

special use permit, throughout the life of the

CCP. 

Short-eared owl 

©Cindie Brunner 
112 Draft CCP and EA,Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

Rationale 

Wet meadow habitats provide nesting, foraging, 

and brood-rearing habitat for several species of 

shorebirds, raptors, game birds, and passerines. 

Several federal, state, and nongovernmental lists 

were reviewed to determine birds of conservation 

concern that breed on the refuge. Five species were 

selected as target species that reflect the suitable 

nesting and foraging wet meadow habitat on the 

refuge. These species were selected for a number of 

reasons: 

■	 All five species use the refuge for some portion 

of their breeding cycle. 

■	 Northern pintail, long-billed curlew, sandhill 

crane, and short-eared owl are service focal 

species (Warren and O’Reilly 2005). 

■	 Long-billed curlew and short-eared owl are 

bird species of conservation concern (USFWS 

2002b). 

■	 Long-billed curlew is of concern under the U.S. 

Shorebird Conservation Plan (USFWS 2001). 

■	 Long-billed curlew is a state-listed sensitive 

species in Montana (MTNHP and MFWP 2006). 

■	 Long-billed curlew, short-eared owl, and 

greater sage-grouse are listed as priority level 

III or higher by Montana Partners in Flight 

(Casey 2000). 

Although over 7,000 acres of the refuge are wet 

meadow, the most contiguous area occurs north of 

Upper Red Rock Lake (5,000 acres or more). Several 

of the target bird species have large territories 

(Dugger and Dugger 2002, Rowland et al. 2004, Tacha 

et al. 1992, Wiggins et al. 2006), thus large contiguous 

areas of suitable habitat are critical. Vegetative 

and structural characteristics (such as a mosaic of 

vegetation heights and residual cover) inherent to 

wet meadow habitats on the refuge likely provide 

suitable nesting, foraging, and brood-rearing habitat 

for these species. Data on distribution and breeding 

success for these species on the refuge are necessary 

to determine what, if any, management changes are 

needed. 

A comprehensive literature review was conducted 

for these species to determine their specifi c habitat 

requirements, and management objectives for this 

habitat were developed based on these requirements. 

Requirements such as vegetation height, canopy 

cover, and litter or residual cover were used to create 

objectives for this habitat (see table 7). 

Northern pintails are one of the earliest breeding 

North American ducks, preferentially selecting 

shallow ephemeral wetlands over more permanent 

wetlands for breeding territories (Stewart and 

Kantrud 1973). Ephemeral wetlands support 

abundant chironomids (midges) immediately after 

ice melt, providing a particularly important food 

resource for breeding female pintails (Fredrickson 

and Heitmeyer 1991). Females typically select 

nest sites further from wetlands and with sparser 

vegetation than other upland-nesting ducks (Austin 

and Miller 1995). Refuge wet meadow habitats 

provide both seasonally flooded shallow wetlands and 

extensive areas of short, dense vegetation for nesting 

pintails. 

Long-billed curlews typically select nests in 

vegetation with high vertical density in the 10- to 

20-inch range (Pampush and Anthony 1993) and 

over 12 inches in height (Dugger and Dugger 

2002),. Foraging territories may be within or 

outside of nesting territories, as long-billed curlews 

are opportunistic foragers, feeding primarily on 

terrestrial insects such as grasshoppers (Dugger and 

Dugger 2002). 

Sandhill cranes nesting in wet meadow habitats 

typically select vegetation that is between 4 and 

12 inches in height early in the nesting season (late 

April-early May) (Austin et al. 2007). Late in the 

nesting season (early June), vegetation around nests 

can be highly variable (between 4 and 24 inches 

in height), depending on moisture and vegetative 

composition (Austin et al. 2007). Early season water 

depths around nests in wet meadows average about 

1.5 inches (Austin et al. 2007). Sandhill cranes are 

opportunistic foragers (Mullins and Bizeau 1978, 

Tacha et al. 1992). 

Short-eared owls select nesting habitat with 

moderately tall vegetation, dense residual cover, and 

high visual obstruction readings (Dechant et al. 2003, 

Fondell and Ball 2004, Herkert et al. 1999, Kantrud 

and Higgins 1992, Wiggins et al. 2006). Major 

food items are small mammals, voles in particular 

(Wiggins et al. 2006), and voles require residual cover 

for the creation of extensive runways (Foresman 

2001). Several studies have noted that short-eared 

owl annual breeding numbers are closely tied to vole 

numbers (Wiggins et al. 2006). 

Greater sage-grouse use wet meadows in a mosaic of 

upland sagebrush that provide abundant insects and 

succulent forbs as brood-rearing habitat (Schroeder 

et al. 1999). Wet meadows may be particularly 

important for broods in dry years (Rowland et al. 

2004). 

If bison become designated as a free-ranging wildlife 

in Montana, the Service will work with the state to 

determine the feasibility of repatriating bison onto 

the refuge and the Centennial Valley. Studies would 

need to be conducted to determine the effects these 

reintroduced ungulates would have on the refuge 

resources and the valley in combination with other 

native ungulates and cattle. Any proposals that 

would require the construction of additional fencing, 

which would limit native wildlife movements, would 

not be considered. 
Chapter 6 — Implementation of the Proposed Action 113 

Table 7. Habitat requirements for target wet meadow bird species. 

Vegetation Litter and/or 

Height Residual Area 

Species (inches) Vegetation Cover Cover Requirements Nesting Foraging 

Northern 

pintail 

Shorteared owl 

Long-billed 

curlew 

Sandhill 

crane 

Greater 

sagegrouse 

< 12 

12–24 

< 12 

< 4–24 

Variable 

Nest sites 

have low visual 

obstruction 

readings. 

Dependent 

upon residual 

cover for nest 

concealment. 

Nesting success 

positively related 

to larger, more 

contiguous, 

grassland area 

X 

Nest sites have 

high visual 

obstruction 

readings. 

Has higher 

nest survival 

in ungrazed 

habitats. Avoids 

areas with bare 

ground. 

2–8 years of 

residual cover 

buildup 

> 250 acres X X 

Nest sites have 

low vertical 

profi le and 

vegetation 

density. 

Requires 

moderate 

residual cover 

for nesting 

35 acres per 

territory with 

buffer of 984– 

1,640 feet 

X X 

Needs adequate 

cover for 

concealment 

of large nest 

platforms. 

Requires 

moderate 

residual cover 

for nesting 

42 acres per 

territory 

X 

> 15% canopy 

cover 

Dense 

residual cover 

may hinder 

movements by 

young birds 

Highly variable; 

summer range 

130–12,000 acres 

for female with 

brood 

X 

Note: < = less than; > = greater than 

Shrub-steppe and Grasslands Objectives 

Shrub-steppe and Grasslands Objective 1: 

Throughout the life of the CCP, in shrub-steppe 

habitats, maintain at least 10% canopy cover of 

sagebrush with moderate (30%–70%) to high (>70%) 

canopy cover of native bunchgrasses for sagebrushdependent species, including Brewer’s sparrow and 

greater sage-grouse. Managing for these habitat 

attributes will also provide nesting, roosting, and 

foraging habitat for short-eared owl, sharp-tailed 

grouse, ferruginous hawk, and Swainson’s hawk. 

Shrub-steppe and Grasslands Objective 2: 

Throughout the life of the CCP, in grassland habitats, 

maintain moderate (30%–70%) to high (>70%) canopy 

cover of native bunchgrasses and moderate forb 

cover (30%–70%) for nesting habitat for short-eared 

owl and brood-rearing habitat for greater sagegrouse. 

Strategies 

—	 Begin vegetation monitoring of shrub-steppe 

and grassland habitats to ensure adequate 

coverage of sagebrush, native bunchgrasses, 

and forbs. 

—	 Conduct a comprehensive survey for nesting 

greater sage-grouse and sharp-tailed grouse on 

the refuge within 7 years of CCP approval. 

—	 Implement a study to determine the infl uence 

of cattle grazing on the abundance and 

distribution of small mammals (the primary 

prey of short-eared owl, ferruginous hawk, 

and Swainson’s hawk), within 2 years of CCP 

approval. 

—	 Do not permit lethal control of carnivores (such 

as wolf, grizzly bear, and mountain lion) on the 

refuge to protect cattle used in the prescribed 

grazing program without permission from 

the refuge manager and a special use permit, 

throughout the life of the CCP. 
114 Draft CCP and EA,Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

—	 Avoid prescribed fire in large areas of 

shrub-steppe habitats to prevent loss of 

sagebrush cover. 

Rationale 

Idaho fescue, the dominant bunchgrass species 

on the refuge, can withstand light to moderate 

grazing, particularly if grazing occurs after 

flowering (Mueggler and Stewart 1980). 

Flowering occurs on the refuge around midJuly and coincides with the arrival of cattle. 

Idaho fescue is relatively intolerant to heavy 

grazing, and repeated overgrazing can lead to 

eventual replacement by invasive grasses such as 

cheatgrass (Mueggler and Stewart 1980, Zouhar 

2000). Perennial needlegrass species, particularly 

needle-and-thread grass and western and 

Richardson’s needlegrass, make up an important 

component of these habitats as well. The effect 

of cattle grazing on needlegrasses is variable, 

depending upon timing of grazing. For example, 

needle-and-thread grass greens up early in the 

spring and is most sensitive to grazing during 

flowering; however, the sharp awns developed by 

mid- to late summer typically result in reduced 

use of this grass by livestock (Zlatnik 1999). 

Detailed fire histories for most shrub 

communities are lacking (Baker 2006). Threetip 

sagebrush has the ability to resprout after fi re, 

but this resprouting capacity varies regionally 

and can also depend upon fire severity (Bunting 

et al. 1987, Lesica et al. 2005). Cover of threetip 

sagebrush can decrease in the early years 

postfire (Lesica et al. 2005). Native bunchgrasses 

associated with these habitats have variable 

responses to fire, and fi re-related mortality 

depends upon fire severity. Fire kills the culms, 

but individual plants can survive if fire does not 

damage the root crown (Zouhar 2000). Canopy 

cover of Idaho fescue can return to pre-fi re levels; 

however, livestock grazing immediately following 

fire can result in high (over 50%) plant mortality 

(Bunting et al. 1998). Perennial needlegrass 

species are extremely susceptible to damage by 

fire (Esser 1992, Wright and Klemmedson 1965), 

although they can recover if the fire is not severe 

enough to damage the crown (Esser 1992). 

Several federal, state, and nongovernmental lists 

were reviewed to determine birds of conservation 

concern that breed in these habitats on the 

refuge. Six bird species were selected as target 

species that reflect the suitable nesting and 

foraging shrub-steppe and grassland habitats 

on the refuge. These species were selected for a 

number of reasons: 

■	 All six species use the refuge for some 


portion of their breeding cycle.
 

■	 Brewer’s sparrow, Swainson’s hawk, and 

ferruginous hawk are bird species of 

conservation concern (USFWS 2002b). 

■	 Brewer’s sparrow, sharp-tailed grouse, 

greater sage-grouse, ferruginous hawk, and 

Swainson’s hawk are state-listed sensitive 

species in Montana (MTNHP and MFWP 

2006). 

■	 All six species are listed as priority level 

III or higher by Montana Partners in Flight 

(Casey 2000). 

Two other state sensitive species have breeding 

records on the refuge, but populations are 

irruptive (lark bunting), or the refuge is on the 

edge of their range (grasshopper sparrow) (see 

table 7 for habitat requirements). The short-eared 

owl nests in shrub-steppe habitats immediately 

adjacent to wet meadow habitats on the refuge 

(see “Wet Meadows”). 

Ground squirrels are the primary prey of both 

ferruginous hawk and Swainson’s hawk during 

the breeding season (Restani 1991). Thus, their 

foraging habitat is dictated by the habitat 

requirements of their prey. 

Historically, sharp-tailed grouse used the refuge 

for lekking and nesting grounds, although no 

comprehensive surveys were conducted. Refuge 

populations appeared to decline in the 1940s 

and 1950s, and the species is not mentioned in 

the refuge narratives after 1960. A potential 

brood was observed in midsummer of 2005, and 

individuals were observed in the summers of 2006 

and 2007, and the winter of 2007–08. 

Shrub-steppe and Grasslands Objective 3: Within 

10 years of CCP approval, smooth brome will be 

reduced by 25% and restored with native grass 

species needed to provide nesting and foraging 

habitat for migratory birds. 

Strategies 

—	 Determine the amount (percent cover) of 

native forbs and grasses within areas of the 

refuge dominated by smooth brome. 

—	 Conduct experiments using a combination 

of spring prescribed fire and cattle grazing 

to determine the best method for smooth 

brome control. 

—	 Use fuels treatment (including prescribed 

fire or mechanical methods) to reduce 

hazardous fuels, minimizing the threat to 

life and property, throughout the life of the 

CCP. 

—	 Examine potential revegetation options 

based on the surrounding native plant 

communities. 
Rationale 

Historically, smooth brome was planted for livestock 

forage, and haying occurred annually on over 200 

acres of refuge lands until the mid-1970s. Pure stands 

of smooth brome now cover approximately 1,100 

acres on the refuge. Smooth brome also occurs along 

refuge roads, as isolated patches in wet meadows, 

and now dominates the understory in over 300 

acres of various willow- and sagebrush-dominated 

habitats within the eastern and southern portions 

of the refuge. Smooth brome is an aggressive 

invader because of its sod-forming root system 

and prolific seed production. Current management 

includes occasional prescribed fire and cattle 

grazing. Smooth brome is highly tolerant to grazing 

(Howard 1996). Periodic spring or early fall fi res can 

increase smooth brome productivity by removing 

litter; however, repeated annual spring burns can 

reduce tiller elongation and biomass (Willson and 

Stubbendieck 1997). Repeated heavy grazing during 

tiller elongation in spring was an effective method 

to reduce aboveground biomass and cover in coolseason grasslands (Stacy et al. 2005). Mowing may 

be ineffective if it fails to remove all of the emerging 

buds (Willson and Stubbendieck 1996). Treatment 

options also depend upon the amount of remnant 

native grasses and forbs available to compete with 

smooth brome (Willson and Stubbendieck 2000). 

Centennial Sandhills Objectives 

Centennial Sandhills Objective 1: Maintain at least 

2,500 acres of basin big sagebrush habitat with at 

least 10% canopy cover of sagebrush with moderate 

cover (30%–70%) of native bunchgrasses and forbs 

and moderate amounts of bare ground (30%–70%) 

for sagebrush-dependent species, including sage 

thrasher, Brewer’s sparrow, greater sage-grouse, 

pygmy rabbit, and Preble’s shrew. 

Strategies 

—	 Continue vegetation monitoring in the 

Centennial Sandhills to ensure adequate 

coverage of basin big sagebrush and native 

bunchgrasses. 

—	 Continue land bird monitoring in the Centennial 

Sandhills to determine Brewer’s sparrow and 

sage thrasher densities. 

—	 Start a nesting study of Brewer’s sparrow and 

sage thrasher to determine the demography of 

the population in the sandhills within 7 years of 

CCP approval. 

—	 Conduct a comprehensive survey for nesting 

greater sage-grouse in basin big sagebrush 

habitats on the refuge within 7 years of CCP 

approval. 

—	 Avoid prescribed fire in large areas of basin big 

sagebrush habitats to prevent loss of sagebrush 

cover. 

Chapter 6 — Implementation of the Proposed Action 115 

Centennial Sandhills, dominated by native sagebrush 

and bunchgrasses. 

USFWS 

Rationale 

The Centennial Sandhills are a unique habitat 

located in the northeastern portion of the Centennial 

Valley. Vegetation in the sandhills is dominated 

by sagebrush and native bunchgrass species. On 

the refuge portion of the sandhills, the dominant 

sagebrush species is basin big sagebrush. This tall 

sagebrush has an extremely limited distribution 

in Montana, occurring in localized stands in 

southwestern Montana (Morris et al. 1976). Basin 

big sagebrush is typically confined to areas with 

relatively deep, well-drained soils (Tirmenstein 1999). 

The average sagebrush height in the refuge portion 

of the sandhills is between 16 and 20 inches, although 

several areas have shrubs that reach heights of 

well over 5 feet. The sandhills are characterized by 

moderate to high levels of bare ground (40%–70%), 

and moderate to high canopy cover of native 

bunchgrasses (50%–90%), predominantly needleand-thread and Idaho fescue. Canopy cover of basin 

big sagebrush in the sandhills is low, averaging 

10%. Currently, cheatgrass and pale madwort are 

the major invasive plant species occurring in the 

sandhills, although coverage is <1%. 

Basin big sagebrush is killed by fire and may take at 

least 20 to 30 years to recover to pre-fi re conditions 

(Lesica et al. 2005). Frequent fires will eliminate 

basin big sagebrush habitat (Tirmenstein 1999). 

Recovery of sagebrush communities is slow, in part 

because of the lack of availability of mature seeds, 

as seeds do not travel far from mature plants (Baker 

2006, Welch and Criddle 2003). A fire burned nearly 

2,500 acres of refuge sandhills in October 1974. It 

is possible that low sagebrush canopy cover values 

on the refuge are a result of this fire, as previous 

cover was described as a “dense stand of old-age 

sagebrush” (USFWS 1974–1975). Canopy cover in 

basin big sagebrush stands that have not burned 

in the past 35 years averaged 20% with a height 

averaging about 4 feet (Lesica et al. 2005). 

Several federal, state, and nongovernmental lists 

were reviewed to determine birds of conservation 

concern that breed on the refuge. Three bird species 
116 Draft CCP and EA,Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

Table 8. Bird species dependent on sagebrush habitat for breeding and nesting. 

Shrub Herbaceous Response 

Height Shrub Height Herbaceous Area Require- to GrazSpecies Habitat (inches) Cover (inches) Cover ments (acres) ing 

Nesting/ 

Broodrearing 

Brewer’s 

sparrow 

basin big 

sagebrush 

shrubsteppe 

> 20 > 10% n/a > 25% +/­ + 

Sage thrasher 

basin big 

sagebrush 

shrubsteppe 

> 27 > 10% n/a > 10% bare 

ground 

> 40 + 

Greater 

sage-grouse 

Sharp-tailed 

grouse 

Short-eared 

owl 

basin big 

sagebrush 

shrubsteppe 

shrubsteppe 

grasslands 

wet 

meadows 

shrubsteppe 

grasslands 

> 16 ≥ 15% > 7 15%–25% Highly variable; 

summer range 

130–12,000 

acres for female 

with brood 

- + 

< 40 > 10% ≥ 8 > 30%; associated with 

high forb 

cover and 

diversity 

≥ 500 - + 

- - 8–24 nest sites 

have high 

visual obstruction 

readings 

> 250 - + 

Swainson’s 

hawk 

Ferruginous 

hawk 

shrubsteppe 

grasslands 

shrubsteppe 

grasslands 

n/a n/a primary 

prey (ground 

squirrels 

and voles) 

depend upon 

abundant 

herbaceous 

vegetation 

home range 

1,500–6,800 

acres 

+/­ + 

n/a n/a primary 

prey (ground 

squirrels) dependent upon 

abundant 

herbaceous 

vegetation 

home range 

840–2,200 

acres 

+/­ + 

Note: > = greater than; ≥ = greater than or equal to; +/- = plus or minus; n/a = not applicable 
Chapter 6 — Implementation of the Proposed Action 117 

were selected as target species that refl ect the 

suitable nesting and foraging tall sagebrush habitat 

on the refuge (see table 8). These species were 

selected for a number of reasons. 

■	 All three species use the refuge for some 


portion of their nesting cycle.
 

■	 Brewer’s sparrow and greater sage-grouse are 

bird species of conservation concern (USFWS 

2002b). 

■	 All three species are state-listed sensitive 

species in Montana (MTNHP and MFWP 2006). 

■	 All three species are listed as priority level II 

or higher by Montana Partners in Flight (Casey 

2000). 

Sage thrasher, Brewer’s sparrow, and greater sagegrouse are all positively associated with sagebrush 

cover. None of these species will nest in sagebrush 

habitats with <10% sagebrush canopy cover 

(Connelly et al. 2000, Reynolds et al. 1999, Walker 

2004). 

Sage thrasher typically nests in or below sagebrush 

shrubs that are over 27 inches in height. This species 

is positively associated with bare ground because it 

typically forages on the ground for insects. However, 

cover of perennial bunchgrasses is also important in 

areas with adequate sagebrush cover (Reynolds et al. 

1999). 

Brewer’s sparrow typically nests in sagebrush shrubs 

over 20 inches in height (Rotenberry et al. 1999). In 

general, this species is not area sensitive because it 

will breed in small isolated sagebrush patches (Knick 

and Rotenberry 1995, Vander Haegen et al. 2000); 

however, nests can have lower productivity in these 

smaller fragments (Vander Haegen et al. 2000, 2002). 

Active sage grouse leks on lands adjacent to the 

refuge are <0.5 mile from basin big sagebrush 

habitats on the refuge, and broods were observed on 

the refuge during the summer of 2006. Sage grouse 

females typically nest within 3 miles of lekking 

grounds (Wallestad and Pyrah 1974), thus it seems 

probable that greater sage-grouse are nesting in this 

habitat on the refuge. 

Two small mammal species of conservation concern, 

pygmy rabbit and Preble’s shrew, also occur in this 

habitat. Pygmy rabbits are primarily Great Basin 

species, but their range extends into southwestern 

Montana. The summer diet of pygmy rabbits 

is primarily grasses (over 50%) and forbs (over 

30%), whereas sagebrush foliage (over 90%) is the 

dominant forage in winter (Thines et al. 2004). 

Pygmy rabbits avoid grazed habitats in eastern 

Washington (Thines et al. 2004) and cattle can 

trample burrows (Rauscher 1997). Preble’s shrew 

occupies arid shrub-steppe habitats with sandy soils. 

Nothing is known about the diet of Preble’s shrew, 

although other shrews eat primarily insects and 

worms (Foresman 2001). 

Centennial Sandhills Objective 2: Work with 

cooperators over the next 15 years to develop a 

management plan for the Centennial Sandhills that 

will guide the management of this habitat, in a 

landscape context, as a mosaic of early and late-seral 

stages to maintain four rare early seral-associated 

plant species (Fendler cat’s-eye, sand wildrye, 

painted milkvetch, and pale evening primrose), as 

well as late-seral habitats. 

Strategies 

—	 Cooperate with BLM, The Nature Conservancy, 

and other partners to continue rare plant 

surveys in the Centennial Sandhills. 

—	 Cooperate with BLM and The Nature 

Conservancy to determine the effectiveness 

of prescribed fire and cattle grazing to create 

or maintain early seral habitats in suitable 

portions of the Centennial Sandhills within 5 

years of CCP approval. 

Rationale 

The Centennial Sandhills are well-vegetated sand 

dunes characterized by a mosaic of seral stages. The 

most topographically variable and active (migrating) 

sand dunes are in the western portion of the sandhills 

on lands owned by the BLM and The Nature 

Conservancy. As dunes lose sand via depositional 

loss, the density of vegetation increases such that 

the dunes become stabilized and movement stops 

(Chadwick and Dalke 1965). Dunes in the eastern 

portion of the sandhills are stabilized and blowouts 

(windblown areas of bare sand) are rare. Two rare 

plant species, painted milkvetch and sand wildrye, 

are restricted to these blowouts and have not been 

documented on the refuge, whereas pale evening 

primrose and Fendler cat’s-eye occur in blowouts and 

areas of relatively recently deposited sands on the 

upper slopes of the dunes (Lesica and Cooper 1999). 

Pale evening primrose is rare in both the western 

and eastern sandhills, but Fendler cat’s-eye is very 

common, particularly in the eastern sandhills. Late 

seral habitats are dominated by basin big sagebrush 

on the refuge and threetip sagebrush on the western 

sandhills. Both of these communities are unique in 

Montana (Cooper et al. 1999). 

ASPEN FOREST, MIXED CONIFEROUS FOREST, 

AND WOODLANDS GOAL 

Create and maintain aspen stands of various age 

classes within a mosaic of coniferous forest and 

shrubland for cavity-nesting birds, and other 

migratory and resident wildlife. Appendix E contains 

the draft compatibility determination for research 

conducted by partners outside the Service. 
118 Draft CCP and EA,Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

Aspen Forest and Woodland Objective 

Aspen Forest and Woodland Objective 1: Determine 

the historical and current extent of aspen and 

current levels of aspen regeneration and browsing by 

elk and moose within aspen stands on the refuge and 

surrounding lands in the Centennial Valley within 5 

years of CCP approval. 

Strategies 

—	 Develop a monitoring plan in conjunction with 

cooperators to monitor levels of aspen browse 

in the Centennial Valley. 

—	 If aspen monitoring indicates continued intense 

browsing, work with partners to develop an 

adaptive management plan that incorporates 

native ungulate harvest and large-scale 

disturbances to benefi t aspen. 

—	 Supplement aspen stand delineation via aerial 

photo interpretation with intensive groundsampling based on existing data regarding 

aspen distribution in the Centennial Valley. 

Rationale 

Large-scale declines of aspen across the American 

West have been widely distributed, likely caused 

by a combination of factors, including global climate 

change, high-levels of ungulate herbivory, and conifer 

encroachment due to fire suppression (Bartos and 

Campbell 1998). The Centennial Mountains have 

seen declines of aspen as great as 80% (Gallant et 

al. 2003, Korb 2005, Korb et al. 2008). Browsing 

by native ungulates, especially elk and moose, can 

significantly reduce aspen regeneration and the 

ability of stems to grow above browse height (Berger 

et al. 2001, Romme et al. 1995). The collection of 

data on the current level of aspen regeneration 

(number of stems/acre) and browsing (LD index; 

Keigley et al. 2002) in the Centennial Valley was 

initiated by The Nature Conservancy in the summer 

of 2006. Preliminary results show that regeneration 

at current browse levels will be very limited. 

Additionally, some historic aspen stands have been 

lost, as evidenced by areas of downed aspen or aspen 

snags and lack of young aspen stems. The degree 

to which this loss has occurred throughout the 

Centennial Valley is unknown. 

The Centennial Valley is part of the MFWP Gravelly 

Elk Management Unit, Hunting District 327. Elk 

populations in this management unit have more than 

doubled since 1985 (MFWP 2004). Wintering moose 

populations on the refuge have also increased 4-fold 

from 1966–2007, with approximately 100 moose 

currently wintering on or near the refuge (USFWS 

2008a). The inability of aspen stems to grow above 

browse height, coupled with the increase in elk and 

moose numbers, suggests that intense browsing may 

be limiting the reduced regeneration of aspen in the 

Centennial Valley. 

Aspen provides the only deciduous tree habitat 

in montane regions of the Rocky Mountains. This 

habitat has higher biodiversity and productivity 

than the surrounding upland habitats (Hansen et al. 

2000) and is extremely valuable to breeding birds 

(Dobkin et al. 1995, Finch and Reynolds 1987, Martin 

et al. 2004). Aspen within a mosaic of coniferous 

forest is used for nesting disproportionately to its 

availability on the landscape (Martin et al. 2004). 

In particular, primary cavity excavators (such as 

woodpeckers) create nesting and roosting cavities 

for a complex community of species. As aspen age, 

they invariably become infected with fungal heartrot 

(Hinds 1985). This susceptibility to heartrot creates 

ideal conditions for cavity excavation (Aitken et 

al. 2002, Hart and Hart 2001). Several primary 

cavity-nesting species and secondary cavity-nesting 

species (non-excavators) breed in aspen habitats 

on the refuge, including northern fl icker, red-naped 

sapsucker, house wren, American kestrel, and tree 

swallow. Other bird species that nest in aspen habitat 

are ruffed grouse, dusky fl ycatcher, cordilleran 

flycatcher, western wood-pewee, warbling vireo, and 

broad-tailed hummingbird. 

Several birds that breed in aspen habitats are listed 

as species of conservation concern by the Service 

(red-naped sapsucker; 2002), by the state of Montana 

(broad-tailed hummingbird; 2006), or by Montana 

Partners in Flight (red-naped sapsucker, warbling 

vireo, ruffed grouse, cordilleran flycatcher, and dusky 

flycatcher; 2000). All of these species require large 

trees with a dense canopy (Dobkin et al. 1995, Gardali 

and Ballard 2000, Lowther 2000, Rusch et al. 2000, 

Sedgwick 1993). 

Mixed Coniferous Forest and Woodlands Objective 

Mixed Coniferous Forest and Woodland 

Objective 1: Provide wildland–urban interface 

protection and prevention measures around 

Lakeview based on strategies developed in an 

interagency fire management plan. 

Strategy 

—	 Work with BLM and Forest Service to develop 

a fire management plan that will use prescribed 

fire and mechanical treatments to thin conifer 

stands and reduce hazardous fuels, minimizing 

the threat to life and property. 

Rationale 

Wildland fire management must be coordinated 

across administrative boundaries to reach 

management goals. It must balance fi re suppression 

methods to protect property and other resources 

with the use of fire to maintain and promote healthy 

ecosystems. The development of a fi re management 

plan for the wildland–urban interface surrounding 

the town of Lakeview will serve to protect homes 

and other structures and also allow land management 

agencies to adopt wildland fire use principles that 
Chapter 6 — Implementation of the Proposed Action 119 

will support minimal suppression of wildland fi re in 

these habitats. 

A 13,600-acre lightning-ignited fire occurred in 

mixed coniferous forests in the western Centennial 

Mountains in 2003, burning nearly 1,000 acres of the 

refuge. Aside from this fire, wildland fires have been 

essentially absent from coniferous forests in the 

Centennial Valley for nearly 150 years (Korb 2005). 

This absence of fire, in combination with mountain 

pine beetle and spruce budworm outbreaks, and a 

complex interaction between climatic patterns and 

fuels, has created suitable conditions for wildland fi re 

to occur in this habitat. Continued maintenance of 

coniferous forests through natural disturbance will 

provide habitat for a diverse assemblage of breeding 

birds. 

Several bird species of conservation concern breed 

in coniferous forests on the refuge. These include 

Williamson’s sapsucker (Casey 2000, MTNHP and 

MFWP 2006, USFWS 2002b); olive-sided fl ycatcher, 

three-toed woodpecker, great gray owl, northern 

goshawk, brown creeper (Casey 2000, MTNHP 

and MFWP 2006); and Calliope’s hummingbird, 

Townsend’s solitaire, red crossbill, Cassin’s fi nch, 

and Clark’s nutcracker (Montana Partners in 

Flight 2000). Several bird species are also closely 

associated with burned coniferous forests, including 

black-backed woodpecker (Casey 2000, MTNHP 

and MFWP 2006), three-toed woodpecker, and olivesided flycatcher, which is often more abundant in 

burned forests than unburned forests (Altman and 

Sallabanks 2000). The overall guidance for use of 

prescribed fire and management of wildland fire is in 

the description of the fire management program in 

appendix F. 

VISITOR SERVICES AND CULTURAL 

RESOURCES GOAL 

Provide quality wildlife-dependent recreation, 

interpretation, and outreach opportunities that 

nurture an appreciation and understanding of 

the unique natural and cultural resources of the 

Centennial Valley for visitors and local community 

members of all abilities while maintaining the 

primitive and remote experience unique to the 

refuge. Appendix E contain draft compatibility 

determinations for the visitor services programs 

described below. 

Hunting Objective 

Hunting Objective 1: Continue to provide hunting 

opportunities for elk, white-tailed and mule deer, 

moose, pronghorn, ducks, geese, and coots within 

modified refuge hunting area boundaries. Seventyfive percent of hunters will report a safe, quality 

hunting experience that enriches their personal lives 

while garnering support for preserving the unique 

qualities and natural resources of the refuge and 

Centennial Valley for future generations. 

Strategies 

—	 To address illegal road hunting, no big game 

hunting wil be permitted within 50 yards of the 

centerline of any county or refuge road. 

—	 Develop the hunting chapter within the Visitor 

Services Plan. 

—	 Hunting for duck, goose, and coot will continue 

to be permitted near Lower Red Rock Lake 

under state and federal regulations and seasons 

(see figure 8, page 34). 

—	 Hunting boundaries would be modifi ed and 

expanded to eliminate boundary confusion, 

address law enforcement issues, and provide 

additional opportunities. 

—	 Big game hunting for elk, pronghorn, and 

mule and white-tailed deer will continue to be 

permitted on current and expanded portions of 

the refuge (see figure 8, page 34.). 

—	 Open the area west of South Valley Road near 

“Saier Corrals” to create a contiguous moose 

hunting area, eliminating hunting boundary 

confusion. Close the area south of South Valley 

Road to eliminate a road hunting issue. Open 

moose season to follow state regulations.

—	 Open areas closed to hunting for other visitors 

according to refuge regulations, in order to 

promote other wildlife-dependent activities 

during hunting seasons. 

—	 Create a hunting regulations brochure that 

meets Service standards. 

—	 Conduct random hunting surveys to determine 

the quality of visitors’ hunting experiences. 

Rationale 

The refuge is part of a larger ecosystem known as 

the Greater Yellowstone Area. Most wildlife species 

migrate on and off the refuge. Working with MFWP 

is vital in balancing wildlife populations needed 

to provide a quality experience for visitors while 

ensuring habitats are protected from concentrated 

wildlife. 

The open landscape of the Centennial Valley allows 

for excellent scouting for big game animals from 

the road. This sometimes leads hunters to harvest 

animals illegally by shooting from the road. By 

adopting a state regulation (currently used for the 

bison hunt program), the refuge hopes to promote 

ethical and legal hunting. Currently, the refuge hunt 

area boundaries and regulations are confusing. By 

implementing the strategies, confusing hunting 

boundaries would be elminated, additional quality 

hunting opportunities would be provided, and 

hunters would be better informed of the location of 

boundaries and regulations. 
120 Draft CCP and EA,Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

Fishing Objective 

Fishing Objective 1: Continue to provide quality 

fishing opportunities to visitors in a remote, wild 

setting, with minimal disturbance to migratory birds. 

These encounters will enrich visitors’ personal lives 

while garnering support for preserving the unique 

qualities and natural resources of the refuge and 

Centennial Valley for future generations. 

Strategies 

—	 Open all refuge streams to fishing in compliance 

with state and refuge regulations. 

—	 Until they are restored, MacDonald, Widgeon, 

and Culver ponds would be open under state 

regulations to fishing from the bank unless 

closing is necessary to protect nesting swans or 

Arctic grayling restoration efforts. 

—	 Work with the state and neighboring 

landowners to address impacts to off-refuge 

Arctic grayling habitat upstream of the refuge. 

—	 Update the fishing regulations in the general 

brochure. 

—	 Encourage all visitors to keep nonnative fi sh in 

accordance with state regulations. 

—	 Open Red Rock Creek west of Lower Lake 

structure to fi shing. 

—	 Work with refuge partners to determine 

population numbers of native and nonnative 

fish species and potential impacts from fi shing 

pressure. 

—	 Conduct random fishing surveys to determine 

the quality of visitors’ fi shing experiences. 

Rationale 

Fishing is one of the priority visitor services for the 

Refuge System and a popular activity on Red Rock 

Lakes National Wildlife Refuge—this use should 

be considered, where compatible. More fi shing 

opportunities can be provided by allowing existing 

and new fishing to occur on created ponds and 

several creeks. Fishing can also play an important 

role in control of nonnative fish populations for the 

benefit of Arctic grayling and Westslope cutthroat 

trout. 

Wildlife Observation and 

Photography Objective 

Wildlife Observation and Photography 

Objective 1: Provide visitors of all abilities with more 

opportunities to view and photograph wildlife in a 

wilderness setting. These encounters will enrich 

visitors’ personal lives while garnering support for 

conserving the unique qualities and natural resources 

of the refuge and Centennial Valley for future 

generations. 

Strategies 

—	 Maintain wildlife observation and photography 

opportunities during hunting seasons by using 

geographic separation. The east ponds section 

(north of Red Rock Creek, east of Elk Lake 

Road) will be open to foot traffic by the public 

year-round. 

—	 Work with Beaverhead County to provide 

accessible pulloff(s) for the safe viewing of 

wildlife and photography. The site would be 

interpreted through an auto-tour brochure. 

—	 Establish an auto tour route on Culver Springs 

Road for wildlife observation. This will require 

replacing Red Rock Creek Bridge. The autotour route will be interpreted through a 

brochure and minimal signage. 

—	 Produce a vertebrate checklist brochure that 

meets Service standards. 

—	 To eliminate confusing regulations, open 

all refuge roads to vehicles from May 15 to 

December 2. All roads may be closed at anytime 

due to weather conditions. An exception is 

Widgeon Pond Road, it will be closed until July 

15 to minimize disturbance to nesting swans. 

—	 Add a wildlife observation and photography 

question to the interpretation questionnaire 

to measure results and quality of enhanced 

programs. 

Western tanager. 

Mike Parker/USFWS 

Rationale 

The refuge is located in one of the most undeveloped 

and beautiful valleys in Montana, the Centennial 

Valley. This picturesque setting, combined with rich 

habitats, make wildlife observation and photography 

the most popular wildlife-dependent recreational 

activity at the refuge. There are a few developed 

trails and some roads from which visitors can view 

and photograph habitats and wildlife; however, most 

have not been adequately marked or identified on a 

map, so they are not obvious to the less adventurous 
Chapter 6 — Implementation of the Proposed Action 121 

visitor. There are definitely areas where these 

opportunities could be expanded, but it is also critical 

that the wilderness characteristics that bring visitors 

to the refuge be maintained and complemented by 

any accommodations (such as developed trails). 

Interpretation Objective 

Interpretation Objective 1: Ensure that 75% of 

refuge visitors will understand they are on a national 

wildlife refuge where wildlife comes fi rst. These 

visitors will also understand the purposes and 

significance of Red Rocks Lakes National Wildlife 

Refuge and the value of conserving the natural 

resources of the Centennial Valley. 

Strategies 

—	 Recruit a GS-6 seasonal visitor services 


specialist (same as the outreach objective).
 

—	 Develop a common theme for all refuge 

interpretation that supports and promotes the 

refuge’s purposes, protection of the Centennial 

Valley, and the unique qualities of being part of 

the Refuge System. 

—	 Ensure that all current and future brochures 

and other refuge literature meet Service 

standards. 

—	 Design and install a comprehensive interpretive 

package (such as signage, displays, hands-on 

exercises, and literature) for the visitor contact 

area. 

—	 Design and install updated interpretative 


panels for existing kiosks. 


—	 Install new (and move existing) interpretive 

kiosks at entry points (west entrance at Lower 

Red Rock Lake, east entrance at Red Rock 

Creek, and northwest entrance). 

—	 Staff the visitor contact area on weekends 


during months of high visitor use.


—	 Retain the primitive visitor experience while 

ensuring that the auto tour route is adequately 

interpreted with a brochure and limited 

signage. 

—	 Improve signs to ensure all visitors are oriented 

and understand refuge-specifi c regulations. 

—	 Partner with the BLM and Forest Service to 

develop interpretive panels at Monida Hill 

and Red Rock Pass that highlight the value of 

the refuge and Centennial Valley as a critical 

wildlife corridor between the Bitterroot and 

Greater Yellowstone ecosystems. 

—	 Create an interpretive brochure for the newly 

developed auto tour route. 

—	 Measure results using a visitor questionnaire. 

Rationale 

The refuge offers excellent opportunities to interpret 

wildlife resources, the Refuge System, and the large 

intact landscapes found in the Centennial Valley and 

southwest Montana. By providing the opportunities 

listed above, visitors to the refuge should be well 

informed of refuge resources and its role within 

this large, undeveloped landscape. Any additional 

interpretive facilities will compliment the wilderness, 

rustic qualities of the refuge while better orienting 

and educating visitors. 

Outreach Objective 

Outreach Objective 1: Reach out to local, state, 

and federal representatives; local communities; 

landowners; nongovernmental organizations; and 

current and potential partners to promote an 

understanding of refuge purposes and management 

objectives and to garner support for management 

actions and the conservation easement program. 

Strategies 

—	 Promote participation by local landowners in 

conservation easement programs by providing 

information on the programs’ benefits to the 

conservation of the valley and in promoting and 

preserving their way of life. 

—	 Conduct annual visits and provide a briefi ng 

paper to local, county, state, and federal 

governments that highlights current refuge 

programs and challenges. 

—	 Measure results of the outreach program 

by determining the level of support and 

understanding for refuge resources; current 

and proposed management programs; and the 

goals of the Refuge System. 

Rationale 

The refuge has many challenges and opportunities 

related to its remote location and wilderness 

characteristics. Because of the wild, undeveloped 

landscape of the Centennial Valley, the refuge has the 

opportunity to work with many partners to protect 

a large landscape and to provide travel corridors and 

near-pristine habitat for far-ranging wildlife such 

as wolves, grizzly bears, wolverine, elk, pronghorn, 

and waterfowl and other migratory birds. Outreach 

opportunities would encourage visitors, local 

communities, landowners, and governments to gain 

a better understanding the values of the Centennial 

Valley, the refuge, its resources, management issues, 

and the Refuge System. 

Campgrounds Objective 

Campgrounds Objective 1: Continue to provide two 

primitive campgrounds with 17 campsites at Upper 

and Lower lakes to accommodate wildlife-dependent 

recreation in this remote wilderness setting. 
122 Draft CCP and EA,Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

Strategies 

—	 Rehabilitate campground facilities, such as fi re 

rings and access roads. 

—	 Create an accessible campsite at River Marsh 

campground and improve the current accessible 

site at Upper Lake. 

—	 Replace the restrooms at the campgrounds to 

make them accessible. 

—	 Implement a recreational fee program to 

provide added resources for maintaining the 

campgrounds. 

Rationale 

It is a policy of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

that, “We may allow other activities on refuges, 

such as camping, to facilitate compatible wildlifedependent recreation.” (605 FW 1, 1.2B). Due to the 

remote location of this refuge, the great majority of 

the visitors using these campgrounds participate in 

wildlife-dependent activities on and adjacent to the 

refuge. Only one other location in the Centennial 

Valley provides a pit toilet. This is located just north 

of the refuge at Elk Lake—about 17 miles from 

headquarters. Elk Lake’s primitive campsites are 

also well used by visitors who are fishing and hunting 

on other public lands. The refuge’s campgrounds 

also provide a critical watering and stopping point 

for visitors hiking or bicycling the Continental and 

Great Divide trails, which both traverse the refuge. 

The campgrounds allow visitors to stay multiple days 

to thoroughly experience the refuge, whether they 

are bird watching, hunting, fishing, hiking, or just 

experiencing wilderness solitude. 

Cultural Resources Objective 

Cultural Resources Objective 1: Identify, value, and 

preserve the cultural resources and history of the 

refuge to connect the refuge staff, visitors, and the 

community to the area’s past, while ensuring that 

100% of known cultural resources are protected from 

federal and visitor activities. 

Strategies 

—	 Continue to conduct site-specific surveys for 

lands and facilities that may be disturbed by 

refuge management activities. 

—	 Continue to maintain historic properties 


currently in use. 


—	 Through partnerships, begin preparing 

a comprehensive, refuge-wide survey to 

determine the presence of cultural resources on 

the refuge. 

—	 Design and print a brochure to interpret select 

cultural resources and historic structures. 

—	 Address cultural resources in the auto tour 

interpretive brochure. 

Rationale 

The refuge has many known historical structures, 

many of which are still in use, including the refuge 

office, two residences, and a storage building. The 

Centennial Valley also has a rich history of Native 

and Euro-American presence. Federal laws and 

policies mandate the identification and protection 

of cultural resources on federal lands. Specifi cally, 

section 106 of the National Historic Preservation 

Act requires all federal agencies to consider impacts 

on cultural resources before any federal action. 

Ideally, a comprehensive refuge-wide inventory 

would help ensure the protection of these resources. 

However, these inventories take time and are 

very costly, which is why most refuges have not 

completed surveys. Nevertheless, the law requires 

all federal activities that have the potential to impact 

cultural resources be evaluated. Throughout the 

life of this 15-year plan, the refuge will work with 

other partners, including the regional archaeologist 

and staff, to begin documenting cultural sites on 

the refuge. Until this survey is completed, the 

refuge staff will continue to work with the regional 

archaeologist to evaluate projects with the potential 

to have impacts, on a case-by-case basis. 

REFUGE OPERATIONS GOAL 

Prioritize for wildlife first and emphasize the 

protection of trust resources in the utilization of staff, 

funding, and volunteer programs. 

Staff Objective 

Staff Objective 1: Add the needed staff within 5 

years of CCP approval; this includes seasonals and 

volunteers necessary to fully carry out the CCP. 

Strategies 

—	 Recruit a permanent WG-6 permanent seasonal 

maintenance worker to help with the large 

maintenance backlog in support of all refuge 

programs. 

—	 Recruit one full-time permanent GS-5/7/9 

wildlife biologist and at least three seasonal 

biological science technicians. 

—	 Recruit one full-time permanent GS-7 range 

technician. 

—	 Use additional management capability monies 

to recruit seasonals, develop and implement the 

visitor services program, and enhance habitat 

management and monitoring. 

—	 Annually recruit a seasonal visitor services 

specialist. 

—	 Annually recruit a seasonal offi ce assistant. 

—	 Given the added staff and complexity of the 

expanded refuge programs, evaluate grade 

levels of current refuge staff. 
—	 Require one staff member to maintain collateral 

duty law enforcement credentials to provide 

for the safety of visitors, staff, facilities, and 

wildlife 

Rationale 

Additional staff, including permanent, seasonal, and 

volunteer employees, will be necessary in order to 

implement the objectives and strategies identifi ed 

in the CCP. There have been many needs identifi ed 

in the CCP such as suggested improvements to the 

existing maintenance, habitat management and 

monitoring, law enforcement, and visitor services 

programs. Many of these changes are dependent 

on the availability of additional staff to design and 

execute these new programs. These additional 

positions will be critical to achieving the vision and 

goals presented in the CCP. The refuge’s programs 

have become more complex over time. This draft 

CCP proposes additional complexities be added. 

These added challenges and increased staff size, 

combined with the large area of responsibity, should 

warrant evaluating the grade levels of current staff 

positions. 

Facilities Objective 

Facilities Objective 1: Maintain, create, or 

rehabilitate facilities to provide staff and visitors 

of all abilities with a safe and quality experience 

while preserving and complementing the remote 

wilderness character of the refuge. 

Strategies 

—	 Construct up to four residences. 

—	 Build 3 trailer pads for housing volunteers to 

support refuge programs. 

—	 Improve parking at headquarters, Odell Creek 

and Sparrow Pond trailheads and the entrance 

to Lower Lake Road. 

—	 Replace all vault toilets with “clean-smelling” 

technology vault toilets, making them 

universally accessible to meet requirements of 

the Americans with Disabilities Act. Develop 

accessible parking and access routes to all 

restrooms. 

—	 Provide a universally accessible boat launch 

(hardened surfaces) at Lower Lake for persons 

with disabilities. 

—	 Replace Red Rock Creek Bridge to allow for 

development of an auto tour route and replace 

Sparrow Pond Trail Bridge for foot traffi c and 

use by heavy equipment to maintain dams. 

—	 Replace and update all interpretive panels 

and signage to ensure visitors are oriented, 

informed, and feel welcome. 

—	 Provide opportunities for wildlife observation 

and photography through accessible 

interpretive trails, auto tour route, kiosks, and 

viewing areas. 

Chapter 6 — Implementation of the Proposed Action 123 

—	 Improve road, campsites, and parking at Upper 

Lake campground. 

—	 Rehabilitate existing refuge residences 

(Q94 foundation repair, Q94 and 110 garage 

replacement, Q1 foundation and interior 

rehabilitation, Q90 health safety/attic, and 

windows in most residences) and restore or 

stabilize other historic structures (headquarters 

log barn, Shambow Creek barn, and fi re tower). 

—	 Repair and rehabilitate the shop building to be 

more in keeping with the historic site. 

—	 Replace existing boundary fencing and 


construct new boundary fencing for newly 


acquired lands. 


—	 Permanently close Idlewild Road (and the 

associated boat ramp) and spur roads off of the 

North Valley Road to public vehicle access in 

order to reduce maintenance costs. 

Rationale 

One of the greatest limitations to expanding the 

refuge’s biological and visitor services programs is 

the lack of staff and facilities. The Service is required 

to provide housing for all staff because of the remote 

location of the refuge. Currently, all refuge houses 

are occupied by existing staff. Adding any new 

positions will require additional housing. 

Existing staff and visitor facilities (such as buildings, 

signs, kiosks, roads, fences, trails, parking, and 

campgrounds) are also in need of major repair or 

replacement in order to provide for a safe, productive 

working environment and to promote the refuge and 

its resources in an effective, safe, and professional 

manner. 

This remote refuge has four houses for refuge staff. 

Mike Parker/USFWS 

6.2 PERSONNEL 

Current staffing at the refuge consists of fi ve 

permanent full-time employees. Table 9 shows the 

current staff and proposed additional staff required 

to fully implement the CCP. Due to the area of 

responsibility and added complexities of this plan all 
124 Draft CCP and EA,Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

grade levels for current staff will be evaluated. If all 

positions are funded, the refuge staff will be able to 

carry out all aspects of this CCP, which will provide 

maximum benefit to wildlife, improve facilities, 

and provide visitor services. Projects that have 

adequate funding and staffing will receive priority for 

accomplishment. Staffing and funding are requested 

for the 15-year life of this CCP. 

Table 9. Current and proposed staff, Red Rock Lakes 

National Wildlife Refuge, Montana. 

Program 

Current 

Positions 

Proposed 

changes/added 

positions 

Management Refuge manager, 

GS-12 

Assistant 

Manager, 

GS-11 

Require law 

enforcement 

credentials for 

the assistant 

manager. 

Biological Wildlife biologist, 

GS-11 

GS-5/7/9 fulltime wildlife 

biologist and 

at least three 

temporary 

seasonal 

biological 

science 

technicians 

GS-7 range 

technician 

Administrative Administrative 

support 

assistant, GS-7 

Temporary 

seasonal 

administrative 

assistant 

(generalist) 

Maintenance Maintenance Additional 

worker, WG-8 WG-6 

permanent 

seasonal 

maintenance 

worker 

Visitor Services None GS-6 temporary 

seasonal 

visitor services 

specialist 

6.3 STEP-DOWN MANAGEMENT PLANS 

The CCP is intended as a broad umbrella plan that 

provides general concepts and specifi c wildlife, 

habitat, visitor services, and partnership objectives 

over the next 15 years. The purpose of the step-down 

management plans is to provide greater detail to 

managers and employees for implementing specifi c 

actions and strategies authorized by the CCP. Table 

10. presents the plans needed for the refuge, their 

status, and the next revision date. 

Table 10. Step-down management plans for Red Rock 

Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Montana 

New or 

Completed Revised Plan, 

Plan, Year Completion 

Plan Approved Year 

Habitat — 2010 

Management 

Fire Management 2002 2009 

Disease 2006 2016 

Contingency 

Wilderness 1986 2012 

Management 

Refuge Safety 2002 2010 

Visitor Services 1986 2012 

Wildlife Inventory — 2012 

and Monitoring 

Spill Prevention 2006 2012 

Control and 

Countermeasures 

6.4 PARTNERSHIP OPPORTUNITIES 

A major objective of this CCP is to establish 

partnerships with landowners, volunteers, private 

organizations, and county, state, and federal natural 

resource agencies. In particular, landowners will 

be informed of opportunities to participate in 

compensated habitat protection programs (such 

as conservation easements). Opportunities exist 

to enhance or establish new partnerships with 

nonprofit organizations, sporting clubs, community 

organizations, and educational institutes. Strong 

partnerships already exist with The Nature 

Conservancy, MFWP, Montana State University, 

Beaverhead County Weed District, Centennial Valley 

Association, and Centennial Valley Historical Society. 

6.5 MONITORING AND EVALUATION 

The Service proposes that the uncertainty 

surrounding habitat management can be dealt with 

most efficiently within the paradigm of adaptive 

resource management (ARM) (see figure 19.) (Holling 

1978, Kendall 2001, Lancia et al. 1996, Walters and 

Holling 1990). This approach provides a framework 

within which objective decisions can be made and 

the uncertainty surrounding those decisions reduced. 

Briefly, the key components of an ARM plan follow: 

1. 	 Clearly defined management goals and 

objectives. 

2. 	 A set of management actions with associated 

uncertainty as to their outcome. 

3. 	 A suite of a priori models representing various 

alternative working hypotheses describing the 

response of species or communities of interest. 
Chapter 6 — Implementation of the Proposed Action 125 

4. 	 Monitoring and assessment of the response of 

target organism(s). 

5. 	 Use of monitoring and assessment information 

to direct future decision-making through the 

selection of a best model. 

The first three components (goals, actions, and 

models) are largely defined before initiation of an 

ARM plan, while the latter two (monitoring and 

directed decision-making) comprise an iterative 

process, whereby each year the predictive ability 

of models are tested against what was observed 

during monitoring. This may result in a new 

best model, greater support for the existing best 

model, or new models constructed from emerging 

hypotheses. In this way, management can “evolve” 

as more information about the refuge is gained and 

uncertainty is reduced. 

Development of ARM plans for habitat management 

will allow the refuge to “learn by doing,” while 

maintaining a focus on management objectives. 

Knowledge gained from assessing management 

actions is considered as integral to the process as 

the management actions themselves. This emphasis 

on gaining knowledge about the refuge creates a 

situation whereby the refuge can refine its habitat 

management in a feedback between management 

and assessment. Reducing the uncertainty of 

habitat management via ARM plans will greatly 

help the refuge in development of long-term habitat 

management plans. 

Figure 19. Adaptive management process. 

6.6 PLAN AMENDMENT AND REVISION 

This CCP will be reviewed annually to determine the 

need for revision. A revision will occur if and when 

significant information becomes available, such as a 

change in ecological conditions. The final CCP will be 

augmented by detailed step-down management plans 

to address the completion of specific strategies in 

support of the CCP goals and objectives. Revisions to 

the CCP and the step-down management plans will 

be subject to public review and NEPA compliance. 

At a minimum, this plan will be evaluated every 5 

years and revised after 15 years.