Understanding Natural SystemsA Perspective for Land-Use Planning 

in Appalachian Kentucky 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1438 

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

W. A. Radlinski, Acting Director 

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data 

Newell, Wayne L 

Understanding natural systems. 

(Geological Survey bulletin ; 1438) 

Bibliography: p. 

1. Geology-Kentucky. 2. Land use-Planning-Kentucky. I. Title II. 

Series: United States. Geological Survey. Bulletin ; 1438. 

QE75.B9 no. 1438 [QE115] 557.3'08s 77-20103 

[333. 7'09769'1] 

For sale by Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20402 

Stock Number 024-0GI-03066-7 
CONTENTS 

Page 

Abstract-------------------------------------------------------- 1 

Introduction ---------------------------------------------------- Environmental geology ___________________________ ---· _ __ ___ _____ _ _ 5 

Bedrock geologic map --------------------------··------------- 5 

Surficial geologic maps-------------------------··------------- 8 

Interpretation of geology for land-use planning ----·------------- 10 

Geomorphic processes and bedrock control -----·------------- 10 

Distribution of residuum, colluvium, and alluvium ---------- 11 

Division of surficial map units ---------------·------------- 12 

Description of map units --------------------------------- 14 

Residuum ------------------------------------------- 14 

Colluvium _______________ --------------· ______ ---- ___ 16 

Alluvium _____________ --------- ______ --·---- ______ __ _ 19 

Manmade deposits and modifications _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 20 

Surficial geology of representative 7%-minute quadrangles __ 20 

Beattyville quadrangle ----------------------·------------- 20 

Campton quadrangle ____ _____ __ _______ _ __ ___ _ __ ______ ____ 22 

Hazard North quadrangle -------------------------------- 25 

Derivatives from surficial geology --------------·------------- 27 

Flood-prone areas --------------------------------------- 27 

Slope stability -----------------------------·------------- 27 

Drainage ----------------------------------------------- 29 

Resources ------------------------------------------------------- 34 

Mineral-fuels maps ___ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ ___ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _____ __ _ ___ _ 34 

Coal ---------------------------------------------------- 34 

Oil and gas --------------------------------------------- 37 

Water-resources maps _________________________ -·- ------------ 37 

Effects of geology and land use on water quality 

and availability --------------------------·------------- 38 

Land-use patterns _______________________ ------- ___ -·-- __ __ _____ _ _ 40 

Land-use map ----------------------------------------------- 40 

Relationship of map to geology and resources ------------------- 40 

Historical perspective ______ _ ___ ___ __ ___ _ __ __ _ __ _ __ _ ___ _ ___ _ _ _ 42 

Summary and conclusions ---------------------------------------- 42 

Glossary of terms as used in this report --------------------------- 45 

References cited ___ _ __ _ ___ ___ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ 49 

III 
IV CONTENTS 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

FIGURE 1. Index map showing location of Kentucky River Area 

Development District------------------------------- 2 

2. Generalized cross section of Cumberland Plateau -------- 7 

3. Block diagram showing typical distribution of surficial 

materials on ridgetops, slopes, and valley bottoms ____ 9 

4. Hill-slope profile formed on siltstone and shale ---------- 15 

5. Hill-slope profile controlled by sandstone cap -------- 16 

6. Block diagram and generalized cross section showing surficial geology of a meander bend along South Fork of 

Kentucky River ----------------------------------- 17 

7. Block diagram and generalized cross section showing relationship of surficial deposits associated with an abandoned meander bend ------------------------------- 18 

8. Graph showing relationship between porosity and thickness of surficial materials and the effects of these 

variables on ground-water storage ----------------- 30 

9. Graphs showing relationship between permeability and 

slope for different surficial materials and the effects 

of these variables on ground water ---------------- 32 

10. Graphs showing relationships among thickness of coal 

beds, number of coal beds, and thickness of exposed 

stratigraphic section ------------------------------- 36 

TABLES 

Page 

TABLE 1. Residuum and colluvium as indicators of process intensity ---------------------------------------------- 13 

2. Alluvium as an indicator of magnitude and frequency 

of floods ------------------------------------------ 13 
Understandir1g Natural SystemsA Perspective for Land-Use Planning 

in Appalachian Kentucky 

By WAYNE L. NEWELL 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1438 

Bedrock control of geonzorphic processes). 

a guide to opportunities 

and limitations for the use 

of rugged terrain 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON 1978 
UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS-A 

PERSPECTIVE FOR LAND-USE PLANNING 

IN APPALACHIAN KENTUCKY 

By \VAY:\E L. l\EWELL 

ABSTRACT 

An eight-county area at the headwaters of the Kentucky River has been 

designated the Kentucky River Area Development District (KRADD) by 

the Appalachian Regional Commission. The objective of the project described 

in this report has been to provide materials to KRADD planners in a format 

and containing terminology usable by local people untrained in earth science. 

Experimental maps (not included in this report) have been prepared 

largely from preexisting data. Time and cost limitations required a regional 

analysis as well as somewhat more detailed examples of selected localities. 

Most of the maps produced to meet these needs show the abundance and 

distribution of naturally occurring materials and the areas affected by 

various geomorphic. processes. Three types of maps, showing current land 

use, slope, and flood-prone areas, present both basic and derived data directly 

applicable to specific land-use decisions. Basic map information on quality 

and quantity of surface and ground water, bedrock and surficial geology, and 

mineral fuels can be interpreted for a wide variety of current and potential 

uses. Texts accompanying the maps explain bedrock control of geomorphic 

processes, distribution and significance of surficial deposits, and hydrologic 

characteristics of the intricately dissected eastern Kentucky terrain. Within 

this conceptual framework, geomorphic processes and the landscape may be 

evaluated in humanly significant terms of low to high potential risk, thereby 

indicating both opportunities and limitations for land use. 

INTRODUCTION 

The Kentucky River Area Development District (KRADD) is 

defined for planning purposes as eight eastern Kentucky counties 

(Lee, Wolfe, Owsley, Breathift, Knott, Leslie, Letcher, and Perry). 

The eight-county area corresponds roughly to the drainage basin 

of the headwaters of the Kentucky River, excluding the southern· 

headwaters of the South Fork. The district also includes parts of 

the Red River watershed along the northern half of Wolfe County 

and a fragment of the headwaters of the Cumberland River in 

southernmost Letcher County (fig. 1). 

1 
0 10 20 30 40 50 MILES I I I I I I I I I I I 0 10 20 30 40 50 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 1.-Location of Kentucky River Area Development District. 

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INTRODUCTION 3 

The southeastern border o:E the Kentucky River area is generally 

along the crest of Pine Mountain, a prominent northeast-trending 

ridge. The western edge of the region, characterized by plateaus 

dissected by canyons of major rivers and their tributaries, is 

known as the Cumberland Escarpment. Most of the eight-county 

region is characterized by ridge and ravine topography of the 

Cumberland Plateau. The sinuous pattern of mountainous ridges 

and ravines is transected by locally broad meandering valley bottoms of the three forks of the Kentucky River. Access to the region 

is difficult because or the rugged, intricately dissected topography. 

Until recently, most travel was confined to valley bottoms, both 

on the water and along the banks. 

Natural systems present both opportunities and limitations for 

various patterns of land use. Usable information on the physical 

geology, chemical characteristics, and locally prevailing landshaping processes is necessary to help achieve optimum land use 

with a minimum of hazard. The economy of the Kentucky River 

Area Development District and surrounding region is currently 

derived from available natural resources by both extractive and 

sustained-yield methods. Ho:me and industrial sites, fuel, timber, 

and water are in continual demand; therefore, land-use decisions 

cannot be put off until conventional mapping programs are completed. Although available earth-science information for this area 

is neither detailed nor uniformly adequate, sufficient data are 

available to erect a framework from which guidelines can be derived and modified as detailed information becomes available. The 

objective of the KRADD project is to provide geologic, hydrologic, 

and land-use maps to area planners through their sponsoring 

agency, the Appalachian Regional Commission. This information 

has been compiled from geologic and hydrologic data of the U.S. 

Geological Survey. Additional supplementary information has been 

provided where necessary from reconnaissance field studies. The 

resulting maps have· been presented in a forn1at useful to the 

planning process and to management deeisions. These materials 

are explained and interpreted for the use of people both trained 

and untrained in earth science. A glossary of the terminology as 

used herein has been provided at the end of this report. 

The first part of this report explains the concepts and facts of 

environmental geology generally encountered throughout Appalachian Kentucky, concepts necessary for understanding and predicting results of man's interaction with natural systems. Bedrock control of geomorphic processes and resultant surficial materials is fundamental to this discussion. The second part sum-
4 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

marizes the natural resources that attract exploitation in context 

with regional geology. The third part deals with the distribution 

of various types of current land use with reference to environmental geologic aspects. 

Limitations of time and expense have restricted this research 

mainly to a small-scale regional experimental treatment. However, 

larger scale examples, typical of units shown on the regional maps, 

were selected to portray geologic information in greater detail. 

These examples are primarily intended as aids in understanding 

and interpreting the small-scale regional maps. They are not substitutes for detailed geologic, engineering, or geophysical investigations of specific problems, which commonly require detailed site 

studies by qualified professional personnel. 

Two perspectives are currently available to the makers and 

users of maps for land-use planning. One common approach to 

the need for planning materials is to make interpretive maps 

from available basic data. Interpretive maps show the suitability 

of various types of terrain and bedrock for currently viable uses. 

Useful as these maps are for immediate needs, they may not wear 

well, becoming obsolete either when new data are acquired, legal 

constraints are invoked, or when land uses change. With minor 

exceptions, this approach has not been used in the production of 

maps for the Kentucky River Area Development District. 

The approach used in preparing geologic information for 

KRADD adopts the perspective of presenting basic data in a 

format that can be continually updated and interpreted by planners for changing land uses. To achieve the unlimited flexibility 

that is possible through this approach, the planner must be supplied not only with the basic data but also with the conceptual 

tools for interpretation. 

The maps prepared for the Kentucky River area, which are 

generally biased towards an interpretation of suitability for use, 

included slope maps, flood-prone-area maps, and experimental 

derivative maps based on the surficial geology of a 71!:2-minute 

quadrangle. The current land-use map is actually a basic-data 

base; suitability for specific use is not implied. However, the map 

aids the discussion of the other use-oriented materials because it 

shows the relationship between some uses and the geology. It too 

will become obsolete when land uses change. 

All other maps for KRADD present two types of information: 

( 1) The spatial distribution and abundance of various natural resources and (2) the identification of geomorphic processes operating through dynamic natural systems. Within the framework 
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY 5 

of bedrock and surficial materials and the processes at work 

creating landscapes from them, a land user can structure his 

philosophy and activities either in harmony or at variance with 

natural systems. Economic analysis may suggest that a user 

might risk disaster to reap an immediate profit, or he may choose 

a less risky course, commonly offering a higher sustained profit, 

a long-term yield, and little or no damage to the environment. 

ENVIRONl\IENTAL G:EOLOGY 

Geologic materials for planning include information on bedrock 

and surficial geology and on the availability and quality of water. 

Because man uses fuels and building materials derived from bedrock and surficial materials, the occurrence and abundance of 

these resources is an integral inescapable factor in rational landuse planning. An understanding of the bedrock geology is fundamental to all other geologic and water-related information and 

natural-systems concepts. Surficial materials are derived by 

weathering processes operating on bedrock. The resistance or 

vulnerability to weathering of different rock types- is manifested 

by the materials and terrain produced and, ultimately, in the 

patterns of runoff production and quality of surface water from 

various watersheds and in the rate of recharge of ground water 

and quality of water in deep aquifers. 

BEDROCK GEOLOGIC MAP 

A bedrock geologic map of the Kentucky River area (Newell 

and Rice, 1977a) was compiled largely from preexisting published 

and unpublished data available to the U.S. Geological Survey. 

Types of information used to compile this map include records 

of diamond drill holes, records of rock types along mountain 

roads where extensive vertical sequences are exposed, and composite re~01·ds from published data (U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle and Coal Investigations maps and Kentucky Geological Survey county maps). Because of the many scales, dates, 

and sources, the compiled information varies in quality; however, 

it is adequate to show the gross regional variations of rock types 

exposed throughout the Kentucky River area. Users interested in 

greater detail of bedrock geology are advised to consult the coverage provided by the series of 71/~-minute U.S. Geological Survey 

Geologic Quadrangle maps now nearing completion for the entire 

State of Kentucky. 

Customarily, geologic maps present the spatial distribution of 

various rock types and an interpretation of the origin and history 
6 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

of the rocks. An emphasis on historical geologic interpretation 

may obscure the fundamental utility of the essential basic data 

for planning purposes. Thus, the Kentuc~y River area bedrock 

map presents basic geologic data essential to planning needs in a 

form that emphasizes the occurrence of various rock types and 

facilitates an understanding of bedrock control on land-forming 

processes and on the surficial materials derived from their interaction. Those interested in an historical interpretation of the bedrock foundation of the mountains and valleys of eastern Kentucky 

are urged to refer to the published materials from which this 

map was derived. The map fully identifies the sources of this 

material. 

Three types of bedrock information are shown : Outcrop pattern of lithologically distinctive formations; percentage of sandstone beds in vertical sections of the Breathitt Formation; and 

average vertical thicknesses of rocks exposed from streambeds to 

ridgetops. 

The outcrop patterns of limestone, pebbly quartzose sandstone, 

and shale are limited to two localities in KRADD. One occurrence 

of these materials is at the edge of the Cumberland Esearpment 

in Wolfe, Lee, and Owsley Counties. Outcrop patterns in this area 

reflect the many sinuous canyons cut by the Kentucky River, Red 

River, and their tributaries as they descend from the Cumberland 

Plateau. Other mappable outcrops of the same rock types occur 

along the north face of Pine Mountain where they have been 

brought to the surface by an extensive overthrust fault. The cross 

section (fig. 2) shows the distribution of major rock types underlying the Kentucky River area. 

The rest of KRADD is underlain by the c_oal-bearing Breathitt 

Formation of Pennsylvanian age, which includes beds of sandstone, siltstone, shale, and limited noncommercial occurrences of 

limestone. The component rock types are heterogeneously mixed 

and locally discontinuous, making it impossible to map the outcrop patterns of individual beds at a regional scale. However, the 

regional distribution of rock types within the Breathitt Formation 

can be shown in terms of the relative abundance of different rock 

types from place to place. Sandstone and shale constitute all but 

a few percent of the Breathitt Formation and produce surficial 

materials that have distinctive environmentally important charaeteristics. Thus, most of the Breathitt Formation has been 

divided and mapped according to the relative abundance of sandstone in the total volume of rock exposed above valley bottoms. 
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8 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

The average vertical thickness of rock exposed from streambeds 

to ridgetops is shown by i.sopleths of topographic relief. This information was generated by dividing the Kentucky River area 

map into units of area equal to quarters of 71/:!-minute quadrangles. The topographic relief was calculated from the lowest and 

highest points in each unit, was then plotted on unit centers, and 

contoured at 100-foot (30-m) intervals. Equipped with this information and with knowledge of the relative abundance of sandstone and shale, the map user can observe that an area of interest 

is characterized by a particular thickness of bedrock (above 

drainage) that is predominantly sandstone, shale, or an approximately equal mixture of both. It is here emphasized that this 

map has been prepared solely as a regional representation of bedrock exposed at the surface. The outcrop patterns and relative 

abundance of sandstone and shale in the Breathitt Formation are 

intended to indicate the type of. bedrock from which surficial deposits and residuum have been derived. With the exception of 

faults and outcrop patterns of distinctive lithologies, stratigraphic 

and structural information are not incorporated in this map and 

cannot be interpreted from it. Users in need of this information 

must refer to the published source materials cited on the map. 

SURFICIAL GEOLOGIC MAPS 

Four maps (Newell, 1977a, b) show the distribution of surficial materials, their physical characteristics, and the natural 

system of land-shaping processes that they define. The maps include a regional-scale ( 1: 125,000) overview of surficial geology 

(1977a) and three 7lj:!-minute-quadrangle (1:24,000) reconnais-. 

sance maps (1977b) which show greater detail. 

At the regional scale, all land surfaces in the Kentucky River 

area have been classified and mapped in one of three units that 

reflect three natural processes collectively operating as a dynamic 

land-shaping system. The three units are residuum, colluvium, 

and alluvium. Residuum is a product of chemical weathering of 

the bedrock and consists of insoluble minerals and rock fragments. 

It generally is found on ridgetops and fiat uplands. Colluvium includes angular unsorted materials transported down steep slopes 

by creep, slumping, mudflows, and landslides (mass movement). 

Alluvium occurs on flood plains and valley-bottom terraces; deposits consist of materials derived from colluvium and residuum 

that have been transported, rounded, and sorted by streams and 

rivers. Figure 3 shows the distribution of surface materials resulting from the interaction of weathering, mass movement, and 
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY 9 

FIGURE 3.-Block diagram showing typical distribution of surficial materials 

on ridgetops, slopes, and valley bottoms. 

stream processes on a typical hill-slope profile. The inti uence of 

bedrock source materials on the characteristics of alluvium, colluvium, and residuum and on their physical properties and surficial expression, iEl explained in the text accompanying the map. 

The three 71 ~-minute quadrangles, the Beattyville, Campton, 

and Hazard North, were selected to illustrate the surficial geology 

of typical Kentucky River area environments. The Beattyville 

quadrangle incorporates examples of nearly all types of terrain 

and bedrock found in the Kentucky River area. The Campton and 

Hazard North quadrangles include parts of the State Highway 15 

development corridor in addition to typical landforms. 

Although some typical limestone terrain was studied by the 

author during the present field investigations and has been discussed at the regional scale, a detailed map showing areas of surficial materials derived from limestone has not been produced because significant deposits and residuum are found mostly within 

the Daniel Boone National Forest. Use of National Forest land 

is outside the responsibility of KRADD planners. 

Where applicable, each of the three basic map units, residuum, 

colluvium, and alluvium, has been subdivided to show not only the 

areal distribution of different materials but also the relative effectiveness of the processes that produced them. 

At the 71/~-minute scale, a fourth basic map unit-manmade 

deposits-has been added and subdivided. This unit is most ex-
10 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

tensive in the Hazard North quadrangle in the form of ahundant 

m.ine-spoil banks. Extensive areas of manmade deposits from 

mining and quarrying are not included on the regional surficial 

geology map because this information is presented on the current land-use map (U.S. Geol. Survey, 1975). 

INTERPRETATION OF GEOLOGY FOR LAND-USE PLANNING 

GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES AND BEDROCK CONTROL 

The regional surficial map of the entire Kentucky River area 

(Newell, 1977a) and the three quadrangle maps (Newell, 1977b) 

portray the geology of surficial materials as a key to understanding 

the geomorphic processes that function together as integral parts 

of a natural system, modifying and shaping the landscape. The 

landscape is not static; it is the foundation of a dynamic environment. The definition of size, shape, and distribution of surficial 

deposits and residual materials reveals areas over which different 

processes are relatively most effective or particularly intense and 

frequent. The relationship between processes and landforms defined by surficial geology provides an ever-current perspective on 

the opportunities and limitations found within all possible environmental situations. 

Geomorphic processes with few exceptions are inextricably related to the movement of water, ice, and air; these materials are 

driven by gravity and solar radiation through the atmosphere, 

across the face of the land, into the oceans, and back into the atmosphere again through endless and myriad paths collectively 

known as the hydrologic cycle. In eastern Kentucky, under humid 

climatic conditions, three water-related processes are at workchemical weathering, mass movement, and streamflow. These 

processes respectively weather the bedrock, move weathered 

broken rock materials down slopes, and transport them out of 

watersheds down the streams and rivers, producing residuum, colluvium, and alluvium (see p. 8 ) . Each type of surficial material 

has resulted from a process that is significant to the human environment. Residuum underlies well-drained, nearly level surfaces. Colluvium is the product of landslides, mudflows, and other 

forms of slope failure. Alluvium is found, for the most part, in 

areas that experience flooding. Each of these distinctive materials 

is defined as a map unit, and its environmental significance is 

discussed in the explanation for the surficial geologic maps 

(Newell, 1977a, b): 

All land surfaces in the Kentucky River area can be mapped according to the erosional features, deposits, and nontransported 
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY 11 

remnants that occur upon them. Thus, a map of surficial geology 

shows not only the distribution of distinctive materials that have 

different physical properties but also the erosional and depositional history. 

Bedrock, the ultimate source of all surficial materials, is, in 

this part of Kentucky, a highly variable assemblage of $andstone, 

siltstone, shale, limestone, and coal. Some of these rock types are 

porous, others soluble, and other disintegrate readily. The interaction between the various rock types and processes ultimately 

controls the extent and depth of weathering, the size and shape 

of debris moving down slopes, valley width, average particle 

size, and depth of alluvium. 

The distribution of weathered bedrock, materials in transport 

on hill slopes, and alluvium-each material well or poorly drained 

-ultimately controls the water budget of Kentucky River area 

watersheds. Runoff, storage, and base flow are all affected by the 

steepness of the slopes and by the porosity of the soils and unconsolidated materials. The control of bedrock on the physical characteristics of residuum, colluvium, and alluvium is discussed on 

the regional surficial geologic map (Newell, 1977a). 

DISTRIBUTION OF RESIDIUUM, COLLUVIUM. AND ALLUVIUM 

The regional surficial geologic map (Newell, 1977a) shows that 

residuum is most extensive along the northwestern edge of Kentucky River area, where most of the shaly lower part of the 

Breathitt Formation has been eroded away, leaving nearly level 

to gently rolling surfaces on top of resistant sandstone ledges. 

Isolated patches of residuum large enough to map are present 

near Whitesburg and Booneville. Inaccessible mountaintop 

patches such as these are common where weak soft rocks-shale, 

coal, and thin limestone-are perched above a resistant sandstone 

bed. Mantles of thin residuum, limited to a few acres, repose on 

many ridgetops throughout the Kentucky River area but are too 

small to show at regional scale. 

Colluvium is the most extensive map unit of the entire Kentucky River area. Most of the terrain mapped as colluvium at 

scale 1: 125,000 includes small isolated patches of very thin residuum on rounded ridge crests and spurs. It also includes thin 

sinuous deposits of alluvium along the bottoms of most valleys 

where the volume of stream runoff is sufficient to sort valleybottom colluvium. Comparison of the regional surficial geologic 

map with the regional bedrock map (Newell and Rice, 1977a) 

shows the generalized lithology of parent rocks. Sandstone ledges 
12 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

support steep slopes. The colluvium derived from sandstone consists of moderately well drained sandy material having blocky 

rubbly slopes. Less resistant rocks, such as shale, generally do 

not support steep slopes. Colluvium that covers slopes developed 

from weathered shale is commonly thin, clayey, and poorly 

drained. 

Alluvium covers the smallest total area of the region. However, 

historically, it has been and still remains the most significant 

surficial deposit because it underlies continuous gentle slopes 

providing access for various forms of transportation into the 

interior of the Kentucky River headwaters area. It is also fertile, 

easily tilled land for the most part. The primary limitation to use 

of the alluvial bottoms is their susceptibility to flooding, which 

is documented on the flood-prone-area map (Davis, 1977b). During early days of river commerce, floods were used to advantage in 

the transportation of logs and rafts out of the interior to navigation downstream. Historical writings document the widespread 

economic use of floods (Verhoef, 1917). At present, however, 

floods are a hindrance and not a help in most of man's attempts 

to use the bottomlands. 

Alluvial bottom lands, although sandy and well drained, are 

generally narrow and confined between rugged hills in areas 

underlain by predominantly resistant sandstone bedrock. Where 

shale is more common, as in the South Fork Valley, the bottom 

lands may be as much as 1 mile (1.6 km) wide and may have 

multiple terraces bounded alternately by gentle hill slopes and 

steep meander-bend escarpments. Lower frequently flooded river 

terraces are poorly drained, whereas higher trraces, having been 

weathered, are better drained. Several large abandoned meanderbend bottom lands, well above present flood-prone areas, are found 

in the area of predominantly shaly bedrock. One such large bottom 

land east of Beattyville is mapped in detail on the Beattyville 

quadrangle map (Newell 1977b). Other smaller examples are 

found along all the major river valleys of the Kentucky River 

area. 

DIVISION OF SURFICIAL MAP UNITS 

Distribution of surficial materials cannot be shown in detail on 

the regional scale map; thus this map is of limited value for 

interpretations. Detailed information is presented on the Beattyville, Campton, and Hazard North 71/:!-minute quadrangle maps 

(Newell 1977b). These maps provide sufficient detail to interpret 
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY 13 

the effect on the landscape of natural processes in typical local 

environments throughout the region. 

The three basic map units of the regional surficial geologic 

map-residuum, colluvium, and alluvium-are divisible on 

1: 24,000-scale maps into units that variously reflect the intensity 

and frequency of occurrence of the three causative geomorphic 

processes. The subdivided map units can be ranked according to 

the relative intensity or magnitude and frequency of the causative 

process. Tables 1 and 2 illustrate this concept. As shown by table 

TABLE 1.-Residuum and colluvium as indicators of process intensity 

[Thickness of surficial material underlying a slope is a function of an incrementally accumulating volume minus increments lost through erosion. On much of the landscape, 

erosion and accumulation are balanced. At localities underlain by thick residuum, the effect 

of chemical weathering is at a maximum, and erosion (largely through mass movement) 

is at a minimum. Conversely, at localities underlain by thin discontinuous colluvium, 

mass movement is at a maximum and all other processes a1·e at a minimum I 

Process 

Chemical 

weathering. 

Mass 

movement. 

Volume eroding 

exceeds volume 

accumulating 

No residuum .................. .. 

Thin discontinuous 

colluvium. 

Volume accumulating Volume accumulating 

equals volume eroding exceeds volume eroding 

Thin residuum ------.. Thick residuum. 

Thin continuous Thick colluvium. 

colluvium. 

TABLE 2.-Alluvium as an indicator of magnitude and frequency of floods 

[Relative height of alluvial deposits above stream channels reflects the recurrence interval 

and size of floods] 

Process 

Streamflow .. _ .. __ _ 

Frequently flooded, 

eroded and deposited 

Channel and floodplain alluvium. 

Less frequently flooded 

(10-100-yr intervals) 

Low-level terrace 

alluvium. 

Flooding unlikely 

High-level terrace 

alluvium. 

2, alluvium reflects the recurrence of moderate to very large flood 

stages. The relative effectiveness or intensity of chemical weathering and mass movement is best documented by the thickness of 

residuum and colluvium (table 1). The most intensive chemical 

weathering is documented by thick accumulations of residuum, 

whereas thin colluvium and exposed bedrock on steep slopes indicate the most active mass movement. Undoubtedly, some variations in thickness of both residuum and colluvium are a function 

of bedrock type. The same processes operating on sandstone and 

shale, for example, will produce different thicknesses of residuum, 

different slope angles, and, consequently, different thicknesses and 
14 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

composition of colluvium. The map-unit ranking system of tables 

1 and 2 may be overly generalized unless surficial materials developed from uniform rock types are compared. 

Although a generalization, the tables do indicate that variations 

in process intensity, magnitude, and frequency of activity can be 

depicted from place to place by the areal distribution of the 

products. If process intensity is understood as a variable dependent on rock type, topographic aspect, and climate, then the magnitude of opportunities and the limitations that the process represents can be perceived and applied to land use. By combining different surficial map units according to the guidelines of tables 1 

and 2, derivative maps can be rapidly produced showing floodprone areas (a function of stream flow), slope stability (a function of mass movement), or permeability (a function of weathering and rock type.) As an example, a slope-stability map (Newell, 

1977c) has been prepared as a derivative of the surficial geology 

of the Beattyville quadrangle. It compares favorably with a slope 

map of that quadrangle (U.S. Geol. Survey, 1974a). A floodprone-area map (Davis, 1976b) produced by hydrologic methods 

also compares favorably with the distribution of alluvium. 

DESCRIPTION OF MAP UNITS 

RESIDUUM 

Residuum, where mappable, has been divided into two units, 

thick residuum and thin residuum. 

Thick residuum (unit r 1 ), for the most part, underlies level to 

gently sloping land on broad upland benches supported by sandstone beds of the Lee and Breathitt Formations. Other areas of 

thick residuum are on ridge crests and broad convex-upward 

slopes underlain by interbedded siltstone, shale, and thin beds of 

sandstone. Thick residuum results where the rate of accumulation 

of weathered products exceeds the rate of their erosion. The rate 

of weathering is manifested in a profile that becomes deeper more 

rapidly than material is eroded from the surface by mass movement. 

Areas of deep weathering on low-angle slopes are environmentally significant because the weathering horizon is usually highly 

permeable and easily excavated. Both the permeable weathered 

horizon and steeper outcrops of the parent bedrock are groundwater recharge areas for important sandstone aquifers. 

Thin residuum (unit r 2 ) is much more extensively mapped. It is 

found on generally convex-upward hill slopes,· ridgetops, and 
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY 15 

spurs. Chemical weathering that produces the thin residuum probably acts at a rate similar to that which prevails on the nearly 

level occurrences of thick residuum. The underlying siltstone and 

shale, however, are more susceptible to erosion, and steeper convex slopes result. On the average, over a long period, the volume 

of material removed probably approximates the volume of new 

weathered material produced on the convex slopes. The steepness, 

convexity, or concavity of the slopes is a function of the weathering characteristics of the bedrock. Commonly, sandstone beds produce steep slopes and cliffs. Outcrops of sandstone are more 

resistant than shale or siltstone, possibly because at or near a steep 

surface, the porous sandstone absorbs water and passes it through 

quickly, and very little leaching of the cement and grains takes 

place. However, backslope from the outcrop, because of the permeability and saturation of the rock and the movement of water, 

the sandstone is generally leached and friable, characteristics that 

produce thick residuum. 

Siltstone, shale, and thin interbedded sandstone are more susceptible to erosion and mass movement than is sandstone. They do 

not crop out as resistant ledges and level uplands but form a 

generally uniform slope. The upper part of the slope is convex 

upward and is the area of weathering and removal of material. 

The material derived from the convex part accumulates at the 

base of the slope where the profile is concave upward. Figures 4 

and 5 show this configuration and typical hill-slope profile underlying a cap of thick residuum. 

RESIDUUM 1 

Thick 

I I 

I I 

1 Thin 1 

I I 

I 

I 

I 

1 Thin 

1 conTuous 

BEDROCK 

Thick 

continuous 

FIGURE 4.-Hill-slope profile formed on siltstone and shale. 
16 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

~ RESIDUUM~1 I 

I I 

Thick i Thin : 

~----~~~~~ I ··~···.·......:_. I 

Thick ~ALLUVIUM~ 

FIGURE 5.-Hill-slope profile controlled by sandstone cap. 

COLLUVIUM 

Colluvium has been divided into three units that indicate the 

relative volumes of weathered materials and rock debris moving 

downslope and accumulating on slopes. The median unit, thin 

continuous colluvium (unit c2 ), represents a balance between 

amount of material eroded and deposited on a slope and is the 

most extensive of the three. The other two units, cl and C:H end 

members of the mass-movement and accumulation system, are 

limited in occurrence and commonly are juxtaposed. Usually, 

areas where intensive mass movement (c 1 ) takes place are the 

source areas for localities of thick accumulations of colluvium 

( c3). As seen on the map, such areas of intensive mass movement 

are, for the most part, along entrenched river meanders. Figure 

6 shows a typical meander-bend locality that has discontinuous 

colluvium ( cr) on the steep upper slopes. Bedrock buttresses alternate with troughs filled with thin discontinuous colluvium. The 

troughs feed into the thick wedge of accumulating colluvium. The 

surface of thick colluvium (c3) is graded to the angle of repose 

of the material, and the toe of the wedge of colluvium forms the 

bank of the stream. Stream erosion during each flood removes 

material from the toe of the wedge, and more slides down from 

above to replace it; thus, a dynamic system is created. 

If the river should abandon the meander bend for a different 

course, then the dynamic mass-movement system would no longer 

be in equilibrium. Instead, a new equilibrium is attained as the 
A 

BEDROCK 

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY 

BEDROCK 

BUTTRESS 

THIN, DISCONTINUOUS 

COLLUVIUM 

THIN, DISCONTINUOUS 

COLLUVIUM 

THICK COLLUVIUM 

• FLOOD PLAIN . :).,, I • : • ,·~~~ RIVER ) 

.. : .. ~.<;;l~--:"':~~:.:.:-=:.:L::•~ .. I • " " • e I ~ I\ '• • ' •• 'I 

•, ·'•"'"" • •' • r '. •• 

17 

FIGURE 6.-Block diagram and generaLized cross section showing surficial 

geology of a meander bend along South Fork of Kentucky River. 

thick colluvium continues to accumulate and the deposit blankets 

old river-channel sediments. Bedrock outerops gradually waste 

back and the troughs between them fill with colluvium, until the 

slope becomes more stable and is covered with thin continuous 

colluvium ( c:J. Figure 7 shows this situation. The use of land 

under these conditions is contingent upon the maintenance of 

the naturally graded slope of thick colluvium at the base. If the 

toe of the slope is excavated, then the dynamic mass-movement 

system will be reactivated. 

Thick colluvium ( c:J is also found at the 1nouths of some hollows 

and along the bottoms of small valleys where the stream runoff 

is not great enough to sort, carry, and redeposit alluvium derived 
18 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

THIN, CONTINUOUS 

COLLUVIUM 

BEDROCK 

ABANDONED 

CHANNEL 

ALLUVIUM 

HIGH-LEVEL 

TERRACE 

ALLUVIUM 

FIGURE 7.-Block diagram and generalized cross section showing relationship 

of surficial deposits associated with an abandoned meander bend. 

from the colluvium. Some deposits of thick colluvium are the 

result of individual intense storms, which produced landslides and 

debris fans at the bases of slopes and the mouths of tributary 

streams. 

As described on the regional surficial geologic map of the Kentucky River area (Newell, 1977a), shale and sandstone each produce colluvium that has distinctive drainage characteristics. Shale 

colluvium is nearly impermeable, whereas sandstone colluvium is 

permeable. Because these materials are moved down mountainsides, shale colluvium, for example, commonly rests on sandstone 

bedrock. Colluvium resting on a sandstone bench may be comparatively dry and stable in contrast to saturated colluvium that 

overlies shale and coal beds. Complications may arise where the 
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY 19 

lower slopes of saturated colluvium are undercut, either by a 

stream or by man for a road or building site. Engineering solutions to such problems can be costly and have no guarantee of 

success. Some sites can only be stabilized by stripping off the colluvium on the slopes above. Other sites may be stabilized by diverting ground water away from hollows--the areas of convergent 

flow and greatest saturation-across the slopes towards convex 

slopes that diverge ground-water flow under and through the colluvium. 

ALLUVIU.\'1 

Mappable variations in sedin1e:nts-their weathering and erosion-are the criteria for subdividing alluvium. At some localities, 

modern channel and flood-plain alluvium (a 1 ), low-level terrace 

alluvium (a2), and high-level terrace alluvium (a~) can be distinguished. By their weathering, erosion, and topographic position, each of these deposits reflects the frequency of flooding at 

various stage heights. 

With the exception of high-level terrace alluvium (a:;), all 

alluvium is confined to valley bottoms. Because high-level terrace 

alluvium (a3) is mapped as high as 300 feet (91 m) above modern 

stream channels, and because it constitutes only limited remnants 

of earlier valley bottoms, it is interpreted as being much older than 

deposits on modern valley bottoms. How old these deposits are is 

difficult to determine, and most attempts are very speculative, but 

such deposits, being very ancient, must have undergone long 

periods of weathering, erosion, and soil formation. 

Modern channel and flood-plain alluvium (at) is frequently 

flooded. Thus, channel sediments are often eroded and redeposited, 

and flood plains receive new accumulations of fresh sand, silt, 

and clay. Steep channel banks are subject to slumping during and 

after floods. Small coalescing tributary stream valleys contain 

modest volumes of modern channel and flood-plain alluvium, which 

generally is less than 10 feet (3 rn) thick. It is produced, for the 

most part, from colluvium along the valley bottoms. 

In broad valleys, the modern channel and flood-plain alluvium 

(al) is usually entrenched in older alluvium underlying low-level 

terraces. Because the low-level terrace alluvium (a2) is no longer 

frequently flooded, it does not commonly include fresh accumulations of sediment. Thus, the older material is more weathered 

and eroded. 
20 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

MANMADE DEPOSITS AND MODIFICATIONS 

Manmade deposits and modifications have been divided according to their associated land use. Although mine spoil (unit s) 

is basically colluvium and is moved and altered after deposition by 

the same pro·cesses that affect naturally occurring colluvium, it 

is less weathered and thus more porous because it contains less 

clay and silt. Mine spoil is generally less well sorted than naturally 

occurring deposits and is not in equilibrium with the slope from 

which it has been excavated and upon which it rests. Because 

these materials are not in equilibrium they will be weathered, 

moved, and sorted by natural processes until equilibrium slope 

conditions are reestablished. 

Unlike mine spoil, artificial fill (af) of highways, railroads, and 

sanitary landfills is compacted and graded to low stable slopes. 

Highway cuts (he) through mountains expose fresh bedrock, 

including both resistant sandstone and weak shale. Generally, the 

roadcuts are terraced and graded to maintain stability while the 

rocks weather. In contrast, surface-mine high-wall exposures may 

eventually collapse after weathering and the disintegration of 

weak rocks. 

SURFICIAL GEOLOGY OF REPRESENTATIVE 7Y2-MINUTE 

QUADRANGLES 

BEATTYVILLE QUADRANGLE 

All the physiographic features (except limestone terrain) observable throughout the Kentucky River area are present within 

the Beattyville quadrangle (Newell, 1977b). The diversity of terrain elements and surficial materials, which reflect areal variatrons in bedrock composition, facilitates a more complete subdivision of residuum, colluvium, and alluvium than is possible in the 

other two quadrangles. Along the northern border of the quadrangle are prominent beds of quartzose pebbly sandstone of the 

Lee Formation. South of the main stem of the Kentucky River 

and west of the South Fork are more easily weathered sandstone 

beds, typical of the Breathitt Formation. East of the South Fork 

and south of the Middle Fork, bedrock is predominantly shale and 

siltstone. 

Extensive nearly level plains and rolling uplands, dissected by 

precipitous gorges of Kentucky River tributaries, characterize 

the topography along the northern and western sides of the quadrangle. The plains and uplands are underlain by gently sloping to 

flat-lying beds of sandstone interbedded with shale. The sandstone 

beds crop out as steep escarpments along the gorges and valley 
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY 21 

walls of entrenched meanders cut by the North Fork, main stem, 

and tributaries of the Kentucky River. The South and Middle 

Forks flow through broad meander-belt lowlands cut in fiat-lying 

shale and siltstone. The three forks are confluent near Beattyville, 

where the main stem of the river Jflows westward. The rest of the 

quadrangle, especially south and east of the South and Middle 

Forks of the Kentucky River, has typical ridge and ravine topography. The uniform and ubiquitous distribution of shale and 

siltstone underlying the ridges and ravines is reflected in the distribution of surficial materials on the hill slopes. 

Residuum.-Extensive areas of thick residuum (unit r1) underlie the plains and rolling uplands that are supported by sandstone 

beds. Because of the stable nearly level slopes, thick residuum is 

suitable for agriculture and other uses. Much of the modern road 

system is built on areas mapped as residuum. 

Some localities of thick residuum near the present valleys of 

the river's three forks include deeply weathered reworked highlevel terrace alluvium that is not mappable as a discrete deposit. 

Traces of high-level terrace sediments are found west of the South 

Fork opposite Lower Buffalo and in the northeast corner of the 

map, north of Airdale. 

Thin residuum (rJ found on most uplands north of the North 

Fork and west of the South Fork is generally less stable than 

thick residuum, although it may be relatively stable compared 

with areas underlain by colluvium. 

Colluvium.-Colluvium is probably the most extensive map unit 

of the quadrangle. Thin continuous colluvium (unit cJ is found 

mostly on the hill slopes of the uniform ridge and ravine topography south and east of the Middlle and South Forks. Elsewhere, 

it mantles most slopes between residuun1-covered uplands and valley-bottom deposits. 

Conspicuous areas of thin discontinuous colluvium ( cl) are 

present mainly along bluffs of the Kentucky River and its forks. 

Deposits of thick colluvium ( C::) accumulate along the bases of 

many steep slopes and in some narrow valley bottoms. 

Alluvium.-Low-level terrace alluvium (unit a:!) and modern 

channel and flood-plain alluvium (a1) are most extensive along 

the South Fork and in the area of conft uence of the Middle and 

North Forks. Because of the weak predominantly shaly bedrock, 

the meandering rivers have cut broad bottom lands with low 

channel gradients. During floods, much of the bottom lands may 

be inundated and receive frequent increments of sediment. In 

contrast, deposits of alluvium are very limited in the gorge of the 
22 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

North Fork. Floodwaters are confined by the narrow valley walls, 

velocitie·s are high, and much of the fluvial sediment is kept in 

transport; very little sediment is stored in flood-plain or terrace 

deposits. 

Because of the lack of level accessible land throughout much of 

the Kentucky River area, the low-level terrace deposits are commonly used for housing, agriculture, and business. For example, 

the business section of Beattyville is built on low-level terraces. 

These sites are above most frequent floods, but the risk of less 

frequent (10- to 100-year) floods must be anticipated and accepted. 

High-level terrace alluvium (a:l) caps benches above the valley 

floors and is found in abandoned meander bends and channelways, 

as at St. Helens. The old, weathered, and leached sediments are 

generally much better drained than are deposits of clayey or silty 

alluvium. Large accessible occurrences of these relict deposits 

should be of great interest to land-use planners because they combine a wide variety of favorable characteristics such as good 

drainage, stable slopes, and freedom from flooding. 

Man made deposits and modifications.-At the time of mapping 

(1974-75), extensive spoil (unit s), from strip mining was nonexistent in this quadrangle. Some mine spoil covering a few acres 

was found between Congleton and the South Fork. The artificial 

fill ( af), engineered for railroad grades and now abandoned, is 

of possible importance to land-use planning. The abandoned sections of railroad bed running from St. Helens and Maloney flank 

both sides of the North Fork and continue northward up Walker 

Creek for many miles through the Zachariah quadrangle. Originally, this railroad line went through a tunnel under the divide 

to Natural Bridge, Slade, and Stanton in the Red River valley. 

Although many bridges and trestles have disappeared, the welldrained roadbed of crushed rock survives, although rockfalls or 

slumps may have locally obstructed it. If cleared it would be 

a scenic interesting trail for recreational use because of its historical relationship to early logging and commerce of the region. 

CAMPTON QUADRANGLE 

The southwestern part of the Campton quadrangle (Newell, 

1977b) includes the gorge or canyon of the North Fork of the 

Kentucky River and entrenched tributaries in smaller canyons. 

Narrow benches of level to gently sloping land are present above 

the sandstone rimrock of the canyons. Sinuous ridges and ravines 

of moderate relief, which occupy the uplands between tributary 

canyons, rise above the narrow benches. These uplands are com-
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY 23 

monly underlain by shale and siltstone. The northeastern part of 

the quadrangle in the area around the town of Campton includes 

r1dge and ravine uplands attaining several hundred feet of relief. 

These uplands are incised by broad-bottorrted low-gradient valleys 

of the headwaters of Swift Camp Branch and other streams flowing into the Red River. The ridge and ravine uplands are perched 

on the sandstone bed (Lee Formation) that underlies most of the 

quadrangle and forms the canyon escarpments. North of Campton, 

Swift Camp Branch crosses a sandstone scarp and is entrenched 

below cliffs of sandstone 

The bedrock geology of the Campton quadrangle has been 

mapped and described by Briggs (1957). The lithology and structure of the Lee sandstone has controlled the development of the 

drainage network and supports the canyon escarpments of the 

entrenched North Fork and its tributaries. The sandstone of the 

Lee Formation is generally quartzose and well sorted and contains 

locally abundant quartz pebbles. This unit is 275-300 feet (84-91 

m) thick. It dips gently southward approximately parallel to the 

gradient of Devil Creek and other south-flowing tributaries of 

the North Fork. Thus, along most of their reaches, these streams 

are entrenched in the sandstone. 

The Zachariah coal bed at the base of the Breathitt Formation 

is above the Lee sandstone and has been Ininecl locally, as shown 

by mine spoil (unit s). This coal bed is overlain by basal shale 

of the Breathitt Formation. The weak shale and coal have been 

eroded along the edges of the canyon rims and along valley bottoms p~erched above the Lee sandstone, resulting in broad bottom 

lands and benches above the rimrock. 

Before the North Fork entrenched itself, it cut and abandoned 

meandering channels through the overlying Breathitt Formation. 

Remnants of old weathered alluvium (a:1 ) now repose on benches 

on top of the Lee sandstone. Some of the old terrace gravels were 

initially mapped by Briggs (1957). Additional distinctive gravels 

have also been mapped on the rolling benchland topography above 

the river gorge. Many other patches of old alluvium have been 

reworked by erosion and are now too thin and discontinuous to 

map. 

Rounded hills and ridge and ravine topography on the upland 

areas have formed on shale of the lower part of the Breathitt 

Formation. Coal beds are discontinuous and are mined at only a 

few localities. In the northeast corner of the quadrangle, a greater 

abundance of sandstone beds is revealed topographically by a 
24 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

horizon of steeper slopes underlying gently sloping rounded hilltops. 

Residuum.-The few extensive mantles of residuum in the 

Campton quadrangle are found along the benches and old meander 

bends above the North Fork gorge. Smaller patches on many small 

benches cap the spurs of bedrock that rise between entrenched 

south-flowing tributaries of the North Fork. Even smaller patches 

of residuum, mostly deeply weathered red and yellow clay, cap the 

sinuous ridge crests and low rounded hills. These patches are, 

however, too small to map at 1:24,000 scale. The residual materials 

of the more extensive benchlands are supported by the Lee Formation. They consist of deeply weathered shale, clay, coal, and underclay, and friable reddish sandstone and sand. Deeply weathered 

old alluvium, difficult to distinguish from bedrock residuum, can 

be identified by the presence of weathered chert and quartz. Chert 

and quartz pebbles are not found in the local bedrock and have 

probably been transported from source rocks along Pine Mountain, and perhaps from limited outcrops along the tops of the 

highest mountains in the North Fork drainage basin. 

Colluvium.-Most colluvium is thin and continuous (unit c:!) 

and is distributed on moderately rolling ridge and ravine topography of the upland interfluves and headwater uplands. Most 

of the colluvium is derived from shale and consists of silt, clay, 

and small flat shale pebbles. The material is thick on the bottoms 

of hollows and thins out on the side slopes and ridges. LandsJides, 

slumps, and mudflows are common where the colluvium is undercut by streams. Many rills and gullies, which have debris fans 

of eroded material at their mouths, cut the upper slopes. On a 

very local scale, these features are readily distinguished. They are 

much too small to show at the map scale, however, being only tens 

of feet across. 

The thin discontinuous colluvium ( c1) underlies steep slopes 

and canyon walls. It includes steep nearly vertical bedrock escarpments. At the bases of slopes, the colluvium merges with floodplain alluvium. Along the North Fork channel, colluvium is constantly undercut by the river; this process results in periodic 

slumps and slides from the steep slopes. 

A few large debris fans of colluvium and landslide material, 

which are distinguishable, have been mapped separately as thick 

colluvium ( c3). 

Alluvium.-Alluvium in the Campton quadrangle is of two 

types, (1) modern channel and flood-plain alluvium, and (2) old 

terrace remnants in abandoned channels as much as 300 feet 
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY 25 

(91 m) above the present entrenched course of the North Fork 

of the Kentucky River. 

Modern channel and flood-plain alluvium (a 1 ) is formed as 

much as 40 feet ( 12 m) above the river at base flow, coincident 

with high flood stages of the river in a nalTO\V constricted valley. 

The alluvium in these deposits is sandy because the river drains 

an area that has a relatively high percentage of sandstone beds. 

Alluvium in the North Fork gorge is not continuous; it forms bars 

along the sides of the channel and on the insides of meander bends. 

Where the outsides of meander bends are cut into bedrock, alluvium is either absent or is mantled with eolluvium. River erosion 

of the toe of a slope underlain by colluviurn maintains mass movement on that slope. Old terrace alluvium (a::) lies high above the 

modern channel. The arcuate trend of ancestral channels i,s easily 

discernible on the topographic map. The alluvium in the old 

channels has been intensely dissected and reworked so that remnant patches are generally thin and discontinuous. Locally these 

patches are as much as 20 feet (6 m) thick. Old alluvium is primarily recognized by its component rock types, which differ from 

residuum derived from bedrock. The remnants of old channels 

that can be discerned above the Lee sandstone were much broader 

than the present river channel, which is now entrenched within 

the sandstone. In fact, the ancient channels, their deposits, and 

bottom lands were probably most similar to currently existing 

fluvial landforms on topography carved from shale. Examples 

can be seen along the South Fork at Booneville and along the 

Middle Fork at St. Helens. 

Manmade deposits and modifications.--Surface mine spoil at 

the time of mapping was limited to a few isolated localities and 

probably constituted less than 1 percent of the total quadrangle 

area. Extensive artificial fill is localized along the two main 

transportation routes through the quadrangle-the Mountain 

Parkway, and State Highway 15. 

HAZARD NORTH QUADRANGLE 

The rugged mountainous terrain of the Hazard North quadrangle (Newell, 1977b) is typical of the headwater counties of 

the Kentucky River area. Residuum and alluvium, the materials 

commonly found on uplands and valley bottoms, are very scarce 

in this quadrangle, and the gentle slopes that they underlie have 

been intensely utilized since the earliest settlement of man. Most 

of the steep slopes are underlain by varying thicknesses of colluvium. 
26 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

Because of the absence of level land and the relatively high 

population density, many homes, farms, and some businesses have 

been constructed on steeply sloping terrain. Intensive use of steep 

slopes requires careful consideration of the bedrock and surficial details of individual sites and roads. 

Residuum.-Extensive areal distributions of residual materials 

weathered from bedrock are lacking on the ridge and ravine 

topography of the Hazard North quadrangle. Some narrow wellto excessively drained benches of sandy soil above massive ledgeforming sandstone beds are mappable but cannot be delineated 

accurately on the 40-foot (12 m) contour interval of the topographic base map. Thin unmappable residuum also is found on 

isolated hilltops and small benches formed on geologically significant marine shale and limestone beds. These beds and some 

significant ledge-forming sandstone beds have been mapped and 

described by Seiders ( 1964). 

Colluvium.-Most of the Hazard North quadrangle consists of 

steep mountainous slopes mantled with colluvium. The colluvium 

is thickest and most extensive on the concave-upward slopes of 

coves and hollows. It forms a wedge-shaped mantle, thickest at the 

base of the slope. The colluvium thins on side slopes and grades 

into a very thin discontinuous mantle on adjacent convex-upward 

slopes. Partially weathered bedrock either crops out or is near 

the surface on the convex-upward slopes. Residual materials are 

found on some slopes but are too limited to map separately. Landslides and debris fans are common features at the base of steep 

slopes and in the mouths of small valleys, ravines, and chutes. 

Topographic detail is insufficient, however, to map any but the 

very largest. 

Allu.vium.-Distribution of alluvium is limited almost exclusively to modern channels. Vestiges of higher older terraces are 

present at Airport Gardens and in the Hazard area. Alluvium 

cannot be subdivided because of limited extent and the difficulty 

of interpretation on a map base that has 40-foot contours. 

Alluvium in tributaries, larger creeks, and the North Fork of 

the Kentucky River reflects the high sand-shale ratio of the local 

bedrock. In contrast with the clayey alluvium of the South Fork 

of the Kentucky River, the alluvium of the North Fork and its 

tributaries is sandy. Overbank sediment from spring floods is 

dominantly sand, and the alluvial bottom lands are better drained 

than regions where bottom-land alluvium is derived from shale. 

Because of the steep narrow valleys, flood response is rapid, and 
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY 27 

ground-water storage, although better than in clayey alluvium, 

is minimal. 

Manmade deposits and modifications.--The extensive coal resources of the Hazard North quadrangle have been exploited by 

surface mining of increasing magnitude in recent years. The spoil 

(units), and high walls of the stripping and augering operations 

have now attained proportions that are readily observable even on 

the 40-foot contour interval of the base map. Their ,size and extensive distribution ranks these manmade deposits as significant 

surficial geologic features having mappable characteristics. 

DERIVATIVES FROM SURFICIAL GEOLOGY 

Each type of deposit or residual accumulation defined and 

mapped in the Beattyville and other quadrangles is continually 

modified by three geomorphic processes--weathering, mass movement, and streamflow. Map units may be ranked according to the 

intensity or magnitude and frequency of their respective causative 

processes (as shown in tables 1 and 2). 'Thus, the effects of each 

process over the total map area may be compared. Each process 

can be identified with corresponding implications for land use. 

Weathering, associated with permeability, is a factor influencing 

drainage characteristics. Low-flow and flood-flow characteristics 

of stream processes are especially important. Mass movement is 

most active on unstable slopes, which are delineated by mapping 

landslides and colluvium. 

By reinterpreting surficial map units in terms of the effects of 

each process, derivative maps can be produced showing flood-prone 

areas, areas of stable or unstable slopes, and areas of good to 

poor drainage. 

FLOOD-PRO~E AREAS 

The simplest derivative map that can be produced from the 

geologic information is a flood-prone-area map. A flood-prone area 

can be delineated by grouping all areas underlain by modern 

channel and flood-plain alluvium (unit a 1 ) and low-level terrace 

alluvium (unit a::) (Newell, 1977b). A comparison of these two 

surficial units with the flood-prone-area map of the Beattyville 

quadrangle (Davis, 1977b) generated by hydrologic techniques, 

shows remarkably good agreement. 

SLOPE STABILITY 

Producing a derivative map of slope stability from a surficial 

geologic map is more complex because it involves the interpretation 
28 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

of each map unit for susceptibility to mass movement. By consulting table 1 and combining units of equivalent susceptibility, 

slope-stability categories can be defined and compiled. The slopestability map of the Beattyville quadrangle (Newell, 1977c) is a 

simple three-unit example depicting three categories of slope 

stability: (1) stable (derivative map unit S), (2) potentially unstable (derivative map unit P), and (3) unstable (derivative map 

unit U). Units designated as "S" are composed of thick residuum, 

high-level terrace, and (or) low-level terrace. Units designated 

as "P" are composed of thin continuous colluvium, thick colluvium, 

and (or) thin residuum. Units designated as "U" are composed of 

thin discontinuous colluvium and (or) channel alluvium. The 

stable unit delineates those areas where natura.lly occurring largescale mass movement is unlikely and where intensive manmade 

earth-moving operations are likely to create only small-scale 

mass-movement features, such as limited slumps, mudflows, and 

gullying. Corrective action in this unit is highly feasible. The 

potentially unstable category covers a broad diversity of terrain, 

including areas that formerly may have been active·. Various 

manmade modifications can result in a wide array of massive to 

limited slope failures, which may or may not be feasibly correctable. The unstable unit delineates those areas on which mass 

movement is currently being caused by natural geomorphic processes. Corrective action of the resulting mass slope failures is 

almost always impractical. 

Slope maps prepared photomechanically by the U.S. Geological 

Survey (1974a-c) from topographic base maps of the Beattyville, 

Campton, and Hazard North quadrangles can be used as an aid to 

interpreting areas within the diverse category of potentially unstable units. The map units of the slope maps have been selected 

according to characteristics favorable for various uses: low-angle 

slopes suited to cultivation, moderate slopes useful for pasturage, 

steep slopes for woodlands, and very steep slopes that exceed the 

limit suggested in strip-mine legislation that was considered but 

not passed in 1973-7 4. 

A comparison of these slope maps and the slope-stability map 

by Newell (1977c) reveals that all areas delineated as stable on the 

slope-stability map correspond to areas mapped as low or moderate slopes on the photomechanically prepared maps. Areas delineated as unstable by Newell correspond to areas of steep· to 

very steep slopes. The potentially unstable areas mapped by Newell 

include all the slope-map units. Thus, small areas mapped as 
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY 29 

potentially unstable should be analyzed on the basis of the corresponding slope-map units and surficial-map units. 

DRAINAGE 

A third, more complex derivative map would show the permeability and drainage of the surficial deposits and residual materials. Such a map requires not only analysis of the weathering 

products developed on each unit but also detailed information 

about the source rocks from which the surficial materials were 

derived. Because current detailed bedrock information is lacking, 

we have not attempted a derivative map of this nature. Although 

it is not currently feasible to produce an accurate map of drainage characteristics, the concepts involved can be arranged in a 

framework that will facilitate evaluation of the various data currently available. As new data are produced, more accurate interpretations result; ultimately, a map will be possible. Comparison 

of this type of map, when produced, with slope-map information 

should resemble data found in the Lee County soil survey (U.S. 

Soil Com;ervation Service, 1974). All the geologic factors that 

affect permeability and drainage also affect soil-forming processes. 

Good or poor drainage of surficial deposits and weathered horizons depends on several variables, the most important ones being 

the porosity of the surficial material, its thickness, and the angle 

of the slope it underlies. 

Porosity of surficial material is dependent largely on the source 

rocks from which the material was derived. Surficial materials 

derived from sandstone are better drained than those produced 

from shale and siltstone. Weathering can increase the porosity 

and consequently improve drainage of some materials. Assuming 

that, for the most part, the pore space of the rocks and that of 

surficial materials is interconnected, porous materials will be 

highly permeable. If permeable materialB are sufficiently thick, 

the slopes they underlie will be well drained. Moreover, areas underlain by thick accumulations of permeable materials may be 

favorable for storage of ground water. Figure 8 shows the general relationship between porosity and thickness of surficial materials. 

By comparing equivalent thicknesses of various surficial materials, the effects and interactions of slope and rock type on 

drainage characteristics can be evaluated. The steepness of the 

hill slope affects the rate at which surface water runs off and 

ground water is discharged. Rock type influences permeability of 

surficial materials; permeability in turn affects the relative 
30 

(/) 

(/) 

w 

il 

rx: 

u 

~ 

UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

Poor 

storage 

Moderate 

storage 

Good 

storage 

INCREASING POROSITY (FUNCTION OF BEDROCK) 

FIGURE 8.-Graph showing relationship between porosity and thickness of 

surficial materials and the effects of these variables on ground-water 

storage. 

amounts of water retained and stored within a deposit and the 

amount that runs off the surface during storms. Figure 9 shows 

the distribution of drainage and storage characteristics of surficial 

materials derived from permeable and impermeable rock types, 

depending on the angle of the slope on which the materials lie. 

Figures 9B, C, and D show the distributions of slopes and rock 

types that characterize the various naturally occurring units 

shown on the regional surficial map (Newell, 1977a). Some units 

having different origins have similar characteristics, whereas 

some units are highly variable because of a wide range of rock 

type and slope effects. 

Although figure 9 is shown without numerical values for perme-
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY 31 

ability and slopes, these factors can be defined by measuring 

permeabilities of different surficial materials and determining 

corresponding slopes from the 71/~-minute quadrangle slope maps 

(U.S. Geol. Survey, 1974a-c). If a complete derivative map of the 

drainage characteristics of the quadrangle is required, map units 

can be defined by using the characteristics of each of the four 

quadrangles of figure 9. 

Because a surficial map unit on different rock types has different drainage characteristics, it may be divided into several 

derivative map units. The construction of a derivative drainage 

map, unlike that of a derivative slope-stability map, requires not 

merely the addition of various appropriate surfiCial map units but 

rather the division of these units and the recombination of parts 

having similar drainage characteristics. 

As shown on figures 9B, C, and D, the best drainage characteristics are provided by thick residuum, low- and high-level terrace alluvium, and by some deposits of thick colluvium. Clearly, 

the thickest surficial materials (fig. 8) with favorable drainage 

or storage characteristics will be the most adaptable for a variety 

of land uses. 

Hopefully, these suggestions fo.r derivative n1aps will stimulate 

a comprehensive understanding of geomorphic processes operating 

together as a system upon the terrain and underlying bedrock to 

produce the variety of surficial deposits and residual accumulations. Some processes and associated deposits present opportunities for safe and beneficial use. Others may constitute obvious 

hazards, which, depending on intensity and magnitude, should 

either be avoided or overcome by engineering modifications. Within 

these perspectives, the variety of geologic materials can be used 

in several ways. 

First, geologic information can be used to select sites having 

high potential for a variety of safe and beneficial uses. The St. 

Helens abandoned-meander-bend area is a good example of such 

a site. Not a flood-prone area, it combines good drainage characteristics with stable slopes and is readily accessible. Other areas, 

such as flat uplands that are not flood prone and that include 

well-drained stable slopes, are generally somewhat less accessible. 

For some uses, however, upland areas may have a more favorable microclimate and flow of air than the more enclosed surroundings of abandoned meander bends. The regional surficial 

geologic map (Newell, 1977a) indicates that both types of favorable localities, broad upland benches and abandoned meander 
32 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

Q) 

::0 

roQ)~ E ro ~~ 

Q)C/) 

a.-

E 

z 

0 

i= 

u 

z 

:::> 

; i 

iii 

<( 

w 

~ 

a: 

w 

0... 

Slow infiltration; limited I Slow infiltration; no 

ground-water storage; 1 ground-water storage; 

slow runoff (swampy) I rapid runoff 

I 

I 

I 

I 1'--~----+-------- Rapid infiltration; long I 

ground-water storage; I 

slow ground-water 

Rapid infiltration; short 

ground-water storage; 

rapid ground-water 

discharge 1 discharge 

........... 

I 

I 

I 

~ 

I 

INCREASING SLOPE 

A, ALL SURFICIAL MATERIALS 

........... '-.. ........... 

........... 

""" """ 

Thin """ ""-'\ 

residuum \ 

\ 

\ 

Thick \ 

residuum \ 

\ 

~ 

INCREASING SLOPE 

B, RESIDUUM 

FIGURE 9.-Graphs showing relationship between permeability and slope for different surficial materials 

and the effects of these variables on ground water. 

A, All surficial materials; B, residuum; C, colluvium; 

and D, alluvium. 
z 

0 

i= 

u 

z 

::i 

~I CD 

<t 

UJ 

~ 

a: 

UJ 

0... 

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY 

Thick 

colluvium 

I 

\ \ 

\ \ 

I \ 

\ Thin continuous 

\ colluvium 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

I 

\ 

INCREASING 

~ 

SLOPE 

C. COLLUVIUM 

Thin 

discontinuous 

colluvium 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

EXPLANATION 

FIGURE 9.-Continued. 

Modern channel 

and flood-plain 

alluvium 

Low-level 

terrace 

alluvium 

High-level 

terrace 

alluvium 

33 
34 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

bends, are uncommon and should be wisely util'ized, using careful 

planning for maximum returns. 

Because highly favorable and adaptable sites are rare in the 

Kentucky River area, a second, perhaps more pragmatic, application of geologic information is in the evaluation of areas and 

corridors already selected for use in accord with political and 

economic constraints. Under these circumstances, geologic information can be helpful in anticipating design and construetion 

problems that might arise at sites that are potentially unstable, 

poorly drained, or flood prone. When used for these purposes, the 

map data at the scale provided should not be construed to imply 

specific site information. Consideration of specific sites requires 

larger scale detailed analysis than is possible at the scale of the 

regional maps. 

RESOURCES 

MINERAL-FUELS MAPS 

COAL 

A map of coal resources (Newell and Rice, 1977b) has been 

prepared to show areas of abundant coal. At the map scale of 

1: 125,000, the quality and distribution of all significant individua1l 

coalbeds cannot be shown. Information regarding the distribution 

and occurrence of coal on a more detailed scale ( 1: 24,000) can be 

obtained from U.S. Geological Survey quadrangle maps. 

Some coal statistics can be mapped and studied at the regional 

map scale to indicate the relative abundance of coal. These include total aggregate thickness of all coal beds, total number of 

coal beds, average thickness of coal beds, and the single thickest 

coal bed. These factors can be used with additional geologic data 

to interpret the regional depositional history of the rocks. However, for the purposes of regional planning it is merely necessary 

to indicate areas where coal is either abundant or not abundant 

as a resource. This information is useful for the identification of 

areas where coal extraction may be in potential conflict with other 

land use. Planners should be aware not only of potential conflict 

but also of the engineering and reclamation problems that might 

be contingent upon using land after mining has been completed. 

Two summary values have been chosen to show the regional 

distribution of coal in rocks above drainage in the Kentucky 

River area: ( 1) The total number of coal beds more than 1 foot 

(0.3 m) thick and (2) the total thickness of coal beds more than 
RESOURCES 35 

1 foot (0.3 m) thick. A 1-foot (0.3-m) thickness was chosen as 

the lower limit to eliminate the many beds less than 6 inches 

(15 em) thick that will probably never be of value. These data 

were compiled and contoured from the same basic information 

sources used to construct the Kentucky River area bedrock map 

(Newell and Rice, 1977a). The map of coal abundance correlates 

well with the bedrock map, essentially reflecting the original basin 

conditions during the time of sediment and coal accumulation. In 

the northwestern counties, thickness of coal is generally unimpressive, the aggregate of .a few thin beds. This area of thin beds is 

also an area of low topographic relief underlain by shale. More 

rugged topography exposing greater percentages of sandstone 

contains more abundant, thicker coalbeds that have a proportionately greater aggregate thickness of coal. 

Figures lOA, B, and C show relationships among the thickness 

of coal beds, the number of coal beds, and the thickness of exposed stratigraphic sections. The graphs show trends that are 

consistent with the regional geology. Although data in figures 

lOA and B are scattered considerably, the total number of coal 

beds and the total thickness of coal beds are related to the thickness of stratigraphic section exposed. These relationships actually 

reflect the original environment of deposition within the coalbearing basin. Abundant shale and a few thin coal beds occur on 

the basin margin, whereas thick sandy sequences containing abundant thick coal beds are found near the center of the basin. Sandy 

sequences are able to support high-relief topography; shale sequences, on the other hand, weather to gently rolling topography. 

Figure lOC illustrates a striking relationship between total 

thickness of coal beds and number of coal beds greater than 1 

foot (0.3 m) thick. The aggregate thickness increases by approximately a factor of two times the total number of coal beds. Thus, 

areas having a greater abundance of coal beds can be expected to 

have a proportionately greater aggregate thickness of coal beds. 

Both types of data indicate that coal is least abundant through the 

northwestern counties-Wolfe, Lee, and Owsley. It is most common in the central mountainous counties. 

The distribution illustrated by the coal-accessibility map 

(Newell and Rice, 1977b) is substantiated by comparison with the 

distribution of strip-mined land shown on the land-use 1nap (U.S. 

Geol. Survey, 1975). The most extensive distribution of stripmined areas is within areas containing more than 10 coal beds 

having an aggregate thickness greater than 20 feet ( 6 m). Although there is an anomaly east of Hazard, mining was extensive 
36 

1-

0 

0 

u.. 

..... 

(\ 

CJ) 

c 

w 

co 

UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

A 

...JI-

<(w 

0~ 30~-+--+-~--~--~-+--4~~---+---~-+--+-~--~--t---i 

.U 

u..~ 

0~­

(/JU 

CJ)I 

~~--

~ 

u 

I 

1-

....J 

~ 0 

1-

~--+--+-~--~--~~~~--~---+---~-+--+--t---+---t----

0~-L--~~--~~L--L--~-4--~--~~--~~--~--~~ 

0 200 400 600 800 1 000 1200 1400 1600 

TOTAL SECTION THICKNESS, IN FEET 

~ 25~-+--+-~--~--~--+--+-~--~--~-*--+-~--,_--r--; 

u 

I B IIg 20~-~--+--4---~~~~--+--4--~--r--r--+--+--~--~-i u.. 

..... 

(\ 

(fJ 

@ 15~~--+--4--~~~~~-+--4--~--r-·~--+-~--~--r-~ co 

...J 

<( 

0 

u 10~~--+--4---~~~-~-~~-~--~--r--r--+--4--~--r-~ u.. 

0 

a: 

w • io\ • 

~ 5 ~~--+--4---~~~-r--+---~---+--t---t-------t--+-~-- +---4----l 

::::> • : .. 

z 

200 400 600 800 1QOO 1200 1400 1600 

TOTAL SECTION THICKNESS, IN FEET 

FIGURE 10.--Graphs showing relationships among thickness of coal beds, 

number of coal beds, and thickness of exposed stratigraphic sections. 

there, indicating that a few readily accessible thick beds have 

been widely exploited. This situation could probably be shown 

better by mapping the distribution and thickness of the thickest 

single coal bed. 
~ 

~ 25 I 

II0 

~ 20 

RESOURCES 37 

FIGURE 10.-Continued. 

OIL AND GAS 

Other mineral fuels found within the Kentucky River area include oil and gas. The land-use map (U.S. Geol. Survey, 1975) 

shows an extensive oil and gas field in the Big Sinking Creek area 

of Lee County. Other smaller fields and individual wells are found 

throughout the region. The Kentucky River area is included in the 

recent comprehensive compilation of oil and gas resources in 

eastern Kentucky by the Kentucky Geological Survey (Wilson and 

Sutten, 1976). 

WATER-RESOURCES MAPS 

Several kinds of hydrologic data that can benefit land-use planning have been collected, analyzed, and compiled on 1: 250,000- and 

1: 24,000-scale maps of the Kentucky River area. These data 

indicate the availability and quality of water from ground-water 

and surface-runoff systems. Such .information is essential to a 

complete understanding of the region's resource base. The abundance or lack of ground-water aquifers and the concentration of 

chemical constituents are dependent on the porosity and mineralogy of the bedrock. Information on ground-water abundance and 

quality is presented on two regional-scale maps. One map (Davis, 
38 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

1977a) shows yields from selected deep wells-and the availability 

of potable water from aquifers in sandstone beds at the base of 

the Pennsylvanian. A second ground-water map (Davis, 1977d) 

shows chemical characteristics of selected wells. 

Various streamflow characteristics reflect the slopes and the 

surficial materials found within contributing watersheds. A map 

(Davis, 1977b) of average discharge from the Kentucky River, 

its three forks, and their tributaries, illustrates the relationship 

between discharge and drainage basin area and the cumulative 

increase of discharge downstream. Two streamflow characteristics, flood-prone areas and 10-year, 7-day low-flow values,, have 

special environmental significance. Low-flow data from seleeted 

gauging stations has been plotted on the surface-water-availability map (Davis, 1977b). This map also includes a small index 

map showing availability of 7lj~-minute topographic quadrangle 

maps on which flood-prone areas have been defined. 

EFFECTS OF GEOLOGY AND LAND USE ON WATER QUALITY 

AND AVAILABILITY 

Quality of surface water in any one place is not constant because it is affected by changing land and water uses. The effects 

of intensive land use on water quality are documented on two 

maps by Davis (1977c, e). One shows the total concentration of 

dissolved solids and their chemistry. The other supplementary 

map shows the concentration of sulfate ion, which is a direct indicator of the effects of coal mining on water quality. Both maps 

also show the effects of dilution of high concentrations of dissolved materials by mixing downstream with water of lower concentration discharged from drainage basins largely unaffected by 

mining or other intensive use. 

Although the primary function of these maps is to catalog and 

define water resources, they are also useful in qualitatively portraying the relationship of water resources to geologic and topographic features and the current patern of land use. However, 

this interpretive value is limited, because of its regional scale, to 

some fundamental generalizations. No doubt, detailed studies of 

individual watersheds would provide interesting and us~eful geologic interpretations and predictive information on available 

water resources. Such studies are beyond the scope of a regional 

assessment of the Kentucky River area water budget. 

Occurrence of brines at depth in sandstone aquifers at the base 

of the Pennsylvanian has been generally predicted on the map. 

However, other correlations between bedrock and ground-water 
RESOURCES 39 

yield and quality, at the regional scale and using the available 

data, are currently nonexistent. The lack of predictable patterns 

reflects the locally discontinuous occurrence of bedrock-aquifer 

materials (porous sandstone) within the heterogeneous Breathitt 

Formation. A regional assessment does show that the overwhelming abundance of steep mountain slopes covered with colluvium of 

variable thickness and permeability provides poor storage resulting in low base flows from extensive watersheds. Ephemeral 

or low base flow from much of the region may inhibit or severely 

limit some types of land use or industrial development unless 

minimum water requirements can be met by surface-water impoundments or augmentations from deep wells. 

Both the total-dissolved-solids map (Davis, 1977c) and map of 

sulfate-ion concentrations (Davis:, 1977e) reflect land u.se and 

bedrock geology in the South, Middle, and North Fork basins. The 

North Fork basin has the highest concentrations of sulfate ion, 

because it is the area of most intensive mining (a result of coal 

abundance and recoverability). The Middle Fork has the lowest 

concentrations because of the relative lack of mining and the 

preponderance of forested slopes. The South Fork basin, although 

limited in mining, includes the largest expanses of open agricultural land. Water from this basin is slightly higher in dissolved 

solids than that of the Middle Fork because of the limited mining, 

the exposure of soil and weathered rock resulting from agricultural activities, and possibly the application of fertilizers. As 

further documented by the maps, the confluence and mixing of 

Middle Fork and South Fork water with North Fork water significantly dilutes, possibly by as much as an order of magnitude, 

the higher concentrations of sulfate ions from the North Fork. 

The ephemeraJ quality of surface water and the existing pattern of dissolved-solid concentrations may be of interest and use 

in illustrating various philosophies with regard to water use. 

One alternative commonly considered is to upgrade the quality 

of all surface water to the purest possible state, possibly purer 

than the natural system is capable of producing. The desire to 

carry out such a plan results from the assumption that all water 

everywhere ought to be clean. In many drainage systems, however, 

it is not geologically, hydrologically, or economically feasible to 

put this idealistic philosophy into practice. 

A contrasting philosophy stipulates that everyone has the right 

to as much dirty water as he wants; clean water is a buyable 

quality, which is engineered for those who require it, and which 

can be had wherever needed if the user can afford it. Although 
40 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

this system may seem to be the inevitable outcome of common 

rights to water, it actually precludes some possibilities for water, 

land, and resource use. 

A third possibility, the planned coexistence of clean and impure 

river systems, suggests that some rivers and their watersheds are 

ideally suited to provide abundant clean water, low in dissolved 

constituents and sediment. In other parts of a drainage system, 

however, because of mineral resources, mining, and (or) industrial uses, it is physically and economically difficult to maintain 

water of high quality or to restore water to high quality. By 

planning, clean and impure water systems can be established as 

coexisting tributaries in a regional drainage basin of acceptable 

quality. The clean water of one stream can be mixed with the 

polluted water of the other, thus producing downstream water of 

a uniform predictable quality, which should ultimately be of 

higher quality than water produced from a system in which all 

tributaries are polluted. 

The prevailing system of water and land use in the Kentucky 

River area illustrates the feasibility of this last alternative. Because of the geology and resulting exploitation, this ephemeral 

system could be maintained, possibly gradually improved and 

exploited, to provide water .. of differing qualities, suitable for 

various uses. Most of the mining and industry in the North Fork 

area will probably continue. If deemed desirable, the other two 

forks could be maintained as sources of purer water, which could 

be used to dilute North Fork water. 

LAND-USE PATTERNS 

LAND-USE MAP 

A map of current land use in the Kentucky River area has been 

prepared at the regional scale of 1:125,000 (U.S. Geol. Survey, 

1975). Four major land categories-urban and built up, agricultural, forest, and barren-have been subdivided and mapped according to specific uses. The first major category includes various 

types and combinations of residential, business, and industrial 

uses. Agricultural land is subdivided according to uses, such as 

cropland and pasture, orchards, or feedlots. Forest land is subdivided according to dominance of deciduous or coniferous trees. 

Barren land includes areas that have been strip mined or quarried. 

RELATIONSHIP OF MAP TO GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES 

The regional distribution of the four land categories shows a 

current pattern of use that is a result of changing economic condi-
LAND-USE PATTERNS 41 

tions interacting with the opportunities and limitations of the 

natural resource base. Comparison of the land-use map with the 

geologic and hydrologic maps reveals obvious correlations between 

various uses, occurrence of resources, potential residential and industrial sites, and transportation networks. 

Urban and built-up land on the valley sides and bottom lands 

of major drainages is most commonly underlain by alluvium or 

colluvium. Although these locations are convenient to current and 

previously existing transportation and waterpower, they are also 

susceptible to flooding and to problems of slope stability. Some 

urban or industrial localities built on bench tops of high terraces 

underlain by residuum or weathered alluvium are less vulnerable. 

Agricultural land in the Kentucky River area is mostly limited 

to cropland and pasture. Probably as much as 85-90 percent of 

all land mapped as agricultural on the land-use map is in Lee, 

Wolfe, and Owsley Counties. Approximately half the agricultural 

land in these three counties is on alluvium in broad valley bottoms. 

The balance of cropland and pasture is mostly on residuum underlying nearly level uplands. Mappable agricultural land in the remaining Kentucky River area is practically nonexistent. It is confined to narrow bottom lands and some steep hill slopes. Ridge 

crests underlain by residuum are too limited and isolated to be 

widely used. Locally, some mountaintops are cleared for pastures 

and fields. 

Of the forest types, extensive stands of coniferous and mixed 

coniferous-deciduous forest are mapped only in Wolfe and Lee 

Counties and part of 0\vsley County. This distribution reflects 

the widespread occurrenee of sandy well-drained soil developed 

frmn outcrops of sandstone at the base of the Pennsylvanian. 

Elsewhere, deciduous forest prevails. Limited sandstone outcrops 

of the Breathitt Formation along ridge crests and steep slopes 

commonly support eonifers, but these outcrops are too small to 

map. On a local scale, variations in the distribution of forest 

species reflect not only differences in soils and drainage but also 

prevous episodes of clearing and revegetation whether by fire, 

timber cutting, cultivation, or mining. 

Strip mines and quarries are most common in the rugged 

mountainous terrain of the central and eastern counties of the 

Kentueky River area. Strip mines are much less common in Lee, 

Wolfe, and Owsley Counties where agricultural land is more 

abundant. Comparison of the land-use map (U.S. Geol. Survey, 

1975) with the coal and bedrock maps (Newell and Rice, 1977a, b) 

"indicates that areas having the greatest concentration of coal 
42 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

mines coincide with areas containing the greatest abundance of 

coal. This is the logical conclusion of an evolving pattern of coal 

exploration, mining, and the transportation system. Much of the 

strip-mined terrain coincides with mapped occurrences of extensive colluvium. Thus, the potential for stability problems on 

the steep mountainous slopes is high. Quarries for aggregate are 

found along outcrop belts of Mississippian limestone on Pine 

Mountain and the Cumberland Escarpment on the northwest 

border of the area. 

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 

The limitations and opportunities affecting future patterns of 

land use are determined by conditions inherited fron1 present an,d 

past uses. The distribution and abundance of renewable resources 

-forests, high-quality water, and, to a lesser extent, land under 

cultivation-are not static. Throughout the history of the region, 

these commodities have been exploited from time to time and from 

place to place and yet rarely have they been permanently destroyed 

through such practice. Although abundant early reserves of thick 

coalbed.s or shallow oil have been exhausted, the resource base 

has been increased by technological changes that transform uneconomical deposits into reserve~. The indiscriminate extraction 

of these nonrenewable resources can within a practical foreseeable 

period limit the land's capability of providing the natural diversity 

of renewable resources. 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

Comprehensive geologic, water, and land-resources information from the Kentucky River area has been presented and discussed from the perspectives of current and potential use. Comparative analyses of this information show that bedrock and surficial geology, quantity and quality of water, and current patterns 

of resource use are intricately related through a dynamic geomorphic system in which rocks, slopes, and landforms are modified 

by weathering, mass-movement, and streamflow processes. Hopefully, an understanding of this system will help map users and 

planners to perceive surficial materials not only as products of 

geomorphic processes but also as indicators of local process intensity. A definition of the intensity of the landscaping processes 

establishes guidelines that specify the limitations and opportunities 

of the natural system for present and future use. Through the 
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 43 

process-oriented perspective, the effects of manmade stresses on 

the natural system can be anticipated, avoided, ameliorated, or 

perhaps even used to advantage. 

Obviously, instant answers to all possible questions cannot be 

expected from the array of regional-scale maps. The -regionalscale information has been presented to document geologic and 

hydrologic trends, define relationships, and establish the concept 

of a natural system of geomorphic processes. Detailed larger scale 

examples are intended as guides to the interpretation of the natural 

system and typical terrain throughout the Kentucky River area. 

By using the conceptual guidelines of the large--scale maps, additional detailed information can be collected and interpreted for 

specific sites that are favorable for use. 

Let us attempt a review and assessment of the Kentucky River 

area's potential for land-use planning, especially for sequential 

multiple use. This assessment is constrained by the lack of corresponding information on economics and human resources. Thus, 

all examples must be considered hypothetical and possibly idealistic. 

Is the Kentucky River area adaptable to planning exercises? 

If so, at what levels or scales can des,igns be successfully implemented? Obviously, some areas do present greater opportunities 

and fewer hazards for use than other areas. Ideally, on a regional 

basis, it would seem advantageous to encourage certain uses in 

some areas, different uses in others, and drastically to restrict 

habitation in or use of still others. However, in a region that already has transportation, settlements, and a long history of habitation and exploitation of minerals, timber, and waterpower, it is 

unrealistic to take it all apart and make it over again. 

Within counties, as opposed to larger regional areas, there may 

be more possibilities to encourage some use patterns and to abandon others. No doubt; many small-scale projects can be adapted to 

local conditions where needed. However, there will always be some 

areas that are better suited for a particular type of use than the 

areas dictated by economics and politics. 

Historically, the region has endured waves of exploitation of 

natural resources: a period of rapid and thorough timber cutting; 

a period of improvident agriculture when steep hill slopes were 

cleared, planted, exhausted, and abandoned to erosion and regrowth of forests; and periods of oil and gas exploration and production. Currently, surface mining for coal modifies the landscape 

at a scale greater than has been experienced previously. 

The lure of profit derived from such exploitation commonly 
44 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

eclipses the consideration of other land uses. However, through 

competition at some localities, agriculture, forestry, or housing 

are found on the terrain most suitable for those uses. Where 

urban areas have been established, their growth competes with 

existing rural land uses. Under present concepts, once an area has 

been urbanized, other uses are precluded within the foreseeable 

future. Within the system of competition for mining, agriculture, 

forestry, and urban growth lies the potential for planning sequential multiple land use based on geologic information. 

From the geologic maps referred to in this report, we can see 

that areas having the greatest diversity of natural resourcesbroad bottom lands, large well-drained level uplands, forested 

slopes, adequate water, oil and gas, coal, and aggregate for building-are capable of sustaining the greatest diversity of uses. On 

the other hand, areas having more uniform geology and physiography-endless miles of steep slopes, narrow bottomlands, and 

limited inaccessible uplands-are dependent on a single-purpose, 

exploitive economy based on extensive coal reserves. 

The land-use map (U.S. Geol. Survey, 1975) indicates that, in 

fact, Wolfe, Lee, and Owsley Counties have a more diverse array 

of land uses than do the other five counties. The more diverse the 

terrain, the greater the possibility for planning sequential multiple 

use of the land. If the environmental drawbacks of surface mining 

are ameliorated, surface mining has the potential ability to increase terrain diversity and thus increase the potential for sequential multiple use, an especially critical need in mountainous urban 

areas where suitable land has already been utilized and risks are 

incurred on flood plains and steep slopes. 

In areas of great natural diversity, a surface mine planned and 

executed to anticipate future land use can prevent the loss of good 

agricultural land to housing, business, or industrial expansion. 

An excellent example of this possibility can be found in the area 

surrounding Booneville, the county seat of Owsley County. Booneville is surrounded by broad bottom lands and upland benches 

now used for agriculture and sparse residential areas. Normal 

expansion of the town would result in less land for agriculture, 

and the pastoral surroundings would be replaced by industrial, 

business, and housing developments. There is, however, an alternative. Nearby, to the southwest, several hilltops have been strip 

mined. These hilltops could be graded and landscaped to satisfy 

safety and environmental needs and utilized for light industry 

and residential areas. The pastoral scenery of the Booneville area 
GLOSSARY OF TERMS AS USED IN THIS REPORT 45 

would thereby be preserved, and the diversity of land use and the 

potential for multiple use would be enhanced. Moreover, areas 

prone to floods and slope-stability problems could largely be 

avoided by housing and industry and left to low-risk uses such as 

agriculture and forestry. Thus, land-use planning can selectively 

accelerate strip mining or encourage an extension of mining to 

achieve desirable urban sites. 

As a hypothetical case, the Booneville area may offer an ideal 

situation with good potential for planning sequential multiple use 

of diverse terrain. However, in reality, economies may be unfavorable for attracting growth because of transportation limitations. 

Many urbanized localities in the Kentucky River area have been 

developed primarily because of coal reserves. In areas such as 

Hazard, Hyden, Jenkins, and Whitesburg, the need for planning 

the sequential multiple use of mined land is actually more acute 

than in the areas of Beattyville, Booneville, Campton, and Jackson. 

The re-use of mined land may be the only opportunity to avoid 

problems that can result from the occupation of flood-prone areas 

or of unstable slopes in the mountainous communities. 

For more than 200 years, Appalachian Kentucky has been the 

scene of exploitive practices. The benefits derived from its timber, 

coal, oil, and gas resources have been largely realized elsewhere. 

If the current return to Appalachia of people from industrial 

urban areas is accompanied by a desire for a dependable economy 

within the surroundings of a quality environment, then singlepurpose exploitation may be replaced by multipurpose land use, 

which requires innovative informed planning. If, on the other 

hand, the single-use exploitive practices prevail, the role of 

land-use planning will be severely limited. 

GLOSSARY OF TERMS AS USED IN THJ[S REPORT 

Abandoned meander bend.-River bend that has been abandoned by its stream. 

Alluvium.-General term for unconsolidated sand, gravel, and clay deposited 

by streams. 

Ancestral channel.-A major ancient river channel, older than the present 

channel. 

Angle of repose.-The angle at which a slope can stand without failure 

(sliding or slumping). This angle depends on the materials present, moisture content, and load (such as buildings) borne by the slope. 

Aquifer.-A body of saturated rock or unconsolidated material that is sufficiently permeable to yield significant quantities of water to wells and 

springs. 

Areal distribution.-Pattern of occurrence shown on a map. 

Back slope.-The slope above and back of a scarp. 
46 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

Basal.-Bottommost in a stratigraphic sequence of rocks. 

Bed.-Layer of rocks of a relatively homogeneous internal composition that 

can be separated from the rocks above and below by some visual or 

physical characteristic. 

Bed load.-The part of the total stream load of sediment that is moved 

along the streambed. Usually consists of large gravel, pebbles, cobbles, and 

boulders. 

Bedrock.-General term for the rock that underlies soil or other unconsolidated superficial material. 

Bedrock buttress.-Rock mass protruding from a mountain or hill and resembling the buttress of a building. 

Bedrock control.-Control on topography or drainage exerted by the underlying bedrock. An example of this control is ridge and valley topography 

where resistant bedrock areas remain as ridges and highs, whereas bedrock less resistant to erosion is worn away to form valleys and low areas. 

Streams and rivers will be found in these lower areas. In regions of 

more extensive resistant materials, drainage will follow fractures and 

breaks (weak zones), and hence is also controlled by the bedrock. 

Breathitt Formation.-A complex sequence of sandstone, shale, siltstone, 

limestone, and coal of Pennsylvanian age, first described in Breathitt 

County. It underlies most of eastern Kentucky and supplies most of the 

coal mined from this region. 

Caps.-Rests on top of a hill or bench. 

Chute.-Steep narrow channel through which water flows rapidly. 

Coalescence (confiuence).-The intersection of two or more streams. 

Colluvium.-General term for loose mixed mass of soil material or rock 

fragments deposited at the base of a slope by mass movement. 

Contour.- ( 1) An imaginary line on a land surface, all points of which a1·e 

the same altitude. (2) An imaginary line or surface along which a certain 

quantity, otherwise variable, has the same value. 

Convex-upward slope.-A slope that is domed or convex at the surface as 

opposed to a concave-upward or "dished" surface. 

Debris jan.-Fan-shaped accumulation of debris deposited at the mouth of 

a gully, ravine, or other channel. 

Delineate.-To distinguish and outline mappable features. 

Derivative map.-Map showing interpretations derived from basic geologic 

information. 

Drainage basin.-Watershed, catchment. A region or area that gathers precipitation and contributes it to a stream channel or system of channels, 

lakes, reservoirs, or other bodies of water. 

Entrenched meander.-Meander carved downward below the surface of the 

valley in which the meander originally formed. 

Environmental geology.-The application of geologic data and principles to 

the use of the human physical environment. 

Ephemeral stream.-A stream or reach of a stream that flows only in direct 

response to precipitation and whose channel is always above the water table. 

Equilibrium.-Balance between form and processes. For example, the balance 

between the resistance of rocks along a coast and the erosional force of 

waves. 

Escarpment.-Long, more or less continuous cliff or relatively steep slope 

facing one general direction that separates two gently sloping surfaces. 
GLOSSARY OF TERMS AS USED IN THIS REPORT 47 

It may be produced by faulting or by differential erosion marking the 

outcrop of a resistant layer in a series of gently dipp'ing softer strata. 

Extractive.-Refers to removal or extraction of minerals, fuels, or aggregate 

from the earth by various mining processes. 

Fault.-Surface or zone of rock fracture along which there has been displacement. 

Fining upward.-Refers to sorting of particles in flood-plain deposits that are 

commonly coarse at the base and fine at the top. 

Fluvial.-Pertaining to a river or rivers with regard to river flow, erosion, 

and deposition. 

Formation.-Mappable unit of rock of considerable thickness (from a few 

meters to several thousand meters) and extent and characterized by some 

degree of internal physical or chemical homogeneity, such as texture, 

structure, fossils, or chemical composition. 

Friable.-Easily crumbled, broken, pulverized, or redueed to powder. 

Geomorphic p1·ocesses.-Processes affecting the origin of landforms. 

Geomorphology.-Study of nature, origin, description, and classification of 

landforms and their relationship to underlying structures and geologic 

changes. 

Headwaters.-The source (or sources) and upper part of a stream or river, 

including the upper drainage basin. 

Hydrologic cycle.-Circulation of water from the oceam., through the atmosphere, to the land, and its eventual return to the atmosphere by way of 

evaporation from the ocean and land surfaces. 

Hydrologic methods.-Refers to the computerized prediction of flood-flow 

volumes and maximum flood-stage height of rivers for either 100-year 

floods or the maximum flood of record. 

Interbedded.-Beds between or alternating with others of different character. 

Interfluve.-Area between rivers, especially the upland or ridge between two 

adjacent river valleys. 

Isopach.-Line drawn on a map through points of equal thickness of a 

stratigraphic unit or group of stratigraphic units. 

La.rge-scale map.-Map drawn at a scale that shows a small physical area 

in fine detail and accuracy (in the United States, larger in scale than 

1:62,500, such as 1: 50,000) 

Leached.-Having been subjected to leaching-the removal of soluble substances from rock or soil by the natural action of percolating water. 

Lee Formation.-A sequence of thick pebbly quartz sandstone beds, interbedded with siltstone, shale, and coal. Bottommost s2.ndstone bed usually 

marks the base of Pennsylvanian-age rocks in area. Named from Lee 

County, Va., where it was first described. 

Limestone.-A sedimentary rock consisting of more than 50 percent by weight 

of calcium carbonate. 

Lithology.-Physical character of a rock, or the description of rocks on the 

basis of such characteristics as color, structures, mineral composition, and 

grain size. 

Low base flow.-Sustained or "fair-weather" flow of a stream at a relatively 

low level. 

Mantle.-Genera1 term for a cover or blanket of surficial materials overlying bedrock. 
48 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

Mass movement.-Downslope movement of material under the influence of 

gravity and outside of stream channels. 

Meander-belt lowland.-Zone along a valley floor across which a meandering 

stream shifts its course. This zone is defined as the area of the flood plain 

included between two lines drawn tangentially to the outside curves of all 

fully developed meanders. 

Meander bend.-One of a series of somewhat regular curves, bends, loops, 

or windings in the course of a stream. 

Microclimate.-Essentially uniform local climate of a small site. 

Mineral fuels.-Coal, oil, gas. Fuels of organic origin that have undergone 

geologic processes or alteration. 

Multiple-purpose land use.-(1) Static-several coexisting land uses; (2) 

sequential-a sequence of land uses planned so that one use prepares the 

way for the next use. 

Natural systems.-Systems and relationships found in nature, including the 

relationships between geology, hydrology, and biology. 

Outcrop.-Surface exposure of a geologic bed or formation. 

Overthrust fault.-Low-angle large-scale thrust fault. Thrust faulting is the 

overriding movement of one crustal unit over another as a result of 

horizontal compression. 

Pennsylvanian age.-The period of geologic time during which the greatest 

accumulation of coal occurred. Named for Pennsylvania where rocks of 

this age were first described. 

Permeability.-Ability of a material to allow the entrance, passage, or with-

. drawal of water. 

Physiography.-Description of the physical features of the earth's surface. 

Quartzose.-Composed predominantly of the mineral quartz. 

Reconnaissance.-General exploratory examination or survey of the main or 

specific features of a region conducted as a preliminary to a more detailed 

survey. 

Relict deposit.-Surviving vestige of a preexisting deposit that has been 

almost completely removed by erosion. 

Remnant (erosional remnant).-A feature such as a hill composed of resistant material that remains after the surrounding less resistant material 

has been eroded away. 

Residuum.-Residue produced by weathering processes. 

Resistant ledge.-Outcrop of sandstone beds that has withstood destructive 

weathering processes. 

Ridge and ravine.-Topography characterized by a succession of parallel 

or nearly parallel ridges and ravines (or valleys) resulting from differential erosion of bedrock of varying resistance. 

Rill.-Very small brook or stream of water; or small eroded channel, especially in soil. 

Rim rock.-Horizontal layer of resistant rock exposed on the edge of an 

overlying plateau that forms a cliff or ledge overlooking lower ground. 

Sandstone.-A sedimentary rock composed of sand-sized fragments in a silt 

or clay matrix and united by a cementing material such as silica, iron 

oxide, or calcium carbonate; (1) pebbly-contains abundant pebbles; (2) 

quartzose-contains mostly quartz sand grains. 
REFERENCES CITED 49 

Sediment.-Organic or inorganic material originating from the weathering 

of rocks, chemical precipitation, or secretion from organisms. Sediments 

form in layers in a loose unconsolidated form and include sand, gravel, 

silt and mud. 

Shale.-Fine-grained sedimentary rock formed by the compression of clay, 

silt, or mud. 

Slope stability.-Ability of a slope to resist failure by landsliding. 

Slump.-Landslide characterized by rotation movement around a horizontal 

axis of earth materials along a curved, concave-upward shear surfaee. 

Small-scale map.-Map drawn at a scale (less than 1: 62,500, such as 

1: 100,000) that covers large areas but shows only generalized detail. 

Spur.-A small ridge that projects sharply (at right angles to or in a lateral 

direction) from the crest or side of a hill, mountain, or other highland 

surface. 

Strata.-Sedimentary bed of any thickness. 

Stratigraphic.-Pertaining to stratigraphy. 

Stratigraphy.-The definition and study of natural divisions of rocks by 

means of form, origin, environment, lithology, age, history, and other 

characteristic features. 

Sulfate ion (S0,- 2 ).-The anion of sulfuric acid. 

Surficial geology.-Geology of surficial or surface materials and deposits, 

including soils and bedrock at or near the Earth's surface. 

Sustained yield.-Yield from a forest or mine that is steady and continuous 

over a given period of time. 

Toe.-Lower part of a slope or cliff. In mass movement, the toe is the lowermost extent of distp.rbed material on an undisturbed slope. 

Topography.-Surface expression or configuration of the Earth's surface, 

including relief and position of natural and manmade features. 

Topographic relief.-Vertical difference in altitude between hilltops and 

lowlands of a given region. An area showing a great variation in altitude has "high" relief, whereas one showing little variation has "low" 

relief. 

Tributary.-Stream joining or flowing into a larger stream or lake. 

Unconsolidated materials.-Surficial materials, such as alluvium or colluvium 

that have not been cemented together by calcium carbonate, iron oxide, or 

silica. Unconsolidated materials can be dug with a shovel. 

Waste back.-To cut back, or retreat as the result of erosion. Slopes subject 

to landsliding gradually waste back as material is shifted downslope and 

removed, so that the crest of the slope retreats relative to its original 

position. 

lVatershed.-Drainage basin. The region drained by or contributing water to 

a stream, lake, or other body of water. 

REFERENCES CITED 

Briggs, R. P., 1957, Coal resources of the Campton quadrangle, Wolfe, Lee, 

and Breathitt Counties, Kentucky: U.S. Geol. Survey Coal Inv. Map 

C-42. 

Davis, R. W., 1977a, Map showing availability of ground water in Kentucky 

River Area Development District, Kentucky: U.S. Geol. Survey, Misc. 

Field Studies Map MF-865-D (in press). 
50 UNDERSTANDING NATURAL SYSTEMS 

---1977b, Map showing data on flow of streams, drainage areas, and 

flood-prone areas in Kentucky River Area Development District, Kentucky: U.S. Geol. Survey Mise Field Studies Map MF-865-H (in press). 

---1977c, Map showing dissolved solids content and pH of water in 

selected streams in Kentucky River Area Development District, Kentucky: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Field Studies Map MF-865-G (in press). 

---1977d, Map showing quality of ground water in Kentucky River Area 

Development District, Kentucky: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Field Studies 

Map MF-865-E (in press). 

---1977e, Map showing sulfate in selected streams in Kentucky River 

Area Development District, Kentucky: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Field 

Studies Map MF-865-F (in press). 

Newell, W. L., 1977a, Surficial geologic map of Kentucky River Area Development District and vicinity, eastern Kentucky: U.S. Geol. Survey, 

Misc. Field Studies Map MF-865-B. 

---1977b, Surficial geologic maps of the Beattyville, Campton, and Hazard 

North quadrangles, Kentucky River Area Development District, eastern 

Kentucky: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Field Studies Map MF-843. 

---1977c, Map showing slope stability in the Beattyville quadrangle, 

Kentucky River Area Development District, eastern Kentucky: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Misc. Field Studies Map MF-844. 

Newell, W. L., and Rice, C. L., 1977a, Bedrock geologic map of Kentucky 

River Area Development District and vicinity, eastern Kentucky: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Misc. Field Studies Map MF -865-A. 

---1977b, Map showing original (premining) distribution of coal in 

Kentucky River Area Development District and vicinity, eastern Kentucky: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Field Studies Map MF-865-C. 

Seiders, V. M., 1964, Geology of the Hazard North quadrangle, Kentucky: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Quad. Map GQ-344. 

U.S. Geological Survey, 1974a, Beattyville, Ky. [slope map]: Reston, Va., 

scale 1 : 24,000. 

---1974b, Campton, Ky. [slope map]: Reston, Va., scale 1:24,000. 

---1974c, Hazard North, Ky. [slope map]: Reston, Va., scale 1:24,000. 

---1975, Land use and land cover, 1972, Kentucky River Area Development District (KRADD): U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Field Studies Map 

MF-683. 

U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1974, Soil survey of Estill and Lee Counties, 

Kentucky, by J. H. Newton [and others]: Washington, D.C., U.S. Govt. 

Print. Off., 87 p., 65 folded maps. 

Verhoef, Mary, 1917, Kentucky River navigation: Louisville, Ky., J. P. 

Morton & Co., 257 p. 

Wilson, E. N. and Sutten, D., 1976, Oil and gas map of Kentucky, sheet 

4, eastern part: Kentucky Geol. Survey, ser. 10.