Marine Sanctuaries Conservation Series ONMS-11-02

U.S. Department of Commerce

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Ocean Service

Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries July 2011

Coastal Ocean Mammal and Bird Education and 

Research Surveys (BeachCOMBERS), 1997–2007: 

Ten years of monitoring beached marine birds and 

mammals in the Monterey Bay National Marine 

Sanctuary
i

About the Marine Sanctuaries Conservation Series

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Ocean Service (NOS) 

administers the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries (ONMS). Its mission is to identify, 

designate, protect and manage the ecological, recreational, research, educational, 

historical, and aesthetic resources and qualities of nationally significant coastal and 

marine areas. The existing marine sanctuaries differ widely in their natural and 

historical resources and include nearshore and open ocean areas ranging in size from 

less than one to over 5,000 square miles. Protected habitats include rocky coasts, kelp 

forests, coral reefs, sea grass beds, estuarine habitats, hard and soft bottom habitats, 

segments of whale migration routes, and shipwrecks.

Because of considerable differences in settings, resources, and threats, each marine 

sanctuary has a tailored management plan. Conservation, education, research, 

monitoring and enforcement programs vary accordingly. The integration of these 

programs is fundamental to marine protected area management. The Marine 

Sanctuaries Conservation Series reflects and supports this integration by providing a 

forum for publication and discussion of the complex issues currently facing the sanctuary 

system. Topics of published reports vary substantially and may include descriptions of 

educational programs, discussions on resource management issues, and results of 

scientific research and monitoring projects. The series facilitates integration of natural 

sciences, socioeconomic and cultural sciences, education, and policy development to 

accomplish the diverse needs of NOAA’s resource protection mandate.
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Coastal Ocean Mammal and Bird Education and Research 

Surveys (BeachCOMBERS), 1997–2007: Ten years of 

monitoring beached marine birds and mammals in the 

Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary

Hannahrose M. Nevins1, Scott R. Benson1, 2, Elizabeth M. Phillips1, Jean de Marignac3, 

Andrew P. DeVogelaere3, Jack A. Ames4 and James T. Harvey1

1

 Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, 8272 Moss Landing Road, Moss Landing, CA 95039 USA

2

 NOAA/Southwest Fisheries Science Center, Moss Landing Marine Laboratories,Norte Bldg., 7544 

Sandholdt Rd., Moss Landing CA 95039 USA

3

 Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, 299 Foam Street, Monterey, CA 93940 USA

4

 California Department of Fish and Game, Office of Spill Prevention and Response, Marine Wildlife 

Veterinary Care and Research Center, 1451 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95062 USA

Silver Spring, Maryland

July 2011

U.S. Department of Commerce

John Bryson, Secretary

National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration

Jane Lubchenco, Ph.D.

Under Secretary of Commerce for

Oceans and Atmosphere

National Ocean Service

David M. Kennedy, Acting Assistant Administrator

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries

Daniel J. Basta, Director
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Disclaimer

Report content does not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Office of National 

Marine Sanctuaries or the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, nor does the 

mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for 

use.

Report Availability

Electronic copies of this report may be downloaded from the Office of National Marine 

Sanctuaries web site at http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov. Hard copies may be available from the 

following address:

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries

SSMC4, N/ORM62

1305 East-West Highway

Silver Spring, MD 20910

Cover

Volunteer beach surveyors, Mike Orlando and Tish Conway-Cranos, examine a dead Common 

Murre (Uria aalge) suring a survey of Zmudownski State Beach, Monterey County, CA (Photo: 

Hannah Nevins).

Suggested Citation

Nevins, Hannahrose M, S.R. Benson, E.M. Phillips, J. de Marignac, A.P. DeVogelaere, J.A. 

Ames and J.T. Harvey. 2011. Coastal Ocean Mammal and Bird Education and Research Surveys 

(BeachCOMBERS), 1997-2007: ten years of monitoring beached marine birds and mammals in 

the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Marine Sanctuaries Conservation Series 

ONMS11-02. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Silver Spring, MD. 63 pp.

Contact

Hannahrose M. Nevins, hnevins@mlml.calstate.edu, Mailing address: 1451 Shaffer Road, Santa 

Cruz, CA 95062. Phone: 831.212.7218
v

Abstract

Since May 1997, the volunteers of the Coastal Ocean Mammal and Bird Education and Research 

Surveys (BeachCOMBERS) have conducted systematic surveys in the Monterey Bay National 

Marine Sanctuary. The main goal of the program was to determine human and natural impacts to 

the Monterey Bay ecosystem. Marine birds and mammals are conspicuous top predators of the 

marine ecosystem, and the deposition of these dead organisms on beaches was used as an 

indicator of marine ecosystem health, including availability of prey resources, anthropogenic 

impacts, and natural die-offs. The specific objectives of the Beach COMBERS program were to: 

1) obtain baseline information on rates of beach deposition of marine birds and mammals; 2) 

assess causes of seabird and marine mammal mortality; 3) assist resource management agencies 

in early detection of unusual rates of natural and anthropogenic mortality; 4) assess abundance of 

tar balls (oil patches) on beaches; 5) build a network of interacting citizens, scientists, and 

resource managers; and 6) disseminate information to the resource managers, public, and 

educational institutions. This long-term monitoring of beached marine birds and mammals 

enabled resource managers to determine trends in deposition to better identify significant events 

affecting wildlife including oil spills, fishery interactions, harmful algal blooms, and natural 

starvation events. During 1997 to 2007, we identified 28 unusual mortality events including 15 

that were documented based on a significant increase in deposition greater than a baseline 

threshold level, and 13 other events where the main indicator was increased oiling (i.e., >2% of 

birds) or strandings of very rare species. Several documented events were of regional 

significance occurring along the west coast of North America (e.g., 1997-98 El Niño, 2003 

fulmar die-off). The documentation of other events made important contributions to science (e.g., 

1998 Domoic Acid Bloom, 2007 Mystery Foam or initiated resource protection actions (e.g., S/S

Luckenbach oil spill, Gill-net bycatch). We recommend the continuance of this long-term 

program to increase stewardship and understanding of marine birds and mammals in the 

Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. 

Key Words

Beach survey, bycatch, El Niño, harmful algal bloom, marine mammal, monitoring, Monterey 

Bay National Marine Sanctuary, oil, seabird
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Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge all past and present BeachCOMBERS surveyors for their significant 

contribution to this work: Carole & Phil Adams, Josh Adams, Marti Ainsworth, Jeff Alford, Jim 

& Megan Allen, Roger Alsebrook, Jack Ames, Lorraine Anglin, Olivia Avelino, Dennis & Lorna 

Bacon, Nick & Joy Bader, Emily Beggs, Christy Bell (Roe), Scott Benson, Dede Bent, Lori 

Beraha, Ken Blood, Natasha Bodorff, Lucia Boyer, Jody Bunn, Julia Burrows, Erica Burton, Rob 

Burton, Kristy Burton-Uschyk, Nick & Kori Calubaquib, Heather Cauldwell, Marie Chapla, 

Arthur Chapman, Ross Clark, Bryan Conner, Eileen (Sarah) Connors, Tish Conway-Cranos, 

Gwynne Corrigan, Patrick Cotter, Rickie Crane, Jerry & Amparo (Lucky) Crews, Jim Crowley, 

Deirdre Darst, Darryl Dill, Jean de Marignac, Andrew DeVogelaere, Gail Dinsmore, Gabriel 

Dixon, Dave Evans, Daniela Feinholz, Joanne Flanders, Jay Fleischmann, Toby Fleischmann, 

Karin Forney, Dave Fox, Serena Gallegos, Bill & Judy Garrison, Cori Gibble, Gina Giovannoni, 

Don Glasco, Charley Goman, Nancy Gong, Diane Goodboe, Alison Goss, Alberto Guzmán, 

Laurie Hall, Deirdre Hall, Michael Harris, Heather Harris, James Harvey, Ellen Hatcher, Chuck 

Haugen, Jack Hawkes, Cynthia Hayes, Walter Heady, Laird Henkel, Margo Hober, Brian 

Hoover, Molly Hubbard, Jon Hubbard, Michele Jacobi, Jen Jolly, Linda Jordan, Kathryn Karako, 

Sol Katzman, Pamela Kearby, Meisha Key, Aaron King, Chad King, Karen Kroslowitz, Dorothy 

Kukla, Kristen Kusic, Jeff & Sue Kwasny, Stewart Lamberdin, Frank LaRosa, Marian LaRosa, 

Stephen Laughlin, Inger Marie Laursen, Robert Lea, Donna Lohrmann, Diana Lorenz, Carol 

Maehr, Jim Maldi, Ron & Erica Massengill, Duane Matterson, Jen Mawson, Sharon McGuire, 

John & Mary Lou McKenney, Jenna McMahon, Charles Mehlert, Jordan Miles, Chris Miller, 

Lance Miller, Roy & Roxanne Montgomery, Natalie Moss, Rich Muller, Colleen Nevins, 

Hannah Nevins, Kelly Newton, Julia Niland, Ann Nishimoto, Stori Oates, Mike Orlando, Regena 

Orr, Andreana Osoki, Frank & Duane O'Sullivan, Lon Otterby, Jennifer Parkin, Josh Pederson, 

Jenny Pederson, Linda Perkins, Gene & Kathy Pfeifer, Elizabeth Phillips, Julie Pizzo, Kristin 

Rasmussen, Cassandra Roberts-Lamerdin, Michele Roest, Nora Rojek, Kristina Schaffran, 

Barbara Schwefel, Glenn Seiler, Heather Sherrod, Mike Sibert, Alex Simms, Carolyn Skinder, 

Donald Slaiter, Irene Slaiter, Greg Smith, Sarah Smith, Becky & Greta Steinbruner, David 

Stephanus, Brian Sullivan, Joelle Sweeney, Amber Szoboszlai, Sharese Thompson, Tierney 

Thys, Hoby Vanhoose, Jackie Vosbrink, Barbara Voss, Michele Wainstein, Chris Wardlaw, 

Bridget Watts, Margaret (PJ) Webb, Jason & Lisa (Wertz) Webb, Sophie Webb, Liz Wheeler, 

Sarah Wilkin, Darren Wiltse, Greg Winslow, Petra Witkowsky, Jeannette & Peter Wolff, Mary 

Yoklavich, and Colleen Young. We also recognize the contribution of the innumerable friends 

and family of BeachCOMBERS who were coaxed to substitute for surveys, provide rides or 

other support during the course of this study. Thanks to Eva Berberich, Deb Brownstein, Erin 

Dodd, Jim Hill, David Jessup, Melissa Miller, and Amy Wells at MWVCRC; Sue Campbell and 

Monterey SPCA; Molly Richardson at Native Animal Rescue; Teri Sigler and Dave Casper at 

UCSC Long Marine Lab; Brian Hatfield USGS; Dave Dixon at CA State Parks, Kriss Neuman 

and Carlton Eyster, Jenny Erbes at PRBO Conservation Science; Tricia Wilson at Elkhorn 

Slough Foundation; and Tiffini Brookens and Moss Landing Marine Laboratories Marine 

Mammal Stranding Network and numerous staff and interns at the Monterey Bay National 

Marine Sanctuary.

Dedication: We dedicate this report to the memory of Chuck Haugen, a dauntless volunteer who 

shared his great knowledge of the natural world in an unassuming manner.
vii

Topic Page

Abstract.......................................................................................................................... v

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................ vi

List of Figures and Tables........................................................................................viii

Introduction................................................................................................................... 1

Methods.......................................................................................................................... 3

Sampling Design............................................................................................ 3

Volunteer Training......................................................................................... 4

Trends in Deposition...................................................................................... 5

Causes of Mortality........................................................................................ 6

Documenting oiling and presence of tar balls on beaches............................. 6

Unusual Mortality Events.............................................................................. 7

Developing a network of collaborators and information dissemination........ 9

Results and Discussion............................................................................................... 10

Survey Effort ............................................................................................... 10

Volunteer Program....................................................................................... 10

Long-term Trends in Deposition ................................................................. 12

UnusualMortality Events............................................................................. 17

Highlights .................................................................................................... 19

Documenting oil on beaches & oiled wildlife ............................................. 21

Discussion..................................................................................................................... 23

Volunteers as Citizen Scientists................................................................... 23

Deposition Rate is an Index of Mortality .................................................... 23

Standardized Effort...................................................................................... 24

Baseline Parameters for Ecosystem Monitoring.......................................... 24

Documenting oiling and presence of tar balls on beaches........................... 26

Oiled Birds................................................................................................... 27

Fishery Bycatch ........................................................................................... 28

Harmful Algal Blooms ................................................................................ 28

Management Recommendations.............................................................................. 30

Literature Cited .......................................................................................................... 31

Appendix A: Protocol................................................................................................. 54

Appendix B: Datasheets............................................................................................. 57

Appendix C: Timeline of products........................................................................... 60
viii

List of Figures and Tables

Figure/Table Number and Title Page

Table 1. Summary of BeachCOMBERS survey effort.....................................................................................

........................................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

Table 2. Chronological summary of 15 unusual mortality events recorded by BeachCOMBERS, 1997-2007 38

Table 3. Summary of 13 other mortality events, 1997-2007. ........................................................................... 40

Figure 1. Map of Beach COMBERS survey segments in northern and southern regions......................... 41

Figure 2. Cumulative number of active and retired BeachCOMBERS volunteers: 1997–2007................. 42

Figure 3. Cumulative BeachCOMBERS volunteer hours including survey time and travel time: 1997–2007 43

Figure 4. Long-term overall new deposition of all seabird species (birds km-1

): 1997–2007.................... 44

Figure 5. Annual composition of beachcast seabirds and marine mammals by taxonomic group 1997–2006. 45

Figure 6. Monthly mean deposition of ten most abundant seabirds, 1997-2007................................... 46

Figure 7. Inter-annual comparison of mean new deposition of ten most abundant seabirds, 1997-2007....... 47

Figure 8. Monthly mean deposition of the most common marine mammals, 1997–2007........................ 48

Figure 9. Inter-annual deposition of the most common marine mammals, 1997–2007........................... 49

Figure 10. Monthly new deposition of seabirds in 2007 compared with threshold limit ........................... 49

Figure 11. Event Standard Deposition Index for 15 Unusual Mortality Events, 1997-2007......................... 50

Figure 12. Oiled seabird deposition (seabirds/km) and percent oiled, 1997-2007................................. 51

Figure 13. Mean frequency of surveys with tarballs for the northern and southern survey areas................ 52

Figure 14. Monthly mean percent of oiled birds for the northern and southern survey areas combined........ 53
Beach COMBERS: Introduction

1

Introduction

The Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary (MBNMS) in central California (Fig. 1) was 

established in 1992 in part to protect the wildlife and beaches valued by local citizens from 

threats of oil pollution by proposed offshore drilling platforms. At a national level, the United 

States Congress determined the MBNMS had special significance relative to conservation, 

ecology, science education and aesthetics (MBNMS Management Plan 2008). The MBNMS has 

one of the most diverse and abundant assemblages of marine mammals in the world, including 

six species of pinnipeds, one species of mustelid, and 21 species of cetaceans (Harvey 1996). 

Monterey Bay is one of the most heavily utilized areas by seabirds worldwide, and hosts a rich 

seabird community with more than 94 species that occur regularly (Roberson 2001)1. Several 

threatened and endangered seabirds and marine mammal species inhabit Monterey Bay including 

the federally threatened and state-listed endangered Marbled Murrelet (Brachyrhamphus 

marmoratus), Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis californicus)

2 and the southern Sea Otter 

(Enhydra lutris nereis).

Marine birds and mammals are conspicuous top predators of the marine ecosystem, and the 

deposition of these dead organisms on beaches can be used as an indicator of marine ecosystem 

health, including availability of prey resources, anthropogenic impacts, and natural die-offs. 

Long-term monitoring of beached marine birds and mammals can enable resource managers to 

determine trends in deposition to better identify significant events detrimental to wildlife 

including oil spills, fishery interactions, harmful algal blooms, and disease outbreaks. The 

effects of mortality events can only be determined if adequate information on baseline deposition 

of beached organisms is available (Eguchi 2002). Well designed long-term beach monitoring 

programs provide consistent, reliable baseline data that can detect large-scale catastrophic events 

such as oil spills, but also can detect more subtle changes in environmental quality including 

increased frequency of harmful algal blooms and long-term chronic oiling, which may not be 

apparent with a short-term sampling design (Stenzel et al. 1988, Nur et al. 1997, Shumway et al. 

2003, Jessup et al. 2009). Additionally, resource agencies can use baseline data from long-term 

monitoring programs to quantify natural resource damages and estimate restoration 

compensation following large-scale oil spills (Luckenbach Trustee Council 2006).

Various groups have conducted systematic Beached Bird Surveys (BBS) since the 1940-1950s in 

the Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany, and in the 1970-1980s throughout many other 

European countries, North America, and Russia to assess damages to marine bird populations 

from oil pollution and coastal fishery bycatch (reviewed by Camphuysen 1998). In California, 

BBS have been used to document mortalities incurred during catastrophic oil spills (Page et al. 

1990), and continue to be useful to document chronic or low-level rates of oiling (Stenzel et al. 

1988, Hampton et al. 2003, Roletto et al. 2003). Long-term beach survey programs enable 

researchers to detect regional trends in oil pollution and evaluate whether changes in laws to 

prevent marine pollution have been effective (Camphuysen 1998, Weise and Ryan 2003). 

 1 For a full description of the MBNMS habitats and species diversity, the Sanctuary Integrated Monitoring Network 

website is available to the public (http://www.sanctuarysimon.org). 

2 On 5 Feb. 2009, the Brown Pelican was removed from the state endangered species list and from the federal 

endangered species list on December 17, 2009.
Beach COMBERS: Introduction

2

Documenting deposition rates of mammals and seabirds is essential for long-term monitoring of 

natural and human caused mortality to these important marine resources (Benson et al. 1999). 

Documenting species-specific rates of deposition enables resource managers to identify which 

seabird populations are most often affected by particular threats (e.g., diving birds and gill net 

bycatch, Speich and Wahl 1986), and aid in conservation and management plans for these 

species (Camphuysen 1998). 

The Coastal Ocean Mammal and Bird Education and Research Surveys (BeachCOMBERS) 

program was established in 1997 to monitor natural and human-related mortality of marine birds, 

mammals, and turtles in the MBNMS (Benson et al. 1998, Benson et al. 1999, Benson 2000). 

Whereas previous studies in the Monterey Bay region were directed toward assessing humanrelated impacts to the marine environment, BeachCOMBERS differs from these and other west 

coast beach surveys by using standardized effort, frequency, and search areas that allows 

comparison of relative changes in the deposition rate of marine birds and marine mammals and 

provides a monthly index of ecosystem health in Sanctuary. Standardization of sampling effort 

was an important feature of the BeachCOMBERS study design and has allowed for effective 

comparisons of inter-annual trends. 

BeachCOMBERS builds upon past beach surveys conducted in California: Dr. G. Victor 

Morejohn and graduate students at Moss Landing Marine Laboratories studied several beaches in 

inner Monterey Bay with a variety of methods during 1968 to 1972; Stenzel et al. (1988) 

surveyed southern, central, and northern CA beaches from 1974 to 1982; Julian and Beeson 

(1998) surveyed southern CA beaches during 1990 to 1995; Mason (1997) surveyed Monterey 

Bay beaches from 1992 to 1994; and the California Department of Fish and Game surveyed 

beaches from 1980 to 1998 (Wild 1990). Beach survey programs have also been developed 

elsewhere along the west coast of North America including the Gulf of the Farallones (1993 to 

present; “Beach Watch”; Roletto and Grella, 1995), Oregon (Bob Loeffel, Oregon Dept. of Fish 

and Wildlife, unpublished data), Washington, Alaska (Julia Parrish, Coastal Observation and 

Seabird Survey Team [COASST], University of Washington), and British Columbia (Alan 

Burger [1986 —1997], Bird Studies Canada [2002—present], Beached Bird Survey [O’Hara et 

al. 2009]). Although the frequency of sampling, methods of marking, and surveyor effort, varies

among these studies, they provide important background for comparisons with the present study 

conducted by BeachCOMBERS. Justification for BBS also varies. Whereas Stenzel et al. (1998) 

and Beach Watch emphasized oil spill documentation as the main justification for monitoring, 

and Wild (1990) and Julian and Beeson (1998) focused on documenting bycatch, the main 

emphasis of BeachCOMBERS is ecosystem monitoring.

The specific objectives of the Beach COMBERS program were to: 1) obtain baseline 

information on rates of beach deposition of marine birds and mammals; 2) assess causes of 

seabird and marine mammal mortality; 3) assist resource management agencies in early detection 

of unusual rates of natural and anthropogenic mortality; 4) assess abundance of tar balls (oil 

patches) on beaches; 5) build a network of interacting citizens, scientists, and resource managers; 

and 6) disseminate information to resources agencies, the public, and educational institutions.
BeachCOMBERS: Methods

3

Volunteer Karin Forney 

inspects a beached bird, 

Marina State Beach 

(H.Nevins)

Methods

Sampling Design

The BeachCOMBERS protocol was developed from a pilot study 

in 1996 and a review of previous beach surveys to determine the 

proper number, distribution, and frequency of surveys and effort 

necessary to detect changes in beachcast organisms (Simons 

1985, Jameson 1986, Stenzel et al. 1988, Bodkin and Jameson 

1991, Roletto and Grella 1995, Benson et al. 1999, Beach Watch 

2008). The BeachCOMBERS monitoring plan covers sandy 

beaches within the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary 

(Figure 1). Most of the shoreline covered in the project is 

accessible by road or a trail less than 2 km from vehicular access. 

The basic method is similar to a strip transect, where all 

beachcast birds and mammals within the strip (i.e., the width of 

the beach) are counted and it is assumed that all new carcasses in the survey area are 

observed and recorded (Appendix A: Protocol). The survey effort was centered on the 

wrack line of the previous high tide, although the entire beach is surveyed with the help 

of binoculars to scan upper beach wrack and by walking in a zigzag fashion to ensure that 

most beached birds and mammals were located. Based on Ford (2006) and other studies, 

we know the survey is an estimate of deposition rather than a total census because not all 

animals will be visible to the observers (i.e. buried, missed) and the number of animals 

found will increase with effort, experience, beach type, and frequency of surveys (Byrd et 

al. 2009). Because of the need to obtain repeatable and comparable data, we standardized 

effort to reduce variation associated with this estimate. To standardize search effort 

among surveys and beaches, surveys were always conducted by a team of two trained 

volunteers. If others accompanied the team on a survey, they were not allowed to 

actively look for beachcast animals. Also, dogs were not allowed on surveys as this 

would bias the number of animals found. Usually, the volunteer teams used two cars: one 

parked at one end of the beach section and one driven to the other end of the beach. The 

team then surveyed the beach as they walked the distance back to the first car. Surveys 

were conducted during an ebb tide, and teams began surveys approximately 1 to 1.5 

hours before low tide. 

Surveys are conducted during the first week of each month, every month of the year. 

Ideally the time period between samples would be non-random (e.g., a survey conducted 

every 30 days); however, the logistics of organizing numerous volunteers is too great to 

expect this. Thus, we allow the survey team a seven-day window at the start of each 

month to complete a survey. Therefore, the time between surveys is not the same for 

each sampling period. For example, if a team conducts a survey on the last day of the 

seven-day window in one month, and then conducts the next survey on the first day of the 

following month, the time between surveys is 23 days. Similarly, the time between 

surveys could be as great as 38 days. The variability in time between surveys may allow 

a greater number of beached organisms to accumulate on the beach; however, we expect 

the impact on the number of beachcast organisms counted is small. Also because the 
BeachCOMBERS: Methods

4

timing of each beach survey is somewhat random within the 7-day window at the 

beginning of the month, through time the biases associated with various times are 

eliminated.

Data was recorded on two data forms using standardized four-letter species codes 

(Appendix B: Datasheets). A cover sheet contains sections to record the date of the 

survey, the names of the volunteers conducting the survey, the beach name and segment 

number, the northern and southern boundaries, the duration of survey (begin and end 

times), the weather conditions, and presence or absence of tar balls found, number 

collected, and size range. Also, a general comments field is provided on the cover sheet 

for any other unusual flotsam or jetsam (e.g., jellyfish, marine debris) that was observed. 

The second form is the main data sheet, where all of the data for beachcast organisms are 

recorded. For each carcass encountered, the following data are recorded: species code, 

decomposition state, age and sex (when possible), number of previous marks (toe clips or 

hemp twine), scavenging, cause of death (when evident), presence of oil, whether or not a 

photograph was obtained, and presence of identification tags or bands. A general notes 

section is used to document any tags present on the carcass, length measurements, 

photograph roll and frame numbers, or any comments that would aid in postidentification of an unidentified or unusual sighting. 

After the carcass is identified, it is marked by either clipping a toe for seabirds, or 

attaching a piece of hemp twine around the rear flipper or fluke of marine mammals. 

Each time a marked bird is encountered on subsequent surveys, another toe is removed 

and recorded, or another piece of twine is attached. By noting the number of toes clipped 

or number of pieces of twine on the animal, we can track the duration that a carcass 

remains on the beach, and analyze deposition data for only “new” (first-observed) 

carcasses. Whereas other studies have estimated persistence from similar data (Byrd et al. 

2009), the intent of this study was to focus on patterns in new deposition. This sequential 

marking method also helps us avoid double-counting carcasses when determining the 

number of newly beached individuals. 

Volunteer Training

Providing proper training and data quality assessments are necessary when using

volunteers to collect scientific information. It is equally important to maintain volunteer 

enthusiasm and participation to ensure consistency in the data and to build the expertise 

and conservation values of the group. Therefore, we developed a training program that 

consists of in-class lectures and discussions, laboratory-based learning, and field-based 

experiences (Appendix A: Protocol). During training, we discussed the philosophy of 

BeachCOMBERS, including the objectives and rationale for the sampling design. By 

explaining the sampling design, the volunteers learn the value of the data they collect, 

and the need for accuracy and consistency.

To ensure proper identification of beachcast animals, volunteers received 20 hours of 

instruction in the identification of marine birds, mammals and turtles using slides, 

handouts, study skins, skeletal preparations, guide books, and in-field identification. 

Training was led by Dr. Jim Harvey, Scott Benson, Hannah Nevins, and graduate 
BeachCOMBERS: Methods

5

students from Moss Landing Marine Laboratories (MLML), along with MBNMS 

personnel. Lecturers emphasized the use of diagnostic features for beachcast organisms 

(e.g., feet and bills for birds, skulls and body morphology for mammals), and provided 

each volunteer with resources, including a bird field guide (Scott 1998), and a beached 

bird, mammal, and turtle identification guide (Ainley et al. 1994). Thus, volunteers were 

introduced to the local fauna of central California, and provided with a variety of 

methods useful for identifying each specimen. In the laboratory they used study skins, 

live mounts, and skeletal preps at MLML to provide hands-on training in identification of 

various species. Volunteers were provided methods for identifying scavenged carcasses, 

determining sex and age when possible, and taking measurements to identify species and 

age class (e.g., plumage, wing chord). Volunteers were trained to collect basic stranding 

data for marine mammals (i.e., NOAA “level A” ) which included species identification, 

location, age, sex, and standard length. These data were forwarded to the NOAAFisheries Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Network and U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service. The final instruction was conducted in the field on selected beaches, where 

volunteers were tested for accuracy of identification skills in a simulated survey.

At the end of the training session, volunteers were provided a sampling kit which 

included a measuring tape, tide book, identification cards, clippers for removing toes of 

beached birds, string for marking marine mammals, reference guides, datasheets, 

collection permits and materials for oil samples and fresh animals, and contact numbers 

for various agencies including The Marine Mammal Center (TMMC), University of 

California Santa Cruz (UCSC), MLML, The Monterey Bay Aquarium (MBA), and the 

California Department of Fish and Game (CDFG). Protective gloves, bags, and labeling 

markers were provided to collect additional samples (e.g., toe clips, blubber biopsy) in 

the event of an unusual mortality event or for specific requests from collaborators. In 

2003, in an effort to provide better location information of marine mammal strandings to 

the MLML stranding network, volunteer teams that survey beaches in Monterey County 

were provided with a portable global position system (GPS; Garmin GekoTM 201) to 

record accurate latitude and longitude for each marine mammal encountered. 

In addition to instruction on species identification, marking animals, and filling out 

datasheets, volunteers were trained to recognize a variety of possible anthropogenic 

mortality factors, including oil on carcasses, tar balls on beaches, and evidence of fishery 

interactions (see Causes of Mortality). Before beginning surveys, volunteers signed 

NOAA Volunteer Service Agreements, discussed safety concerns, including the 

importance of assessing ocean swell height and wind patterns, avoiding toxic substances, 

disease transmission, and using protective gear (e.g., gloves).

Trends in Deposition

To obtain baseline information on rates of deposition of marine birds and mammals, 

trained volunteer teams conducted monthly surveys and identified and quantified all 

beached organisms on 24 pre-defined beach segments within the Monterey Bay National 

Marine Sanctuary (Figure 1). For deposition trend analysis, only the original 11 

Monterey Bay “Core” beaches (Beaches 1-11, Fig. 1) were included due to greater 

duration of survey record (i.e., since 1997-98).
BeachCOMBERS: Methods

6

Deposition rate was calculated as the number of newly deposited animals per linear km 

surveyed. By standardizing data to effort (number of km walked), we compared 

deposition rates among months and years. For example, if 10 “new” birds were found on 

a 2 km segment, the resulting deposition would be 5 birds km-1 mo-1. For monthly 

comparisons, beach segments were considered replicates. Because all beachcast 

organisms were marked monthly, newly deposited animals were defined as those without 

any markings from previous surveys (e.g., birds with no toes clipped or mammals with no 

twine were considered new). Two beaches were walked bi-monthly (Beach 5 and 8; Fig. 

1), the data were adjusted to account for this increased sampling frequency (e.g., birds 

with one toe clip from of the mid-month survey were considered “new” for calculating 

new deposition in following first of the month sample).

Causes of Mortality

To determine the incidence of human-caused seabird and marine mammal mortality, 

volunteers examined each intact (not heavily scavenged) carcass for the presence of oil or 

entanglement in fishing gear. If observers found oiled birds, they determined the extent 

of oiling as the proportion of the body oiled: (1) < 2%; (2) 2–33%; (3) 34–66%; (4) 67–

100% of body. Observers recorded where oil occurred on the body: dorsal only, ventral 

only, entire body, head only, feet only, wings only, or other. Volunteers collected and/or 

photo-documented oiled specimens opportunistically. Personnel from California 

Department of Fish and Game’s Oil Spill Prevention and Response group (CDFG-OSPR) 

provided oil sampling protocols and instruction on how to properly collect samples. All 

oiled feather samples, tar balls, and oiled birds were deposited at CDFG-OSPR Marine 

Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center (MWVCRC), Santa Cruz and transferred 

to CDFG’s Petroleum Chemistry Lab (PCL). A chain of custody and an intake log was 

maintained at MWVCRC. Results of PCL fingerprinting analyses were archived at

MWVCRC and are not reported here. 

We assumed the presence of fishing line, hooks, or net marks were indicative of a 

negative fishing interaction. When monofilament line, hooks, or other evidence of 

fishery interactions were observed, volunteers documented this on the datasheet, took 

photographs, and collected the animals for further examination when possible. Because 

other causes of mortality are more difficult to determine in the field, fresh seabird 

specimens were collected for post-mortem examination by collaborators including the 

Central Coast Marine Bird Health Study (MWVCRC). All fresh marine mammals were 

reported to collaborators to assist with post-mortem studies. 

Documenting oiling and presence of tar balls on beaches

Volunteers recorded oiling on beaches by quantifying the number and diameter of tar 

balls found during each monthly survey. In general, tar balls or tar patties were discrete, 

thick oil globules and often had a weathered surface. Because of the variability in the 

observers’ assessments of total number of tar balls encountered (e.g., “4,562” compared 

with “thousands”), we used the frequency of surveys with tar balls present and categories 

of numbers (i.e., 1-100, 100-1000, 1000-10000) as metrics for comparisons rather than an 
BeachCOMBERS: Methods

7

encounter rate such as the number of tar balls per km (Roletto et al. 2003). Fresh or 

newly deposited tar balls were collected following CDFG’s recommended procedures for 

sample collection, storage, and chain of custody. Oil samples were then submitted to

CDFG-PCL to determine the source of the oil (e.g., natural seeps or vessel traffic) based 

on chemical constituents (e.g., fingerprinting). In the case of a large deposition of oil, 

volunteers were instructed to immediately notify CDFG, the Office of Emergency 

Services and/or California State Parks dispatch. Oiling protocols were adapted from the 

Beach Watch program (Roletto et al. 2003).

Unusual Mortality Events

To assist resource management agencies in early detection of mortality events, we used 

BeachCOMBERS data from 1997-2007 to establish an 11-year baseline for comparison 

with current marine bird and mammal stranding records. Seven criteria, adapted from the 

NOAA- Fisheries “Criteria for Determining a Marine Mammal Unusual Mortality Event” 

by The Working Group on Marine Mammal Unusual Mortality Events (Federal Register 

2006), were used to determine all mortality events. In this retrospective analysis, we 

determined particularly “Unusual Mortality Events” (UME) as those which exceeded a 

deposition Threshold Level (criteria 1, see below). We defined “Other Mortality Events” 

as those that fit one or more criteria 2-7. The criteria were:

1. A marked increase in the magnitude of strandings when compared with prior 

records;

2. A temporal or spatial change in mortality: within in a localized area, spreading 

geographically with time, or occurring throughout a species’ range;

3. The species, age, or sex composition of the affected animals is different than that 

of animals that are normally affected;

4. Affected animals exhibit similar or unusual pathologic findings, clinical signs, or 

general body condition (e.g., fat layer); 

5. Mortality event is accompanied by unusual behavior patterns observed among 

living individuals, such as abnormal patterns of swimming or feeding; 

6. Potentially significant mortality is observed in species, stocks or populations that 

are particularly vulnerable (e.g., listed as depleted, threatened, endangered, or 

declining); and

7. Mortality is observed concurrent with, or as part of, an unexplained continual 

decline of a population, stock, or species.

Threshold Level

Specifically, UMEs were those that could be quantified by a significant increase in 

deposition of marine birds or mammals above a “threshold level”. For example, using 

Criteria 1, we developed species-specific monthly mean deposition rates and calculated a 

threshold level (TL), defined as the long-term monthly mean deposition (new birds km-1

) 

plus two times the standard deviation. Thereafter, we defined an unusual event as one in 
BeachCOMBERS: Methods

8

which monthly deposition exceeded the TL. Assuming a normal distribution of monthly 

deposition, the TL included about 98% of values; therefore, unusual events were 2% of 

the extreme deposition values. We evaluated all mortality 

events that occurred between 1997 and 2007 based on the 

TL baseline established by the entire data set. “Other” 

events were classified based on criteria 2-7. For rare 

species, where too few data were available to determine 

trends with TL (e.g., storm-petrels), we considered that 

the event warranted further investigation when total 

number of animals reported was greater than twice that 

reported during any of the other years. We considered an 

oiling event to be significant if more than 2% of the birds 

encountered during monthly beach surveys were oiled 

based on long-term oiling rate. This oiling rate is slightly 

lower than that reported for the Sanctuary waters to the 

north (Gulf of Farallones, 3.2%, Roletto et al. 2003). 

Additionally, Criteria 2, 3, and 6 also were quantified 

using BeachCOMBERS and other BBS data. Criteria 4 

and 5 were quantified using data collected by 

collaborators including the Monterey SPCA and Central 

Coast Marine Bird Health Study. Criterion 7 was 

quantified using background information on the species being impacted by the mortality 

event (e.g., breeding success, population counts), when this information was available.

Standard Deposition Index

To further evaluate the relative magnitude of impacts among UMEs, we created a 

Standard Deposition Index (SDI) incorporating a variety of the seven criteria, including 

the number of species involved, the duration of the event, whether rare, threatened, or 

endangered species were involved, and anomalous demographics (abnormal age classes 

or sexes affected compared to normal for that time of year). The index allowed us to 

normalize our assessment of the importance of each UME relative to each other and track 

trends in the magnitude and frequency of UMEs. 

The SDI was calculated as: ( ) i v SDI =∑ % −TL *∑Duri

*S *YOY

where, for each species (i) exhibiting increased mortality relative to the monthly TL in 

each event,

[Sv] = Species vulnerability (1 for each species non-threatened species, 2 for classified as 

rare, threatened, or endangered);

[% - TL] = Percentage of deposition greater than threshold level;

[Duri] = duration in months where the deposition was >TL for each event;

[YOYi ]= age factor, proportion discounted by the young-of-year (i.e., proportion of 

adults) – for a mix of ages – assumed stable age structure (1.0), for ≥ 80% YOY (0.8), 

and for were skewed toward adults ≥ 80% (1.2).

TL = Threshold level, long-term mean (97-07) plus two standard deviations

The standard deposition index for an entire event (eSDI) was calculated as the sum of all 

individual species’ SDI for that event. For other mortality events in which monthly 

Standard Deposition Index (SDI) 

is a relative index of the 

proportion of deposition, which 

exceeds the threshold level (TL). 

For example the grand average for 

Common Murres in August was 

1.8 ± 2.2 SD birds km-1 (n = 11 

yr), so the TL = 1.8 + (2*2.2) = 

6.2 birds km-1

. The highest 

monthly deposition measured was 

8.1 birds km-1 in August 1997, 

compare this to the TL (i.e., 6.2 –

8.1 = 1.9) and we calculated it was 

30% greater than baseline TL (i.e., 

1.9/ 6.2 birds km-1

].
BeachCOMBERS: Methods

9

deposition did not exceed the TL for any species, we used secondary criteria (2-7) to 

determine unusual events, and relied on reports from wildlife rehabilitators, general 

public, and NOAA marine mammal stranding network participants.

Developing a network of collaborators and information dissemination

In order to develop a working network of volunteers, scientists, pathologists, and 

resource managers within the MBNMS region, BeachCOMBERS developed an email 

listserve to keep all collaborators apprised of current events in the Sanctuary, and to 

disseminate important information. The BeachCOMBERS coordinator sent out monthly 

emails to volunteers with information on current species composition in the MBNMS, 

types of animals to expect on beach surveys, tide and weather predictions for the survey 

period, requests for samples and oil spill alerts.

Volunteers contributed reports of dead and live stranded, and tagged marine mammals to 

National Marine Fisheries Service - Marine Mammal Stranding Network participants in 

Monterey County (Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, California State Universities), 

Santa Cruz County (Long Marine Laboratories, UC Santa Cruz), and The Marine 

Mammal Center (Sausalito/Moss Landing). State Parks employees, the Monterey Dunes 

Colony, the Naval Post-Graduate School, the Monterey Bay Aquarium, and others gave 

assistance in reporting and collecting stranded mammals. This practice created a 

cooperative environment by reducing the amount of time volunteers from the various 

stranding networks needed to dedicate to relocating and confirming identification of 

animals already found by BeachCOMBERS. 

Because of the extraordinary potential for sample collection created within the 

BeachCOMBERS survey framework, we often received requests for samples of 

beachcast seabirds and marine mammals. In many cases, the requested samples were 

easy to collect and volunteers were keen to participate in scientific studies. In 2001, we 

began a project to determine bio-geographic affinities of several migratory species in the 

MBNMS using genetic analyses. BeachCOMBERS collected toe clips for genetic 

analyses by Cheryl Baduini (Keck Science Center, Claremont Colleges, CA) to determine 

the sex ratio and colony affinities of Sooty and Short-Tailed Shearwaters. In 2002, 

BeachCOMBERS collected toe clips of Northern Fulmars for genetic studies by Scott 

Hatch (USGS-BRD, Alaska Science Center, Anchorage, AK). In 2005-2008, 

BeachCOMBERS collected toe clips for a genetic population study of grebes by graduate 

student Diana Humple (Sonoma State University, CA). Finally, BeachCOMBERS 

worked closely with the Central Coast Marine Bird Health Study at MWVCRC to collect 

intact seabird carcasses for necropsy to determine causes of mortality.
BeachCOMBERS: Results & Discussion

10

Results and Discussion

Survey Effort

The core beaches, including segments from New Brighton to Carmel (Beaches 1-10, Fig. 1), 

have been monitored monthly since May 1997 (Table 1). The survey area expanded from the 

original ten beaches to include Waddell and Scott’s Creek (Beach 11) in September 1998, six 

beaches in the Cambria/San Simeon area (Beaches 12-17) in May 2001, Sand Dollar beach in 

Big Sur (Beach 23) in July 2003, four city beaches in Santa Cruz County (Beach 22 and 25, July 

2003; Beach 27 and 28, June 2006), Del Monte Beach in Monterey County (Beach 24, June 

2003), and one beach in Morro Bay (Beach 26, November 2003). Additionally, bi-monthly 

sampling began in October 1998 on beaches 5 and 8 to provide better temporal resolution of 

carcass deposition on these beaches with the greatest deposition rates. Beaches 12, 13, and 23 

were surveyed bi-monthly to accommodate increased volunteers. Beach 11 was split into north 

(Waddell Creek, 11N) and south sections (Scotts Creek, 11S) to accommodate more volunteers 

in July 2003, although the combined survey area remained the same. Fort Ord (Beach 9) was 

discontinued for 11 months due to logistical difficulties and an increased risk of volunteer injury 

because the adjacent military base was in the process of being converted to state lands. Although 

new beach surveys were added to accommodate increased numbers of volunteers and to increase 

the geographic scope of the program, when the number of volunteers waned, the core beaches 

continued to be the priority for each monthly survey effort. Thus, the duration that some beaches 

were surveyed outside of the core area was only a few months (Error! Reference source not found.).

Volunteer Program

Volunteers were recruited from the local community via newspaper advertisements and email 

and paper flyers distributed to universities, state agencies, and other volunteer groups (e.g., Año 

Nuevo docent program). BeachCOMBERS volunteers tended to be well educated and a number 

of participants had advanced degrees or research experience. Volunteers included retirees from 

the local area, undergraduate or graduate students from local colleges and universities, personnel 

from state and federal agencies, and other interested citizens. Recent questionnaires filled out by 

prospective volunteers (n = 98) indicated that most had access to personal computers (91%) and 

cameras (94%) and were willing to contribute the use of these resources to the program. We 

recruited volunteers with experience in other programs (e.g., Long Marine Lab docents, Pt. 

Lobos docents, and Pt. Sur Lighthouse docents). When asked to rank their carcass identification 

skills before training on a scale of 0 to 10, volunteers averaged a self-score of 4.5 on birds and 

6.1 on marine mammals (n = 98), and 39% scored themselves ≤ 3 for birds whereas only 19% 

scored ≤ 3 for mammals, indicating a general working knowledge of marine mammals in the 

region. Common reasons for wanting to participate in the program were, “love of the ocean”, 

“connectedness with the ocean” and an interest in wanting to contribute to understanding 

sanctuary resources.

The number of volunteers active and trained in the BeachCOMBERS program increased steadily 

each year since the program started in 1997 (Figure 2). A total of 205 volunteers have been 

recruited to BeachCOMBERS since it began, including those interested in non-beach survey 
BeachCOMBERS: Results & Discussion

11

support and monitoring the email listserver. At least 104 individuals have accompanied a trained 

BeachCOMBERS volunteer on a single or a small number of walks, thus furthering local 

community exposure to the program. We have trained a total of 180 volunteers during the past 

10 years to survey beaches, and currently 100 active BeachCOMBERS volunteers conduct 27 

surveys on 24 beaches monthly (including bi-monthly surveys). Compared with other MBNMS 

programs, including TeamOCEAN (75 volunteers), BAYNET (approximately 35 volunteers), 

and the Citizen Watershed Monitoring Network (approximately 200 volunteers), 

BeachCOMBERS contributes approximately 40% of the volunteer effort to the Monterey Bay 

National Marine Sanctuary.

Retention of volunteers in the program was high (mean 65% year to year), and attributed to two 

unique features of the program: volunteers gained a sense of ownership or stewardship for a 

particular beach, and volunteers felt they contributed valuable data which contributed to 

protection of the sanctuary. Periodic efforts were made by program staff to reinforce the 

importance of data collection by providing examples of how the data were used. Past 

conservation successes, such as documenting leaking oil connected to the S/S Luckenbach (see 

Documenting oiling and presence of tar balls on beaches) served to instill a continued sense of 

the program’s and individuals’ achievements. A total of 80 volunteers have retired during the last 

10 years, resulting in 7% loss per year. Reasons for leaving the program were attributed to 

external life changes (e.g., moving out of the area, getting a new job, leaving the country, having 

babies, getting old) rather than problems with the program itself.

Often the limiting factor to the number of active volunteers in the program was the number of 

beaches available in the local area to be surveyed. A team of three or four volunteers per beach 

was arranged so that monthly a team of two surveyors walk the beach and the individuals rotate 

among months. Alternately, a team of two walks the beach every month and when a substitute is 

needed, an email was sent to the COMBERS listserve or volunteer coordinator to find a 

substitute for that survey. 

Volunteer Effort

During May 1997 to December 2007, volunteers conducted a total of 2,356 monthly surveys, 

walking a total of 17,177 kilometers (Error! Reference source not found.). Up to 32 surveys 

covering up to 25 beaches were conducted a month, including beaches walked weekly or bimonthly. An average monthly beach survey is approximately 2.9 kilometers in length, and is 1.8 

± 0.8 hrs in duration, which is equivalent to 9,942 hours of survey time during the past 11 years 

(Table 1). When beach survey effort was combined with the time required to get to and from the 

beach and time to deliver data and samples to MLML, volunteers contributed an additional mean 

1.4 ± 0.5 hours per month, and the total volunteer time increased to approximately 3.2 ± 1.1 

hours per month, or 17,117 volunteer hours during the past 11 years (Figure 3)

3

. Additionally, 

approximately 5% of BeachCOMBERS volunteers spent 10-30 minutes per month entering their 

data online. A small number of BeachCOMBERS have volunteered additional time to help 

collaborators including the Central Coast Marine Bird Health Study, CDFG-OSPR, International 

Bird Rescue and the MLML Stranding Network during unusual mortality events, oil spills, or 

 3 This is equal to a total contribution of $390,096 ($35,463 per year) to BeachCOMBERS program using the 2008 

dollar value of volunteer time in CA of $22.79/ hour.
BeachCOMBERS: Results & Discussion

12

other times. Outside of survey and travel time, volunteers often transported live birds to 

rehabilitation centers, called in to stranding network participants, and made extra trips to 

transport samples — these activities were not easily captured in the volunteer time data.

Enrichments & Appreciation

We offered volunteers enrichment opportunities, such as participation in Dr. Harvey’s graduatelevel Marine Vertebrate course at Moss Landing Marine Laboratories and refresher classes to 

improve species identification skills, learn about the program’s accomplishments and get 

acquainted with other volunteers. We showed appreciation for the work of the volunteers by 

providing opportunities to observe seabirds aboard day cruises in Monterey Bay, during 

shorebird surveys, and other field activities. Once a year, the Sanctuary held a volunteer 

appreciation event in conjunction with the Sanctuary Currents Symposium.

Long-term Trends in Deposition

Seabird Deposition

Species composition of beached seabirds in all years was dominated by six orders of birds: 

Anseriformes (sea ducks), Gaviiformes (loons), Podipediformes (grebes), Procellariiformes

(tubenoses), Pelecaniformes (pelicans and cormorants), and Charadriiformes (gulls, alcids, 

others; Figure 5a). Of these, the first three groups migrate from inland terrestrial breeding 

habitats associated with lakes and ponds, and the latter three are more closely associated with 

marine habitats year round. In general, seasonal deposition patterns reflected the migratory 

cycles of these species (Henkel 2004, Henkel and Harvey 2008), and indicated a seasonal trend 

of increased deposition in summer and decreased deposition in winter (Figure 4). For the sake of 

clarity and space, here we describe the seasonal and inter-annual trends of the ten most abundant 

bird species found during beach surveys.

Anseriformes - Scoters

Surf scoters (Melanitta perspicillata) were the most often encountered sea ducks found on 

surveys during migratory pulses in January to July, and November to December (Figure 6a). 

During the 1997–98 El Niño, Surf Scoters represented a greater proportion of the recorded 

species and deposition relative to past years (20% compared with 3% average) and was slightly 

later (April to June) than during other years (Figure 7a). White-winged (M. fusca) and black 

scoters (M. nigra) were rarely documented. During the 1960-70s, G.V. Morejohn reported that 

M. fusca was an abundant species on beach surveys at Moss Landing State Beach (Monterey 

County) (MLML, unpublished data; Nevins and Harvey 2002). There is evidence that all species 

of North American sea ducks have undergone significant population decreases (Gouldie et al. 

1994). 

Gaviiformes – Loons

Pacific Loon (Gavia pacifica) occurred on beach surveys during spring (April to July) and fall 

migration (December to January), representing ~3 % of beached birds (Figure 6b). This seasonal 

deposition pattern is consistent with relatively low year-round abundance except during 

migration as described by nearshore shipboard surveys (Henkel 2004). Most Pacific Loons were 

likely immature (41%) based on subsequent necropsy (n = 17). Of historic records (1929-2002), 

only one band return was reported for this species; it was both banded and recovered in the same 
BeachCOMBERS: Results & Discussion

13

area in California (Mary Gustafson, USGS-Bird Banding Lab). During the past eight years, only 

the El Niño year of 1998 produced significant anomaly in deposition for this species (Fig. 7b). 

Given the low deposition of loons, it is interesting that we have documented Domoic Acid in the 

few cases examined by MWVCRC, suggesting this biotoxin may often affect this nearshore 

group (see Harmful algal blooms).

Podicipediformes – Grebes

Western (Aechmophorus occidentalis ) and Clark’s Grebes (A. clarkii) were treated together as 

they were only recently considered separate species. During beach surveys they were identified 

to species when the head was intact; otherwise they were recorded as a species-complex (i.e., 

CWGR). Grebes are medium-sized nearshore piscivorous birds, and represented a consistent 

proportion (~10%) of beached birds each year (Fig. 5a), but particularly during spring (Figure 

6c). 

In 2000, a die-off of grebes began in March, peaked in April to May, and extended into June and 

July (Table , Figure 7c). Birds killed during this event were young-of-the-year and were found in 

a relatively localized region, particularly Zmudowski and Moss Landing (Beach 5 and 6) and to 

lesser extent Salinas River and Marina (Beach 7 and 8) in inner Monterey Bay. The pattern of 

deposition during the die-off coincided with an increase in the abundance of live grebes in 

central Monterey Bay detected by nearshore shipboard surveys (Henkel 2004). Because little is 

known about the colonies of origin for wintering grebes in California, we have no basic 

information related to this deposition event that places it into context with the breeding 

population; however, a recent collaboration (2006 to present) on a genetics study with Diana 

Humple (Sonoma State University) may elucidate the origin of these birds.

Procellariiformes - Tubenoses

Sooty Shearwater (Puffinus griseus) represented ca. 9% of birds recorded during beach surveys 

during May to October (Figure 5a). Short-tailed Shearwater (P. tenuirostris) occurred primarily 

during the winter and in far fewer incidence than Sooty Shearwaters (<0.05 km-1

). It is most 

likely that most “unidentified shearwater species” (i.e., SHSP) were Sooty rather than the 

similar, but more rare Short-tailed Shearwater. The seasonal increase in deposition of Sooty 

Shearwaters occurred during the summer months when this species is most abundant in the 

Monterey Bay region (Figure 6d). In inter-annual comparisons, the most significant increase in 

deposition occurred during the El Niño years of 1997-98 and 2000 (Figure 7d). During 2001–

2004, 15% of 55 entangled seabirds were Sooty Shearwaters.

Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) was the dominant winter tubenose species represented on 

beach surveys, migrating from breeding colonies in Alaska and Canada (Hatch and Nettleship 

1989). Fulmars occurred on beach surveys during November to January, and March to April 

(Figure 6e). During November 2003 to April 2004, we documented an unusual mortality event or 

“die-off” of fulmars (Table ). This deposition was significantly greater than had been recorded 

previously (maximum 12 birds km-1 mo-1

, Figure 7e), and was accompanied by other reports 

from beach surveys from Baja California, Mexico to British Columbia (COASST, Beach 

Watch). The deposition event was unusual in magnitude, geographic extent, and coincided with 

abnormal occurrence of high densities of live and moribund fulmars at sea in Monterey Bay (14 

± 4 bird km2

, J. Harvey, unpublished data).
BeachCOMBERS: Results & Discussion

14

Because no band data were available for fulmars, we inferred the colony of origin based upon the 

ratio of color morphs and bill measurements of birds collected during the 2003-2004 die-off. In 

November and December 93% were dark morph, and 7% light (n = 415), which indicated an 

origin of Gulf of Alaska or Western Aleutian Is. (Hatch and Nettleship 1998). Morphometrics 

were not different from Semidi Is., and smaller than Chagulak Is. in the Aleutians. These birds 

were emaciated, had empty stomachs, and predominantly were young-of-the-year (96%) or 

immature sub-adults (4%, n = 186). We concluded that a large scale (i.e., ocean basin) 

environmental perturbation was responsible for the magnitude and extent of this morality 

(Nevins and Harvey 2005). It was likely food limitation occurring in the Gulf of Alaska as 

fledgling fulmars migrated south. The fact that many Red Phalaropes (Phalaropus fulicaria) also 

were found freshly dead during the 2003-04 die-off further support this hypothesis; phalaropes 

are another surface-feeder and arctic-breeding migrant that would be foraging in the same region 

post-breeding as fulmars.

Pelecaniformes – Pelicans, Cormorants, and Allies

Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) were a common fall and winter resident in the sanctuary, 

and historically nested in lesser numbers at Bird Rock, Point Lobos, Monterey County 

(Baldridge 1973). This species was most often encountered on beach surveys during June to 

August, and December corresponding to the post-breeding dispersal of adults and young-of-theyear from colonies in southern California (Figure 6f). Because the occurrence of pelicans on 

beach surveys is generally minimal (i.e., < 0.5 birds km-1) and greatly variable from year to year, 

inference about trends is limited. In 2001, a significant deposition was detected by beach 

surveys, when large numbers of pelicans were killed by entanglement in recreational fisheries 

(Figure 7f). This deposition was greater than that associated with the 1998 El Niño. Pelicans 

aggregated near two recreational fishing piers in Santa Cruz County, Seacliff Beach and Santa 

Cruz Municipal Wharf, where the overlap between forage fish abundance, pelican foraging, and 

fishing activities resulted in an increased level of interactions. California Department of Fish and 

Game increased warden patrols to help disentangle birds and advised fishers, but ultimately the 

city responded to wildlife concerns by closing these piers to recreational fishing. Rehabilitation 

centers treated more than 170 pelicans during this event (International Bird Rescue Center, 

unpublished data).

Brandt’s Cormorant (Phalacrocorax penicillatus) is a resident species with colony areas loosely 

scattered on suitable habitat throughout the sanctuary (Sowls et al. 1980) and at the large colony 

at the Farallon Islands (Boekelheide et al. 1990a). Brandt’s represented ~5% of beached birds 

each year (Figure 5a). They were found on surveys throughout the year, but at relatively low 

incidence (< 0.5 birds km-1

; Figure 6g). The months with the greatest deposition were April and 

May, and September to January. During the fall post-breeding season, fledgling young were 

expected to disperse from the largest colony at the Farallon Islands southward into the study 

area. This seasonal trend tracks the occurrence patterns of nearshore shipboard surveys (Henkel 

2004), with the exception of the spring mortality. Since 1997, 26 banded birds have been 

recorded and all but one rehabilitated bird (recovered 3 years after release) were tagged as chicks 

on the Southeast Farallon Island (USGS Bird Banding Lab [BBL], unpublished data). 
BeachCOMBERS: Results & Discussion

15

Inter-annual data indicate an increasing trend in annual deposition for this species (Figure 7g). 

Surprisingly, Brandt’s Cormorants did not show an increase in deposition during the 1997-98 El 

Niño year, perhaps because reproductive activity was reduced and few young were produced 

(Boekelheide et al. 1990a). It is interesting that despite the 2005 Upwelling failure which created 

a severe food shortage and resulted in greater spring deposition of this species, by the end of the 

summer when ocean conditions improved Brandt’s were successfully nesting (W. Sydeman pers. 

comm.).

Charadriiformes – Auks, Gulls and Shorebirds

Common murre (Uria aalge) was one of the most abundant species encountered during this 

study (25% of beached birds) as found in previous studies in central California (Stenzel et al. 

1988, Mason 1997). Murres occurred most often during surveys May to October corresponding 

to the post-breeding dispersal (1.0 birds km-1

, Figure 6h). Adult males and their dependent chicks 

comprise a majority of the birds in Monterey Bay during July to October (Nevins 2004). Of the 7 

band returns indicating colony of origin, three were from nearby Farallon Islands, three were 

rehabilitated birds from CA (International Bird Rescue), and one was banded as a chick on 

Triangle Island, British Columbia.

The inter-annual trend in the deposition of Common Murres has been significantly affected by 

human-related activities including oil spills, gill net bycatch, and recreational fishing 

entanglement. During the first years of this study (1997–1999), fishers using bottom-set gill nets 

in waters of 30 fm had significant impacts to this species (Forney et al. 2001, see Gillnet 

Fishery). Subsequent to regulation changes in 2000, there was a reduction in total fishing effort 

and a decrease in deposition of murres in the study area (Figure 7h). Increased deposition of 

murres during 1997-98 was likely caused by a combination of oil pollution, El Niño effects, and 

fishery bycatch (Boekelheide et al. 1990b). During winter of 1997-98, the Point Reyes Tarball 

Incident occurred in central California, oil killed ca. 3,000 birds of which 63% were murres 

(Hampton et al. 2003). During 1997-98 El Niño, ocean conditions reduced the availability of 

prey to murres. Prey reduction also may have resulted in a nearshore shift in distribution of 

murres seeking food and contributed to increased bycatch deposition as suggested by Croll 

(1990).

Western Gull (Larus occidentalis) is a locally breeding resident species, nesting on rooftops and 

cliffs throughout the sanctuary (Monterey Breeding Bird Survey, Roberson 2001). The beach 

deposition data indicates this year-round occupation of the area and matches results from 

nearshore shipboard surveys (Henkel 2004). Increased deposition occurred during fall and 

winter, August to December, which likely represents an influx of fledged juveniles into the study 

area (Figure 6i). Few band returns (5 of 5) indicate colonies of origin of Hatch Year (HY) birds 

at Farallones, however, as with other species, banding is not done systematically at all colony 

areas. Regional data indicate additional sources from Oregon, Washington, and Mexico (BBL, 

Penniman et al. 1990). Age data indicated that 48% are After Hatch Year (AHY), 39% HY, 11% 

Second Year (SY), 2% Third Year (TY); (2004, n = 140 birds, additional 36 not aged).

Inter-annual comparisons indicated that an increase in deposition of Western Gull was not 

observed during El Niño years, similar to Brandt’s Cormorants. Overall, there was an increasing 

trend for this species (Figure 7i). This may reflect lower fledging success of Western Gulls 
BeachCOMBERS: Results & Discussion

16

during food poor years (Penniman et al. 1990), such as occurred during 1998. An alternative 

explanation is that Western Gulls have an opportunistic foraging mode that allows this species to 

make use of alternative prey resources (e.g., dumpsites) during food limited years.

California Gull (Larus californicus) is a common and abundant winter visitor in Monterey Bay. 

They represented ~3% of beached birds (Fig. 5a). Their migratory behavior is evident by their 

bi-modal seasonal occurrence in beach surveys during August to December, and April to May 

(Figure 6j). The seasonal occurrence in beach surveys coincides with occurrence patterns of 

nearshore shipboard surveys (Henkel 2004). 

The inter-annual trend in deposition of California Gulls was similar to that of Western Gulls and 

Brandt’s Cormorants; they showed an increasing trend throughout the study and a significant 

increase in depositiondeposition during 2004 (Figure 7j). This event remains unexplained, as few 

data from known source colonies were available to interpret these results. Band returns from 

COMBERS indicated Mono Lake as the primary source for birds found in the study area (3 of 5). 

However, the long-term band reports from California (1929-2002) indicate birds originate from 

diverse colony regions including Colorado, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, Nevada, Oregon, 

Utah, Washington, Wyoming, and Alberta Saskatchewan, Canada (BBL, unpublished data). 

Marine Mammal Deposition

Pinnipeds: Seals, sea lions and fur seals

California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) was the most frequently encountered marine 

mammal species found on surveys in all years (53% of mammals, Figure 5b). Sea lions were 

most often encountered during June to December, corresponding to the non-breeding season (

a). Tag returns indicate Channel Islands breeding colonies were the source of animals found in 

Monterey Bay area. The only significant trend in annual deposition of sea lion was that during 

the 1999 La Niña year, deposition was less than in other years (Figure 9a). The majority of 

animals recovered were immature, and it is likely survivorship of this age class was increased 

during this productive year.

Harbor seal (Phoca vitulina richardii) is one of two phocid species which breed locally. These 

coastal seals are resident and make little migratory movements with the exception of juvenile 

dispersal period (Oates 2005). Harbor seals were the second most abundant (12%) marine 

mammal reported each year (Figure 5b). The seasonal pattern in deposition reflected the 

breeding season with the greatest deposition occurring May to November (

b). There were no clear inter-annual differences, although a slight increase in deposition was 

evident during 2002 (Figure 9b).

Northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris) is a phocid that breeds locally and migrates 

north during non-breeding. Elephant seals comprised up to 14% of new deposited marine 

mammals each year (Figure 5b). We detected most deposition during the spring (March to May), 

during post-breeding, when the young weanlings leave the colony and experience the greatest 

deposition (

c). Most of elephant seals recorded in surveys were immature. The inter-annual trend indicated 

an increasing deposition of this species during the study period (Figure 9c). Increased deposition 

likely reflects an increasing local breeding population. Since the implementation of the 1972 
BeachCOMBERS: Results & Discussion

17

Marine Mammal Protection Act, elephant seals have been increasing and established new 

breeding colonies in various sites in central California (Sydeman and Allen 1999). 

Mustelidae: Sea otters

Southern sea otter carcasses represented an average 7% of reported marine mammals each year 

(Figure 5b). They were encountered frequently during March to May, and October to November

(

d). Inter-annual comparisons indicated that 2001, 2003 and 2005 were years of increased otter 

deposition (Figure 9e). Timely reporting of sea otter carcasses benefited CDFG researchers 

interested in identifying and quantifying specific mortality factors for this endangered species.

Cetacea: Porpoises, dolphins, and whales

Harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) was the most abundant cetacean found during surveys. 

Porpoise comprise ~3% of the yearly mammal deposition. Harbor Porpoise were most often 

reported during April to Oct, the period of calving, with few reported during winter (

d). An increased deposition of porpoise that occurred in 2004 (Figure 9d) remains unexplained. 

Too few carcasses were fresh enough to conduct thorough necropsies. As was found with the 

Common Murres, an increase in harbor porpoise deposition in 1997-1998 (Figure 5) was 

attributed to an increase in gillnet fishing activity and associated bycatch of porpoise during this 

time (Forney et al. 2001).

UnusualMortality Events

We identified a total of 28 mortality events involving seabirds and marine mammals indicated by 

increased deposition during the past 11 years. Overall, nine of these events were attributed to 

changes in environmental conditions, nine were attributed to oiling, three were due to harmful 

algal blooms, three were related to population increases, two were related to fishery interactions, 

one was due to natural predation, and one was due to unknown circumstances. Of these 28 

mortality events, 15 were classified as Unusual Mortality Events because deposition of one or 

more species exceeded the threshold limit (Table 2,). The remaining 13 mortality events were 

identified based on criteria including an increase in oiling rate, a localized beaching of rare 

species, or unusual numbers of live birds (Table ). 

The majority of the mortality events were attributed to changing environmental conditions. This 

included prey reduction during the 1997-98 and 2001 El Niños (eSDI = 4760, 18; Figure 10), the 

2005 upwelling failure (eSDI = 863), and the 2006-07 Alcid die-off (eSDI = 328). Based on our 

calculated eSDI, the 1997-98 El Niño was by far the most significant mortality event detected by 

BeachCOMBERS because ten species exceeded the TL and the event extended up to 7 months. 

It appears that migratory species were more greatly affected (Mean species SDI = 83) than 

resident species (Mean species SDI = 6). Deposition thresholds were exceeded in summer and 

winter migratory seasons for surf scoters and pacific loons during this protracted event. Whereas 

the two El Niño events had similar composition of species affected including Rhinoceros 

Auklets, a resident species, and two migratory species (Northern Fulmar, Sooty Shearwater), the 

more recent 2005 and 2006-07 events had the greatest effects on resident species, and no 

migratory species showed an increase in deposition. Although environmental variability was also 

attributed as the cause of the Red Phalarope Die-off and the Puffin Invasion, neither of these 
BeachCOMBERS: Results & Discussion

18

events was detected using the TL (Table 2). This is primarily due to the fact that both of these 

seabird species are so rarely encountered and the long-term threshold is not applicable. 

Harmful algal blooms were responsible for three unusual mortality events. Two spring events in 

1998 and 2007 were attributed to the diatom-produced biotoxin Domoic Acid (eSDI = 9, 175), 

whereas the November 2007 Mystery Foam was attributed to an indirect effect of plumage 

fouling by foamy surfactants produced by the dinoflagellate Akashiwo sanguinea (eSDI = 29). 

Nearshore-feeding species including California Sea Lions, Brandt’s Cormorants, Surf Scoters, 

loons and grebes were particularly affected by these events (see Harmful algal blooms). 

An increase in young-of-the-year seabirds, or a population “boom”, was likely the cause of three 

documented mortality events. These events were characterized as Unusual Mortality Events and 

were likely related to food-limitation affecting the young-of-the-year, including the 2000 grebe 

die-off (SDI = 163), the 2003-04 Northern Fulmar die-off (SDI = 672), and the 2006 Common 

Murre Baby Boom (SDI = 53). The 2000 grebe die-off was an acute event, with increased 

deposition occurring for 2-3 months in a localized area (limited to beaches 1 to 5 in northern 

Monterey Bay). The 2003-04 Northern Fulmar Die-off, however, was exceptional because it 

encompassed a large geographic range (>10,000 km) that lasted for several months during the 

winter of 2003 (Nov to March, SDI = 432) and again in the following summer/fall (June to 

October, SDI = 240) of 2004 (see Deposition results: Procellariiformes for details). The other 

mortality event related to a population boom was the Brown Pelican die-off in 2006. This was 

not detected using the SDI because it primarily occurred south of the study area.

Two Unusual Mortality Events in 1997 and 2001 were attributed to fishery interactions, resulting 

in moderate increases in deposition above threshold levels (SDI = 66, 235). Although three 

seabird species had deposition greater than the TL, the endangered status of Brown Pelicans 

caused the 2001 event to rank greater than the 1997 event. Based on fishery observer data, the 

1997 gillnet fishery event impacted several other species of marine mammals and potentially sea 

otters, but the only two species that exceeded the TL for this time period were seabirds: Common 

Murres (SDI = 30) and Brandt’s Cormorants (SDI = 30). 

Although eight mortality events were documented related to oiling, only one was considered an 

Unusual Mortality Event, the Point Reyes Tarball Event (eSDI = 9,Table ). Based on the CDFG 

damage assessment (Luckenbach Trustee Council 2006), many other species of seabirds were 

affected, but this was not reflected in our deposition-based metric. The majority of oiling events 

(6 of 8) were detected by an increase in the oiling rate above 2%, however, and not detected by 

an increase in deposition above the TL (Table 2). Two of these were confirmed as being caused 

by oiling from leaking ships, including a shipwreck (S/S Luckenbach), and a historical landmark 

(S/S Palo Alto). In the case of the S/S Palo Alto, oil leakage had not been observed in the beach 

area because the oil was leaking into wells within the structure that harbor seals, cormorants and 

pelicans were able to access from above, but could not escape easily. During the 2006 clean-up 

operation, approximately 505 gallons of oil and 125 cubic yard so oily sand and residue and 173 

bird, 2 harbor seal and ~50 unidentified carcasses were recovered from the vessel in addition to 
BeachCOMBERS: Results & Discussion

19

those reported on beach surveys. 4Several other mystery spills were considered chronic (duration 

up to 10 months), occurring in 1999, 2004, 2005, 2006, and 2007 (Table 2). Although the 

majority of oil was removed in 2002, the leaking shipwreck S/S Jacob Luckenbach was a chronic 

source of oil-related mortalities throughout the duration of study, primarily impacting Common 

Murres but also fulmars, shearwaters, scoters, and grebes. A few live and dead oiled birds were 

recovered in the study area during the 2007 Cosco Busan oil spill, but this was not detected using 

the TL or oiling criteria, primarily because the event occurred outside of the study area.

Highlights

BeachCOMBERS data have been applied to several cases to understand threats to sanctuary 

resources and identify conservation solutions which merit further discussion. These findings in 

particular have contributed significantly to documenting and quantifying these impacts to marine 

wildlife, including entanglement mortality involving a nearshore gillnet fishery (Forney et al. 

2001), harmful algal bloom-related mortalities (Scholin et al. 2000, Jessup et al. 2009), and oiled 

wildlife (Luckenbach Trustee Council 2006).

Gillnet Fishery

During the 1980s and early 1990s, the California halibut set gillnet fishery incurred increased 

levels of entanglement and mortality of Common Murre, and two sensitive species, southern sea 

otter, and harbor porpoise in Monterey Bay (Croll 1990, Wild 1990, Julian and Beeson 1998). 

The fishery also affected harbor seals, but the impact relative to population size for this species 

was not thought to be of concern. In 1994, fishery depth restrictions were initiated (to 30 fm) to 

reduce bycatch of these species, but thereafter fishing effort shifted towards southern Monterey 

Bay, where deeper waters were closer to shore, and potential interactions were greater. In 1997, 

BeachCOMBERS stranding data indicated an increase in Common Murre on beaches adjacent to 

the area of increased gillnet fishing effort. This prompted an assessment of bycatch mortality by 

Forney et al. (2001) incorporating factors such as water depth and geographic distribution of

fishing effort. Forney et al. (2001) estimated fishery-related mortality of these three sensitive 

species using a combination of BeachCOMBERS data and other observer data collected between 

1990 and 1994, information between 1990 and 1998 on fishery distribution and magnitude, and 

mortality estimates between 1994 and 1998. BeachCOMBERS data indicated that Common 

Murre deposition in the summers of 1997 and 1998, were distinctly greater than those observed 

in similar surveys conducted in 1992 and 1993 by Mason (1997), when there was no fishing 

activity in the area. In 1997, 82% of the Common Murres that BeachCOMBERS volunteers 

found were within a 14 km stretch of beaches surveyed in the southern part of Monterey Bay, 

adjacent to the area of increased gillnet fishing effort. Similarly, Forney et al. (2001) also showed 

increased deposition of harbor porpoise and sea otters, in part from BeachCOMBERS volunteer 

effort. Necropsies of murres at Moss Landing Marine Laboratories indicated the fishery 

disproportionately affected reproductively adult males (8:1) and their attendant young chicks 

(Nevins 2004). During 1980 to 2000, based on Forney et al. (2001) cumulative mortalities of 

murres were estimated at 42,000 birds; these data were used to support an emergency change in 

depth regulations (to > 60 fm) enacted by California Department of Fish and Game in 2000 

 4 CA State Parks and CDFG Press Release, “Old Oil Removed from SS Palo Alto: Historic Cement Ship Now Save 

for Wildlife”, dated October 26, 2006. See: www.dfg.ca.gov/ospr for SS Palo Alto project page.
BeachCOMBERS: Results & Discussion

20

based on take of sensitive species and the likelihood of significant negative impact to the nearby 

murre breeding population at Big Sur, Monterey County. This temporary depth restriction was 

extended several times until it became finalized in April 2002. The BeachCOMBERS data thus 

were instrumental in determining changes in beachcast deposition of marine mammals and birds 

leading to changes in fishery regulations to protected vulnerable species. 

Harmful algal blooms

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) and the biotoxins they produce impact organisms in coastal 

marine ecosystems, including benthic invertebrates, fishes, birds, and whales (Lefebvre et al. 

2002). More importantly, HABs can affect human health via contamination of aquaculture or 

harvested seafood. Therefore, indicators of HABs, which can signal threats to human and marine 

ecosystem health, are important to monitor (Aguirre et al. 2002). Typically, the best indicator 

species are those having a narrow dietary range and those that feed on planktivorous fishes. 

Species including the Brown Pelican and California sea lions feed extensively on northern 

anchovy (Engraulis mordax) in Monterey Bay, are commonly affected by HABs, and serve as 

good ecosystem monitors. Because it is thought that increased human activities and nitrification 

of coastal watersheds can promote conditions for algal blooms, the frequency and intensity of 

HABs is expected to increase in coming years (Shumway et al. 2003). Beach surveys provide 

important data and samples to researchers documenting trends in HABs.

Diatom Bloom: Domoic Acid

BeachCOMBERS have documented mortality events associated with the biotoxin Domoic Acid 

(DA) and have contributed valuable scientific understanding of its effects—including the first 

study to examine the effects of DA in sea lions (Scholin et al. 2000) and sea otters (Krueder et al. 

2003). DA is produced by the pinnate diatom Pseudonitzchia australis and was first identified in 

1986 as the cause of a human outbreak of gastrointestinal illness called Amnesiac Shellfish 

Poisoning. Monterey Bay was one of the first areas where seabird impacts were detected (Work 

et al. 1992). In 1998, BeachCOMBERS documented an acute mortality event affecting 

California sea lions related to this biotoxin (Gulland 2000, Scholin et al. 2000). During this event 

between May 18 and June 19, 1998, more than 70 live and 400 dead California sea lions were 

documented on beaches within Monterey Bay. Live animals treated at the Marine Mammal 

Center showed signs of neurological toxicity including head weaving, seizing, and ataxia. Urine, 

serum, and fecal samples taken from the animals indicated increased levels of DA in their body. 

Pseudo-nitzschia australis was the dominant algal species during this bloom. The neurotoxin 

was detected in planktivorous fish including the northern anchovy and in sea lion body fluids, 

demonstrating conclusively that DA was concentrated as it was transferred from one trophic 

level to the next. Scholin et al. (2000) established an unambiguous connection between this 

HAB and marine mammal mortality by using species-specific DNA probes and DA-receptor 

binding assays to identify P. australis and detect DA in the cells, in combination with liquid 

chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS) to confirm the presence of DA in plankton, fish, 

and sea lion samples. Additionally, histopathology confirmed that animals showing neurological 

toxicity also had lesions in their brains and hearts consistent with DA intoxication. 

Since the 1998 DA mortality event, BeachCOMBERS has contributed to quantify the impact of 

this biotoxin on marine birds and mammals in the Sanctuary. Volunteers have continued to 

report and, when possible, collect fresh dead animals for post-mortem examination at 
BeachCOMBERS: Results & Discussion

21

MWVCRC. During 2005-2007, BeachCOMBERS volunteers collected 628 birds for postmortem exam for the Seabird Health Study. These collections have helped document DA in sea 

otters for the first time (Krueder et al. 2003) and detect the prevalence of smaller-scale DA 

events in seabirds that would have otherwise gone unreported. For example, during January to 

early August 2007, BeachCOMBERS and other local rehabilitation centers submitted 271 freshly 

dead seabirds to the Central Coast Marine Bird Health Study. A small portion of examined birds 

(4%) were identified as potential biotoxin cases as they were in good health, with moderate to 

abundant body fat, and stomachs containing partially digested fish. These birds included 

Brandt’s Cormorants, Red-Throated Loons, Pacific Loons, and Brown Pelicans. In some cases, 

observers reported live birds displaying neurological or behavioral abnormalities consistent with 

biotoxin intoxication such as decreased coordination, depression, and odd behavior such as 

walking on city streets. These neurological symptoms prompted testing of a subset of birds for 

DA. Samples from these birds were submitted to two laboratories for DA testing (California 

Animal Health and Food Safety [CAHFS] and University of California Santa Cruz [UCSC]). Of 

nine birds tested, four were confirmed positive for DA, including 2 Brandt’s cormorants, 1 Redthroated loon, and 1 Pacific loon. As coastal ecosystems are modified through increasing human 

impacts, we expect an increase in the frequency and intensity of HABs –quantifying these 

impacts is a key management issue that beach surveys can help to understand.

Dinoflagellate Bloom: Santa Cruz Mystery Foam

In November 2007, an anomalous beaching of live birds in Monterey Bay, called the “Santa 

Cruz Mystery Spill” (later called Mystery Foam) occurred in three distinct waves: 8 to 14 

November 50 grebes and scoters, 20 and 21 November 135 live and 50 dead fulmars, and 26 to 

29 November 150 grebes, scoters, loons and pelicans. In total, 632 live and dead birds were 

recovered. Although the birds were thought to be oiled as they exhibited plumage fouling and 

loss of waterproofing similar to oiled birds and the event occurred coincident with the 7 

November Cosco Busan spill in San Francisco Bay, the plumage-fouling was later determined to 

be caused by surfactants produced by an algal bloom rather than a petroleum product. The birds 

had apparently been fouled along the waterline by a mildly fishy-smelling and clear substance 

and lost waterproof capabilities. Feathers were analyzed and the agent was determined not a 

petroleum or other chemical but rather of algal origin, likely produced by the breakdown of cells 

of Akashiwo sanguinea, a dinoflagellate (Jessup et al. 2009). It is thought that the by-product of 

the breakdown of the algal bloom caused a foamy surfactant that fouled the birds. This is the first 

time plumage fouling by algal surfactants affecting seabirds has been noted.

Documenting oil on beaches & oiled wildlife

Tar balls

A total of 2423 surveys were completed for which tar ball information was available, this 

includes monthly and mid-monthly surveys. Tar balls were recorded on average at a frequency of 

16 ± 8 % of surveys beaches in each year (n = 11). The frequency of tar balls encountered on 

surveys exhibited a seasonal trend with greater frequencies February to April than during other 

months (Figure 12). The monthly mean frequencies of oiling from the southern Sanctuary 

beaches (Cambria/San Simeon area) were significantly greater than that of northern (Monterey 

Bay area) beaches (X2 = 86.03, df = 11, p <0.001). The southern beaches showed the reverse 
BeachCOMBERS: Results & Discussion

22

trend with relative low frequencies during January and greater frequencies of oiling throughout 

the year.

Oiled birds

Oiled birds showed a seasonal variability in occurrence similar to the frequency of tar on

northern MBNMS beaches. Oiled birds were found more frequently November to May (3 - 7%), 

whereas fewer birds were documented oiled (<2%) during other months (Figure 13). Oil spills 

affected mainly diving seabirds including Gaviiformes, Podipediformes, and Alcids but also 

some Procellariiformes (particularly Sooty Shearwaters). A pulse in oiling rate was associated 

with 1997-1998 Point Reyes Tarball Incident, which occurred in central California oiling ca. 

3,000 birds of which 63% were murres (Hampton et al. 2003). We documented increased oiling 

rates (>2%) in “mystery spill” events that have occurred each winter since that time (Figure 11).
BeachCOMBERS: References

23

Discussion

Volunteers as Citizen Scientists

BeachCOMBERS was based on the concept that well-trained citizen volunteers can 

conduct standardized surveys and collect valuable scientific data that helps assess the 

health of the marine environment in the sanctuary. Over 200 volunteers have contributed 

more than 18,000 hours to BeachCOMBERS during the past 10 years. This entire project 

would not be possible without the integral support and effort of these citizen scientists. 

However, because volunteers collected all data, it was necessary to invest to a large 

amount of time and energy in training and managing volunteers to ensure accurate and

consistent monthly data collection. In return volunteers were provided with enrichment 

activities (e.g., field trips, talks) and given sanctuary-related gifts (e.g., patches, hats) in 

appreciation for their efforts. The high recruitment and retention rate of volunteers in the 

program indicate a continuing interest in the community for this program. 

Deposition Rate is an Index of Mortality

As with any beach sampling program, there were limitations to using the 

BeachCOMBERS data to infer trends in absolute mortality for all species in the 

MBNMS. First, beach deposition is an index rather than an absolute measure of 

mortality rate. To estimate mortality rate, it would be necessary to have known 

population size for each species and also correct for factors such as rarity, body size, 

movement, environmental conditions, depredation, and scavenging. For example, pelagic, 

rare, and small-bodied birds are under-represented in beach surveys (e.g., < 450g, small 

alcids, phalaropes, and storm-petrels). We found that medium and large-bodied seabirds 

(e.g., 450 to 1200 g, murres, grebes, loons) and all pinnipeds, which occur regularly in 

the sanctuary, were adequately represented in our surveys and interannual comparisons 

were possible. Second, despite well-experienced beach observers, carcasses will be 

missed (Ford 2006, Byrd et al. 2009). Third, the depositional environment influences the 

number of birds detected, and storms and large swells can wash carcasses off beaches or 

bury specimens or increase deposition at other beaches. We did not make a correction 

factor for storm intensity, beach slope or other potential environmental conditions which 

may affect deposition, but this would be a requisite for estimating total mortality in future 

analyses. Finally, depredation at sea and scavenging on the beach can influence detection 

rates. Several studies have addressed these issues with regard to obtaining estimates of 

birds killed in oil spill events (i.e., Natural Resource Damage Assessment [NRDA], 

Hampton and Zafonte 2005, Ford 2006), but it was not an objective of this program to 

estimate actual mortality in terms of total numbers of animals killed during a specific 

event. 

One of the persistent problems encountered when interpreting BeachCOMBERS data was 

measuring deposition during major oil spills. During large oiling events, crews 

responding with CDFG-Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR) remove some or 
BeachCOMBERS: References

24

all of the carcasses from the beaches as evidence, and to limit public exposure and further 

wildlife impacts, thus deposition rates measured during these times can be artificially 

reduced. However, because of the nature of the response activities needed, it is not 

possible to control for this in the data, but rather understand it is a limitation of the data. 

For example, during the 1997-1998 Point Reyes Tarball Event, deposition rates 

documented by Beach COMBERS for October 1997 thru March 1998 were severely 

underestimated due to CDFG-OSPR beach response (Figure 11; Hampton and Zafonte 

2005). Despite these limitations, the event was still evident in the SDI, there was an 

increase in percentage of oiled seabirds recorded for this time. To resolve this issue, 

BeachCOMBERS held a meeting with CDFG-OSPR personnel in May 2004, and they 

agreed to provide us with the location, number, species, and condition of carcasses (e.g., 

toe clippings, amount of oil, etc.) removed from MBNMS beaches during oil spill 

response. The incorporation of CDFG-OSPR data is an important consideration for 

interpreting beach survey data in the event of future spills.

Standardized Effort

The program benefited from initiating a survey protocol designed to maximize 

standardization and consistency in effort so that trends could be more easily tracked, and 

we could quickly determine anomalies based on our long-term baseline of calculated 

species-specific threshold limits. We established baseline information for the incidence 

of unusual and other mortality events and by working with MWVCRC Seabird Study we 

have identified novel diseases (e.g., renal coccidosis) and age- and sex-related mortality 

factors, important for understanding population-level impacts. 

Baseline Parameters for Ecosystem Monitoring

We found several parameters useful in quantifying ecosystem impacts to sanctuary 

resources based on beach surveys conducted by BeachCOMBERS, including (i) 

deposition rate standardized by effort, used to determine a threshold level by which 

mortality events were identified and the SDI by which events compared; and (ii) oiling 

rate, and (iii) frequency of tar deposition on beaches, which were used to evaluate oilrelated threats. The threshold level criterion and SDI were useful to quantify and compare 

unusual mortality events in 54% of cases. For oil events, oiling rates were a better 

method of detection than deposition for 89% of events because of the effects of spillrelated response (i.e., carcass removal) on deposition. Events involving few individuals 

of rare or uncommon species in a localized area (e.g., 2004 Orca Kills, 2007 Puffin 

Invasion) were the most difficult to quantify with any parameter, so total number reported 

was the best descriptor of these rare species events for future comparisons. Several events 

that occurred outside the study area may have been significant for the population 

involved (e.g., 2007 Cosco Busan oil spill, 2006 Brown Pelican), but could not be 

assessed with these data given the spatial extent of surveys. Cooperation with local 

wildlife rehabilitation centers also was useful to identify events involving live stranded 

animals (e.g., 1998 DA Bloom, 2007 Mystery Foam). There was only one event to our 

knowledge not recorded by BeachCOMBERS that was documented by a Fish and Game 

biologist involving “hundreds” of California Gulls at Marina Beach that was apparently 

fishery-related, which was not detected on the subsequent beach survey. This indicates at 
BeachCOMBERS: References

25

least some small localized events may go undetected by our survey design. Any events of 

significance and a geographic scope greater than one beach, however, were likely 

detected by our TL analysis. 

Our analysis of species-specific mortality patterns indicated that it was necessary to 

monitor at least 10 common bird and 5 marine mammal species to detect trends in 

human-related and environmentally-driven perturbations such as HABs, oil spills, and el 

Niños in the Monterey Bay region. By monitoring all species and optimizing 

communication with partners such as resource agencies, rehabilitation centers, and 

research institutions, BeachCOMBERS has documented finer-scale events with accuracy 

that may have been missed by only focusing on 10 seabird species (e.g., 2006 Red 

Phalarope). Acute events of short duration (several days to a week) were more difficult 

to detect with our depositional threshold levels, whereas prolonged events (several 

months or more) were more easily captured in the data, primarily due to monthly 

frequency of surveys. 

Pilot studies by MLML to test the ability to conduct surveys more frequently (daily, 

weekly) indicated that increased frequency caused greater variability in duration between 

surveys, missed surveys, and greater effort required to organize substitute volunteers, 

which also resulted in use of less experienced volunteers who missed more birds and 

made incorrect identifications. Given these results, our monthly sampling and threshold 

level approach was the most straightforward, repeatable, and easily measured index to 

provide timely assessment and response to perturbations in the sanctuary. Marine health 

monitoring programs are needed to determine if ocean health is deteriorating, remaining 

stable, or getting better (Gulland and Hall 2007). 

Identifying die-offs or stochastic mortality events, particularly those involving indicator 

species, are important components of monitoring marine ecosystem health (Aguirre et al. 

2002). New approaches to measure complex, multi-species ecosystem components such 

as disease, contaminants, and population demographics are developing, and beach survey 

programs provide essential information about the biological impacts to upper trophic 

level organisms. We found that collaboration with the veterinary expertise of the Seabird 

Health Study at MWVCRC allowed us a greater ability to compare the variable 

demographic composition of events (i.e., young vs. adult), which increased our ability to 

compare relative importance of one mortality event with another. Because no other 

regional center exists to coordinate these different aspects of studying mortality, the 

BeachCOMBERS program has served this role during many events, particularly those 

occurring at the regional spatial scales such as the 2004 Fulmar die-off, 2005 upwelling 

failure, and 2007 Mystery Spill events (Nevins and Harvey 2004, Parrish et al. 2007, 

Jessup et al. 2009). 

The event index (eSDI) allowed for comparisons among events differing greatly in 

species composition. For example, the 2004 fulmar die-off (one species, mostly youngof-year, SDI = 672) compared with the 2005 upwelling failure (multiple species, many 

adults, SDI = 863) indicated that the 2005 event had a greater ecosystem impact than did 

the 2004 event. Whereas the 2005 upwelling failure had multi-species impacts similar to 
BeachCOMBERS: References

26

the 1997-98 and 2001 El Niños5, differences in species composition (i.e., resident vs. 

migratory) and timing of the event indicated that this was not an El Niño. For example, 

one of the best indicator species for the two El Niños was Sooty Shearwater deposition, 

but we did not see significant increases in deposition for this species in 2005. These 

results were corroborated by fishery-oceanographic assessments indicating a “lack of a 

clear ENSO signal in the tropics... and indicates that equatorial processes did not play a 

significant role in creating ENSO-like anomalies in the California Current System” and 

instead the “warmer than normal SSTs were driven by a weak North Pacific High that 

reduced upwelling-favorable winds during the spring of 2005, resulting in weaker than 

normal upwelling along the entire west coast ([CalCOFI 2005-06] Peterson et al. 2006).

Oil pollution is a significant source of mortality for marine birds in the North Pacific and 

is recognized as a global problem for marine wildlife (Camphuyusen et al. 2002). 

Thousands of seabirds have been killed by catastrophic oil spills in central California, 

including the 1971 San Francisco Spill (~10,000), the 1986 Apex Houston (~12,000; Page 

et al. 1990), the 1996 Cape Mochican (12,220) and the 1998 Command (~1,500) 

reviewed by Carter et al. (2001, 2003). Chronic oil pollution, originating from leaking 

shipwrecks, urban runoff, and other non-point sources, was a continual source of 

mortality for seabirds in this study. For example, the source of winter “mystery spills” 

that have occurred in central California periodically throughout the last 20 years was 

finally identified as the S/S Luckenbach, a leaking shipwreck that sank offshore of San 

Francisco Bay in 1953 (Hampton et al. 2003). BeachCOMBERS played an integral role 

in documenting these oiling events and collecting samples, and because the core study 

area was 51 km, we likely attained adequate sampling for oiling rate and species richness 

according to guidelines set forth by Seys et al. (2002) of a minimum study region of 25 to 

40 km for assessing oil spill impacts.

Documenting oiling and presence of tar balls on beaches

The regular frequency of tar ball occurrence on beaches in the Monterey Bay National 

Marine Sanctuary indicates a persistent source of oiling in the region. 

In general, tar ball transport was caused by a combination of wind, currents, and 

nearshore tides, and Shanks (1987) found tar balls also could be transported up to 8 km 

shoreward by the propagation of internal waves. The seasonal pulse of tar balls in 

January to March coincided with increased percentage of oiled birds but an overall 

reduced seabird deposition (< 3 birds km-1

) indicating that the oiling was not just a 

reflection of an increased depositional environment, but rather an increase in chronic 

oiling in sanctuary waters during winter.

Chronic oiling may originate from ship operations and tank washing, historic shipwrecks, 

natural seeps, and pipeline leaks (Hampton et al. 2003). It should be noted that even 

under the International Conference on Marine Pollution: Convention for the Prevention 

 5 The “el Niño” is the warm water phase along the west coast of North America of the El Niño/Southern 

Oscillation (ENSO), a periodic ~4-5 year climatic cycle driven by the air pressure changes in the tropical 

western Pacific. The “La Nina” is the cool water phase (anomalously cooler than normal) of ENSO.
BeachCOMBERS: References

27

of Pollution from Ships and adopted protocol (MARPOL 1978), vessels may discharge 

oil into the sea at a rate of 30 liters per nautical mile (16 L km-1) provided they are 80 km 

from shore. Given this loophole in the legislation, it is likely vessels will continue to 

commonly make discharges at sea. Two historic vessels, the shipwrecked S/S

Luckenbach and the grounded Palo Alto provide examples for significant impacts that 

can be expected from this type of source. Hundreds of shipwrecks of varying size and 

potential cargo scattered throughout the sanctuary waters (The Resources and Undersea 

Threats [RUST] Database, Overfield and Symons 2009) and these should probably be reassessed periodically to determine risks associated with leakage as these vessels 

deteriorate. For example, in 2003 MBNMS surveyed the Montebello, a 139 m tanker 

sunk by a Japanese submarine in 1941, in the southern Monterey Bay Sanctuary and 

determined it was intact (de Marignac and Burton 2003). While direct impacts of oil 

leakage were not reported, derelict fishing nets entangled on the superstructure had 

resulted in ghost fishing (de Marignac and Burton 2003).

Oiled Birds

The baseline percentage of oiled birds reported monthly by BeachCOMBERS during 

non-spill times (2%) was similar to that reported by beach survey programs in GFNMS 

(3.2%, Roletto et al. 2003) and COASST (2.2%, Parrish and Hass, unpublished data). 

While this low-level of oiling was not of immediate concern, it highlights the importance 

of using oil rate as a monitoring tool for determining changes in impacts to marine birds 

(Camphuysen 1998, Camphuysen and Heubeck 2001). Low-levels of oil exposure may 

cause detrimental sub-lethal effects to seabirds —oil exposure may affect immunology, 

plumage waterproofing and insulation, digestion, nutritional state, and depress blood 

chemistry (Burger and Gochfeld 2002), thus affecting the survival of seabirds in a 

number of ways. Past oil exposure can have long-term impacts on seabird populations by 

depressing reproductive abilities, prey resources, and ultimately seabird populations may 

take decades to recover (e.g., 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill, Alaska; Piatt et al. 1990). 

Future studies to determine the source of oiling by detailed chemical fingerprinting 

analysis may help elucidate sources of and determine trends in chronic oiling affecting 

sanctuary beaches and wildlife.

BeachCOMBERS has documented both catastrophic known-source and chronic mysterysource oiling events based on the monthly oiling rate increasing to >2%. Several of these 

events were associated with oil seepage from the 1953 shipwrecked S/S Jacob 

Luckenbach; these included the 1997-98 Pt. Reyes Tarball Incidents and mystery spills in 

1999, 2001/02 and 2003. Two catastrophic spills occurred outside of the core survey area 

during the study period, the September 1998 T/V ommand spill off Pacifica, San Mateo 

County (to the north of the study area) resulting a single month increase in oiling rate (to 

3% of new birds encountered) in the MBNMS and the November 2007 Cosco Busan

crash inside the San Francisco Bay (>5%). These reports were provided to state agencies 

and sanctuary resource managers for damage assessments and resulted in mitigation 

funding amounting, in the case of the Luckenbach, to $21 million (Luckenbach Trustee 

Council 2006). While several of Pt. Reyes Tarball and other winter mystery spills were 

eventually connected to the Luckenbach, several events documented in recent years have 

yet to be resolved (March 2004, January – April 2005, April 2006, and January-February 
BeachCOMBERS: References

28

2007). In 2006, BeachCOMBERS reports helped to identify the source of oil affecting 

cormorants at Seacliff State Beach as coming from the grounded S/S Palo Alto, a historic 

and tourist point of interest. These two oiling sources have subsequently been mediated 

by clean-up efforts. Because oil was located in over 30 different compartments on the 

vessel, complete oil removal was difficult, and approximately 29,000 gallons that were 

not removable remain onboard. The remaining holes in the vessel were sealed at the 

completion of the clean-up (Luckenbach Trustee Council 2006). Recent oil fingerprinting 

of chronic oil by CDFG Petroleum Chemistry Lab indicate small number of mortalities 

were attributed to Luckenbach-sourced oil as recently as 2008, and this shipwreck may 

continue to plague wildlife in coming years (Nevins et al. 2011).

Fishery Bycatch

These results highlight the ability of beach surveys to document bycatch when other 

fishery dependent data are lacking or sporadic, especially for coastal fisheries with small 

fleets. The data contributed by BeachCOMBERS in documenting the bycatch of murres 

and other species in the coastal halibut set gillnet fishery offers a unique example of how 

beach surveys have provided important information for resource management and

conservation. The initial documentation of the increased deposition by BeachCOMBERS 

and the reassessment of fishing bycatch by Forney et al. (2001) led to subsequent changes 

in fishery regulations and protected the local population of Common Murres, Harbor 

Porpoise and other marine mammals from a significant threat. The nearby Big Sur 

breeding colonies, at the southern end of the range for this species, require recruitment of 

immature birds from larger colonies to the north (i.e., Farallon Islands, Point Reyes). 

Given the demographics of the catch reported by Nevins (2004), it was likely that 

stagnating population growth at these breeding locations reported by Carter et al. (2001) 

during the time of the fishery was due to the loss of potential recruits (immature birds) 

being killed during winter and reproductively active adults (chick-rearing males) killed 

during summer. A significant management effort has been underway to restore several 

murre colonies along the central California coast (e.g., McChesney et al. 2007), and 

reduction or elimination of mortality factors such as bycatch are likely to contribute to 

population growth in these areas. 

Harmful Algal Blooms

BeachCOMBERS data has been used successfully to determine large acute UMEs, and 

subtler small-scale mortality events of marine mammals and birds caused by harmful 

algal blooms (HABs), particularly Pseudo-nitzchia australis exuding the neurotoxin 

Domoic Acid (DA, Scholin et al. 2000). P. australis blooms are patchy and episodic in 

nature and DA-related mortality has the potential to go undetected if a small number of 

animals are affected by a relatively small, localized bloom. The timing and species 

composition of the 2007 DA event occurred in two episodes (e.g., March - cormorants, 

May- loons) indicated that these were likely two separate events. These mortalities did 

not appear to have been a result of a large-scale DA-associated mortality event, but rather 

may represented multiple small-scale blooms affecting a small numbers of birds and 

marine mammals (Bargu et al. 2010). Bargu et al. (2010) indicated that increased DA and 

P. australis abundance coincided with live strandings of DA-poisoned sea lions 
BeachCOMBERS: References

29

strandings in events in 1998, 2000 and 2007; however in other years of high toxin 

concentration, the predicted pattern was not found suggesting a more complex 

relationship.

Generally, proving a mortality event was HAB-related was difficult, as species’ 

sensitivities to toxins are often unknown. Further, ascribing a definitive cause of death 

was difficult, and obtaining proper samples can be challenging in the field without 

concurrent algal bloom data. We are just now discovering that although DA was a quickacting toxin, it does not always impact a large group of animals. We have documented 

HAB events since the inception of BeachCOMBERS, but recent increased interest in 

documenting these mortalities (e.g., seabird health study 2005-2007) has likely increased 

the number of events documented in this category. Until a systematic approach is taken to 

developing a monitoring program for HAB-related mortality in the area, many smallscale acute events are likely to go undocumented, and inferring trends in these data may 

be misleading (Shumway et al. 2003). The novel occurrence of a previously 

undocumented source of mortality by the dinoflagellate Akashiwo sanguinea via plumage 

fouling by surfactants from the breakdown of cells during a bloom was a noteworthy 

example of how important BeachCOMBERS data were to understanding biological 

impacts at upper trophic levels (Jessup et al. 2009). Dinoflagellates have increased in the 

phytoplankton community in recent years (F. Chavez, pers. comm.), and we expect future 

events related to these blooms to have similar consequences and characteristics (i.e., 

highly localized stranding of nearshore birds fouled along the waterline by a clear 

substance). Unlike DA, the detection of another A. sanguinea event is likely to be 

reported due to the greater numbers of live birds affected (Phillips et al. 2011)4.

 4 In October and November 2009, a similar Akishiwo event occurred in Oregon, resulting in the live 

stranding and death of more than 700 birds, including loons, scoters, grebes and murres.
BeachCOMBERS: References

30

Management Recommendations

Given the past accomplishments of the BeachCOMBERS program, we offer the 

following recommendations towards furthering the use of marine birds and mammals as 

sentinels of ecosystem indicators in the Monterey Bay and other National Marine 

Sanctuaries:

• Continue long-term standardized surveys with standard effort in the core study 

area of the MBNMS. We have established baselines for deposition of the most 

abundant resident and migratory seabirds and marine mammals, rates of oiling 

and entanglement, oiling on beaches, HABs and related impacts to wildlife. 

Although this 11-year baseline has incorporated environmental stochasticity 

including two El Niños events and one La Nina, given changing global climate, it 

is even more important to continue to build on this baseline by continuing 

monthly surveys. This baseline also will allow for comparisons after major 

regulatory or legislative changes (e.g., offshore drilling, fishing management 

plans).

• Continue to provide opportunities to engage citizen scientists in ecosystem 

monitoring through BeachCOMBERS and other Sanctuary-supported volunteer 

programs (e.g., Team Ocean kayak naturalist, water quality sampling). The 

amount of consistent effort required for maintaining a long-term study is too costprohibitive to do this type of study without volunteers. Local communities also 

benefit from this work by increased connection to sanctuary and stewardship of 

resources, and understanding of seasonal and catastrophic events.

• Monitor changes in Chronic Oil in the MBNMS. This will require continued 

collaboration with CDFG-OSPR for both oil fingerprinting (by submitting 

samples to the Petroleum Chemistry Laboratory) and natural resource damage 

assessment to effectively determine new sources of oil and the quantify the 

impacts to wildlife. This is feasibly and reliably done through incorporating beach 

sampling metrics for oil pollution (i.e., number of tar balls, number of live and 

dead oiled birds) and a regular, systematic reporting of oil pollution to inform 

response activities. 

• Foster collaborative networks among management agencies and other research 

institutions to assist in response to oil spills, HABs and other emerging issues.

BeachCOMBERS has been integral to the collaboration of regional wildlife and 

pathology experts (OSPR-MWVCRC, National Wildlife Health Center), 

rehabilitation centers (International Bird Rescue, SPCA), and other beach survey 

programs (e.g., Beach Watch, COASST, Canada BBS) to understand disease and 

other causes of mortality. 
BeachCOMBERS: References

31

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Shumway, S.E., S.M. Allen, P.D. Boersma. 2003. Marine birds and harmful algal blooms: sporadic victims 

or under-reported events? Harmful Algae 2:1-7.

Shanks, A.L. 1987. The onshore transport of an oil spill by internal waves. Science 235 (4753): 1198-1200.

Simons, Jr., M.M. 1985. Beached bird survey project of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts: December 1, 1975 to 

November 30, 1983. American Birds 39(3):358-362.

Sowls, A.L., A.R. DeGange, J.W. Nelson and G.S. Lester. 1980. Catalog of California seabird colonies. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. FWS/OBS – 80/37. 

Speich, S. M. and T. R. Wahl. 1986. Rates of Occurrence of Dead Birds in Washington's Inland Marine 

Waters, 1978 and 1979. The Murrelet 67( 2): 51-59

Stenzel, L.E., G.W. Page, H.R. Carter, and D.G. Ainley. 1988. Seabird mortality in California as witnessed 

through 14 years of beached bird censuses. Point Reyes Bird Observatory Report for the Gulf of the 

Farallones Nation Marine Sanctuary. 175 pp. 

Sydeman, William S. [personal communication] Farallon Institute for Advanced Ecosystem Research, 101 

H Street, Suite Q, Petaluma, CA 94952. 

Sydeman, W.S. and Allen, S. G. 1999. Pinniped population dynamics in central California: Correlations 

with sea surface temperature and upwelling indices. Marine Mammal Science 15(2):446- 461.

Weise, F. K. and P. Ryan 2003. The extent of chronic marine pollution in southeastern Newfoundland 

waters assessed through beached bird surveys 1984-1999. Marine Pollution Bulletin 46: 1090-1101.
BeachCOMBERS: References

36

Wild, P. W. 1990. The central California Experience: A case history of California Halibut set net laws and 

regulations. Pp. 321–339 In: Haugen, C.W., editor. The California Halibut, Paralichthys californicus, 

resource and fisheries. California Department of Fish and Game, Fish Bulletin 174: 321-339.

Work, T.M, Barr, B., Beale, A.M., Fritz, L., Quilliam, M.A., and Wright J.L.C. 1992.Epidemiology of 

domoic acid poisoning in brown pelicans (Pelicanusoccidentalis) and Brandt's cormorants (Phalacrocorax 

penicillatus) in California. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24: 54-62.

T. Zabka, H. M. Nevins, and E. Phillips 2006. Summary of Red Phalarope (Phalaropus fulicaria) wreck 

based on gross examination. Unpublished Report. Available from: California Department of Fish and Game 

Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, 1451Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95062. 2 p.
BeachCOMBERS: Tables and Figures

37

Table 1. Summary of BeachCOMBERS survey effort by beach. Beach information includes beach segment number, beach name, county, timing of survey, duration of survey effort at beach (in years), and beach length during 1997-2007. Volunteer effort includes total number of surveys, 

average survey time per month, average travel time per month, and total monthly volunteer time, cumulative kilometers walked, survey time and volunteer time.
BeachCOMBERS: Tables and Figures

38

Year Name Species-affects detected Start Sv Ages classes affected not >TL

Other species affected but 

Probable cause of deathc Referenced

1997 Gill net by-catch 66 36 Common Murre Aug 1 30 1 1.2

incidental fishery bycatchHUM-human-related, 

Nevins 2004Forney et al. 2001, 

30 Brandt's Cormorant Aug 1 30 1 1.0

1997-98 El Nino 4760 1792 Surf Scoter (spring/summer 98) Mar 1 256 7 1.0 adult and young

mammalsOther seabirds and marine 

wideENV- reduced prey range- Benson 1999

786 Sooty Shearwater Apr 1 131 5 1.2730 Brown Pelican Mar 2 73 5 1.0516 Cassin's Auklet Apr 1 129 4 1.0266 Pacific Loon (winter 98-99) Dec 1 74 3 1.2227 Surf Scoter (winter 97) Nov 1 63 3 1.2165 Rhinoceros Auklet Apr 1 55 3 1.0120 Northern Fulmar May 1 40 3 1.0

96 Common Murre Jun 1 48 2 1.042 Pacific Loon (spring/summer 98) Apr 1 7 6 1.016 California Sea Lion Jun 1 16 1 1.0

4 Brandt's Cormorant Mar 1 2 2 1.0

1997-98 Pt. Reyes Tarball Event 9 7 Common Murre Oct 1 1 6 1.2

subadult malesall: more adult and 

waterbirds & others55+ spp. of seabirds, 

shipwreck OIL-chronic signal from 

Luckenbach

2 Clark's/Western Grebe Nov 1 2 1 1.0

1998 Domoic Acid bloom 9 9 California Sea Lion May 1 9 1 1.0 adult and young Sea otter (?), seabirds (?) HAB- offshore environment Scholin et al. 2000

2000 Grebe die-off 163 163 Clark's/Western Grebe Mar 1 68 3 0.8 young-of-year (100) None YOY-breeding area (inland) TWS 20042001 El Nino 18 13 Northern Fulmar Mar 1 13 1 1.0 all

lionsOther seabirds, California sea 

wideENV- reduced prey range3 Rhinoceros Auklet Mar 1 3 1 1.0

2 Sooty Shearwater May 1 2 1 1.2 all adult

2001 Entanglement Issue 235 235 Brown Pelican Aug 2 49 3 0.8 young-of-year (100)

Western GullsGull spp., esp. Heerman's and 

fishery interactionHUM-human-related, shore N. Rojek, unpublished

Table 2. Summary of 15 unusual mortality events recorded by BeachCOMBERS, 1997-2007 quantified based on unusual increased deposition for one or more species.

Harbor Porpoise, Sea OtterHarbor Seal, Elephant Seal, 

Event Index 

(eSDI)a

Individual 

Index (SDI)a %>TL Durb Age Factor

2003, PSG 20042003, Roletto et al. Nevins and Carter Hampton et al. 2003, 

winter (76)more young-of-year in males (8:1) in summer; More adults (60) and 

Table 2. Chronological summary of 15 Unusual Mortality Events (UMEs) recorded by BeachCOMBERS 1997-2007. Events were quantified based 

on UME criterion 1 – an unusual increased deposition for one or more species (SDI), and for the entire event (eSDI). Relative magnitude is expressed 

as percentage points exceeding expected threshold (%>TL) calculated for each species. Species vulnerability (Sv): if species affected were threatened 

or endangered (2) or not a species of concern (1).
BeachCOMBERS: Tables and Figures

39

Table 2. continued
BeachCOMBERS: Tables and Figures

40

Table 2. Summary of 13 other mortality events recorded by BeachCOMBERS, 1997-2007, not detected 

with >TL (see Table 2). Baseline data were not available due to the rarity of species but quantified based 

on other criteria including duration, number and species of animals reported, and ages affected, or other 

unusual findings (e.g., oiling). Species vulnerability (Sv): if species affected were threatened or 

endangered, then S =2, if not S = 1.

Year Name Species-affects detected Start Durb Sv Ages affected (%)c Other species affected

Criteria used to classify 

event Probable cause of deathd Referencee

1999 Mystery Spill Common Murre Feb 3 1 12 all Other seabirds (number reported 

includes all species)

Oiled birds >2% OIL-chronic signal from shipwreck 

Luckenbach

BeachCOMBERS 

unpublished data

2001-02 San Mateo Mystery Spill Common Murre Nov 10 1 73 adult (58), hatchyear (42)10+ spp. of seabirds Oiled birds >2% OIL-chronic signal from shipwreck 

Luckenbach

2004 Mystery Spill seabirds Mar 1 1 ? all ? Oiled birds >2% OIL-chronic signal, source unknown BeachCOMBERS 

unpublished data

2004 Orca kills Gray Whale May 2 2 11 calves (100) None Unusual number of rare species 

in localized area

NAT-predation by killer whales Perryman 2005

2005 Mystery Spill Common Murre Jan 10 1 21 adult (92), immature 

(2)

17 spp. of seabirdsf Oiled birds >2%, tarballs OIL-chronic signal, source unknown BeachCOMBERS 

unpublished data

Rhinoceros Auklet Jan 10 1 17 ASY (100)

Northern Fulmar Jan 1 1 5 ASY (100)

Brandt's Cormorant Jan 5 1 6 ASY (100)

Cassin's Auklet Jan 1 1 4 ASY (100)

Sooty Shearwater Aug 2 1 4 AHY(100)

Short-tailed Shearwater Jan 1 1 2 AHY (100)

2005 Cement Ship/ Seacliff Oil Brandt's Cormorant Jun 6 1 4 all Harbor Seals, Brown Pelicans 

entraped in hull

Oiled birds >2% in localized 

area, shore-resting species 

only

OIL-chronic signal from landmark 

historic ship SS Palo Alto

2006 Brown Pelican event Brown Pelican Apr 1 2 31 young-of-year (100) None Localized distribution, more to 

south of study region

YOY-breeding increase Zabka et al. 2006a

2006 Mystery Spill Common Murre Mar 4 1 ? unknown other seabirds Oiled birds OIL-chronic signal, source unknown

2006 Red Phalaropes Red Phalarope Nov 3 1 41 adult (87), female 

(7:1)

None Localized beaching of live 

birds, rare species to detect

ENV-starvation during migration, 

likely related to storm events

Zabka et al. 2006b

2006-07 Mystery Spill Western/Clark's Grebes Apr 2 1 ~750 all Nearshore birds: Surf Scoters, 

Western/Clark's Grebes

Oiled birds >2%; non-petroleum 

fouling of plumage

HAB - surfactant from algal bloom Jessup et al. 2009

2007 Fulmar Die-off Northern Fulmar Nov 1 1 250 young-of-year (100) None Localized massive influx of live 

stranded birds

ENV- starvation SSEP unpublished 

data

2007 Cosco Busan oil spilla Clark's Grebe Nov 1 1 2 all Oiled birds OIL-catastrophic spill in SFO from 

collision

BeachCOMBERS 

unpublished data

2007 Puffin invasion Horned Puffin Mar 4 1 41 immature/sub-adult 

(73)

None Very rare species, and unusual 

timing

ENV- starvation as a result of 

foraging area shift (?)

Phillips et al. 2007

Tufted Puffin Jun 1 1 3

a

 Likely deposition was affected by increased collection effort during spill response, so there was no significant anomally detected.

b

Duration in months.

c

Data from H. Nevins unpublished, post-litigation examination of carcasses (n = 164).

e

Reference includes a significant resulting report, publication, article, poster, or presetation (see Appendix D: List of products for complete details).

f

Includes one oiled individual for each of the following species (see AOU species list): ANMU, BRPE, BVSH, COLO, CORM, MEGU, PALO, PIGU, SHOR, SUSC, WEGR, WEGU.

Table 3. Summary of 13 mortality events recorded by BeachCOMBERS, 1997-2007 not detected with >TL (see Table 2) but quantified based on criteria including duration, number of species and animals reported 

affected, and ages affected.

d

Signal: HAB = Harmful algal bloom, OIL= Petroleum plumage fouling resulting in death, YOY=young of the year mortality, ENV= environmental, reduced prey availability, NAT= other natural mortality factor (e.g. depredation)

Number of 

Animals 

reported

Species vulnerability (Sv): if species affected were threatened or endangered, then S =2, if not S = 1.

Hampton et al. 2003, 

SSEP unpublished 

data

Other waterbirds, mostly in SFO 

Bay, ~50 collected live in area 

(only 2 by Combers)
BeachCOMBERS: Tables and Figures

41

Santa

Cruz

Monterey

3 miles (#28)

Davenport Landing (#27)

4 miles (#25)

Seabright (#22)

Scott Creek (#11S)

Carmel (Section A) (#10N)

Carmel (Section B) (#10S)

Del Monte (#24)

Marina (#8)

New Brighton (#1)

Salinas River (#7)

Moss Landing (#6)

Zmudowski (#5)

Fort Ord (#9)

Manresa (#3)

Sunset (#4)

Aptos (#2)

Wadell Creek (#11N)

SAN MATEO CO

SANTA CLARA CO

SANTA CRUZ CO

MONTEREY CO

0 2 4 8 Miles

Arroyo Laguna (#15)

Sand Dollar (#23)

Moonstone (#12)

San Carpoforo Creek (#17)

San Simeon Creek (#13)

Arroyo de la Cruz (#16)

Morro Bay (#26)

San Simeon Cove (#14)

MONTEREY CO

SAN LUIS OBISPO CO

Monterey Bay

National Marine

Sanctuary

0 5 10 20 Miles

BeachCOMBERS

Beach Locations

Figure 1. Map of Beach COMBERS survey segments in northern and southern [large inset] regions of the 

Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Survey segments are shown in relation to the Sanctuary 

boundary in the small inset. Core study beaches are beaches 1-11 in the northern part of MBNMS. Refer to 

Table 1 for specific beach lengths and survey details.
BeachCOMBERS: Tables and Figures

42

Figure 2. Cumulative number of active (including both new recruits and retained) and retired BeachCOMBERS 

volunteers: 1997–2007.
BeachCOMBERS: Tables and Figures

43

Figure 3. Cumulative BeachCOMBERS volunteer hours including survey time and travel time: 1997–2007. Number of beaches surveyed are 

indicated (n).
BeachCOMBERS: Tables and Figures

44

Figure 4. Long-term overall new deposition of all seabird species (birds km-1): 1997–2007.
BeachCOMBERS: Tables and Figures

45

A

B

Figure 5. Annual composition of beachcast a) seabirds and b) marine mammals by taxonomic 

group, 1997–2006. “Other species” includes those individuals not identified to species level.
BeachCOMBERS: Tables and Figures

46

Figure 6. Monthly mean deposition of ten most abundant seabirds, 1997-2007. Data shown are for new deposition on 11 core beaches in northern Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary (#1-11, Figure 1). Bars represent one standard error (SE, n = 11 yrs.).
BeachCOMBERS: Tables and Figures

47

Figure 7. Inter-annual comparison of mean new deposition of ten most abundant seabirds, 1997-2007. For each species data represent deviation of species mean deposition from long-term species mean deposition (1997-2007). Data shown are for 11 core beaches in northern 

Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary (beaches #1-11, Figure 1). Bars represent one standard error (SE, n = 11 yrs.).
BeachCOMBERS: Tables and Figures

48

Figure 8. Monthly mean deposition of the most common marine mammals, 1997–2007. See text in Results for description of speciesspecific depositional patterns.
BeachCOMBERS: Tables and Figures

49

Figure 9. Inter-annual deposition of the most common marine mammals reported within core study area, 1997–2007. See map 

(Fig. 1) and text for description of 11 core beaches.
BeachCOMBERS: Tables and Figures

50

Figure 10. Event Standard Deposition Index (log scale) for 15 Unusual Mortality Events defined by one or more species exceeding the 

threshold limit, 1997-2007. See text and Table 2 for description of specific events detected using this method.
BeachCOMBERS: Tables and Figures

51

Figure 11. Oiled seabird deposition (seabirds/km) and percent oiled, 1997-2007. Significant oiling events were identified when the percent of oiled birds exceeded two percent monthly (see Table 2 for summary of events).
BeachCOMBERS: Tables and Figures

52

Figure 12. Mean frequency of surveys with tarballs for the northern (beaches #1–11) 1997-2007 and southern (#12–17) survey areas, 

2001–2007.
BeachCOMBERS: Tables and Figures

53

Figure 13. Monthly mean percent of oiled birds 1997

–2007.
Appendix A: BeachCOMBERS Protocol

54

Appendix A: Protocol

Introduction

This protocol is for volunteers to follow while conducting systematic beach surveys 

for as part of the Coastal Ocean Mammal/ Bird Research & Education Survey 

program (a.k.a. Beach COMBERS) in the Monterey Bay National Marine 

Sanctuary (MBNMS). Beach surveyors should consult field guide to aid in 

identification of the common species of marine birds and mammals. The primary 

reference is “Beached Marine Birds and Mammals of the North American West 

Coast: A revised guide to their identification” (Ainley et al. 1986) and “Birds of 

North America” (National Geographic Society).

Data Collection

There are two data forms to fill out on each survey. The header sheet will include the beach segment 

number, names of surveyors, date, time, start and end times, weather, number and size of tarballs, and 

general notes or findings during survey. The beached organism datasheet will include detailed description 

of each animal encountered during your survey. It is important that for each beached animal every field in 

the survey datasheet is completed or filled with a dash to indicate that you have checked each carcass for 

scavenging, oiling, and tags. Descriptions of each field in the datasheet are listed below.

Species (code)

Identify the animal to the best of your ability, using your field guides, training materials, and Beached Bird 

and Mammal book. Consult your partner to agree on the most conservative taxonomic level. For example, 

if it is a phalarope, but the carcasses is heavily scavenged and your partner thinks it to be a red, but you a 

red-necked, record PHAL for unidentified phalarope in the Species code field. Use the species code list 

provided which uses the four-letter abbreviation for the standardized common names. If you then decide to 

key out the species using the Beached bird book and now know that in fact it is a red phalarope, then record 

the species as REPH. Include details of how you identified the animal when you have used the key, such as 

record the wing chord and bill measurements and coloration of bill, feet, or other characters you may have 

used to identify to species. If you take photos to identify an animal, please include digital or hard copies 

with your monthly data submission.

If you are not able to identify a bird use UNID or lowest taxonomic level, and put comments in the notes 

field, if you have other description, but questionable identification. For example, you could put PINN for 

unidentified seal or sea lion, and in notes, it might read “possible ZACA, skull missing”.

Condition (1-4)

The condition of the carcass can often tell you how long it has been on the beach and whether it is in good 

enough condition to determine probable cause of death or collect for necropsy. Condition 1 indicates a live 

injured, dying, sick or oiled animal. Please note location and condition to relay to appropriate wildlife 

rehabilitation center. Condition 2 is considered fresh dead, a carcass that has just washed in from the sea. 

Although a condition 2 carcass may be scavenged, it will have fresh blood and tissue exposed. Only collect 

condition 2 animals for necropsy, unless it is a rare or endangered species or a cetacean of any kind. 

Condition 3 is a decomposing animal, often has bugs and/or deteriorating tissue. Condition 4 indicates that 

the animal is no longer decomposing at a fast rate because it has dried out and become mummified. 

Condition 3 and 4 differ in that the tissue is no longer soft, but is hard, the condition 4 carcasses are 

generally stiff. 

Sex (M/F/U)

You will not be able to distinguish the sex of many seabirds because they are monomorphic (sexes look 

alike) and therefore sex will be “U” for unknown. The exceptions are ducks which have different male and 

female plumages (i.e., surf scoters), and gulls and grebes in which the sexes have different sized or shaped 

bills. You should try to examine all pinnipeds and cetaceans to determine the sex of the animal. Using a 
Appendix A: BeachCOMBERS Protocol

55

stick, roll the animal onto its back, so that the central ventrum (belly) is exposed. The sex of the animal can 

mainly be determined on fresher (condition 1- 2) carcasses. Scavenging at the orifices is common, and 

makes it difficult to sex heavily scavenged carcasses. Male pinnipeds will have a penile opening posterior 

(toward tail end) of the umbilicus (belly-button), whereas female pinnipeds will only have one ventral mark 

for the umbilicus. Cetaceans differ in the presence (females) or absence (males) of two mammary slits on 

both sides of the central genital slit. Consult the pg. 172 (pinnipeds) and pg. 187 (cetaceans) for 

illustrations of differentiating among sexes in marine mammals. If you are unsure of the sex, record “U” in 

this field. 

Age (Birds: HY, AHY, FY, SY, TY; Mammals: PC, IM, AD)

Birds are difficult to age; most seabirds can only be differentiated into juvenile or hatch-year (HY) and 

after-hatch-year (AHY) plumages. Gulls may have a series of two or three plumages after the first year, 

corresponding to the second-year (SY), third year (TY), before reaching the adult (AD) plumage. Consult 

your field guide to distinguish age by plumage, bill and foot coloration. Often there is little difference in 

bill or wing length among age classes.

Mammals are primarily aged based on size. Using rings of enamel in the teeth, researcher will be able to 

obtain a specific age, but for the purposes of the beach survey, we are only recording broad age classes. 

Mammal pups or calves (PC) are the smallest age class, followed by sexually immature or subadult (IM), 

and the oldest, largest animals are considered adults (AD). In some species there are other characters which 

distinguish the males as adults, such as the sagittal crest of the adult male California sea lions and the 

pronounced, billowing nose of the adult male Northern elephant seal.

Toe Clipping (0 – 6, 8, 9)

To determine how long a beached animal has been on the beach, we use a toe-clipping system to mark bird 

carcasses and twine to mark mammals. Each time a carcass is encountered, one toe is clipped off or a piece 

of twine is tied around the rear flipper. Because cetaceans and sea otters always will be collected, there is 

no need to mark these animals. There are two columns for coding this; “previous” refers to the number of 

toes that were clipped previously, before your present survey, and “post” refers to how many have been 

clipped after you leave the animal. So the first time a new animal washes up on the beach it will be coded 

as “0/ 1” corresponding to no toes clipped and then one clipped. The second month if it is encountered 

again, it will be “1/2”, then “2/3” on the third survey, and so on, “3/4, 4/5, 5/6, and 6/6”. We stop clipping 

toes after 6 toes of both feet or 3 on a bird with one foot (because not all species have 4 toes, but all have 

3). If a bird only has one foot, then it will be coded as “0/1, 1/2, 2/8”, indicating that all toes have been 

clipped on bird with one foot only, code “8”. If the carcass only has no feet or one foot, please record this 

in the notes. Twine on mammals is coded similarly, with no limit to the number of pieces that are placed on 

a carcass. If an animal is collected, please indicate “9” in the post field and record this in the notes. If a 

wildlife agency has been notified of the occurrence of a dead protected or rare species (sea otters, turtles, 

cetaceans, snowy plovers or brown pelicans), please record this in the notes.

Scavenged (Y/N/U)

Most carcasses are scavenged when they are fresh and newly deposited on the beach. Typical scavengers 

include gulls, coyotes, turkey vultures and shore crabs. Scavengers target the breast of birds and eyes and 

other orifices of marine mammals. If the carcass has been scavenged, skin will be torn or ripped, exposing 

the underlying tissue. Record “Y” (yes) in this field if there is evidence of scavenging and “N” (no) if there 

hasn’t been scavenging (i.e., the carcass is intact). Record “U” (unknown) if the carcass is too old and 

mummified to determine scavenging.

Cause of Death (1- 4)

Try to determine probable cause of death, such as 1) shot, look for both entry and exit wound as scavenger 

pecks can look very similar (sometimes an x-ray is necessary to see bullet fragments, 2) tangled in fishing 

line or net, make sure that the line didn’t wrap around animal after it died, look for signs of wearing of skin 

or feathers near entanglement site, 3) tangled in plastic, 4) unknown, if other, write in notes field. Describe 

in notes and take photos to document cause of death. Generally, you will not be able to determine cause of 

death during your beach survey unless the carcass is really fresh. Collect fresh (condition 2) specimens for 

necropsy to determine other causes.
Appendix A: BeachCOMBERS Protocol

56

Oiled (Y/N/U)

Check each bird and mammal for oiling. You will only be able to determine oiling of carcasses in relatively 

good condition and that have not been scavenged extensively. Record “Y” (yes) if oiled, and continue to 

describe extent and where oiled in next two fields. If the animal is not visibly oiled, record “N” (no), and 

write dashes in the next two fields. If the carcass is not intact enough to determine if it is oiled or not, 

record “U” (unknown) in this field. Be conservative and careful, dried blood, and diatom growth on 

feathers can be mistaken for oil. Oil tends to make the tiny barbules of the feather stick together, whereas 

diatoms will grow along these structures, making it look frayed. If a bird was oiled for a while before 

dying, it may also have oil on its bill from preening oiled feathers.

Oil Extent (1-4)

Estimate the percentage of the surface of the body that is covered by the oil. The codes are 1) small 

globules, <2% of the body, 2) 2-33% of the body, 3) 34-66% of the body, 4) 67-100% of body. If it is 

covering the entire ventrum, this is considered 50%. Take a photo of the oiled area and another of the head 

to verify the identity of the animal for documentation. Continue description in next field.

Where oiled (1-7)

Examine the animal to determine which parts have been exposed to oil. Code as 1) dorsal only (back), 2), 

ventral only (belly), 3) entire body, 4) head only, 5) feet only, 6) wings or flippers only, 7) other, please 

record description in notes if oiling does not fit into any of the other categories. Most often, birds are oiled 

on the ventrum when they roost on the water, whereas pinnipeds tend to be oiled on the head and shoulders 

when they surface.

Photo (Y/N)

Take a photo of animals which are oiled, entangled or show other evidence of human-related activities (i.e., 

six-pack plastic rings around body). Photograph banded or tagged animals, especially if cause of death is 

evident. Also take photos of interesting finds, such as sharks, unusual flotsam or jetsam. Indicate “Y” (yes) 

if a photo was taken and record roll and frame number in notes column. Record “N” (no) if no photo was 

taken. Photographs are optional. Please send in your photos via email or regular mail with your monthly 

data submission.

Tag (Y/N)

Tag refers to tags or other markings (brands, bands) applied by other researchers. Check both legs of birds 

for bands and all flippers of pinnipeds for tags, if none, record “N” (no) in this field. If the animal is tagged 

or marked in any way, such as a metal leg band, brand mark, or plastic flipper tag, indicate “Y” (yes) in the 

Tag field. Describe color, location, and number of tag in notes field. For example, you would record “TAG 

= Y, NOTES = #1209-23478 metal leg band (on right leg), collected”. All tags are reported by the data 

manager to the national bird banding lab (birds), National Marine Fisheries Service (marine mammals), 

California Department of Fish and Game (sea otters), or U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (endangered 

species).

Notes

Use this field to record more detailed information from any of the other data, such as unusual species (not 

on list), measurements (standard length = nose to tip of tail), tag number, location and description, Photo 

roll and frame number, disposition of animal if it has been removed from beach (i.e., collected for 

necropsy, Moss Landing Marine Lab)
Appendix B: BeachCOMBERS Datasheets

57

Appendix B: Datasheets

Page 1 of ___

Beach COMBERS Data Form

(please use pencil)

Date_________________ Time dedicated to the survey (h:mm)

Surveyor Names Survey Travel Online Data entry Other

______________________________

______________________________

_____

_____

_____

_____

_____

_____

_____

_____

Beach segment: Segment number_____

Segment name____________________________________________

Northern boundary_________________________________________

Southern boundary_________________________________________

Start time________ End time________

Weather:

sunny__, overcast__, drizzle__, or rain__

Wind:

calm__, light__, moderate__, or strong__

Tar balls:

Number found _____ (count to 10; 11 to 50; 51 

to 100; 101 to 1,000; more than 1,000)

Number collected _____

Size range (Diameter inches)_________

Marine mammals: Number Called in ____ Data entered on line: Yes ____ No___

General comments (oiled wildlife, sampled collected, unusual sighting, additional surveyors, etc.):

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Return to: Beach COMBERS-MLML, 8272 Moss Landing Road, Moss Landing, Ca 95039

Telephone: (831) 771-4422

Version 2. May 2010
Appendix B: BeachCOMBERS Datasheets

58
Appendix B: BeachCOMBERS Datasheets

59
Appendix C: Timeline of products, posters, presentations and accomplishments

60

Appendix C: Timeline of products, posters, presentations and 

accomplishments

2008

Contributed to paper: “Entanglement of marine birds and mammals and seabirds in central California and 

north-west coast of the United States 2001 -2005” by E. Moore et al. in press. Marine Pollution Bulletin

Contributed to Poster: C. Gibble, Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary Currents Symposium 2008, 

Oceans of Change: Our Climate, Our Sanctuary, Our Future, April 5, 2008.

Contributed to Poster: E. Phillips, Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary Currents Symposium 2008, 

Oceans of Change: Our Climate, Our Sanctuary, Our Future, April 5, 2008. 

Contributed to Presentation: “Plastic Ingestion by Seabirds Used to Quantify and Evaluate Trends in 

Pollution” H. Nevins, et al. NOAA Marine Debris Forum, April 1-3, 2008, Bethesda, MD

Presentation: “A decade of BeachCOMBERS: 1997-2007” Santa Cruz Bird Club, May 2008

Training: Bird identification in the field, Team Ocean, May 10, 2008

2007

Paper: “Beached birds and physical forcing in the California Current” by Parrish, J.K., N. Bond, H. Nevins, 

N. Mantua, R. Loeffel, W. T. Peterson, and James T. Harvey. 2007. Marine Ecology Progress Series 352: 

275-288.

Contributed to MS thesis: “Entanglement of marine species: a case study in central California” by Emma 

Moore, Imperial College, Univ. of London, London, UK, Oct 2006.

Contributed to Poster: “Bird entanglements observed during beach monitoring surveys”, E. Moore, S. 

Lyday, J. Roletto, K. Litle, H. Nevins, and J. Harvey. Pacific Seabird Group Meeting, 7-11 February, 

Asilomar, CA.

Training: 22 new volunteers were trained, MLML.

Training: Team Ocean, MBNMS, May 2007.

2006

Poster: “BeachCOMBERS: using surveys of beached marine birds to monitor natural and human-related 

mortality in the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary”, MBNMS Currents Symposium, March, 2006

Presentation: “BeachCOMBERS: using surveys of beached marine birds to monitor natural and humanrelated mortality in the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary”, Ecology and Management of Seabirds, 

The Wildlife Society, Western section annual meeting 2006.

Training: “Life Beneath the Surface” presentation of sanctuary research, H. Nevins August 16, 2006.

Training: Moss Landing Marine Laboratories

Training: Team Ocean, MBNMS, April 2006.

Volunteer appreciation: Association of Monterey Bay Area Governments and Monterey Bay National 

Marine Sanctuary, Reflection awards, Monterey Marriott, March 3, 2006.Volunteers of the year: Glen 

Seiler & Pamela Kearby

2005

Report: “BeachCOMBERS: Coastal Ocean Mammal & Bird Education and Research Surveys in central 

California, 1997-2004” Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, March 3, 2005. 32 pp.

Preliminary Report: “Report on CA Seabird Mortality Event, January – March, 2005” by H. Nevins, J. 

Harvey, M. Miller, D. Jessup, S. Lyday, and J. Roletto. June 20, 2005.

Presentation: “Seabirds as indicators of plastic pollution in the North Pacific”, Nevins et al. Plastic Debris: 

Rivers to Sea Conference, September 7-9, 2005, Redondo Beach, CA

Presentation: BeachCOMBERS: Coastal Ocean Mammal & Bird Education and Research Surveys in 

central California, 1997-2004. Pacific Seabird Group Meeting, Portland, OR, January 21, 2005

Poster: “BEACHCOMBERS: Using surveys of beached marine birds to investigate natural and humanrelated the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, 1997 – 2004”, Currents Symposium, CSUMB, 

March 2005
61

Article: “BeachCOMBERs update” by H. Nevins and J. Harvey. Ecosystem Observations 17:18-19

Contribution to article: “Winter mortality of surf scoters” L. Henkel and H. Nevins, J. Harvey, and S. 

Benson Ecosystem Observations 2005:19-20.

Award: MBNMS volunteer of the year award – Glenn Seiler & Pam Kerby, March 3, 2005

Training: Volunteer refresher course, Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, June 4-5, 2005.

Outreach/Education: Migration Festival, Seacliff State Park, February 12, 2005, Aptos, CA 

2004

Article: “Mortality of Northern Fulmars in Monterey Bay” H. Nevins and J. Harvey. Ecosystem 

Observations, 2004.

Poster: “An unusual mortality of Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis)”, Harvey et al. Currents 

Symposium “Clean Waters, Healthy Oceans”, California State University Monterey Bay, March 6, 2004.

Presentation: “An unusual mortality of Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis)”, Pacific Seabird Group 

Meeting, La Paz, Mexico, January 2004.

Presentation: “An unusual mortality of Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis)”, The Wildlife Society 

Meeting, Rohnert Park, CA, February 28, 2004.

Award: NOAA Environmental Hero, April 2004

Award: Certificate of Congressional Recognition, Senator Sam Farr, April 25, 2004

Meeting: Beach Survey Program (BeachCOMBERS) and oil spill response (OSPR): data sharing and 

communication, Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, January 9, 2004.

Meeting: CDFG Oiled Wildlife Response Plan, Yolo Wildlife Area, Davis, CA, May 3, 2004.

Training: NOAA B-WET Teacher Enhancement Workshop, Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, July 27, 

2004.

Presentation: “When to call a die-off unusual: documenting stranding rates with systematic beach surveys”, 

CA Marine Mammal Stranding Network Symposium” by T. Brookens, H. Nevins & J. Harvey, Santa 

Barbara, CA, March 18-20, 2004.

Presentation: “An unusual mortality of Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis)”, California Council for 

Wildlife Rehabilitators, Tenaya Lodge, Yosemite, CA September 18, 2004.

Presentation: “Tale of two seabirds: life on wing and under waves” H. Nevins 7 J. Adams, American 

Cetacean Society, Hopkins Marine Lab, Monterey, CA, Sept. 30, 2004.

Contributed to thesis: “Diet, demography, and diving behavior of the common murre (Uria aalge) in 

central California.” H. Nevins, Moss Landing Marine Laboratories and San Francisco State University, 

Oct. 24, 2004.

Training: Team Ocean, Monterey Bay Sanctuary, Monterey, CA, May 25, 2004.

2003

Preliminary Report: Mortality of Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) in Monterey Bay during winter 

2003. H. Nevins & J. Harvey, Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, 3 pp.

Poster: "Monitoring changes in oiling rates of beached marine birds in the Monterey Bay National Marine 

Sanctuary" Currents Symposium, CSUMB, March 15, 2003.

Meeting: CDFG-OSPR regarding oiled wildlife response plan, Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, 

December 29, 2003.

Article: ”Unusual debris: glass fishing floats and whisky bottles”

Training: “Murre aging & sexing” with BeachWATCH program, 17 participants, Marine Wildlife 

Veterinary Care & Research Center, Santa Cruz, CA. Nov. 15, 2003

Training: refresher course 3 Cambria volunteers, Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, December 3, 2003

Enrichment: 6th Anniversary Potluck, Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, August 14, 2003

Training: Team Ocean, Monterey Bay Sanctuary, Monterey, CA, May 2003

2002

New Beaches (5): Sand Dollar, Big Sur; Castle Rock, Santa Cruz; 4-mile, Santa Cruz, spilt beach 11 (11NWaddell/11S-Scott’s); Del Monte, Monterey is resumed

Article: “Monitoring Mortality Events and Oiling of Seabirds and Marine Mammals Using Beach 

COMBERS Data“ by H. Nevins and J. Harvey, MBNMS Ecosystem Observations, 2002.

Newsletter Article: “Beached Bird Surveys, Dead Birds Do Tell Tales.” Ely, E. 2002. The Volunteer 

Monitor, the National Newsletter of Volunteer Watershed Monitoring 14(1) 10-13.
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Poster: "Detecting Oiled Seabirds in the Monterey Bay" at the 29th Annual Meeting of the Pacific Seabird 

Group, Santa Barbara, California, February 20-23, 2002

Poster: "Detecting Oiled Seabirds in the Monterey Bay" at the MBNMS Currents Symposium 2002, March 

9, CSUMB.

May 2002: Completed training class for 22 new + 4 sanctuary volunteers.

Outreach/Recruitment: 10th Anniversary Celebration Ocean’s Fair, Monterey 

Outreach/Recruitment: 10th Anniversary Celebration, San Simeon, CA Table (volunteers P. & C. Adams) 

Sept. 5, 2002.

Outreach/Education: “Seabird Ecology” unit of Explorations in Marine Science – MLML & John Hopkins 

University, 44 students. November 2, 2002.

Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary Volunteer Appreciation Event. Star of the Sea certificate "In 

great appreciation for your generous contribution of time and dedication to the Monterey Bay National 

Marine Sanctuary, preserving it for future generations. We, at NOAA's National Marine Sanctuaries, 

extend our thanks and gratitude." Presented to the Beach COMBERS June 8, 2002.

2001

May 2001: Added 6 new beaches to the program in the southern region of MBNMS. Two day training class 

for 17 new volunteers.

Draft Report: "Beach COMBERS (Coastal Ocean Mammal / Bird Education and Research Surveys) May 

1997 - December 2000." Submitted to the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, September 2001

Presentation: "Beach COMBERS a Beach Monitoring Program to Assess Natural and Anthropogenic 

Changes in Populations of Birds and Mammals in the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary" Sixth 

Biennial Workshop on Research in the Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary October 25, 2001

2000

Contribution to paper: "Central California gillnet effort and bycatch of sensitive species, 1990-98." 

Proceedings of an International Symposium of the Pacific Seabird Group, Semi-Ah-Moo, Washington, 

February, 1999. 

Contribution to article: "Mortality of sea lions along the central California coast linked to a toxic diatom 

bloom." Scholin et al. 2000 NATURE 403(6) 80-84.

Poster: "Can we distinguish between natural and anthropogenic beach deposition events?" at the MBNMS 

Currents Symposium 2000, March 18, Santa Cruz, California. Awarded Best Thematic Poster.

1999

Article: Ecosystem Observations, Annual Report for the MBNMS, Article: "Seabirds within Monterey Bay 

- Observations of the quick and the dead."

Poster: "Monitoring Beachcast Marine Birds And Mammals In Monterey Bay" at the MBNMS Currents 

Symposium 1999, March 20, Seaside, California.

Report: "Establishing a Beach Monitoring Program to Assess Natural and Anthropogenic Changes in 

Populations of Birds, Mammals, and Turtles in the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary." Moss 

Landing Marine Laboratories Technical Publication 99-03.

1998

Award: Volunteer Recognition Award, presented to Beach COMBERS by Under Secretary of Commerce 

for Oceans and Atmosphere, at the National Oceans Conference, Monterey, California.

Article: Ecosystem Observations, Annual Report for the MBNMS, Article: "Deposition of marine birds and 

mammals on Monterey Bay beaches."

Poster: "Monitoring beachcast seabirds in Monterey Bay" at the 25th Annual Meeting of the Pacific 

Seabird Group, Monterey, California.

Poster: "Monitoring beachcast seabirds in Monterey Bay" at MBNMS Currents Symposium 1998, March 7, 

Santa Cruz, California.

Newspaper article: "Beached creatures tell tales: counters keep grim but vital tally." February 5, 

Californian, Salinas, California.

Newspaper article: "Combing the beach a learning experience." February 1, Press Democrat, Santa Rosa, 

California.
63

Newspaper article: "Beach COMBERS record beaches' dead." February 1, The Bryan-College Station 

Eagle, Texas.

Newspaper article: "Walking a grisly patrol: BeachCOMBERS record beaches' dead." January 9, Monterey 

County Herald, Monterey, California.

MBNMS Newsletter: "Beach COMBERS take to the sands!”

1997

Newspaper article: "Survival fight for ocean foul: Volunteers scramble to save hundreds of birds from oily 

residue in Monterey Bay." October 27, San Jose Mercury News, San Jose, California.

Newspaper article: "Seabird deaths mystify wildlife experts." August 13, San Jose Mercury News, San 

Jose, California.

Beach COMBERS monitoring program begins in May.