by Liz Battocletti Bob Lawrence & Associates, Inc.

November 2000
by Liz Battocletti Bob Lawrence & Associates, Inc.

November 2000

Prepared for Idaho National Engineering

 & Environmental Laboratory

Under Purchase Order No. F99-181039

And the U.S. Department of Energy,

Assistant Secretary for Energy Efficiency

 & Renewable Energy,

Office of Wind & Geothermal Technologies

Under DOE Idaho Operations Office

Contract DE-AC07-99ID13727
Geothermal Resources in Russia November 2000

This information was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the U.S. Government. Neither the U.S.

Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any

legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or

process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific

commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily

constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the U.S. Government or any agency thereof. The

views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the U.S. Government or any

agency thereof.

Disclaimer
Geothermal Resources in Russia November 2000

INTRODUCTION .............................. 1

RUSSIA

Power Profile ............................ 3

Power Summary .......................... 3

Government / Legislation ................... 5

Geothermal Law ................... 12

Maps

Administrative Divisions ............. 15

Kamchatka Peninsula ................ 16

Geothermal Sites / Projects ...................... 17

Table ....................................... 21

CONCLUSION ............................... 85

INDEX OF SITES ............................. 86

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................. 88

Table of Contents
Geothermal Resources in Russia 1

The Database of Geothermal Resources in Russia

contains information on 107 specific geothermal sites or

projects with a projected electricity generation potential of

2031.7 MWe. It was compiled using information

collected in an extensive data and Internet search which

accessed technical literature dating back 25 years, as well

as numerous other U.S. and Russian sources. 

According to the Geothermal Energy Association, , using

today’s technology, the countries of the former USSR,

including Russia, have a geothermal electricity production

potential of 768-1902 MWe. Using enhanced technology,

the potential is 1501-3741 MWe.1

According to Russian sources, geothermal energy could

theoretically produce almost 2%, or 16.9 billion kWh, of

Russia’s electricity.2

Kamchatka Peninsula and the Kuril Islands have the

richest resources of geothermal power available with

electric generation potential of up to 2000 MWe and a heat

capacity of more than 3000 MWt (Povarov, 2000).

The Database of Geothermal Resources in Russia was

compiled and built by a team led by Liz Battocletti of Bob

Lawrence & Associates, Inc. for UT-Battelle LLC under

Purchase Order Number F99-181039, “Collection and

Assembly of Published Data on Geothermal Potential.” 

Thanks goes to Joel Renner of Idaho National Engineering

and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL); Allan Jelacic of

the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Wind and

Geothermal Technologies; and the other individuals,

companies, and organizations who provided assistance and

information. 

Special appreciation goes to Andrey Reznichenko, Energy

and Fuel Attaché at the Embassy of the Russian

Federation; Oleg Povarov, Vice President, CSC Geoterm; 

Vladimir Kononov of the Geological Institute of the

Russian Academy of Sciences; Grigoriy V. Tomarov,

Director, CSC Geoterm; Nick Mikhailov, Commercial

Specialist, U.S. Embassy–Moscow; Andrew Collier,

International Trade Specialist, Infrastructure Division,

Power Projects, U.S. Department of Commerce; and

1 Geothermal Energy Association, Preliminary

Report: Geothermal Energy, the Potential for Clean

Power from the Earth (Washington, D.C., April

1999). 

2 Oleg Povarov, CSC Geoterm Vice President,

Alexander’s Gas and Oil Connections: News and

Trends, CIS/Russia, 

http://www.gasandoil.com/goc/news/ntr02519.htm.

Introduction
Geothermal Resources in Russia 2

Valentina Svalova, Head of the International Projects

Department of the Institute of Environmental Geoscience,

the Russian Academy of Sciences.

The three pictures of Mutnovsky on the cover of the report

were provided by CSC Geoterm. The background

photograph was taken in October 2000. The picture in the

upper left-hand corner is a rendition of the 12 MWe (3 x

4) MWe Verkhne-Mutnovsky geothermal power plant. 

The picture in the lower right-hand corner is the 50 MWe

(2 x 25) Mutnovsky geothermal power plant. 

For immediate dissemination to the industry, the report

has been converted to a PDF file.3

The Database includes:

• Power Profile - basic information on Russia, e.g.,

population, GDP, installed capacity, electricity

prices, etc.;

• Power Summary - description of Russia’s power

sector and privatization efforts; 

• Government / Legislation - relevant Russian

government agencies and laws; and 

• Geothermal Sites / Projects - includes a Site

Summary for each:

1. Name

2. Location

3. Status

4. Temperature

5. Installed Capacity (MWe/MWt)

6. Potential (MWe/MWt)

7. Chronology

8. Notes

Dynamic Database

The Database is designed to be dynamic. Created using

Microsoft® Access 2000, it can be easily updated or

modified to include specific data which the industry would

find most useful. In addition, the Database can be made

more comprehensive by adding pertinent data, e.g., local

population and market data, location of transmission lines

and roads, etc., using the Geographic Information System

(GIS), to the present structure. Finally, the Database could

be adapted for posting on the World Wide Web and

searched using a variety of variables such as country,

desired temperature of resource, estimated power

potential, and other parameters. 

3 PDF files can be read and printed using the free

Adobe® Acrobat® Reader which can be

downloaded at

http://www.adobe.com/products/acrobat/readstep.ht

ml.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 3

Russia

Power Profile

Population (millions) - July 200 estimated 146.001

Overall Electrification (% of population) 99

GDP (billion US$) - 1999 estimated 620.3

Real GDP Growth Rate - 2000 estimated 7.0%

Inflation Rate (CPI) - 2000 estimated 20%

Total Installed Capacity (MWe) - January 2000 214,855

Electricity Consumption per Capita (kWh) - 1999 5790

Energy Demand Growth Rate 0

Maximum Tariffs (US¢/kWh) - 1 January 1999

Dagestan Republic

Kamchatka Oblast

Krasnodar Krai

Omsk Oblast

Sakhalin Oblast

Stavropol Krai

Tomsk Oblast

1.26

5.87

1.73

1.58

3.13

1.69

1.62

Geothermal Power Potential (MWe) 2000

The Russian Federation (“Russia”) became a country with

the break-up of the Soviet Union into 15 independent

states in 1991. In the years since, the country has

struggled to replace a centrally-controlled Communist

economic, social, and political system with democracy

and a free market-based economy.

The Russian Federation is made up of 89 components

(oblasts, republics, krais, and autonomous okrugs) and

two federal cities — Moscow and St. Petersburg. The

distribution of power between the central government and

the regional and local authorities is still being worked out. 

Power Summary

Russia is the second largest energy consumer, the largest

exporter of natural gas, and the second largest exporter of

energy and petroleum in the world. The country produced

845.8 billion kWh of electricity in 1999, and is forecasted

to produce 1100-1300 TWh by 2010. As of 1 January

2000, Russia had a total installed capacity of 214,855

MWe. 

Russia
Geothermal Resources in Russia 5

Russia’s electricity sector is controlled by the majoritystate-owned Unified Energy System (RAO UES) which

manages the country’s distribution system, and oversees

the country’s 72 “energos,” or regional electricity

companies. 

Fossil fuel power stations (gas, oil, and coal) generate

69% of Russia’s total electric power.4 Hydroelectric and

nuclear stations generate 20% and 11% respectively. 

Geothermal power stations contribute only 0.06% despite

recent growth in the number of power plants (Kononov et

al., 2000).

Russia’s natural gas industry is dominated by Gazprom,

the world’s largest gas company, which controls more

than 95% of Russia’s gas production. Gazprom controls

one-fifth of the world’s natural gas reserves, oversees

eight production associations, operates Russia’s

88,000-mile gas pipeline grid, and runs trading houses and

marketing joint ventures in many European countries.

Hydropower accounts for 43 GWe of Russian generating

capacity; 11 stations have more than 1 GWe total installed

capacity. The country’s largest power plant is the 6400

MWe-Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric plant. 

Hydropower is under state control and will remain so

under the planned restructuring of RAO UES.

Nuclear power is controlled by the Ministry of Atomic

Power (Minatom). By 2007, as many as 10 of the

Russia’s 29 nuclear reactors will reach the maximum

prescribed service life of 30 years but most will remain

online. According to Minatom, nuclear power will

generate up to one-third of Russia’s electricity by 2030.

About 58% of Russia’s existing thermal power capacity is

scheduled for retirement or rehabilitation by 2010. The

investment required for the reproduction and expansion of

generating capacity and grid installations from 2000-2010

is estimated at $50-75 billion. Due to the power sector’s

inability to finance such a massive upgrade program itself,

a substantial portion of the financing will have to come

from the Government of Russia (GOR), multilateral

development banks, and private foreign investors.5

Following a sharp contraction after 1991, Russia’s per

capita electricity consumption is now rising, along with

economic growth, and is projected to increase by 24%

between 1993 and 2015.6 (GDP is expected to rise a

4 Russia has 13% of the world’s oil reserves and 45%

of its natural gas reserves; the world’s largest

natural gas reserves, the second largest coal

reserves, and the eighth largest oil reserves. 

5 Foreign investment in Russia in 2000 is forecasted

to be $5 billion (compared to $30 billion in Brazil in

1999). 

6

“Russia: Country Analysis Brief,” U.S. Department

of Energy, Energy Information Administration,
Geothermal Resources in Russia 6

record 7% this year, thanks largely to recent high

international prices for energy and commodities.) Due to

strong growth, RAO UES has warned that the country

could face power shortages by 2004-2005 if it does not get

needed investment in new generating and distribution

capacity.7

Many barriers exist to increased foreign investment. Rule

of law and respect for property rights, though improving,

remain key concerns for foreign investors. Many large

U.S. firms are reluctant to pursue a strategy of growth

through acquisition in Russia due to potential liabilities

associated with existing facilities (e.g., tax debts and

environmental cleanup liabilities), political pressures

which hinder economic restructuring, hidden financial

liabilities, and weak protection of minority shareholder

rights.

Beyond its borders8, Russia is looking east and west to

increase gas, oil, and electricity exports where low

electricity prices give RAO UES a strong comparative

advantage.

Government / Legislation

“Russia’s Development Strategy to the Year 2010"9 is to:

qualitatively raise living standards on the

basis of the self-fulfillment of every citizen,

to preserve Russia’s independence and

cultural values, [and] to restore the country’s

economic and political role in the world

community.

The strategy’s basic elements are:

• ensuring equal conditions of competition,

• protecting the rights of ownership, 

• removing administrative barriers to

entrepreneurship,

• reducing government obligations and

government consumption,

• improving the budgetary process,

• implementing tax reform, and 

• creating an effective state which guarantees

foreign and domestic security and social,

political, and economic stability.

February 2000.

7

“Electricity Giant UES Warns of Power Crunch”

(2000). Russia Today, 14 November.

8 Spanning ten time zones, Russia shares a border

with 14 countries: Azerbaijan, Belarus, China,

Estonia, Finland, Georgia, Kazakhstan, North

Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Mongolia, Norway,

Poland, and Ukraine.

9 Russian Embassy web site,

http://www.russianembassy.org/.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 7

The new Russian Government, formed after the major

reorganization of ministries in May-June 2000, has

embarked on a course of reforms which the World Bank

calls “unparalleled since the initial launch of reform in

early 1992.”10

The Putin Cabinet adopted a 10-year economic plan on 28

June 2000.11 The plan includes a “wish list” of structural

reforms, including decreased inflation, increased

competition, deregulation, land reform, reform of the

residential code, reform of the customs code, and an

overhaul of the tax system. President Vladimir Putin is

also trying to re-centralize certain elements of the

government in order to ensure that changes made in

Moscow are implemented at the regional levels. 

Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Kasyanov stated that

reform of RAO UES “is necessary for providing a steady

rise of the Russian economy and competitiveness,” adding

that reforms in the energy industry should be aimed at

providing reasonable prices and attracting investments.12

Despite talk about reform, however, generation,

distribution, and transmission remain under control of

state-owned RAO UES which has plans to restructure, a

daunting task indeed. RAO UES CEO Chubais compares

the restructuring’s scale and complexity to the massive

Soviet electrification campaign of 1920-1935.13

Ministry of Energy (Minenergo or MinEnergy)

Russia’s energy sector is overseen by the Ministry of 

Energy (formerly the Ministry of Fuel and Energy). The

GOR endorsed the country’s draft energy plan drafted by

Minergo. Under the energy plan, the GOR will invest up

to $700 billion in the implementation of the energy

strategy up to the year 2020. With the rise in prices of

energy carriers, up to 80% of the required funds can come

from domestic resources including higher fuel tariffs,

Energy Minister Alexander Gavrin stated.14

10 World Bank Group in Russia,

http://www.worldbank.org.ru/eng/.

11 President Putin also established the Center for

Strategic Research (CSR) which is made up of promarket scholars led by 36-year old German Gref,

Minister of Economic Development and Trade. 

12 “Kasyanov, ‘Reforms in Energy Industry Are

Necessary for Economic Rise’” (2000). Russia

Today, 21 November.

13 “UES to Start Restructuring in Central Russia,

Urals” (2000). Russia Today, 10 November. 

14 “Government Investment Into Russia Energy

Development Endorsed” (2000). PMAOnline, 23

November.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 8

Russian Joint Stock Company-Unified Energy System of

Russia (RAO UES or UESR)

Established in 1992 by Presidential Decrees No. 923 and

1334, majority state-owned 15 RAO UES replaced the

Ministry of Electric Energy to become the world’s largest

electric power utility. The RAO UES Holding Company

is composed of:

 • 74 joint stock power suppliers (energos) that

supply electricity and heat to consumers

throughout the Russian Federation, 

 • 26 power stations that operate independently

on the national wholesale electric power

market, 

 • 6 power stations currently under

construction, 

 • the Central Dispatch System (CDU), and

 • 86 other subsidiaries and affiliates which

produce, transmit, and distribute electricity

and heat across Russia.

As of January 2000, the Holding Company’s installed

capacity was 156,200 MWe, or 72.7% of Russia’s total 

installed capacity. 

RAO UES owns and operates the United Power Grid of

Russia (the national electricity grid and the world’s largest

power pool with centralized management) through the

wholly-owned central and regional dispatch centers and all

high-voltage electric lines. The Holding Company owns

2.6 million km of electric power transmission lines, 96.3%

of the country’s total.

RAO UES has stakes in most of the country’s regional

utility companies, and establishes the prices at which these

utility companies can buy and sell electricity from the

grid, posing a significant conflict of interest. Industrial

customers are not able to buy directly from the grid. This

restriction hinders industrial customers from having a

choice of electricity providers and means that there is no

incentive for utility companies to compete. In addition,

industry continues to subsidize consumers for their

electricity use (Valladares, 1999).

RAO UES earns the bulk of its revenues from a flat

transmission fee. Only 9% of revenues comes from

electricity generation. Non-payment is a major problem. 

RAO UES is working to increase the proportion of cash

payments, managing to collect 73% of its payments in

cash from January to September 2000, reducing the

amount it is still owed to 131.4 billion rubles (US$4.71

billion).

In 1998, as a result of payment defaults and low electricity

prices, Magadan, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, and Chukotka in

the Far East had such severe power and heat difficulties

15 As of the end of 1999, UES was 52.55% owned by

the Russian Ministry of State Property, 30.59%

owned by foreign shareholders, and 16.86% owned

by Russian entities and individuals.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 9

that local administrations evacuated people from remote

towns. Due to large outstanding debts at the regional

level, local energy companies have cut off power to many

entities.16 

Exporting electricity is a high priority for RAO UES as a

major source of capital. Cooperation has begun with

power companies and firms in Germany, Italy, Poland,

France, China, Japan, the European Union, and other

Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) countries.

Russia began exporting electricity to Germany through

Belarus and Poland in August 2000, has agreed to supply

Turkey with 100 million kWh of electricity per month in a

deal that may help to alleviate expected energy shortages

this winter, and is in talks with the European Union to

increase exports.17 

At home, RAO UES has submitted its restructuring

proposal to the GOR. Under the proposal, RAO UES’s

generation, distribution, and marketing units would be

spun off (with the exclusion of hydropower plants), and

the electricity market deregulated.18 About 10-15 separate

national power generation companies are envisaged. They

will become competitors on the open market in the first

stage of the restructuring which is be completed by

December 2001.

RAO UES would retain control of the national and

regional electricity networks, indeed, according to Trade

and Economic Development Minister German Gref, State

control over the power transmission grid would increase.19

Restructuring would begin in central Russia and the Urals

followed by Siberia. 

16 Power has been cut off to the Trans-Siberian and

Trans-Baikal Railroads, the Russian Academy of

Sciences, Krasnoyarsk TV, and strategic defense

industry plants. In 1999, three patients in intensive

care at a clinic in Western Siberia died after their

life-support systems stopped working when the

power company cut off the hospital’s electricity for

non-payment. 

17 Western Europe was swept by protests in September

over high energy prices following a sharp rise in oil

prices. Blockades by truckers and farmers brought

several European Union (EU) countries to a near

standstill, putting pressure on EU leaders to find

ways to cut fuel costs. Closer cooperation with

Russia would reduce the EU’s reliance on imported

oil from the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting

Countries (OPEC). One issue is how much

investment the EU would provide to improve

Russia’s infrastructure. 

18 Minority shareholders are worried that sales will

obtain only a fraction of the plants’ true value until

realistic energy tariffs are put into place.

19 “Government Backs UES Reform, Opposes Price

Hikes” (2000). Russia Today, 22 November.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 10

The GOR will consider RAO UES’s restructuring concept

in mid-December 2000.20 Bills on electricity and heating

tariffs and amendments to the Civil Code relating to the

RAO UES restructuring will be drafted and presented to

parliament in early 2001. 

Federal Wholesale Electricity Market (FOREM)

The Federal Wholesale Electricity Market (FOREM) was

created at the end of 1999 by the RAO UES Board. It is

expected that FOREM will become involved in trading

electrical energy in sectors where deliveries are free,

binding, and coordinated; and also in trading on the

exchange.

The goal is to make FOREM a competitive wholesale

electrical energy market which will:

• develop competitive relations between

participants in FOREM;

• maximize participation of electricity

producers in trade on a single wholesale

market and ensure non-discriminatory access

to the grid;

• improve the efficiency of wholesale trading

by introducing a competitive pricing

mechanism on FOREM, combined with state

regulation of electricity transmission

charges;

• optimize the use of power stations

equipment and reduce fuel expenses;

• optimize the development of generating

capacity and network infrastructure; and

• radically improve the liquidity of settlements

with suppliers of electrical energy.

Federal Energy Commission (FEC)

FEC is the primary regulator of Russia’s electricity

market. At the Federal level, FEC regulates:

• the subscription charge for services in

organizing the operation and development of

RAO UES;

• tariffs for electricity and power, as supplied

to the wholesale market in electricity and

capacity by generating stations operating on

that market, and regional power companies

with surplus product; and

• tariffs at which regional power companies

with a shortfall of product and major

industrial consumers included in FOREM

buy electricity. 

20 “UES to Start Restructuring in Central Russia,

Urals” (2000). Russia Today, 10 November. 
Geothermal Resources in Russia 11

Regional Energy Commissions (RECs)

Regional Energy Commissions (RECs) set the tariffs for

end-users on the local retail electricity market. Local

tariffs include the energy system’s costs for subscription

tariffs to RAO UES and the purchase of electricity from

FOREM. 

Local power prices are political as much as economic. 

RECs are dependent upon regional authorities which

generally oppose tariffs increases as they could endanger

their re-election. ed. Regional authorities also oppose

their local companies and energy producers from

operating on the wholesale energy market as it takes tax

revenues away from the regions.21

Household electricity prices vary by region and are usually

based on the costs of both locally produced and imported

power. Most regions’ electricity supplies come from a

combination of sources, including power purchased from

FOREM.22

Several political and economic factors have caused tariffs

to decline sharply (relative to other prices) since Russia’s

August 1998 financial crisis. While these declines helped

to improve many manufacturing companies’ profitability,

they have decimated the electricity sector’s financial

position and undermined its attractiveness to foreign

investors. Continued unclear and overlapping regulatory

jurisdictions of the FEC, the RECs, and other federal and

regional government agencies have also discouraged

foreign investment in Russia’s power sector.23

Tariffs

President Putin stated that Russian electricity tariffs

should be determined by the market rather than set by the

government.24 According to Energy Minister Gavrin,

electricity tariffs will increase 170% under the proposed

energy plan.25

Currently, electricity tariffs are established by the Federal

Energy Commission, which sets much lower tariffs for

21 “Russia’s FEC grapples with household tariff

policy,” East European Energy Report, FT Energy,

Issue 80, 28 May 1998. 

22 “Russia/Wholesale electricity prices rise 35%, “

East European Energy Report. FT Energy, Issue

104, 26 May 2000.

23 “Chubais Faces Investor Revolt at UES,” Monitor,

Jamestown Foundation, Volume 6, Issue 118, June

16, 2000.

24 “Market Should Set Russian Electricity Tariffs”

(2000). Russia Today, 17 November.

25 “Government Investment Into Russia Energy

Development Endorsed” (2000). PMAOnline, 23

November.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 12

household consumers than for industry. The problem has

remained unaddressed for years for fear of igniting social

discontent, but in recently UES has pushed for tariff

increases for households.

Tariffs for electricity and heat energy are subject to state

regulation in accordance with Government Order 1444,

“On state regulation of charges for electricity and heat

energy in the Russian Federation.” Prices for electricity

and heat energy, which lag behind prices in industry, do

not allow companies in the power sector to function in a

commercially viable manner. Electricity tariffs for

industrial and residential users only cover about 50% of

costs. 

Tariffs have been increased significantly over the last few

years yet remain very low. Maximum tariffs for energy

charges in areas which have geothermal power generation

potential range from 1.26¢/kWh in the Dagestan Republic

to a countrywide high of 5.87¢/kWh in Kamchatka Oblast

(as of 1 January 1999). Tariffs in the other regions of

Russia that have significant high enthalpy geothermal

resources are on page 3 of this report.26 

In almost all cases, Russian utilities sell power for rubles

and export little if any electricity to higher-priced foreign

markets to supplement their earnings (Maximov, 1996). 

Tariff realignment is unlikely before 2001. The GOR also

plans to end the practice of “cross subsidies” under which

residential tariffs are subsidized by higher tariffs.

Legislation

In general, Russia has a evolving body of conflicting,

overlapping, and rapidly changing laws, decrees, and

regulations which has resulted in an ad hoc and

unpredictable business environment. The legislative and

regulatory framework related to foreign investments in the

Russian energy sector consists of more than 85 legislative

acts, including Federal Laws, Decrees of the President,

and Government Resolutions and Instructions.

Additionally, some regions pursue “glocalization”—

establishing direct links with foreign partners making

them more dependent on international markets than on

decrees signed in Moscow. President Putin issued a

decree to unite Russia’s 89 regions into seven federal

districts headed by representatives appointed by him to

combat glocalization (Nesterenko, 2000). 

Investment Code

The 1991 investment code guarantees foreign investors

rights equal to those enjoyed by Russian investors. The

26 Resolution on the Basis of Pricing Related to

Electric Energy Consumed by the Population, 7

December 1998, N. 1444. Exchange rate used is

US$1 = 27.76 rubles (14 November 2000).
Geothermal Resources in Russia 13

law was amended by new legislation effective 9 July 1999,

and includes a grandfather clause protecting certain

investments from unfavorable changes in tax and other

laws for up to seven years. However, it also widens

somewhat the legal criteria for restricting foreign

investment in some sectors. The code also prohibits the

nationalization of foreign investments except following

legislative action and where deemed to be in the national

interest.

Prior approval is required for investment in new

enterprises using assets of existing Russian enterprises,

investment in the exploitation of natural resources, all

investments over 50 million rubles (about $1.8 million),

and investment ventures in which the foreign share

exceeds 50%. Additional registration requirements exist

for investments exceeding 100 million rubles (about $3.6

million).

Energy Charter Treaty

Russian lawmakers will consider signing the Energy

Charter Treaty which, among other aims, lays down

ground rules for the protection of investments in the

energy sector in central and eastern Europe and the former

Soviet Union.

Geothermal Law

Russia has no law specific to the development of

geothermal resources. Geothermal resources are governed

by the Law on Minerals.

Law on Minerals (21 February 1992, No. 2395-1)27

According to the Law on Minerals:

Minerals within the borders of the territory of the

Russian Federation including subterranean space,

and which are contained in mineral, energy, and

other resources, are the property of the State. 

Issues of the possession, use, and disposal of

minerals are jointly managed by the Russian

Federation and subjects of the Russian Federation. 

Mineral sites cannot be the subject of purchase,

sale, donation, inheritance, investment, and security

or alienated in other form. Mineral use rights can

be transferred from one person to another as

allowed by Federal laws. The extraction of mineral

and other resources according to licenses can be

located on the property of the Federal Government,

other subjects of the Russian Federation, or the

property of municipalities, individuals, and other 

forms. (Article 1.2)

27 Modified 3 March 1995 (N. 27-F3), 10 February

1999 (N. 32-F3), and 2 January 2000 (N. 20-F3).
Geothermal Resources in Russia 14

Mineral users can be subjects of enterprise

activity, including participants in simple

associations; foreign citizens; and legal

entities if by Federal Laws there are no

limits imposed on mineral use rights. 

(Article 9) 

Mineral sites are granted for use for certain terms

or without restriction of term. The term for

geological study is up to 5 years. The term for

mineral or water extraction is 25 years. (Article 10)

Licensing for mineral use is carried out by a

Federal organ managed by the State fund of

minerals or its territorial divisions in

conjunction with the organ of the executive

power of the relevant bodies of the Russian

Federation. (Article 13)

Licenses are awarded by competition or

auction. Licenses can be granted to a sole

applicant. The basic criteria for selecting the

winner of a competition are: the scientific

and technological level of the program of

geological study and the mineral use, the

extraction of minerals, the contribution to

the social and economic development of the

region, the program’s term, and the

efficiency of environmental protection

measures. Information on upcoming

competitions or auctions as well as results of

previous competitions and auctions will be

published in all-Russian and relevant

regional mass media. (Article 13.1)

The State licensing system is a uniform

procedure of granting licenses which

includes the informative, scientific,

analytical, economic, and legal preparation

of materials and their formalization. The

tasks of the State licensing system include

ensuring...the necessary guarantees to

license holders (including foreign) and

protection of their mineral use rights. 

(Article 15)

Independent Power Producers (IPPs) are allowed under

Russian law and may be developed according to the 

scheme that is negotiated (e g., BOO, BOOT, etc). They

are not economically feasible, however, due to the existing

tariff structure. Russia has limited experience to date in

joint ventures for power generation. 

The primary ministries responsible for overseeing the

development of the country’s geothermal resources are

MinEnergy and the Ministry of Natural Resources. The

latter ministry handles licensing. The Federal Service of

Land Cadastres, which maintains a database and is

handled by Geolkom, is part of the Ministry of Natural

Resources. 
Geothermal Resources in Russia 15

The Ministry for Economic Development and Trade and

the Ministry for Industry, Science and Technology are also

involved in geothermal development as part of the expert

commission.

Additionally, local governments have officials which are

responsible for that area’s natural resources use. Project

developers should first contact the Ministry of Natural

Resources in Moscow. 

Key Ministerial Contacts:

Anatoly B. Yanovsky

Stats Secretary-Deputy Minister,

Ministry of Energy

Tel: [7] (095) 220-5989

Fax: [7] (095) 925-9621

— Responsible for new technologies, including

geothermal, and all renewable energy resources used for

power generation

Alexander Misylin (speaks English)

Deputy Director, Department of International Cooperation

and Investment Policy,

Ministry of Energy

Tel: [7] (095) 220-5885

Fax: [7] (095) 975-2045

Sergei E. Bednaruk

Director, 

Department of the Use and Recovery of the Water Fund

Ministry of Natural Resources

Tel: [7] (095) 202-2184

Rustem G. Mamin (speaks English)

Director, 

Department of International Cooperation

Ministry of Natural Resources

Tel: [7] (095) 254-1565

— Contact for a list of geothermal sites; minimal fee

required
Geothermal Resources in Russia 16

Russia: Administrative Divisions
Geothermal Resources in Russia 17

Kamchatka Peninsula
Geothermal Resources in Russia 18

Geothermal Sites / Projects

Russia has substantial geothermal resources for both

electric power generation and direct use. Drilling and

exploitation of resources for geothermal heat production

have been carried out in Russia since the mid-1950s. 

Geothermal exploration for electric power use began in

Russia in 1957 when the first boreholes were drilled in the

Pauzhetka thermal field in southern Kamchatka. Two 2.5-

MWe single flash units went online in 1966-67 at

Pauzhetka, and have been operating since. The 800 kWe

experimental Paratunka Geothermal Power Plant (GeoPP),

the world’s first geothermal binary plant, began operating

the same year but was abandoned in 1978.

From 1970 to 1990, the Soviet State completely financed

the development of geothermal science and industry, and

more than 50 geothermal fields were discovered across the

country. The construction of geothermal power plants,

however, was suspended in the 1970s-80s due to the low

price of oil. Exploration ended following the dissolution

of the Soviet Union in 1991, the subsequent political

upheaval, and financing cuts. 

Almost all the territory of Russia is well investigated. 

Numerous regions have reserves of hot water with

temperatures of 50-200oC at depths of 200-3000 m. The

most important geothermal areas are:

1. Kamchatka Peninsula

2. Kuril Islands

3. Northern Caucasus

4. Dagestan Republic 

5. West Siberia

The seismically active28 Kamchatka Peninsula and Kuril

Islands have Russia’s richest geothermal power generation

resources. The power generation potential of 

Kamchatka’s high enthalpy (> 150oC) geothermal

resources (excluding the areas in the Kronotsky

Reservation which are off limits to development) is about

1130 MWe for 100 years; the potential of its low enthalpy

fields (< 150oC) is 1345 MWt for 100 years (Sugrobov,

1995; Britvin et al., 2000). 

More than 20 geothermal fields in Kamchatka have been

explored; 385 wells have been drilled, including 44

production wells that have a temperature of over 150oC

(Povarov and Povarov, 1999). The Mutnovsky field is the

most significant and is currently under development.

The Kuril Islands include the following larger islands from

north to south: Paramushir, Simushir, Urtup, Iturup, and

Kunashir. They are part of the same chain of eastern

Pacific dislocations as Japan and Kamchatka.

Consequently, the same tectonic and volcanic forces cause

28 Kamchatka has 127 volcanoes, 22 of which are

active. The Kuril Islands have 100 volcanoes; 21

active. 
Geothermal Resources in Russia 19

the geothermal phenomena on these islands. The islands

are formed from Neogene volcanic sedimentary deposits

broken by a number of major dislocations that focus the

thermal activity (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

The greatest post-breakup increase in the cost of energy

occurred in the remote areas of the Far East — Kamchatka

and the Kuril Islands — which use mostly imported fuel.

The cost of electricity in these areas ranges from 10-

30¢/kWh (Britvin et al., 2000; Povarov and Povarov,

1999).

The platform geothermal province of the Northern

Caucasus, including Krasnodar and Stavropol Krais,

includes several artesian basins. The thermal waters are

contained in multi-layered aquifer systems enclosed within

Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary cover. The waters

contain mostly HCO3-Na or Cl-Na dissolved solids; their

salinity varies from 0.5 to 65 g/kg, the temperatures range

up to 80-110oC at depths of 1-2 km. The geothermal

waters in these regions are used primarily for agricultural

and industrial purposes (Kononov et al., 2000).

Dagestan is situated within the range of the eastern foreCaucasus and the northeastern slope of the Caucasus. 

Tectonically, the area covers part of the folded mountains

of the Great Caucasus and the fore-Caucasus Herzinian

platform which are divided by the Terek-Caspian

foredeep. The Herzinian platform is complicated in the

north by the Karpinsky swell and the east-Manych

foredeep. The majority of the geothermal reservoirs are

located in the areas of these depressions. Dagestan has

seismic activity. 

A total of 51 geothermal reservoirs have been found in

Dagestan; about 20 are utilized. Estimates of water

resources with temperatures up to 80oC are 180,000

m3/day; for temperatures of 100oC or more, 500,000

m3/day (Sardarov, 1990). Thermal water — more than 7.5

million m3/year of hot 50-110oC water — is used primarily

for space and district heating. Other uses include

greenhouses, balneotherapy, and mineral water

production. About 180 wells from 200-5500 m have been

drilled in Dagestan, all are artesian (Povarov, 2000).

Attempts to use Dagestan’s geothermal resources for

power generation have encountered two main problems. 

Deep wells (up to 5500 m) must be drilled to find water of

150oC or more and drilling is expensive. Secondly,

concentrated brines cause a problem. 

The Western Siberian plate is a promising region for direct

use of geothermal resources. Sedimentary cover of this

epi-Herzinian plate of 3 x 106 km2 in area encloses an

artesian basin of thermal waters. In the marginal parts of

the basin, aquifers with a high hydrostatic pressure,

temperatures of 35-75oC, and suitable TDS (1-25 g/kg)

are located down to 3 km, and are capable of producing

about 180 m3/s (Mavritsky, 1971; Kononov et al., 2000).

Up to now, however, these geothermal resources are used

on a very insignificant scale. The region is very rich in
Geothermal Resources in Russia 20

natural gas and oil, which hampers geothermal development.

Across Russia, geothermal issues are studied in 14

research centers29. These research centers include 26

scientific institute labs, three universities, and five project

bureaus. Research is coordinated by the Russian Academy

of Sciences and the special Scientific Council on

Geothermal Problems. In addition, several joint stock

companies are involved in the exploration and utilization

of geothermal resources, e.g., Geotermneftegas,

Neftegasgeoterm, Kamchatskenergo, Geoterm, KamES,

Energiya-M. The government enterprise,

Kamchatskburgeotermiya takes part in geothermal

development in Kamchatka, and the Podzemgidromineral

Institute constructs installations for extraction of chemical

row from thermal brines in the Northern Caucasus

(Kononov et al., 2000).

Direct Use

Direct use of geothermal resources in Russia dates back

several centuries. Since the 11th century, salt was

extracted from geothermal hot springs in Novgorod. 

Siberian Cossack Vladimir Atlasov and his associates

bathed in the hot lakes and cooked food in the boiling

springs of Kamchatka and the Kurils in the late 17th

century, lowering meat and vegetables in baskets into the

salty, boiling water (Svalova, 2000). 

In the 18th century, following the “Second Kamchatka” or

the “First Academic” expedition (1733-1743), S.P.

Krasheninnikov published Description of the Land of

Kamchatka in 1756. The work included the first scientific

data on Kamchatka’s rivers, lakes, hot springs, volcanoes,

and geysers, including temperature measurements for six

groups of hot springs (Svalova, 2000).

Today, geothermal fluids are used in Russia primarily for

space and district heating, and are also used for a range of

agricultural purposes (e.g., greenhouses30, soil heating,

fish and animal farming, cattle-breading), for various

29 Geothermal centers are located in Moscow, St.

Petersburg, Makhachkala, Gelendjik, Kazan,

Yaroslavl, Ekaterinburg, Novosibirsk, Apatity,

Arkhangelsk, Samara, Yakutsk, PetropavlovskKamchatsky and Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk.

30 The Russian Government has a program which

supports agricultural greenhouse companies in order

to better supply the market with domestically

produced fresh vegetables. The program includes

limited credits, exemption from import duties, and

tax deferrals. Some of Russia’s northern and far

eastern regions, where geothermal resources are

abundant and could be used to heat greenhouses,

import fresh vegetables year round. 

On 7 January 1999, Prime Minister Primakov signed

Decree #23, Measures to Increase Effectiveness of

Greenhouse Companies, which was drafted by the

Ministry of Agriculture and Food. The program

hopes to increase cultivation of vegetables in

greenhouses to 550,000 tons of vegetables annually.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 21

industrial processes (e.g., manufacturing, wool washing,

paper production, wood drying, oil extracting), and for

balneological and recreational applications (e.g., resorts,

swimming pools, etc.). Direct use is most widespread in

the Kuril, Kamchatka, Northern Caucasus, West Siberia,

and Baikal regions (Kononov et al., 2000).

As of 31 December 1999, Russia had a total direct use

installed capacity of 307 MWt yielding 6132 TJ/yr of

energy. 

Power Generation

The contribution of geothermal energy to Russia’s

electricity generation is relatively small, about 0.06% of

the country’s total production. Oleg Povarov, CSC

Geoterm Vice President, asserts that geothermal energy

could theoretically produce almost 2%, or roughly 16.9 

billion kWh, of Russia’s electricity.31

Although significant resources are available, the present

economic situation in Russia hampers widespread

development of geothermal energy potential. 

As of January 2000, Russia had an installed geothermal

power generation capacity of 34.8 MWe:

• 12 MWe at Verkhne-Mutnovsky,

• 11.3 MWe at Pauzhetka,

• 8 MWe at Okeanskaya (Iturup Island), 

• 2 MWe at Ebeko (Paramushir Island),

• 800 kWe at Paratunka, and

• 700 kWe at Goriachy Plyazh (Kunashir

Island).

The plants at Ebeko, Okeanskaya, Goriachy Plyazh, and

Paratunka are not operating. 

An additional 309 MWe is under construction or

scheduled to be online by 2005: 

• 9 MWe at Verkhne- Mutnovsky, 

• 18 MWe at Pauzhetka, 

• 32 MWe at Okeanskaya, and 

• ~ 250 MWe at Mutnovsky.

Between 1999 and 2005, there are plans to install about

300 MWe on the Mutnovsky and Verkhne-Mutnovsky

steam fields. Iturup Island has up to 300 MWe of

industrial reserves of geothermal fluid (Povarov and

Povarov, 1999).

The Database of Geothermal Resources in Russia

contains information on 107 specific geothermal sites or

projects with a projected electricity generation potential of

2031.7 MWe. A table listing the sites, as well as detailed

descriptions of each, follows.

31 Alexander’s Gas and Oil Connections: News and

Trends, CIS/Russia, 

http://www.gasandoil.com/goc/news/ntr02519.htm.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 22

GEOTHERMAL SITES/PROJECTS IN RUSSIA

SITE/PROJECT NAME STATUS TEMPERATURE

oC

INSTALLED

CAPACITY

(MWE)

POTENTIAL

(MWE)

Achisu Direct use -- developed N/A 0 Unknown

Akhty Direct use -- developed 60 0 Unknown

Anavgai Direct use -- developed 63-81 0 Unknown

Apapel Preliminary identification/report 200 0 Unknown

Avachinsky Well(s) or hole(s) drilled N/A 0 250

Baran Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Bashkiriya Direct use -- developed N/A 0 Unknown

Bolshe-Bannoe Well(s) or hole(s) drilled 148-200 0 58

Buksansk Preliminary identification/repor0 N/A 0 Unknown

Bystrinsk Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Chankals Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Chanti-Argun Well(s) or hole(s) drilled 55 0 Unknown
SITE/PROJECT NAME STATUS TEMPERATURE

oC

INSTALLED

CAPACITY

(MWE)

POTENTIAL

(MWE)

Geothermal Resources in Russia 23

Cherek-Baksan Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Cherkessk Direct use -- developed 50-75 0 Unknown

Chervleny Buruny Direct use -- developed 82 0 Unknown

Chevlen Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Dagestano-Kurdship Direct use -- developed 79-91 0 Unknown

Ebeko Direct use -- developed 70-90 2 2

Esso Direct use -- developed 52-83 0 Unknown

Georgievsk Direct use -- developed 55 0 Unknown

Geyserny Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Goitin Well(s) or hole(s) drilled 66-83 0 Unknown

Gorely Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Goriachy Plyazh Power plant(s) on site 70-105 0.7 0.7

Griaznorechen Direct use -- developed 106 0 Unknown

Grozny Direct use -- developed 80-96 0 Unknown
SITE/PROJECT NAME STATUS TEMPERATURE

oC

INSTALLED

CAPACITY

(MWE)

POTENTIAL

(MWE)

Geothermal Resources in Russia 24

Gudermes Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Hankal Well(s) or hole(s) drilled 88-98 0 Unknown

Harkov Well(s) or hole(s) drilled 98 0 Unknown

Hodzev Direct use -- developed 70-86 0 Unknown0

Izerbash Direct use -- developed 40-77 0 Unknown

Jushnosukhokumsk Construction underway 160-240 0 Unknown

Kalinov Well(s) or hole(s) drilled 57-92 0 Unknown

Karym Preliminary identification/report 200 0 146

Kayakent Direct use -- developed 45-62 0 Unknown

Kayasula Well(s) or hole(s) drilled 150-170 0 3

Kazminsk Direct use -- developed 103-128 0 Unknown

Ketlin Direct use -- developed 60 0 Unknown

Khodutkin Preliminary identification/report 200 0 117

Kireuna Preliminary identification/report 200 0 68
SITE/PROJECT NAME STATUS TEMPERATURE

oC

INSTALLED

CAPACITY

(MWE)

POTENTIAL

(MWE)

Geothermal Resources in Russia 25

Kizlyar Direct use -- developed 44-110 0 0

Kolpachev Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Kordonov Well(s) or hole(s) drilled 44-103 0 Unknown

Krainov Direct use -- developed 40 0 Unknown

Ksudach Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Kupin Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Labinsk Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Lorino Preliminary identification/report 80 0 Unknown

Mahachkalin Well(s) or hole(s) drilled 30-70 0 Unknown

Maikop Direct use -- developed 73.86 0 Unknown

Makhachkala-Ternair Direct use -- developed 42-100 0 Unknown

Malkin Direct use -- developed 78-88 0 Unknown

Manas Direct use -- developed 40 0 Unknown

Mezhchohrak Well(s) or hole(s) drilled 86 0 Unknown
SITE/PROJECT NAME STATUS TEMPERATURE

oC

INSTALLED

CAPACITY

(MWE)

POTENTIAL

(MWE)

Geothermal Resources in Russia 26

Moscow Well(s) or hole(s) drilled N/A 0 Unknown

Mostovskoe Direct use -- developed 68-75 0 Unknown

Mutnovsky Construction underway 147-320 0 460

Mykop Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Nachikin Direct use -- developed 8-84 0 Unknown

Nalchinsko-Dolin Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Nalychev Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Nizhne-Baksan Direct use -- developed 56-58 0 Unknown

Nizhne-Koshelev Well(s) or hole(s) drilled 220-240 0 350

Nizhne-Ozernov Direct use -- developed 87 0 Unknown

Nizhne-Zelenchuk Direct use -- developed 118 0 Unknown

Novogroznene Well(s) or hole(s) drilled 75-77 0 Unknown

Okeanskaya Power plant(s) on site 250-320 8 300

Omsk Direct use -- developed N/A 0 Unknown
SITE/PROJECT NAME STATUS TEMPERATURE

oC

INSTALLED

CAPACITY

(MWE)

POTENTIAL

(MWE)

Geothermal Resources in Russia 27

Otradnen Direct use -- developed 88-100 0 Unknown

Ozernoye Direct use -- developed N/A 0 Unknown

Palana Preliminary identification/report 95 0 Unknown

Paratunka Direct use -- developed 40-106 0.8 0.8

Pauzhetka Power plant(s) on site 180-225 11.3 68

Pinachev Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Priurupsloe Direct use -- developed 99-103 0 Unknown

Pushchin Well(s) or hole(s) drilled 60-63 0 Unknown

Rechnin Direct use -- developed 42-104 0 Unknown

Rodnikovskaya Direct use -- developed 74 0 Unknown

Rusakov Preliminary identification/report 95 0 Unknown

Rychal-Su Direct use -- developed N/A 0 Unknown

Sabin Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Semyachik Preliminary identification/report 250 0 5
SITE/PROJECT NAME STATUS TEMPERATURE

oC

INSTALLED

CAPACITY

(MWE)

POTENTIAL

(MWE)

Geothermal Resources in Russia 28

Severo-Eremin Direct use -- developed 107-117 0 Unknown

Severo-Mutnovsky Well(s) or hole(s) drilled 220-301 0 172

Surgut Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Tarumovka Direct use -- developed 62-195 0 0.2

Tavatum Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Terekly-Mekteb Direct use -- developed 81-88 0 Unknown

Termalny Direct use -- developed 40-97 0 Unknown

Tersko-Galiugaev Direct use -- developed 55 0 Unknown

Tirniauz Well(s) or hole(s) drilled 170-250 0 10

Tobol’sk Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Tumlat Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

Tyrnyaus Well(s) or hole(s) drilled N/A 0 Unknown

Tyumen Direct use -- developed N/A 0 Unknown

Ulianovsky Direct use -- developed 75-82 0 Unknown
SITE/PROJECT NAME STATUS TEMPERATURE

oC

INSTALLED

CAPACITY

(MWE)

POTENTIAL

(MWE)

Geothermal Resources in Russia 29

Uzhno-Berezhnoe Direct use -- developed 72 0 Unknown

Uzhno-Sovet Direct use -- developed 116 0 Unknown

Uzhno-Voznesen Direct use -- developed 83-87 0 Unknown

Uzon-Geyser Reconnaissance 100 0 Unknown

Verkhne-Mutnovsky Power plant(s) on site 170 12 21

Verkhne-Paratunka Direct use -- developed 70-106 0 Unknown

Voskresen Direct use -- developed 112-116 0 Unknown

Vostochno-Baksan Direct use -- developed 56-58 0 Unknown

Voznesen Direct use -- developed 82-111 0 Unknown

Yaroslavl Well(s) or hole(s) drilled 60 0 Unknown

Zhirov Preliminary identification/report N/A 0 Unknown

TOTALS 34.8 2031.7
Geothermal Resources in Russia 30

Achisu

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Dagestan Republic,

south of Makhachkala

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for a spa.

Akhty

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Dagestan Republic

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 60

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for spa.

The Akhty resource is one of the oldest used for

balneology, since time immemorial. It is fed by natural

springs with temperatures of up to 60oC. The

combination of mountain air (1200 masl) and carbonate

waters creates the possibility of building a cardiological

health resort for children (Sardarov, 1990).

Anavgai

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in

central Kamchatka, at the junction of the Anavgai and

Bistroi rivers

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 63-81

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

1971 - RAO Gazprom developed geothermal resource

for space heating.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 31

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for district heating and

health resorts.

Thermal Cl-Na waters with T=80-100oC and TDS=1-5

g/kg are utilized for space heating.

One of 24 thermal spring groups in mid-Kamchatka

(Kononov et al., 2000).

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

3370 m3/day for commercial direct use (Stoyanov and

Taylor, 1996).

Demand is 4.8 x 103 m3/day; 0.01-0.34 MPa pressure at

wellhead; 1.4-2.0 g/l mineralization; contamination: 

arsenic (0.01-0.16 mg/l), fluorine (0.9-2.8 mg/l), and

metaboric acid (3.7 mg/l).

Reserves have been explored and studied in detail. The

data obtained assure determination of basic stratigraphic

features, structure, and recharge sources for replenishing

exploitable resources of subsurface water. Water quality

has been studied to the point where its use may be

established. Exploitable reserves of subsurface water at

a site of projected supply have been determined on the

basis of pump (flowing) tests and extrapolated

estimates.

Apapel

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in

central Kamchatka

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) 100-200

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) 16

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Overheated and saturated steam at the surface; 16 MWt

natural heat capacity (Leonov, 2000).

One of 24 thermal spring groups in central Kamchatka;

has great potential (Kononov et al., 2000).

The spring discharges chloride-sodium waters

(Sugrobov, 1995).

Inferred mean temperature in reservoir is 200oC

(Sugrobov, 1995).
Geothermal Resources in Russia 32

Avachinsky

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, near

the Avachinsky Volcano in southeastern Kamchatka

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) 250

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWe) —

POTENTIAL (MWe) 250

CHRONOLOGY

1945 - Avachinsky Volcano, which has been active

from the Upper Pleistocene to the present time, erupted. 

The volcano has erupted 11 times since 1737.

NOTES

Geothermal resource is high temperature (> 150oC).

According to gravimetric, magnetic, and seismic data,

an anomalous zone suspected to be a peripheral magma

chamber exists under the Avachinsky Volcano. 

The capacity of a thermal reservoir with a volume of 1

km3 at a depth of 5 km and a distance of 6 km from the

volcano would be 2 x 1014 kcal, extractable under nonstationary conditions, which could provide 250 MWe

for 100 years (Fedotov et al., 1975).

Baran

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kuril Islands

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWe) —

POTENTIAL (MWe) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is a steam-water mixture

Bashkiriya

LOCATION

West Siberian economic district

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —
Geothermal Resources in Russia 33

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource used to increase oil extraction

(Kononov et al., 1995).

Bolshe-Bannoe

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in the

northern part of southern Kamchatka, 80 km west of

Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky; 60 km from Elizovo, in the

Bannoi River valley

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) 148-200

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL (MWe) / (MWt) 58 / 79

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Bolshoe Bannoe means “big bath.”

The resource has been placed under conservation (not

being exploited) by the Russian Federal Authorities.

This field is well explored. Resources have been

determined by a long-term multi-well flow test. The

wellhead parameters of the production wells at the end

of the test was constant. Total mass flow rate of the 15

production wells was 157 kg/s and average enthalpy

was 657 KJ/kg (Kraevoy et al., 19876; Delnov and

Shulyupin, 1996).

Electrical generation potential is 58 ± 17 MWe for 100

years (Sugrobov, 1995).

Mean temperature of the first 1-km layer is 200oC. 

Available energy in the 1-km layer with a temperature

decrease of 50oC is 20 x 1013 kcal (Fedotov et al., 1975).

0.1-0.35 MPa pressure at wellhead; 1.0-1.4 g/l

mineralization; contamination: arsenic (0.04-0.5 mg/l)

and fluorine (2-11 mg/l) (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Boiling water at the surface; natural heat capacity is 79

MWt (Leonov, 2000).

Buksansk

LOCATION

Kabardino-Balkarian Republic

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) —
Geothermal Resources in Russia 34

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Bystrinsk

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast,

55o55'N latitude 158o40'E longitude

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) 75

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Chankals

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Chechen Republic

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Chanti-Argun

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Chechen Republic,

45 km south of Grozny

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) 55

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —
Geothermal Resources in Russia 35

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

348 m3/day for commercial direct use (Stoyanov and

Taylor, 1996).

Reserves have been explored and studied to the degree

that the data assure complete understanding of

stratigraphy, structure, pressure heads, and permeability

of water-bearing rock. The means by which waterbearing formations are replenished and their potential to

add to exploitable reserves have been ascertained. The

volume of subsurface water has been determined with a

certainty that assures the useful life and the potential for

a desired purpose. Exploitable reserves of

subsurface water have been determined at the water

supply site using pump (flowing) tests and/or other

means.

Cherek-Baksan

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, KabardinoBalkarian Republic

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Cherkessk

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Stavropol Krai

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 50-75

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space heating, hot

water supply, and a swimming pool.

Mineralization of 0.7-2.9 g/l; 0.03-0.87 MPa at

borehole; 1000 m3/day flow rate; average depth of

boreholes is 1000-1500 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of
Geothermal Resources in Russia 36

4800 m3/day for commercial direct use (Stoyanov and

Taylor, 1996). This amount includes the resources of

the Karachayevo-Cherkessian Republic.

Reserves have been explored and studied to the degree

that the data assure complete understanding of

stratigraphy, structure, pressure heads, and permeability

of water-bearing rock. The means by which waterbearing formations are replenished and their potential to

add to exploitable reserves have been ascertained. The

volume of subsurface water has been determined with a

certainty that assures the useful life and the potential for

a desired purpose. Exploitable reserves of

subsurface water have been determined at the water

supply site using pump (flowing) tests and/or other

means.

Chervleny Buruny

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Dagestan Republic

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 82

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space and district

heating, completely satisfying the needs of the town

(Kononov et al., 2000).

Mineralization of 8.6-8.9 g/l; phenol contamination

(0.88-1.18 mg/l); 0.15-0.20 MPa at borehole; 500

m3/day flow rate; average depth of boreholes is 1500 m

(Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

5000 m3/day for commercial direct use (Stoyanov and

Taylor, 1996).

Reserves have been explored and studied to the degree

that the data assure complete understanding of

stratigraphy, structure, pressure heads, and permeability

of water-bearing rock. The means by which waterbearing formations are replenished and their potential to

add to exploitable reserves have been ascertained. The

volume of subsurface water has been determined with a

certainty that assures the useful life and the potential for

a desired purpose. Exploitable reserves of

subsurface water have been determined at the water

supply site using pump (flowing) tests and/or other

means.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 37

Chevlen

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Chechen Republic

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Dagestano-Kurdship

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Adygeya Republic

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 79-91

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space heating.

Mineralization of 0.95-1.1 g/l; 1.5-1.7 MPa at borehole;

500 m3/day flow rate; average depth of boreholes is

2000 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Ebeko

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Sakhalin Oblast, on

Paramushir Island, the most northern in the Kuril

Archipelago; south of Pauzhetka

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 70-90

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWe) 2

POTENTIAL (MWt) 20

CHRONOLOGY

1998 - 2 MWe single flash Ebeko GeoPP went online.

2000 - Plant is currently not operating.

NOTES

Geothermal resource used to provide district heating for

Severo-Kuril’sk city.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 38

Drilling works for hot water (70-90oC) and advanced

work on a 20 MWt Geothermal Heat Plant (GeoHP) are

being implemented (Povarov and Povarov, 1999).

Geothermal resource is a steam-water mixture.

Esso

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in

central Kamchatka; in the valleys of Bistroi River and

its left tributary, Uksichan; in the Bystrinsky region

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 52-83

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

1970 - RAO Gazprom developed resource for space

heating; 32 wells drilled; 12 are production.

1995 - Heat output of geothermal heating system totaled

171.660 Gcal/yr (Perveev and Shumakova, 1996).

NOTES

Water-dominated geothermal resource is used for

district heating, health resorts, and greenhouses.

Thermal Cl-Na waters with T=80-100oC and TDS=1-5

g/kg are utilized for space heating.

One of 24 thermal spring groups in central Kamchatka

(Kononov et al., 2000).

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

3888 m3/day for commercial direct use (Stoyanov and

Taylor, 1996).

Demand is 17.2 x 103 m3/day; capacity is 12.2 x 103

tons/day; 0.03-0.41 MPa pressure at wellhead; 0.96-1.30

g/l mineralization; contamination: arsenic (< 0.2 mg/l),

fluorine (< 3.5 mg/l), metaboric acid (< 1.8 mg/l), and

lithium (0.1-2.5 mg/l).

Reserves have been explored and studied in detail. The

data obtained assure determination of basic stratigraphic

features, structure, and recharge sources for replenishing

exploitable resources of subsurface water. Water quality

has been studied to the point where its use may be

established. Exploitable reserves of subsurface water at

a site of projected supply have been determined on the

basis of pump (flowing) tests and extrapolated

estimates. 
Geothermal Resources in Russia 39

Georgievsk

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Stavropol Krai

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 55

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for hot water supply.

Mineralization of 12.3 g/l; 0.5 MPa at borehole; 1000

m3/day flow rate; average depth of boreholes is 900-

1200 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Geyserny

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in the

Nalycheva River valley, in the Kronotsky Reservation

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) 100

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL (MWt) 321.5

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Saturated steam and boiling water at the surface; 321.5

MWt natural heat capacity (Leonov, 2000).

Located within the boundaries of the Kronotsky 

Reservation where any industrial or agricultural activity

is prohibited.

Boiling spring waters have sodium-chloride

composition (Sugrobov, 1995).

Goitin

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Chechen Republic,

in the southwestern outskirts of Grozny

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) 66-83

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —
Geothermal Resources in Russia 40

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

1150 m3/day for commercial direct use (Stoyanov and

Taylor, 1996).

Reserves have been explored and studied to the degree

that the data assure complete understanding of

stratigraphy, structure, pressure heads, and permeability

of water-bearing rock. The means by which waterbearing formations are replenished and their potential to

add to exploitable reserves have been ascertained. The

volume of subsurface water has been determined with a

certainty that assures the useful life and the potential for

a desired purpose. Exploitable reserves of subsurface

water have been determined at the water supply site

using pump (flowing) tests and/or other means.

Gorely

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) 150

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is high temperature (> 150oC).

Goriachy Plyazh

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Sakhalin Oblast, on the

eastern shore of Kunashir Island, the most southern in

the Kuril Archipelago; near the Mendeleev volcano; 7

km southwest of the town of Uzhno-Kurilsk

STATUS

Power plant(s) on site / Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 70-105

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWe) 0.7

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) 20

POTENTIAL (MWe) 0.7

CHRONOLOGY

1992 - 700 kWe single flash Goriachy Plyazh GeoPP

went online. The small condensing unit, which was

constructed at Kaluga Turbine Works SC, is

inexpensive, rapidly constructed, and easy to operate
Geothermal Resources in Russia 41

and maintain (Povarov and Povarov, 1999). 

1997 - a 20 MWt geothermal heat plant (GeoHP) was

put into operation.

2000 - Power plant is currently not operating.

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used to provide district heating

for Uzhno-Kurilsk.

The geothermal field is located in a narrow coastal

stretch, about one kilometer long and a quarter of a

kilometer wide. The geothermal water system is bedded

in a fissured Neogene layer of tuffs, sandstone,

conglomerates, and redeposited volcanic rocks and has

total thickness of 570 meters (Stoyanov and Taylor,

1996).

The geothermal steam resource has a potential of 4147 

m3/day (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Demand is 3.5 x 103 m3/day; 1.8 MPa pressure at

wellhead; 3.5-10 g/l mineralization.

Griaznorechen

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Krasnodar Krai

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 106

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space heating.

Mineralization of 1.1 g/l; phenol contamination; 1.4

MPa at borehole; 1000 m3/day flow rate; average depth

of boreholes is 2000 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Grozny

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Chechen Republic,

43o13'N latitude 45o41'E longitude

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 80-96

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —
Geothermal Resources in Russia 42

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for district heating in a

small part of Grozny covering 5000 inhabitants. 

Thermal water has a TDS of 5 g/kg and a temperature of

80-96oC (Kononov et al., 1995; Kononov and Dvorov,

1990).

Gudermes

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Chechen Republic

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Hankal

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Chechen Republic,

10 km south of Grozny

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) 88-98

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

9500 m3/day for commercial and potential direct use

(Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Reserves have been explored and studied to the degree

that the data assure complete understanding of

stratigraphy, structure, pressure heads, and permeability

of water-bearing rock. The means by which waterbearing formations are replenished and their potential to

add to exploitable reserves have been ascertained. The

volume of subsurface water has been determined with a

certainty that assures the useful life and the potential for

a desired purpose. Exploitable reserves of subsurface

water have been determined at the water supply site

using pump (flowing) tests and/or other means.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 43

Harkov

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Krasnodar Krai

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) 98

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is currently under conservation

(not being exploited).

Mineralization of 1.6 g/l; 500 m3/day flow rate; average

depth of boreholes is 2000 m (Stoyanov and Taylor,

1996).

Hodzev

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Adygeya Republic

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 70-86

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space heating.

Mineralization of 2.3-2.8 g/l; phenol contamination; 0.4

MPa at borehole; 1000 m3/day flow rate; average depth

of boreholes is 2100-2400 m (Stoyanov and Taylor,

1996).

Izerbash

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Dagestan Republic,

42o49'N latitude 47o52'E longitude

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 40-77

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY
Geothermal Resources in Russia 44

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for hot water supply and

space and district heating, completely satisfying the

needs of the town (Kononov et al., 2000).

Mineralization of 1.29-6.22 g/l; 0.06-0.32 MPa at

borehole; 400-500 m3/day flow rate; average depth of

boreholes is 800-1600 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

4540 m3/day for commercial direct use (Stoyanov and

Taylor, 1996).

Reserves have been explored and studied to the degree

that the data assure complete understanding of

stratigraphy, structure, pressure heads, and permeability

of water-bearing rock. The means by which waterbearing formations are replenished and their potential to

add to exploitable reserves have been ascertained. The

volume of subsurface water has been determined with a

certainty that assures the useful life and the potential for

a desired purpose. Exploitable reserves of subsurface

water have been determined at the water supply site

using pump (flowing) tests and/or other means.

Jushnosukhokumsk

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Dagestan Republic,

in the northern part of the republic

STATUS

Construction underway

TEMPERATURE (°C) 160-240

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

High-temperature waters (160-240oC) containing high

concentration of rare elements and mineral salts are

found in northern Dagestan at 3.3-5.5 km depth. 

The Jushnosukhokumsk geothermal field is one of the

most promising in the region. Production rates of 2.5

million m3/day are expected.

The construction of a plant to process 3 million m3/year

of high salinity (130-140 g/l) geothermal brine is

underway. The plant will use the heat of the thermal

waters in complex operations to extract iodine, lithium,

rubidium, cesium, and NaCl from the brine

(Magomedov et al., 1999).
Geothermal Resources in Russia 45

Kalinov

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Dagestan Republic

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) 57-92

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is currently under conservation

(not being exploited).

Mineralization of 5.78-20.07 g/l; phenol contamination

(0.7-1.8 mg/l); 1.0-1.4 MPa at borehole; 1000 m3/day

flow rate; average depth of boreholes is 1500-2500 m

(Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Karym

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in the

Nalycheva River valley

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) 100-200

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWe) —

POTENTIAL (MWe) / (MWt) 146 / 146

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is most promising for agricultural

and balneological applications (Kononov et al., 2000).

Electrical generation potential is 146 ± 44 MWe for 100

years (Sugrobov, 1995).

Boiling water at the surface; 146 MWt natural heat

capacity (Leonov, 2000). 

A short-term but powerful phreatic-magmatic eruption

occurred in the Karymsky geothermal area in the

Akademy Nauk caldera where the Karymskoe Lake,

which until 1996 was a fresh-water one, was located. 

Enormous quantity of erupted material was ejected

(Karpov et al.., 2000).

Kayakent

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Dagestan Republic
Geothermal Resources in Russia 46

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 45-62

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for hot water supply and

space and district heating, partially satisfying the needs

of the town, and for a spa (Kononov et al., 2000).

Mineralization of 1.29-1.66 g/l; 0.08-0.15 MPa at

borehole; 500 m3/day flow rate; average depth of

boreholes is 700-900 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Kayasula

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) 150-170

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWe) —

POTENTIAL (MWe) 3

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

A 3 MWe plant was planned, however, technical

challenges, associated high costs, and potential

environmental problems related to the resource having

high TDS (>100 g/kg), relatively low temperatures

(150-170oC) at 4000-4400 m depth, and high injection

pressures to 7 MPa, currently make the development of

this project problematic (Kononov et al., 2000; Huttrer,

2000).

Kazminsk

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Stavropol Krai

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 103-128

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space heating and

industrial heat.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 47

Mineralization of 1.26-3.92 g/l; arsenic (0.05-0.1 mg/l)

and phenol (0.05 mg/l) contamination; 0.3-1.2 MPa at

borehole; 2000 m3/day flow rate; average depth of

boreholes is 2100-2700 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Ketlin

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, 5 km

southeast of Elizovo

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 60

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

1990 - KamchatGeologKom developed resource for

road de-icing and balneotherapy.

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for road de-icing and

balneotherapy.

Demand is 12.2 x 103 m3/day; 2.4-11.4 g/l

mineralization; contamination: arsenic (0.08 mg/l)

(Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Khodutkin

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in

southern Kamchatka

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) 38-200

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWe) —

POTENTIAL (MWe) 117

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Electrical generation potential is 117 ± 35 MWe for 100

years. Hot water springs (38oC); inferred mean

temperature in reservoir is 200oC (Sugrobov, 1995).

Kireuna

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in

central Kamchatka

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) 100-200
Geothermal Resources in Russia 48

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL (MWe) / /MWt) 68 / 24

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Electrical generation potential is 68 ± 20 MWe for 100

years. Inferred mean temperature in reservoir is 200oC. 

Spring discharges chloride-sodium waters (Sugrobov,

1995).

The field discharges boiling water at the surface which

is estimated to provide 24 MWt (Kononov et al., 2000).

One of 24 thermal spring groups in central Kamchatka;

has great potential (Kononov et al., 2000).

Mean temperature of the first 1-km layer is 200oC. 

Available energy in the 1-km layer with a temperature

decrease of 50oC is 20 x 1013 kcal (Fedotov et al., 1975).

Kizlyar

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Dagestan Republic,

43o48'N latitude 46o41'E longitude

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 44-110

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space and district

heating, partially satisfying the needs of the town; hot

water supply; and greenhouses (20,000 m2) (Kononov et

al., 2000).

The local population is supplied by one deep well which

can produce from two different aquifers, separately or

simultaneously, and it is used as a heat exchanger. 

Salinity brine (110oC, 25 g/l) from the Mid-Miocene

sandstone layers rises through the well annulus from

2840 m depth, and transfers heat at a depth of 1000 m to

44oC, 2.1 g/l water from Quaternary sandstone horizons

(Magomedov et al., 1999).

Phenol content is 2.3 mg/dm3 (Omarov and Chalaev,

1998).

Mineralization of 1.29-6.94 g/l; 0.35-1.4 MPa at

borehole; 1000 m3/day flow rate; average depth of

boreholes is 1000-2900 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Thermal water, suitable for utilization, is taken from a

depth of 1000-1050 m with a temperature of 44-47oC
Geothermal Resources in Russia 49

and a well yield of 5300 m3/day, and from 2600-2900 m

with a temperature of 107oC and a well yield of 3000

m3/day (Sardarov, 1990).

The field consists of two geothermal reservoirs: the

lower complex (depth of about 3000 m, Chokrak in age)

with temperatures in excess of 100oC and flow rates

from 3000 to 5000 m3/day, and the upper complex

(depth of 1000-1200 m, Apsheron in age) with a

temperature of 47oC and flow rates of 3000-6000

m3/day. The joint separate development of the two

complexes allows users to obtain 5000 m3/day water at

85-87oC (Mavritsky and Khelkvist, 1975).

Kolpachev

LOCATION

West Siberian economic district

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Kordonov

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Dagestan Republic

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) 44-103

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is currently under conservation

(not being exploited).

Mineralization of 2.2-22.3 g/l; phenol contamination

(1.4801.70 mg/l); 0.82-1.4 MPa at borehole; 1000

m3/day flow rate; average depth of boreholes is 1000-

2800 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Krainov

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Dagestan Republic

STATUS
Geothermal Resources in Russia 50

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 40

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for hot water supply.

Mineralization of 2.1 g/l; 0.2 MPa at borehole; 1000

m3/day flow rate; average depth of boreholes is 700-800

m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Ksudach

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) 150

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWe) —

POTENTIAL (MWe) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is high temperature (> 150oC).

Kupin

LOCATION

West Siberian economic district

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Labinsk

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Stavropol Krai

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) 105

INSTALLED CAPACITY —
Geothermal Resources in Russia 51

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Phenol content is 0.42 mg/dm3 (Omarov and Chalaev,

1998).

Lorino

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Magadan Oblast,

Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, 28 km southwest of

Lavrentia village; 12 km northeast of Lorino village

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) 60-80

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

ChukoGeolKom has plans to develop the resource for

space heating and balneotherapy.

Due to the severe climatic conditions, the region is

poorly studied (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

2200 m3/day for commercial direct use (Stoyanov and

Taylor, 1996).

Mahachkalin

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Dagestan Republic

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) 30-70

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

6100 m3/day for potential direct use (Stoyanov and

Taylor, 1996).

Reserves have been explored and studied in detail. The

data obtained assure determination of basic stratigraphic

features, structure, and recharge sources for replenishing

exploitable resources of subsurface water. Water quality

has been studied to the point where its use may be

established. Exploitable reserves of subsurface water at

a site of projected supply have been determined on the
Geothermal Resources in Russia 52

basis of pump (flowing) tests and extrapolated

estimates.

Maikop

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Adygeya Republic,

Krasnodar Krai

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 73-86

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for industrial heat and

space heating.

Mineralization of 3.1-8.5 g/l; phenol contamination; 0.5

MPa at borehole; 500 m3/day flow rate; average depth

of boreholes is 1800 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

4980 m3/day for commercial direct use (Stoyanov and

Taylor, 1996).

Reserves have been explored and studied to the degree

that the data assure complete understanding of

stratigraphy, structure, pressure heads, and permeability

of water-bearing rock. The means by which waterbearing formations are replenished and their potential to

add to exploitable reserves have been ascertained. The

volume of subsurface water has been determined with a

certainty that assures the useful life and the potential for

a desired purpose. Exploitable reserves of subsurface

water have been determined at the water supply site

using pump (flowing) tests and/or other means.

Makhachkala-Ternair

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Dagestan Republic,

in a suburb of Makhachkala, 6 km west of the city; the

capital of Dagestan; 42o56'N latitude 47o29'E longitude

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 42-100

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space and district
Geothermal Resources in Russia 53

heating, partially satisfying the needs of the town, and

greenhouses (60,000 m2) (Kononov et al., 2000).

Hothouse waters containing phenols are injected back

into the producing aquifer at a rate of about 1000 m3/day

(Magomedov et al., 1999).

Phenol content is 7.4-12.5 mg/dm3 (Omarov and

Chalaev, 1998).

Mineralization of 2.2-12.8 g/l; phenol contamination

(0.0084-4.0 mg/l); 0.12-1.3 MPa at borehole; 600-1000

m3/day flow rate; average depth of boreholes is 900-

2100 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

4800 m3/day for commercial use.

Reserves have been explored and studied in detail. The

data obtained assure determination of basic stratigraphic

features, structure, and recharge sources for replenishing

exploitable resources of subsurface water. Water quality

has been studied to the point where its use may be

established. Exploitable reserves of subsurface water at

a site of projected supply have been determined on the

basis of pump (flowing) tests and extrapolated

estimates.

Malkin

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 78-88

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for fish farming.

Manas

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Dagestan Republic

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 40

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —
Geothermal Resources in Russia 54

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space heating and hot

water supply.

Mineralization of 2.5-6.2 g/l; 0.05 MPa at borehole; 500

m3/day flow rate; average depth of boreholes is 1400 m

(Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Mezhchohrak

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Krasnodar Krai

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) 86

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is currently under conservation

(not being exploited).

Mineralization of 2.9-8.6 g/l; phenol contamination; 0.4

MPa at borehole; 500 m3/day flow rate; average depth

of boreholes is 2000 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Moscow

LOCATION

Central economic district, Moscow Oblast

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Total energy of discovered resources is equal to 44

billion tons of conventional fuel (Boguslavsky et al.,

1995).

The Moscow artesian basin is a large sedimentary basin

covering an area of 500,000 km2. The area is a

depressed structure of the East-European platform, and

is located between the Baltic Shield, Voronezh, and

Volga-Urals anticlines.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 55

Mostovskoe

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Krasnodar Krai,

44o25'N latitude 40o12'E longitude

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 68-75

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Water at 75oC is used in a multi-purpose, cascading

system which includes greenhouses (180,000 m2); space

heating for 10,000 inhabitants, cow sheds, pig farms,

and poultry yards; concrete block fabrication; and wool

drying. The waste water at 20-30oC is used for a

swimming pool and a fish farm (Kononov et al., 2000).

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

11,100 m3/day for commercial use. Mineralization is

1.4-2.5 g/l; 0.1-.05 MPa pressure at borehole; 800

m3/day flow rate; average depth of boreholes is 2000-

2200 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Reserves have been explored and studied in detail. The

data obtained assure determination of basic stratigraphic

features, structure, and recharge sources for replenishing

exploitable resources of subsurface water. Water quality

has been studied to the point where its use may be

established. Exploitable reserves of subsurface water at

a site of projected supply have been determined on the

basis of pump (flowing) tests and extrapolated

estimates.

Mutnovsky

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in

southern Kamchatka; 50 km from nearest village,

Termalny; 75 km south of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky;

80 km from Elizovo; at the springs of the Falshiv and

Zhirov Rivers; near the northern foothills of the Mutnov

volcano; 800-900 masl; 52o30'N latitude 158o10'E

longitude

STATUS

Construction underway

TEMPERATURE (°C) 147-320

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWe) —

POTENTIAL (MWe) / (MWt) 460 / 129

CHRONOLOGY

1978 - Exploration work began. 
Geothermal Resources in Russia 56

1983 to 1988 - Flow tests conducted in wells 016, 26,

01, 014, 1, 24, and 013 (Kiryukhin, 1992).

1987 to 1989 - Exploratory drilling was initiated in the

central part of the field in the Dachny section to confirm

the occurrence of superheated water and steam in the

underground system. Total of 95 wells drilled: 58

production (1500-2500 m), 24 thermal gradient, and 13

injection. Found a maximum temperature of 305oC

(Kononov and Dvorov, 1990).

August to September 1989 - A 33-day tracer test was

performed using an injection of fluorescein dye into a

central observation well in the field; an estimate of the

thermal cool down was also made (Kiryukhin and

Kruger, 1990).

1990 - Sufficient steam resources to generate 78 MWe

were confirmed (Kiryukhin, 1992).

1991 - Estimation of reserves was calculated to be 156.2

kg/c for 30 years. As a result of the sum of real steam

rates of all two-phase wells by the end of four-year

interference flow tests plus steam rates of other wells

during single flow tests, the field was classified “C1" for

industrial development (Perveev and Shulupin, 1995).

A 3-D mapping of the lithologic units, temperature, and

pressure fields, and a natural-state (pre-exploitation)

model of the fluid flow within the Dachny site were

completed. Mapping indicated that two upflow zones

and one relatively cool downflow zone exist in the

Dachny site. Based on the simulation studies carried

out with the computer code TOUGH2, the total rate of

upflow is estimated at the upflow rate is 165 kg/s and

permeability is 150 mD. Concluded that the total steam

output of wells 1, 01, 24, 26, 014, 013, and 037 is

sufficient to generate 30 MWe for 20 years (Kiryukhin

et al., 1991; Kiryukhin, 1992). 

June to December 1995 - West JEC conducted a

feasibility study, funded by the European Bank for

Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), which

included collection, analysis, verification, and

confirmation of data and information; evaluation of the

geothermal field; plan for the steam transportation

system; process design of the combined power plant;

cost estimates; and economic, financial, and

environmental analyses.

EBRD lent the Russian Government $99.9 million for

the Mutnovsky Independent Power Project. Total costs

are expected to reach $500 million for the power plant

and $120 million for the pipeline. The loan is backed by

a sovereign guarantee and a power purchase agreement

(PPA), the first for Russia, which ensures tariffs that

will cover loan payments for its 10-year term. 

December 21, 1996 - A 4.5 magnitude earthquake

occurred 91 km from the Mutnovsky field.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 57

2000 - The GeoPP site civil preparatory and advance

steam field works are being completed. The design,

manufacture, supply and “turn-key” construction of the

geothermal power plant have been started. Under the

drilling and well repair contract, geothermal steam will

be supplied at the rate of 320 t/h and a pressure of 7 bar

(Britvin et al.., 2000).

More than 90 boreholes have been drilled in the field

which covers a total area of 21.7 km2; two-phase fluids

with wellhead temperatures of 160-180oC have been

discovered.

March 2000 - At 0700 on 17 March, a short-lived

explosion sent a gas-and-steam plume to heights of

~1,000 m above the volcano; the plume disappeared

within 30 minutes. At 1300, another gas-and-steam

plume rose to about the same altitude and extended to

the southeast; activity ended by 1700.

August 2000 - Psychrometric Systems, Inc. (PSI), a

subsidiary of Global Water Technologies, Inc., was

awarded a $2.7-million contract to supply two water

cooling towers for the Mutnovsky GeoPP. The cooling

water system supplied by PSI will cool 50,000 gallons

of water per minute. 

End of 2001 - CSC Geoterm, which has the concession

for the entire Mutnovsky geothermal field, plans to

complete the $150-million Mutnovsky 50 MWe (two

25-MWe units) GeoPP, Stage I of development. A

Control Center located in the Termalny settlement will

manage 20 geothermal power plants. 

2004 - II stage of Mutnovsky GeoPP of about 100 MWe

to go online.

2005 - III stage of Mutnovsky GeoPP of about 100

MWe to go online.

NOTES

Electrical generation potential is 460 ± 138 MWe for

100 years (Sugrobov, 1995). Overheated and saturated

steam at the surface; 129 MWt natural heat capacity

(Leonov, 2000).

The Mutnovsky field is marked by surface

manifestations of boiling hot springs and saturated

steam vents. The geologic structure of the hydrothermal

system is very complex, contained in a tectonic zone of

intersecting fractures in a north-easterly direction,

bounded by the ancient Zhirov volcano to the east, the

caldera of the Gorel volcano to the west, and the

Mutnov volcano to the south. The production zone is in

the Dachny area (Kiryukhin and Kruger, 1990).

Heat emission from the sinkholes is steam with

temperatures of 400-500oC at 400,000 kcal/s. Steam

vents emissions are released at 93,000 kcal/s with a

maximum temperature of 305oC. The boiling waters in

the Zhirov and Mutnov River valleys release 3,800
Geothermal Resources in Russia 58

kcal/s of superheated water and 2,000 kcal/s of hot

water at 93oC (Kiryukhin and Kruger, 1990).

Mutnovsky is a liquid-dominated reservoir with fluid

temperatures of 235-270oC. Reservoir fluids contain

approximately 1% non-condensible gas, mostly CO2. 

Pressure conditions are close to two-phase, and

permeability is fracture-dominated (Kiryukhin and

Pruess, 2000).

The geothermal steam resource has a potential of 17,280

m3/day. Demand is 10.4 x 103 m3/day; capacity is 10.4

x 103 tons/day; 0.7 MPa pressure at wellhead; 0.6-2.5

g/l mineralization; contamination: arsenic (0.01-2.5

mg/l), and fluorine (0.4-3.2 mg/l) (Stoyanov and

Taylor, 1996).

Average temperature of the two-phase zone is 245oC;

the single-phase zone is 250-320oC. Enthalpies of the

two-phase wells vary from 1000 kJ/kg to 2700 kJ/kg,

depending on discharge conditions. Average weight gas

content of fluids is 0.14%; gas composition is carbonate

or carbonate-nitric, with 6% sulphur hydrogen

volumetric content. Single-phase zone fluids have

chloridium-natrium composition with 250-300 mg/kg

chloridium content and 120-820 mg/kg silica acid

content; total mineralization is 1.5-2.5 g/kg; pH is about

or slightly more than 7.0 (Perveev and Shulupin, 1995).

EBRD’s loan to Geoterm will create the first IPP in the

Kamchatka region. Geoterm–a joint stock company

owned by RAO UES, the Kamchatka regional

administration, and the private engineering company,

Nauka–will sell electricity to Kamchatskenergo, the

regional power distribution company. The transmission

line (90 km, 220 kV), road (60 km), and the major

power plant in Elizovo which is capable of taking up to

120 MWe, all belong to Kamchatskenergo. It is

expected that the IPP structure and commercial

operation of Geoterm will facilitate future privatization

of the company.

The transfer of Kamchatka to geothermal power supply

will save approximately 900,000 tons of fuel each year

(Britvin et al., 2000), reducing Kamchatka’s imported

fuel costs by an estimated US$15 million per year.

The biggest question is whether the local utility,

Kamchatskenergo, and its customers can pay for the

electricity so that Geoterm can repay the loan. More

than half the population of Kamchatka lives below the

poverty level. The peninsula is unconnected to Russia’s

energy grid and is dependent on imported oil and diesel. 

Severe climatic conditions in Mutnovsky limit

construction to 4-5 months a year. The average annual

temperature is -1.9oC (in August, 25oC, in winter -

37oC); snow cover may reach up to 10 m (Povarov and

Povarov, 1999).

The Mutnovsky volcano is one of about 30 which
Geothermal Resources in Russia 59

stretch down the peninsula, which is roughly half the

size of Texas. Mutnovsky is a composite stratovolcano

with a large twin crater at its summit. These craters

have crater lakes in them and very active fumaroles.

Pumice beds, cones and lava flows can be found on the

slopes of these craters. Explosive eruptions producing

ash occurred in 1945-52 and then again in 1960. It is

thought that this volcano possibly located in an old

ruined caldera with a diameter of about 9 km. The

mountain itself could have been formed by two merging

cones. Originally there had been one stratovolcano then

later on a second emerged on the northwestern slope of

the first. Over time the caldera of the first volcano got

filled with ejecta from the second cone. A 3 x 1.5 km

pear shaped crater exists at the summit of Mutnovsky,

here one can find its two lakes and steam vents that emit

huge quantities of volcanic gases 

(http://volcano.und.nodak.edu).

Mykop

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Krasnodar Krai

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) 87

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Phenol content is 0.94 mg/dm3 (Omarov and Chalaev,

1998).

Nachikin

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, 1.5

km north of Nachiki village, 60 km west of

Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 8-84

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

1950 - The Federation of Independent Trade Unions

developed the resource for space heating and

balneotherapy.

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space heating and an

hydropathic establishment.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 60

Demand is 1.5 x 103 m3/day; capacity is 1.5 x 103

tons/day (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Nalchinsko-Dolin

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, KabardinoBalkarian Republic

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Nalychev

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) < 150

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is low temperature (< 150oC).

Nizhne-Baksan

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, KabardinoBalkarian Republic

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 56-58

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space heating.

Mineralization of 8.1 g/l; phenol contamination (0.032

mg/l); 1500 m3/day flow rate; average depth of

boreholes is 1900 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).
Geothermal Resources in Russia 61

Nizhne-Koshelev

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in

southern Kamchatka, near the Pauzhetka field

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) 220-240

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL (MWe) / (MWt) 350 / 314

CHRONOLOGY

1971 - Well drilling began.

1978 - Well drilling concluded as attention turned to

developing the Mutnovsky field. 

1991 - Attempt to restart drilling failed due to a lack of

investment. Fluids have enthalpies of up to 2800

kJ/kg.

NOTES

Saturated steam and boiling water at the surface; 314

MWt natural heat capacity (Leonov, 2000).

Geothermal reserves of approximately 350 MWe have

been proven (Povarov and Povarov, 1999).

Well test data shows that the Koshelev field resources

are approximately equal (maybe slightly smaller) to the

Mutnovsky field (Delnov and Shulyupin, 1996).

Electrical generation potential is 215 ± 64 MWe for 100

years or Koshelev, and 100 ± 30 MWe for 100 years for

Nizhne-Koshelev (Sugrobov, 1995).

Nizhne-Ozernov

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in

southern Kamchatka; includes the Zaporozhe and

Ozernovsky regions

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 87

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

1983 - RAO Gazprom developed geothermal resource

for space heating.

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space heating.

0.03-0.08 MPa pressure at wellhead; 14-23.2 g/l 
Geothermal Resources in Russia 62

mineralization; contamination: arsenic (< 0.6.8 mg/l)

(Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Nizhne-Zelenchuk

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Stavropol Krai

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 118

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for hot water supply and

space heating.

Mineralization of 23.0 g/l; 0.562 MPa at borehole; 1500

m3/day flow rate; average depth of boreholes is 2300-

2400 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Novogroznene

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Chechen Republic,

18 km southeast of Gudermes

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) 75-77

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

3410 m3/day for commercial and potential direct use

(Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Reserves have been explored and studied to the degree

that the data assure complete understanding of

stratigraphy, structure, pressure heads, and permeability

of water-bearing rock. The means by which waterbearing formations are replenished and their potential to

add to exploitable reserves have been ascertained. The

volume of subsurface water has been determined with a

certainty that assures the useful life and the potential for

a desired purpose. Exploitable reserves of subsurface

water have been determined at the water supply site
Geothermal Resources in Russia 63

using pump (flowing) tests and/or other means.

Okeanskaya (Kipiashty)

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Sakhalin Oblast, on the

Okhotsk Sea coast of Iturup Island; in the Kurile

Archipelago; on the Baransky volcano slope near the

Sernaya River; 17 km from town of Kurllsk

STATUS

Power plant(s) on site

TEMPERATURE (°C) 250-320

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWe) 8

POTENTIAL (MWe) 300

CHRONOLOGY

1997 - The Okeanskaya geothermal heating facility was

commissioned; managed by SahalinGeolKom.

1999 - 8 MWe (four 2-MWe single flash units) went

online.

2000 - Power plants are currently not operating. A new

4 MWe single flash unit is to go online. 

2001 - Two 4 MWe single flash units to go online.

2003 - 20 MWe single flash unit to go online.

2005 - 32 MWe total installed capacity planned.

The field is projected to generate 30 MWe; 9 wells are

ready for exploitation (Kononov et al., 2000).

NOTES

Iturup Island has up to 300 MWe of industrial reserves

of geothermal fluid (Povarov and Povarov, 1999).

The Okeanskaya system belongs to the progressive

haloid-sulphurous-carbon acid gas stage of

development, and is younger and hotter than the

Pauzhetka system (Ladygin et al., 2000).

According to the mineralogical data the Okeanskaya

system has a zonal structure with the following zones

from bottom up: high-medium temperature secondary

quartzites (350-450oC), medium temperature quartzalbite-chlorite propylites (260-350oC), low-temperature

zeolites and calcite-hydromica propylites (180-260oC),

argillized propylites (150-200oC), hydrothermal

argillites (100-150oC), opalites (nearly 100oC) (Ladygin

et al., 2000).

Demand is 3.3 x 103 m3/day; 250-320oC at wellhead;

1.6-3.2 MPa pressure at wellhead; 2.7-7.5 g/l

mineralization (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).
Geothermal Resources in Russia 64

Omsk

LOCATION

West Siberian economic district, Omsk Oblast

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Thermal waters provide the space heating for small

settlements and several buildings in the city of Omsk.

Geothermal water is also used to heat oil-bearing

horizons and decrease oil viscosity thus enhancing

recovery, for the extraction of iodine and bromine

contained in thermal brines, for fish farming, etc. 

West Siberia is very rich in natural gas and oil, which

hampers geothermal development (Kononov et al.,

2000).

Otradnen

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Krasnodar Krai

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 88-100

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space heating.

Mineralization of 1.1-2.0 g/l; 0.5-0.9 MPa at borehole;

800 m3/day flow rate; average depth of boreholes is

1800 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Ozernoye

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) —
Geothermal Resources in Russia 65

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for greenhouses.

Palana

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in

northern Kamchatka

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) 75-95

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

One of 16 thermal spring groups in northern Kamchatka

considered most attractive for geothermal use (Kononov

et al., 2000).

Springs discharge nitrogen rich water containing

predominantly calcium sulphate and sodium (Sugrobov,

1995).

Paratunka

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, 30

km from Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky; in the Elizovsky

region; 52o40'N latitude 158o15'E longitude

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 40-106

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWe) 0.8

POTENTIAL (MWe) 0.8

CHRONOLOGY

1967 - An experimental 800 kWe binary power plant,

the first binary geothermal power plant in the world,

using freon-12 and 80oC water, was designed and

successfully tested by the RAS Siberian Branch. 

1968 to 1970 - Geothermal space heating, including

greenhouses covering an area of 60,000 m2, and

balneotherapy systems began operating; managed by

RAO Gazprom.

1978 - 800 kWe binary plant ceased operation.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 66

1995 - Heat output of geothermal heating system totaled

275,080 Gcal/yr (Perveev and Shumakova, 1996).

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for district heating, health

resorts, greenhouses, and fish farming.

Thermal Cl-Na waters with T=80-100oC and TDS=1-5

g/kg are utilized for space heating.

The Paratunskaya system has the following zones: 

zeolite, albite-zeolite, albite-calcite with sericite, albite,

albite-epidote, and albite-actinolite (Ladygin et al.,

2000).

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

14,5000 m3/day for commercial direct use (Stoyanov

and Taylor, 1996).

Demand is 33.2 x 103 m3/day; 0.00-0.11 MPa pressure

at wellhead; 0.8-2.2 g/l mineralization; contamination: 

arsenic (0.01-1.0 mg/l), fluorine (0.2-3.0 mg/l), and

silicic acid (50-80 mg/l).

Reserves have been explored and studied in detail. The

data obtained assure determination of basic stratigraphic

features, structure, and recharge sources for replenishing

exploitable resources of subsurface water. Water quality

has been studied to the point where its use may be

established. Exploitable reserves of subsurface water at

a site of projected supply have been determined on the

basis of pump (flowing) tests and extrapolated

estimates.

Pauzhetka

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in

southern Kamchatka; south of Petropavlovsk; on the

western coast of southeastern Kamchatka; 28 km from

Ozernovsky; at the mouth of the Ozernoi River; in the

Ust-Bolsheretsky region; 51o27'N latitude 156o50'E

longitude

STATUS

Power plant(s) on site

TEMPERATURE (°C) 180-225

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWe) 11.3

POTENTIAL (MWe) / (MWt) 68 / 104.6

CHRONOLOGY

1957 - First boreholes drilled, beginning the Soviet

Union’s geothermal exploration for electric power

generation.

1958 to 1963 - 21 wells were drilled in a 0.7 km2 large

discharge area in the Pauzhetka River valley. The total

withdrawal of 124 kg/s of steam-water mixture at

pressures of 0.8 MPa and a mean enthalpy of 710 kJ/kg
Geothermal Resources in Russia 67

proved the resource exploitable (Sugrobov, 1995).

1962 to 1963 - Well tests conducted with a discharge of

128 kg/s (Kiryukhin and Sugrobov, 1985).

1966 - 5 MWe (two 2.5 MWe single flash units) came

online, becoming the first geothermal power plant in the

then-USSR. Managed by RAO Gazprom. 

A steam-water mixture with a mean heat content of 175

Cal/kg is produced by 8 boreholes. The electric station

used only steam and a considerable volume of hot water

is discharged into a stream. Plans call for the expansion

of the power station to 9 MWe, to use the hot water as

well as the steam (Popov, 1975).

1970 - Prospecting drilling of deeper wells was

continued in the southeastern part of the field to

increase the power plant’s capacity; 57 wells, including

24 production and 12 reinjection, were drilled up to

depths of 1200 m; mass flow potential according to

modeling data was determined to be 400 kg/s

(Sugrobov, 1995). Temperatures at depth reached

225oC, averaging 180-210oC at depths of 300-800 m 

(Kiryukhin and Sugrobov, 1985).

1975 to 1976 - Well tests conducted with a discharge of

200 kg/s (Kiryukhin and Sugrobov, 1985).

1980 - Additional 6 MWe single flash geothermal

power plant came online. 

1987 - Experimental 300 kWe back-pressure turbine

was installed.

1991 - Reconstruction plan developed to install 18

MWe additional (three 6-MWe turbines from Kaluga

Turbine Plant) and to build an electric transmission line

running east to west, thereby using the plant’s full

capacity (Delnov and Shulyupin, 1996).

1995 - A plan to use the discarded 130oC water from the

plant by piping it to Ozernovsky for district heating will

cost US$25 million. Compared with the cost of

traditional imported heat energy, the project will cover

its costs in 5 years (Perveev and Shumakova, 1996).

1999 - Plant produced about 35 GWh/yr; the cheapest

power in Kamchatka Oblast (Povarov, 2000). Seven

wells utilize 240 kg/s of fluids with an enthalpy of 760-

800 kJ/kg; 79 productive wells are drilled in the field so

the capacity of the station can be increased to 18 MWe

when three new 6 MWe units come into operation (as

the old units are retired) (Kononov et al., 2000).

2000 - New 6 MWe single flash unit to come online.

2005 - 18 MWe total planned to be online.

2010 - 7 MWe addition planned to be online.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 68

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for power generation and

space heating. 

The estimated electrical generation potential of the

Pauzhetka geothermal field is 50-60 MWe for 30 years

(Povarov, 2000), or 68 ± 20 MWe for 100 years

(Sugrobov, 1995).

88oC springs at the surface; 104.6 MWt natural heat

capacity (Leonov, 2000).

The Pauzhetka hydrothermal system includes the

Pauzhetka springs and the Kambalny steam grounds. A

shallow magma body with an anomalous temperature of

700-1000oC and a volume of 20-30 km3 may be a heat

source for the formation of the Pauzhetka hydrothermal

system. The water feeding source of the system may be

meteoric waters which are infiltrated at an average rate

of 5-10 kg/s•km2 (Kiryukhin and Sugrobov, 1985,

1986).

Pauzhetka is a vapor-dominated field. The system

belongs to regressive sulphurous-carbon acid gas stage

of development (Ladgyin et al., 2000).

The Pauzhetka system is older and cooler than the

Okeanskaya system, and belongs to the regressive stage

of evolution. As a result it has somewhat different

hydrothermal zoning with only two zones: the zone of

low-temperature propylites (with two subzones -

transilvanian and zeolite) and the zone of hydrothermal

argillites with high-silicon zeolites (Korobov, 1993;

Ladygin et al., 2000).

Thermal Cl-Na waters with T=80-100oC and TDS=1-5

g/kg are utilized for space heating.

The geothermal steam resource has a potential of 15,200

m3/day (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Demand is 42.2 x 103 m3/day; 0.64-0.88 MJ/kg

enthalpy; 0.15-0.18 MPa pressure at wellhead; 2.5-3.8

g/l mineralization; contamination: arsenic (1.2-4.4

mg/l).

Pinachev

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) < 150

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY
Geothermal Resources in Russia 69

NOTES

Geothermal resource is low temperature (< 150oC).

Priurupsloe

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Krasnodar Krai

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 99-103

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for hot water supply and

space heating.

Mineralization of 1.5-1.7 g/l; 11.0 MPa at borehole; 800

m3/day flow rate; average depth of boreholes is 2200 m

(Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Pushchin

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, 18

km north of Pushtino village; 70 km northwest of

Milkovo settlement; in the Kashkan River valley

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) 60-63

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

The resource has been placed under conservation (not

being exploited) by the Russian Federal Authorities.

Demand is 1.3 x 103 m3/day; 0.15-0.28 MPa pressure at

wellhead; 4.6-7.0 g/l mineralization; contamination: 

arsenic (0.04-0.18 mg/l) (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).
Geothermal Resources in Russia 70

Rechnin

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Dagestan Republic

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 42-104

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is under conservation (not being

exploited).

Mineralization of 2.7-26.84 g/l; phenol contamination

(0.0048-2.86 mg/l); 0.04-1.12 MPa at borehole; 1000

m3/day flow rate; average depth of boreholes is 1000-

3000 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Rodnikovskaya

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Krasnodar Krai

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 74

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is under conservation (not being

exploited).

500 m3/day flow rate; average depth of boreholes is

1800 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Rusakov

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in

northern Kamchatka

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) 75-95

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY
Geothermal Resources in Russia 71

NOTES

One of 16 thermal spring groups in northern Kamchatka

considered most attractive for geothermal use (Kononov

et al., 2000).

Springs discharge nitrogen rich water containing

predominantly calcium sulphate and sodium (Sugrobov,

1995).

Rychal-Su

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Dagestan Republic

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for drinking water.

Sabin

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Krasnodar Krai

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Semyachik

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, near

the famous Geyser Valley in the Kronotsky Reservation,

in the Nalycheva River valley

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) 100-250

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL (MWe) / (MWt) 5 / 314
Geothermal Resources in Russia 72

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Located within the boundaries of the Kronotsky

Reservation where any industrial or agricultural activity

is prohibited. (Kononov et al., 2000).

Limited use of the Semyachik field (for construction of

a small power station of 5 MWe capacity) could help

development of tourist services in the reservation

(Kononov et al., 2000).

Saturated steam at the surface; 314 MWt natural heat

capacity (Leonov, 2000).

Boiling spring waters have sodium-chloride

composition (Sugrobov, 1995).

Mean temperature of the first 1-km layer is 250oC. 

Available energy in the 1-km layer with a temperature

decrease of 50oC is 24 x 1013 kcal (Fedotov et al., 1975).

Severo-Eremin

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Krasnodar Krai

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 107-117

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is currently under conservation

(not being exploited).

Mineralization of 2.5-2.9 g/l; phenol contamination; 0.7

MPa at borehole; 1000 m3/day flow rate; average depth

of boreholes is 2200 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Severo-Mutnovsky

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in

southern Kamchatka

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) 220-301

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWe) —

POTENTIAL (MWe) 172

CHRONOLOGY

1960 - Dacha Springs found.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 73

Mid-1970s - Power plant construction proposed. 

1979 - Exploration drilling began; 82 boreholes were

drilled to depths of 255-2266 m.

1998 - There were 17 wells capable of producing 330

kg/s of fluids with an average enthalpy of 1600 kJ/kg. 

These are now being used to supply 12 MWe via three 4

MWe Tuman 4K plants in the Verkhne (“upper”) part of

the field.

1999 - A transmission line from the 12 MWe VerkhneMutnovsky complex to the market was completed.

2000 - Seventeen wells producing 330 kg/s of fluids

with average enthalpy of 1600 kJ/kg are ready for

exploitation. A shallow vapor-dominated reservoir

containing fluid (steam) with an enthalpy of 2100-2700

kJ/kg was found at depths of 700-900 m. It is underlain

by a liquid-dominated reservoir holding fluids with an

enthalpy of 1000-1500 kJ/kg (T=250-310oC) (Kononov

et al., 2000).

NOTES

Electrical generation potential is 172 ± 52 MWe for 100

years (Sugrobov, 1995).

A shallow, vapor-dominated resource with an enthalpy

of 2100-2700 kJ/kg has been defined between 700 and

900 m deep with a liquid-dominated reservoir having an

enthalpy of 1000-1500 kJ/kg below it (Huttrer, 2000).

Plans are in place for a consortium comprising Nauka

(Russia), West JEC (Japan), and GENZL (New

Zealand) to build the second, third, and fourth power

plants in the Mutnovsky and Verkhne-Mutnovsky areas.

Surgut

LOCATION

West Siberian economic district, Khanty-Mansi

Autonomous Okrug

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Tarumovka

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Dagestan Republic

STATUS

Direct use – developed
Geothermal Resources in Russia 74

TEMPERATURE (°C) 62-195

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWe) 0.2

CHRONOLOGY

1917 - Resource discovered while investigating

Mesozoic sedimentation.

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space and district

heating, completely satisfying the needs of the town

(Kononov et al., 2000).

A geo-technological complex is being planned in this

field. The complex will include a chemical and mineral

extraction plant and a geothermal power station to

provide electricity to the complex (Magomedov et al.,

1999).

A project to construct a 200 kWe geothermal power

plant encountered engineering difficulties and is

suspended.

The Tarumovka geothermal field is one of the most

promising in the region. Production rates of 2.5 million

m3/day are expected (Magomedov et al., 1999).

The Tarumovska deposit has geothermal reserves with

high salinity (200 g/l) and temperatures up to 195oC. 

Six wells have been drilled to depths of about 5500 m,

the deepest geothermal wells in Russia. Tests indicate

high reservoir permeability with wells producing

between 7500 and 11,000 m3/day at 14-15 MPa

wellhead pressures (Magamedov K.M. et al., 1999,

Povarov, 2000).

Mineralization of 4.0-26.0 g/l; phenol contamination

(0.16-0.94 mg/l); 4.7 MPa at borehole; 600 m3/day flow

rate; average depth of boreholes is 1500-2000 m

(Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

A steam-water mixture with a temperature of 160oC and

a mineralization of 220 g/l is obtained from a depth of

5429 m. The water is a calcium chloride brine and is

known for its health properties (Sardarov, 1990).

Tavatum

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Magadan Oblast, on the

north coast of the Gizhiginskoe cove of Shelehov Bay;

7.5 km from the mouth of the Tavatum River; 70 km

west of Evensk

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) 59

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —
Geothermal Resources in Russia 75

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

SevVostGeolKom has plans to develop the resource for

space heating and balneotherapy.

Due to the severe climatic conditions, the region is

poorly studied (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

135 m3/day for commercial direct use (Stoyanov and

Taylor, 1996).

Terekly-Mekteb

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Dagestan Republic

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 81-88

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space heating.

Mineralization of 0.25-6.94 g/l; phenol contamination

(2.8 mg/l); 0.37-0.40 MPa at borehole; 600 m3/day flow

rate; average depth of boreholes is 1900-2000 m

(Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

5000 m3/day for commercial direct use (Stoyanov and

Taylor, 1996).

Reserves have been explored and studied to the degree

that the data assure complete understanding of

stratigraphy, structure, pressure heads, and permeability

of water-bearing rock. The means by which waterbearing formations are replenished and their potential to

add to exploitable reserves have been ascertained. The

volume of subsurface water has been determined with a

certainty that assures the useful life and the potential for

a desired purpose. Exploitable reserves of subsurface

water have been determined at the water supply site

using pump (flowing) tests and/or other means.

Tectonically, the Terekly-Mekteb region is attached to

the plate slope of the Terek-Caspian foredeep. Thermal

waters of 88oC come from a depth of 2000-2055 m. 

Well yields are not great, reaching 1000 m3/day. 

Miocene waters are rather mineralized (up to 25 g/l) and

possess high health properties, and are recommended

for treating motor and nervous system problems and
Geothermal Resources in Russia 76

skin diseases (Sardarov, 1990).

Termalny

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 40-97

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for greenhouses.

Demand is 33.2 x 103 m3/day; 0.00-0.11 MPa pressure

at wellhead; 0.8-2.2 g/l mineralization; contamination: 

arsenic (0.01-1.0 mg/l), fluorine (0.2-3.0 mg/l), and

silicic acid (50-80 mg/l) (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Tersko-Galiugaev

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Stavropol Krai

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 55

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for hot water supply.

Mineralization of 12.3 g/l; 0.5 MPa at borehole; 1500

m3/day flow rate; average depth of boreholes is 2600-

2700 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Tirniauz

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, KabardinoBalkarian Republic, near the Elbrus Mountain

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) 170-250

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWe) —

POTENTIAL (MWe) 10
Geothermal Resources in Russia 77

CHRONOLOGY

February 1991 - First hydrofracture experiment in hot

dry granitic rock was carried out in the former Soviet

Union in a deep well (3830 m) with a temperature of

more than 200oC. 

The results of the two-stage experiment were mixed: 

the experiment was terminated suddenly on the second

day due to uncontrolled lost circulation which

developed in the tubing zone. 

Several organizations participated in the experiment,

including NPO “Nedra” headquartered in Yaroslavl,

Gipronikel which runs Tirniauz Tungsten-Molybdenum

Combine (TVMK), and the Saint Petersburg Mining

Institute.

In addition to creating a prototype geothermal

circulation system (GCS), the project was also designed

to construct an industrial hot water supply system for

TVMK mining operations, and build a 10 MWe

geothermal electric power plant (GeoTES).

The potential of the Tirniauz HDR resource was

estimated to be an energy extraction of 100-400 GJ/hr

using a circulating fluid with flow rates of 200-500

m3/hr and temperatures of 170-250oC (Kruger, 1992).

February 1992 - Announced that a second well would

be drilled in the field.

NOTES

Tobol’sk

LOCATION

West Siberian economic district, Khanty-Mansi

Autonomous Okrug

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Tumlat

LOCATION

STATUS

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in

northern Kamchatka

TEMPERATURE (°C) < 150
Geothermal Resources in Russia 78

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

One of 16 thermal spring groups in northern Kamchatka

considered most attractive for geothermal use (Kononov

et al., 2000).

Geothermal resource is low temperature (< 150oC).

Tyrnyaus

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district,

Kabardino-Balkarian Republic 

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Hydro-fracturing experiments were carried out; 85 m3 of

water under pressure of 60 MPa was injected for 46.5

minutes into granitic rocks with a temperature of 210oC

at a depth interval of 3721-3820 m. The experiment

was unsuccessful: the injection tube broke at 3606-

3610 m (Slysarev et al., 1991; Kononov et al., 1995).

Tyumen

LOCATION

West Siberian economic district, Tyumen Oblast

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) —

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Thermal waters provide the space heating of small

settlements and several buildings in the city. 

Geothermal water is also used heat oil-bearing horizons

to decrease oil viscosity thus enhancing recovery, for

the extraction of iodine and bromine contained in

thermal brines, for fish farming, etc. 

This region is very rich in natural gas and oil, which

hampers geothermal development (Kononov et al.,
Geothermal Resources in Russia 79

2000).

Ulianovsky

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Krasnodar Krai

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 75-82

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space heating.

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

1864 m3/day for commercial direct use. Mineralization

of 1.8-2.3 g/l; phenol contamination; 0.8 MPa pressure

at borehole; 900 m3/day flow rate; average depth of

boreholes is 2000-2200 m (Stoyanov and Taylor,

1996).

Reserves have been explored and studied to the degree

that the data assure complete understanding of

stratigraphy, structure, pressure heads, and permeability

of water-bearing rock. The means by which waterbearing formations are replenished and their potential to

add to exploitable reserves have been ascertained. The

volume of subsurface water has been determined with a

certainty that assures the useful life and the potential for

a desired purpose. Exploitable reserves of subsurface

water have been determined at the water supply site

using pump (flowing) tests and/or other means.

Uzhno-Berezhnoe

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in the

outskirts of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 72

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

1989 - RAO Gazprom developed geothermal resource

for space heating.

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space heating.

Measured 0.01 MPa pressure at wellhead; < 11.1 g/l

mineralization; contamination: arsenic (1.0 mg/l),
Geothermal Resources in Russia 80

arsenious acid (1.68 mg/l), and metaboric acid (17.1

mg/l) (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Uzhno-Sovet

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Krasnodar Krai

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 116

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for hot water supply and

space heating.

Mineralization of 1.4 g/l; 17.0 MPa at borehole; 1000

m3/day flow rate; average depth of boreholes is 2200 m

(Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Uzhno-Voznesen

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Krasnodar Krai

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 83-87

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space heating.

Mineralization of 1.4-1.8 g/l; 600 m3/day flow rate;

average depth of boreholes is 2000 m (Stoyanov and

Taylor, 1996).

Uzon-Geyser

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, in the

Nalycheva River valley within the Kronotsky

Reservation; in the eastern volcanic belt of Kamchatka

STATUS
Geothermal Resources in Russia 81

Reconnaissance

TEMPERATURE (°C) 100

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) 268

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Saturated steam and boiling water at the surface; 268

MWt natural heat capacity (Leonov, 2000).

Located within the boundaries of the Kronotsky

Reservation where any industrial or agricultural activity

is prohibited.

Boiling spring waters have sodium-chloride

composition (Sugrobov, 1995).

The Uzon-Geyser hydrothermal system is typical of

areas of recent tectonic activity (e.g., New Zealand,

California, etc.). The system is controlled by the

volcanic-tectonic pre-Pleistocene dome, in the center of

which a series of eruptions occurred and subsidence

calderas formed. 

The western portion of the structure, the Uzon caldera,

is an almost closed hydrogeological structure. The

eastern part is opened by a NNW-oriented tension

rupture (spreading), the intense activity of which in

Holocene predetermines the functioning of the

thermally anomalous zones of the Geyser Valley

(Dmitriev and Karpov, 1990).

Verkhne-Mutnovsky

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast

STATUS

Power plant(s) on site

TEMPERATURE (°C) 170

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWe) 12

POTENTIAL (MWe) 21

CHRONOLOGY

1998 - 4 MWe single flash geothermal power plant went

online.

1999 - Two additional 4 MWe single flash units went

online. Commissioned by CSC Geoterm. 

The geothermal power plants are of the block type and

consist of 14 containers equipped with facilities that

have been completely factory-tested. The construction

and installation take less than two years (Povarov,

2000).
Geothermal Resources in Russia 82

2002- Two additional units, a 3 MWe single flash and a

6 MWe binary unit, expected online. The binary unit

will increase the overall geothermal’s system efficiency

by 20-40% (Povarov and Povarov, 1999).

From the existing wells surplus two-phase fluid not used

by the first three power units will be transported to the

fourth power unit of Verkhne-Mutnovsky GeoPP. At the

upper part of the cycle a modular back-pressure steam

turbine with the capacity of 3 MWe will be used.

Total capacity of the power unit will be 9 MWe. The

binary installation will be designed, constructed, and

tested under nominal capacity of 6.8 MWe, as a pilot

model of serial binary power modules. These power

modules will be used in future combined power units of

the second stage of Mutnovsky GeoPP, and for the

extensive application of binary GeoPP with the capacity

of 6 and 12 MWe for other new projects.

2005 - 21 MWe total installed capacity planned

NOTES

The Verkhne-Mutnovsky (VM GeoPP) is a pilot

geothermal power project.

The design, creation, equipment production and

construction of VM GeoPP, the first multi-module

geothermal power plant with a capacity of 12 (3x4)

MWe was organized by CSC Geoterm with support

from the Russian Federation Ministry of Science. The

equipment for the power plant was manufactured at

“Kaluga Turbine Works” SC.

The creation of the Verkhne-Mutnovsky GeoPP was

based on new approaches to power plant construction:

1) A pre-assembled modular steam preparation system;

2) A 100% factory-assembled modular power plant with

turbogenerators, electrotechnical equipment, main

control panel and etc.; and 

3) An ecologically clean cycle of geothermal fluid

utilization with an air condenser that prevents direct

contact of the working medium with the environment.

The climatic conditions of the Mutnovsky area are

rather unique due to the location in a northern region at

a substantial elevation above the sea level. The average

annual air temperature is -1.5oC. The average

temperature over the duration of eight months (from

October till May) is lower at -5oC. This low ambient

temperature allows reducing the design condensate

temperature in the power cycle to 10-20oC yielding

considerable power output increase (by 20-40%)

compared to GeoPP located in hot or moderate climate

(Britvin et al., 2000).
Geothermal Resources in Russia 83

Verkhne-Paratunka

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast, 30

southwest of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky; 10 km south

of the Termalny settlement; in the upper Paratunka

River valley; in the Elizovsky region

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 70-106

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

1981 - Exploitation of geothermal resource began; 24

wells drilled; 5 are production wells.

1995 - Heat output of geothermal heating system totaled

3147 Gcal/yr. The large field does not operate in

practice due to a lack of water transmission to large

consumers. The cost of such a system is estimated at

US$24 million. Heat output is expected to be 426,000

Gcal/yr. Compared with the cost of traditional imported

heat energy, the project will cover its costs in 4.5 years

(Perveev and Shumakova, 1996).

NOTES

Verkhne-Paratunka is a hot water resource which is

used for swimming pools and space heating.

The geothermal hot water resource has a potential of

23,300 m3/day for commercial and potential direct use

(Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Demand is 21.6 x 103 m3/day; 0.46-1.19 MPa pressure

at wellhead; 0.9-1.5 g/l mineralization; contamination: 

arsenic (0.13-1.0 mg/l) and fluorine (2.8-4.4).

Reserves have been explored and studied in detail. The

data obtained assure determination of basic stratigraphic

features, structure, and recharge sources for replenishing

exploitable resources of subsurface water. Water quality

has been studied to the point where its use may be

established. Exploitable reserves of subsurface water at

a site of projected supply have been determined on the

basis of pump (flowing) tests and extrapolated

estimates.

Voskresen

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Krasnodar Krai

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 112-116
Geothermal Resources in Russia 84

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is currently under conservation

(not being exploited).

Mineralization of 1.5-3.5 g/l; phenol contamination;

1.28 MPa at borehole; 1000 m3/day flow rate; average

depth of boreholes is 2200 m (Stoyanov and Taylor,

1996).

Vostochno-Baksan

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, KabardinoBalkarian Republic

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 56-58

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space heating.

Mineralization of 8.1 g/l; phenol contamination (0.032

mg/l); 1500 m3/day flow rate; average depth of

boreholes is 1900 m (Stoyanov and Taylor, 1996).

Voznesen

LOCATION

North Caucasian economic district, Krasnodar Krai

STATUS

Direct use – developed

TEMPERATURE (°C) 82-111

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Geothermal resource is used for space heating.

Mineralization of 1.0-4.7 g/l; phenol contamination;

0.2-1.2 MPa at borehole; 1000 m3/day flow rate;

average depth of boreholes is 2500 m (Stoyanov and

Taylor, 1996).
Geothermal Resources in Russia 85

Yaroslavl

LOCATION

Central economic district, Yaroslavl Oblast

STATUS

Well(s) or hole(s) drilled

TEMPERATURE (°C) 60

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MWt) —

POTENTIAL (MWt) 55

CHRONOLOGY

1993 - Injection bore hole drilled; construction of a

geothermal circulation system using a natural collector

was begun. 

The bore hole penetrated the aquifer, composed of sandclay deposits, including water with a temperature of

more than 60oC, at a depth of 2250 m. The production

bore hole was drilled 800 m from the first one. 

The water rate in circulation contour was projected as

100 m3/hr with a capacity of 55 MWt heat production

and 25,000 Gcal/yr (Khakhaev, Pevsner, 1993;

Kononov et al., 1995).

NOTES

Zhirov

LOCATION

Far Eastern economic district, Kamchatka Oblast

STATUS

Preliminary identification/report

TEMPERATURE (°C) 200

INSTALLED CAPACITY —

POTENTIAL —

CHRONOLOGY

NOTES

Mean temperature of the first 1-km layer is 200oC. 

Available energy in the 1-km layer with a temperature

decrease of 50oC is 12 x 1013 kcal (Fedotov et al., 1975).
Geothermal Resources in Russia 86

Russia has at least 15 high-enthalpy (T>150oC) sites, most

located in the Far East:

SITE/PROJECT NAME ECONOMIC DISTRICT

TEMP.

oC

Okeanskaya (Kipiashty) Far Eastern 320

Mutnovsky Far Eastern 320

Severo-Mutnovsky Far Eastern 301

Tirniauz North Caucasian 250

Semyachik Far Eastern 250

Jushnosukhokumsk North Caucasian 240

Nizhne-Koshelev Far Eastern 240

Pauzhetka Far Eastern 225

Apapel Far Eastern 200

Karym Far Eastern 200

Khodutkin Far Eastern 200

Kireuna Far Eastern 200

Bolshe-Bannoe Far Eastern 200

Tarumovka North Caucasian 195

Kayasula North Caucasian 170

MinEnergy has expressed a strong interest in attracting

U.S. investment to develop the country’s significant high

enthalpy geothermal resources with the following caveat: 

that such investment supports Russian economic

development on Russian soil. The example cited is the

presence of Japanese automobile manufacturing plants in

the United States. MinEnergy is particularly interested in

geothermal power generation development in the Far East,

specifically Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands; and in

Omsk and Tomsk in West Siberia.

Currently, however, Russia’s power sector is in a state of

transition. RAO UES has submitted a restructuring

proposal to the GOR which includes spinning-off its

generation capacity while retaining control of the

country’s distribution grid. Over the next few years,

subsidies to electric consumers will end, electricity tariffs

will be modified to reflect real costs, and an electricity

market will be created. Once these measures are adopted,

greater, more secure investment opportunities for U.S.

companies will arise.

In the interim, U.S. companies are focusing their sales

efforts on power enterprises on Russia’s periphery, which

can generate export revenues, as well as independent

operators which are not affiliated with RAO UES. If

individual producers can secure rights to compete on

price, to halt service to non-paying customers, and to

retain their earnings, then significant investment should

follow.

Conclusion
Geothermal Resources in Russia 87

Achisu ...................................... 29

Akhty ....................................... 29

Anavgai ..................................... 29

Apapel ...................................... 30

Avachinsky ................................... 31

Baran ....................................... 31

Bashkiriya ................................... 31

Bolshe-Bannoe ................................ 32

Buksansk .................................... 32

Bystrinsk .................................... 33

Chankals ..................................... 33

Chanti-Argun ................................. 33

Cherek-Baksan ................................ 34

Cherkessk .................................... 34

Chervleny Buruny ............................. 35

Chevlen ..................................... 36

Dagestano-Kurdship ........................... 36

Ebek ........................................ 36

Ebeko ....................................... 36

Esso ........................................ 37

Georgievsk ................................... 38

Geyserny .................................... 38

Goitin ....................................... 38

Gorely ....................................... 39

Goriachy Plyazh ............................... 39

Griaznorechen ................................ 40

Grozny ...................................... 40

Gudermes .................................... 41

Hankal ...................................... 41

Harkov ...................................... 42

Hodzev ...................................... 42

Izerbash ..................................... 42

Jushnosukhokumsk ............................ 43

Kalinov ...................................... 44

Karym ....................................... 44

Kayakent .................................... 44

Kayasula ..................................... 45

Kazminsk .................................... 45

Ketlin ....................................... 46

Khodutkin ................................... 46

Kireuna ...................................... 46

Kizlyar ...................................... 47

Kolpachev ................................... 48

Kordonov .................................... 48

Krainov ..................................... 48

Ksudach ..................................... 49

Kupin ....................................... 49

Labinsk ...................................... 49

Lorino ....................................... 50

Mahachkalin .................................. 50

Maikop ...................................... 51

Makhachkala-Ternair ........................... 51

Malkin ...................................... 52

Manas ....................................... 52

Index of Sites
Geothermal Resources in Russia 88

Mezhchohrak ................................. 53

Moscow ..................................... 53

Mostovskoe .................................. 54

Mutnovsky ................................... 54

Mykop ...................................... 58

Nachikin ..................................... 58

Nalchinsko-Dolin .............................. 59

Nalychev .................................... 59

Nizhne-Baksan ................................ 59

Nizhne-Koshelev .............................. 60

Nizhne-Ozernov ............................... 60

Nizhne-Zelenchuk ............................. 61

Novogroznene ................................ 61

Okeanskaya (Kipiashtii) ......................... 62

Omsk ....................................... 63

Otradnen ..................................... 63

Ozernoye .................................... 63

Palana ....................................... 64

Paratunka .................................... 64

Pauzhetka .................................... 65

Pinachev ..................................... 67

Priurupsloe ................................... 68

Pushchin ..................................... 68

Rechnin ..................................... 69

Rusakov ..................................... 69

Rychal-Su .................................... 70

Sabin ....................................... 70

Semyachik ................................... 70

Severo-Eremin ................................ 71

Severo-Mutnovka .............................. 71

Severo-Mutnovsky ............................. 71

Surgut ....................................... 72

Tarumovka ................................... 72

Tavatum ..................................... 73

Terekly-Mekteb ............................... 74

Termalny .................................... 75

Tersko-Galiugaev .............................. 75

Tirniauz ..................................... 75

Tobol’sk ..................................... 76

Tumlat ...................................... 76

Tyrnyaus ..................................... 77

Tyumen ..................................... 77

Ulianovsky ................................... 78

Uzhno-Berezhnoe ............................. 78

Uzhno-Sovet ................................. 79

Uzhno-Voznesen .............................. 79

Uzon-Geyser ................................. 79

Verkhne-Mutnovsky ........................... 80

Verkhne-Paratunka ............................ 82

Voskresen .................................... 82

Vostochno-Baksan ............................. 83

Voznesen .................................... 83

Yaroslavl .................................... 84

Zhirov ....................................... 84
Geothermal Resources in Russia 89

GENERAL SOURCES

Black Sea Regional Energy Centre, http://www.bsrec.bg/.

Central Intelligence Agency (2000). “The World

Factbook 2000,”

http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html.

European Union, Directorate-General for Energy and

Transport (1999), Blue Book on Geothermal Resources. 

Brussels: European Commission, ALTENER Programme,

June.

Geothermal Education Office,

http://geothermal.marin.org/.

Geothermal Energy Association (1999). “Preliminary

Report: Geothermal Energy, The Potential for Clean

Power from the Earth.” Prepared by Karl Gawell, Dr.

Marshall Reed, and Dr. P. Michael Wright; Washington,

D.C.; April 7.

Geothermal Resources Council,

http://www.geothermal.org/index.html.

Global Volcanism Program, National Museum of Natural

History, Smithsonian Institution, 

http://www.volcano.si.edu/gvp/volcano/region10/.

Huttrer, Gerald W. (2000). “The Status of World

Geothermal Power Generation 1995-2000,” Proceedings

of the World Geothermal Congress 2000, Kyushu-Tohoku,

Japan: International Geothermal Association, pp. 23-37.

International Geothermal Association,

http://www.demon.co.uk/geosci/igahome.html.

Lund, John W. and Derek H. Freeston (2000). “WorldWide Direct Uses of Geothermal Energy 2000,”

Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress 2000,

Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan: International Geothermal

Association, pp. 1-21.

Power Marketing Association Online,” PMA OnLine

Power Report, http://www.powermarketers.com/.

Reuters, http://www.reuters.com/.

Stromboli On-line,

http://educeth.ethz.ch/stromboli/index-e.html.

TradePort, http://www.tradeport.org/.

Bibliography
Geothermal Resources in Russia 90

World Energy Council (2000). Energy for Tomorrow’s

World — Acting Now!, London, United Kingdom: World

Energy Council.

World Trade Executive, Inc.; http://www.wtexec.com/.

Worldskip, http://www.worldskip.com/.

RUSSIA

Aladiev, I.T. et al.. (1975). “Heat and Mass Transfer

Processes in the Aquifer Systems with Artificially

Increased Fracturing,” LBL-Second United Nations

Symposium, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley

Laboratory, pp. 1529-1535.

Alexander’s Gas & Oil Connections (2000), 

http://www.gasandoil.com/.

Alexander’s Gas & Oil Connections (2000). “Putin

opposes breaking up the gas, electricity and rail transport

monopolies,” Volume 5, Issue #6, 7 April.

Alexander’s Gas & Oil Connections (2000). “Russian

volcanoes to bring investment and energy through

geothermal power,” Volume 5, Issue #11, 23 June.

Barilovich, Vladimir A. and Youry A. Smirnov (2000). 

“Heat Efficiency of Geothermal Electrical Stations with

Hydrosteam Turbines,” Proceedings of the World

Geothermal Congress 2000, Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan:

International Geothermal Association, pp. 3121-3126.

Black Sea Regional Energy Centre, Black Sea Energy

Review: Russia, http://www.bsrec.bg/russia/index.html.

Boguslavsky, Emil I. et al. (1995). “Development of

Geothermal Resources of [the] Moscow Artesian Basin,”

Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress, Florence,

Italy: International Geothermal Association, pp. 601-604.

Britvin, O.V. et al.. (2000). “[The] Mutnovsky

Geothermal Power Complex in Kamchatka,” Proceedings

of the World Geothermal Congress 2000, Kyushu-Tohoku,

Japan: International Geothermal Association, pp. 3139-

3144.

Center for Defense Information, CDI Russia Weekly,

http://www.cdi.org/russia/.

“China, Russia Strengthen Cooperation in Energy” (2000). 

PMA OnLine Power Report, 30 August.

Concise Consumer,

http://www.conciseb2b.com/consumer/.

CyberTech, Inc. (2000). “U.S. investors move to oust

Chubais from Russia’s UES,” Energy Central Daily

Electric Power News, 1 August,

http://www.energycentral.com/.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 91

Dee, Aleksei and Irina Konstantinova (1999). “Russia:

Energy Outlook in Primorsky Krai,” International Market

Insight (IMI), U.S. Department of Commerce - National

Trade Data Bank. International Copyright U.S. & Foreign

Commercial Service and U.S. Department of State, 2

March.

Delnov, Yuri F. and Alexander N. Shulyupin (1996). 

“Geothermal Power Generation in Kamchatka, Russia,”

Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, Davis, CA: 

Geothermal Resources Council, Volume 20, pp. 733-736.

Dmitriev, Vadim D. et al.. (1990). “A Structure Model for

the Uzon-Geyser Hydrothermal System in Kamchatka,”

Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, Davis, CA: 

Geothermal Resources Council, Volume 14, Part II, pp

1391-1393.

Duchkov, Albert D. et al. (1995). “Geothermal Potential

of [the] Siberian Platforms,” Proceedings of the World

Geothermal Congress, Florence, Italy: International

Geothermal Association, pp. 605-609.

“Earthquake Strikes Russian Island” (2000). The

Washington Post, World in Brief, 6 August, p. A23.

“Electricity Giant UES Warns of Power Crunch” (2000). 

Russia Today, 14 November.

Energy Russia, http://www.energy.ru/.

European Bank for Reconstruction and Development

(1997). “First geothermal energy project steams ahead in

Russia; EBRD finances ‘renewable’ power production in

isolated Kamchatka,” Press release, 25 November.

Fedotov, Sergey A. et al.. (1975). “On a Possibility of

Heat Utilization of the Avachinsky Volcanic Chamber,”

LBL-Second United Nations Symposium, Berkeley, CA: 

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, pp. 363-369.

FT Energy Online, http://www.ftenergy.com/.

“First Geothermal Energy Project Steams Ahead in

Russia; EBRD Finances ‘Renewable’ Power Production in

Isolated Kamchatka” (1997). European Bank for

Reconstruction and Development, Press Release, 26

November.

Fomin, V.M. et al.. (1975). “Geothermal Resources of the

USSR and Their Geologic-Economic Subdivision,” LBLSecond United Nations Symposium, Berkeley, CA: 

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, p. 129.

Gavlina, G.B. and F.A. Makarenko (1975). “Geothermal

Map of the USSR,” LBL-Second United Nations

Symposium, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley

Laboratory, pp. 1013-1017.

Global Water Technologies, Inc. (2000). “GWT Awarded

$2.7 Million Contract to Supply Cooling Water System
Geothermal Resources in Russia 92

for Siberian Power Plant,” 28 August,

http://www.gwtr.com/news.html.

“Government Backs UES Reform, Opposes Price Hikes”

(2000). Russia Today, 22 November.

Government of the Russian Federation,

http://www.government.gov.ru/english/.

“Government Investment Into Russia Energy

Development Endorsed” (2000). PMAOnline, 23

November.

Gutsalo, L.K. (1975). “Helium Isotopic Geochemistry in

Thermal Waters of the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka,”

LBL-Second United Nations Symposium, Berkeley, CA: 

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, pp. 745-749.

Ibragimov, D.G. et al.. (1975). “Some Problems in the

Technology of Drilling of a Superdeep Borehole in the

Saatly Area,” U.S. Department of Energy, December,

DOE/CONF-751270, pp. 79-81.

Jamestown Foundation, http://www.jamestown.org/.

Karpov, Guennady et al.. (2000). “Isotopic Geochemistry

of [the] Acid Lakes in the Uzon-Geyserny and Karymsky

Geothermal Areas (Kamchatka),” Proceedings of the

World Geothermal Congress 2000, Kyushu-Tohoku,

Japan: International Geothermal Association, pp. 2115-

2119.

“Kasyanov, ‘Reforms in Energy Industry Are Necessary

for Economic Rise’” (2000). Russia Today, 21 November.

Kiryukhin, A.V. (1995). “Development of a ThreeDimensional Numerical Model and Evaluation of the

Generating Capacity of the Dachny Geothermal Reservoir,

Mutnovsky Hydrothermal System, Kamchatka, Russia,”

Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress, Florence,

Italy: International Geothermal Association, pp. 1355-

1360.

Kiryukhin, A.V. (1992). Progress Report on Modeling

Studies: Natural State Conditions and Exploitation of the

Dachny Geothermal Reservoir, Mutnovsky Hydrothermal

System, Kamchatka, Russia. Berkeley, CA: Lawrence

Berkeley Laboratory, University of California, Report No.

DE93001586.

Kiryukhin, A.V. (1986). “Thermal Hydrodynamic Model

and Its Application for Understanding the Heat-Transfer

Mechanism in the Pauzhetka Hydrothermal System

(Kamchatka, USSR),” Proceedings, 8th New Zealand

Geothermal Workshop, Auckland, New Zealand: The

University of Auckland-Geothermal Institute, pp. 239-243.

Kiryukhin, A.V. and V.M. Sugrobov (1985). “On the

Conditions of Water and Heat Feeding of the Pauzhetka

Hydrothermal System (South Kamchatka, USSR), 

Proceedings, Tenth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir

Engineering, Stanford, CA: Stanford University

Geothermal Program, pp. 57-64.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 93

Kiryukhin, A.V. and V.M. Sugrobov (1986). “The

Coupling of the Numerical Heat Transfer Model of the

Pauzhetka Hydrothermal System (Kamchatka, USSR)

with Hydroisotopic Data,” Proceedings, Eleventh

Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering,

Stanford, CA: Stanford University Geothermal Program,

pp. 175-181.

Kiryukhin, A.V. and V.M. Sugrobov (1985). “The

Thermal Hydrodynamic Model of the Pauzhetka

Hydrothermal System (South Kamchatka, USSR),”

Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, Davis, CA: 

Geothermal Resources Council, International Volume, pp.

505-509.

Kiryukhin, Alexei and Karsten Pruess (2000). “Modeling

Studies of Pressure Cycling Associated with Seismicity in

[the] Mutnovsky Geothermal Field, Kamchatka, Russia,”

Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress 2000,

Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan: International Geothermal

Association, pp. 2659-2664.

Kiryukhin, Alexei and Paul Kruger (1990). “Preliminary

Analysis of Tracer Response and Thermal Cooldown

Estimates for the Mutnovsky Geothermal Field in

Kamchatka, USSR,” Proceedings, Fifteenth Workshop on

Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford, CA:

Stanford University Geothermal Program, pp. 131-136.

Kononov, Vladimir et al.. (2000). “Geothermal

Development in Russia: Country Update Report 1995-

1999,” Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress

2000, Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan: International Geothermal

Association, pp. 261-266.

Kononov, Vladimir et al.. (1994). “The Origin of Thermal

Waters of Kamchatka Peninsula and Kuril Islands Based

on the Studies of O, H, and He Isotopes,” Geothermal

Resources Council Transactions, Davis, CA: Geothermal

Resources Council, Volume 18, pp. 207-212.

Kononov, V.I. and I.M. Dvorov (1990). “Utilization of

Geothermal Energy in the USSR,” Geothermal Resources

Council Transactions, Davis, CA: Geothermal Resources

Council, Volume 14, Part I, pp.305-310.

Kononov, Vladimir et al. (1994). “The Origin of Thermal

Waters of Kamchatka Peninsula and Kuril Islands Based

on the Studies of O, H, and He Isotopes,” Geothermal

Resources Council Transactions, Davis, CA: Geothermal

Resources Council, Volume 18, pp. 207-212.

Kononov, Vladimir et al. (1995). “The Present State of

Geothermal Energy Utilization in Russia,” Proceedings of

the World Geothermal Congress, Florence, Italy:

International Geothermal Association, pp.309-314.

Kruger, Paul (1992). “The First Hydrofracture

Experiment in the Tirniauz (Russia) Geothermal

Resource,” Geothermal Resources Council Transactions,

Davis, CA: Geothermal Resources Council, Volume 16,

pp. 439-445.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 94

Kruger, Paul et al.. (1991). “Comparison of Thermal

Cooldown Estimates in the Russkie Komarovtsky

Petrogeothermal Reservoir,” Proceedings, Sixteenth

Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering,

Stanford, CA: Stanford University Geothermal Program,

pp. 159-164.

Kuzmichenko, Svetlana (1999). “Russia: Energy-Saving

Construction (Far East),” International Market Insight

(IMI), U.S. Department of Commerce - National Trade

Data Bank. International Copyright U.S. & Foreign

Commercial Service and U.S. Department of State, 16

February.

Kuzmichenko, Svetlana (1998). “Russia: Market for

Mobile Generators (Far East),” U.S. Department of

Commerce - National Trade Data Bank. International

Copyright U.S. & Foreign Commercial Service and U.S.

Department of State, October.

Ladygin, Vladimir et al.. (2000). “Formation of [the]

Composition and Petrophysical Properties of

Hydrothermally Altered Rocks in [a] Geothermal

Reservoir,” Proceedings of the World Geothermal

Congress 2000, Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan: International

Geothermal Association, pp. 2695-2699.

Leonov, Vladimir (2000). “Regional Structural Positions

of High Temperature Hydrothermal Systems of

Kamchatka,” Proceedings of the World Geothermal

Congress 2000, Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan: International

Geothermal Association, pp. 1377-1382.

Magomedbekov, Kh.G. et al.. (1996). “Free-Convective

Flow of Fluid in a Thin Porous Contour and Geothermal

Anomalies,” Proceedings, Twenty-First Workshop on

Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford, CA:

Stanford University Geothermal Program, pp. 497-500.

Magomedov, K.M. et al. (1999). “Russia: Geothermal

Energy Prospects in Daghestan,” IGA News, Pisa, Italy:

IGA Secretariat, Quarterly No. 36, April-June, pp. 3-4.

“Market Should Set Russian Electricity Tariffs” (2000). 

Russia Today, 17 November.

Mavritsky, Boris F. and Victor G. Khelkvist (1975). 

“Exploration for Thermal Water Fields in the USSR,”

LBL-Second United Nations Symposium, Berkeley, CA: 

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, pp. 179-182.

Maximov, Vladimir (1996). “Russia: Power Generation

Upgrading Equipment ,” Industry Sector Analysis (ISA),

U.S. Department of Commerce - National Trade Data

Bank. International Copyright U.S. & Foreign

Commercial Service and U.S. Department of State,

January.

Ministry of Atomic Energy of the Russian Federation

(Minatom), http://www.x-atom.ru/minatom/min_eng.html.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 95

Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation (Minenergo)

(in Russian), http://www.mte.gov.ru/.

Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation

(in Russian), http://www.ecocom.ru/.

Minko, Sergey (1999). “Russia: Green House Companies

Program,” International Market Insight (IMI), U.S.

Department of Commerce - National Trade Data Bank. 

International Copyright U.S. & Foreign Commercial

Service and U.S. Department of State, 1 March.

Nazarova, Inna (1999). “Russia: Kamchatka Regional

Profile,” International Market Insight (IMI), U.S.

Department of Commerce - National Trade Data Bank. 

International Copyright U.S. & Foreign Commercial

Service and U.S. Department of State, 3 December.

Nesterenko, Andrei (2000). “The Modernization

Challenge Facing President Putin,” Finance &

Development, International Monetary Fund: Washington,

D.C., September, pp. 20-23.

OAO Gazprom, http://www.gazprom.ru/.

Omarov, M.A. and D.R. Chalaev (1998). “Problems of

Dephenolization of Geothermal Waters in Russia,”

Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, Davis, CA: 

Geothermal Resources Council, Volume 22, pp. 119-121.

Pampura, V.D. et al.. (1975). “Modeling of the

Equilibrium Component Compositions and Properties of

Sodium Chloride Hydrothermal Solutions of the

Pauzhetsk Type in the Kamchatka Peninsula,” LBLSecond United Nations Symposium, Berkeley, CA: 

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, pp. 809-814.

Perveev, S.L. and A.N. Shulupin (1995). “[A] Project for

[the] Development of the Mutnovsky Geothermal Field,

Kamchatka, Russia,” Proceedings of the World

Geothermal Congress, Florence, Italy: International

Geothermal Association, pp. 1361-1362.

Perveev, S.L. and I.G. Shumakova (1996). “Experience in

Exploiting Geothermal Resources: A Review,

Technical—Economic Analysis and Future Prospects for

Geothermal Energy in Kamchatka,” Geothermal

Resources Council Transactions, Davis, CA: Geothermal

Resources Council, Volume 20, pp. 145-149.

Polyak, Boris G. (2000). “Helium Isotope Tracer of

Geothermal Activity,” Proceedings of the World

Geothermal Congress 2000, Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan:

International Geothermal Association, pp. 1581-1586.

Popov, V.N. (1975). “Economic Aspects of Exploitation

of Deposits of Thermal Waters in Kamchatka,” U.S.

Department of Energy, December, DOE/CONF-751270,

pp. 102-104.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 96

Povarov, O.A. et al.. (2000). “[The] Physical and

Chemical Processes of Geothermal Fluid Impact on [the]

Metal of Geothermal Power Plant Equipment,”

Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress 2000,

Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan: International Geothermal

Association, pp. 3277-3282.

Povarov, Oleg A. (2000). “Geothermal Power

Engineering in Russia – Today,” Proceedings of the World

Geothermal Congress 2000, Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan:

International Geothermal Association, pp. 1587-1592.

Povarov, Oleg A. (1999). “Russia: Geothermal Power

Plants in Kamchatka today,”IGA News, Pisa, Italy: IGA

Secretariat, Quarterly No. 35, January-March, pp. 6-8.

Povarov, Oleg A. and Konstantin O. Povarov (1999). 

“Geothermal Energy Development in Kamchatka and [the]

Kurils Islands,” Geothermal Resources Council

Transactions, Davis, CA: Geothermal Resources Council,

Volume 23, pp. 473-478.

Povarov, O.A. et al.. (2000). “[The] Physical and

Chemical Processes of Geothermal Fluid Impact on [the]

Metal of Geothermal Power Plant Equipment,”

Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress 2000,

Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan: International Geothermal

Association, pp. 3277-3282.

“Power Cut at Russian Clinic; 3 Dead” (1999). PMA

OnLine Power Report, 31 September.

“Power Cut Off at Russian Space Launch Site, Sub Repair

Yard” (2000). PMA OnLine Power Report, 25 August.

“Power Suppliers Disconnect Russian Railways from

Power Supply” (2000). PMA OnLine Power Report, 9

August.

“Primorye Asks for Subsidies to Energy Sector” (1999). 

PMA OnLine Power Report, 9 June.

“Primorye Mayors Suggest Average Energy Tariff for

Russia” (2000). PMA OnLine Power Report, 2 June.

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, http://www.rferl.org/.

“Reformer or Power Grabber? Review of the First 100

Days of the Putin Presidency, An Interview with Philip

Poole, ING Barings” (2000). Russia/Central Europe

Executive Guide, Volume 10, Number 13, 15 July, pp. 3-

20. 

“Russia and Japan to Build Energy Bridge” (2000). PMA

OnLine Power Report, 19 July.

“Russia Gives Initial Okay to 20-Year Energy Strategy”

(2000). Russia Today, 23 November.

“Russia: Power and Utilities Cuts Hit Siberian Region”

(2000). PMA OnLine Power Report, 8 August.
Geothermal Resources in Russia 97

“Russia, Three Western Energy Giants Reach Partnership

Deal” (1999). PMA OnLine Power Report, 24 April.

Russia/Central Europe Executive Guide, World Trade

Executive, Inc.; http://www.wtexec.com/.

“Russia Powers Up to Role of Global Generator” (1999). 

Energy Central, 4 March, http://www.energycentral.com.

“Russia’s Railways Agree to Pay Debt to UES” (2000). 

Russia Today, 25 August.

“Russia To Sell Gazprom, Rosneft Stakes In Late 2001"

(2000). Russia Today, 22 August.

Russia Today, http://www.russiatoday.com/.

“Russian Auditor Reveals Problem With Electric

Company UES Sale” (2000). Russia Today, 26 August.

Russian Federation Web Site,

http://www.gov.ru/main/page8.html.

“Russian Federation” (1999). Universal News, Inc.,

supplement to U.S. News and World Report, New York,

NY, 15 February.

“Russian UES Half One Sales up, Input Prices Dent

Profits” (2000). Russia Today, 22 August.

Rychagov, Sergei et al.. (2000). “Ore Elements in the

Structure of [a] Geothermal Reservoir: Distribution,

Geochemistry and Mineralogy, Probable Sources,” 

Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress 2000,

Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan: International Geothermal

Association, pp. 2821-2826. 

Sabirova, Elena (2000). “Russia: Commercial Update

from Sakhalin,” International Market Insight (IMI), U.S.

Department of Commerce - National Trade Data Bank. 

International Copyright U.S. & Foreign Commercial

Service and U.S. Department of State, 27 January.

Sardarov, Sard (1990). “Geothermal Resources of

Daghestna, USSR,” Geothermal Resources Council

Transactions, Davis, CA: Geothermal Resources Council,

Volume 14, Part 1, pp 971-974.

Schafer, Diane M. et al. (1995). Petroleum and

Geothermal Production Technology in Russia: Summary

of Information Obtained During Informational Meetinsg

with Several Russian Institutes. Albuquerque, New

Mexico: Sandia National Laboratories, SAND95-0430,

UC-1243.

Stoyanov, Bojan and Anthony Taylor (1996). Geothermal

Resources in Russia and Ukraine. Prepared by Bob

Lawrence & Associates, Inc. for Sandia National

Laboratories, Contract No. AS-0989. 
Geothermal Resources in Russia 98

Sugrobov, Victor (1995). “Utilization of [the] Geothermal

Resources of Kamchatka: Prognostic Assessment and

Future Development,” Proceedings of the World

Geothermal Congress, Florence, Italy: International

Geothermal Association, pp. 1549-1554.

Svalova, V.B. (1998). “Geothermal Legends through

History in Russia and the Former USSR: A Bridge to the

Past,” Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, Davis,

CA: Geothermal Resources Council, Volume 22, pp. 235-

239.

Svalova, Valentina (2000). “The History of Geothermal

Resource Use in Russia and the Former USSR,”

Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress 2000,

Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan: International Geothermal

Association, pp. 713-718.

Tselikova, Yana (1999). “Russia: Energy Projects,”

International Market Insight (IMI), U.S. Department of

Commerce - National Trade Data Bank. International

Copyright U.S. & Foreign Commercial Service and U.S.

Department of State, 25 August.

“UES Sees Restructure Plan Outlined in 10 Days” (2000). 

Russia Today, 22 November.

“UES to Start Restructuring in Central Russia, Urals”

(2000). Russia Today, 10 November. 

U.S. Department of Commerce, BISNIS (Business

Information Service for the Newly Independent States),

http://www.bisnis.doc.gov/.

U.S. Department of Commerce - National Trade Data

Bank (2000). “Russia: Mutnovsky Independent Power

Project.” International Market Insight (IMI). 

International Copyright U.S. & Foreign Commercial

Service and U.S. Department of State, 3 January.

U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information

Administration, Office of Energy Markets and End Use

(2000). APEC: Energy Issues and Trends, Washington,

D.C., DOE/EIA-0635.

U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information

Administration (2000). “Caspian Sea Region,” June.

U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information

Administration, Office of Energy Markets and End Use

(2000). International Energy Outlook 2000 (IEO2000), 

Washington, D.C., DOE/EIA-0484,

http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/.

U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information

Administration (2000). “Russia: Country Analysis Brief,” 

February.

U.S. Embassy, Moscow (1999). “FY 2000 Country

Commercial Guide: Russia,” International Copyright U.S. 

& Foreign Commercial Service and U.S. Department of
Geothermal Resources in Russia 99

State, July,

http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/business/com_guid

es/2000/europe/index.html.

Unified Energy System of Russia (RAO UESR),

http://www.rao-ees.ru/en/.

Unified Energy System of Russia (1999). Annual Report

1999,

http://www.rao-ees.ru/en/business/report99/rep&app/.

Valladares, Mayra Rodriguez (1999). “Key Issues in

Russian Power Sector Investments,”

http://www.bisnis.doc.gov/bisnis/bulletin/9910BULL5.ht m.

Volcano World, http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vw.html

.

World Bank Group in Russia,

http://www.worldbank.org.ru/eng/.

Yakovlev, Leonid (2000). “Filvert Software for

Computing Fluid Flux Velocities and Heat Flow Density

from Geothermal Data,” Proceedings of the World

Geothermal Congress 2000, Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan:

International Geothermal Association, pp. 4093-4098.

Yerokhin, M.N. (1975). “Prospects for the Use of the

Essovskoye Deposit of Thermal Waters on Kamchatka,”

U.S. Department of Energy, December,

DOE/CONF-751270, p. 101.