Handbook

on 21st Century

Working Women
Handbook

on 21st Century

Working Women

Employment policy foundation

The research and analysis set forth in this report were conducted by the

Employment Policy Foundation. The views expressed herein are those of

the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the U.S.

Department of Labor.

This research was funded under DOL purchase order number B9423692.
© 2005

Employment Policy Foundation

1015 Fifteenth Street, NW, Suite 1200

Washington, D.C. 20005

All Rights Reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced

without the written permission of the publisher.

International Standard Book Number: 0-916559-67-X

Library of Congress Card Number: 2005920635
Table of Contents

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v

Chapter One: Population, Labor Force, and Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Labor Force and Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Chapter Two: Work Experience of Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Work Experience Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Patterns of Work Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Chapter Three: Educational Attainment of Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Trends in Educational Attainment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Educational Attainment by Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Employment, Work Experience, and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Educational Attainment by Race and Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38

Education and Earnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Chapter Four: Women’s Occupation Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Current Occupational Employment Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

Occupational Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

Occupational Earnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

Chapter Five: Social and Economic Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58

Social Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58

Economic Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62

Chapter Six: Working Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

Hours of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

Employment Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80

Chapter Seven: Opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88

Labor Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88

Occupations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91

Foreword

This Handbook on 21st Century Working Women continues a series of decennial data books

on the circumstances of women produced under the auspices of U.S. Department of

Labor’s Women’s Bureau. Since its inception 84 years ago, the Women’s Bureau has recognized that a solid foundation of data about women’s labor force experience and working conditions is essential to inform public policy analysis and workplace decisions. 

The Women’s Bureau commissioned the Employment Policy Foundation to compile and

analyze data about the status of working women since the last 1990s data book. The

Foundation is solely responsible for the tabulations and analyses of the data found in

this Handbook. It should serve as a valuable resource to those interested in research and

the progress of working women during the past decade. 

This Handbook provides a comprehensive source of information about working women

for policy makers, researchers, journalists and the general public. It shows clearly that

women are vital to our nation’s economy and their workplace participation is critical

across all occupations and industries. From 1948 through 2002, women accounted for

59.4 percent of the 84.2 million workers added to the labor force. In 2002, 63.6 million

women were employed during a typical month. Women comprised 46.5 percent of the

labor force—a proportion that has grown consistently from 28.6 percent in 1948.

Without the growing participation of women in the labor force, the American economy

would be hard-pressed to provide the goods and services necessary for a growing population and a rising standard of living. 

In Chapter 1, an overview of women in the “Population, Labor Force, and Employment”

is explored. Information about the “Work Experience of Women” during the past ten

years can be found in Chapter 2. The relationship of education and employment earnings is among the concepts presented in Chapter 3, “Educational Attainment of Women”.

Among the highlights of Chapter 4 “Women’s Occupation Trends” is the finding that

managerial occupations provided women with both the greatest increase in net employment, the highest mean earnings level and the greatest increase in mean earnings among

the major occupational groups. 

Chapter 5 addresses the “Social and Economic Conditions” in relation to their employment and labor force participation. Among other things, the chapter shows that married

women who worked full-time, produced 40.1 percent of their household’s mean income

of $91,645. “Working Conditions,” including hours of work, flexible schedules and

employment benefits are described in Chapter 6. It finds that women work part-time

because they want to and not for economic reasons. Since 1991, there was a little more

than six percent increase in women who worked full time. An exploration of the fastest

growing occupations and trends in women’s employment completes the handbook in

Chapter 7, “Opportunity”. 

The study was conducted by Ronald E. Bird, chief economist at the Employment Policy

Foundation with the valuable assistance of Lawrence E. Koziarz. 

Edward Potter October 2, 2004

President Washington, DC

Employment Policy Foundation

Population, Labor Force, and

Employment

Highlights

❑ America's 143.4 million women of all 

ages comprised 50.9 percent of the 

total population (all ages) according to

the 2000 Census.

❑ In 2001, women age 16 and older 

totaled 111.8 million, an increase of 

12.2 million (12.2 percent) 

between 1991 and 2001. The total rose

to nearly 113 million in 2002.

❑ The number of women age 65 or older 

has increased from 11.2 million in 

1971 to 19.6 million in 2002—an 

increase of 74.8 percent. 

❑ The female labor force participation 

rate has nearly doubled over the last 54

years. In 2002, the female labor force 

participation rate averaged 59.6 percent

compared with the male labor force 

participation rate of 74.1 percent. 

❑ In 2002, 67.4 million women age 16 

and older were in the labor force. 

❑ The 17.1 million women age 35 to 44 

who were in the labor force in 2002 

comprised the largest number of 

women in the labor force in terms of 

age groups. 

❑ Single, never married women had the 

highest labor force participation rate 

among women in 2002—67.4 percent.

❑ In 2002, the average annual 

employment level for women was 

63.6 million.

❑ The 35 to 44 age group of women 

accounted for the largest number of 

women employed in 2002—16.3 

million.
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

2

Introduction

This chapter presents an overview of the demographic characteristics, labor force participation,

and employment of women in America and of

how those characteristics have changed in recent

years. This overview of population, labor force,

and employment provides a frame of reference

for the more detailed information that is presented in the subsequent chapters of this handbook

regarding female work experience, education,

occupations, social and economic conditions,

working conditions, and future opportunities. 

The information in this handbook provides a

variety of perspectives about the characteristics

and circumstances of women in general and

working women in particular. The focus is presentation of the facts rather than interpretation.

By focusing on the facts it is intended that this

handbook be useful to inform discussions of

policies and programs from a variety of perspectives regarding women's needs and policy impacts

on women.

The endnotes for this chapter include detailed

information regarding data sources and time

frames. 1

The information in this chapter is organized as

two sections—Population and Labor Force and

Employment.

● Population looks at the female population in

terms of total number, age distribution, marital

status, race and Hispanic origin, and citizenship

status. Particular attention is focused on women

age 16 and older because this group is eligible to

participate in the paid labor market without legal

restriction.

● Labor Force and

Employment examines

female labor force participation, employment, and

unemployment. The labor

force consists of women

who are employed or who are

actively seeking employment.

The female labor force is

examined along lines similar

to the overall population—

age, marital status, race and

ethnicity, and citizenship.

Population

America's 143.4 million women comprised 50.9

percent of the total population (all ages) according to the 2000 Census.2 In 2001, according to

the Current Population Survey (CPS), women age

16 and older comprised 52.0 percent of the civilian, non-institutional population age 16 and

older —111.8 million.3 This was an increase of

12.2 million between 1991 and 2001. In 2002,

the estimated total reached nearly 113.0 million,

with the proportion of the population essentially

unchanged. 4

Women's population growth closely mirrors total

population growth, as shown by the relatively

constant proportion of women in the age 16 and

older population indicated in Table 1.1. Women's

share of total population fluctuated in a narrow

range of 51.5 to 53.0 percent of the total population between 1951 and 2001. The growth of the

female population age 16 and older peaked at

20.7 percent during the 1971 to 1981 decade.

Table 1.1

Women age 16 and older by 

ten-year population growth rate

1951-2001

Women Women Population

Year (thousands) (percent) growth rate

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Figure 1.1

Distribution Rate of women’s population

by major age groups, 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

25

20

15

10

5

0

16 19-20 24-25 34-35 44-45 54-55 64-65

1951 54,895 52.5 —

1961 62,484 52.6 13.8

1971 74,274 53.0 18.9

1981 89,618 52.7 20.7

1991 99,646 52.2 11.2

2001 111,811 52.0 12.2

Percent

Age
3

Population, Labor Force, and Employment

Population growth has slowed since the 1970s as

the nation has absorbed the post-war baby-boom

generation—persons born between 1946 and

1964. A growth spurt was evident in the 1990s.

Growth of the population age 16 and over reflects

the overall slowing of population growth since

the end of the post-war baby boom. Over the

1991-2001 period, the number of women age 16

and older grew by 12.2 percent. This growth rate

was nearly half of the 20.7 percent growth rate for

the comparable group between 1971 and 1981.

The 1971-81 period was when the last members

of the baby-boom generation entered the age 16

and older group. Persons born in the last year of

the baby boom era—1964—turned age 16 in

1980. 5

Age 

Figure 1.1 (page 2) shows the distribution of the

female civilian, non-institutional population age

16 and above by seven age groups in 2001.6

The baby-boom generation (persons born between 1946 and 1964)

is larger than the generations that

preceded or followed it. The effect

of the baby boom on the distribution of women's population by age

is evident in the data in Table 1.2.

The shaded cells in this table indicate the age groups to which most

baby-boom generation members

belonged for each year indicated. 

The age 35-44 group comprised the

largest number of women among

the seven groups—22.6 million in

2001. Table 1.2 shows the population by age

groups for selected years. Table 1.3 shows the

proportion of all women age 16 or older in each

age group for each of the selected years.

In 2001, women in the 35-44 age group comprised 20.2 percent of all women age 16 and

older, and the proportion fell slightly to 19.8 percent in 2002. Since 1999, the age 35-44 group

has included the youngest members of the babyboom generation.

The second largest group of women in 2001 was

the age group 45-54—19.9 million (20.3 million

in 2002). Women in this age group comprised

17.8 percent of women age 16 and older in 2001,

and the proportion increased slightly to 18.0 percent in 2002. 

The age 65 and older group totaled 19.5 million

women in 2001 (19.6 million in 2002) and comprised 17.5 percent of

women age 16 and

older. The number of

women age 65 and

older increased by

74.3 percent between

1971 and 2001, and

this group’s proportion of all women

over 16 increased

from 15.1 percent to

17.5 percent over the

same time period.

The proportion of

women over age 65 is

expected to increase

more rapidly over the

Table 1.2

Women by age cohort, selected years 1971-2002

(thousands)

Age 1971 1981 1991 2001 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation. Shaded area indicates baby-boom generation.

16-19 7,591 8,121 6,939 7,828 7,848

20-24 8,834 10,705 9,597 9,509 9,721

25-34 13,110 19,350 21,711 19,449 19,435

35-44 11,553 13,533 19,903 22,552 22,371

45-54 12,115 11,625 13,155 19,917 20,332

55-64 9,870 11,605 10,895 13,039 13,703

65 + 11,198 14,680 17,446 19,517 19,575

Total 74,271 89,619 99,646 111,181 112,985

Table 1.3

Proportion of population by age

(women age 16 and older, 1971-2002)

Age Category 1971 1981 1991 2001 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

16-19 (percent) 10.2 9.1 7.0 7.0 6.9

20-24 (percent) 11.9 11.9 9.6 8.5 8.6

25-34 (percent) 17.7 21.6 21.8 17.4 17.2

35-44 (percent) 15.6 15.1 20.0 20.2 19.8

45-54 (percent) 16.3 13.0 13.2 17.8 18.0

55-64 (percent) 13.3 12.9 10.9 11.7 12.1

65 or older (percent) 15.1 16.4 17.5 17.5 17.3

All women age 16 or older 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

4

next twenty years as the babyboom generation ages, and the

trend may be accentuated by

continuing improvements in

longevity. At 19.4 million in

2001 (and essentially unchanged

in 2002), the age 25-34 group

was smaller than either the 35-

44; the 45-54; or 65 + age

groups of women. The group

accounted for 17.4 percent of

women age 16 and older in 2001

(17.2 percent in 2002). The relatively smaller size of the age 25-

34 group of women is notable in

comparison with the age 35-44

group. The difference in 2001

was 3.1 million or 13.7 percent less

than the 35-44 group. The smaller

number of women in the age 25-34

age cohort reflects the lower birth rates

of the early 1970s, although immigration has partly offset the direct effect of

lower birth rates.

Except for the possible effects of immigration, the size of the age 25-34 group

will increase relatively little over the

next ten to twenty years, as today's age

5-24 population group gets older and

enters the age 25-34 group.7 The

number of persons entering the group

will be approximately the same as

those graduating from it.

The smaller size of the 25-34 age

group compared with the 35-44 age

group has implications for employment opportunities in the future. It

suggests the potential for increasingly

tight labor supply as the larger cohorts

of older women and men retire, unless

the difference in numbers is offset by

higher labor force participation rates,

postponement of retirement, or immigration. 

Marital status

Marital status is a significant demographic variable for understanding the

diversity of women's employment

options, career choices, and reasons for

joining the labor force. Changes in

Table 1.4

Female marital status

age 16 and older, 1976-2002

Widowed,

All women divorced, Single

age 16 and or (never

older Married separated married)

Year (thousands) (percent) (percent) (percent)

1976 82,390 59.3 21.4 19.3

1977 83,840 58.6 21.6 19.8

1978 85,334 57.7 22.0 20.3

1979 86,845 57.2 22.1 20.7

1980 88,348 56.7 22.4 20.9

1981 89,618 56.2 22.9 21.0

1982 90,748 56.0 23.0 21.1

1983 91,684 55.7 23.0 21.2

1984 92,778 55.6 23.3 21.2

1985 93,736 55.3 23.6 21.1

1986 94,789 55.0 23.8 21.2

1987 95,853 54.8 23.7 21.5

1988 96,756 54.5 23.8 21.7

1989 97,630 54.2 24.2 21.7

1990 98,787 53.6 24.3 22.2

1991 99,646 53.4 24.4 22.3

1992 100,535 53.2 24.4 22.4

1993 101,506 53.0 24.6 22.4

1994 102,460 52.9 24.7 22.4

1995 103,406 52.9 24.7 22.4

1996 104,385 52.7 24.7 22.6

1997 105,418 52.1 24.9 23.0

1998 106,462 52.0 24.6 23.4

1999 108,031 52.0 24.3 23.7

2000 110,613 52.0 24.5 23.4

2001 111,811 51.5 24.8 23.7

2002 112,985 51.5 24.6 23.9

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Figure 1.2

Rate by marital category

Age 16 and older, 1976 and 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Married, Spouse Widowed, divorced Single, 

present or separated never married

1976 2002

59.3

51.5

21.4 24.6 19.3 23.9

Percent
5

Population, Labor Force, and Employment

marital status may signal trends that are meaningful for public policy decisions.8 

Married women (with spouse present) comprised

51.5 percent of the female population age 16 and

older—an estimated 57.6 million women in

2001. In 2002, the total was 58.2 million—also

51.5 percent of women age 16 and older. Figure

1.2 (page 4) shows the proportion of women age

16 and older by marital category in 1976 and

2002. Table 1.4 (page 4) shows in detail the

changing trend of women's marital status

between 1976 and 2002. The data in Table 1.4

reflect the extent of the available time series published by BLS, but data from the Census Bureau

suggest that the proportion of the female population that is married has declined steadily since

1960. The proportions of women in the widowed, divorced, or separated category and in the

single, never married category have increased

commensurately. 

In 1976, the 48.8 million married women in the

age 16 and older population comprised 59.3 percent of women in the population group. The

17.7 million widowed, divorced, or separated

women comprised 21.4 percent, and the 15.9 million single, never married women comprised 19.3

percent of women age 16 and older.

By 2002, the number of married women in the

age 16 and older population had grown by 9.3

million (19.1 percent) to 58.2 million,

but the numbers of women in the widowed, divorced, or separated category and

in the single, never married category

increased relatively more. The number of

widowed, divorced, or separated women

age 16 and older, grew by 10.2 million—

a 57.5 percent increase between 1976 and

2002. The number of single, never married women age 16 and older grew by

11.1 million over the same period—a 70

percent increase.

Race and Hispanic ethnicity 

Awareness of the diversity of the population in terms of race and ethnic minority

group is useful for understanding demographic trends that may influence future

economic and social conditions and that

may be relevant for public policy decisions. Available data focus on three racial

categories: white, black, Asian. Available

data separately identify persons of

Hispanic ethnic origin (who may be of any race). 

Figure 1.3 shows the distribution of women

among the three racial categories in 2002. Of

those women age 16 and older, 81.8 percent were

white. The 14.2 million black women age 16 and

older comprised 12.6 percent of the female population. Asian women comprised 4.5 percent. 

Hispanics (who may be of any race) comprise a

rapidly growing segment of the population. In

2002, the 12.7 million Hispanic women comprised 11.3 percent of the female population age

16 and older. 

Table 1.5 (page 6) shows the growth in number

and proportion of Hispanic women between

1973 and 2002. Since 1973, the population of

Hispanic women age 16 and older increased by

9.5 million, and their share of the female population increased from 4.1 percent to 11.3 percent.

Citizenship status

Citizenship status of the population is of interest

for analysis of a variety of policy-related issues,

including labor force trends and education needs.

Available data distinguish among citizens by

birth, citizens by naturalization, and noncitizens.

Citizens by birth include persons born within the

United States, persons born in outlying U.S. territories and possessions, and persons born abroad

Figure 1.3

Female population by race

age 16 and older, 2002

100,000

90,000

80,000

70,000

60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0

White Black Asian

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Thousands
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

6

of U.S. citizens. Naturalized citizens are foreignborn persons who have been granted U.S. citizenship. Noncitizens include all other foreign-born

individuals residing in the U.S. citizenship data

reflect self-reported survey responses.

Table 1.6 shows the distribution of the female

population age 16 and older by citizenship status.

For these women, the native-born proportion

declined from 89.0 percent in 1996 to 86.7 percent in 2002. 

The number of native-born women age 16 and

older rose from 92.6 million in 1996 to 97.8 million in 2002. The proportionate decrease reflected relatively larger increases in the numbers of

naturalized citizens and other foreign-born residents. The total number of foreign-born women

(including naturalized citizens and others)

increased from 11.5 million in March 1996 to

15.0 million in March 2002. 

Young women under age 16 who were citizens by

birth comprised 96.4 percent of the population of

women in that age cohort in 2002, essentially the

same as the 96.7 percent in 1996. The number of

these young women increased from 30 million in

1996 to 30.3 million in 2002. Young women

under age 16 who were naturalized citizens

increased from 132,000 in 1996 to 167,000 in

2002. Noncitizen young women under age 16

increased from 907,000 in 1996 to 978,000 in

2002.10

Labor Force and

Employment

The labor force consists of persons who are

employed and persons who are unemployed.

Persons who are unemployed include those

actively seeking work and those on temporary layoffs from jobs. Persons who are not employed,

not on temporary layoff, and who are not active

job seekers are categorized as not in the labor

force. 

Figure 1.4 (page 7) shows that the female labor

force participation rate has nearly doubled over

the last fifty-four years, and the difference

between female and male labor force participation rates has significantly narrowed. In 2002,

the female labor force participation rate averaged

59.6 compared with the male labor force participation rate of 74.1. In 2002, 67.4 million

women age 16 and older were in the labor force.

In 1948, the 17.3 million women in the labor

force comprised only 32.7 percent of women age

16 and older. Based on the 2002 population of

women age 16 and older, the 1948 labor force

participation rate would result in a female labor

force today of only 36.9 million— over 30 million fewer than the actual female labor force in

2002. 

Between 1948 and 2002, the female labor force

grew by 50 million, accounting for 59.4 percent

of the overall 84.2 million growth in the

American labor force over the past fifty-four years. 

The positive change over the last half-century in

the female labor force participation rate has

affected the social and economic condition of

women, their families, and the national economy

overall. 

Table 1.5

Hispanic women

age 16, and older, selected years

1973-2002

Hispanic Hispanic 

All women Women women

Year (thousands) (thousands) (percent)

1973 77,804 3,213 4.1

1983 91,684 5,597 6.1

1993 101,506 8,708 8.6

1998 106,462 10,335 9.7

2001 111,811 12,247 11.0

2002 112,985 12,742 11.3

Source: Employment Policy Foundation. 

Table 1.6

Citizenship status of women

age 16 and older, 1996-2002

Citizen Naturalized Nonby birth citizen citizen

Year (percent) (percent) (percent)

1996 89.0 3.9 7.2 

1997 88.7 4.3 7.0 

1998 88.6 4.6 6.8 

1999 88.4 4.7 6.9 

2000 87.9 5.0 7.1 

2001 87.4 5.4 7.2 

2002 86.7 5.5 7.7 

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.
7

in 2002 included 47.5 million who usually worked fulltime (35 hours per week or

more) and 16.1 million who

usually worked part-time

(fewer than 35 hours per

week). The proportion of

women working part-time

was 25.3 percent in 2002,

slightly higher than the lowest recorded proportion of

24.6 percent in 2000, and

below the highest proportion

recorded, 28.1 percent in

1982 and 1983.

Women are more likely to

work part-time than men. In

2002, the 7.7 million men

who usually worked parttime accounted for 10.6 percent of the total male

employment level.

Unemployment

Women were less likely than men to be unemployed in 2002. The 5.6 percent average annual

unemployment rate for women was less than the

5.9 percent rate for men. 

Population, Labor Force, and Employment

Employment

In 2002, 63.6 million women were employed—

56.3 percent of the female population age 16 and

older. Women comprised 46.6 percent of the

average 136.5 million employment level in 2002. 

The 63.6 million women employed, on average,

Figure 1.5

Labor force participation rate and age by sex

2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

16-19 20-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-65 65 and 

older

Women Men

0

20

40

60

80

100

Men

Women

1948 1954 1960 1966 1972 1978 1984 1990 1996 2002

Figure 1.4

Female and Male Labor Force Participation Rates

Age 16 and Older 1948-2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

8

The recent lowest level of women’s annual average

unemployment was 4.1 percent in 2000. The

highest annual average unemployment rate on

record (since 1948) for women was 9.4 percent in

1982. On average, in 1982, 4.5 million women

were unemployed. 

Age 

Women's labor force participation rate,

employment level, and unemployment rate vary

with age. Figure 1.5 (page 7) shows labor force

participation rates for women age 16 and older by

six age cohorts based on the March 2002 Current

Population Survey. Table 1.7 provides details

regarding the annual average level of labor force,

labor force participation rate, employment, and

employment to population ratio by age group for

women in 2002.

The overall labor force participation rate of 59.6

percent in March 2002 masks significant age-specific variations in labor force participation.

Labor force participation of

women

increased from

47.3 percent for

the 16-19 age

group to 72.1

percent for the

20-24 age

group and

peaked at 76.4

percent for the

age 35-44

group. Labor

force participation then

declined across

the older

groups—76.0 percent for women age 45-54, to

55.2 percent for women age 55-64, and 9.8 percent for age 65 and older.

The 17.1 million women age 35 to 44 who were

in the labor force in 2002 comprised the largest

number of women in the labor force among the

age groups shown in Table 1.7. The 35 to 44 age

group also accounted for the largest number

employed—16.3 million.

Marital status

Table 1.8 shows marital status in relation to labor

force level, labor force participation rate, employment, and unemployment rates for women in

2002. Single, never married women had the

highest labor force participation rate among

women in 2002—67.4 percent. The 18.2 million

single, never-married women in the labor force

comprised the second-largest group of women

categorized by marital status. 

Table 1.7

Women’s employment status by age

Annual averages

Employment

Labor force Employment to population

Labor force Participation rate level ratio 

Age (thousands) (percent) (thousands) (percent)

16 to 19 3,715 47.3 3,162 40.3

20 to 24 7,012 72.1 6,374 65.6

25 to 34 14,600 75.1 13,733 70.7

35 to 44 17,098 76.4 16,303 72.9

45 to 54 15,454 76.0 14,863 73.1

55 to 65 7,559 55.2 7,296 53.2

65 and older 1,926 9.8 1,851 9.5

Age 16 and older 67,363 59.6 63,582 56.3

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, annual averages of monthly data

Table 1.8

Women’s employment by marital status

Labor force Employment Not in

Labor force participation rate level labor force

Marital Status (thousands) (percent) (thousands) (thousands)

Married, spouse present 35,477 61.0 34,153 22,688

Widowed, divorced or separated 13,683 49.2 12,846 14,137

Single, never married 18,203 67.4 16,583 8,796

Age 16 and older 67,363 59.6 63,582 45,621

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.
9

Population, Labor Force and Employment

The 35.5 million married women (spouse present) in the labor force out-numbered the other

marital status groups. The labor force participation rate for married women was second highest

at 61.0 percent. 

The 13.7 million women in the marital status

group of widowed, divorced, or separated had the

lowest labor force participation rate—49.2 percent. The relatively low labor force participation

rate for the group is primarily associated with the

widows’ portion of the group, who are also predominately over age 65. The labor force participation rates for divorced or separated women

tend to be similar to those of single and married

women when tabulated separately. 

The relatively high unemployment experience of

single women is associated with the fact that single women are also younger, on average, than

other women. Younger women (and men) have a

higher likelihood of unemployment. 

Race and Hispanic ethnicity

Table 1.9 compares employment status by race for

women in 2002. At 61.8 percent, black women

had the highest labor force participation rate

among women age 16 and older in 2002. The

8.8 million black women in the labor force comprised 13.0 percent of all women in the labor

force. 

The average employment level of black women in

2002 was 7.9 million—accounting for 12.4 percent of women employed, on average, in 2002.

Black women had the highest unemployment rate

among women in the three racial groups – 9.8

percent, compared with the 5.7 percent unemployment rate for Asian women and the 4.9 percent unemployment rate for white women. On

average, 858,000 black women were unemployed

in 2002. The average number of unemployed

white women was 2.7 million, and for Asian

women the average number was 172,000.

White women comprised the largest total number

of women in the labor force. The 54.8 million

white women in the labor force in 2002 comprised 81.4 percent of women in the labor force.

The 3.0 million Asian women in the labor force

reflected a 59.1 percent labor force participation

rate for their group. 

Table 1.9 also shows the employment status of

women of Hispanic ethnic origin. In 2002, the

7.3 million Hispanic women in the labor force

comprised 10.9 percent of women in the labor

force. The labor force participation rate for

Hispanic women was 57.6 percent, lower than the

overall average female labor force participation

rate of 59.6 percent. Hispanic women had an 8.0

percent unemployment rate.

Table 1.9

Employment status by race or Hispanic ethnic status and sex

2002 annual average

Labor force Employment

participation Employment to population Unemploym

Labor force rate level ratio Unemployed rate

Race or Ethnicity (thousands) (percent) (thousands) (percent) (thousands) (percent)

White 54,842 59.3 52,164 56.4 2,678 4.9

Black 8,772 61.8 7,914 55.8 858 9.8

Asian 3,037 59.1 2,866 55.8 172 5.7

Hispanic (any race) 7,334 57.6 6,744 52.9 590 8.0

Women age 16 and older 67,363 59.6 63,582 56.3 3,781 5.6

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

10

1 Unless otherwise noted, data presented in this chapter and in other chapters of this

handbook were compiled from the Current Population Survey (CPS), a large national survey program sponsored by the U.S. Census Bureau and the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). The

Employment Policy Foundation produced special tabulations from microdata files of Current

Population Survey data. Two varieties of Current Population Survey data are presented, depending

on the topic under discussion: annual employment averages and annual work experience. Annual

employment averages are calculated from twelve monthly tabulations of basic CPS question series.

Annual work experience data are compiled from the Annual Social and Economic Supplement

(ASEC) to the CPS (formerly known as the “March Supplement”). The ASEC supplement questionnaire includes data items that are not available on the basic monthly CPS records. Each annual

ASEC edition of CPS data includes the basic monthly questionnaire items for March (recently

some February and April survey respondents also are included) plus the supplemental questionnaire items for each respondent. Most of the special tabulations done for this Handbook used

ASEC data to facilitate cross-tabulation with data items not available otherwise. The ASEC survey

is also the data source most commonly available to academic researchers and other members of

the public who may wish to combine information from this Handbook with their own tabulations

and analyses. The reader should be aware that sample size differences and other factors may result

in minor differences between ASEC (March) data and similar items reported by Bureau of Labor

Statistics based on annual averages of regular monthly household survey data. The limited sample

size of the ASEC data (essentially a single CPS month) results in somewhat less robust population

inferences than those provided by annual averages. Unless otherwise noted, all population references in the Handbook are to the civilian, non-institutional population. Data series references

generally end in 2001, the latest CPS ASEC reference year and annual averages year available when

data compilation for this handbook began. In a few instances more recently available 2002 data

have been added during editing 2 U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000, Table DP-1. 3 The data here are annual averages reported by BLS based on twelve monthly CPS surveys.

Population estimates reflect survey weighting adjusted to reflect revised benchmarks from the 2000

Census. 4 112,985,000 according to Bureau of Labor Statistics annual averages data. 5 The baby boom generation includes persons born from 1946 through 1964. 6 Annual averages of monthly Current Population Survey data, not seasonally adjusted

from http://data.bls.gov/labjava/outside.jsp?survey=ln. 7 Based on Employment Policy Foundation tabulation of age 5 to 24 population in March

2003. 8 Data for married women include all married women regardless of whether the spouse is

present or absent. This is more inclusive than the definition used by BLS, which distinguishes married women with spouse present from married women with spouse absent in the armed forces and

absent for other causes. The number of married women with spouse absent averaged 1.9 percent of

all married women across the March 1992-2002 survey data. 9 The Census and BLS data are not strictly comparable. The BLS data represent women in

the civilian, non-institutional population age 16 and older. The Census data represent the total

population of women age 15 and older. The Census data show the peak proportion of married

women at 67.4 percent in 1960 and declining to 54.6 percent in 2000.

10 See A.D. Schmidley and J.G. Robinson, “How Well Does the Current Population Survey Measure

the Foreign Born Population in the United States?” U. S. Census Bureau, Population Division

Working Paper Series, no. 22, for a detailed discussion of data definition and collection issues

related to citizenship status.
Highlights

❑ In 2001, an estimated 71.0 million women had 

work experience during all or part of the year.

❑ The difference between the annual average level 

of 63.7 million employed women in 2001 and 

the total of 71.0 million with some work 

experience during the year indicates the sizable 

flow of women in and out of employment 

during the course of a year.

❑ The number of women age 16 and older who 

worked full-time, year-round increased 28.1 

percent—from 32.4 million in 1991 to 41.6 

million in 2001.

❑ The proportion of women who worked full-time,

year-round increased notably from 32.5 percent 

in 1991 to 36.9 percent in 2001.

❑ In 2001, 9.7 million women (8.6 percent) 

worked part-time, year-round.

❑ In 2001, 10.3 million women (9.1 percent) 

worked full-time, part-year (less than 50 weeks).

❑ In 2001, 9.5 million women (8.4 percent) 

worked part-time, part-year.

❑ In 2001, 41.6 million women (37.0 percent) 

were non-workers.

❑ In 2001, the largest proportion of non-workers 

(46.6 percent) reported being retired as the main

reason for not working.

❑ Approximately 620,000 more women earned 

$100,000 or more per year in 2001 than in 1991.

❑ More than 4,100,000 women earned $60,000 or 

more per year in 2001; about 2,600,000 have 

entered this earning bracket since 1991.

Work Experience of Women
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

12

Introduction

The previous chapter summarized female labor

force participation trends and employment patterns from the annual average perspective. This

chapter presents a complementary perspective in

terms of annual work experience.

The annual average perspective, for example,

showed that 63.7 million women were employed

during a typical month of 2001, but over the

course of the entire year 71.2 million women had

work experience during at least one week. 1

The difference between the annual averages total

of 63.7 million employed women and the work

experience total of 71.0 million indicates the sizable flow of women in and out of employment

during the course of a year. 

Over the course of a year, women move between

employment and unemployment, and into and

out of the labor force. In 2001, the total number

of women with work experience exceeded the

average number employed by 11.7 percent. 

Women are somewhat more prone to movement

into and out of employment over the course of a

year compared with men. For men, the difference

between annual average employment and the

annual work experience total was 8.7 percent.

Figure 2.1 shows the proportions of women by

annual experience status during 2001 for all

women age 16 and older. Four categories of work

experience and the non-worker category are

shown.

Full-time, year-round workers reported usual

weekly hours of 35 or more and total weeks

worked of 50 or more. In 2001, 36.9 percent of

women age 16 and older worked full-time, yearround. Weeks of paid vacation or other paid leave

are included in weeks worked.

Part-year workers reported less than 50 total

weeks worked, and part-time workers reported

usual weekly hours of less than 35. Non-workers

did not report any weeks employed during 2001.

In 2001, 8.6 percent of women age 16 and older

worked part-time and year-round, 9.1 percent

worked full-time but only part

of the year (less than 50 weeks),

and 8.4 percent worked parttime and part-year. Non-workers

accounted for 37 percent of

women age 16 and older in

2001.

Under the section entitled

“Work Experience Trends,”

changes in the distribution of

numbers of women among the

four categories of work experience and the non-worker category are examined. The section

focuses on comparisons

between 1991 and 2001. The

section entitled “Patterns of

Work Experience” examines

female work experience in relation to age, marital status,

race/ethnicity, class of worker

(private employee, government

employee, and self-employed),

industry, and employer workforce size. The endnotes to this

chapter provide important

details regarding data sources. 2

Figure 2.1

Female work experience distribution

age 16 and older, 2001

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.
13

Work Experience of Women

Work Experience Trends

Table 2.1 shows the proportion of women age 16

and older who were in each category of work

experience or who were non-workers by year for

1991 to 2001. The proportion of women who

worked full-time, year-round increased notably

from 32.5 percent in 1991 to 36.9 percent in

2001. The number of women age 16 and older

who worked full-time, year-round increased 28.1

percent from 32.4 million (32.5 percent) in 1991

to 41.6 (36.9 percent) million in 2001.

The proportion of women who worked full-time,

year-round peaked in 2000 at 37.4 percent before

declining slightly with the onset of the recession. 

The proportion of women who worked part-time

and year-round remained unchanged over the

decade.3 

The proportions of women who worked full-time,

part-year, and part-time, part-year both declined.

The proportion of the total female population age

16 and older working full-time and part-year

decreased from 10.4 percent in 1991 to 9.1 perTable 2.1

Annual work experience by work status,

women age 16 and older, 1991-2001

Civilian Full-time, Part-time, Full-time, Part-time, Nonpopulation year-round year-round part-year part-year worker

Year (thousands) (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent)

1991 99,783 32.5 8.1 10.4 10.8 38.2

1992 100,654 33.0 8.4 9.8 10.3 38.5

1993 102,181 32.8 8.6 10.0 10.7 37.9

1994 103,128 33.1 8.7 10.0 10.7 37.5

1995 104,058 34.1 8.3 10.0 10.3 37.2

1996 105,127 34.6 8.6 10.0 9.9 36.9

1997 106,141 35.5 9.0 9.5 9.6 36.4

1998 107,674 36.0 8.7 9.6 9.4 36.3

1999 108,649 37.1 8.6 9.5 9.2 35.5

2000 111,440 37.4 8.6 9.3 8.8 35.7

2001 112,626 36.9 8.6 9.1 8.4 37.0

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Table 2.2

Percentage of women age 16 and older who did not work

by reported main reasons for not working

1991-2002

Taking care Unable to 

Total Ill or disabled of home In school find work Retired Other

1991 100.0 11.5 44.8 9.4 2.6 29.7 2.0 

1992 100.0 11.7 43.1 9.7 2.9 31.1 1.5

1993 100.0 13.4 35.3 11.1 2.6 36.1 1.5

1994 100.0 13.5 32.9 10.8 2.0 39.2 1.6 

1995 99.9 14.0 31.8 10.4 1.8 40.4 1.5 

1996 100.0 14.0 31.2 10.9 1.6 40.8 1.5 

1997 100.1 14.1 30.2 10.9 1.5 42.2 1.2

1998 100.0 14.0 29.5 11.7 1.2 42.3 1.3 

1999 101.1 14.1 29.8 11.7 0.8 43.3 1.4 

2000 102.8 14.2 30.1 11.6 0.8 45.0 1.1 

2001 109.3 15.6 31.6 12.9 1.2 46.8 1.2

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

14

cent in 2001. For women who worked part-time

and part-year, the decline was from 10.8 percent

in 1991 to 8.4 percent in 2001.

Non-workers

The proportion of women who did not work during the previous year declined from 38.2 percent

in 1991 to 37.0 percent in 2001. The total number of women age 16 and older without work

experience during the year increased from 38.1

million in 1991 to 41.6 million in 2001—a 9.3

percent change compared with the overall 12.9

percent growth in the female civilian population

age 16 and older. The non-worker proportion for

women was lowest in 1999—35.5 percent.

Table 2.2 (page 13) shows the reasons given for

not working by women who reported no work

during the prior year. The relative distribution of

non-work reasons reported by women has

changed notably since 1991. In 2001, the most

frequently cited reason for not working—46.8

percent—was "retired."4 In 1991, only 29.7 percent of women age 16 and older without work

experience during the year listed “retired” as their

primary reason for not working.

Taking care of home (31.6 percent) was the second most commonly cited reason for not working

in 2001. It was the most frequently cited reason

in 1991. In 1991, the relative proportions

between these two reasons for not working were

reversed—44.8 percent listed "taking care of

home" and 29.7 percent listed "retired."

Weeks and hours

Among those who worked year-round

(50 weeks or more), the mean number

of weeks worked was 51.9. Among those

who worked part-year, full-time schedules, women averaged 30.3 weeks of

work. Women who worked part-time

schedules and who worked during only

part of 2001 averaged 24.8 weeks

worked.

Table 2.3 shows the percentage distribution of women with work experience in

terms of both their reported usual weekly work schedule and duration of work

experience in weeks.5 Table 2.3 differs

from Table 2.1 by showing proportions

relative only to women with work experience instead of the total population

age 16 and older. The perspective shown

in Table 2.3 highlights the shift of female work

experience toward full-time, year-round work.

Since 1991, the proportion of women with work

experience who work full- time (35 hours per

week or more) and year-round (50 weeks or

more) has increased from 52.6 percent to 58.6

percent in 2001.

The proportion of women with work experience

who worked part-time (less than 35 hours per

week), year-round remained relatively steady over

the decade—13.2 percent in 1991 and 13.7 percent in 2001. The percent who worked part-time,

year-round peaked at 14.2 percent in 1997. 

The proportion of women with work experience

who worked part-year—both full-time and parttime weekly schedules—has decreased notably

since 1991. In 1991, 34.2 percent of women who

worked at all worked only part of the year—16.8

percent worked full-time, part-year and 17.4 percent had part-time, part-year work experience. By

2001, the proportion of women who worked partyear had fallen to 27.7 percent of women who

worked at all during the year. 

In 2001, 14.3 percent of working women reported

full-time, part-year work, and 13.4 percent reported part-time, part-year work. 

Table 2.3

Percent distribution of women age 16 and

older, with work experience, by full- and

part-time status, 1991 - 2001

Full- Part- Full- PartYear time time time time

1991 52.6 13.2 16.8 17.4

1992 53.6 13.7 16.0 16.7

1993 52.8 13.9 16.1 17.2

1994 53.0 13.9 16.0 17.1

1995 54.3 13.3 15.9 16.4

1996 54.8 13.7 15.8 15.7

1997 55.8 14.2 14.9 15.1

1998 56.5 13.6 15.1 14.8

1999 57.6 13.4 14.7 14.3

2000 58.4 13.4 14.5 13.7

2001 58.6 13.7 14.3 13.4

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Year-round 

workers

Part-year

workers
15

Work Experience of Women

Full-time, year-round employment

In 2001, 41.6 million women worked full-time,

year-round hours and weeks, while another 10.2

million worked full-time, part-year hours and

weeks. Altogether, 51.8 million women—73 percent of working women—worked full-time schedules at least part of the year.

Between 1991 and 2001, the largest increase in

working women (9.1 million) was in the fulltime, year-round worker category. Over the same

period, the number of women who worked fulltime, part-year schedules decreased by 149,000.

Women who worked full-time, year-round during

the previous year reported mean usual weekly

hours of 42.1 in March 2002. Men reported

usual weekly hours of 44.8 on the same survey.

The mean of usual weekly hours (last year)

reported in the Current Population Survey Annual

Social and Economic Supplement has not shown

any notable change since 1992. 

Figure 2.2 shows the percent of women in six age

groups who worked full-time, year-round in 1991

and 2001. Women in the age group 45 to 54

were the most likely to report full-time, yearround employment both years—63.8 percent in

1991 and 69.6 percent in 2002. Women in the

under 25 (16 to 24) age group were the least likely to have work experience during the year – 27.9

percent in 1991 and 29.4 percent in 2001.

Apparently, many women in the under 25 age

group were still in school.

Over the course of the decade from 1991 to 2001,

women age 45 to 54 reported the biggest increase

in the proportion of their population and

in total number working full-time, yearround. The proportion of women age 45

to 54 who worked full-time, year-round

increased from 48.0 percent in 1991 to

55.1 percent in 2001. Women in the 16-

to 24-year-old age group reported the lowest likelihood of working full-time, yearround, and reported the smallest increase

in the proportion working these schedules

between 1991 and 2001.

Part-time employment

In 2001, 19.2 million women usually

worked part-time, either year-round or

part-year, during the previous year. This

number comprised 27.1 percent of women

who worked at any time during the year—

down from 30.6 percent in 1991. Women who

usually worked part-time and worked year-round

(50 weeks or more) totaled 9.7 million in 2001—

13.7 percent of women who worked at all during

the year and 19.0 percent of all year-round working women. The number of part-time, year-round

working women increased by 1.6 million from

1991 to 2001, while the number of women who

worked part-time, part-year decreased by 1.3 million.

Women who usually worked part-time hours and

worked year-round in 2001 reported mean weekly

hours of 22.3. Women who usually worked parttime, part-year reported mean weekly hours of

19.0.

Women are more likely than men to work parttime. In 2001, 12.5 percent of men usually

worked part-time (including both year-round and

part-year workers) compared with 27.1 percent of

women. 

For men, usual part-time, year-round workers

comprised 5.4 percent of male workers in 2001,

compared with 13.7 percent for women who

worked. 

Women are also more likely to work part-year

schedules than men. In 2001, 21.2 percent of

men worked part-year (including full-time and

part-time workers) compared with 27.7 percent of

women. 

Figure 2.2

Women employed full-time, year-round

Percent of age group with work experience, 

1991-2001

Source: Employment Population Survey.

80

70

60

40

30

20

10

0

16-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

27.927.9

57.0 62.5 60.5

66.0

63.8

69.6

52.9

62.2

25.7

31.0

1991 2001 Percent
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

16

For men as well as women, the proportion of

part-time and part-year workers relative to all

workers declined between 1991 and 2001. The

proportion of women who were employed fulltime, year-round as a share of women who

worked any time during the previous year

increased from 52.6 percent in 1991 to 58.6 percent in 2002. For men, the proportion increased

from 66.5 percent in 1991 to 73.2 percent in

2001. 

In March 2001, 72.3 percent of women and 78.6

percent of men who worked were year-round

workers, including both full-time and part-time.

Reasons for part-time work

Table 2.4 shows the main reasons reported for

working part-time by women and men who

worked part-time hours at least one week in 1991

and 2001. Compared with the 19.2 million

women who usually worked part-time hours in

2001, a total of 24.4 million worked part-time

hours at least one week. In 2001, 5.2 million

women who usually worked full-time hours

worked part-time at least one week.

In 2001, 58.9 percent of women who worked

part-time at least one week during the year reported the part-time schedule as their preference.

This proportion was virtually the same ten years

earlier—in 1991 the proportion was 58.7 percent. 

“Slack work” was the reason for working parttime reported by 12.4 percent of women who

worked part-time hours in 2001, somewhat lower

than the 14.5 percent in 1991. “Slack work”

refers to circumstances in which employers limit

scheduled weekly hours, typically in response to

economic conditions. At 12.4 percent in 2001,

the percentage of women reporting slack work as

the main reason for part-time status for at least

one week during the year was down from 14.5

percent who reported that reason for 1991. 

In 2001, 6.7 percent of women who worked parttime during the year reported that part-time work

was the only work available. This reason for parttime work was listed by 11.6 percent of women

who worked part-time during 1991. 

Earnings

Table 2.5 (page 17) shows the pattern of improvement in earnings of full-time, year-round working

women between 1991 and 2001. 6 For 1991 earnings, amounts were converted to 2001 real equivalents for consistent comparison. 

The greatest number of women in 2001—totaling

18.7 million full-time, year-round workers—

reported annual earnings in the $20,000 to

$39,999 category. These women accounted for

44.9 percent of working women in 2001.

The $20,000 to $39,999 category was also the

most common earnings category for men in 2001,

accounting for 19.8 million full-time, year-round

working men (34.1 percent). 

The proportion of full-time, year-round working

women who earned less than $20,000 declined

from 34.6 percent in 1991 to 27.5 percent in

2001. 

The total number of women in the under $20,000

category increased by 194,000 to 11.4 million in

2001—the smallest increase of any earning category for women with full-time, year-round work

experience. The number of women earning

$20,000 to $39,999 increased by 3.5 million

(23.2 percent) over the decade, and the number

of women earning $40,000 to $59,999 increased

by 2.8 million (61.6 percent) over the decade.

Between 1991 and 2001, the proportion of

employed women who earned $60,000 to

$79,999 per year nearly doubled—from 3.3 percent to 6.2 percent. The proportion of working

Table 2.4

Reasons for working part-time,

1991 and 2001

Reason 1991 2001

Women

Could only find 

part-time work 11.6 6.7

Want part-time work 58.7 58.9

Slack work 14.5 12.4

Other reasons 15.1 22.0

Men

Could only find 

part-time work 11.5 7.0

Want part-time 

work 36.9 40.6

Slack work 32.5 26.6

Other reasons 19.1 25.7

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.
17

Work Experience of Women

women earning $80,000 to $99,999 more than

doubled from 0.8 percent to 1.9 percent, and the

proportion of women earning $100,000 or more

increased from 0.7 percent to 2.1 percent—a

three-fold increase in the proportion of women in

the highest earnings category between 1991 and

2001.

Overall, 4.2 million full-time, year-round working

women earned $60,000 or more in 2001, compared with 1.6 million in 1991—an increase of

2.7 million women in the three highest earnings

categories. Women in these earnings groups

increased from 4.8 percent in 1991 to 10.2 percent of full-time, year-round working women in

2001.

The difference between earnings of women and

men with full-time, year-round work experience

narrowed over the past ten years. In 1991,

women comprised only 15.9 percent of the 9.9

million full-time, year-round workers who earned

$60,000 or more in real 2001 dollars. By 2001,

women comprised 23.5 percent of the 18.1 million workers who earned $60,000 or more.

Between 1991 and 2001, 29.4 percent of the

increase in full-time, year-round employment of

women was associated with increases in the number of women earning over $60,000 per year.

Patterns of Work

Experience

This section examines the annual work experience

of women in 2001 in relation to age, marital status, race and ethnicity, and class of employment,

based on tabulations of data from the Current

Population Survey Annual Social and Economic

Supplement. Age and other demographic data

refer to the survey month (generally March 2002);

employment data refer to the prior year, 2001.

Age and work experience

Table 2.6 (page 18) presents the distribution of

women and men by work experience and age.

For each age group, the table shows the total population (by sex) in that age group and the percentage of the group that reported work experience in each experience category in 2001. 

Women in the age 35-44 group had the highest

overall percentage with any work experience in

Table 2.5

Work experience by sex

age 16 and older, 2001

1991 2001 Change 1991-2001

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Less than $20,000 11,226 34.6 11,420 27.5 194 1.7

20,000 to 39,999 15,174 46.8 18,658 44.9 3,484 23.0

40,000 to 59,999 4,483 13.8 7,244 17.4 2,760 61.6

60,000 to 79,999 1,078 3.3 2,585 6.2 1,507 139.8

80,000 to 99,999 247 0.8 802 1.9 555 224.6

100,000 or more 242 0.7 861 2.1 619 256.0

Women

Real annual Total Percent

earnings 2001 Total Total change change

dollars (thousands) Percent (thousands) Percent (thousands) (rounded)

Real annual Total Percent

earnings 2001 Total Total change change

dollars (thousands) Percent (thousands) Percent (thousands) (rounded)

Men

Less than $20,000 11,512 24.4 11,638 20.0 126 1.1

20,000 to 39,999 16,307 34.6 19,792 34.1 3,485 21.4

40,000 to 59,999 10,940 23.2 12,823 22.1 1,882 17.2

60,000 to 79,999 4,764 10.1 6,562 11.3 1,798 37.7

80,000 to 99,999 1,645 3.5 2,909 5.0 1,265 76.9

100,000 or more 1,956 4.1 4,351 7.5 2,396 122.5
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

18

2001: 79.4 percent worked some weeks during

the year. Similarly high overall work experience

rates were reported by women ages 25 to 34 (79.1

percent) and 45 to 54 (78.6 percent). 

Women in the three age groups spanning 25 to

54 also had the highest rates of full-time, yearround work experience. In 2001, 49.6 percent of

women age 25 to 34, 52.5 percent of women age

35 to 44, and 54.7 percent of women age 45 to

54 worked full-time, year-round. 

The increasing likelihood of full-time, year-round

work experience from younger to older across the

three age groups is mirrored in declining rates of

part-time and part-year experience for older

women across the groups.

At 37 percent, women in the 55-64 age group had

notably lower full-time, year-round work experience in 2001, compared with the next younger

group. 

Women in the 16-24 age group had a relatively

low rate of full-time, year-round work experience,

but relatively higher rates of work experience in

the part-time and part-year categories.

Figure 2.3 (page 19) shows the age distribution of

the 41.6 million women who worked full-time,

year-round in 2001. The greatest number—11.8

million, comprising 28.3 percent of all women

who worked full-time, year-round were in the 35-

44 age group. The 45-54 age group accounted for

26.6 percent of full-time, year-round female workers (14.6 million), and the 25-34 age group

accounted for 23.1 percent (13.8 million). 

The largest number of women who worked parttime, year-round, 2.3 million, were in the 35-44

age group. The 16-24 age group, which included

many women who were enrolled in school,

accounted for 2.2 million part-time, year-round

workers. Across all age groups, 9.7 million

women worked part-time, year-round in 2001.

In 2001, 10.2 million women worked full-time,

but only part of the year (less than 50 weeks).

The highest rate of full-time, part-year work experience among women (13.9 percent) and the

largest number (2.7 million) were in the age 25 -

34 group.

Part-time, part-year work experience was mostly

associated with the youngest group of women—

age 16 to 24. In 2001, the 9.9 million women

who worked part-time and part-year included 3.7

million women age 16 to 24. For women in that

age group, 20.9 percent worked part-time, partyear.

Overall, women had higher rates of non-worker

status and lower rates of full-time, year-round

work experience in 2001 than men did. The highTable 2.6

proportion of age group with work experience by sex

2001

Full-time, Part-time, Full-time, Part-time, NonTotal year-round year-round part-year part-year worker

(thousands) (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent)

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women

16-24 17,533 19.3 12.6 12.7 20.9 34.4

25-34 19,416 49.6 8.1 13.9 7.6 20.9

35-44 22,436 52.5 10.1 9.5 7.4 20.6

45-54 20,206 54.7 8.7 9.4 5.8 21.4

55-64 13,501 37.0 8.8 7.2 6.4 40.5

65+ 19,535 3.8 3.8 1.3 3.3 87.8

Men

16-24 17,728 25.8 9.6 15.9 18.4 30.3

25-34 18,986 72.7 3.1 14.7 2.6 6.9

35-44 21,567 77.7 1.9 10.9 1.7 7.8

45-54 19,279 75.6 2.0 9.7 1.7 11.0

55-64 12,366 56.4 4.2 9.1 3.8 26.5

65+ 14,235 9.8 5.0 2.6 4.5 78.1
19

Work Experience of Women

est rate of full-time work experience for women—

54.7 percent for women age 45 to 54—compares

with a male rate of 75.6 for the same age group.

Work experience and marital status

Figure 2.4 compares the percentage of women

with any work experience by their marital status.

The figure also shows the comparison for men.

Married women were less likely than divorced,

separated, or never-married women to have some

work experience during 2001.7

In 2001, 64.9 percent of the 59.3 million married

women worked at least one week. Divorced

women had the highest rate of work experience—

75.5 percent of the 12.2 million divorced women

worked at some time during the year. 

Separated (71.7 percent) and never married (70.6

percent) women had similarly high rates of labor

force experience. Only 20.1 percent of widows

worked, a reflection of the relatively older population for that group. 

Table 2.7 (page 20) provides detail regarding marital status for women and for men in relation to each of the categories of work

experience. At 79.9 percent, widows had

the highest likelihood of non-worker status and divorced women were least likely

to be non-workers (24.5 percent) in 2001.

Divorced women (54.5 percent) and separated women (46.8 percent) had the highest rates of full-time, year-round work

experience in 2001. For married women,

the rate of full-time, year-round work

experience was 39.1 percent. 

Married women had a higher rate (9.6

percent) of part-time, year-round work

experience than either divorced or separated women. Never-married women (10.3

percent) had the highest rate of part-time,

year-round work experience.

The rate of full-time,

year-round work experience was notably lower

for married women than

it was for the 65.2 percent of married men

who worked full-time,

year-round.

Despite their smaller

likelihood of working

year-round, full-time

compared with

divorced, separated, or

never-married women,

the larger total numbers

of married women

result in married

women comprising the

majority of full-time,

year-round female 

workers. 

Figure 2.3

Female full-time, year-round workers by age

age 16 and over, 2001

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

16-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

Percent of female full-time, year-round workers

Figure 2.4

Work experience by marital status

any work experience, persons age 16 and older

by sex, 2001

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Married Widowed Divorced Separated Never 

married

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women Men

Percent
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

20

Figure 2.5 shows that married women comprised

55.8 percent of full-time, year-round female workers in 2001. In relation to the total civilian population of women age 16 and older (112.6 million), 20.6 percent (23.2 million) were married

and worked full-time.

Work experience and race/ 

ethnicity

Table 2.8 (page 21) shows the distribution of work experience in 2001 for persons of Hispanic ethnic origin (who may

be of any race) and by four race identification groups for non-Hispanic persons.

The tabulation shown in Table 2.8 combined information regarding racial identification with separate information provided by each survey respondent regarding ethnic group membership to produce

a composite presentation. In 2001, 94.2

percent of Hispanic women identified

with the white race group, 3.7 percent

black, and the remaining 2 percent as

Native American or Asian.

In 2001, black, non-Hispanic women

had the highest rate of overall (any

weeks) work experience among the

groups shown. In 2001, 64.5 percent of

non-Hispanic, black women worked at

least one week. Non-Hispanic black

women were also the most likely to work

full-time, year-round—41.4 percent.

Married

56%

Never married

22%

Separated 3%

Divorced 

16%

Widowed 3%

Figure 2.5

Marital status of women who worked full time,

year-round 

age 16 and older, 2001

Source: Employment Policy Foundation

Table 2.7

Work experience by marital status

age 16 and older, 2001

Full-time, Part-time, Full-time, Part-time, NonTotal year-round year-round part-year part-year worker

(thousands) (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent)

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women

Married 59,251 39.1 9.6 8.6 7.6 35.1

Widowed 11,411 10.4 3.8 2.7 3.3 79.9

Divorced 12,227 54.5 5.5 10.5 5.1 24.5

Separated 2,795 46.8 6.5 12.0 6.4 28.3

Never married 26,942 34.3 10.3 11.8 14.2 29.4

Men

Married 58,868 65.2 2.8 8.9 2.4 20.7

Widowed 2,635 16.0 2.7 4.2 4.1 72.9

Divorced 8,643 59.6 2.9 11.7 2.9 22.8

Separated 1,796 57.4 2.3 13.8 2.8 23.6

Never married 32,220 40.5 7.2 14.7 11.7 25.9
21

Work Experience of Women

Native American women (57.1 percent) and

Hispanic women (59.1) had the lowest rates of

overall (any weeks) work experience. Native

American women were also the least likely to

work full-time, year-round (29.8 percent). In

2001, 34.6 percent of Hispanic

women worked full-time, yearround.

Comparisons of work experience between women and men

generally reveal lower female

overall and full-time, year-round

work experience rates and lower

female rates for full-time, yearround work experience.

Class of worker

Figure 2.6 shows the distribution of women with work experience in 2001 by class of

longest job in 2001.8 Table 2.9

(page 22) shows total numbers

of women and men by detailed

work experience category and

class of longest job in 2001. 9 In

2001, 76.2 percent of women

who were employed in 2001

were employed in private establishments. 

The 54.1 million women with

work experience as employees in

private establishments comprised 46.9 percent of

all private sector employees with work experience

in 2001. Full-time, year-round workers accounted

for 58.1 percent of women (31.4 million) who

had work experience in the private sector.

Self-employed,

incorporated 1.6

Private, 76.2

Self-employed, not incorp., 5.0

Local government, 9.9

State government, 5.0

Federal government, 2.2

Figure 2.6

Class of longest job in 2001

percent of women with any work experience, 

age 16 and older

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Table 2.8

Work experience by race and ethnic group

age 16 and older, 2001

Full-time, Part-time, Full-time, Part-time, NonTotal year-round year-round part-year part-year worker

(thousands) (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent)

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women

White, non-Hispanic 80,330 36.5 9.4 8.6 9.0 36.5

Black, non-Hispanic 13,656 41.4 5.4 10.4 7.3 35.5

Native American, non-Hispanic 1,146 29.8 6.3 12.1 9.6 42.1

Asian, non-Hispanic 4,902 39.2 7.5 8.6 6.6 38.2

Hispanic, any race 12,591 34.6 7.6 10.5 6.4 40.9

Men

White, non-Hispanic 74,784 56.6 4.2 10.3 5.4 23.4

Black, non-Hispanic 10,888 47.6 3.5 11.3 6.1 31.6

Native American, non-Hispanic 911 46.1 3.6 19.9 7.3 23.1

Asian, non-Hispanic 4,528 56.8 5.0 10.4 5.1 22.7

Hispanic, any race 13,051 58.1 3.7 13.3 4.2 20.7
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

22

In 2001, 1.6 million women had work experience

as employees of the federal government. Women

comprised 44.9 percent of persons whose longest

work experience was in the federal government

workforce (not including armed forces).

A total of 3.5 million women had primary work

experience in state government employment, and

7.0 million had their longest work experience in

local government in 2001. Women comprised

57.4 percent of state government employees and

61.5 percent of local government employees. The

local government class includes public school

teachers.

In 2001, 4.7 million women had their longest

work experience in self-employment—either

incorporated or unincorporated. This total

includes all four combinations of full-time and

part-time and year-round and part-year experience. Self-employed women include those who

work as independent sole proprietors or partners

in unincorporated businesses and women who

identify themselves as primary owners of incorporated businesses. 

Women comprised 34.3 percent of all 13.7 million persons with self-employment experience as

their longest job in 2001.

Women whose longest employment experience in

2001 was self-employment comprised 6.6 percent

of women with work experience in 2001. 

Most businesses operated by self-employed

women are small. In 2001, 80.0 percent of selfemployed women reported their total number of

employees as fewer than 10—including cases

where there were no employees other than the

entrepreneur herself.

Table 2.9

Work experience by race and ethnic group

age 16 and older, 2001

Full-time, Part-time, Full-time, Part-time,

year-round year-round part-year part-year

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women

Private 31,394 7,505 7,950 7,228

Federal government 1,254 93 150 91

State government 2,352 334 466 376

Local government 4,127 606 1,210 1,057

Self-employed, incorporated 700 266 98 85

Self-employed, not incorporated 1,726 871 318 640

Men

Private 44,149 3,309 9,390 4,411

Federal government 1,699 36 184 33

State government 1,948 159 284 222

Local government 3,412 145 511 322

Self-employed, incorporated 2,785 140 233 70

Self-employed, not incorporated 4,067 487 697 511
23

1 Monthly average is BLS average of monthly non-seasonally adjusted employment for

age 16 and older civilian population. Data for any employment during 2001 are derived from

March 2002 Current Population Survey tabulation of persons reported employed any number of

weeks during the prior year. Based on BLS tabulation methods, the total of 70,986 thousand

women with work experience in 2001 excludes women who were in the armed forces at the time of

the March 2002 survey. Women who were in the armed forces in March 2002 include some who

had been civilian workers in 2001 before enlisting or being called to active duty from military

reserve forces. The BLS method does not recognize the civilian work experience contribution of

military members who have secondary employment in the civilian sector. 2 Work experience data presented in this chapter are derived from the Annual Social and

Economic Conditions (ASEC) Supplement to the monthly Current Population Survey (CPS). The

supplemental questions refer to work experience and annual earnings information for the year

prior to the survey month. Thus, the 2002 survey provides data for work experience and earnings

during 2001. The supplemental ASEC questionnaire (commonly referenced as the “March

Supplement” and formerly denoted as the “Annual Demographic Supplement”) is administered to

all March CPS respondents. In recent years, some February and April CPS respondents have also

been asked the supplemental questions about prior year experience in order to improve the sample

size for certain sub-populations. 3 The National Bureau of Economic Research Business (NBER) Cycle Dating

Committee (the generally recognized authority for business cycle dating) designated March 2001 as

the peak of the prior ten years of economic expansion and the commencement of a recession

phase of the business cycle. The NBER committee designated November 2001 as the trough of the

recession and beginning of a new expansion cycle. See www.nber.org. 4 The question from which these data are derived has not been fully tested for validity

by the Census Bureau. Responses may vary depending on individual respondents’ perceptions of

the meaning of the categories. 5 March Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Conditions

Supplement, 1992-2002. 6 Based on annual earnings responses reported on the March 1992 and March 2002

Current Population Surveys. 7 The tabulation presented here includes both married spouse present and married

spouse absent in the definition of married persons. Some tabulations published elsewhere include

persons who are married but whose spouses are absent from the household in the separated category. The alternative approach was not used here based on the judgment that spouse absence does

not necessarily have the same legal, sociological, or economic connotations of marital dissolution

as the separated category. 8 Based on responses to questions on the March 2002 Current Population Survey

Annual Social and Economic Conditions Supplement, 2002. 9 Here both self-employed incorporated and unincorporated are presented. Some presentations of employment classifications data combine incorporated self-employed in the private

employee category.

Work Experience of Women

Educational Attainment 

of Women

Highlights

❑ In March 2002, the three categories of college degree 

attainment, associate’s degree, bachelor’s degree, 

or advanced (post-graduate) degree, accounted for 

38.3 percent of the 75.6 million women age 25 to 

64.

❑ In March 2002, women with associate’s degrees 

accounted for 10 percent of women age 25 to 64, 

women with bachelor’s degrees accounted for 19.4 

percent, and women with advanced degrees 

accounted for 8.9 percent of women age 25 to 64.

❑ The 7.6 million women with associate’s degrees 

(as highest attainment) accounted for 56.1 percent of 

associate’s degree holders age 25 to 64 in March 

2002.

❑ The 14.7 million women with bachelor’s degrees (as 

highest attainment) accounted for 51.0 percent of 

bachelor’s degree holders in March 2002.

❑ The 6.7 million women with advanced degrees 

(masters, doctorate, or first professional degree) 

accounted for 46.9 percent of advanced degree 

holders in March 2002.

❑ The 13.8 million women with some college-level 

education but no degree accounted for 52.1 

percent of all persons age 25 to 64 with that level of 

highest educational attainment in March 2002.

❑ Women with a high school diploma (or GED 

certificate) as their highest education accounted for 

51.3 percent of persons age 25 to 64 who reported 

that level of educational attainment as their highest.

❑ In March 2002, 23.9 million women (31.6 percent 

of women) age 25 to 64 reported high school 

diploma (or GED certificate) as their highest 

educational attainment.

❑ Women age 25 to 64 were less likely than men to be 

high school dropouts. In March 2002, the 9.0 

million women with less than a complete high 

school education comprised 11.9 percent of women. 

The 9.8 million men without high school 

completion credentials comprised 13.5 percent of 

men age 25 to 64.
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

26

Introduction

Educational attainment is an important determinant of social and economic well being, employment opportunities, and earnings potential. The

trend in female educational attainment is a significant factor for understanding the current status

and future prospects of women in the workplace. 

This chapter examines women’s educational

attainment from five perspectives:

● Trends ● Age

● Race and ethnicity

● Annual work experience 

● Earnings

Throughout this chapter, “college graduate”

describes persons who report their highest level of

educational attainment as including some level of

completed college degree, including two-year academic or vocational associate’s degrees, bachelor’s

degrees, or post-baccalaureate advanced degrees.

This definition is broader than that found in

other sources that combine two-year degree holders with the category of “some college, nodegree.” A different approach has been adopted

here in order to highlight trends in two-year

degree attainment and earnings differences by

degree completion status.

For brevity, tables and charts use the phrase “less

than high school” to identify persons with less

than a complete high school education (i.e., persons whose highest educational attainment is less

than a high school diploma or a GED certificate).

Data in this chapter are presented for persons age

25 to 64, unless specifically identified otherwise.

In March 2002, there were 75.6 million women

age 25 and older in the non-institutional, civilian

population and 72.8 million men. 1 

Figure 3.1 shows the proportions of women and

of men age 25 to 64 by highest educational

attainment in March 2002.2 For both women

and men age 25 to 64, the largest single category

of educational attainment was high school diploma, accounting for 31.6 percent of women and

31.1 percent of men.3 However, the three categories of college degree attainment together

accounted for 38.3 percent of women age 25 to

64 in March 2002.

Both women and men were equally likely to

report a baccalaureate degree as their highest educational attainment—19.4 percent of either

women or men. Women were more likely than

men to have completed their education with an

associate’s degree—10.0 percent of women and

8.1 percent of men.4 

Figure 3.1

Educational attainment of women and men

percent of gender group ages 25 to 64 by

highest educational attainment

March 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Less than High school Some college Associate’s Bachelor’s Advanced

high school diploma no degree degree degree degree

Women Men Percent
Educational Attainment of Women

27

Women were less likely than men to have quit

school before earning a high school diploma —

11.9 percent of women were dropouts compared

with 13.5 percent of men age 25 to 64 in March

2002. Women were also less likely than men to

have completed a post-baccalaureate degree—9.9

percent of women compared with 10.4 percent of

men.

Table 3.1 shows the total numbers of women and

men by educational attainment in March 2002.

The 42.8 million women with some post-high

school education (including some college; no

degree; associate’s; bachelor’s; and advanced

degrees) comprised 51.5 percent of the age 25 to

64 population with any post-high school educational attainment.

Educational attainment of persons age 16 to 24 is

analyzed separately in the section on education

by age. In March 2002, the 16-24 age group of

the civilian, non-institutional population included 17.6 million women. Of these women, 55.9

percent were enrolled in school.

Educational attainment data for women age 65

and older are also presented separately in this

report because these women are predominantly

not in the labor force. In March 2002, the civilian, non-institutional population of women age

65 and older totaled 19.5 million.

Trends in Educational

Attainment

Between 1992 and 2002, the number of women

age 25 to 64 who were college graduates

increased by 10.0 million—a 52.8 percent change.

The proportion of women age 25 to 64 with college degrees increased from 28.5 percent to 38.3

percent. The number of women with some college but no degree also increased from 17.5 percent to 18.2 percent. The number of women

whose highest educational attainment was high

school or less decreased by 3.0 million between

1992 and 2002, and the proportion decreased

from 54.0 percent to 43.5 percent. Table 3.2

(page 28) shows the number of women and men

in the 25-34 age group by educational attainment

for 1992-2002, based on data from the March

Current Population Survey.5

The largest increase in the number of female college graduates was in the associate’s degree category—a 58.6 percent increase from 4.8 million in

March 1992 to 7.6 million in March 2002. 

The next largest percent increase in female college

graduates (age 25 to 64) was among the advanced

degree group, which includes first professional

degree holders (e.g., M.D., J.D.) and academic

doctorates (e.g., Ph.D., Ed.D.). The number of

female advanced degree holders in the 25 to 64

age group increased 57.3 percent from 4.3 million to 6.7 million. 

Table 3.1

Women and men by highest educational attainment

Civilian, non-institutional population ages 25 to 64, March 2002

Highest educational Women Men Total Federal percentage of

attainment (thousands) (thousands) (thousands) education category

Less than high school 

graduate 8,975 9,803 18,778 47.8

High school diploma 

or GED 23,885 22,645 46,530 51.3

Some college 13,795 12,690 26,485 52.1

Associate’s degree 7,584 5,926 13,510 56.1

Bachelor’s degree 14,678 14,109 28,788 51.0

Advanced degree 6,694 7,587 14,281 46.9

All, age 25 to 64 75,611 72,761 148,372 51.0

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

28

The number of women with highest educational

attainment at the bachelor’s degree level increased

48.1 percent, from 9.9 million in March 1992 to

14.7 million in March 2002.

The 52.8 percent increase in the number of

women age 25 to 64 with college degrees was 3.8

times faster than the 13.8 percent increase in the

population of women in the age group. 

The 10.0 million increase in the number of

women with college degrees from 1992 to 2002

exceeded the growth in the number of men in the

25 to 64 age group with college degrees by more

than a third—2.7 million. The number of men

with college degrees grew by only 7.3 million.

The growth of female college graduates over the

decade resulted in women becoming the majority

(51 percent) of college graduates in the

prime working age group of 25 to 64 yearolds.

The increased proportion of female college

graduates in the population reflects

women’s increasing college enrollment and

graduation over the past forty years. Table

3.3 shows that women’s share of college

enrollment increased from 37.5 percent in

1960 to 56.2 percent in 2000. The number

of both women and men enrolled in college grew over the past forty years from 4.0

million to 15.3 million, but the number of

women enrolled in college grew more than

twice as fast as the number of men. 

Growing female college enrollment was reflected

in growing numbers of college degrees awarded to

women. Figure 3.2 (page 29) shows the increase

in women’s share of earned degrees awarded each

year for associate’s, bachelor’s, master’s, first professional, and doctorate degrees from 1980 to

2000. In 2000, women accounted for the majority of associate’s, bachelor’s, and master’s degrees

awarded annually. Women’s shares of first professional degrees and doctor’s degrees in 2000 were

45 percent and 44 percent, respectively. The first

professional and doctor’s degree categories had

the largest proportionate increases in women’s

shares of degrees awarded compared with 1980.

Table 3.2

Persons by educational attainment and sex

age 25 to 64, 1992 and 2002 (March)

Change

Highest educational 1992 2002 1992- Percent

attainment (thousands) (thousands) 2002 change 1992 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women

Less than high school graduate 10,425 8,975 -1,450 -13.9 15.7 11.9

High school graduate 25,465 23,885 -1,580 -6.2 38.3 31.6

Some college, no degree 11,620 13,795 2,174 18.7 17.5 18.2

Associate’s degree 4,781 7,584 2,803 58.6 7.2 10.0

Bachelor’s degree 9,910 14,678 4,769 48.1 14.9 19.4

Advanced degree 4,256 6,694 2,438 57.3 6.4 8.9

All, age 25 to 64 66,458 75,611 9,154 13.8 100.0 100.0

MenLeless

Less than high school graduate 10,358 9,803 -555 -5.4 16.2 13.5

High school graduate 22,028 22,645 617 2.8 34.5 31.1

Some college, no degree 11,050 12,690 1,640 14.8 17.3 17.4

Associate's degree 3,764 5,926 2,162 57.4 5.9 8.1

Bachelor's degree 10,527 14,109 3,582 34.0 16.5 19.4

Advanced degree 6,052 7,587 1,535 25.4 9.5 10.4

All, age 25 to 64 63,780 72,761 8,981 14.1 100.0 100.0

Percent of age 25 to

64, by sex

Table 3.3

College enrollment of women and men

1960-2000

Total Women Men Female

Year (thousands) (thousands) (thousands) percent

Source: U.S. Department of Education, Center for Education Statistics, Digest

of Education Statistics, 2002.

1960 4,000 1,500 2,500 37.5

1970 8,600 3,500 5,000 40.7

1980 12,100 6,200 5,900 51.2

1990 13,800 7,500 6,300 54.3

2000 15,300 8,600 6,700 56.2
Educational Attainment of Women

29

For the first professional degree category,

women’s share increased from 24.3 percent in

1980 to 45 percent in 2000. For the doctor’s

degree category, the increase was from 30.3 percent in 1980 to 44.4 percent in 2000. In 2000,

women graduates received 56,000 of the 125,000

first professional or doctorate degrees awarded

nationwide that year. 

Educational Attainment by

Age

Rising educational attainment of women over

time has resulted in notable differences between

older and younger women. These differences are

apparent among women age 25 and older when

they are examined in ten-year age cohorts. The

increasing educational attainment of women is

also apparent in the data for women age 16 to 25,

even though many women in this age group have

not completed their education.

Women younger than age 25

Among the 17.6 million women age 16 to 24 in

March 2002, more than half—9.8 million—were

still in school. Of those enrolled in school, 4.9

million were still in high school, and 4.9 million

were enrolled in college. (See Table 3.4, page 30)

The 7.8 million women who were not in school

included 3.2 million who had completed schooling with a high school diploma, 1.4 million who

had completed some college (no degree), and 1.3

million who had

completed some

level of college

degree program. 

The in-school status and educational attainment

of women in the

16-24 age group

in March 2002

showed notable

improvement in

both enrollment

and attainment

compared with

1992. The proportion of women

enrolled in school

increased from

50.5 percent to

55.9 percent, and

those who were not enrolled were more likely to

have completed a college degree.

In 1992, the 979,000 women age 16 to 24 that

were not enrolled in school and had completed a

college degree comprised 6.2 percent of all

women in the age group and 12.5 percent of the

7.7 million women not enrolled in school. In

2002, the 1.3 million women age 16 to 24 with

college degrees comprised 7.5 percent of all

women in the age group, but 17.0 percent of

those not enrolled in school. In ten years, the

probability that a young woman between 16 to

24 years of age who was not enrolled in school

was already a college graduate increased by 36

percent, from 12.5 percent to 17.0 percent.

Between March 1992 and March 2002, the number of young women (age 16 to 24) who were not

in school and had not completed high school was

essentially unchanged, despite population

growth. The proportion dropped from 11.8 percent to 10.7 percent.

Compared with men, women age 16 to 24 were

more likely to be in college. In March 2002, 28.0

percent of women were enrolled in college compared with 24.0 percent of men in the age group.

Young men were more likely to be still in high

school (31.7 percent). Men who were not in

school were more likely to be high school

dropouts (12.5 percent of men compared with

10.7 percent of women). Men ages 16 to 24 were

Figure 3.2

Share of degrees earned by females

School years, 1980, 1990, 2000

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Associate’s Bachelor’s Master’s First Doctor’s

professional

1980 1990 2000

Percent
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

30

less likely than women to be college graduates

(5.5 percent of men were not in school and college graduates, compared with 7.5 percent of

women).

In addition to the 1.3 million women age 16 to

25 with college degrees who were not in school in

March 2002, an additional 573,000 among the

4.9 million enrolled in college had already completed a first college degree, typically an associate’s degree.

Table 3.4

Educational attainment and school enrollment status by sex

age 16 to 24, 1992 and 2002

School Enrollment and Women Men

Educational attainment status 1992 2002 1992 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Enrolled in school thousands

Total 7,865 9,820 8,033 10,195

High school 3,823 4,900 4,271 5,794

College 4,041 4,920 3,762 4,401

Not enrolled in school by education attainment

Total 7,712 7,754 7,425 8,108

Less than high school 1,839 1,884 1,933 2,279

High school diploma 3,514 3,205 3,472 3,594

Some college, no degree 1,379 1,363 1,171 1,228

Associate's degree 317 379 248 363

Bachelor's degree or higher 662 923 600 644

percent

In school 

Total 50.5 55.9 52.0 55.7

High school 24.5 27.9 27.6 31.7

College 25.9 28.0 24.3 24.0

Not in school and education attainment 

Total 49.5 44.1 48.0 44.3

Less than high school 11.8 10.7 12.5 12.5

High school diploma 22.6 18.2 22.5 19.6

Some college, no degree 8.9 7.8 7.6 6.7

Associate's degree 2.0 2.2 1.6 2.0

Bachelor's degree or higher 4.2 5.3 3.9 3.5

Table 3.5

Female educational attainment by age,

age 25 and older, March 2002

Total

in age group Less than Some Associate’s Bachelor’s Advanced

Age (thousands) high school High school college degree degree degree

25-34 19,436 11.3 26.9 19.6 9.4 24.5 8.2

35-44 22,461 10.7 31.5 18.2 11.4 20.1 8.1

45-54 20,213 10.6 32.3 17.8 10.7 18.0 10.5

55-64 13,501 16.5 37.3 17.0 7.6 13.0 8.5

65+ 19,535 30.1 39.0 13.0 5.1 8.6 4.2

Percent of age group

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.
Educational Attainment of Women

31

Women age 25 or older

Overall, 38.5 percent of women age 25 to 64 in

March 2002 had completed some level of college

degree, a notable increase from the 28.5 percent

ten years earlier, but the overall proportions by

educational attainment mask important differences within the 25-64 age group. Table 3.5

(page 30) shows the proportion of women reporting each of six levels of highest educational

attainment in March 2002 by ten-year age cohorts

for women age 25 to 64 and for all women age

65 and older.

Women with any college degree

Across the age cohorts from oldest to youngest,

the proportion of women having completed some

college degree (the sum of the associate’s, bachelor’s, and advanced degree categories in Table 3.5)

increased sharply from 17.9 percent for women

age 65 or older to 42.1 percent for women age 25

to 34. Figure 3.3 shows the proportion of women

in each age group who were graduates at the associate’s degree level or higher in March 2002.

In March 2002, the 8.2 million women age 25 to

34 with college degrees comprised 28.3 percent of

women age 25 to 64 with college degrees. The

largest group of women with college degrees—8.9

million—was the 35-44 age cohort, comprising

30.7 percent of

women age 25 to

64. Combined,

women age 25 to

44 with college

degrees made up

59 percent of

women in the 25-

64 age group who

were graduates of

some level of college.

Figure 3.4 provides a more

detailed perspective of the age distribution of

women college

graduates (associate’s degree or

higher). It shows

the number of college graduates (any

degree) by single year of age 20 to 75 in March

2002.

The increase in the proportion of women completing some level of college degree is evident in

the large numbers of younger women in the college graduate category for each age in Figure 3.4.

The relatively smaller numbers for those age 20 to

Figure 3.3

Proportion of female college 

graduates by selected age 

groups, March 2002.

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75

Figure 3.4

Women college graduates by single year of age

ages 20 to 75. March 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Thousands

Percent
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

32

30 in the figure reflect both the smaller size of the

population in that age range, and the fact that

many younger women have not yet completed

their education.

Detailed educational attainment

The data presented in Table 3.5 (page 30) show

that the increase in women’s college degree completion relative to age is particularly evident in

terms of women who have completed four-year

and higher college degree programs. In 2002,

24.5 percent of women in the 25-34 age group

held four-year degrees and 8.2 percent held

advanced degrees. 

In comparison, the proportion of women age 65

and older who had completed a four-year

degree or higher was 12.8 percent. Over the

thirty years represented by the comparison

groups representing two generations, that is

the 25-34 age group and the 65 and older

group, the proportion of women with a

four-year or higher degree more than doubled. 

Half of the women who had completed a

four-year or higher college degree program

in March 2002 were age 42 or younger, and

70 percent were age 50 or younger. Nearly

one in five (19.3 percent) were age 30 or

younger.

Women without high school 

diplomas

In 2002, 14.9 million (15.6 percent) women age

25 and older had not completed high school. Of

these, 5.9 million were age 65 or older and

accounted for 39.6 percent of the women age 25

and older that had not completed high school. 

Figure 3.5 shows the proportion of women without a high school diploma or equivalent by age

group. In the age group 25 to 34, 2.2 million

women (11.3 percent) had not completed high

school. In the next higher group, age 35 to 44,

2.4 million, or 10.7 percent, had not earned a

high school diploma or equivalent. For women

age 45 to 54, the

proportion was

10.6 percent, and

for women age 55

to 64, it was 16.5

percent. For

women age 65 and

older, 30.1 percent

did not complete

high school.

Comparison

with men

Women born

between 1968 and

1977 (age 25 to

34) were more

likely than men to

be college graduates at any level—

42.1 percent of

women and 36.5

percent of men.

Figure 3.5

Women without high school diploma or 

equivalent

by age, March 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

40

30

20

10

5

20-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Women Men

25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67 70 73

Figure 3.6

High school or less educational attainment

by sex and single year of age 25 to 75, March 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Percent

Age

Percent
Educational Attainment of Women

33

Proportionately, more women age 25 to 34 (32.7

percent) completed a four-year degree or higher

than men, 28.5 percent, in 2002. The proportion

of women completing four years or more of college has exceeded the proportion of men every

year since 1996, and the difference has become

greater each year.

Attainment of higher education among women

and men age 25 to 34 in 2002 was notably different from that of women and men age 55 to 64 in

2002. Among women age 55 to 64 in 2002, 29.1

percent had completed some type of college

degree compared with 37.6 percent of men. 

For both women and men, the proportion whose

educational attainment ends with a high school

diploma or less has generally declined over time.

This decline is evident in Figure 3.6, (previous

page), which shows an age profile of the proportion of women and men whose educational

attainment was at the high school level or less in

March 2002.6 The percent of women over age 65

with no more than high school education ranged

from 65 percent to over 70 percent depending on

exact age. 

Figure 3.6 (page 32) shows that women over age

50 were more likely than men to have ended their

education with a high school diploma or less.

However, women under age 50 appeared less likely than men to end their education attainment at

high school.

The proportion

of women age

25-35 years without a high

school diploma

is less than 40

percent for each

year in the range. 

Women with

advanced

degrees

Figure 3.7 compares the numbers of women

and men holding advanced

degrees by tenyear age groups

for persons age

25 to 64 and for age 65 or older in March 2002.

The median age of advanced degree holders in

2002 was 49 for men and 46 for women. The fact

that women who hold advanced degrees tend to

be younger than men reflects the increasing presence of young women in post-graduate education

programs in recent years. Among men with

advanced degrees, 1.3 million (14.8 percent) were

age 65 or older in March 2002, and 20 percent

were age 60 or older. Women comprised 52.9

percent of advanced degree holders under age 40.7 

In the 25-34 age group, women outnumbered

men with advanced degrees by 26 percent—1.6

million women and 1.3 million men in March

2002. Women comprised 55.8 percent of

advanced degree holders in the 25-34 age group.

This represents a reversal of the long-standing pattern of males holding the majority of advanced

degrees. 

Although women outnumbered men in the 35

and older age cohorts in March 2002, the

advanced degree gap between men and women

narrowed over the 1992-2002 decade. In 1992,

5.6 percent of women age 25 and older held such

degrees compared with 9.0 percent of men. In

1992, 4.7 million women with advanced college

degrees comprised 40.7 percent of the nation’s

11.6 million advanced degree holders. In 2002,

there were 7.5 million women with advanced

Figure 3.7

Women and men advanced degree holders by Age,

March 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

3,000

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0

25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

Women Men Thousands
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

34

degrees, and they comprised 45.7 percent of the

16.4 million advanced degree holders age 25 and

older. In addition, there were an estimated

100,000 advanced degree holders under age 25,

two-thirds of whom were women.

Employment, Work

Experience, and Education

Educational attainment is an important factor in

labor force participation, employment, and work

experience. This section examines educational

attainment in conjunction with labor force participation rates, employment, and unemployment

based on tabulations of annual averages data for

women and men age 25 and older published by

the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Annual work experience in relation to educational attainment is

examined based on tabulations of Current

Population Survey Annual Social and Economic

Supplement data compiled by the Employment

Policy Foundation. 

Figure 3.8 shows the annual average labor force

participation rates for women and men age 25

and older in 2002 by educational attainment.

The labor force participation rate is the proportion of persons in the defined population who

are working, on layoff, or actively seeking work

based on criteria defined by the Bureau of Labor

Statistics. The proportion of women who are in

the labor force increases notably as educational

attainment increases. The difference in the labor

force participation rate between women and men

also narrows as educational attainment increases. 

Among women age 25 and older with less than a

completed high school education, only 32.5 percent were in the labor force in 2002. The relatively low labor force participation rate for women

with less than a complete high school education

reflects, in part, the large proportion of women

with less than a high school education among the

population over age 65. As previously shown in

Table 3.5, 30.1 percent of women age 65 or older

(in March 2002) reported their educational

attainment as less than a high school diploma—

nearly twice the proportion for any other age

group.

For women with bachelor’s degrees or higher, the

labor force participation rate in 2002 was highest

—73 percent. Female labor force participation

has risen consistently over the past fifty years, but

it remains generally less than male labor force

participation rates. However, Figure 3.8 shows

that, for women with relatively higher educational attainment, labor force participation rates more

closely parallel male rates.

For persons age 25 and older with less than high

school education, men were much more likely to

be labor force participants in 2002 than women—

57.2 percent of men were in the labor force compared with 32.5 percent of women. For persons

with bachelor’s degrees or higher, the male labor

force participation rate is only 15 percent higher

than the female rate—84 percent for men versus

73 percent for

women.

Women’s labor

force participation

rates vary in association with educational attainment to a greater

degree than do

male labor force

participation rates.

The labor force

participation rate

for women with

bachelor’s degrees

was 2.2 times

greater than the

labor force participation rate for

Figure 3.8

Labor force participation rate by educational attainment

age 25 and older, annual average 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

100

80

60

40

20

0

Less than High School Some college, Associate’s Bachelor’s

high school no degree degree degree or

higher

Women Men Percent
Educational Attainment of Women

35

women with less than completed high school

educational attainment in 2002. For men, the

variation between the highest and lowest labor

force participation rates was notably smaller —a

difference of 1.5 times.

Employment 

Table 3.6 shows the average annual employment,

unemployment, and unemployment rate by educational attainment, for women and men age 25

or older in 2002. Female college graduates,

including those with an associate’s degree or

higher, accounted for 42.5 percent (23.0 million)

of the 54.0 million women age 25 or older

employed in 2002. This total included 5.9 million women with associate’s degrees (11.0 percent

of female employment) and 17.0 million women

with bachelor’s degrees or higher (31.5 percent). 

Women who had not completed high school

accounted for 8.0 percent of employed women

age 25 or older. Women whose highest educational attainment was a high school diploma (or

GED certificate) accounted for 30.8 percent of

employed women. Women with some college

but no degree accounted for 18.7 percent of

female employment (age 25 or older) in 2002.

Unemployment and education

For unemployed women—those who have been

laid off or who are seeking employment—educational attainment is inversely related to their

unemployment rate. Figure 3.9 shows annual

average unemployment rates by educational

attainment in 2002 for women and men age 25

and older. The highest unemployment rates for

both women and men are consistently associated

with the lowest educational attainment. 

Table 3.6

Employment, unemployment, and educational attainment

by sex, age 25 and older, annual averages 2002

Bachelor’s

Less than Some college, Associate’s degree or

Educational attainment high school High school no degree degree higher

Source: Employment Policy Foundation tabulation of Current Population Survey, Annual Social and

Economic Conditions Supplement data, 2002.

Women

Employed (thousands) 4,315 16,624 10,117 5,945 17,045

Unemployed (thousands) 451 898 527 226 488

Unemployment rate (percent) 9.5 5.1 4.9 3.7 2.8

Men

Employed (thousands) 7,220 19,154 10,811 5,221 20,350

Unemployed (thousands) 613 1,087 536 235 635

Unemployment rate (percent) 7.8 5.4 4.7 4.3 3.0

Figure 3.9

Unemployment by educational attainment

women and men, age 25 and older, annual averages 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

10

8

6

4

2

0

Less than high High School Some college Associate’s Bachelor’s

school degree degree or

higher

Women Men Percent
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

36

Figure 3.9 (page 35) also shows that women age

25 and older with less than a high school degree

experienced a 9.5 percent unemployment rate in

2002. Women with bachelor’s degrees or higher

experienced a 2.8 percent unemployment rate. 

Work experience

Table 3.7 shows overall work experience in 2001

by educational attainment for persons age 25 and

older. Altogether, 59.5 million women worked at

least part-time and part of the year in 2001. This

number comprised 62.6 percent of the 95.1 million women age 25 and older in March 2002.

The 24.8 million female college degree holders

age 25 and older with work experience in 2001

comprised 41.7 percent of all women with work

experience.

Figure 3.10 (page 37) compares the likelihood of

full-time, year-round employment for women and

men age 25 and older for each level of educational attainment. Each bar represents the number of

women or men with the indicated educational

attainment as a percentage of all women or men

with that level of educational attainment.

The likelihood of women working full-time, yearround increases notably with increasing educational attainment. Among women, those with

less than high school education are least likely to

be employed full-time, year-round—18.8 percent

of such women. Women with advanced college

degree—53.4 percent. 

Overall, 40.2 percent of women and 62.1 percent

of men worked full-time, year-round in the prior

year according to 2002 Annual Social and

Economic Supplement (ASEC) survey responses.

The difference between employment-to-population ratios of women and men employed fulltime, year-round was the least for advanced

degree holders. For these workers, men’s fulltime, year-round employment rate was 1.3 times

women's. The greatest difference was for the less

than high school diploma group—men were 2.2

times as likely to work full-time, year-round as

were women.

The 22.8 million non-working women age 25 and

older and with a high school education or less

comprised 64.1 percent of all non-working

women. This group predominantly included

women who were not in the labor force during

the prior year (that is, who did not seek work). It

also included women who were job seekers during at least some weeks but did not obtain work. 

The 24.8 million full-time, year-round working

women with two-year or higher levels of college

education comprised 64.8 percent of full-time

working women, and 26.9 percent of all full-time,

Table 3.7

Annual work experience and educational attainment

by sex, age 25 and older, 2001

Less than Some college, Associate’s Bachelor’s Advanced

Work experience high school High school no degree degree degree degree

Women

Full-time, year-round (thousands) 2,797 11,691 7,283 4,190 8,257 4,012

Part-time, year-round (thousands) 737 2,550 1,411 875 1,406 535

Full-time, part-year (thousands) 941 2,383 1,379 769 1,559 938

Part-time, part-year (thousands) 622 1,802 1,130 539 1,191 535

Non-worker (thousands) 9,758 13,082 5,128 2,212 3,944 1,491

Any work experience (percent) 34.3 58.5 68.6 74.2 75.9 80.1

Men

Full-time, year-round (thousands) 5,711 16,321 9,494 4,715 11,479 6,301

Part-time, year-round (thousands) 479 767 461 156 424 313

Full-time, part-year (thousands) 1,528 2,848 1,461 584 1,420 698

Part-time, part-year (thousands) 405 639 425 152 411 294

Non-worker (thousands) 5,971 6,373 2,820 860 2,191 1,298

Any work experience (percent) 57.6 76.4 80.8 86.7 86.2 85.4

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.
Educational Attainment of Women

37

year-round workers, including women and men.8

Table 3.8 shows the proportion of women age 25

and older employed full-time, year-round by educational attainment and ten-year age groups in

1991 and 2001. Each cell in the table shows the

percentage of women in the indicated age and

educational attainment category who were fulltime, year-round workers.

Between 1991 and 2001, the proportion of

women working full-time, year-round increased

notably for women who had completed less than

a high school diploma in each age category under

age 65. 

For women without a high school diploma in the

25-34 age group, the increase was from 19.8 percent to 27.7 percent. For women in the 35-44 age

group, the increase was also large—from 28.5 percent in 1991 to 36.7 percent in 2001. For women

in the 45-54 age group, the full-time, year-round

work experience proportion was little changed—

33.3 percent in 2001 compared with 31.1 percent

Figure 3.10

Educational attainment of women and men employed full-time, year-round

age 25 and older, 2001

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Less than high High school Some college Two-year Four-year Advanced

school degree degree degree

Women Men

18.8

40.5 37.1

60.6

44.6

64.8

48.8

72.9

50.5

72.1

53.4

70.8

Percent

Table 3.8

Women employed full-time, year-round

by age and education, 1991 and 2001

Less than Some college, Associate’s Bachelor’s Advanced

Age high school High school no degree degree degree degree

1991 (percent employed full-time, year-round)

25-34 19.8 41.6 46.7 55.0 58.7 57.2

35-44 28.5 48.4 52.0 52.9 49.9 60.5

45-54 31.1 47.6 52.8 55.2 53.8 63.9

55-64 15.8 28.3 33.6 33.5 34.1 45.7

65+ 1.8 2.8 3.1 5.0 5.4 9.7

2001 (percent employed full-time, year-round)

25-34 27.7 44.9 51.0 52.8 59.9 57.8

35-44 36.7 52.6 54.8 55.2 54.7 58.4

45-54 33.3 53.9 56.4 59.4 57.9 65.5

55-64 21.8 35.9 40.4 45.5 41.8 50.2

65+ 1.8 3.8 5.6 5.4 5.4 6.9

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

38

in 1991. For women in the 55-64 age group, the

increase in full-time, year-round work experience

was more notable—from 15.8 percent in 1991 to

21.8 percent in 2001.

Despite the increases in full-time, year-round

work experience among women with the least

educational attainment, the proportion of fulltime, year-round workers in each age group continued to be consistently higher for women with

greater educational attainment.

The difference in full-time, year-round employment by educational attainment is most notable

for the youngest and oldest cohorts. For women

age 25 to 34, the 57.8 percent full-time, yearround employment-to-population ratio for

women with advanced college degrees was more

than twice the 27.7 percent full-time, year-round

employment rate for women with less than a high

school diploma. For women age 65 and older,

the 6.9 percent full-time, year-round employment

rate was more than three times the 1.8 percent

employment rate for women with less than a high

school diploma.

Higher educational attainment increases the likelihood of employment in general and of fulltime, year-round employment in particular. 

In most cases, women age 25 or older who were

not employed during 2001 were retired (50 percent), ill or disabled (16.1 percent), or taking care

of family (30.2 percent). Less than 1 percent of

non-workers in 2001 listed “no work available” as

their reason for not working.9 

Educational Attainment by

Race and Ethnicity

Table 3.9 shows total population of women age

25 and older by racial and ethnic group and by

educational attainment based on the March 2002

Current Population Survey. The data in Table 3.9

distinguish Hispanic ethnic group members (who

may be of any race) and non-Hispanic racial

groups. 

Overall, the 25.8 million women who are minority racial and ethnic group members comprised

27.1 percent of the 95.1 million women age 25

and older in March 2002.

Minority group members comprise relatively larger shares of the total population of women age 25

and older with high school or less as the highest

educational attainment and smaller shares of the

total population of women with college degrees

at any level. The 14.9 million minority women

with educational attainment at the high school

level or less comprised 32.1 percent of all such

women. These 14.9 million women included 7.2

million with less than a high school diploma and

7.7 million with a high school diploma. The 6.9

million minority women with two-year, four-year,

or advanced degrees in March 2002 comprised

21.3 percent of the 32.1 million women age 25

and older with some level of college education.

Minority women’s rate of college completion

improved overall between 1992 and 2002. Figure

3.11 (page 39) shows the proportion of women

age 25 and older who were college graduates (any

level) from 1992 to 2002 by race or ethnicity.

Table 3.9

Educational attainment of women by race and ethnic group

age 25 and older, March 2002 (thousands)

Native Hispanic

White Black American Asian any race Total

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Less than high school 7,685 2,279 203 581 4,107 14,854

High school 23,801 3,671 334 936 2,766 31,509

Some college, no degree 12,309 2,141 198 443 1,239 16,330

Associate’s degree 6,639 1,005 90 301 550 8,585

Bachelor’s degree 12,841 1,340 86 1,279 811 16,357

Advanced degree 6,059 613 42 515 283 7,511

Total 69,334 11,049 953 4,055 9,755 95,146

Non-Hispanic
Educational Attainment of Women

39

The 6.9 million minority women age 25 and

older with some level of college degree comprised

26.8 percent of the total number of women age

25 and older (25.8 million) categorized in one of

the minority racial and ethnic groups. 

The 1.6 million Hispanic women with some level

of college degree comprised 16.9 percent of the

9.8 million Hispanic women age 25 and older.

This proportion was the lowest among the groups

shown in Table 3.9.

The 3.0 million black women with college

degrees comprised 26.8 percent of all black

women age 25 or older. Black women with college degrees comprised 9.3 percent of all women

age 25 or older with college degrees. 

The proportion of Asian women age 25 and older

with some level of college degree was 51.7 percent. The 2.1 million Asian women age 25 and

older with some level of college degree in March

2002 comprised 6.5 percent of women age 25

and older with college degrees, a larger proportion than the overall 4.3 percent share of Asian

women in the total population of women age 25

and older.

Education and Earnings

Table 3.10 (page 40) shows mean and median

annual earnings by educational attainment for

women age 25 to 64 who were employed fulltime, year-round during 1991 and 2001.10 The

table shows earnings in March 2002 real-dollar

equivalents for both years (March 2002 was the

survey month). The earnings advantage of higher

educational attainment is evident in the table. 

Women with advanced degrees who worked fulltime, year-round earned on average $60,380 during 2001, and their median earnings amount was

$49,000. This was more than three times the

amount earned by year-round working women

with less than a completed high school education

(no diploma or GED certificate). The average

earnings of women with bachelor’s degrees who

were employed full-time, year-round ($44,674)

was more than twice the average annual earnings

of the least educated group. The median earnings

in 2001 for women with bachelor’s degrees

($38,400) was also more than twice the median

earnings ($16,640) of women with educational

attainment of less than a high school diploma or

GED certificate.

Table 3.10 also shows that the earnings difference

between the most educated and the least educated

has grown wider over the past decade. Between

1991 and 2001, the earnings of each educational

grouping of women age 25 to 64 that worked

full-time, year-round increased, but the earnings

growth was greater at higher levels of educational

attainment. 

For women with no high school diploma, real

earnings grew 4.2 percent over the entire period

1991 to 2001. Their median earnings grew 3.9

percent.

Figure 3.11

Percent college graduates by race and ethnicity

women, age 25 and older, March 1992 and 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

White non- Black non- Native Asian Non- Hispanic All

Hispanic Hispanic American Hispanic any race women

Percent 1992 2002
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

40

For women with a bachelor’s degree, average

annual real earnings grew 19.6 percent (10.8 percent median increase). Women with advanced

degrees experienced the greatest earnings

growth—29.1 percent mean earnings increase and

14.9 percent median earnings growth.

Figure 3.12 compares the average earnings of each

educational attainment group with the average

earnings in 1991 and 2001 of four-year college

graduates. In absolute terms, all groups saw real

earnings grow between 1991 and 2001, but

women with bachelor’s degrees and advanced

degrees experienced greater earnings growth than

others. Figure 3.12 highlights the relative change

between groups having different levels of education. The figure shows that earnings of groups

with lower levels of education dropped over the

period in relative terms compared with the earnings of bachelor’s degree graduates. Earnings of

women with advanced degrees increased relative

to the earnings of the bachelor’s degree group.

Table 3.10

Earnings by educational attainment

persons age 25 to 64, 1991 and 2001

Mean Median Mean Median

Educational attainment

Women

Less than high school $18,104 $16,019 $18,867 $16,640

High school $23,854 $22,719 $25,974 $24,000

Some college $28,205 $25,671 $31,510 $28,000

Associate’s degree $31,604 $29,522 $33,723 $30,000

Bachelor's degree $37,353 $34,656 $44,674 $38,400

Advanced degree $46,754 $42,646 $60,380 $49,000

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

1991 2001

Figure 3.12

Earnings relative to bachelor’s degree holders’ earnings

mean earnings of women, age 25 to 64, full-time, year-round workers as

percent of earnings of women with bachelor’s degree, 

1991 and 2001 real dollars

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Less than high High school Some college Associate’s Bachelor’s Advanced

school diploma no degree degree degree degree

1991 2001

Percent
Educational Attainment of Women

41

1 Unless noted otherwise, data in this chapter were tabulated from the Current Population

Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement (ASEC), formerly called the March Annual

Demographic Supplement. ASEC data identify respondents’ educational attainment and other

demographic characteristics as of the survey month (generally March). Work experience, occupation, annual earnings, poverty status, and related economic data typically refer to the prior year.

2 Data from the Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement (commonly called the March survey) were used for Figure 3.1 and elsewhere in this chapter (unless otherwise noted) for tabulation consistency and convenience. Certain estimates presented in this

chapter can only be tabulated from the March data (e.g., education by annual work experience and

annual income by education). Other estimates, such as the overall proportions shown in Figure

3.1 and the aggregates shown in Table 3.1, could have also been tabulated from annual averages of

twelve monthly Current Population Survey basic questionnaire data. The results of the two

approaches vary relatively little in terms of total population or proportion estimates. Annual average data population totals for 2002 are slightly larger in reflection of post-March population

growth. The approach chosen here simplifies the presentation and economizes on data processing

resources. 

3 The high school diploma category includes persons who completed GED certification. 4 The associate degree category includes both two-year academic courses of study and vocational certification programs, which in some cases may be less than two years in length.

5 The March total population may differ somewhat from the annual average population

total.

6 The year-to-year variability shown in Figure 3.6 reflects sampling variation and should not

be interpreted as implying statistically significant differences on the single-year age scale. The chart

should be viewed in terms of the overall pattern shown.

7 Based on a separate tabulation of Current Population Survey data by the Employment

Policy Foundation of the same data shown for other age groupings in Figure 3.7.

8 Since many public school teachers do not report year-round employment (50 weeks or

more), the large number of women college graduates in this group is under-represented in the proportion shown.

9 Based on responses to the survey question regarding reasons for not working during the

previous year, tabulation of Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement

data, 2002.

10 The age 25-64 group was specified for earnings comparisons because many women under

age 25 have not completed educational attainment and for women 65 and older, most are retired.

For women age 65 or older, the relatively small numbers who work full-time and year-round may

reflect exceptional cases that would distort the overall summary. In 2001, women age 65 or older

with less than high school education had mean earnings of $17,637, compared with the mean

earnings of $18,867 for women ages 25 to 64 with similar educational attainment. Women age 65

or older with advanced degrees had mean earnings of $44,834, compared with $60,380 for women

age 25 to 64 with advanced degrees.

Women’s Occupation Trends

Highlights

❑ The 25.2 million women employed in technical, 

sales, and administrative support occupations in 

2001 comprised 39.5 percent of employed women. 

❑ In 2001, 33.2 percent (21.1 million) of 

employed women worked in the managerial and 

professional specialty group. 

❑ In 2001, the 11.2 million women employed in 

service occupations accounted for 17.6 percent of 

female employment. Service occupations are the 

third largest category for women.

❑ The two major occupational groups with the 

highest level of female employment—the technical, 

sales, and administrative group, and the managerial 

and professional specialty group—employed 72.7 

percent of all women employed in 2001.

❑ In 2001, women who worked full-time, year-round 

reported usual weekly hours that averaged between 

45.3 hours for the farming, forestry, and fishing 

occupations group (the highest) to 41.3 hours per 

week for the technical, sales, and administrative 

support occupations group (the lowest). 

❑ Women in managerial and professional specialty 

occupations reported the second highest average for 

usual weekly hours—43.2 hours per week in 2001.

❑ Of the 10.2 million total increase in women’s 

employment from 1991 to 2001, 6.8 million were in

the managerial and professional specialty 

occupations.

❑ Women’s employment in the managerial and 

professional occupation group increased 47.8 

percent over the ten-year period—the largest 

increase among the six major occupation groups.

❑ The managerial and professional occupations group 

comprised 33.2 percent of total female employment 

in 2001, compared with 26.8 percent in 1991.

❑ The 21.1 million women employed in managerial 

and professional occupations in 2001 comprised 

50.0 percent of the total employment for the group. 
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

44

Introduction

This chapter examines the patterns and trends of

women’s employment in terms of their occupations. The chapter is divided into three sections:

Current Occupational Patterns, Occupational

Growth, and Occupational Earnings.

The section on current occupational patterns

examines the total employment of women, the

proportionate distribution of their employment,

and women’s share of total employment in relation to major and selected occupation groups.

The section on occupational growth examines the

growth of women’s employment by occupation in

terms of total number and percentage growth.

The section on occupational earnings examines

overall women’s earnings, and the growth of

women’s earnings. 

The major occupation groups identified in this

chapter follow the standard Bureau of Labor

Statistics hierarchy:

● Managerial and professional specialty ● Technical, sales, and administrative support ● Service occupations

● Precision production, craft, and repair ● Operators, fabricators, and laborers ● Farming, forestry, and fishing.

Since there is a concentration of women

employed in certain major groups, some tables

and discussions in this chapter also disaggregate

employment to selected occupational sub-groups.

Below the major occupations group level, separate totals are shown for the executive, administrative, and managerial employment subcategory

and for the professional specialty employment

subcategory under the major category of managerial and professional specialty. 

In some cases more detailed levels of occupational definitions are discussed. For example, information regarding employment levels in elementary and secondary school teaching occupations is

presented as a selected subcategory under the

broad category of professional specialty occupations.

Occupational employment is presented in this

chapter in terms of both annual averages and

Table 4.1

Women with work experience and annual average employment by 

major occupation group of longest job during the year

age 16 and over, 2001

Women with Percent of Annual Percentage of

work women with Average annual average

Major occupation group experience work women employed women

of longest job in 2001 (thousands) experience (thousands) employed

Managerial and 

professional specialty 

occupations 22,802 32.1 21,145 33.2

Technical, sales, and 

administrative support 

occupations 28,118 39.6 25,160 39.5

Service occupations 13,058 18.4 11,230 17.6

Precision production, 

craft, and repair 

occupations 1,500 2.1 1,315 2.1

Operators, fabricators, 

and laborers 4,741 6.7 4,205 6.6

Farming, forestry, and 

fishing occupations 775 1.1 683 1.1

Total 70,996 100.0 63,737 100.0

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Annual Work Experience Annual Average Employment
45

Women’s Occupation Trends

annual work experience. Annual average employment and annual work experience data provide

distinct but complementary perspectives on the

complex patterns of individual employment.

Annual average employment is an average of the

monthly employment levels during the year.

Annual averages smooth out the effects of monthto- month fluctuations related to seasonal

employment patterns and other factors.

Annual work experience data estimate the total

number of persons who worked at some time

during the year. Work experience totals include

persons who worked for as little as a week to as

much as 52 weeks. 

Both annual average employment and work experience are derived from the Census/BLS Current

Population Survey (CPS). Annual averages are

calculated from monthly tabulations of basic CPS

data. Annual work experience data are compiled

from the Annual Social and Economic

Supplement (ASEC) supplement to the CPS (formerly known as the “March Supplement”). 1

Current Occupational

Employment Patterns

Table 4.1 (page 44) shows women’s work experience and employment among major occupation

categories in 2001. Nearly 71 million women age

16 and over had work experience in 2001. Annual

average employment was 63.7 million women

across the six major occupation categories. 

The number of women with some work experience during the year was 11.4 percent higher than

the average employment level, compared with a

difference of 9.7 percent for men. This difference

is indicative of women’s somewhat higher tendency to move into and out of employment over

the course of a year.

Largest occupations

The 25.2 million women employed in technical,

sales, and administrative support occupations in

2001 comprised 39.5 percent of employed

women (Figure 4.1). From the annual work experience perspective, 28.1 million women worked at

some time during the year in the technical, sales,

and administrative support occupations group

and comprised 39.6 percent of women employed

at some time (i.e., with work experience). The

technical, sales, and administrative support occupations group accounted for the largest proportions for both annual average employment and

annual work experience among the six major

occupation groups in 2001. In Figure 4.1, the

major occupational titles have been somewhat

abbreviated to facilitate display of the data. 

In 2001, managerial and professional specialty

occupations comprised the second largest concentration of employed women and also of women

with work experience among the six major occuFigure 4.1

Female occupational employment distribution

employment by major occupation group, 2001 annual averages

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Managerial Technical, Service Precision Operators, Farming,

and sales, & occupation production fabricators, forestry,

professional admin. support craft, & & laborers & fishing

repair

Millions
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

46

pation groups. In 2001, 33.2 percent (21.1 million) of the employed women were in the managerial and professional specialty group.

Managerial and professional occupations accounted for 32.1 percent (22.8 million) of women with

work experience.

In 2001, the 11.2 million women employed in

service occupations accounted for 17.6 percent of

female employment, the third largest major occupation category for women. Thirteen million one

hundred thousand women had work experience

in the service occupations group at some time

during the year. 

The proportionate difference between work experience and average employment was greater for

the service occupations group than for any of the

other major occupation groups. In 2001, the

number of women with work experience in the

service occupations group exceeded average annual female employment in that group by 16.3 percent (1.8 million), indicating a relatively higher

rate of mobility in and out of employment for

women in service occupations compared with

women in other major occupation groups.

The two largest of the six major occupation

groups included 72.7 percent of all women

employed in 2001. The concentration pattern was

similar in terms of annual work experience—71.7

percent of women with work experience in 2001

worked in jobs that were in either the technical,

sales, and administrative support occupations

group or in the managerial and professional specialty occupations group. 

The major occupational groups of precision production, craft, and repair occupations; operators,

fabricators, and laborers; and farming, forestry,

and fishing occupations employed 9.7 percent

(6.2 million) of women. 

Detailed occupational patterns

Figure 4.2 and Table 4.2 (page 47) show the distribution of average annual female employment

in 2001 on a more detailed basis. In Figure 4.2

and in Table 4.2, the managerial and professional

group was categories—executive, administrative,

and managerial occupations, and professional

specialty occupations. The technical, sales, and

administrative major occupation group was separated into three intermediate-level subgroups—

technicians and related support sales, and administrative support (including clerical).

Figure 4.2

Female employment by selected occupation groups

age 16 and older, 2001 annual averages

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Executive, Professional Technicians & Sales Administrative Service

administrative, specialty, related support occupations support occupations

and managerial occupations occupations occupations

occupations including

clerical

Millions
47

Women’s Occupation Trends

The administrative support occupations group

was the most frequent occupation of women at

the level of aggregation shown in Table 4.2. The

14.7 million women employed in the administrative support occupations group in 2001 were 23.1

percent of all women age 16 and older who were

employed. Women accounted for 78.7 percent of

employment in the occupation group.

Service occupations accounted for employment of

17.6 percent of women in 2001. Table 4.3 shows

the breakdown of female employment by selected

subcategories of the service occupations group.

Table 4.4 (page 48) shows that 11.7 million

women were employed in professional specialty

occupations in 2001. In 2001, 18.4 percent of

women were employed in these occupations. Of

the people employed in professional specialty

occupations, 53.7 percent were women.

Table 4.4 also shows details of female employment in selected professional specialty occupation

subcategories. In 2001, 35.3 percent (4.1 million) of women in professional specialty group

occupations were employed as teachers in elementary, secondary, and other non-collegiate

schools. Health assessment and treating occupations (primarily registered nurses, but also including therapists, pharmacists, and dieticians)

accounted for 22.9 percent (2.7 million). 

Women comprised 75 percent of non-college

teachers and 86 percent of the nurses and other

health assessment and treating occupations

group. Women comprised 42.7 percent of

college teachers, 33.9 percent of natural

scientists, 30.0 percent of mathematical

and computer scientists, 29.4 percent of

lawyers and judges, 28.7 percent of health

diagnosing professionals (e.g., physicians,

dentists).

Of women who were employed, 14.8 percent worked in the executive, administrative, and managerial occupations group.

Women comprised 46.1 percent of this

occupational group in 2001.

Patterns of work experience

Table 4.5 (page 48) shows the number and

Table 4.2

Female employment in selected occupation groups by sex

2001 annual averages

Female

Women Percent of share of

employed employed occupation

Selected occupation groups (thousands) women (percent)

Executive, administrative, and managerial 

occupations 9,449 14.8 46.1

Professional specialty occupations 11,696 18.4 53.7

Technicians and related support 

occupations 2,421 3.8 53.1

Sales occupations 8,021 12.6 49.5

Administrative support occupations 14,719 23.1 78.7

Service occupations 11,230 17.6 60.2

All other 6,203 9.7 17.0

Total employed age 16 and over 63,737 100.0 46.5

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Table 4.3

Female employment in selected

service occupations

2001 annual averages

Service occupation Women

category (thousands)

Private household 705

Protective service 509

Food service 3,602

Health service 2,423

Cleaning/building 

service 1,466

Personal service 2,526

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

48

percent of women age 16 and over who worked

year-round, full-time and part-time hours and

part-year, full-time and part-time hours in 2001

by major occupation of the longest job. Yearround work experience is defined as 50 weeks or

more. Full-time means usual weekly hours of 35

or more.

Women were most likely to work full-time, yearround in managerial and professional specialty group occupations—68.1 percent of

women in that major occupation group in

2001 worked full-time, year-round.

Figure 4.3 (page 49) compares the percentage of women and men in each of the six

major occupational groups who worked

full-time, year-round in 2001. The managerial and professional specialty occupation

group accounted for the highest proportions of women (68.1 percent) who worked

full-time, year-round.

The total number of women in managerial

and professional specialty occupations who

worked full-time, year-round —15.5 million in 2001—was second to the number of

women in technical, sales, and administrative support occupations in terms of fulltime, year-round work experience. In 2001,

16.3 million women in the technical, sales,

and administrative support major occupations

group worked full-time, year-round —58.0 percent of women in that occupational group.

Women in service occupations had the highest

rate of part-time, year-round work experience—

20.6 percent. Women in service occupations

reported the second lowest proportion of fulltime, year-round work experience among the six

Table 4.4

Female employment in professional 

specialty occupations 

age 16 and over, 2001

Service occupation Women

category (thousands)

Engineers 217

Math and computer sciences 637

Natural scientists 200

Health diagnosing 320

Health assessment & treating 2,675

Teachers, college 439

Teachers, secondary 763 

Teachers, elementary 1,828 

Teachers, other 1,507 

Lawyers and judges 285

Other 2,798

Total 11,696

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Table 4.5

Female annual work experience by major occupation group

age 16 and over, 2001

Full-time, Part-time, Full-time, Part-time, Women who

year-round year-round part-year part-year worked total

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women with work experience (thousands)

Managerial and professional specialty 15,534 2,132 3,073 2,063 22,802

Technical, sales, and administrative support 16,304 4,218 3,747 3,849 28,118

Service occupations 5,733 2,692 1,817 2,816 13,058

Precision production, craft, and repair 999 121 285 96 1,500

Operators, fabricators, and laborers 2,681 435 1,085 540 4,741

Farming, forestry, and fishing 331 131 187 126 775

Total 41,568 9,727 10,198 9,491 70,986

Women with work experience (percent)less

Managerial and professional specialty 68.1 9.4 13.5 9.0 100.0

Technical, sales, and administrative support 58.0 15.0 13.3 13.7 100.0

Service occupations 43.9 20.6 13.9 21.6 100.0

Precision production, craft, and repair 66.5 8.1 19.0 6.4 100.0

Operators, fabricators, and laborers 56.5 9.2 22.9 11.4 100.0

Farming, forestry, and fishing 42.7 17.0 24.1 16.3 100.0

Total 58.6 13.7 14.4 13.4 100.0
49

Women’s Occupation Trends

major occupational groups, 43.9 percent in 2001. 

Men in service occupations also had lower rates

of full-time, year-round work experience and

higher rates of part-time, year-round work experience compared with other occupations except for

the farming, forestry, and fishing group. In 2001,

60.4 percent of men in service occupations

worked full-time, year-round. In the farming,

forestry, and fishing occupation group, 57.8 percent of men worked full-time, year-round.

Weeks and hours

Table 4.6 shows mean weeks worked by major

occupation group for women and men with work

experience in 2001. Women in managerial and

professional specialty occupations reported the

most weeks worked on average. 

This result is consistent with the high proportion

of women in this occupation group who worked

year-round. Overall,

women worked on

average 45.2 weeks in

2001, up from 43.6

weeks in 1991. Women

worked fewer weeks

annually than men in

each occupation category. The difference averaged 1.7 weeks across

all occupation categories and ranged from

a high of 2 weeks for

the managerial and

professional specialty

category to 1.5 weeks

for the service occupations category.

Figure 4.3

Full-time year-round work experience by sex and occupation

2001

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Management Technical, Service Precision Operators Farming

and sales, and occupations production, fabricators, forestry, and 

professional administrative craft, and and laborers fishing

specialty support repair

Women Men

Table 4.6

Mean weeks worked by occupation and sex

age 16 and over, 2001

Women Men

Major occupation group (weeks) (weeks)

Managerial and professional specialty 47.2 49.2

Technical, sales, and administrative support 45.2 46.9

Service occupations 42.8 44.3

Precision production, craft, and repair 45.9 47.9

Operators, fabricators, and laborers 43.7 45.4

Farming, forestry, and fishing 40.3 42.6

Total age 16 and over 45.2 47.0

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Percent
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

50

Figure 4.4 shows mean usual weekly hours by

major occupation for women and men with fulltime, year-round work experience in 2001. The

weekly hours distribution for women and men is

similar to the weeks worked distribution—

women usually work somewhat fewer hours than

men in each major occupation category. 

In 2001, women who worked full-time, yearround reported usual weekly hours that averaged

between 45.3 hours for the farming, forestry, and

fishing occupations group to 41.3 hours per week

for the technical, sales, and administrative support occupations group. Women in managerial

and professional specialty occupations reported

the second longest average for usual weekly hours

—43.2 hours per week in 2001. 

Mean hours are influenced by a relatively small

number of high-reported values. For all major

occupation groups in 2001, the median usual

hours worked by women with full-time, yearround work experience was 40 hours. Table 4.7

shows the number of women with full-time, yearround work experience by ranges of usual weekly

hours for each of the six major occupation groups

in 2001.

Occupational Growth

Table 4.8 (page 51) shows employment in 1991

and 2001 by sex and occupation, and the change

over the period. Women accounted for 53.3 percent of the 19.2 million increase in employment

between 1991 and 2001. The 10.2 million

increase in women’s employment was concentratFigure 4.4

Usual weekly hours of full-time, year-round 

workers by gender and occupation

mean, 2001

Source:

Employment Policy Foundation.

50

40

30

20

10

0

Management Technical, Service Precision Operators Farming

and sales, and occupations production, fabricators, forestry, and 

professional administrative craft, and and laborers fishing

specialty support repair

Women Men Hours per week

Table 4.7

Women employed full-time, year-round by selected occupations and usual weekly

hours worked

2001

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Managerial and professional specialty 9.0 61.0 1.6 8.7 19.6

Technical, sales, and administrative support 12.3 71.4 1.9 5.3 9.2

Service occupations 16.5 66.9 0.9 4.3 11.4

Precision production, craft, and repair 4.6 75.3 2.1 6.5 11.5

Operators, fabricators, and laborers 8.1 78.1 1.8 4.1 7.9

Farming, forestry, and fishing 13.2 53.2 0.4 7.8 25.5

All age 16 or older 11.2 67.3 1.6 6.4 13.5

Usual hours per week (percent)

Major occupation group 35-39 40 41-44 45-49 50 or more
51

Women’s Occupation Trends

ed in managerial and professional specialty occupations. Between 1991 and 2001, women’s

employment in that group increased by 6.8 million— a 47.8 percent increase over ten years.

Two-thirds (66.7 percent) of the increased

employment of women was concentrated in the

managerial and professional specialty occupations group. This major occupation group comprised 33.2 percent of total female employment

in 2001, compared with 26.8 percent in 1991.

The technical, sales, and administrative support

occupations group was the second largest source

of women’s employment growth between 1991

and 2001. The 1.7 million increase in women’s

employment within the technical, sales, and

administrative support group accounted for 16.5

percent of total employment growth for women

over the ten years. This occupational group

remained the largest major occupation group for

women’s employment, but its proportion of total

women’s employment declined from 43.9 percent

of women’s total employment in 1991 to 39.5

percent in 2001. 

Within the technical, sales, and administrative

support group, the shifts in women’s employment

among the sub-components were notable. The

number of women employed in the largest subgroup—administrative support (including clerical) occupations—was essentially unchanged at

14.7 million in 2001 and in 1991. 

The sales subgroup, on the other hand, saw large

changes. The increase of 1.1 million in female

employment in sales occupations to 8.0 million

in 2001 was a 16.7 percent increase over the 1991

level. Sales occupations accounted for 67.8 percent of the change in female employment within

the technical, sales, and administrative occupations group.

Table 4.9 shows female employment as a share of

total employment in each major occupational

group in 1991

and in 2001.

Women comprised 50 percent

of the managerial

and professional

specialty occupation group in

2001, up from

46.3 percent in

1991. 

Women’s share

of total employment also

increased in

Table 4.8

Employment change by major occupation and sex

age 16 and over, 1991 and 2001

Managerial and professional specialty occupations 14,311 21,145 6,834 16,623 21,125 4,502 

Technical, sales, and administrative support 23,466 25,160 1,694 12,852 14,309 1,457 

Service occupations 9,644 11,230 1,586 6,610 7,426 816 

Precision production, craft, and repair occupations 1,138 1,315 177 12,112 13,823 1,711 

Operators, fabricators, and laborers 4,380 4,205 (175) 13,075 13,861 786 

Farming, forestry, and fishing 556 683 127 2,951 2,652 (299)

Total 16 years and over 53,495 63,738 10,243 64,223 73,196 8,973

Women (thousands) Men (thousands)

Major occupation group Change Change

1991 to 1991 to

1991 2001 2001 1991 2001 2001

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Table 4.9

Female share of employment by major occupation group

1991 and 2001

1991 2001

Major occupation group (percent) (percent)

Managerial and professional specialty occupations 46.3 50.0

Technical, sales, and administrative support occupations 64.6 63.7

Service occupations 59.3 60.2

Precision production, craft, and repair occupations 8.6 8.7

Operators, fabricators, and laborers 25.1 23.3

Farming, forestry, and fishing occupations 15.9 20.5

Total 16 years and over 45.4 46.5

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

52

farming, forestry, and fishing occupations, from

15.9 percent in 1991 to 20.5 percent in 2001.

However, the increase in the female share in the

latter group was primarily associated with the

decline in male employment from 3.0 million to

2.7 million. The number of women in farming,

forestry, and fishing occupations increased only

127,000 over the ten years to 683,000 in 2001.

Full-time, year-round employment 

Table 4.10 shows the change in women’s employment by major occupation from the annual work

experience perspective. The table shows the total

number of women who were employed full-time,

year-round for each major occupation in 1991

and 2001 and the change over ten years.

The number of women employed full-time, yearround increased most rapidly in the managerial

and professional specialty occupations group.

The increase of 5.4 million women with full-time,

year-round work experience in the managerial

and professional specialty occupations group

between 1991 and 2001 was a 52.7 percent

change.

The growth rate in full-time, year-round employment of women in managerial and professional

occupations was more than double the 25.7 percent increase in male employment in the managerial and professional occupations category

between 1991 and 2001. In 2001, women

employed full-time, year-round in managerial and

professional specialty occupations accounted for

37.4 percent of all women who worked full-time,

year round, compared with 31.3 percent in 1991.

The technical, sales, and administrative support

occupations group continued as the largest major

occupation group for women employed full-time,

year-round, but the 2001 total of 16.3 million

women in the group was down on a percentage

basis to 39.2 percent of all women with full-time,

year-round work experience, compared with 46.0

percent in 1991.

Figure 4.6 (page 53) shows the percentages of

total full-time, year-round female employment for

selected occupation groups in 1991 and 2001.

Figure 4.6 also provides a detailed perspective of

the components of the two largest major occupation groups. Within the major group of managerial and professional specialty occupations, both

the professional specialty occupations and the

executive, administrative, and managerial occupations component had higher percentages of fulltime, year-round female employment in 2001

compared with 1991. For the professional specialty component, full-time, year-round female

employment in 2001 comprised 18.6 percent of

all full-time, year-round female workers, compared with 16 percent in 1991. For the executive,

administrative, and managerial component the

proportion of total full-time, year-round female

workers in 2001 was 18.7 percent, compared with

15.3 percent in 1991.

Technicians and sales occupations showed

increases in the proportion and number of

women who worked full-time, year-round. In

2001, the 4.6 million women who worked fulltime, year-round in sales occupations were 11 percent of all women who worked full-time, yearround, up from 10 percent in 1991. In 2001, for

women who worked full-time, year-round in techTable 4.10

Female full-time, year-round employment by major occupation

age 16 and over 1991 to 2001

Major occupation group 1991 2001 Change

Managerial and professional specialty 10,170 15,534 5,364

Technical, sales, and administrative support 14,932 16,304 1,372

Service occupations 3,877 5,733 1,856

Precision production, craft, and repair 734 999 264

Operators, fabricators, and laborers 2,536 2,681 145

Farming, forestry, and fishing 197 331 134

Total 32,446 41,581 9,135

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women (thousands)
53

Women’s Occupation Trends

nician and related support occupations, the proportion in 2001—4.5 percent—was down slightly

from the 4.7 percent share in 1991.

The number and proportion of women who

worked full-time, year-round in lower paying

administrative support occupations fell to 23.8

percent in 2001, compared with 31.4 percent in

1991.

Occupational Earnings

Table 4.11 (page 54) compares mean and median

real (2001) annual earnings of women age 16 and

over who were employed full-time, year-round in

1991 and 2001 by major occupation.2 The highest earnings in both 1991 and 2001 for women

who worked full-time, year-round were in managerial and professional specialty occupations. 

In 2001, the mean earnings amount for women in

managerial and professional specialty occupations was $46,366, an increase of $7,604 in real

terms since 1991, equivalent to a 19.6 percent

increase over ten years. The median earnings

amount for women who worked full-time, yearround in managerial and professional specialty

occupations was $39,000, a real increase of

$3,060 or 8.5 percent. The mean is more highly

affected by a few very high or very low values

than the median.

The fact that the greatest full-time, year-round

employment growth for women was in the same

major occupation group as the highest earnings

has a positive implication for women’s economic

well-being. Real earnings increased for women

employed full-time, year-round across all six

major occupation categories between 1991 and

2001. The largest percentage increase in median

real earnings—10.4 percent—occurred in the service occupations group.

The largest number of women who worked fulltime, year-round in both 1991 and 2001 were

employed in technical, sales, and administrative

support group occupations. For these women,

the mean earnings amount in 2001, $29,785, was

13.9 percent higher in real terms than ten years

earlier. The median earnings amount, $25,000,

was 5.2 percent higher in real terms.

Table 4.11 also shows mean and median annual

earnings for women who worked part-time or

part-year. Managerial and professional specialty

occupations also had the highest mean and median earnings for women who did not work fulltime, year-round—$22,882 mean and $15,000

median. Overall, women who worked part-time

or part-year had mean earnings of $12,956 and

median earnings of $8,000.

Figure 4.6

Women who worked full-time, year-round

by selected occupation categories

1991 and 2001

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Executive, Professional Technicians & Sales Administrative Service All other

admin., and specialty related support support

managerial

1991 2001 Percent of full-time, year-round female workers
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

54

Table 4.11

Real annual earnings by major occupation and work experience

women age 16 and over, 1991 and 2001 (2001 dollars)

Major occupations Mean Median Mean Median

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Full-time, year-round female workers22,802

Managerial and professional specialty $38,762 $35,940 $46,366 $39,000

Technical, sales, and administrative support 26,147 23,761 29,785 25,000

Service occupations 17,336 15,403 19,743 17,000

Precision production, craft, and repair 26,336 23,104 28,938 25,000

Operators, fabricators, and laborers 20,921 19,253 23,438 20,000

Farming, forestry, and fishing 11,472 12,836 13,819 13,000

Total 28,573 25,671 34,038 28,000

Part-time or part-year female workers

Managerial and professional specialty $18,401 $12,836 $22,882 $15,000

Technical, sales, and administrative support 9,011 6,418 11,152 7,500

Service occupations 5,874 3,851 7,301 5,460

Precision production, craft, and repair 9,605 7,491 14,033 10,000

Operators, fabricators, and laborers 8,561 6,418 9,439 7,680

Farming, forestry, and fishing 4,745 2,824 7,030 4,500

Total 9,914 6,418 12,956 8,000

Women (thousands) Men (thousands)
55

1 Occupational employment on an annual average basis is the most common reporting basis.

The annual work experience basis is also presented here for two reasons: 1. Women are somewhat

more likely than men to work part-year schedules, therefore annual work experience data provide

an additional perspective on the significance and trends of women’s presence in various occupations. (2.) The Annual Social and Economic Supplement (ASEC) supplement provides data that

are not available in the monthly basic Current Population Survey (CPS) questions. Items such as

annual weeks worked and annual earnings facilitate analysis that is not possible with the basic

monthly data.

2 The data tabulation included only the earnings from the occupation of the longest job held

during the year. The results exclude earnings from other jobs held sequentially or simultaneously

during the year. Some published reports do not make this distinction, based on earnings from all

jobs during the year, and show slightly (about 1 percent) higher mean values as a result.

Women’s Occupation Trends

Social and Economic

Conditions

Highlights

❑ In March 2002, there were 109.8 million households—residential units that included one or more persons.1 

❑ Householders—individuals primarily responsible for the 

ownership, lease, maintenance, or operation of the 

household—included 32.4 million women who were single 

householders.

❑ Single householders included 16.8 million women who 

lived alone, 5.2 million women who lived only with 

children under 18, and 10.4 million women whose house

holds included other related or unrelated adults.

❑ In March 2002, married women who were identified by the 

Census as either the householder or spouse of the householder totaled 56.7 million (52.2 percent).2

❑ Married women with earnings who worked full-time, 

year-round and who were identified as the householder or 

the spouse of the householder had mean earnings of 

$36,728 in 2001. 

❑ Married women with earnings who worked full-time, yearround and who were identified as the householder or the 

spouse of the householder produced 40.1 percent of their 

household’s mean income of $91,645.

❑ In March 2002, 16.8 million women age 18 and older lived 

alone—15.4 percent of women age 18 and older. 

❑ Single female householders with children under age 6 

totaled 2.0 million in 2002, compared with 2.3 million in 

1991.

❑ In 2002, a total of 10.4 million women were single 

householders in households that included at least one 

additional adult. 

❑ In 2001, 16.6 percent of women were members of a household with annual income of $100,000 or higher. 

❑ In 2001, 19.4 percent of women were members of households with incomes under $20,000. 
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

58

Introduction

This chapter examines the social and economic

condition of women in relation to their employment and labor force participation. The first section focuses on women’s household types, and

includes discussion of the numbers and relative

proportions of married women, women who live

alone, single women who maintain households

with children, and women in other household

circumstances. 

The second section presents indicators of

women’s economic conditions in terms of household income, personal income, earnings, and

women’s status relative to measures of poverty. 

Each section examines the various economic and

other social indicators from a variety of crosscutting perspectives, including employment experience, age, marital status, and education.

The primary data sources for the information presented in this chapter were the 1992 and the

2002 annual demographic supplements of the

Current Populations Survey. Traditionally referenced as the March Supplement, the supplement

survey was expanded in 2002 to include some

February and April respondents. It was renamed

the Annual Social and Economic Supplement

(ASEC). The annual supplements include demographic, income, health insurance, and work

experience questions in addition to the basic

monthly employment and labor force items. For

brevity, the conventional reference, “March survey,” is sometimes used in

this report.

Information regarding

demographic characteristics

such as age, marital status

and household relationships, refers to status at the

time of the survey (March

2002). Information about

earnings and income refers

to the prior calendar year

(2001).

The annual supplements

include important items

regarding individual work

experience during the prior

year, annual individual

earnings, and family

income. The additional detail facilitates crosstabulation of economic condition data with

social and demographic indicators. 

Social Conditions

Figure 5.1 shows the distribution of the population of women age 18 and older in 2002 from the

perspective of household types.3 A household

comprises one or more individuals who share a

single living unit such as a house or apartment.

The term “householder,” as used in this chapter,

refers to the person (or one of the people) in

whose name the housing unit is owned, rented,

or maintained according to the “reference person”

identification in the Census Bureau’s Current

Population Survey. In the case of married couples, women who were identified as either the

householder or the spouse of the householder

were included in a combined category for the tabulations in this report.4 

In 2002, there were 109.8 million households, an

increase of 14.2 percent over 1991. Five categories are shown in Figure 5.1 based on characteristics of women in households. In each case the

proportions in Figure 5.1 refer to women age 18

or older. Four of the categories describe women

who are householders or the spouse of a householder. The remaining category comprises

women who are neither householders nor the

spouse of a householder. 

Figure 5.1

Female householder status

age 18 and older, 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Householder Single Householder, Married, Nonliving alone householder no spouse, householder or householder

with children multiple adults householder’s

spouse

15.4

4.9

9.6

52.2

18.0

Percent
Social and Economic Conditions

59

(1) “Householder living alone” identifies one-person households in which the sole member is a

woman age 18 or older. In 2002, 16.8 million

women (15.4 percent of women age 18 and

older) maintained households alone.

(2) “Single householder with children” identifies

a household in which a woman is the household

reference person, is unmarried or married with an

absent spouse, is the only household member age

18 or older, and there is at least one never-married child younger than 18 in the householder’s

family. In 2002, 5.3 million women (4.9 percent)

were in this category.

(3) “Householder with no spouse and multiple

adults” is a category comprised of women who

are householders, who are unmarried (or married

but no spouse present), and who maintain a

household that includes at least one other adult

age 18 or older. The additional adult household

member(s) may be children, other relatives of the

householder, or unrelated individuals. In 2002,

10.4 million women were in this category.

(4) “Married women, householder or spouse of

householder” comprises women who are married,

their spouse is present in the household, and one

of them is identified as the householder. In

2002, women in this category totaled 56.7 million—52.2 percent of women age 18 and older.

(5) “Non-householders” are women age 18 and

older who live in households in which they are

neither the householder nor the spouse of the

householder.5 In March 2002, women age 18

and older who were non-householders totaled

19.6 million.

Table 5.1 provides detail regarding female household members in 1992 and 2002. Fewer than

100,000 women under 18 were householders or

the head or spouse of the head of secondary families in households in 2002.

Some of the data in this chapter are presented

from the family unit perspective. A family is a

group of individuals related by birth, adoption, or

marriage and living in the same household. In

most cases, the family unit and the household

unit are identical. 

In 2002, at least 70.9 million households included only a single family unit and fewer than 3.5

million households included two or more family

units. 

Non-family households include individuals living

alone and unrelated individuals living together

without any relatives of any household member

present.

Married women

In March 2002, the most prevalent household situation of women age 18 or older was as “married

householder or spouse of householder.” 

Married women who were householders or the

spouse of a householder totaled 56.7 million—

52.2 percent of women age 18 or older. The

number of women who were in this category has

increased 8.2 percent since 1992, but their proportion among women age 18 and older

decreased slightly from 54.3 percent to 52.2 percent.

Figure 5.2 (page 60) shows that married women

age 18 and older who were householders or

spouses of householders accounted for the majority of women who were householders (or spouses

of householders) and who had never-married

children under 18 in their households. In March

2002, married women who were householders or

Table 5.1

Female householder status

age 18 and older

Women age 18 and older Percent of women

Female householders and in thousands age 18 and older 

non-householders 1992 2002 1992 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women who live alone 14,353 16,762 14.9 15.4

Single householder with children 4,875 5,277 5.0 4.9

Householder with other adults 8,521 10,402 8.8 9.6

Married householder or spouse 52,419 56,726 54.3 52.2

Non-householder 16,446 19,587 17.0 18.0
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

60

the spouse of a householder comprised 76.3 percent of female householders or householders’

spouses with never-married children under 18. 

Married female householders or householders’

spouses with never-married children under 18

totaled 25.8 million—45.5 percent of married

women who were householders or a householder’s spouse in 2002. The number of children in

households of

married women

age 18 and older

totaled 49.3 million, or 68.1 percent of the 72.4

million nevermarried children

under age 18 in

all households.6 

Women living

alone

Table 5.2 indicates that in

March 2002, 16.8

million women

age 18 and older

lived alone—15.4

percent of adult

women.7

Women living

alone accounted for 15.4 percent of all households in 2002. 

Women living alone increased by 16.8 percent

between 1992 and 2002, although the proportion

of women age 18 and older changed only slightly,

from 14.9 percent in 1992 to 15.4 percent in

2002. 

Figure 5.2

Householder status and presence of children 

Women age 18 and older, March 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

35,000

30,000

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

0

Married Single Householder Non- Under age

householder householder with other householder 18

or spouse adults

No Children Children under 18 Children under 6 

Table 5.2

Age distribution of women by householder status

March 1992 and 2002

(thousands)

75 and

18-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 older

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

* indicates too few to report.

1992

Women who live alone 548 1,604 1,358 1,517 1,891 3,461 3,976

Single householder with children 583 2,193 1,735 335 * * *

Householder with other adults 754 1,323 1,740 1,700 1,300 893 811

Married householder or spouse 2,592 12,383 13,706 9,488 7,265 5,152 1,833

Non-householder 7,890 3,865 1,526 870 635 665 996

2002

Women who live alone 682 1,601 1,490 2,388 2,699 3,054 4,848

Single householder with children 593 1,917 1,985 706 * * *

Householder with other adults 1,414 1,587 2,011 2,264 1,326 930 869

Married householder or spouse 2,133 10,596 14,740 13,020 8,396 5,120 2,721

Non-householder 8,785 3,735 2,236 1,834 1,012 762 1,221

Age group

Thousands
Social and Economic Conditions

61

Women living alone are generally older than

other female householders (or householders’

spouses). In 2002, the mean age of women living

alone was 59.4, and the median age was 62. In

2002, 4.8 million women who maintained households alone were age 75 or older—a 21.9 percent

increase in the number of elderly women living

alone. Table 5.2 (previous page) shows the age

distribution of women by householder status in

1992 and 2002.

Women age 18 and older who live alone are often

widows, but the proportion reporting another

marital status has increased. In 2002, the proportion of female householders who lived alone and

were widows was 43.2 percent, down from 50.3

percent in 1992. The proportion of women living

alone who were divorced increased from 20.9 percent in 1992 to 26.2 percent of the group in

2002. The proportion of women living alone

who never married increased from 23.6 percent in

1992 to 25.1 percent in 2002.

Single women with children

In 2002, there were 5.3 million female householders age 18 and older who were

unmarried or reported their spouse

absent from the household, who

had no other person age 18 or

older living in the household, and

who had never-married children

under age 18 living with them.

This category definition focuses on

women who maintain households

alone and support children. 

Single female householders with

children under age 6 totaled 2.0

million in 2002, compared with

2.3 million in 1992. Figure 5.3

shows the proportion of householders with children under age 6

in 1992 and 2002. In 2002, 13.2

percent of female householders or

married women who were householders’ spouses and whose households were supporting children

under age 6 were single female

householders.

A broader definition of single

mothers includes, in addition to

single female householders,

women who share a household with other adult

relatives or non-relatives. The members of the

latter group are not householders, but are heads

of their own family units within a household. In

2002, the broader definition of single mothers

that includes both female householders and

women who are family heads but not householders—totaled 9.9 million women who were single

mothers of never-married children under age 18. 

All but 75,000 of these single female family heads

were themselves age 18 or older. The number of

families maintained by women with children was

nearly double the number of households in

which a single female householder supported

children under age 18 with no other adult present

in the household. The difference reflects the distinction between one-family households with

children and multiple-family households with

children.

In March 2002, single women who were not

householders headed 1.9 million of the families

of single women with children. The family units

in these cases were subfamilies within households

maintained by other adults. In most cases, the

Figure 5.3

Households with children under age 6

percent of householders with children under

age 6 by household type 

March 1992 and 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Single female Female Married Single male

householder householder householder householder

with other or spouse

adults

Percent 1992 2002
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

62

female subfamily head was a relative of the

householder.8 The remaining 2.7 million women

were householders, but they were not the sole

adult member of the household. Other related or

unrelated persons age 18 or older also resided in

the household. These “Other Female

Householders” are presented here as a separate

category. 

Other female householders

As Table 5.2 (page 60) indicates, in 2002, a total

of 10.4 million women were single householders

(unmarried or married but spouse absent) of

households that included at least one additional

adult (a person age 18 or older). The other

adults in these households included both related

and unrelated individuals. In 2002, 2.7 million

of these households also included never-married

children of the householder under age 18. Of

these, 1.0 million included children under age 6. 

Non-householders

In March 2002, women who were neither householders nor householders’ spouses totaled 19.6

million—18.0 percent of women age 18 and

older. This number was an increase of 21.6 percent compared with the 16.1 million total for

women in this household relationship category in

March 1992. This category includes women ages

18 and older who are children or other relatives

of the householder or who are unrelated individuals living in the household. These women also

include members of subfamilies within the

household— either married couples, or single

women with children. 

Table 5.3 shows the percentage distribution of

women in the non-householder category in terms

of their relationship to the householder. Among

women who were not householders were the 1.9

million, described previously, who were singlefamily heads with their own children under age

18 and were living in households maintained by

others.9

Economic Conditions

This section examines the household and personal incomes of women and the earnings of women

with work experience. The household categories

defined in the previous section provide the primary context for the discussion. 

Household income is the sum of all incomes

received from all sources by all members of the

household. Income includes earnings from work

as well as interest, rents, dividends, pensions,

public assistance, and other payments. 

Household income is the broadest measure of the

economic condition and potential standard of living available to members of the household. The

effective economic well-being of any individual

household member depends on both the total

level of household resources and the arrangements among household members to share

resources. 

Table 5.3

Women age 18 and older who are

not householders by relationship to

the householder (percent)

Relation to householder 1992 2002

Child 52.5 47.1

Grandchild 1.4 1.5

Parent 6.4 11.5

Other relative 15.6 13.9

Partner/room mate 13.4 18.2

Other 10.7 7.9

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Table 5.4

Proportion of population by income

category of household and gender 

age 18 and older, real (2001) dollars

Men Women

1991

Under $20,000 22.9 15.3

$20,000 to $39,999 25.0 25.1

$40,000 to $59,999 19.8 22.1

$60,000 to $79,999 13.4 15.4

$80,000 to $99,999 8.0 9.3

$100,000 and higher 10.9 12.9

100.0 100.0

2001

Under $20,000 19.6 13.2

$20,000 to $39,999 22.9 22.1

$40,000 to $59,999 18.3 19.8

$60,000 to $79,999 13.7 15.6

$80,000 to $99,999 9.1 10.5

$100,000 and higher 16.4 18.9

100.0 100.0

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Income Category Percent distribution
Social and Economic Conditions

63

In 2001, the median household income of

women age 18 and older (including both householders and non-householders) was $47,500 and

the mean household income was $62,889.

Family income is another measure of economic

well-being. 

Family income is the sum of incomes from all

sources from all members of a single-family unit.

A family is a group of individuals related by birth,

adoption, or marriage. In most cases, the family

unit and the household unit are identical: In

2002, at least 70.9 million households included

only a single-family unit, and fewer than 3.5 million households included two or more family

units. Additional families in a household—subfamilies—typically arise when a child of the

householder has his/her own children or spouse

living in the household. Subfamilies also arise

when an unrelated partner or roommate of the

householder has a child or other relative living

with them in the household. In 2001, the median family income of women who were family

heads (or spouses in married couple families) was

$43,000, and their mean family income was

$59,400. 10

Household income

Household income provides a comprehensive

measure of the total economic condition of

household members.

Table 5.4 (page 62) shows the distribution of

total annual household income for women age

18 and older in 1991 and 2001. The amounts in

Table 5.4 are real (2001) dollars. 

In 2001, 16.4 percent of women were members of

a household with $100,000 or higher annual

income, and 19.6 percent of women were members of households with incomes under $20,000.

In 2001, 32.0 percent of women age 18 and older

were members of households with incomes in the

$40,000 to $79,999 range. 

Income ranges of women’s households changed

notably between 1991 and 2001. A smaller proportion of women were members of households

with incomes in the lower ranges, and larger proportions of women were members of households

with incomes in the higher ranges. 

These changes are reflected in the median and

mean income of households. In 2001, the median household income for women was $47,500,

up from $41,841 in real (2001) dollars, a 13.5

percent increase in median real household

income since 1991. The mean household income

increased in real terms 23.0 percent from $51,133

to $62,889 in 2001.11 

Married women who were householders or

householders’ spouses had the highest median

household incomes in both years—$51,887 in

1991 and $60,300 in 2001. For married women,

mean household income amounts were higher—

$76,426 in 2001. 

Median income represents that of the “typical”

woman—half have household incomes above and

half have household incomes below the indicated

amount. Mean income is the average of household incomes of women in each marital category,

and it is generally higher than the median

because of the effect on the calculation of a few

very high income households.12 

Table 5.5

Real household incomes by selected female householder characteristics

real (2001) dollars

Women who live alone $16,202 $17,882 $22,469 $26,722 14,353 16,762

Single householder with children 13,184 20,000 19,006 26,329 4,875 5,277

Householder with other adults 33,027 38,000 39,786 48,308 8,521 10,402

Married householder 51,887 60,300 60,315 76,426 52,419 56,726

Non-householder 53,762 57,500 62,282 72,228 16,446 19,587

Total 41,841 47,500 51,133 62,889 96,615 108,754

Median household Mean household

income income Number of women

Householder status (dollars) (dollars) (in thousands)

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

1991 2001 1991 2001 1991 2001
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

64

Single female householders with children and no

other person in the household over age 18 had

the lowest median and mean household income

amounts in 1991, but their median income level

had moved ahead of women living alone by

2001, and the mean income amounts were nearly

the same. The group of single female householders with children experienced the greatest proportionate growth in income among the household

types shown. Median real household

income for single householders with children increased 51.7 percent over the decade. 

Women in other categories of households

experienced more modest growth of household income over the 1991 through 2001

period. Table 5.6 shows the growth of median and mean household incomes for types

of women’s households from 1991 to 2001.

Real income growth was calculated based on

the CPI-U price index series.

Median household income for women living

alone and without children increased 10.4

percent from $16,202 to $17,882 in 2001.

Their mean income amount increased 18.9

percent—from $22,469 in 1991 to $26,722

in 2001. The relatively low-income level for

this group reflects the fact that these women

are predominantly older and retired.

For unmarried women in households with at

least one additional woman or man age 18

or older, median household income

increased 15.1 percent between 1991 and

2001.

Households with children

Women’s household incomes vary in relation to

the presence and ages of children. Table 5.7

shows household incomes for households without children, with children under age 18, and

with children under age 6 in 2001 and compares

them with figures for 1991. Amounts are in real

(2001) dollars.13

For married female householders or householders’ spouses, the presence of children in the

householder’s family is associated with higher

household income than is the case for married

householders without children.

This relationship is reversed for the other types of

women’s households in which household income

is greater in the case of “no children under the

age of 18.” In all cases, having children under the

age of 6 is associated with lower household

income compared with the more general “children under age 18” case. 

Married women

Table 5.8 (page 65) compares 1991 and 2001

Table 5.6

Growth of median and mean 

household incomes by female 

householder status

real 2001 dollars, 1991 to 2001

Householder status Median Mean

Women who live alone 10.4 18.9

Single householder with children 51.7 38.5

Householder with other adults 15.1 21.4

Married householder 16.2 26.7

Non-householder 7.0 16.0

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Percent change

Table 5.7

Median household income by householder

status and presence of own children

women age 18 and older, real (2001) 

dollars, 1991 and 2001

Householder Status No child Under 18 Under 6

Source: Employment Policy Foundation. Real dollar equivalents were calculated based on the CPI-U price index series. N.A. = Not Applicable.

Age and presence 

of own children

1991

Women who live alone $16,202 N.A. N. A.

Single householder with children N. A. $13,184 $9,416

Householder with other adults 34,794 28,518 24,082

Married householder 49,588 53,945 48,831

Non-householder 53,935 53,487 41,207

Total, all households 38,429 46,957 41,291

2001

Women who live alone $17,882 N. A. N.A.

Single householder with children N. A. $20,000 $14,874

Householder with other adults 39,768 34,451 31,823

Married householder 55,800 65,300 59,100

Non-householder 56,915 59,732 54,207

Total, all households 42,500 55,081 50,023
Social and Economic Conditions

65

household income of women by marital status.

The data presented in Table 5.8 include all

women age 18 and older, regardless of householder status. The table shows both median and

mean income amounts. 

Married women with a spouse present in the

household enjoyed higher household incomes in

2001 than any women in other marital status category. This is not surprising, since the majority of

these households included both spouses

employed. 

Married women (both those with spouse present

and with spouse absent) also experienced greater

growth in real

household income

between 1991 and

2001. Median real

income of married

women (spouse

present) grew by

16.1 percent over

the decade, and the

mean income for

this group of

women grew by

26.3 percent,

reflecting the influence of income

growth at the top

of the household

income scale. In

2001, married women with spouse present totaled

57.9 million—40.2 percent of all women age 18

or older.

Table 5.8 shows that married women whose

spouses were absent from the household had significantly lower household income than other

married women in both 1991 and 2001. At

$25,355, the median household income of married women with spouse absent was less than half

—41.8 percent—of the household income of married women whose spouses were present in the

household. 

The “married, spouse absent” category includes

Table 5.8

Real household income by marital status

women age 18 and 0lder, real (2001) dollars

1991 and 2001

Married, spouse present $52,199 $60,600 $60,685 $76,719

Married, spouse absent 20,071 25,355 30,887 39,958

Widowed 18,645 17,892 30,966 28,758

Divorced 33,949 32,320 45,091 41,929

Separated 18,069 21,516 25,934 30,791

Never married 45,017 43,676 60,285 56,410

Median Mean

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

1991 2001 1991 2001

Table 5.9

Real household income of female householders or spouses of

householders, age 18 and older, real (2001) dollars 1991 and

2001

18-24 $25,415 $29,204 4,477 $28,244 $35,856 4,822

25-34 42,460 47,450 17,503 48,202 58,680 15,701

35-44 54,500 60,715 18,539 59,560 74,030 20,225

45-54 55,779 63,874 13,040 62,600 79,827 18,379

55-64 39,248 50,631 10,479 45,000 62,954 12,488

65-74 24,537 32,888 9,510 27,438 39,201 9,110

75 and older 15,804 23,072 6,620 17,880 26,391 8,442

1991 2001

Source: Employment Policy Foundation. Real dollar equivalents were calculated based on the CPI-U price index

series. 

Female Female

Median Mean householder Median Mean householder

household household or spouse household household or spouse

Age income income (thousands) income income (thousands)

Marital Status
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

66

married people living apart because either the

husband or wife was employed and living at a

considerable distance from home, was serving

away from home in the Armed Forces, had moved

to another area, or had a different place of residence for any other reason except separation

related to marital discord. 

This relatively small group—1.3 million women

in 2001—comprised under 1 percent of women

age 18 and older. Median household income for

this group grew 26.3 percent from 1991 to 2001.15 

Age and household income

Table 5.9 (page 65) shows median and mean

household incomes for women who were householders or the spouse of the householder. The

data include women age 18 and older in 1991

and 2001.16 The amounts are in real (2001) dollar equivalents. Household incomes of these

women vary notably by age, reflecting differences

in household composition and differences in

household members’ labor force participation

and work experience

across age groups.

Median household

income in both 1991

and 2001 peaked at

age 45 to 54. The rise

in household income

to that age bracket

reflects, in part,

increasing household

labor market participation and accumulation

of work experience that

is reflected in higher

productivity and earnings. The decline in

household income

after age 55 reflects, in

part, decreasing labor

force participation

associated with retirement and aging and

diminishing numbers

of household members.

Work experience

Work experience has a

significant impact on

the economic condition of women, as reflected in household income,

and the personal earnings of women who are

householders (or married women who are householders’ spouses). 

Household income includes wage earnings of all

household members plus all other money

received, including rent, interest, dividends, annuities, pensions, Social Security, and welfare. 

Earnings include wages, commissions, and proprietor’s profits of self-employed individuals. 

Earnings are the part of household income that is

derived from employment. Personal earnings are

the earnings of a particular individual in the

household. 

Table 5.10 (page 67) shows median and mean

household incomes (measures of the total economic well-being of the household), and median

and mean personal earnings of women who were

members of households based on five categories

of the woman’s roles in households as reported in

Figure 5.4

Percent of household income derived from

earnings of working women age 18 and older by

householder relationship

2001

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Women who Single Householder Married Nonlive alone householder w/ with other householder or Householder

children adult spouse of (nor spouse of

householder householder)

Any work experience

Full-time, year-round work experience Percent
Social and Economic Conditions

67

the March 1992 and March 2002 CPS Annual

Social and Economic Supplements. Income values reported are with reference to the prior years,

1991 and 2001, in each case. Income and earnings are shown for women with any work experience during the year (any number of weeks and

hours per week of work) and for women who

worked full-time, year-round during the year (at

least 50 weeks and usually 35 hours or more per

week). 

In 2001, the typical working woman (with any

work experience) lived in a household with a

median household income of $58,532. This figTable 5.10

Household income and personal earnings by work experience and householder status real (2001) dollars, women age 18 and older, 1991 and 2001

Women with

Median Median Mean Mean work

household personal household personal experience

Female householder status income earnings income earnings (thousands)

Women with any work experience

1991

Women who live alone $26,743 $24,082 $31,785 $27,328 6,477

Single householder with children 20,317 16,477 24,205 19,440 3,362

Householder with other adults 40,969 19,552 46,952 23,409 5,560

Married householder or spouse 60,286 17,744 67,985 20,977 33,659

Non-householder 60,414 10,872 69,235 14,179 11,325

Total 51,920 16,477 59,962 20,522 60,384

2001

Women who live alone 30,177 27,000 38,936 34,139 8,022

Single householder with children 22,847 20,000 29,907 25,388 4,407

Householder with other adults 45,715 21,000 55,570 26,986 7,290

Married householder or spouse 70,798 23,000 86,396 28,497 36,905

Non-householder 65,300 14,000 79,565 18,456 12,936

Total 58,532 20,800 72,842 26,925 69,560

Women with

Median Median Mean Mean work

household personal household personal experience

Female householder status income earnings income earnings (thousands)

Women who worked full-time, year-round

1991

Women who live alone $32,067 $30,528 $36,935 $34,411 4,245

Single householder with children 28,518 25,349 31,378 27,504 1,854

Householder with other adults 46,896 25,349 52,904 29,364 3,530

Married householder or spouse 67,243 25,349 74,686 29,011 18,095

Non-householder 63,829 20,913 73,795 23,538 4,753

Total 56,680 25,349 64,782 28,868 32,476

2001

Women who live alone 35,001 33,000 44,358 41,569 5,462

Single householder with children 28,000 25,000 35,870 31,994 2,817

Householder with other adults 51,044 27,000 61,262 33,562 4,852

Married householder or spouse 76,200 30,000 91,645 36,728 22,242

Non-householder 67,787 23,000 81,678 27,745 6,239

Total 62,400 29,000 76,625 35,327 41,612

Source: Employment Policy Foundation. Real dollar equivalents were calculated based on the CPI-U price index series.
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

68

ure is for all women with work experience of any

duration in 2001, and includes all types of female

householders (or spouses of householders) and

women who were not householders or householders’ spouses. 

The median household income of $58,532 for

households with working women compares with

the median household income of $47,500 for all

women regardless of employment status, shown

previously in Table 5.5 (page 63). A similar difference is evident in terms of mean household

income: households that included working

women had a mean household income of

$72,842 in 2001, compared with $62,889 for all

households that included women, regardless of

their employment status.

For married couples in which either the husband

or wife was a householder and the woman had

work experience during the year, the mean household income was $70,798 in 2001, compared

with $60,300 for households in which the wife

did not work.

For women living alone and who work, their

mean personal earnings of $34,139 in 2001

amounted to 86.0 percent of their mean household income. The balance of household income

was derived from such sources as pensions, interest, dividends, and other non-wage sources. 

For married women who were householders or

the householders’ spouses and who had work

experience during the year, their mean earnings in

2001 were 30.9 percent of the mean household

income for their category of households. Figure

5.4 (page 66) shows the proportion of household

income derived from the work (personal earnings) of women in 2001 by householder and nonhouseholder status.

Full-time, year-round work experience of women

is associated with both higher household income

and a higher average share of income derived

from women’s personal earnings. In 2001, 59.8

percent of women age 18 and older with work

experience worked full-time and year-round. 

The 41.6 million working women who worked

full-time, year-round in 2001 had mean personal

earnings of $35,327 and produced, on average,

46.1 percent of the incomes of their households

(mean household income was $76,625). 

Married women who worked full-time, yearround in 2001 and whose household role was

either that of householder or the spouse of

householder had mean earnings of $36,728, and

contributed 40.1 percent of their mean household income of $91,645. For married women

who were householders or householders’ spouses

and who worked full-time, year-round, their

mean earnings were slightly higher than the mean

earnings of other women who worked full-time,

year-round, but their earnings amounted to a

smaller share of total household income (which

includes the earnings of other household members plus non-wage income items such as interest,

rents, dividends, and pensions).
Social and Economic Conditions

69

1 The reference to the “March” survey is conventional. In 2002, the name of the annual supplement was changed from “Annual Demographic Survey” to “Annual Social and Economic

Supplement” (ASEC), and some respondents were included from the February and April basic samples of the Current Population Survey. References to the “March Supplement” are still common,

based on the past practice when the supplement was confined to March basic survey respondents.

2 A household is any place of residence occupied by one or more persons. Married women for

this definition are women whose marital status is listed as married and whose husband is present

in the household. A family household is a household occupied by two or more persons related by

blood or marriage. A small proportion of married women are neither householders nor spouses of

a householder. They and their husbands comprise subfamilies who reside in a household headed

by someone else (e.g., a married couple living in the parents’ household). 

3 Throughout this chapter, reference is made to women age 18 and older in order to distinguish

women who are not included as children in households.

4 The combination of married women who were identified as the reference person (householder) with married women who were identified as the spouse of the reference person reflects the

interpretation that designation as the reference person appears to be an artifact of survey administration rather than an indicator of meaningful differentiation of roles within married couples. The

convention of combining married women who are identified as the household reference person

with married women who are identified as the spouse of the reference person reflects an analytical

judgment that married women in either the reference person or spouse of reference person category are likely to have similar roles in household decision making and that there are analytically

meaningful differences between those women and women who occupy other positions in the

household structure.

5 Homeless persons and persons in institutional quarters are not reflected in the householdbased Current Population Survey.

6 The number of households with one or more never-married children under age 18 was 33.8

million. The number of children in these 33.8 million households in 2001 was 72.4 million.

7 The term “adult” is used for brevity and refers to women age 18 and older throughout this

report. In some published sources, the reference age for “adult” is 20 and older.

8 Most typically, the relationship is parent/child. The “child” who is also a subfamily head may

be of any age, but most are over age 18 themselves.

9 Family head refers to the individual identified as “head of a family” by the variable “famrel”

in the CPS record. Spouse of family head is identified as “spouse” by the “famrel” variable.

10 Including both primary families in family households and subfamilies. 11 The CPI-U price index series was used to calculate real (2001) equivalents. 12 Because of the influence of outliers, the mean income value may misrepresent the economic

well-being of a group. In the CPS data, top-coding of income and earnings values somewhat offsets the distorting effect of outliers on mean values.

13 Real dollar adjustments were made based on the CPI-U price index series. 14 Married, spouse absent, includes a variety of circumstances in which a married woman’s

spouse is not a resident in her household, but does not include women who are legally separated

from their spouses. Circumstances covered by the spouse absent category include cases where the

spouse is stationed elsewhere in the military, residing elsewhere for civilian employment, institutionalized, or incarcerated.

15 Bureau of Labor Statistics follows the convention of adding “spouse absent” cases to “separated” cases for marital status tabulations. The information presented here was tabulated at a more

detailed level to discern possible differences between the two categories.

16 Data were tabulated for women age 18 and older rather than 16 and older in order to use

available variables in the ASEC micro data file that identify whether the household includes own

children under age 18 to categorize households with and without children.

Working Conditions

Highlights

❑ Women who worked full-time (35 hours or more per week) 

comprised 31.9 percent of the 127.9 million persons at work in nonagricultural industries during 2002.

❑ Women who worked full-time and year-round (50 weeks or more) 

had average actual weekly hours of work of 42.1 hours a week in 

2001.

❑ The proportion of women working full-time, year-round has 

increased notably over the last decade—from 52.6 percent in 1991 to

58.6 percent in 2001.

❑ In March 2002, full-time working women reported paid time off for 

68.2 percent of their absences.

❑ In 2001, 66.1 percent of women who worked full-time and yearround were covered by their own employment-based health 

insurance benefits. 

❑ Overall, 41.4 percent of women who worked in 2001 reported being 

included in an employment-based retirement plan.

❑ In 2001, 27.4 percent of female wage and salary workers who worked

full-time had flexibility to alter their work schedules to accommodate

personal or family responsibilities.

❑ Women with a job and at work were nearly twice as likely as men to 

work part-time (1 to 34 hours per week) —31.6 percent of women 

compared with 16.7 percent of men in 2002. 

❑ In 2002, 89.5 percent of women who worked part-time hours 

reported that they did so because they wanted only part-time work or

for other non-economic reasons.

❑ Between 1991 and 2001, the annual hours worked increased for 

women across all marital status categories, but the largest increase 

was among married women—105 annual hours, equivalent to 13.2 

additional days of work over the year.

❑ Working women with children under age 6 averaged 1,560 hours of 

work in 2001—an increase of 122 hours compared with 1991. 

❑ Women with children age 6 to 18 averaged 1,769 hours of work in 

2001.

❑ In 2002, employer costs for non-wage benefits amounted to $5.92 

per hour—25.3 percent of total compensation of $23.36 per hour. 
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

72

Introduction

This chapter examines the trends and current

characteristics of women’s working conditions

from the perspectives of hours of work and

employment benefits. The experiences of working women from each of these perspectives are

compared in terms of type of employment—private sector employer, government employer, and

self-employed—and relative to industry, occupation, age, and earnings. 

Data annual averages of Current Population

Survey (CPS) monthly basic surveys and from the

CPS Annual Social and Economic Supplement

(formerly called the March Annual Demographic

Supplement and also referenced as the Annual

Work Experience Supplement) are presented in

the chapter. Annual average data presented here

were compiled by the Bureau of Labor Statistics

and published in Employment and Earnings and

posted on the BLS website. Annual averages data

show monthly employment patterns averaged

across 12 months.1

Annual work experience data presented here are

from special tabulations by the Employment

Policy Foundation, using the 1992 to 2002 March

Current Population Survey. The March supplement includes questions on work experience.

These data include details of weeks worked, usual

weekly hours, and earnings for women and men

who worked during the previous year. 

The two data types differ in terms of the total

number of workers counted. Annual average data

from the Current Population Survey, reflecting the

average of monthly employment totals, show a

smaller total count of workers than do annual

work experience data, which include everyone

who worked at any time during the year.

However, both show similar results in terms of

percentage distributions of employment and

trends over time.

Hours of Work

Table 6.1 shows annual averages and percentages

of women and men at work full- and part-time in

non-agricultural industries in 2002 based on actual hours worked.2 Women in non-agricultural

industries were nearly twice as likely as men to

actually work part-time in 2002—31.6 percent of

women compared with 16.7 percent of men.

Women comprised 62.3 percent of all actual parttime workers in non-agricultural industries in

2002 and 41.8 percent of full-time workers.3

For some workers, actual hours at work during

the survey reference week differ from their usual

hours of work. 

Women’s reasons for working part-time differ

notably from men’s. (See Table 6.2.) In 2002,

89.5 percent of women who worked part-time

hours reported that they did so because they

wanted only part-time work or for other non-economic reasons. 

Economic reasons for working part-time include

inability to find full-time employment and “slackwork”—reduced hours at a normally full-time

job.4 

Table 6.1

Non-agricultural workers at work

full and part-time (actual hours) 

by sex

2002 annual averages

Full- or part- time status Women Men

Total 59,699 68,200

Full-time 40,837 56,795

Part-time 18,862 11,405

Percent

Total 100.0 100.0

Full-time 68.4 83.3

Part-time 31.6 16.7

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Number (in thousands)

Table 6.2

Reason for working part-time hours,

by sex (Non-agricultural workers),

2002 actual hours worked

Reason Women Men

Total 18,861 11,405

Economic 1,985 2,049

Non-economic 16,876 9,356

Percent

Total 100.0 100.0

Economic 10.5 18.0

Non-economic 89.5 82.0

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Number (in thousands)
73

Working Conditions

Working part-time for economic reasons implies

that part-time work is not the individual’s preferred choice and that less than full-time work is

the result of conditions beyond the worker’s

control. 

For example, “slack work” may be the result of

temporarily low demand for the good or service

being produced or the result of interruptions in

the supply of raw materials for the production

process. In 2002, 10.5 percent of women who

worked part-time reported an economic reason

for part-time work, compared with 18.0 percent

of men who worked part-time. 

Hours of work and age

Table 6.3 shows the annual averages of people

employed and at work in non-agricultural industries by sex, full-time (35 actual hours or more)

and part-time (under 35 actual hours) status, and

age in 2002. Women age 16 to 19 at work in

non-agricultural industries in 2002 were most

likely to work part-time. Of the 3.0 million

women this age at work in non-agricultural

industries in 2002, 76.3 percent worked fewer

than 35 hours per week. 

In the age 20-24 group, 39.1 percent of women

worked part-time. The likelihood of working fulltime was highest among women age 25 to 54—

on average, 73.6 percent of women in that age

group who were at work in 2002 worked fulltime. Almost 90 percent of men in that age group

worked full-time.

Table 6.4 compares average actual weekly hours at

work by age for women and men who usually

worked full-time (35 hours or more per week)

and actual average hours for all persons at work

(total at work) in 2002. 

Figure 6.1

Full- and part-time actual hours

age 16 and older, 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Women Men

Full-time Part-time

Table 6.3

Number of persons at work full- and

part-time based on actual hours at work

by age and sex

2002

Full-time Part-time

Age (thousands) (thousands)

16-19 712 2,283

20-24 3,692 2,367

25-54 31,047 11,161

55 and older 5,387 3,051

Total 40,837 18,862

Men

16-19 995 1,927

20-24 4,722 1,819

25-54 43,567 5,366

55 and older 7,511 2,293

Total 56,795 11,405

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women

Table 6.4

Average actual weekly hours at work by

age, full-time status, and sex

2002 annual averages

Usually Total at

Age full-time work

16-19 38.4 23.3

20-24 40.1 33.8

25-54 41.2 37.6

55 + 40.9 34.8

Men

16-19 39.6 26.4

20-24 41.8 37.4

25-54 44.5 43.6

55 + 43.9 40.0

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women

Percent
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

74

Women age 20 to 24, 25 to 54, and 55 and older

who usually worked full-time reported similar

weekly average actual hours at work—40.1, 41.2,

and 40.9 hours, respectively. Women age 16 to

19 who usually worked full-time averaged 38.4

actual hours at work in 2002. 

Because the majority of women age 16 to 19 who

work do so part-time, the inclusion of part-time

workers reduced the overall average actual weekly

hours at work for the 16 to 19-year-old age group

to 23.3 hours.

Hours by occupation

Table 6.5 shows average employment by major

occupations of persons at work in total and who

actually worked 35 hours or more in 2002. The

table also shows average actual hours at work for

the total at work and for usual full-time workers.

The highest paid occupational group—managerial

and professional—also had the highest average

annual hours at work reported for workers who

worked full-time in 2002. In each occupational

group, women’s average hours were lower than

men’s.

Figure 6.2 shows the proportions of women and

men who worked full-time (based on actual

hours at work) in 2002. In managerial and professional occupations, 75.9 percent of women

who were at work worked full-time, compared

with 54.8 percent of women in service occupations. The occupational differences in proporTable 6.5

Employment and average weekly hours at

work of usual full-time workers

by sex and major occupation, 2002

Occupation Women Men

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Total at work (thousands)

Managerial and professional 20,175 20,317

Technical, sales, and admin. 23,670 13,865

Service 11,010 7,456

Precision production, etc. 1,147 13,032

Operators, fabricators, etc. 3,842 13,252

Total 16 years and over 59,843 67,923

Worked 35 hours or more

Managerial and professional 15,312 17,787

Technical, sales, and admin. 15,877 11,372

Service 6,029 5,291

Precision production, etc. 892 11,283

Operators, fabricators, etc. 2,797 10,877

Total 16 years and over 40,906 56,610

Average hours of total at work

Managerial and professional 38.6 44.4

Technical, sales, and admin. 35.3 41.4

Service 32.6 37.6

Precision production, etc. 38.4 41.7

Operators, fabricators, etc. 36.8 40.8

Total 16 years and over 36.1 41.8

Average hours of usual full-time workers

Managerial and professional 42.1 46.0

Technical, sales, and admin. 40.3 44.4

Service 40.5 43.0

Precision production, etc. 41.0 42.6

Operators, fabricators, etc. 40.2 43.1

Total 16 years and over 41.0 44.2

Figure 6.2

Percent of workers age 16 and older by major occupation and sex

who usually worked 

full-time, 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

100

80

60

40

20

0

Managerial Technical, sales, Service Precision Operators, Total

& professional & admin production, etc. fabricators, etc.

Percent Women Men
75

Working Conditions

tions of full-time workers reflect a variety of factors, including age and educational attainment of

the relevant workforce and the characteristics of

labor demand across occupations. 

For example, sales and service occupations

employ relatively larger proportions of younger

women and men who often are combining work

with continuing schooling. Professional and

managerial occupations, in contrast, tend to

employ older workers and job requirements tend

to be less amenable to part-time work arrangements. 

A high proportion of women in precision production, craft, and repair occupations also usually

worked full-time (77.8 percent). Across all occupational groups, women were somewhat less likely to work full-time than men.5 On average, in

2002, women who worked full-time worked 41.0

hours per week compared with 44.2 hours per

week for men.

Annual work experience

Table 6.6 shows the distribution of annual work

experience of women and men in 1991 through

2001. Annual work experience data include all

people who worked any amount of time during

the year.

The data reported in Table 6.6 use four classifications of annual work experience as follows: fulltime, year-round (at least 50 weeks and usually

35 or more hours work per week); part-time, yearround (at least 50 weeks and usually less than 35

hours per week); full-time, part-year (usually 35

hours per week or more but

less than 50 weeks per year);

and part-time, part-year

(usually less than 35 hours

per week and less than 50

weeks per year).

The tabulation is based on

reported usual hours worked

weekly in the previous year

and actual weeks worked.

Usual hours worked weekly

may differ from actual hours

at work during any week and

from the average of actual

hours at work. The March

work experience supplement

does not include information on actual hours worked

during the previous year.

The majority of women who

work are employed full-time,

year-round. The proportion

of women working full-time,

year-round has increased

notably over the last

decade—from 52.6 percent

in 1991 to 58.6 percent in

2001. Although women’s

annual work experience patterns continue to show less

likelihood of full-time, yearround employment than

men’s, the trend shows a

narrowing of the difference.

Table 6.6

Annual work experience of women and men by

full- and part-time status and by year-round and

part-year status 1991-2001

Total with

Full-time, Part-time, Full-time, Part-time, work

year-round year-round part-year part-year experience

Year (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent) (thousands)

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women

1991 52.6 13.2 16.7 17.4 61,634

1992 53.7 13.7 15.9 16.7 61,838

1993 52.8 13.9 16.1 17.2 63,395

1994 53 13.9 16 17.1 64,423

1995 54.3 13.3 15.9 16.4 65,285

1996 54.8 13.7 15.8 15.7 66,364

1997 55.8 14.2 14.9 15.1 67,444

1998 56.5 13.6 15.1 14.8 68,570

1999 57.6 13.4 14.7 14.3 70,060

2000 59.0 13.3 14.3 13.4 71,274

2001 58.6 13.7 14.4 13.4 70,996

Men

1991 66.5 5.4 19.3 8.8 70,771

1992 66.9 5.4 18.7 9 71,150

1993 68.1 5.6 17.5 8.8 72,037

1994 69.5 5.4 16.4 8.7 73,121

1995 70.6 5.5 15.5 8.4 73,633

1996 70.8 5.7 15.3 8.1 75,061

1997 71.7 5.6 14.7 8.0 75,695

1998 73.9 5.5 13.4 7.2 76,192

1999 73.5 5.5 13.9 7.1 77,474

2000 74.6 5.7 12.9 6.8 79,295

2001 73.3 5.4 14.3 7.0 79,394
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

76

In 2001, 13.7 percent of women who worked

reported usual part-time weekly hours and yearround (50 to 52 weeks) work experience.

Figure 6.3 shows that women are somewhat more

likely than men to work part-year (either parttime or full-time) than men. In 2001, 27.9 percent of women worked part-year (less than 50

weeks per year), compared with 21.5 percent of

men.

Women who work full-time and year-round averaged 42.1 hours of work per week in 2001. (See

Table 6.7.) The average workweek for women

who worked full-time, year-round in 2001 was

essentially unchanged from the 41.9-hour average

in 1991. Women who worked part-time, yearround averaged 22.3 hours per week. 

Weekly hours for women who worked less than

50 weeks per year were similar to the averages for

year-round workers—41.4 hours per week for fulltime, part-year workers and 19.0 hours per week

for part-time, part-year workers. 

Table 6.8 shows the variation in weeks worked for

women and men who worked at some point during the year. In 2001, 72.3 percent of women and

78.6 percent of men who worked did so 50 to 52

weeks.6 

For both women and men, the proportion working 50 or more weeks annually increased notably

in 2001 compared with 1991. The proportions in

Table 6.8 include both full-time and part-time

workers based on usual weekly hours.

Figure 6.4 (page 77) compares women’s and men’s

estimated annual usual

hours worked in 2001.

Annual hours are estimated

from Current Population

Survey Annual Work

Experience Supplement

records as the reported number of weeks worked for each

respondent multiplied by

the individual’s usual weekly

hours of work. 

For example, an individual

who works 52 weeks at 40

hours per week will work a

Table 6.7

Mean usual weekly hour of workers

age 16 and older by extent of work

experience and sex, 2001

Annual work experience Women Men

Full-time, year-round 42.1 44.8

Part-time, year-round 22.3 21.9

Full-time, part-year 41.4 43.1

Part-time, part-year 19.0 19.4

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Table 6.8

Persons at work by number of weeks worked and sex

percent, 1991 and 2001

1-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-52

Year weeks weeks weeks weeks weeks

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women

1991 10.8 6.8 6.8 10.0 65.8

2001 8.5 5.8 5.1 8.5 72.3

Men

1991 8.0 6.0 5.3 8.9 72.1

2001 6.1 4.6 3.9 6.9 78.6

Figure 6.3

Persons with work experience by

year-round or part-year work and

sex

age 16 and older, 2001

90.0

80.0

70.0

60.0

50.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0

Women Men

Year round Part year

72.1

27.9

78.5

21.5

Percent

Source: Employemnt Policy Foundation.
77

Working Conditions

total of 2,080 hours per year. Figure 6.4 shows

that nearly half of women and men who worked

in 2001 worked between 1,750 and 2,080 hours

per year, based on their reported weeks worked

and usual weekly hours. Thirteen percent of

women and 29 percent of men worked over 2,080

hours per year. 

Table 6.9 (page 78) compares estimated average

annual hours worked by women and men in

1991 and 2001 by age. Their average annual

hours worked increased across all age categories

from 1991 to 2001. 

Overall, women worked 91 hours

more (5.8 percent more) in 2001

than in 1991 compared with 80

additional hours (4.2 percent more)

for men. The overall increase for

women was equivalent to 11.5 additional days of work per year. 

Women in the 25-54 year age

group—comprising the largest

group of working women—worked

91 more hours in 2001 than in

1991. The largest increase in annual hours was among women age 55

and older—140 hours of work, on

average, over the year. 

The increase in hours of work

among older women included an

increase of 134 hours annually for

women age 55 to 64 (averaging

1,747 hours in

2001) and an

increase of 101

hours, on average,

for working

women age 65

and older.7 

Figure 6.5 shows

women’s annual

hours of work by

marital status in

1991 and 2001.

Table 6.10 (page

78) provides

more detailed

comparisons of

1991 and 2001

annual hours of

work for women

and men by marital status.

Between 1991 and

2001, the annual

hours worked

increased for

Figure 6.5

Estimated annual hours of work for women by marital status

1991 and 2001

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

2,000

1,800

1,600

1,400

1,200

1,000

800

600

400

200

0

Married Widowed Divorced Separated Never 

married

1991 2001

Figure 6.4

Estimated annual hours worked by sex, 2001

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Under 1000 1000-1749 1750-2080 Over 2080 

Women Men

Hours

Percent
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

78

women across all marital status categories, but the

largest increase was among married women —105

annual hours, equivalent to 13.2 additional days

of work. 

Divorced women continued to work more annual

hours, on average, in 2001 than any other marital

group –1,915 hours per year. Between 1991 and

2001, the annual working hours of divorced

women increased by 54 hours, equivalent to 6.7

workdays.

Figure 6.6 (page 79) shows estimated hourly

earnings for women and men in 2001 relative to selected ranges of estimated annual

hours worked. In 2001, women who

worked under 1,000 hours per year (equivalent to 25 forty- hour weeks or 19 hours per

week, year-round) earned on average $8.33

per hour. Women who worked 1,750 to

2,080 hours per year (equivalent to 44 fortyhour weeks or 34 to 40 hours per week,

year-round) earned $12.98 per hour, on

average. Women who worked over 2,080

hours per year (equivalent to more than 40

hours per week every week) earned $14.63

per hour, on average.

Estimated annual hours shown in Figures

6.4 through 6.6 and Tables 6.9 through 6.11

were calculated as the product of weeks

worked and usual weekly

hours in 2001 reported by

each respondent to the

Current Population Survey

Annual Social and

Economic Conditions

Supplement (2002), who

had work experience during

the reference year. 

Estimated hourly earnings

shown in Figure 6.6 were

calculated as reported annual earnings divided by estimated annual hours. The

data underlying Figure 6.6

include persons paid on

both hourly and salaried

pay methods. Total annual

earnings include overtime

pay, tips, commissions, and

bonuses, in addition to regular pay from all jobs held

during the year.

Figure 6.6 illustrates the economic advantage of fulltime, year-round work

Table 6.10

Estimated annual hours of work and equivalent

workdays by sex and marital status

age 16 and older, 1991 and 2001

Workdays

Marital 1991 2001 Change Change equivalent

status (hours) (hours) (hours) (percent) change (days)

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women

Married 1,617 1,722 105 6.5 13.2

Widowed 1,505 1,571 66 4.4 8.2

Divorced 1,862 1,915 54 2.9 6.7

Separated 1,674 1,778 104 6.2 13.1

Never married 1,409 1,495 86 6.1 10.7

All women 1,591 1,682 92 5.8 11.5

Men

Married 2,097 2,167 70 3.3 8.7

Widowed 1,562 1,751 190 12.2 23.7

Divorced 1,987 2,086 99 5 12.3

Separated 1,917 2,042 124 6.5 15.5

Never married 1,511 1,624 113 7.5 14.1

All men 1,910 1,990 81 4.2 10.1

Table 6.9

Estimated average annual work hours by

age and sex

1991 and 2001

Age 1991 2001

Under 25 1,121 1,159

25 to 54 1,729 1,820

55 and older 1,484 1,624

Total 1,591 1,682

Men

Under 25 1,231 1,297

25 to 54 2,100 2,169

55 and older 1,773 1,912

Total 1,910 1,990

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women
79

Working Conditions

opportunities. In addition to earning more in

total because of additional hours, persons in jobs

that provide greater annual weeks and hours of

work experience earn more in total because of

their higher average earnings per hour. It is

important to note that the higher average hourly

earnings of women and men who work more

hours per year reflect a number of

factors that distinguish their work

experience from those who work

fewer hours, including occupational,

age, and educational differences.8

Persons who are able to work in relatively high-paying managerial or

professional occupations, for example, typically report a greater total

number of weeks and greater weekly

hours of work than persons in lower

paid occupations.

Table 6.11 (page 80) compares estimated annual hours worked for

women and men in terms of their

parental status. Parental status refers

to the presence of the worker’s own

children under age 18 in the household.9 In 2001, 69.1 percent of

women who were the parent of one

or more children under age 6

worked at least part-time and part of

the year. Working women with children under age 6 averaged 1,560

hours of work in 2001, an increase

of 122 hours compared with 1991.

Women with children age 6 to 18

averaged 1,769 hours of work in

2001, an increase of 114 hours compared with 1991.

Flexible hours

As women’s labor force participation

and total work hours have increased,

the desire for flexible hours to

accommodate balancing of work

and family responsibilities has

become prominent. Flexible hours,

also known as “flexi-time,” allow

workers discretion to vary the beginning and ending times of their workdays, either formally, or informally,

on a scheduled or unscheduled

basis. 

Figure 6.7 shows the increase in availability of

schedule flexibility from 1985 through 2001 for

full-time wage and salary workers.10 In 2001,

27.4 percent of women who worked full-time and

30.0 percent of men who worked full-time had

flexibility to alter their work hours. The data refer

Figure 6.6

Estimated median hourly earnings by range of

hours and sex

Source: Employment Policy Foundation. 

$20

$18

$16

$14

$12

$10

$8

$6

$4

$2

$0 Under 1000 1000-1749 1750-2080 Over 2080 

hours per year hours per year hours per year hours per year

Women Men

Figure 6.7

Percent of workers with schedule fexibility

by sex, selected years 1985-2001

Source: Employment Policy Foundation. 

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

1985 1991 1997 2001

Women Men

Percent
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

80

only to reported availability of flexibility opportunities and do not indicate the extent to which

individuals availed themselves of flexibility

options. Self-employed persons are not included

in these totals.

Flexible schedule arrangements are in addition to

formal leave benefits (both paid and unpaid) that

allow employees to take sick leave or vacation

time. The prevalence of flexible scheduling has

doubled since 1985. 

Whether or not flexibility is possible often

depends on the nature of the job itself, and not

exclusively on workplace policy decisions. To

some extent, the growth of reported flexibility

opportunity may reflect the fact that job growth

has been relatively concentrated in types of jobs

where flexibility is practical.

Most flexible schedules are based on informal

arrangements between employers and employees.

In 2001, 10.9 percent of private sector workers

participated in formal flexible schedule arrangements (about one-third of those with flexible

schedules). Formal flexi-time arrangements

involve written policies and procedures for initiating and implementing schedule adjustments. 

Overall, flexible schedule arrangements are less

prevalent in the public sector than in the private

sector. In 2001, 29.1 percent of women in the

private sector reported that they had schedule

flexibility, compared with 20.8 percent of women

in public sector employment. The lower percentage of women in public sector jobs with flexible

schedules may reflect, in part, the requirements of

public sector jobs such as teaching and protective

services.

Flexible scheduling is most prevalent for women

in managerial and professional occupations. In

2001, 33.2 percent of women in managerial and

professional occupations reported flexible schedule arrangements. Women working in computer

science occupations reported the highest rate of

flexible scheduling—58.4 percent. 

Sixty percent of private sector flexi-time workers

described their arrangements as informal, whereas

40.0 percent reported that they implemented

schedule flexibility under formal policies and procedures.

Employment Benefits

This section examines working conditions from

the perspective of non-wage compensation—commonly described as employment “benefits.”

Employment benefits include paid holidays, sick

leave and vacations, health, disability and life

insurance coverage, and employer-sponsored

retirement and pension plans. Most employment

benefits reflect voluntary and customary arrangements between employers and employees, but

legally mandated elements of employment benefits include unemployment insurance, workers

Table 6.11

Annual work hours of persons with work experience by presence of own

children under 18 in household and by parental status and sex

age 16-65, 1991 and 2001

Average annual hours Likelihood of work experience for

of persons who worked persons in parental status group

(hours) (percent)

Parental status 1991 2001 1991 2001

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women

Not a parent of child under 18 1,611 1,681 72.2 71.8

Parent of child age 6 to 18 1,655 1,769 79.1 80.5

Parent of child under age 6 1,438 1,560 64.8 69.1

Total 1,591 1,682 72.2 73.2

Men

Not a parent of child under 18 1,767 1,865 82.1 79.3

Parent of child age 6 to 18 2,180 2,247 95.1 95.0

Parent of child under age 6 2,172 2,220 95.8 96.7

Total 1,910 1,990 86.5 84.4
81

Working Conditions

(injury) compensation insurance,

and employer contributions for Social Security.

Non-wage benefits share the advantage of being

non-taxed compensation, unlike regular wages

and supplemental pay items such as overtime premiums, shift differentials, and bonuses.

Figure 6.8, derived from National Compensation

Survey data, shows the relative proportions of

each of the major elements of non-wage employment benefits for non-agricultural wage and

salary workers in private industry and state and

local governments in 2002. In that year, employer costs for non- wage benefits averaged $5.92 per

hour—25.3 percent of total compensation of

$23.36 per hour. 

The biggest proportion of the cost of non-wage

benefits went to legally mandated payments such

as Social Security, unemployment insurance, and

workers’ compensation insurance—31.0 percent

of non-wage benefits, averaging $1.83 per hour.

The second largest benefit cost component was

paid leave—27 percent, averaging $1.60 per hour. 

The fastest rising component of benefits costs in

recent years has been health insurance, which

comprised 26 percent of benefits costs in 2001—

$1.54 per hour.

Supplemental pay, averaging $0.56 per hour in

2002, and regular wages, averaging $16.89 per

hour, accounted for the balance of total compensation.

Paid leave

Table 6.12 shows the increasing proportion of

women receiving paid leave over the past decade.

The proportions in Table 6.12 were derived from

reports by women who were absent from work

during the survey reference week in March 1992

through March 2002. Respondents were asked

whether or not they received pay for their

absence. Absence from work included various

reasons, such as sickness and vacation.

Data in Table 6.12 reflect actual receipt of paid

leave by women who were absent from work.

The proportion entitled to paid leave under

employer benefit plans may differ from this proportion.

In March 2002, full-time working women reported paid time off for 68.2 percent of their

absences. Part-time working women were about

half as likely to receive pay for time off—34.9

percent were paid. Women and men were equally

likely to be paid for time off. In March 2002,

68.6 percent of men who worked full-time and

32.0 percent of men who worked part-time

received pay for time off.

Table 6.12

Women receiving

paid leave by fulland part-time work

schedules

1992-2002

Full-time Part-time

1992 62.5 23.5

1993 58.5 21.3

1994 59.7 39.8

1995 62.3 33.0

1996 61.1 39.7

1997 60.6 34.4

1998 59.3 39.8

1999 64.4 33.4

2000 66.2 34.0

2001 64.2 32.1

2002 68.2 34.9

Source: Employment Policy

Foundation.

Figure 6.8

Distribution of employers’ cost of non-wage

compensation by benefit type, 2002

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

82

Health insurance

Health insurance is the employment benefit third

most costly to employers. Table 6.13 (page 82)

shows the percent of women who worked who

were covered by their own employer’s or union’s

sponsored health insurance plans in 1998

through 2001 in relation to their annual work

experience. Women who worked full-time, yearround schedules were most likely to be covered

by an employer’s health insurance plan. 

In 2001, 66.1 percent of women who worked fulltime and year-round were covered by a plan provided by their own employer or union. The average employer contribution to the cost of health

insurance coverage for women who worked fulltime, year-round in 2001 was $2,748 per woman

with coverage. 

The 41.7 million women who worked full-time,

year-round accounted for 58.4 percent of women

with any work experience in 2001 and for 78.4

percent of working women with employmentbased health insurance based on their own

employment. Part-time or part-year workers were

less likely to receive health insurance benefits

than full-time, year-round workers.11 Across all

categories of work experience, in 2001, 35.1 million women had employment-based health insurance benefits—49.2 percent of all working

women.

Employer-sponsored insurance is one of a variety

of ways in which women obtain health insurance.

In 2001, 86.5 percent of all women (working and

non-working) had some form of health insurance

coverage. Based on their employment in 2001,

40.9 million women had health insurance coverage. That total included the

35.1 million women reflected in Table

6.13 who worked during the year and an

additional 5.0 million women who were

non-workers in 2001 but reported health

insurance coverage based on a former

employer’s plan. 

Coverage as a dependent on the employment-based health insurance of a spouse,

parent, or other family member is an

important source of coverage. In 2001,

16.8 million working women who were

not covered through their own employer

reported health insurance coverage as a

dependent on someone else’s employment-based health insurance plan. Altogether,

72.8 percent of women who worked in 2001 had

health insurance coverage from either their own

employment or as a dependent on another’s

employment-based plan.

Other sources of health insurance coverage

include individual private insurance, Medicare,

Medicaid, and military health care system coverage for armed forces members, dependents, and

retirees.

Retirement and pension plans

Retirement benefits include both defined benefit

and defined contribution plans. Defined benefit

plans promise specified pension payments after

retirement based on years of employment and

earnings level. Defined contribution plans are

retirement savings plans that are based on

employer contributions and employees’ taxdeferred earnings contributions that may be withdrawn as periodic cash amounts after retirement

or converted to lifetime annuities. Generally, the

employer directly sponsors these plans, although

in some cases a union or other organization

administers the plan. 

Employment-based retirement benefits are in

addition to Social Security retirement benefits

that accrue to most workers based on employee

and employer payroll tax contributions. They are

also in addition to individual retirement savings

arrangements that persons may establish and

maintain for themselves.

Table 6.13

Women covered by employer-sponsored

health insurance, by work schedule

1998-2001

Full-time, Part-time, Full-time, Part-time,

year-round year-round part-year part-year

Year (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent)

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

1998 66.1 24.0 39.3 11.7

1999 65.8 21.4 37.4 12.9

2000 65.9 23.6 40.8 11.5

2001 66.1 22.1 40.8 12.8
Population, Labor Force and Employment

83

Table 6.14 (page 83) shows the numbers of

women across all work experience categories for

1991 through 2001, according to the existence of

a retirement plan and the women’s inclusion in

it. The overall growth of employment and the relative growth of full-time employment compared

with part-time has resulted in an increase in the

number of women included in retirement plans

from 23.2 million in 1991 to 29.5 million across

all four categories of annual work experience in

2001. Overall, 41.4 percent of women who

worked in 2001 reported being included in an

employment-based retirement plan.

Table 6.15 (page 84) shows the number of

women included and not included in retirement

plans according to their annual work experience

category. 

Full-time, year-round workers are more likely to

be included in employment-based retirement

benefit plans than part-time or part-year workers.

In 2001, 78.1 percent of the 29.5 million women

included in employment-based retirement plans

were full-time, year-round workers.

Many retirement plans involve minimum annual

working hour requirements and employment

tenure requirements that limit the eligibility of

some full-time, year-round workers as well as

many part-time or part-year workers. In addition

to persons not included because of plan rules,

some persons eligible to participate may be not

included because they declined to participate.

The available data do not distinguish reasons for

non-inclusion. Individual retirement arrangements that are established outside the employment context provide an alternative for retirement

savings for employees who are not included in

workplace retirement plans.

Most women who worked full-time, year-round

and who were not included in a retirement plan

were not included because a retirement plan was

not available from their employer. 

In 2001, the 18.6 million women who worked

full-time, year-round and did not have an

employment-based retirement plan included 14.3

million women (76.7 percent of the 18.6 million

without retirement benefits) whose employer did

not sponsor such a plan.

Across all work experience categories in 2001, the

41.8 million women who did not have employment-based retirement benefits included 31.6 million whose workplace had no retirement plan and

10.2 million who were not included in existing

workplace plans. These latter women were predominantly (57 percent) part-time or part-year

workers—5.8 million women in 2001. Figure 6.9

(page 84) shows the distribution of women who

worked in 2001 in terms of their inclusion or

non-inclusion in retirement benefit plans. While

55 percent of women worked in workplaces with

plans, only 41 percent were included in plans

either because they were ineligible to participate

or chose not to participate.

Table 6.14

Availability of retirement benefits

sponsored by employers for women

with work experience

1991-2001

Not included

No plan in existing Included in

Year exists plan plan

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Thousands

1991 30,427 8,370 23,162

1992 29,861 8,613 23,703

1993 31,570 8,418 23,819

1994 30,161 9,532 25,111

1995 31,075 9,055 25,527

1996 30,180 10,004 26,560

1997 30,698 10,131 27,022

1998 30,010 10,359 28,581

1999 31,282 9,830 29,373

2000 30,592 10,011 30,224

2001 31,607 10,172 29,529

Percent

1991 49.1 13.5 37.4

1992 48.0 13.9 38.1

1993 49.5 13.2 37.3

1994 46.5 14.7 38.7

1995 47.3 13.8 38.9

1996 45.2 15.0 39.8

1997 45.2 14.9 39.8

1998 43.5 15.0 41.5

1999 44.4 13.9 41.7

2000 43.2 14.1 42.7

2001 44.3 14.3 41.4
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

84

Table 6.15

Women’s inclusion in existing retirement

plans by work experience

2001

Percent

Work Not not

experience Included included included

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Full-time, 

year-round 23,051 4,327 15.8

Part-time, year-round 2,073 1,755 45.9

Full-time, part-year 3,281 1,925 37.0

Part-time, part-year 1,125 2,165 65.8

Number

(in thousands)

Figure 6.9

Distribution of women covered by workplace

retirement plans, 2001

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.
85

1 Annual averages data are published in print format in Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment

and Earnings, typically in the June issue. Annual averages data are also available on the BLS website at http://www.bls.gov/cps/home.htm#tables. Additional annual averages data are available

from BLS by special request, or may be compiled directly from public-access micro data files of the

basic monthly Current Population Survey. See http://ferret.bls.census.gov.

2 Data refer to persons age 16 and older in nonagricultural industries who were at work. Persons

with a job but not at work during the survey reference week are not included.

3 The focus in this section is on nonagricultural workers because the available annual average

data tables published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics only provide mean weekly hours tabulations

by gender for the nonagricultural sector.

4 The full list of reasons categorized as “economic” are: slack work or business conditions, could

only find part-time work, seasonal work, and job started or ended during week. The list of noneconomic reasons were child care problems, other family or personal obligations, health limitations, in school, retired or Social Security income limits earnings, vacation or personal time off,

holiday, weather, and other.

5 However, the proportion of women working year-round, full-time schedules has increased.

This point is detailed in a subsequent section using annual work experience data.

6 Weeks worked is defined as weeks at work, at least some hours. Entire weeks absent from work

because of vacation, sickness, or temporary layoff are not included, even though the individual was

employed and perhaps paid during the absence.

7 The odd-appearing arithmetic result that the overall average for women age 55 and older

increased by more than the increase for either the 55 to 64 subgroup or the 65 and older subgroup

is the result of a shift in the relative numbers of women working in each group. The number of

women in both groups increased, but the number in the age 55 to 64 group (associated with higher hours) increased at a higher rate.

8 Median hourly earnings provide a more robust estimator of central tendency than mean earnings because means are more strongly affected by outliers.

9 For this analysis, persons included as parents were those who were identified as a family head

or spouse in a family that included the family’s “own” never-married children under age 18 residing in the same household. These persons were classified as parents of children age 6 to 18 or

under age 6, depending on the age of the youngest child in the family.

10 All data for this section are from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Workers on flexible and shift

schedules in 2001,” April 18, 2002, at www.bls.gov.

11 Includes all workers who were not full-time, year-round—including part-time, year-round;

part-time, part-year; and full-time, part-year.

Working Conditions

Opportunity

Highlights

❑ Projections by the Bureau of Labor 

Statistics point to overall labor force 

growth of 17 million over the decade 

from 2000 to 2010.

❑ The population of women age 16 and 

older will grow by 12.4 million over the 

decade—11.4 percent.

❑ Women in the labor force will grow 

faster than the total population of 

women age 16 and older—9.9 million 

— a 15.1 percent increase.

❑ Between 2000 and 2010, women’s labor 

force participation rate will rise from 

60.2 percent to 62.2 percent, 

continuing the long-term trend. 

❑ In 2000, the largest age cohort of the 

women’s labor force was the age 35-44 

group, and in 2010 women age 45-54 

will be the largest single age group—

17.9 million. 

❑ By 2010, the proportion of black 

women age 16 and older in women’s 

population will rise to 13.8 percent, 

and the proportion of Asian women 

will rise to 6.2 percent. 

❑ Of the 41 million labor force entrants 

over the decade, 16.2 million (39.5 

percent) will be members of a racial 

minority group or of Hispanic origin. 

❑ By 2010, total employment is expected 

to increase 22.2 million, a 15.2 percent 

increase.

❑ The greatest projected employment 

growth from 2000 to 2010 is in 

professional and related occupations—

6,952,000 new jobs. 

❑ In 2000, mean earnings of wage earners 

in occupations generally needing a first 

professional degree were 3.5 times 

those of wage earners in occupations 

generally needing work-related training. 
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

88

Introduction

This chapter presents

indicators of the future

opportunities available

to working women.

Opportunity is examined from two perspectives—overall labor

force growth, and occupational employment

growth. The section

entitled “Labor Force”

examines trends and

projections regarding

the growth of women’s

presence in the labor

force.

The section entitled “Occupations” examines

future employment opportunities for women in

terms of fastest growing and highest paying occupations. The section also examines trends in

women’s percentage share of employment in

selected occupations.

The future is uncertain. Projections about the

future rely primarily on information found in current trends and on analysis of the likelihood that

current trends will continue to be important.

Unexpected changes in underlying economic

forces and in behavior can render projections

wrong.

This chapter presents information

from projections prepared by the

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)

based on detailed analysis of evolving economic conditions. In addition, summaries of recent data

trends that may provide useful

insights for the future are presented. In particular, the current work

experience and occupational choices of young age cohorts of women

are examined as a potential guide

to the forces changing women’s

opportunities in the labor force.

Labor Force

Projections by the Bureau of Labor

Statistics point to overall civilian

labor force growth of 17 million

over the decade from 2000 to 2010.

This will represent a 12.0 percent increase in the

labor force, essentially the same proportion as the

growth between 1990 and 2000. By 2010, the

aggregate level of the U.S. labor force is expected

to reach at least 158 million, compared with 141

million in 2000, according to BLS projections.1

Table 7.1 shows the estimated population and

labor force for women and for men (age 16 and

older) for 1980-2000, and projected to 2010.

Women’s population (age 16 and older) will

grow by 12.4 million between 2000 and 2010—

11.4 percent. Women in the labor force will grow

faster than population—9.9 million additional

women—a 15.1 percent increase.

Table 7.1

Population and labor force

1980-2010 (projected)

Women age 16+

Women population (thousands) 88,348 98,787 108,968 121,338

Women labor force (thousands) 45,487 56,829 65,616 75,500

Women labor force growth (%) xxxx 24.9 15.5 15.1

Women labor force participation (%) 51.5 57.5 60.2 62.2

Women percent of labor force 42.5 45.2 46.6 47.9

Men age 16+

Men population (thousands) 79,398 90,377 100,731 112,319

Men labor force (thousands) 61,453 69,011 75,247 82,221

Men labor force growth (%) xxxx 12.3 9.0 9.3

Men labor force participation (%) 77.4 76.4 74.7 73.2

Men percent of labor force 57.5 54.8 53.4 52.1

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

1980 1990 2000 2010

Figure 7.1

Labor force participation rates of 

women and men

age 16 and older, 1980, 1990, 2000, 

and projected 2010

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

100

80

60

40

20

10

0

1980 1990 2000 2010

Percent Women Men
Opportunity

89

Women’s population and labor force will continue to grow faster than men’s.2 The number of

men in the labor force will increase 7.0 million—

9.3 percent between 2000 and 2010. Between

2000 and 2010, women’s labor force participation

rate will rise from 60.2 percent to 62.2

percent, continuing the long-term trend.

Since 1980, the proportion of women age

16 and older in the labor force increased

from 51.5 percent to 60.2 percent. (See

Figure 7.1, page 88). Women’s share of

the total labor force will rise to 47.9 percent by 2010. 

Increased diversity

Table 7.2 shows the increasing diversity of

the population and labor force. By 2010,

the proportion of black women age 16 and

older in women’s population will rise to

13.8 percent and the proportion of the

Asian/other group of minority women will

rise to 6.2 percent. The increasing diversity of the labor force will be similar—14.6

percent of women in the labor force will

be black and 6.0 percent Asian/other. The

table focuses on women in the labor force,

although similar trends are evident for

men also. 

Table 7.3 shows a similar pattern of

increasing diversity from the Hispanic ethnic minority perspective. The proportion

of women’s population that is of Hispanic

origin will increase to 12.8 percent by

2010, and their proportion of the women’s

labor force will rise to 12.2 percent.

Figure 7.2 (page 90) shows that the overall

proportion of minority race or ethnic

group members in the women’s labor

force will rise to 31.7 percent by 2010.

Table 7.4 (page 90) shows women’s population and labor force and labor force participation rates by age. In 2000, the largest

age cohort of the women’s labor force was

the age 35-44 group. The effects of an

aging population and the movement of

the baby-boom generation through the age

cohorts means that, by 2010, women age

45 to 54 will be the largest single age

group—17.9 million.

The labor force participation rate has

increased over the past twenty years for each age

group, and that trend is expected to continue. By

2010, the labor force participation rate for women

age 25 to 34 is expected to reach 81.4 percent,

and the rate for women age 35 to 44 and 45 to 54

Table 7.2

Women’s population and labor force

by race projected 2010

1980 1990 2000 2010

Source: Employment Policy Foundation, Numbers may not add to

totals due to rounding.

Women’s population (thousands)

White 76,489 83,256 89,781 97,150

Black 9,880 11,904 13,898 16,693

Asian/other 1,996 3,627 5,290 7,495

Total 88,348 98,787 108,968 121,338

Women’s population (percent)

White 86.6 84.3 82.4 80.1

Black 11.2 12.1 12.8 13.8

Asian/other 2.3 3.7 4.9 6.2

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Women’s labor force (thousands)

White 39,127 47,809 53,714 59,884

Black 5,253 6,938 8,787 11,050

Asian/other 1,105 2,081 3,116 4,566

Total 45,487 56,829 65,616 75,500

Women’s labor force (percent)

White 86.0 84.1 81.9 79.3

Black 11.5 12.2 13.4 14.6

Asian/other 2.4 3.7 4.7 6.0

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Table 7.3

Hispanic women population and labor

force

1980-2010

1980 1990 2000 2010

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women’s Population (thousands)

Hispanic 4,909 7,863 11,329 15,523

Non-Hispanic 83,439 90,924 97,639 105,816

Total 88,348 98,787 108,968 121,339

Women’s population (percent)

Hispanic 5.6 8.0 10.4 12.8

Non-Hispanic 94.4 92.0 89.6 87.2

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Women’s labor force (thousands)

Hispanic 2,326 4,174 6,449 9,224

Non-Hispanic 43,161 52,655 59,167 66,276

Total 45,487 56,829 65,616 75,500

Women’s labor force (percent)

Hispanic 5.1 7.3 9.8 12.2

Non-Hispanic 94.9 92.7 90.2 87.8

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

90

is expected to be nearly as high—80.0 percent.

The trend of increasing labor force participation

of women includes older women as well: the rate

for women 55 to 64 is expected

to reach 55.2 percent, and the

rate for women over age 65 may

reach 11.1 percent by 2010. 

Among women age 16 to 24, the

small increase in labor force participation reflects the increasing

tendency of women to stay in

school and to complete higher

education. Among younger

women, labor force participation

tends more toward part-time

work as well.3 

Figure 7.3 (page 91) shows the

steady rise in women’s labor

force participation rates from

1980 to 2000 and projected to

2010 for each age group. 

Figure 7.4 (page 91) shows the

changing age distribution of the

women’s labor force from 1980 through

2000 and projected to 2010. The rising proportions of older women in the labor force

are notable.

In 2010, women age 45 and older will comprise 40.1 percent of women in the labor

force, compared with 28.4 percent in 1980.

Table 7.5 (page 92) shows the Bureau of

Labor Statistics’ projection of labor force

entrants and leavers by gender for the 2000-

2010 decade. As the baby-boom generation

ages, men will leave the labor force in larger

numbers than women, and increasing labor

force participation of younger and older

women will result in new women entrants

exceeding the number of new male entrants

to the labor force. 

The increasing racial and ethnic diversity of

the labor force is evident in the projection

of labor force entrants and leavers. Of the

41 million (39.5 percent) labor force

entrants over the decade, 16.2 million will

be members of a racial minority group or of

Hispanic origin. Almost 65 percent of net

labor force growth will comprise minority

group members, and the majority of the new

minority entrants will be women.

Figure 7.2

Labor force participation of women 16 and older

by minority status, 1980, 1990, 2000, and projected

to 2010

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

1980 1990 2000 2010

Million White, non-Hispanic Minority

Table 7.4

Women’s population and labor force

age 16 and older by age

1980, 1990, 2000, and projected 2010

1980 1990 2000 2010

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Female population (thousands)

16-24 18,895 16,754 17,147 19,485

25-34 18,725 21,859 19,127 20,056

35-44 13,177 19,190 22,655 20,237

45-54 11,701 12,843 18,901 22,415

55-64 11,478 10,942 12,358 18,204

65 and older 14,372 17,198 18,780 20,941

Women in the labor force (thousands)

16-24 11,696 10,532 10,839 12,690

25-34 12,257 16,058 14,596 16,320

35-44 8,627 14,663 17,504 16,180

45-54 7,004 9,145 14,515 17,928

55-64 4,742 4,948 6,400 10,056

65 and older 1,161 1,483 1,762 2,327

Female Labor Force Participation Rate

16-24 61.9 62.9 63.2 65.1

25-34 65.5 73.5 76.3 81.4

35-44 65.5 76.4 77.3 80.0

45-54 59.9 71.2 76.8 80.0

55-64 41.3 45.2 51.8 55.2

65 and older 8.1 8.6 9.4 11.1
Opportunity

91

Occupations

Table 7.6 (page 92) shows estimated employment

for all occupations in 2000 and the Bureau of

Labor Statistics’ projections of employment in

2010.5 The table shows total employment,

including women and men. Over the decade,

total employment is expected to increase 22.2

million, a 15.2 percent increase. 

The greatest projected employment growth from

2000 to 2010 is in professional and related occupations—seven million new jobs. This increase is

in addition to net replacement needs (discussed

subsequently) for retirees and others leaving their

occupations. The second largest employment

increase is expected for the service occupations

category—5.1 million new jobs over the decade.

Service occupations include a broad range of

occupations including both skilled and unskilled.

Figure 7.5 (page 94) shows the proportion of projected total employment growth for each occupational group.

The projections shown in

Table 7.6 (page 92) closely

mirror the trends in occupational growth of past years.6

The occupations forecasted for

continued strong growth to

2010 are similar to the occupations in which women’s

employment has been growing

rapidly over the past twenty

years.

Table 7.7 (page 93) shows, for

comparison, growth of

women’s employment in managerial and professional occupations from 1991 to 2001.

Managerial occupations

accounted for 37.4 percent of

total women’s employment

Figure 7.3

Labor force participation rates of women age 16

and older by age, 1980,1990,2000, and 

projected 2010

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

16-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

1980 1990 2000 2010

Figure 7.4

Age distribution of women labor force participants

age 16 and older by age group, 1980, 1990, 2000, and

projected 2010

Source: Employment Policy Founation.

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

1980 1990 2000 2010

16-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65 and older

Percent

Percent
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

92

growth over the past decade, and professional

occupations have accounted for 42.1 percent. 

Women’s employment growth has accounted for

57.1 percent of total managerial occupations

employment growth and 64.6 percent of professional employment growth over the past decade.

Continuation of these trends would result in the

predominant share of projected job growth in

managerial and professional occupations going to

women.

Table 7.8 (page 93) provides another perspective

on the growth of women’s employment in the

occupations that are expected to experience strong

growth through 2010. 

The percent of women among younger employees

in managerial and professional occupations in

2001 is notably higher (45.9 percent for managerial and 54.4 percent for professional) than the

percent of women among older (age 45 to 64)

workers in 1991 in those occupations. In 2001,

the employment share of women among the

younger workers had increased to 49.1 percent in

management and 55.4 percent in professional

and technical occupations.

The change in women’s employment share

among older (age 45 to 64) workers between

1991 and 2001 is notable. For both the managerial and the professional and technicians groups,

the percentage of older women increased more

than did the percentage of younger women. 

In the managerial occupations group, the share of

women among workers in that group age 45 to

64 increased from 36.2 percent in 1991 to 43.4

percent in 2001, whereas the female share of

workers in the age 25 to 44 group increased from

45.9 percent to 49.1 percent. 

For the professional and technicians group, in

2001, women comprised 55.7 percent of workers

age 45 to 64, higher than their 50.7 percent share

in 1991. Women’s share of younger workers (age

25 to 44) in the professional and technicians

group remained about the same over the decade

—55.4 percent in 2001, compared with 54.4 percent in 1991. 

Table 7.5

Labor force entrants and leavers

2000-2010 (thousands)

Entrants Leavers Net change

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Women 20,669 10,785 9,884

Men 20,379 13,406 6,973

Total 41,048 24,191 16,857

Combined minority

Women 8,380 2,471 5,909

Men 7,796 3,002 4,794

Total 16,176 5,473 10,703

Table 7.6

Projected employment growth for major occupational groups

2000-2010

Total Employment

employment change

(thousands) 2000 to 2010

Occupational groups 2000 2010 (thousands) (percent)

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Total, all occupations 145,594 167,754 22,160 15.2

Management, business, and financial 15,519 17,635 2,115 13.6

Professional and related occupations 26,758 33,709 6,952 26

Service occupations 26,075 31,163 5,088 19.5

Sales and related occupations 15,513 17,365 1,852 11.9

Office and administrative support 23,882 26,053 2,171 9.1

Farming, fishing, and forestry 1,429 1,480 51 3.6

Construction and extraction occupations 7,451 8,439 989 13.3

Installation, maintenance, and repair 5,820 6,482 662 11.4

Production occupations 13,060 13,811 750 5.7

Transportation and material moving 10,088 11,618 1,530 15.2
Opportunity

93

The small changes in shares among the younger

groups of workers in managerial occupations and

in professional and technicians occupations may

signal a leveling-off of the trend toward higher

female presence in those occupation groups.

Figure 7.6 (page 94) shows the relative changes in

employment of women age 25 to 44 among managerial, professional, and other occupations

between 1991 and 2001.

Many future employment opportunities are

linked with the increasing need for education and

training. Management and professional occupations in particular typically require college-level

degree completion. 

Job growth is only

one element of the

total job openings

outlook.

Replacement job

openings also provide significant

employment opportunities for new

entrants and reentrants to the labor

force. As the relatively large babyboom generation

retires, replacement

job openings will be

available across all

industries and occupations, including

those forecasted for

relatively slow growth or negative change in total

employment level. 

Even though growth of total employment is

expected to be concentrated in occupations

requiring post-secondary education, replacement

needs in occupations with slow or negative

growth will result in large numbers of job openings that require less formal education. 

According to Bureau of Labor Statistics’ analysis,

“While the educational and training requirements

of the workforce continue to increase, in 2000,

only 21 percent of jobs were in occupations generally requiring a bachelor’s degree or more education.”7

Table 7.7

Women’s employment and employment change

women with work experience, 1991 and 2001

Percent Women’s

Major Women Women Women’s women’s growth

occupation 1991 2001 growth employment percent

category (thousands) (thousands) (thousands) growth of total

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Managerial 6,664 10,162 3,498 37.4 57.1

Professional 11,473 15,417 3,944 42.1 64.6

Sales 8,224 9,330 1,106 11.8 54.4

Administrative 

support 16,880 16,012 -868 -9.3 111.1

Service 11,526 13,058 1,531 16.4 66.9

All other 6,866 7,017 151 1.6 6.8

Table 7.8

Female proportions of all employees with work experience

by age and occupation

1991 and 2001

1991 2001

Occupational groups Age 25-44 Age 45-64 Age 25-44 Age 45-64

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Managerial 45.9% 36.2% 49.1% 43.4%

Professional and technicians 54.4% 50.7% 55.4% 55.7%

Sales 47.7% 43.6% 49.4% 46.3%

Administrative 80.7% 81.6% 78.9% 82.0%

Service 60.3% 63.5% 60.8% 63.3%

All other 17.5% 20.4% 16.5% 19.3%
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

94

The BLS forecast is that 29 percent of total job

growth from 2000 to 2010 will be in jobs that

require a bachelor’s degree or higher, but only

20.9 percent of total job openings will generally

require a bachelor’s degree or higher as the most

source of education or training. BLS forecasts

that the percent of total employment in jobs generally requiring a bachelor’s degree or higher will

increase from 20.7 percent in 2000 to 21.8 percent in 2010.8

Table 7.9 (page 95) shows the projected total job

openings due to growth and net replacements

between 2000 and 2010 relative to the most significant source of generally needed education or

training. The number of openings includes

employment growth plus net openings to replace

retiring workers or others leaving the occupation. 

According to Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates,

69.8 percent of job openings over the decade will

Figure 7.6

Employed women age 25-44 by major occupation group

percent total employment of women with work experiences

age 25-44, 1991-2001

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Managerial Professional Sales Administrative Service All other

1991 2002

Figure 7.5

Employment growth by major occupation groups

Percent of total net employment growth projection, 2000-2010

Source: Employment Policy Foundation. Group titles correspond to Table 7.6 but have been abreviated for display clarity.

Transportation, etc.

Production

Installation, etc.

Construction, etc.

Farming, etc.

Office, etc.

Sales, etc.

Service

Professional & related

Management, etc.

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35%

Percent
Opportunity

95

generally need primarily work-related training.

The projections refer to the major source of training for the position. It is important, however, to

recognize that formal education is also increasingly important for jobs where work-related training is the primary source of preparation. Workers

with strong verbal literacy and quantitative reasoning skills are able to quickly assimilate on-thejob training and to adapt to changing technology

in the workplace.

Over the decade from 2000 to 2010, 20.9 percent

of average annual new or net replacement job

openings will generally need a bachelor’s degree

or higher. Another 9.3 percent of job openings

will generally need at least a two-year degree or

vocational training certificate.

Figure 7.7 shows the significant rewards for education and training in terms of mean annual

earnings by educational or training requirement

of job in 2000. In 2000, mean annual earnings

of wage earners in occupations generally needing

a first professional degree were 3.5 times those of

wage earners in occupations generally needing

work-related training.9 

Figure 7.7

Mean annual earnings for wage and salary workers by most significant source of education or training for occupation

2000

Source: Employment Policy Foundation.

Total

Work-related training

Post-secondary vocational award

Associate’s degree

Bachelor’s degree

Bachelor’s degree + experience

Master’s degree

Doctoral degree

First professional degree

$0 $20,00 $40,00 $60,00 $80,00 $100,000

Table 7.9

Total employment, job openings due to growth and net replacement needs

by education and training categories

Employment Employment Number of 

2000 2010 openings Percent of

Most significant source of training (thousands) (thousands) (thousands) openings

Source: Based on Daniel Hecker, “Occupational Employment projections to 2010,” Monthly Labor Review, Nov. 2001, Vol 124,

no. 11, Table 6, p. 83.

First professional degree 2,034 2,404 691 1.2

Doctoral degree 1,492 1,845 760 1.3

Master’s degree 1,426 1,759 634 1.1

Bachelor's or higher + experience 7,319 8,741 2,741 4.7

Bachelor's degree 17,801 21,807 7,304 12.6

Associate degree 5,083 6,710 2,608 4.5

Post-secondary vocational award 6,678 7,891 2,775 4.8

Work-related training 103,760 116,597 40,419 69.8

Total 145,594 167,754 57,932 100.0
Handbook on 21st Century Working Women

96

1 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections. See also,

Howard N. Fullerton, Jr., and Mitra Toossi, “Labor Force Projections to 2010: Steady Growth and

Changing Composition,” Monthly Labor Review, Nov. 2001, Vol. 124, No. 11. The projections referenced

here were issued prior to re-benchmarking of Current Population Survey data to reflect the results of the

2000 Census. Revised labor force estimates for 2000 were 142 million, approximately 1.6 million higher than the base level for the BLS projections reported here. BLS projections have not been revised to

reflect the effect of 2000 Census re-benchmarking. BLS projections for 2002-2012, published in

February 2004, are based on 2000 Census benchmarks. The Employment Policy Foundation assumes

the projected labor force in 2010 would increase about the same amount as the revised labor force estimate.

2 The reference to “women’s population” is with respect to women age 16 and older. 3 This conclusion reflects Employment Policy Foundation analysis of education and hours of work

presented in earlier chapters of this report.

4 BLS occupational projections and historical employment by occupation data from the Current

Population Survey are not strictly comparable. Different occupational classification schemes are used in

the two information sources. The conclusion drawn in the text is a generalization based on the broad

similarities between the two at the major occupation group level. The comparison is also affected by the

occurrence of multiple job-holders among labor force participants—the BLS projections refer to jobs,

and the CPS data refer to persons and their primary job during the reference period. The conclusions

drawn here are based on analysis by the Employment Policy Foundation and should not be attributed to

BLS. Comments by BLS on the draft of this section emphasized that notable data comparability problems complicate the analysis. The March supplement asks workers about their longest job held during

the indicated calendar year, which is not the same thing as annual average employment by occupation

from the basic CPS survey data. The basic CPS survey asks about employment status and

occupation/industry as of the week that contains the 12th of the month. The employment/unemployment data from the March supplement differ markedly from data derived from the basic CPS survey.

Whether one uses basic or supplement data from the CPS, there are consistency issues with the National

Employment Matrix data, because the CPS and the National Employment Matrix used different occupational classification systems through 2002. Also, the CPS basic data describe the number of people

working whereas National Employment Matrix data describe the number of jobs. 

5 Daniel Hecker, “Occupational employment projections to 2010,” Monthly Labor Review, Nov. 2001,

Vol. 124, No. 11, pp. 57-84.

6 BLS occupational projections and historical employment by occupation data from the Current

Population Survey are not strictly comparable. Different occupational classification schemes are used in

the two information sources. The conclusion drawn in the text is a generalization based on the broad

similarities between the two at the major occupation group level. The comparison is also affected by the

occurrence of multiple job-holders among labor force participants: the BLS projections refer to jobs and

the CPS data refer to persons and their primary job during the reference period. The conclusions drawn

here are based on analysis by the Employment Policy Foundation and should not be attributed to BLS.

Comments by BLS on the draft of this section emphasized that notable data comparability problems

complicate the analysis. The March supplement asks workers about their longest job held during the

indicated calendar year, which is not the same thing as annual average employment by occupation from

the basic CPS survey data. The basic CPS survey asks about employment status and occupation/industry

as of the week that contains the 12th of the month. The employment/unemployment data from the

March supplement differ markedly from data derived from the basic CPS survey. Whether one uses

basic or supplement data from the CPS, there are consistency issues with the National Employment

Matrix data, because the CPS and the National Employment Matrix used different occupational classification systems through 2002. Also, the CPS basic data describe the number of people working whereas

National Employment Matrix data describe the number of jobs. 

7 Hecker, op. cit., p. 80. 8 Ibid., Table 6, p. 83. 9 In Figure 7.7, occupations falling under the bachelor’s degree or higher, plus work experience category are most often management, business, and financial occupations.
Employment Policy Foundation

www.EPF.org