National Park Service • U.S. Department of the Interior

Draft General Management Plan/Environmental Impact Statement

Volume II

August • 2011

Golden Gate National Recreation Area

Muir Woods National Monument
 Cover photo credit: Robert Campbell / Chamois Moon
Volume II: i 

CONTENTS 

PART 7: RESOURCES AND VALUES THAT COULD BE AFFECTED BY THE 

ALTERNATIVES (THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT) 

Introduction 3

Summary Table of Impact Topics 4

Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 21

Introduction 21 

Alcatraz Island 21 

Physical Resources 22 

Biological Resources 46 

Natural Resources – Muir Woods National Monument 68

Introduction 68 

Physical Resources 68 

Biological Resources 72 

Cultural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 83

Introduction 83 

Area of Potential Effect (APE) 84 

Cultural Resources Listed in or Eligible to be Listed in 

 the National Register of Historic Places 92 

Archeological Resources 106 

Ethnographic Resources 107 

Park Collections 110 

Cultural Resources – Muir Woods National Monument 112

Introduction 112 

National Register of Historic Places 112 

Archeological Resources 114 

Ethnographic Resources 115 

Park Collections 115 

Visitor Use and Experience—Golden Gate National Recreation Area 116

Diversity of Recreational Opportunities and National Park Experiences 116 

Visitor Opportunities at Alcatraz Island 118 

Visitor Use and Characteristics 118 

Visitor Understanding, Education, and Interpretation 121 

Safe and Enjoyable Access and Circulation to and within the Park 122 

Visitor Safety 123 

Visitor Use and Experience – Muir Woods National Monument 124

Diversity of Recreational Opportunities and National Park Experiences 124 

Visitor Use and Characteristics 124 

Visitor Understanding, Education, and Interpretation 126 

Safe and Enjoyable Access and Circulation to and within the Park (see also 

transportation section) 127 

Visitor Safety 127 

Social and Economic Environment (Including both Golden Gate National Recreation 

Area and Muir Woods National Monument) 128

Introduction 128 
CONTENTS 

Volume II: ii 

The Importance of Parks to a Community 128 

Population and Community Trends 131 

Economic Effects of the Park on the Community 142 

Transportation (Including both Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods 

National Monument) 149

Regional Transportation Context 149 

Park Transportation Network 152 

Park Management, Operations, and Facilities (Including Both Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument) 179

Staffing 179 

Partners and Other Entities 182 

Park Facilities 183 

Asset Management 188

PART 8: POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 

Introduction 193

Methods and Assumptions for Analyzing Potential Impacts 195

Natural Resources 196 

Cultural Resources 202 

Visitor Use and Experience 206 

Social and Economic Environment 207 

Transportation 208 

Park Management, Operations, and Facilities 210 

Impairment of Park Resources 211

Common to All Alternatives at Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods 

National Monument 212

Natural Resources 212 

Cultural Resources 213 

Visitor Use and Experience 215 

Social and Economic Environment 216 

Transportation 218 

Park Management, Operations, and Facilities 220 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area, Including Alcatraz Island 223

Natural Resources – Physical Resources 223 

Natural Resources – Biological Resources 237 

Cultural Resources 261 

Visitor Use and Experience 297 

Social and Economic Environment 308 

Transportation 319 

Park Management, Operations, and Facilities 328 

Muir Woods National Monument 335

Natural Resources – Physical Resources 335 

Natural Resources – Biological Resources 345 

Cultural Resources – Historic Structures, Historic Districts, and Cultural Landscapes 

356 

Cultural Resources – Archeological Resources 362 

Cultural Resources – Ethnographic Resources / Traditional Cultural Properties 

365 
Contents

Volume II: iii 

Cultural Resources – Park Collections 366 

Visitor Use and Experience 367 

Social and Economic Environment 372 

Transportation 378 

Park Management, Operations, and Facilities 388 

INDEX 

Index to Volume II 395

TABLES

Table 1: Impact Topics Retained For or Dismissed From Detailed Analysis 4

Table 2: County Variation in Attainment Status, Demonstrated by Monitoring Station 

Data, 2001-2003 24

Table 3: Emission Statistics for Golden Gate National Recreation Area 27

Table 4: Impaired Water Bodies within Point Reyes National Seashore and Golden Gate 

National Recreation Area as Indicated from the 2006 303d List 42

Table 5: Area of Potential Effect 85

Table 6: Percentage of 2007 Population (25 or older) Reaching Various Levels of 

Education 140

Table 7: Percentage of 2007 Housing Stock, Detached and Attached Housing 141

Table 8: Percentage of 2007 Housing Stock, Owner-occupied and Renter-occupied 

Housing 141

Table 9: 2003 Visits and Estimated Spending, by Visitation Type 143

Table 10: 2003 Estimated Economic Contributions of Golden Gate National Recreation 

Area Visitor Spending, By Sector 144

Table 11: 2009 National Park Service Jobs and Salaries, By Location of Residence 

145

Table 12: The Golden Gate National Recreation Area Portfolio Summarized by Record 

Count for Various Asset Types 184

Table 13: Maintenance Facilities 186

Table 14: Golden Gate National Recreation Areas Operation and Maintenance Planned 

Funding Summary 189

Table 15: Project Funding and Deferred Maintenance 190

Table 16: Potential Impacts to Special Status Species of Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area, No-action Alternative 250

Table 17: Potential Impacts to Special Status Species of Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area, Alternative 1 254

Table 18: Potential Impacts to Special Status Species of Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area, Alternative 2 257
CONTENTS 

Volume II: iv 

Table 19: Potential Impacts to Special Status Species of Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area, Alternative 3 260

Table 20: Parking Capacity at Stinson Beach, 2002 & 2023 325

Table 21: Potential Impacts to Special Status Species of Muir Woods National 

Monument, No-action Alternative 351

Table 22: Potential Impacts to Special Status Species of Muir Woods National 

Monument, Alternative 1 352

Table 23: Potential Impacts to Special Status Species of Muir Woods National 

Monument, Alternative 2 354

Table 24: Potential Impacts to Special Status Species of Muir Woods National 

Monument, Alternative 3 356

Table 25: Parking Demand at Muir Woods National Monument, 2002 & 2023 383

Table 26: Estimated Annual Cost of Shuttle, 75% Parking at Muir Woods National 

Monument 384

Table 27: Estimated Annual Cost of Shuttle Operations, No Parking at Muir Woods 

National Monument 386

FIGURES

Figure 1: Gross Emissions for Golden Gate National Recreation Area 26

Figure 2: 2006 Gross Park Emissions by Sector, Excluding Visitors 26

Figure 3: 2006 Gross Park Emissions by Sector, Including Visitors 27

Figure 4: Sea Level Rise 31

Figure 5: Coastal Vulnerability 34

Figure 6: Golden Gate National Recreation Area Watersheds 35

Figure 7: Vegetation Communities 55

Figure 8: Potentially Affected Historic Sites 93

Figure 9: Golden Gate National Recreation Area Recreational Visitors by Year 1999–

2009 119

Figure 10: Golden Gate National Recreation Area Visitor Use by Month, 2004–2008 

120

Figure 11: Muir Woods National Monument Recreation Visitors by Year, 1999–2009 

125

Figure 12: Muir Woods National Monument Visitor Use by Month, 2004–2008 126

Figure 13: 2006 Estimated Populations of Gateway Counties 132

Figure 14: Past and Projected Population Growth of Golden Gate National Recreation 

Area Gateway Counties 132

Figure 15: Past and Projected Population Growth of Golden Gate National Recreation 

Area Gateway Counties Relative to Overall Bay Area 133
Contents

Volume II: v 

Figure 16: 2007 Population Estimates in Bay Area, by Race 135

Figure 17: 2007 Population Estimates in Marin County, by Race 135

Figure 18: 2007 Population Estimates in San Francisco, by Race 136

Figure 19: 2007 Population Estimates in San Mateo County, by Race 136

Figure 20: 2030 Population Estimate in Bay Area, by Race 137

Figure 21: Population Estimate by Race in Marin County in 2007 and 2030 138

Figure 22: Population Estimate by Race in City & County of San Francisco in 2007 and 

2030 138

Figure 23: Population Estimate by Race in San Mateo County in 2007 and 2030 139

Figure 24: 2005 Bay Area Jobs, by Sector 147

Figure 25: 2005 – 2030 Bay Area Employment Projections, by Sector 148

Figure 26: Marin County Transportation Network: Muir Woods, Stinson Beach 163

Figure 27: Marin County Transportation Network: Marin Headlands 165

Figure 28: San Francisco Transportation Network: Fort Mason, Alcatraz 167

Figure 29: San Francisco Transportation Network: Baker Beach, Presidio, Crissy Field 

169

Figure 30: San Francisco Transportation Network: Lands End, Sutro Heights 171

Figure 31: San Francisco Transportation Network: Ocean Beach, Fort Funston 173

Figure 32: San Mateo County Transportation Network: Northern San Mateo County 

175

Figure 33: San Mateo County Transportation Network: Phleger Estate, SFPUC 

Watershed 177
CONTENTS 

Volume II: vi 

CONTENTS OF VOLUME I 

PART 1: BACKGROUND 

Introduction 

Purpose and Need 

Guiding Principles for Park Management 

The Planning Area 

Foundation Statements: Guidance for Planning 

Foundation Statements for Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Foundation Statements for Muir Woods National Monument 

Special Mandates and Administrative Commitments Related to Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area 

Planning Issues 

Relationship of This Plan to Other Plans 

Related Laws and National Park Service Policies 

PART 2: BUILDING THE MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES 

Introduction 

Concepts for Future Management 

Actions and Alternatives Considered but Dismissed From Further Consideration 

Selection of the National Park Service Preferred Alternatives 

Management Zones 

PART 3: ELEMENTS COMMON TO ALL ACTION ALTERNATIVES 

Introduction 

Boundary Adjustments 

Climate Change 

Facilities for Maintenance, Public Safety, and Collections Storage 

Facilities Not Directly Related to the Park Mission 

Native American Engagement 

Ocean Stewardship 

Park Collections 

Partnerships 

Trails 

Transportation 
Contents

Volume II: vii 

PART 4: THE ALTERNATIVES FOR ALCATRAZ ISLAND 

No-action Alternative 

Alternative 1: Connecting People with the Parks 

Alternative 2: Preserving and Enjoying Coastal Ecosystems 

Alternative 3: Focusing on National Treasures The Preferred Alternative 

Summary Cost Estimates for Alcatraz Island 

Deferred Maintenance 

Environmentally Preferable Alternative for Alcatraz Island 

Summary Tables of the Alternatives for Alcatraz Island 

PART 5: THE ALTERNATIVES FOR PARK LANDS IN MARIN, SAN FRANCISCO, 

AND SAN MATEO COUNTIES 

No-action Alternative 

Alternative 1: Connecting People with the Parks The Preferred Alternative 

Alternative 2: Preserving and Enjoying Coastal Ecosystems 

Alternative 3: Focusing on National Treasures 

Summary Costs Estimates for Park Lands in Marin, San Francisco, and San Mateo 

Counties 

Deferred Maintenance 

Environmentally Preferable Alternative for Park Lands in Marin, San Francisco, and 

San Mateo Counties 

Summary Tables of the Alternatives for Park Lands in Marin, San Francisco, and San 

Mateo Counties 

PART 6: THE ALTERNATIVES FOR MUIR WOODS NATIONAL MONUMENT x

No-action Alternative 

Alternative 1: Connecting People with the Parks 

Alternative 2: Preserving and Enjoying Coastal Ecosystems 

Alternative 3: Focusing on National Treasures The Preferred Alternative 

Summary of Costs Estimates for Muir Woods National Monument 

Deferred Maintenance 

Environmentally Preferable Alternative for Muir Woods National Monument 

Summary Tables for Muir Woods National Monument 
CONTENTS

Volume II: viii 

CONTENTS OF VOLUME III 

PART 9: USER CAPACITY 

Introduction 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Muir Woods National Monument

PART 10: IMPLEMENTATION PLANNING AND MITIGATIVE MEASURES 

Implementation Planning 

Mitigative Measures 

PART 11: OTHER ANALYSES AND STATUTORY CONSIDERATIONS 

Introduction and Methodology 

Cumulative Impact Analysis at Golden Gate National Recreation Area, Including 

Alcatraz Island 

Cumulative Impact Analysis at Muir Woods National Monument 

Additional Analyses 

PART 12: CONSULTATION, COORDINATION, AND PREPARATION 

Public Involvement 

Consultation with Other Agencies, Officials, and Organizations 

Agencies, Organizations, and Individuals Receiving A Copy of this Document 

Preparers and Consultants 

APPENDIXES 

Appendix A: Legislation 

Appendix B: Description of Management Plans Related to This Plan 

Appendix C: Relevant NPS Policies 

Appendix D: Table of Special Status Species (including Threatened and Endangered 

Species and Candidate Species) 

Appendix E: Descriptions of Local Transit Service 

Appendix F: Description of San Mateo County Trails 

GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES 

Glossary 

References
7 Resources and Values that Could be Affected 

by the Alternatives (The Affected Environment)

Volume II: 3 

INTRODUCTION 

This part of the document describes the existing environment of Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument. This discussion serves to identify 

the current conditions in the park that could be affected by the implementation of any of 

the alternatives in this plan. The information is organized around six general topics: 

natural resources, cultural resources, visitor use and experience, social and economic 

environment, transportation, and park operations, although there is some overlap between 

social and economic environment and transportation. 

Regarding the discussion of the first three topics—natural resources, cultural resources, 

and visitor use and experience—differences between the two units are distinct enough to 

warrant separate discussions for Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods 

National Monument. However, because of the proximity of the two units, and their 

similar relationships to the urban centers within the planning area, combined discussions 

that incorporate information about both units are presented for the last three topics. 

Table 1, beginning on the next page, presents more detailed information on specific 

impact topics and the reasons that each was retained or dismissed from further evaluation. 
Volume II: 4 

SUMMARY TABLE OF IMPACT TOPICS 

Table 1: Impact Topics Retained For or Dismissed From Detailed Analysis 

Impact Topic 

(Retained or 

Dismissed from 

further analysis) 

Rationale Relevant Law, 

Regulation, or 

Policy 

Natural Resources 

Carbon Footprint 

and Air Quality 

Retained

Retained as an impact topic for further 

detailed analysis because of the interest in 

minimizing greenhouse gas emissions and 

reducing the carbon footprint of the park and 

monument, the Bay Area, and the state of 

California. The focus of the analysis is on 

greenhouse gas emissions related to NPS 

operational activities and how that would vary 

among the alternatives included in the plan. 

The park and monument are within the Class 

II air quality areas under the Clean Air Act, as 

amended. A Class II designation indicates 

the maximum allowable increase in 

concentrations of pollutants over baseline 

concentrations of sulfur dioxide and 

particulate matter as specified in Section 163 

of the Clean Air Act. 

The California Clean Air Act of 1988, as 

amended, sets ambient air quality standards 

that are stricter than the federal standards 

and requires local air districts to promulgate 

and implement rules and regulations to attain 

those standards. Under the act, California 

Ambient Air Quality Standards are set for all 

pollutants covered under national standards, 

as well as vinyl chloride, hydrogen sulfide, 

sulfates, and visibility-reducing particulates. If 

an area does not meet the California 

standards, it is designated as a state 

nonattainment area. 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area and 

Muir Woods National Monument are in the 

San Francisco Bay Area Air Basin, which 

consists of San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa 

Clara, Alameda, Contra Costa, Napa, and 

Marin Counties, as well as portions of 

Sonoma and Solano counties. The Bay Area 

Clean Air Act; 

Executive Order 

13423; 

DOI Secretarial 

Order 3226, 

Amendment No.1; 

California Global 

Warming Solutions 

Act of 2006 (AB32); 

NPS Management 

Policies 2006; 

NPS Pacific West 

Region Directive 

PW-047 
Summary Table of Impact Topics 

Volume II: 5 

Impact Topic 

(Retained or 

Dismissed from 

further analysis) 

Rationale Relevant Law, 

Regulation, or 

Policy 

Air Quality Management District is the air 

quality agency responsible for the entire 

basin. The San Francisco Bay Area is 

designated a federal nonattainment area for 

ozone and a state nonattainment area for 

ozone and inhalable particulate matter. 

Dust and exhaust emissions would be 

produced by development activities and the 

potential for increased vehicular traffic to the 

park and monument; however, these 

activities would not be expected to cause 

national ambient air quality standards to be 

exceeded because visitation increases would 

be relatively small and the level of new 

development proposed is minimal. Air quality 

impacts from the use of prescribed fire were 

analyzed in the park’s Fire Management 

Plan / Environmental Impact Statement. Any 

amount of pollutants added because of the 

actions proposed in this general 

management plan would be negligible 

compared to existing levels. None of the 

actions described in this plan would violate 

any air quality standard or result in a 

cumulatively considerable net increase of any 

criteria pollutant for which the Bay Area is in 

nonattainment under federal or state ambient 

air quality standards. Implementation of any 

of the alternatives described in the plan 

would have negligible effects on air quality 

and the Class II air quality status of the park 

and monument would be unaffected. 

Soils and Geologic 

Resources and 

Processes 

(including natural 

shoreline and 

coastal processes) 

Retained

Soils and geologic resources and processes 

are an important component of maintaining 

the ecological integrity of the park and 

monument. Actions included in the plan, such 

as recreational facility development, changes 

in visitor use, and restoration, could affect 

soils and natural coastal processes. Any 

impacts that would adversely affect soils or 

geologic processes would be of concern to 

NPS managers and the public. Therefore, 

this topic was retained for detailed analysis. 

NPS Management 

Policies 2006
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 6 

Impact Topic 

(Retained or 

Dismissed from 

further analysis) 

Rationale Relevant Law, 

Regulation, or 

Policy 

Water Resources 

and Hydrologic 

Processes 

(including stream 

character, water 

quantity and quality, 

watershed 

processes, 

wetlands, 

floodplains, and 

marine/estuarine 

resources) 

Retained 

Water resources and hydrologic processes 

are an important component of the ecological 

communities of the park and monument. 

Development can alter, and has altered in the 

past, natural surface flows and watershed 

processes, with subsequent effects on the 

natural environment. Actions included in the 

plan, such as recreational facility 

development and stream/habitat restoration 

could affect water quality, wetlands, 

floodplains, and watershed processes. 

Therefore, water resources and hydrologic 

processes were retained for detailed 

analysis. 

Clean Water Act; 

Executive Order 

12088; 

Executive Order 

11990; 

Executive Order 

11988; 

NPS Management 

Policies 2006; 

Director’s Order 77-

1; 

Director’s Order 77-

2

Habitat (Vegetation 

and Wildlife) 

Retained

Terrestrial and aquatic habitat is an important 

resource that defines the natural 

environment. The park and monument 

contain a diversity of plant and animal 

habitats. Actions included in the plan, such 

as recreational facility development, changes 

in visitor use, and restoration, could affect 

natural habitat values. Proposed actions 

could beneficially or adversely affect these 

resources, which would be of concern to NPS 

managers and the public. Therefore, this 

topic was retained for detailed analysis. 

NPS Organic Act; 

NPS Management 

Policies 2006

Special Status 

Species: Federal 

Threatened and 

Endangered 

Retained

The park and monument host a variety of 

federal listed species. Actions included in the 

plan, such as recreational facility 

development, changes in visitor use, and 

habitat restoration, could affect the quality of 

habitat preferred by many of these species, 

as well as the behavior of certain species. 

Therefore, the following federal listed species 

were retained for detailed analysis: northern 

spotted owl, coho salmon, steelhead trout, 

California red-legged frog, Mission blue 

butterfly, tidewater goby, western snowy 

plover, San Francisco lessingia, San 

Francisco garter snake, and San Bruno elfin 

butterfly. 

Endangered 

Species Act; 

Migratory Bird 

Treaty Act; 

NPS Management 

Policies 2006 
Summary Table of Impact Topics 

Volume II: 7 

Impact Topic 

(Retained or 

Dismissed from 

further analysis) 

Rationale Relevant Law, 

Regulation, or 

Policy 

See appendix D for a listing of all special 

status species considered. All species that 

have been retained for analysis are identified 

in the appendix table. 

Special Status 

Species: State 

Threatened and 

Endangered 

Retained

The park and monument host a number of 

state listed species. Actions included in the 

plan, such as recreational facility 

development, changes in visitor use, and 

habitat restoration, could affect the quality of 

habitat preferred by one of these species, as 

well as the behavior of the species. 

Therefore, the following state listed species 

was retained for detailed analysis: bank 

swallow 

Endangered 

Species Act; 

California 

Endangered 

Species Act; 

NPS Management 

Policies 2006

Special Status 

Species: Other 

Federal and State 

listed Species 

Dismissed

Several other federal and state listed species 

that are known to occur in the area were 

dismissed because 1) these species are 

typically not found in the park or monument, 

2) their preferred habitat would not be 

physically disturbed by any of the GMP 

alternatives, or 3) the effects of actions 

included in the alternatives on these species 

would be negligible. 

See appendix D for a listing of all special 

status species considered. All species that 

have not been identified as “Retained” were 

dismissed for one or more of the above 

reasons. 

Endangered 

Species Act; 

Bald and Golden 

Eagle Protection 

Act; 

Migratory Bird 

Treaty Act; 

Marine Mammal 

Protection Act; 

National 

Environmental 

Policy Act; 

California 

Endangered 

Species 

Act; NPS 

Management 

Policies 2006

Essential Fish 

Habitat 

Dismissed

In accordance with the 1996 amendments to 

the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation 

and Management Act, federal agencies that 

fund, permit, or carry out activities that may 

adversely impact essential fish habitat are 

required to consult with the National Marine 

Fisheries Service regarding the potential 

adverse effects of their actions on essential 

Magnuson-Stevens 

Fishery 

Conservation and 

Management Act 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 8 

Impact Topic 

(Retained or 

Dismissed from 

further analysis) 

Rationale Relevant Law, 

Regulation, or 

Policy 

fish habitat; such agencies must also 

respond in writing to National Marine 

Fisheries Service recommendations. 

Essential fish habitat is defined as “those 

waters and substrate necessary to fish for 

spawning, breeding, feeding, or growth to 

maturity.” Waters include aquatic areas and 

their associated physical, chemical, and 

biological properties. Substrate includes 

sediment underlying the waters. “Necessary” 

means the habitat required to support a 

sustainable fishery and the species’ 

contribution to a healthy ecosystem. 

Spawning, breeding, feeding, or growth to 

maturity covers all habitat types used by a 

species throughout its life cycle. The 

conservation of essential fish habitat is an 

important component of building and 

maintaining sustainable fisheries. Loss or 

degradation of essential fish habitat is 

primarily the result of activities such as point 

and nonpoint water pollution, livestock 

grazing, mining, road construction, estuarine 

or marine habitat alteration, creation of 

migration barriers or hazards, increases or 

decreases in sediment delivery, and 

alteration of stream banks, shorelines, 

wetlands, and floodplains. 

The San Francisco Bay, a migratory corridor 

between riverine habitat and the Pacific 

Ocean, is designated critical habitat for 

several listed fish species. Habitat loss and 

degradation is primarily the result of 

overfishing, timber harvest, point and 

nonpoint water pollution, livestock grazing, 

mining, road construction, diking and stream 

bank stabilization, and dredge and fill 

activities. 

None of the actions proposed in the GMP 

alternatives would contribute to essential fish 

habitat loss or degradation. Some of the 

actions described in this plan would 

contribute to improvements in the quality or 

quantity of essential fish habitat; however, 

additional environmental compliance and 
Summary Table of Impact Topics 

Volume II: 9 

Impact Topic 

(Retained or 

Dismissed from 

further analysis) 

Rationale Relevant Law, 

Regulation, or 

Policy 

consultation with National Marine Fisheries 

Service would take place prior to 

implementation of these specific projects. 

Therefore, the topic of essential fish habitat 

was dismissed from further analysis. 

Marine Protected 

Areas 

Retained

Executive Order 13158, “Marine Protected 

Areas,” defines marine protected areas as 

any area of the marine environment that has 

been reserved by federal, state, territorial, 

tribal, or local laws or regulations to provide 

lasting protection for part or all of the natural 

and cultural resources therein. The executive 

order requires every federal agency to 

identify its actions that affect the natural or 

cultural resources that are protected by a 

marine protected area and, to the extent 

permitted by law and the maximum extent 

practicable, to avoid harming these 

resources. There are several federal- and 

state-designated marine protected areas 

near the park. The marine and esturarine 

area of Golden Gate National Recreation 

Area was designated a federal marine 

protected area under the national system of 

marine protected areas on May 25, 2010. 

Impacts to the natural and cultural resources 

protected by these marine protected areas 

are analyzed under their respective topics 

and marine protected areas are not included 

as a separate impact topic. 

Executive Order 

13158 

Prime and Unique 

Farmlands 

Dismissed

In August 1980, the Council on

Environmental Quality (CEQ) directed that 

federal agencies assess the effects of their 

actions on farmland soils classified as prime 

or unique by the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture’s Natural Resource Conservation 

Service. Prime farmland is land that has the 

best combination of physical and chemical 

characteristics for producing food, feed, 

forage, fiber, and oilseed crops and is 

available for these uses. Unique farmland is 

land other than prime farmland that is used 

for the production of specific high-value food 

and fiber crops (e.g., citrus, tree nuts, olives, 

Farmland 

Protection Policy 

Act; 

Council on 

Environmental 

Quality 1980 

memorandum 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 10 

Impact Topic 

(Retained or 

Dismissed from 

further analysis) 

Rationale Relevant Law, 

Regulation, or 

Policy 

cranberries, fruit, and vegetables). The 

Farmland Protection Policy Act (7 USC 4201 

et seq.) and the U.S. Department of the 

Interior (Environmental Statement 

Memorandum No. ESM94-7 – Prime and 

Unique Agricultural Lands) require an 

evaluation of impacts on prime or unique 

agricultural lands.

According to Natural Resource Conservation 

Service soils data, prime and unique 

farmlands do exist within the jurisdictional 

boundaries of Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area in San Mateo County at and 

adjacent to the Rancho Corral de Tierra 

property. All of these farmlands (with one 

small exception) are in private ownership and 

will not be acquired or managed by the 

National Park Service as part of the future 

land transfer with the Peninsula Open Space 

Trust. The one exception is an approximately 

5-acre piece of farmland (adjacent to the 

privately owned Aenlle property) that 

contains prime soils and is scheduled to be 

acquired by the National Park Service as part 

of the land transfer. Once acquired, the 

National Park Service intends to use the land 

for native plant production supporting 

landscape restoration projects in the park. 

Consequently, no loss of prime soils or their 

potential for agricultural production would 

occur. However, the management zone used 

in the preferred alternative and in one or 

more of the other alternatives (Diverse Visitor 

Opportunities zone) allows for facility 

development, diverse visitor uses, and 

ecosystem restoration. Should the National 

Park Service decide to discontinue the 

agricultural use of the prime farmland and 

convert it to a nonagricultural use that could 

adversely impact its soil resources and its 

use and potential for agricultural production, 

then the National Park Service would be 

required to evaluate the impacts on prime 

farmland and consult with the NRCS. 

Within Golden Gate National Recreation Area 
Summary Table of Impact Topics 

Volume II: 11 

Impact Topic 

(Retained or 

Dismissed from 

further analysis) 

Rationale Relevant Law, 

Regulation, or 

Policy 

in Marin County, only Farmland of Statewide 

Importance exists—there are no prime and 

unique farmlands. Based on a determination 

by Natural Resource Conservation Service in 

2007, soils and farmland in the vicinity of the 

Lower Redwood Creek property are not 

classified as prime or unique 

farmland (Parson 2007). 

In addition, there are no prime and unique 

farmlands within the boundaries of Muir 

Woods National Monument. Therefore, this 

topic was dismissed from further analysis. 

Natural or 

Depletable 

Resource 

Requirements and 

Conservation 

Potential 

Dismissed

None of the alternatives being considered 

would result in the extraction of new 

resources from Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area or Muir Woods National 

Monument. In all of the alternatives, 

ecological principles would be applied to 

ensure that the natural resources of the park 

and monument were maintained and 

protected. Certain resources could continue 

to be collected for scientific and educational 

purposes, and the specimens would be 

stored in the NPS collection. Agricultural 

operations on NPS lands would continue to 

result in the harvesting of crops, which assist 

in meeting cultural landscape objectives. The 

fields would be managed to sustain this 

harvest. Implementation of the alternatives 

would result in the use of limited natural 

resources and energy for construction and 

operation of new recreational facilities and for 

restoration activities. New development 

would be designed to be sustainable to the 

maximum extent practicable. The use and 

consumption of fuel and other nonrenewable 

resources for NPS operations, activities, and 

development associated with the alternatives 

would be very small in comparison to that of 

the region. Overall, the impact on this topic 

would likely be negligible and thus it was 

dismissed from detailed analysis. 

National 

Environmental 

Policy Act; 

Council on 

Environmental 

Quality 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 12 

Impact Topic 

(Retained or 

Dismissed from 

further analysis) 

Rationale Relevant Law, 

Regulation, or 

Policy 

Energy 

Requirements and 

Conservation 

Potential 

Dismissed

Council on Environmental Quality guidelines 

for implementing the National Environmental 

Policy Act (NEPA) require examination of 

energy requirements and conservation 

potential in environmental impact statements. 

NPS staff strive to incorporate the principles 

of sustainable design and development into 

all facilities and park operations. 

Sustainability can be described as the result 

achieved by doing things in ways that do not 

compromise the environment or its capacity 

to provide for present and future generations. 

Sustainable practices minimize the shortterm and long-term environmental impacts of 

developments and other activities through 

resource conservation, recycling, waste 

minimization, and the use of energy efficient 

and ecologically responsible materials and 

techniques. 

The NPS Guiding Principles of Sustainable 

Design (1993) provides a basis for achieving 

sustainability in facility planning and design, 

emphasizes the importance of bio-diversity, 

and encourages responsible decisions. The 

guidebook describes principles to be used in 

the design and management of visitor 

facilities that emphasize environmental 

sensitivity in construction, use of nontoxic 

materials, resource conservation, recycling, 

and integration of visitors within natural and 

cultural settings. The National Park Service 

would minimize energy costs, eliminate 

waste, and conserve energy resources by 

using energy efficient and cost effective 

technology wherever possible. Recent 

examples include projects to install 

photovoltaic panels on the NPS 

Headquarters building at Upper Fort Mason 

and projects to pursue alternative energy 

options at Alcatraz Island. Energy efficiency 

would also be incorporated into any decisionmaking process during the design or 

acquisition of facilities, as well as all 

decisions affecting park operations. 

The use of value analysis and value 

National 

Environmental 

Policy Act; 

Council on 

Environmental 

Quality 
Summary Table of Impact Topics 

Volume II: 13 

Impact Topic 

(Retained or 

Dismissed from 

further analysis) 

Rationale Relevant Law, 

Regulation, or 

Policy 

engineering, including life cycle cost analysis, 

would be performed to examine energy, 

environmental, and economic implications of 

proposed NPS development. National Park 

Service staff would encourage suppliers, 

permittees, and contractors to follow 

sustainable practices and would address 

sustainable park and park partner practices 

in interpretive programs. Consequently, any 

adverse impacts relating to energy use, 

availability, or conservation would be 

negligible. Therefore, energy requirements 

and conservation potential was dismissed 

from further analysis. 

Cultural Resources 

Archeological 

Resources 

Retained

Actions included in the plan, such as 

recreational facility development, changes in 

visitor use, and ecosystem restoration, could 

result in impacts to archeological resources. 

Therefore, this topic has been retained for 

detailed analysis. 

National Historic 

Preservation Act; 

National 

Environmental 

Policy Act; 

Secretarial Order 

13007; 

Director's Order 28; 

NPS Management 

Policies 2006; 

NPS-28A, 

“Archeological 

Resources 

Management” 

Cultural Landscapes 

Retained 

Actions included in the plan, such as 

recreational facility development, changes in 

visitor use, and ecosystem restoration, could 

result in impacts to the integrity and function 

of identified or potential cultural landscapes. 

Therefore, this topic has been retained for 

detailed analysis. 

NPS Management 

Policies 2006; 

NPS-28, “Cultural 

Resources 

Management” 

Ethnographic 

Resources 

Retained (for 

No identified ethnographic resources exist in 

the park and monument, except for resources 

at Alcatraz Island that may have 

ethnographic significance to certain American 

National 

Environmental 

Policy Act; 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 14 

Impact Topic 

(Retained or 

Dismissed from 

further analysis) 

Rationale Relevant Law, 

Regulation, or 

Policy 

Alcatraz Island only) Indians. Actions included in the plan, such as 

recreational facility development, changes in 

visitor use, and restoration, could result in 

impacts to potential ethnographic resources 

at Alcatraz Island. Therefore, this topic has 

been retained for detailed analysis. 

Secretarial Order 

13007; 

Director's Order 28; 

NPS Management 

Policies 2006; 

NPS-28, “Cultural 

Resources 

Management” 

Historic Structures 

Retained

Many of the structures in the park and 

monument are listed or have been 

determined eligible for listing in the National 

Register of Historic Places. Actions included 

in the plan, such as adaptive reuse of 

structures and changes in visitor use, could 

result in impacts to historic structures. 

Therefore, this topic has been retained for 

detailed analysis. 

National Historic 

Preservation Act; 

NPS Management 

Policies 2006; 

NPS-28, “Cultural 

Resources 

Management” 

Park Collections 

Retained 

Actions included in the plan, such as options 

for the use, curation, and storage of park 

collections, could result in impacts to park 

collections. Therefore, this topic has been 

retained for detailed analysis. 

National Historic 

Preservation Act; 

NPS Management 

Policies 2006; 

Director’s Order 24, 

“Museum 

Collections 

Management” 

Indian Trust 

Resources 

Dismissed 

Secretarial Order 3175 requires that any 

anticipated impacts on Indian trust resources 

from a proposed project or action by 

Department of the Interior agencies be 

explicitly addressed in environmental 

documents. The federal Indian trust 

responsibility is a legally enforceable 

fiduciary obligation on the part of the United 

States to protect tribal lands, assets, 

resources, and treaty rights, and it represents 

a duty to carry out the mandates of federal 

law with respect to American Indian and 

Alaska Native tribes. 

There are no Indian trust resources or sacred 

sites in the park or monument; therefore, this 

Secretarial Order 

3175 
Summary Table of Impact Topics 

Volume II: 15 

Impact Topic 

(Retained or 

Dismissed from 

further analysis) 

Rationale Relevant Law, 

Regulation, or 

Policy 

topic was dismissed from further 

consideration. 

Visitor Use and Experience

Visitor Use and 

Experience

(including diversity 

of recreation 

opportunities; visitor 

access; experience 

of the park setting; 

visitor 

understanding, 

education, and 

interpretation; and 

visitor safety) 

Retained

Enjoyment of the park resources by visitors is 

part of the fundamental purpose of a national 

park unit. The visitor experience is an 

important issue that could be appreciably 

affected under the alternatives. The Organic 

Act and NPS Management Policies 2006 

direct the National Park Service to provide 

enjoyment opportunities that are uniquely 

suited and appropriate to the resources 

found in the park and monument. The types 

and levels of access are important 

components of visitor use and experience 

and are of concern to many people as well as 

NPS managers. Therefore, this topic was 

retained for detailed analysis. 

Enabling 

legislation; 

NPS Management 

Policies 2006

Lightscape 

(Dark Night Sky 

Preservation) 

Dismissed

Due to its urban setting, light pollution is 

present in many areas of Golden Gate 

National Recreation Area and Muir Woods 

National Monument, although some areas 

retain a high degree of natural darkness. The 

National Park Service strives to minimize the 

intrusion of artificial light into the night scene 

by limiting the use of artificial outdoor lighting 

to basic safety requirements, shielding the 

lights when possible, and using minimal 

impact lighting techniques. Any new facilities 

proposed in the alternatives that would 

necessitate new nighttime lighting would be 

constructed with down lighting that would 

minimize light pollution. Furthermore, the 

level and type of new development and 

lighting proposed in the plan is minimal and 

dispersed. The effects of actions contained in 

this plan on natural lightscapes would be 

negligible to minor. Therefore, lightscape was 

dismissed from further analysis. 

NPS Organic Act; 

Enabling 

legislation; 

NPS Management 

Policies 2006

 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 16 

Impact Topic 

(Retained or 

Dismissed from 

further analysis) 

Rationale Relevant Law, 

Regulation, or 

Policy 

Public Health and 

Safety 

Dismissed

The proposed developments and actions 

included as part of the GMP alternatives 

would not result in any identifiable adverse 

impacts on human health or safety. 

Furthermore, visitor safety is addressed 

under the topic of visitor use and experience. 

Therefore, public health and safety was 

dismissed from further analysis. 

Council on 

Environmental 

Quality regulations; 

Director’s Order 12 

Handbook 

Soundscape 

(Natural Sound 

Preservation) 

Dismissed

An important part of the NPS mission is the 

preservation of natural soundscapes 

associated with national park system units. 

Natural soundscapes exist in the absence of 

human-caused sound. The natural ambient 

soundscape is the aggregate of all the 

natural sounds that occur in a park unit, 

together with the physical capacity for 

transmitting natural sounds. Natural sounds 

occur within and beyond the range of sounds 

that humans can perceive and can be 

transmitted through air, water, or solid 

materials. The frequencies, magnitudes, and 

durations of human-caused sound 

considered acceptable varies among national 

park system units, as well as potentially 

throughout each park unit; generally 

acceptable levels are greater in developed 

areas and less in undeveloped areas. 

Unnatural sounds, often a byproduct of 

recreational activities, can be intrusive and 

can impact natural soundscape conditions 

that affect visitor experience and use and 

wildlife. The National Park Service has taken 

significant steps to preserve natural 

soundscapes and manage human-caused 

noise, especially at Muir Woods National 

Monument where data collection, research, 

and management actions have improved the 

natural soundscape and successfully led to 

improved visitor experiences. Actions 

included in the plan would not substantially 

change visitor use and the generation of 

human-caused noise compared to current 

conditions; consequently, sound conditions in 

the park and monument would not be 

expected to be substantially affected—the 

NPS Organic Act; 

NPS Management 

Policies 2006; 

Director’s Order 47 
Summary Table of Impact Topics 

Volume II: 17 

Impact Topic 

(Retained or 

Dismissed from 

further analysis) 

Rationale Relevant Law, 

Regulation, or 

Policy 

impact to the natural soundscape would be 

negligible to minor. Therefore, this topic was 

dismissed from further analysis. 

Social and Economic Environment 

Social and 

Economic 

Retained

The social and economic conditions of the 

Bay Area and the gateway counties of Marin, 

San Francisco, and San Mateo influence 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area and 

Muir Woods National Monument and how 

they are managed. Conversely, the park and 

monument directly contributes to the social 

and economic conditions of these three 

counties and the Bay Area as a whole. This 

section describes the potential beneficial and 

adverse impacts related to this relationship 

by highlighting the park’s quality of life 

benefits as well as the Bay Area’s 

demographic and economic trends. 

National 

Environmental 

Policy Act 

Conformity with 

Local Land Use 

Plans 

Dismissed

The basic land use of the park and 

monument as a public recreation and 

resource management area is in 

conformance with local land use plans. The 

creation of additional recreation and visitor 

service opportunities in the park and 

monument as proposed in the alternatives 

would be consistent with existing park land 

uses or local (non-NPS) land use plans, 

policies, or controls for the area. Therefore, 

this topic was dismissed from detailed 

analysis. 

Council on 

Environmental 

Quality regulations; 

Director’s Order 12 

Handbook 

Urban Quality and 

Design of the Built 

Environment 

Dismissed 

The quality of urban areas would be 

addressed by design guidelines used to 

guide new development and the rehabilitation 

of existing structures, as well as project 

review processes that the National Park 

Service has in place, all of which are part of 

standard operating procedures. Throughout 

the park and monument, vernacular architecture and compatible design would be considered for new structures built (or modifications to existing structures) under all of 

the alternatives. Emphasis would be placed 

40 CFR 1 502.16 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 18 

Impact Topic 

(Retained or 

Dismissed from 

further analysis) 

Rationale Relevant Law, 

Regulation, or 

Policy 

on designs, materials, and colors that blend 

in and do not detract from the natural and 

built environment. Consequently, adverse 

impacts to the quality of urban areas are 

anticipated to be negligible. Therefore, this 

topic was dismissed from detailed analysis.

Environmental 

Justice 

Dismissed 

Executive Order 12898 requires all federal 

agencies to incorporate environmental justice 

into their missions by identifying and 

addressing the disproportionately high or 

adverse human health or environmental 

effects of their programs and policies on 

minorities and low-income populations and 

communities. According to the Environmental 

Protection Agency (EPA), environmental 

justice is the fair treatment and meaningful 

involvement of all people, regardless of race, 

color, national origin, or income, with respect 

to the development, implementation, and 

enforcement of environmental laws, 

regulations and policies. Fair treatment 

means that no group of people, including a 

racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic group, 

should bear a disproportionate share of the 

negative environmental consequences 

resulting from industrial, municipal, and commercial operations or the execution of 

federal, state, local, and tribal programs and 

policies. 

Marin, San Francisco, and San Mateo 

Counties, where the park and monument are 

located, contain minority and low-income 

populations; however, environmental justice 

is dismissed as an impact topic for the 

following reasons: 

NPS staff and planning team actively 

solicited public participation as part of the 

planning process and gave equal 

consideration to input from all persons 

regardless of age, race, income status, or 

other socioeconomic or demographic factors. 

Implementation of any of the alternatives 

would not result in any disproportionate 

human health or environmental effects on 

Executive Order 

12898, “General 

Actions to Address 

Environmental 

Justice in Minority 

Populations and 

Low-Income 

Populations” 
Summary Table of Impact Topics 

Volume II: 19 

Impact Topic 

(Retained or 

Dismissed from 

further analysis) 

Rationale Relevant Law, 

Regulation, or 

Policy 

minorities or low-income populations and 

communities. 

The impacts associated with implementation 

of the alternatives would not result in any 

effects that would be specific to any minority 

or low-income community. Any anticipated 

impacts, such as traffic, would not 

disproportionately affect minority or lowincome populations. 

Transportation 

Visitor Connections 

to Park Sites and 

Communities 

Retained

Actions included in the plan, such as 

changes in visitor opportunities and access, 

as well as improvements to alternative 

transportation, could result in impacts to 

visitor connections to park sites and 

communities. Therefore, this topic was 

retained for detailed analysis. 

National 

Environmental 

Policy Act 

Functionality of the 

Transportation 

System 

Retained

Actions included in the plan, such as 

changes in visitor access, alternate modes of 

transportation, and transportation system 

assets, could result in impacts to the 

functionality of the parks’ transportation 

system. Therefore, this topic was retained for 

detailed analysis. 

National 

Environmental 

Policy Act 

Park Management, Operations, and Facilities 

NPS Operations 

Facilities 

Retained 

Support facilities necessary to house, 

transport, inform, and serve visitors and staff 

require proper planning, design, 

programming, construction, operation and 

maintenance. Facilities should be costeffective, integrate sustainable design, and 

consider impacts on the landscape, environs, 

and resources of the park and monument. 

Actions included in the plan, such as the type 

and location of NPS operations facilities for 

maintenance and law enforcement, could 

result in impacts to NPS operations and 

management. Therefore, this topic was 

retained for detailed analysis. 

NPS Organic Act; 

DOI Departmental 

Manual; 

NPS Management 

Policies 2006; 

Director’s Order 80
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 20 

Impact Topic 

(Retained or 

Dismissed from 

further analysis) 

Rationale Relevant Law, 

Regulation, or 

Policy 

Staffing 

Retained 

Actions included in the plan, such as 

changes in visitor opportunities, facility use, 

resource management, and 

interpretation/education, could result in 

impacts to NPS staffing. Therefore, this topic 

was retained for detailed analysis. 

NPS Organic Act; 

DOI Departmental 

Manual; 

NPS Management 

Policies 2006; 

Director’s Order 80
Volume II: 21 

NATURAL RESOURCES – GOLDEN GATE NATIONAL 

RECREATION AREA 

INTRODUCTION 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area is one of the largest urban national parks in the 

world. The park’s 80,500 acres of land and water extend from Tomales Bay in Marin 

County south into San Mateo County, encompassing 59 miles of bay and ocean shoreline. 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area is rich in natural resources; it is comprised of 19 

separate ecosystems and is home to more than 1,250 plant and animal species. With 80 

sensitive, rare, threatened, or endangered species, Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

ranks fourth among all units in the national park system in the number of federally 

protected and threatened species found within the park. 

Numerous special status designations emphasize the collective importance of Golden 

Gate National Recreation Area and Point Reyes National Seashore as areas of biological 

significance. The Nature Conservancy has listed this region as one of the six most 

biologically significant areas in the United States; it is a biodiversity “hot spot” 

recognized by The Nature Conservancy and targeted by the global conservation 

community as key to preserving the world’s ecosystems. Conservation International 

describes this portion of central California as one of the top 25 hotspots and the most 

threatened of all biologically rich terrestrial regions in the world. Point Reyes National 

Seashore and Golden Gate National Recreation Area are jointly designated as a 

Biosphere Reserve, one of 411 reserves designated by the United Nations Educational, 

Scientific, and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere Program to 

provide a global network representing the world’s major ecosystem types (NPS 2007a). 

Golden Gate Natural Recreation Area is part of the California Floristic Province 

(characterized by Mediterranean vegetation) and a zone of overlap of marine provinces 

(Californian and Oregonian) leading to a wide diversity of terrestrial and aquatic habitats. 

From the tip of Tomales Point to the southernmost areas of Sweeney Ridge and Phleger 

Estate, the natural communities of the park support a diversity of habitats: marine 

environments, coastline, sea cliffs and sand dunes, mud flats and salt marshes, chaparral 

and coastal scrub, grasslands, redwood forests, and oak woodlands. The recreation area 

spans two of the largest estuaries on the West Coast: Tomales Bay and San Francisco 

Bay. Aquatic associated habitats include ephemeral and perennial freshwater streams, 

groundwater seeps and springs, seasonal wetlands, tidal and brackish saline wetlands 

grading into estuaries, and the marine environment (NPS 2007a). 

ALCATRAZ ISLAND 

Alcatraz Island is a unique part of Golden Gate National Recreation Area. Accounts of 

early explorers describe the island as having little plant life and covered with bird guano. 

Construction of the Civil War military fort and later the federal penitentiary changed the 

landscape significantly, sharpening the incline of the cliffs and flattening the slopes. Few 

plants are native to Alcatraz Island and most of the existing plants are a result of prison 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 22 

gardens or other means of importation, including soils brought from Angel Island during 

the fort construction. Since the closure of the prison, many bird species have made the 

island home. 

PHYSICAL RESOURCES 

Air Quality 

Section 118 of the 1963 Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq.) requires a national park 

unit to meet all federal, state, and local air pollution standards. Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument are in a Class II air quality area 

under the Clean Air Act, as amended. A Class II designation indicates the maximum 

allowable increase in concentrations of pollutants over baseline concentrations of sulfur 

dioxide and particulate matter as specified in Section 163 of the Clean Air Act. Further, 

the Clean Air Act provides that the federal land manager has an affirmative responsibility 

to protect air quality-related values (including visibility, plants, animals, soils, water 

quality, cultural resources, and visitor health) from adverse pollution impacts. 

The Clean Air Act requires the Environmental Protection Agency to identify national 

ambient air quality standards to protect public health and welfare. Standards were set for 

the following pollutants: ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), 

sulfur dioxide (SO2), inhalable particulate matter less than 10 microns (PM10) and less 

than 2.5 microns (PM2.5), and lead (Pb). These pollutants are designated criteria 

pollutants because the standards satisfy criteria specified in the act. An area where a 

standard is exceeded more than three times in three years can be considered a 

nonattainment area. 

The California Clean Air Act of 1988, as amended, sets ambient air quality standards that 

are stricter than the federal standards and requires local air districts to promulgate and 

implement rules and regulations to attain those standards. Under the act, California 

Ambient Air Quality Standards are set for all pollutants covered under national standards, 

as well as vinyl chloride, hydrogen sulfide, sulfates, and visibility-reducing particulates. 

If an area does not meet the California standards, it is designated as a state nonattainment 

area. 

In 1993, the Environmental Protection Agency adopted regulations implementing Section 

176 of the Clean Air Act as amended. Section 176 requires that federal actions conform 

to state implementation plans for achieving and maintaining the national standards. 

Federal actions must not cause or contribute to new violations of any standard, increase 

the frequency or severity of any existing violation, interfere with timely attainment or 

maintenance of any standard, delay emission reduction milestones, or contradict state 

implementation plan requirements. Federal actions that are subject to the general 

conformity regulations are required to mitigate or fully offset the emissions caused by the 

action, including both direct and indirect emissions over which the federal agency has 

some control. 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument are in the 

San Francisco Bay Area Air Basin, which consists of San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa 

Clara, Alameda, Contra Costa, Napa, and Marin counties, as well as portions of Sonoma 
Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 23 

and Solano counties. The Bay Area Air Quality Management District is the air quality 

agency responsible for the entire basin. The agency monitors criteria pollutants 

continuously at stations throughout the Bay Area. 

Overall, air quality in the basin is better than in other urban areas of California despite 

widespread urbanization and extensive industrial and mobile source (vehicular) 

emissions. The Bay Area’s coastal location and favorable meteorological conditions help 

keep pollution levels low much of the year, primarily due to the area’s relatively cooler 

temperatures and better ventilation. However, when temperatures are hot and there are no 

ocean breezes, levels of ozone and other pollutants can exceed federal and state air 

quality standards. 

The San Francisco Bay Area is designated a federal nonattainment area for ozone and a 

state nonattainment area for ozone and inhalable particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5). 

Ozone is a principal component of smog. It is caused by the photochemical reaction of 

ozone precursors (reactive organic compounds and nitrogen oxides). Ozone levels are 

highest in the Bay Area during days in late spring through summer when meteorological 

conditions are favorable for the photochemical reactions to occur, i.e., clear warm days 

and light winds. 

An air emissions inventory was conducted in 1999 to determine the origins, 

compositions, and rates of emission of pollutants affecting park lands and resources. In 

addition to Golden Gate National Recreation Area activities, the inventory included air 

emissions associated with park partners and concession operations and visitor activities to 

the extent that data were available. Standardized emission factors and air quality models 

from the California Air Resources Board and the Environmental Protection Agency were 

used to develop emission levels for the range of activities and facilities that can emit 

pollutants in Golden Gate National Recreation Area (NPS 2005a). 

Sources of air emission within Golden Gate National Recreation Area include all three 

types identified by the Clean Air Act: stationary sources, area sources, and mobile 

sources. Stationary sources can include fossil-fuel-fired space and water heating 

equipment, backup generators, fuel storage tanks, paint and chemical usage, and 

woodworking equipment. Area sources may include prescribed burning, campfires, and 

bonfires. Mobile sources may include vehicles and other equipment operated within the 

park by visitors, tour operators, Golden Gate National Recreation Area employees, and 

concession employees. 

The emissions inventory included all lands and uses within the GMP planning area. 

Included in the inventory were all structures, vehicles, boats, and equipment used by the 

park, park partners, or concessions, such as the Hornblower that operates the ferry service 

to Alcatraz Island. 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 24 

Table 2: County Variation in Attainment Status, Demonstrated by Monitoring Station Data, 

2001-2003 

Pollutant 

Redwood City 

San Mateo County 

San Francisco 

San Francisco County 

San Rafael 

Marin County 

State 

Standard 

Federal 

Standard 

State 

Standard 

Federal 

Standard 

State 

Standard 

Federal 

Standard 

Ozone (1-hour)* N NA A NA A NA 

Ozone (8-hour) NA NA NA NA NA NA 

Carbon 

monoxide A A A A A A 

Nitrogen dioxide A A A A A A 

Sulfur dioxide ND ND A A ND ND 

Particulate 

matter (PM10) 

(Max. 24-hour) 

NA A N A NA A 

Source: Bay Area Air Quality Management District Annual Bay Area Air Quality Summary 

Notes: 

A = Attainment, N = Nonattainment, U = Unclassified, NA = Not Applicable, ND = No data 

*Attainment status is assigned only on an air-basin level. Though specific county monitors indicate 

attainment with NAAQS, all counties are included in the San Francisco Bay Area Air Basin, which is 

designated as nonattainment for 1-hour and 8-hour ozone national standards and for state 

standards for PM10. 

There are no air quality monitoring stations in operation for the coastal areas of the Bay 

Area Air Basin that are certain to represent air quality conditions within the park. A 

monitoring station at Fort Cronkhite in the Marin Headlands records levels of toxins 

present in the air as a by-product of manufacturing, such as acetone and benzene, and 

does not monitor for criteria pollutants. The closest monitoring stations to park lands that 

record levels of criteria pollutants are in the cities of San Rafael, Redwood City, and 

eastern San Francisco. The levels recorded at these stations, which are located in the 

midst of urban development, would be more representative of the cumulative levels of air 

pollutants in urbanized areas that contain heavily used roadways, urban and residential 

sources, and existing stationary sources throughout the air basin. Data collected at these 

stations can serve as very conservative estimates of ambient air quality affecting the park 

lands, which are largely coastal and generally upwind (based on prevailing wind 

direction) of local sources of Bay Area air emissions, but are still subject to pollutant 

problems, such as ozone, that have a more regional effect on air quality. However, the 

actual ambient pollutant concentrations within the park lands are anticipated to have 

lower background levels of these pollutants because the project area and surroundings are 

more remote and generally upwind of roadways and other emission sources (NPS 2005a). 
Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 25 

Carbon Footprint 

A “carbon footprint” is a measure of the impact human activities have on the 

environment in terms of the amount of greenhouse gases produced, and is measured in 

units of carbon dioxide. The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that keeps the 

earth’s temperature stable at an average of 60o F. Without this natural warming effect, our 

planet would be uninhabitable at an average temperature of 14o F. However, human 

actions are disturbing this balance through over-production of large amounts of two main 

greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). The increase in greenhouse 

gases is causing an overall warming of the planet, commonly referred to as global 

warming. The term climate change describes the variable consequences of global 

warming over time. 

The National Park Service has a goal of reducing its contribution to global warming and 

climate change through the reduction of emissions. To begin tracking the results of their 

efforts, the park staff inventoried its emissions in 2006 using the Climate Leadership in 

Parks (CLIP) tool developed by the National Park Service and the Environmental 

Protection Agency. The CLIP tool converts emissions of various greenhouse gases into a 

common “metric tons of carbon equivalent” (MTCE) unit, which provides a basis for 

comparison among gases and simplifies reduction tracking. The conversion of a 

greenhouse gas to an MTCE unit is based on how strongly that particular gas contributes 

to the greenhouse effect, and how many tons of carbon emission would have the same 

effect. 

The emissions inventory (NPS 2007c) then looked at the relative input of various sectors: 

stationary combustion (building furnaces, dryers, electrical generators, hot water heaters), 

purchased electricity, mobile combustion (vehicles, buses, heavy equipment), wastewater 

treatment, and solid waste disposal (garbage transportation and decomposition) for 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument. Based on 

the emissions inventory completed in 2006, emissions from visitors (mobile combustion 

primarily from personal automobile use) represents 91% of gross emissions and 

emissions from park operations represents 9% (see figure 1). Figure 2 shows how the 

National Park Service’s emissions from park operational activities are distributed among 

sectors when visitor emissions are excluded. 

Visitor emission totals consist of an approximation of how much gasoline is consumed 

while driving to various park locations. Using annual visitor vehicle counts to many of 

the different locations in the park, the total number of miles driven by visitors was 

approximated (based on the assumption that they were driving from somewhere in the 

Bay Area). The resulting total vehicle miles driven by visitors was put into the CLIP tool. 

The CLIP tool then used assumptions about the different types of cars and the miles per 

gallon capacity of each to determine approximate fuel consumption. 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 26 

Figure 1: Gross Emissions for Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Source: Climate Change Action Plan for Golden Gate National Recreation Area, August 2007 

Figure 2: 2006 Gross Park Emissions by Sector, Excluding Visitors 

Source: Climate Change Action Plan for Golden Gate National Recreation Area, August 2007 

Figure 3 shows how the sectors of emissions are distributed when visitor emissions are 

included. The vast majority of emissions at Golden Gate National Recreation Area are 

attributable to visitor mobile combustion (vehicles). 

 

9%

91%

Park Operations

Visitors

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Stationary

Combustion

Electricity

Purchased

Mobile

Combustion

Wastewater

Treatment

Solid Waste

Disposed

Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent

Sector
Figure

Source

In 200

includ

(includ

Nation

Table 3

Statuto

combu

Purcha

electric

Mobile

combu

Waste

treatm

Solid w

Gross 

emissi Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent

e 3: 2006 Gros

e: Climate Chan

08, Golden Ga

ed the follow

ding park land

nal Monumen

3: Emission S

M

C

ory 

ustion 

ased 

city 

e

ustion 

ewater 

ment

waste 

ions 

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

Stat

Com

ss Park Emissi

nge Action Plan

ate National R

wing emission

ds in the three

nt. These data 

tatistics for G

Marin 

County 

Sa

523 

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PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 28 

Soils and Geologic Resources and Processes 

Geology 

The majority of the lands within Golden Gate National Recreation Area are located on 

the North American Tectonic plate. The more recently acquired lands in San Mateo are 

located on the Pacific plate. The boundary between these two plates is a transform fault 

(the plates are sliding past each other) and is formed by what is perhaps the best known 

geologic feature of California: the San Andreas fault zone. Movement along the San 

Andreas and its subsidiary faults, the Hayward and Calavaras, is infamous for producing 

the large earthquakes that periodically shake California and result in the area’s rugged 

terrain. Older rocks of coastal California indicate that, before the Pacific Plate started 

slipping northward past the North American Plate on the San Andreas fault system, the 

Pacific ocean floor was subducted (moved) beneath the western edge of the North 

American Plate. The distinctive rocks of the world-famous Franciscan Complex, named 

at San Francisco and underlying much of coastal Northern California, formed in this 

subduction zone. 

In the Bay Area, rocks of the Franciscan Complex form the basement for the Coast 

Ranges east of the San Andreas Fault. The Franciscan primarily consists of graywacke 

sandstone and argillite, but also contains lesser amounts of greenstone (altered submarine 

basalt), radiolarian ribbon chert, limestone, serpentinite (altered mantle material), and a 

variety of high-grade metamorphic rocks such as blueschist (high-pressure), amphibolites 

and eclogite (high-temperature). These rocks are typically highly fractured and disrupted 

and may be mixed together on a local scale to create what is called a mélange (French for 

“mixture” or “blend”). 

Because serpentinite is altered mantle rock, its chemistry is unlike most other continental 

rocks. Serpentinite is low in potassium and calcium, which are important plant nutrients. 

It also contains high levels of magnesium, nickel, and chromium that are potentially toxic 

to plants. Therefore, plants living on serpentine soils are specially adapted to these 

unusual chemical conditions, and serpentinite areas can often be mapped based on the 

abrupt vegetation change that occurs at their boundaries. 

Serpentinite outcrops in California and throughout the world are known to support rare 

and endangered plant species (Kruckenberg 1984). Some species are confined to just one 

or a few outcrop areas. Eight of the twelve rare plants found at the Presidio grow on 

serpentinite, including the federally endangered Presidio clarkia and Raven’s manzanita. 

(Elder n.d.) 

Soils 

Most of the soils within Golden Gate National Recreation Area belong to the following 

complexes: Blucher-Cole, Centissima-Barnabe, Cronkhite-Barnabe, Dipsea-Barnabe, 

Felton Variant-SoulaJule, Franciscan, Gilroy-Gilroy Variant-Bonnydoon Variant, 

Henneke stony clay loam, Kehoe, Rodeo Clay Loam, and Tamalpais-Barnabe Variant 

(USDA, Soil Surveys for Marin, San Francisco, and San Mateo counties). All of these 

soils are susceptible to sheet and rill erosion when disturbed or exposed. The 

susceptibility to wind erosion is generally low. In general, these soils are characterized by 

slow to moderate permeability, rapid stormwater runoff, and a high hazard of soil 

erosion, soil creep, and occasional land sliding. An aerial view of the park area landscape 
Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 29 

makes clear the threats posed by erosion. Coastal waves rhythmically crash against the 

shoreline; deep, long gullies originate at old roads; heavily used areas are devoid of 

vegetation; undesignated social trails crisscross through the natural areas; and landslides 

or slumps exist in the small valleys (NPS 2005a).

Alcatraz Island is composed of consolidated sandstone sediments, and is the remainder of 

a mountain that has been highly eroded. Much of the soil on the island is a result of 

importation from Angel Island during the fort construction or soil amendments added 

over the years to support the various gardens and landscape areas. 

Paleontological Resources 

Fossils of tropical and subtropical species of zooplankton (radiolarian) have been found 

in chert of the Marin Headlands. Mollusks fossils (ammonite, belemnite, bivalve) have 

also been found here. Bivalve mollusk fossils are found on Alcatraz Island, and Mori 

Point is a source of zooplankton (radiolarian, foraminifera). The area near Devil’s Slide 

includes zooplankton (foraminifera), mollusk (gastropod, bivalve), crustacean, and sea 

star-like (echinoid) fossils. Fort Funston includes mollusk (gastropod, bivalve), sand 

dollar, crustacean, marine worm (polychaete), woolly mammoth, giant ground sloth, 

mastodon, horse, camel, canid and split-toed ungulate fossils. Fossils found on the 

Phleger Estate include mollusk (freshwater gastropod, bivalve), unnamed vertebrates, and 

plants. 

Shoreline Processes 

The park’s coastal shoreline along the Marin Headlands, Golden Gate Strait, and San 

Francisco peninsula comprise a diverse mixture of rocky shorelines, fine-grained sand 

beaches, and artificial structures (e.g., piers), as well as sites with a mixture of finegrained and larger substrates. As the name implies, the Marin Headlands are steep rocky 

headlands such as Tennessee Point and Point Bonita that are unprotected and exposed to 

high wave erosion and strong currents. In sheltered areas, large beaches, such as Rodeo 

and Muir beaches, form bars that create lagoonal features behind them. Small pocket 

beaches are often characterized by steep slopes and a mixture of small and large 

substrates. The Golden Gate strait is characterized by rocky headlands, smaller sand and 

gravel beaches, and strong tidal currents. Within the Golden Gate strait, the shorelines 

have a higher percentage of artificial structures such as rubble breakwaters (Fort Baker), 

seawalls (Alcatraz, Fort Point, and Presidio), piers, and riprap bank protection. Much of 

the San Francisco peninsula shoreline within the park is dominated by Ocean Beach, the 

park’s largest sand beach resource (NPS 2007a). 

Alcatraz Island is composed of fractured sandstone and is somewhat susceptible to wavegenerated erosion. 

Sea Level Rise and Coastal Vulnerability 

While the effect of climate change on sea level has shocking global implications of 

inundating low-lying islands and threatening coastal cities and harbors, it also raises 

serious concerns for many U.S. national parks. Golden Gate National Recreation Area is 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 30 

no exception, given its extensive shorelines along the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco 

Bay. Although there is general consensus in the scientific community that notable sea 

level rise will occur over the next 100 years, the predicted degree of sea level rise varies 

considerably depending on which assumptions are incorporated into the prediction. For 

example, scientists who factor in the melting of the Greenland ice sheets predict that sea 

levels could rise 13 to 20 feet (approx. four to six meters) over the next 100 years as a 

result of global warming (Overpeck et al. 2006). If this occurs, the coastal areas of the 

park and the Bay Area will experience extraordinary change. This prediction is probably 

at the upper end of the range of sea level rise forecasts. 

Other sea level rise projections incorporate only a partial contribution from the melting of 

the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 

(IPCC) is an international scientific body established by the United Nations Environment 

Programme and the World Meteorological Organization to provide a scientific view of 

the current state of climate change and its effects. In its latest assessment report, Climate 

Change 2007, the IPCC indicated that sea level rise by the year 2100 could range from 

0.18 to 0.59 meters (seven inches to about 2 feet), depending on the climate change 

scenario that occurs over this time (IPCC 2007). However, the IPCC report was very 

clear in noting that these projections do not factor in uncertainties in climate-carbon cycle 

feedbacks nor the full effects of changes in ice sheet flow or melting. Therefore, the 

report states that the upper value of this range should not be considered the potential 

upper bounds for sea level rise (IPCC 2007). 

More recent research was conducted for the California Energy Commission’s Climate 

Change Research Program to assess the effects of climate change and sea level rise on 

California over the next 90 years. Using a set of climate change scenarios of medium to 

medium-high emissions, researchers projected that the mean sea level will rise 1.0 to 1.4 

meters (3.3 to 4.6 feet) along California’s coast by the year 2100 (Cayan et. al. 2009, 

Heberger et. al. 2009). This is the most commonly used sea level rise forecast in the 

park’s planning area. However, these respective climate change reports quickly clarify 

that most climate models do not include ice‐melt contributions from the Greenland and 

Antarctic ice sheets. Thus, the potential sea level rise could be much higher than these 

figures (Heberger et al. 2009). 

Predictions of sea level rise are useful in determining what resources and facilities could 

be affected. Figure 4 illustrates the likely effect of the projected 1.4 meter sea level rise 

on the coastal corridors of the park by combining the effects of the sea level rise with a 

modeled 100-year flood (Heberger et al. 2009). 

Also, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the National Park Service, 

completed an assessment in 2005 (Pendleton, Thieler, and Williams 2005) of Golden 

Gate National Recreation Area’s vulnerability to sea level rise using a tool called the 

Coastal Vulnerability Index. The Coastal Vulnerability Index provides insight into the 

relative potential of coastal change due to future sea level rise. 

The Coastal Vulnerability Index allows six variables (geomorphology, shoreline change, 

regional coastal slope, relative sea level rise, mean significant wave height, and mean 

tidal range) to be related in a quantifiable manner that expresses the relative vulnerability 

of the coast to physical changes due to future sea level rise. The index highlights those 

regions where the physical effects of sea level rise might be the greatest. 


Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 33 

The most influential variables in the Coastal Vulnerability Index are geomorphology, 

coastal slope, and mean significant wave height; therefore, these may be considered the 

dominant factors controlling how Golden Gate National Recreation Area will evolve as 

sea level rises. 

While climate change data reflect long-term increases in sea levels, there may be specific 

sites within Golden Gate National Recreation Area that could be more vulnerable to 

rising sea levels even within the lifespan of this general management plan, particularly if 

the melting of the polar ice caps increases more rapidly than expected. 

The colored shoreline depicted in figure 5 represents the relative Coastal Vulnerability 

Index determined from the six variables. The very high vulnerability shoreline is 

generally located along sandy beaches where significant wave heights are highest and 

regional coastal slope is shallow; these areas include sites like Ocean Beach, Fort Mason, 

Land’s End, and Fort Funston. The lower vulnerability shoreline is located along rock 

cliffs mostly along the northern part of Golden Gate National Recreation Area where 

wave heights are lower and coastal slope is steep. 

Of the 59 miles evaluated at the park, 50% of them were classified as having high (26%) 

or very high (24%) vulnerability, with another 26% classified as having moderate 

vulnerability (Pendleton, Thieler and Williams 2005). This information raises serious 

concern, because the most vulnerable shorelines are located on the southern peninsula 

where the largest concentration of humans and built facilities exist. This area also 

includes heavily visited beaches such as Ocean Beach, China Beach, and Baker Beach. 

Water Resources and Hydrologic Processes 

Water resources in Golden Gate National Recreation Area include springs, streams, 

ponds, lakes, wetlands, lagoons, the San Francisco Bay, and the Pacific Ocean. Many 

significant watersheds are located wholly or partially within the park. From north to 

south, the major watersheds are Bolinas Lagoon, Redwood Creek, Tennessee Valley (Elk 

Creek), Rodeo Lagoon (including Gerbode Valley subwatershed), Nyhan Creek, Lobos 

Creek, Milagra and Sweeney Ridges, San Pedro Creek, West Union Creek, San Pedro 

Creek, Martini Creek, Denniston Creek, San Vicente Creek, and the San Francisco 

watershed lands in San Mateo County (see figure 6). Many smaller watersheds drain the 

steep coastal bluffs directly into the San Francisco Bay or Pacific Ocean. 

The National Park Service has been monitoring water quality and quantity in varying 

degrees within these aquatic systems. Most water quality sampling to date has focused on 

specific sites with known or suspected water quality impacts, including beach water 

quality monitoring. The National Park Service is presently designing a more 

comprehensive monitoring program that should identify any existing impacts and serve 

as baseline data to determine future impacts. For the lands in the southern part of the park 

(San Francisco and San Mateo counties), this work will also include an inventory of the 

largely unknown water resources. The monitoring will be coordinated through the San 

Francisco Bay Area network of regional national park sites (NPS 2005b). The National 

Park Service is currently participating in a streamflow monitoring program with stations 

on Lobos Creek, Redwood Creek, and Easkoot Creek. 

 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 34 

Figure 5: Coastal Vulnerability 

 
Muir Beach

Stinson Beach

Marin Municpal 

Water District

Mount Tamalpais

State Park

Fort Point 

National Historic Site

Angel Island 

State Park

Richmond

Berkeley

Sausalito

Tiburon

Marin 

City

Mill Valley

San Rafael

Oakland

City of 

San Francisco

San Mateo 

County

San Mateo

Pacifica

Daly 

City

San Francisco 

International Airport

Half Moon Bay

State Beach

Pillar Point Bluff

Fitzgerald 

Marine Reserve

Fort Mason

Fort Baker Alcatraz

Island

Fort Funston

Mori 

Point

San Pedro 

Point

Devil’s 

Slide

Rancho Corral

de Tierra

Milagra Ridge

Sweeney Ridge

Phleger Estate

Half

Moon

Bay

Presidio of 

San Francisco

Marin Headlands

Muir Woods 

National Monument

Golden Gate Northern Lands

(Managed by Point Reyes NS)

Rodeo Beach

Lands End

Ocean Beach

Sharp Park

280

280

280

101

101

580

101

101

101

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Pacific Ocean

San Pablo Bay

Monterey Bay

National Marine Sanctuary

Gulf of the

Farallones National

Marine Sanctuary

Monterey Bay

National Marine 

Sanctuary

S a n

F r a n c i s c o

B a y

San Francisco Maritime 

National Historical Park

Cit y and Count y of San Francisco

San Mateo Count y

380

92

Audubon 

Canyon 

Ranch

Redwood

Creek

Upper Lagunitas

Creek

Bolinas

Lagoon

Game

Refuge

Presidio

East

Presidio

West

Homestead

Valley

Nyhan

Creek

Tennessee

Valley

Rodeo Valley

Gerbode

Valley

Kirby Cove

Fort

Baker

Morning

Sun

Pirates

Cove

San

Francisco

Coastal

San Pedro

Creek

Denniston

Creek

Pilarcitos

Creek

Purisima

Creek

Mills

Creek

West Union

Creek

Polhemus

Creek

Upper Crystal

Springs Reservoir

San Andreas Lake

Pilarcitos Lake

Lower Crystal Springs Reservoir

Millbrae

Ross

Creek

Belvedere

Lagoon

San

Francisco

Coastal

Old Mill

Creek

Watersheds

U.S.Department of the Interior • National Park Service

DSC • August 5, 2009 

Source: California Interagency Watershed Mapping 

Committee database (Calwater)

0 4

Miles

Watershed Boundary

Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 37 

Freshwater Resources

Surface Water 

Watersheds in southern Marin County, such as Rodeo Lagoon and Tennessee Valley, are 

dominated by scrub and grassland vegetation with the majority of the trees in the riparian 

zone. These watersheds also have extensive stream and wetland complexes throughout 

their valley floors. Other watersheds, such as the Redwood Creek watershed, Bolinas 

Lagoon watershed, and the San Pedro Creek watershed, have denser forests beyond the 

riparian zone. These watersheds have steeper slopes and narrower valleys, and thus 

restrict the extent of wetlands (NPS 2005a). 

Freshwater resources include streams, lakes, and freshwater wetlands. Most of the 

streams in the park are not large and their tributaries are frequently ephemeral. The 

overall condition of these resources results from more than a century of intensive human 

uses, combined with the instability associated with soil types and the highly active San 

Andreas Fault. The effects of past land use practices (development, logging, agriculture, 

and grazing) have changed watershed conditions and reduced habitat for many aquatic 

invertebrates, fish, and amphibians. Loss of native perennial vegetation, soil compaction 

and loss, hillside trailing, gullying, and incision of swales and meadows have changed the 

runoff patterns and reduced the capacity of the watershed to attenuate pollutant loading 

and surface runoff to streams. Dam construction, channelization, water diversions, and 

the increased water demands of growing urban areas have impaired fish passage, reduced 

available habitats, and reduced streamflows during summer-fall of dry years. Although 

land use practices having lesser impacts are being increasingly adopted by landowners, 

present land use continues to influence water quality conditions within many watersheds 

(NPS 2007a). 

Macroinvertebrates are commonly used as indicators of water quality and functional 

status of freshwater streams, but to date macroinvertebrate sampling has been infrequent 

and inconsistent across sites. Coho salmon have been more consistently monitored and 

their use as an indicator of stream condition is being evaluated (NPS 2007a). 

Ponds and swales are also extremely important aquatic resources. As mentioned earlier, 

some of the largest endangered red-legged frog populations are in Point Reyes National 

Seashore and northern Golden Gate National Recreation Area where there are more than 

120 breeding sites with a total adult population of several thousand frogs. Most of the 

breeding sites are artificial stock ponds constructed on lands that have been grazed by 

cattle for 150 years. There are also fairly large populations in some of the coastal 

drainages in San Mateo County just south of San Francisco in Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area (NPS 2007a). 

The U.S. Geological Survey also monitored sediment and stream flow in Audubon 

Canyon and Morses Creek (near Bolinas) between 1967 and 1969. University of 

California Berkeley staff monitored Lone Tree Creek (south of Stinson Beach) between 

1972 and 1974. Stream gauges were installed by the National Park Service at Redwood 

Creek (State Route 1Bridge) and Easkoot Creek. Because of high toxic nutrient loads, 

algal blooms have occurred in Rodeo Lagoon. In addition to nutrient issues, Rodeo 

Lagoon sediments may contain elevated amounts of copper from copper sulfate 

(algaecide) treatment. Rodeo Lagoon sediments may contain elevated amounts of metals 

from past and current activities (NPS 2005a). 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 38 

Due to its relatively small size, Alcatraz Island does not have streams—only ephemeral 

drainages that flow during rainfall. 

Marin County Watersheds. Most Marin County watersheds drain to the Pacific Ocean. 

watersheds relevant to park lands include Bolinas Lagoon, Redwood Creek, Marin 

Highlands, and others. The Bolinas Lagoon watershed extends from the Bolinas Ridges 

west to Inverness Ridge. Two-thirds of this watershed is in public ownership. Streams 

within this watershed are steep and flow through the highly erodible Franciscan 

Complex. The Redwood Creek watershed extends from the peaks of Mount Tamalpais, 

through Muir Woods National Monument, to the Pacific Ocean at Muir Beach. Ninetyfive percent of the watershed is owned and managed by public agencies. Several 

threatened animal species also occur in the watershed, including coho salmon, steelhead, 

California red-legged frog, and the northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina). 

In addition to draining into the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay, the Marin 

Headlands drain into Rodeo Lagoon, which provides marine habitat, water recreation, 

saltwater habitat, and wildlife habitat. Rodeo Lagoon is a significant wetland/estuarine 

resource that provides important habitat for marine birds and other species including redlegged frog and tidewater goby (NPS 2005a). 

San Francisco City and County Watersheds. The majority of the watersheds in San 

Francisco are highly urbanized, and their boundaries have been modified by storm 

drainage projects and other urban infrastructure. The Park Service manages lands in San 

Francisco draining to San Francisco Bay, the Golden Gate Channel, and the Pacific 

Ocean. Tennessee Hollow and Lobos Creek, both of which are within Golden Gate 

National Recreation Area and the Presidio of San Francisco (Presidio), remain in a 

relatively nonurban state and are significant water resources in the park. The Tennessee 

Hollow stream, in the Presidio East watershed, is the main fresh water source for the 

Crissy Field marsh, a recently completed wetland restoration project. Lobos Creek, in the 

Presidio West watershed, is the main water supply for the Presidio (NPS 2005a). 

Although small, this spring-fed creek has the highest summer baseflows in the park. 

San Mateo County Watersheds. The watersheds in San Mateo County have not been 

comprehensively studied due to piecemeal land management by various agencies and 

private holdings. The watersheds that wholly or partly contain park land include Milagra, 

between Sweeney and Milagra; Sweeney; San Pedro Creek; Crystal Springs (part of the

larger San Francisco watershed); and West Union / San Francisquito Creek. The 23-

square-mile San Francisco watershed is owned and managed by the San Francisco Public 

Utilities Commission and is part of the water supply storage for the City and County of 

San Francisco. This watershed includes San Andreas Lake, Crystal Springs, Pilarcitos 

Lake, and a portion of the Pilarcitos Creek watershed. The San Pedro Creek watershed 

drains portions of the San Francisco watershed lands, Picardo Ranch, and portions of 

Devil’s Slide. The West Union Creek watershed contains a tributary to the Searsville 

Lake that drains the Phleger Estate at the south end of Golden Gate National Recreation 

Area (NPS 2005a).

Groundwater 

Marin County. The underlying Franciscan bedrock is relatively impermeable in Marin 

County, creating a perched water table. Numerous springs throughout the watershed feed 

Rodeo Creek well into the summer months. The total volume of water stored in the 

aquifer is unknown. No wells are in operation within NPS-managed lands in Marin 
Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 39 

County. The water table is tidally influenced in the lower areas such as Fort Baker (NPS 

2007b). 

San Francisco County. Groundwater sources in San Francisco County are made up of 

shallow unconsolidated alluvium underlain by less permeable bedrock of the Franciscan 

Complex. Average precipitation is approximately 24 inches per year, but due to high 

impervious cover rates, little infiltration occurs. The primary water-bearing formations 

are comprised of unconsolidated sediments and include alluvial fan deposits, beach and 

dune sands, undifferentiated alluvium, and artificial fill. Groundwater within San 

Francisco County is subject to high concentrations of nitrates and elevated chloride, 

boron, and total dissolved solids concentrations. High nitrate levels are attributed to 

groundwater recharge from sewer pipe leakage and possibly to fertilizer introduced by 

irrigation return flows. Elevated chloride and total dissolved solids levels are most likely 

due to a combination of leaky sewer pipes, historic and current seawater intrusion, and 

connate water. Current groundwater usage in the City of San Franciso is primarily for 

irrigation of parks and golf courses. 

San Mateo County. Much of San Mateo County is part of the Santa Clara Valley 

Groundwater Basin, with portions in the San Francisco basin. Santa Clara Valley 

groundwater sources include coastal marine terrace or stream valley alluvial deposits 

where groundwater is stored in loose, unconsolidated, coarse-grained sand, and upland 

granitic bedrock of the Santa Clara Formation, where groundwater is stored in weathered 

rock openings and in rock fractures. The granite bedrock has limited storage capacity, but 

the alluvial deposits are good sources of groundwater. Over the long term, the marine 

terraces appear to be in hydrological balance; however, in dry years, pumping has 

reduced the water table to near sea level—increasing the risk of salt water intrusion. The 

water is slightly alkaline with a mean pH value of 7.3 based on 20 samples. Hardness for 

the 20 wells sampled averaged 471 milligrams per liter (mg/L) as calcium carbonate 

(CaCO3), in excess of the 180 mg/L minimum value for water to be classified as very 

hard (CWA 2004). 

Floodplains 

Floodplains exist along streams and creeks throughout Golden Gate National Recreation 

Area and Muir Woods National Monument. In Marin County, 100-year floodplains are 

located along Redwood Creek and Rodeo Creek. Park facilities at Stinson Beach (parking 

lots and picnic areas) and Muir Beach (parking lot and Pacific Way) are in the 100-year 

floodplain. 

In San Mateo County, 100-year floodplains are located along Denniston Creek, San 

Vicente Creek, and the Middle Fork of San Pedro Creek. The lower stables at the Rancho 

Corral de Tierra property are located in the San Vicente Creek 100-year floodplain. 

Water Quality 

The size and nature of the park (including high visitor use, the urban interface, and 

multitude of land uses) create several issues related to water quality. Accelerated erosion 

due to roads, trails, and other uses and developments threatens the sediment balance and 

ecological health of several watersheds. Grazing is no longer allowed on NPS-managed 

lands in Golden Gate National Recreation Area (NPS 1999b), but some of the impacts 

remain. Bacteria and nutrient inputs from equestrian operations, pet waste, agricultural 

operations, and potentially from sewer and septic systems can affect wildlife and public 

health as well as the overall ecological balance of water resources. Alteration of channels 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 40 

(including dams and culverts) affects the ecological health of park watersheds. These 

primary issues occur to varying extents within multiple park watersheds (NPS 2005a). 

Many park water quality issues are related to facilities and structures. A roads and trails 

inventory exists and many structures are documented in the maintenance division's 

facilities database. However, a comprehensive inventory of park facilities and structures 

(including dams, culverts, and outfalls) has not been conducted (NPS 2005a). 

Work is in progress to document facilities, roads and trails, and other water quality 

threats more thoroughly. For example, for the Redwood Creek watershed, a sediment 

budget study and a report of all sediment sources in the watershed were completed. Trail 

maps are being updated for the park and erosion surveys continue throughout the Marin 

Headlands. A dam inventory will be included in an upcoming “Water Quality Data 

Inventory and Analysis Report.” Culvert mapping has occurred in Rodeo Valley (NPS 

2005a). 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area has a long history of water quality problems due 

to its proximity to urban and rural land uses. The park’s surface waters and groundwater 

provide important beneficial uses that serve as a basis for establishing water quality 

objectives and discharge prohibitions by the California State Water Quality Control 

Board and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). These “beneficial” uses include 

agricultural supply, cold freshwater habitat, fish migration, municipal and domestic water 

supply, preservation of rare and endangered species, contact water recreation, noncontact 

water recreation, shellfish harvesting, fish spawning, warm freshwater habitat, and 

wildlife habitat. Additional beneficial uses for the Pacific Ocean include commercial and 

sport fishing, industrial service supply, and marine habitat. Some of the external issues 

facing the park have to do with balancing the historical and cultural traditions of ranching 

and dairy establishments with the very high water quality needed for endangered species 

such as coho salmon, steelhead trout, California freshwater shrimp, and California redlegged frogs. In the park, particularly in areas south of the Golden Gate, the primary 

issues are stormwater discharge and legacy contaminants from abandoned military 

installations (NPS 2007a). 

According to the California State Water Quality Control Board, eight areas (three creeks, 

three bays, and two beaches within the park) are listed as impaired according to the 

EPA’s list of impaired waters (the 303d List) (see table 3). The San Francisco Regional 

Water Quality Control Board has established a timeline for the development of total 

maximum daily loads associated with the highest priority impairment listings. The 

National Park Service is currently working with the state and local agencies to develop 

and implement monitoring and enhancement efforts to address additional impairment 

issues. Additional water quality programs are associated with the three counties within 

Region 2: Marin, San Francisco, and San Mateo. Water districts and some watershed 

groups also monitor water quality (NPS 2007a). Water quality monitoring in coastal areas 

at Rancho Corral De Tierra has also been done by San Mateo County Resources District 

(Critical Coastal Areas) through volunteers and tenants over the years. 

Near-shore water quality has rarely been monitored by the parks, while freshwater and 

beach resources are measured principally in areas where problems have been identified. 

This lack of a probabilistic (randomized) water sampling program means that 

generalizations should be made with care; a broad summary of park water quality, or 
Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 41 

even watershed water quality, is likely to overstate problems and overemphasize 

freshwater resources (NPS 2007a). 

Marin Headlands / Redwood Creek / Stinson Beach / Bolinas Lagoon Areas. Shortterm data sets also exist for Rodeo Creek and Tennessee Valley (1994–1996). Rodeo 

Creek and Tennessee Valley were monitored along with Green Gulch between 1998 and 

2001 as part of intensive sampling related to stable operations and other potential sources 

of bacteria and nutrients. Parameters typically monitored included flow (though flow data 

has been sporadic), pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, biochemical oxygen 

demand (BOD), salinity, total suspended solids (TSS), fecal and total coliforms, nitrates, 

ammonia, phosphates, total phosphorus (Total P), metals (emphasis on copper), 

methylene blue active substance (MBAS), and chloride. Not all parameters were 

monitored at all sites (NPS 2005a). 

Water quality monitoring has been conducted in Redwood Creek and tributaries 

(including Kent Creek, Camino del Canyon, Banducci Tributary, Green Gulch, and 

Golden Gate Dairy Tributary) at numerous locations throughout the years. Several data 

sets exist for discrete (i.e., short-term, focused) monitoring projects. For example, 

monitoring by the National Park Service in the Redwood Creek watershed was conducted 

in 1986, 1988, 1990 to1991, and 1993 to 1996. Much of the water quality monitoring 

within the park has focused on lower Redwood Creek due to concerns related to nutrient 

and bacteria inputs in this locale, including recent data related to the Golden Gate Dairy 

and Big Lagoon (NPS 2005a). 

The U.S. Geological Survey also monitored sediment and stream flow in Audubon 

Canyon and Morses Creek (near Bolinas) between 1967 and 1969. UC Berkeley 

monitored Lone Tree Creek (south of Stinson Beach) between 1972 and 1974. Stream 

gauges were installed by the National Park Service at Redwood Creek (State Route 

1Bridge) and Easkoot Creek (NPS 2005a). 

Consultants, universities, the U.S. Geological Survey, and other entities have also 

conducted monitoring. For example, the Stinson Beach County Water Agency currently 

monitors Easkoot Creek for fecal coliform bacteria. Limited monitoring has been 

conducted in Oakwood Valley and Nyhan Creek as part of an overall stormwater 

monitoring project that includes Redwood Creek, Tennessee Valley, and Rodeo Creek 

(NPS 2005a). 

Flow monitoring by various entities, including the National Park Service, the U.S. 

Geological Survey, local universities, and consultants, has also been conducted. Flow 

monitoring sites have typically corresponded with water quality monitoring sites and 

include the Redwood Creek watershed (including Camino del Canyon, Kent Creek, 

Banducci Tributary, and Green Gulch Creek) as well as Easkoot Creek, Rodeo Creek, 

and Tennessee Valley. 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 42 

Table 4: Impaired Water Bodies within Point Reyes National Seashore and Golden Gate 

National Recreation Area as Indicated from the 2006 303d List 

Water Body Park Unit Pollutant 

Lagunitas Creek Point Reyes NS, 

Golden Gate NRA 

Sediment, Nutrients 

Richardson Bay* Golden Gate NRA High Coliform, Chlordane, 

DDT, Dieldrin, Dioxin, 

Furan compounds, 

Mercury, Polychlorinated 

Biphenyls (PCBs), Exotic 

Species 

San Francisco Bay Golden Gate NRA Chlordane, DDT, Dieldrin, 

Mercury, PCBs, 

Polycyclic Aromoatic 

Hydrocarbon (PAHs), 

Nickel, Furan 

compounds, Exotic 

Species, Dioxin, 

Selenium 

San Francisquito Creek Golden Gate NRA Sediment 

San Pedro Creek Golden Gate NRA High Coliform 

Tomales Bay Pointe Reyes NS, 

Golden Gate NRA 

Sediment, Nutrients, 

Mercury 

Pacific Ocean 

at Baker Beach 

Golden Gate NRA Indicator Bacteria 

Pacific Ocean 

at Muir Beach 

Golden Gate NRA Indicator Bacteria 

Source: San Francisco Water Quality Control Board 2009 adapted from 2006 Clean Water Act 

Section 303d List. 

* Note: Richardson Bay is not within Golden Gate NRA, although it does receive a relatively small 

volume of surface water run-off from the park. 

San Francisco and San Mateo Counties. Water quality monitoring has been conducted 

periodically at the Presidio for several years. Until very recently, however, no monitoring 

of surface water had been conducted by the National Park Service in the southern Golden 

Gate National Recreation Area lands. 

At Lobos Creek in the Presidio, the Urban Watershed Project, a nonprofit group, has 

conducted fecal coliform monitoring through a contract with the Presidio. The City and 

County of San Francisco also recently conducted monitoring in Lobos Creek. Limited 
Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 43 

sampling of Lobos Creek was also conducted through the Environmental Remediation 

Program. Likewise, basic water quality parameters have been collected in Tennessee 

Hollow by the Urban Watershed Project, and by the National Park Service at the Crissy 

Field marsh. Some limited water quality monitoring has been conducted within the West 

Union / San Francisquito Creek watershed (West Union Creek is located within this 

watershed), but no monitoring has been conducted on NPS lands. The San Francisquito 

Creek Watershed Council is actively involved in management and monitoring of this 

watershed. Through the watershed council, consultants have monitored the Bear Creek 

watershed (including West Union Creek). However, no sites have been located within 

Phleger Estate or the adjacent county park (NPS 2005a). San Francisquito Creek is listed 

on the Section 303d list as being impaired by sediment. Concerns in West Union Creek, a 

San Francisquito Creek tributary within Phleger Estate, include erosion and runoff from 

trails. Landslides and significant bank erosion have been observed (NPS 2005a). 

Issues in Milagra, Sanchez, and Calera creeks are mostly unknown due to the lack of 

water quality data. However, suspected issues in these urban creeks include fertilizer or 

pesticide runoff from lawns and a golf course. In addition, pet waste, oil and chemical 

runoff from roads, and bacteria and nutrient inputs from leaky sewer pipes are also 

suspected concerns (NPS 2005a). 

Marine Resources 

Marine Environment – Regional Overview 

The Golden Gate National Recreation Area coastal waters include coastal and marine 

habitats of central and northern California, which overlap with portions of the Gulf of the 

Farallones National Marine Sanctuary and Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. 

The area shares many other features with the sanctuaries due to its proximity and the 

influence of similar currents, seasonal upwelling, and weather patterns. Geological 

features include a broad continental shelf; rocky shores; sandy beaches; coastal estuaries 

such as San Francisco Bay, Elkhorn Slough, and Tomales Bay; offshore banks; and the 

sloping edges of the continental shelf, dissected by deepwater canyons such as the 

Monterey Submarine Canyon (NMS and NOAA 2006). 

This unique combination of oceanographic conditions and undersea topography make the 

area rich and diverse in a variety of marine species, including a wide array of temperate 

cold-water species and occasional influxes of warm-water species. The species diversity 

is directly related to the diversity of habitats and oceanic conditions, which are described 

in the following section, and the location of the sanctuaries within a broad transition zone 

providing a complex gradient of changing environments in which the relative proportions 

of species changes from north to south (NMS and NOAA 2006). 

The species north of Point Conception, an area encompassing the entire study region and 

extending right up through Washington State, are part of the Oregonian biogeographic 

province. The relative amount and location of upwelling and downwelling and, 

consequently, the amount of productivity seen along the coast, are affected by seasonal 

weather patterns and the influence of the California and Davidson currents. The 

distribution of each species in the ocean is determined by a multitude of factors, 

including temperature, salinity, oxygen content, nutrient availability, current speed and 

direction, species interaction, frequency of perturbation, and food availability (NMS and 

NOAA 2006). 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 44 

Habitats 

The nearshore marine environment includes bay and estuarine habitats created by 

mudflats, tidal wetlands, and rocky shorelines; it extends through the intertidal to the 

subtidal zone of the continental shelf. This shelf extends far from the coast; because 

upwelling occurs near shore, the coastal zone offers a relatively shallow, highly 

productive habitat for fish, invertebrates, marine mammals, and seabirds. Many portions 

of the park’s subtidal zone overlap with the federally protected Gulf of the Farallones 

National Marine Sanctuary to the north and the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary 

to the south. The area is considered a biological hot spot; data that is available for some 

species (seals, invertebrates (abalone), fish (rockfish), and shorebirds) indicate that most 

populations are slowly recovering from historic declines. Rocky and sandy substrates 

predominate with kelp communities occurring in scattered areas predominantly along the 

Point Reyes National Seashore and Golden Gate National Recreation Area coastlines 

north of San Francisco Bay. Research on physical processes is underway with promising 

new approaches for coastal benthic mapping, such as multibeam sonar, helping to 

elucidate nearshore habitat complexity. This knowledge is important for resource 

assessments as an aid to locate and predict species distributions (NPS 2007a). 

Along the open coast, intertidal habitats are likely the most heavily impacted aquatic 

areas. Despite park protection, these habitats are impacted by recreational activities 

including boating, fishing, and hiking; park operations (beach cleaning); and nonpark 

facilities and activities (sand movement by City of San Francisco). Significant impacts 

also occur from previously constructed facilities and loss of marine/estuarine habitats 

from filling (e.g., historic Crissy marsh filled, riprap and seawalls along San Francisco 

shoreline, and Fort Baker marsh) The principal water quality threats include bacterial and 

nutrient pollution (ranches, dairies, septic and stormwater discharges), occasional oil 

spills from offshore tankers, and legacy military landfills. Though beach sampling and 

damage incident reports have identified many of these problems, the extent of these 

impacts on intertidal organisms is not well studied (NPS 2007a). 

Estuarine Resources. Approximately 59 miles of ocean and bay coastline are included 

in Golden Gate National Recreation Area (NPS 2007a). Coastal and bay resources 

comprise biologically diverse and complex ecosystems that contain a rich array of marine 

invertebrates and algae. Intertidal communities within or adjacent to the boundaries 

include islands, islets, reefs, rocks, straits, lagoons, mudflats, beaches, piers, wharves, the 

Gulf of the Farallones, and the San Francisco Bay Estuary (NPS 1999b). 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area estuaries, bays, and lagoons have endured 

considerable physical disturbance and pollution due to their proximity to the highly 

urbanized City of San Francisco. Some areas were heavily modified in past eras, causing 

major changes in habitat structure, including Big Lagoon at Redwood Creek, Horseshoe 

Bay, and Crissy Field. Restoration is either planned or already accomplished in these 

areas. In the recent past, the San Francisco Peninsula experienced significant bacterial 

pollution from stormwater runoff; however, treatment since the 1990s has significantly 

reduced pollution levels. High levels of PCBs, PAHs and heavy metals are still major 

issues facing San Francisco Bay coastal waters, and continued restoration is likely to 

improve local water quality conditions in some areas like the nearshore Presidio (NPS 

2007a). 
Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 45 

While active restoration efforts are reclaiming wetlands, some bays are accumulating too 

much sediment. Though sedimentation is a natural process, Tomales Bay, Drakes Bay, 

and Bolinas Lagoon appear to be experiencing higher than normal sedimentation rates. 

The evaluation of these complex tidal system dynamics and the possible impacts due to 

climate change will depend on accurate habitat mapping procedures. Currently, there is 

significant emphasis in Point Reyes National Seashore and Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area on mapping wetland extent and quality; however, these efforts are not 

yet completed and historical information on wetland habitats is limited. Where efforts are 

being made to restore tidal marsh habitat, such as at Redwood Creek and the Giacomini 

Ranch, understanding of these systems is improving (NPS 2007a). 

Intertidal Zone. Intertidal habitat, by definition, is found between the lowest and highest 

tidal level. This transitional area between sea and land is the strip of shore between the 

uppermost surfaces exposed to wave action during high tides and the lowermost areas 

exposed to air during low tides. Intertidal habitats vary in type of material and the degree 

of exposure to surf. Bottom habitat types include those of fine mud, sand, gravel, shale, 

cobble, boulders, and bedrock. Intertidal habitat within Golden Gate National Recreation 

Area includes rocky and sandy beaches (NMS and NOAA 2006). 

The south side of Alcatraz Island contains a sheer rock wall that terminates on a narrow 

rock reef about 30 to 50 feet wide. This narrow intertidal reef extends for only a short 

distance (about 660 feet) but represents one of the few rocky reefs within the San 

Francisco Bay. Other rocky intertidal portions of the island are comprised of riprap and 

rubble similar to the shorelines of much of the San Francisco Bay. 

Subtidal and Nearshore Waters. Subtidal and nearshore waters refer to the area from 

the lowest low tide line to the point where the seafloor drops and the deeper offshore 

waters begin. This is on the land side of the continental shelf slope transition. The 

substrate can be sand, mud, or rock, providing essential habitat for various algae, 

zooplankton, and phytoplankton species (NMS and NOAA 2006). The nearshore coastal 

environment is highly variable along the park’s shorelines, with a complex spatial 

distribution of marine resources due to diverse lithologies, active tectonic and 

geomorphic processes, topographic relief, and dynamic nearshore currents. This physical 

diversity coupled with high productivity results in an equally diverse distribution of 

organisms (NPS 2007a). 

Because the continental shelf extends far from the coast and upwelling occurs nearshore, 

the coastal portion of the park offers a shallow, highly productive habitat for sea birds, 

fish, and marine mammals. Currents, bathymetry (depth), and substrate determine the 

distribution of marine communities in the subtidal zone. These factors in turn affect more 

inland habitats, such as the intertidal zone, bays, and estuaries, to varying degrees. 

Though much of this discussion focuses on coastal subtidal areas, it should be noted that 

estuarine areas also include subtidal areas. Subtidal habitats are particularly threatened in 

San Francisco Bay and the surrounding coastline due to intense coastal development and 

expansion of marine transportation systems. Dredging for port modernization, sand 

mining, and alteration of rocky reef habitats near navigation channels can severely impact 

subtidal habitats (NPS 2007a). 

Continental Shelf and Slope. The continental slope, which is still considered part of the 

continent, together with the continental shelf, is called the continental margin. Large 

areas of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area waters (and state lands lease waters) 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 46 

overlap with Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary and Monterey Bay 

National Marine Sactuary; these waters cover both the continental shelf and slope. The 

overlap occurs in Tomales Bay, and from Stinson Beach to Point Bonita. From the 

shoreline to a depth of about 328 to 492 feet, the shelf is nearly horizontal, with rocky 

outcrops, gravel, sand, clay, silt, and deposits of broken shells covering it. About 25 miles 

from the coast, the seafloor drops off, creating the continental slope with a grade of about 

3 degrees. The slope extends to about 2 miles deep and is covered with uniform sandy 

sediment (NMS and NOAA 2006). 

BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES 

Habitat (Vegetation and Wildlife) 

Marine and Estuarine 

Intertidal Zone 

The intertidal habitat (the area between high tide and low tide lines) is biologically rich, 

supporting diverse assemblages of organisms. It is characterized by extreme conditions 

caused by wind, waves, and the fluctuation of tides. The animals inhabiting intertidal 

zones are subject to periodic immersion in water, followed by exposure to air. They must 

withstand varying degrees of wave shock, dramatic temperature changes, changes in 

moisture, attacks from both marine and terrestrial predators, and human-caused effects, 

such as trampling and collecting (NMS and NOAA 2006). 

Four zones of rocky intertidal organisms are traditionally associated with different tidal 

heights: splash, high intertidal, mid-intertidal, and low intertidal. Species distributions are 

restricted according to physiological tolerance along the thermal and moisture gradient in 

the intertidal zone. The splash zone is almost always exposed to air, and has relatively 

few species. The high intertidal zone is exposed to air for long periods twice a day. The 

mid-intertidal zone is exposed to air briefly once or twice a day, and the low intertidal 

zone is exposed only during the lowest tides (NMS and NOAA 2006). 

On unconsolidated muddy or sandy shores, algae are rare; benthic diatoms are the only 

marine algae that may be present. On sandy beaches, much of the invertebrate life—such 

as worms, crustaceans, snails, and clams—dwell under unconsolidated substrate. 

Common crustaceans and mollusks include the beach hopper (Megalorchestia 

californiana), spiny mole crab (Blepharipoda occidentalis), and sand crab (Emerita 

analoga). Common marine worms include Anatides groenlandica, Eteone dilate, and 

Euzonus spp. (NMS and NOAA 2006). 

Rocky shores support a richer assortment of plants and animals. Algae include numerous 

species of green, brown, and red algae, as well as beds of surfgrass. A wide variety of 

invertebrates, including anemones, barnacles, limpets, and mussels, compete for space 

with the algae in the intertidal zone. Mobile invertebrates, such as sea stars, snails, and 

crabs, often hide in crevices or under rocks, emerging to graze on algae or prey on other 

animals. Small fishes may also live in the small pools of water that fill up with each tidal 

cycle. Typical intertidal invertebrate species of central and northern California include 

lined shore crab (Pachygrapsus crassipes), purple shore crab (Hemigrapsus nudus), 

isopods (Idotea spp.), California mussels (Mytilus californianus), periwinkles (Littorina 
Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 47 

spp.), lemon nudibranch (Anisodoris nobilis), troglodyte chiton (Nuttallina californica), 

bat star (Patiria miniata), black turban snail (Chlorostoma funebralis), the giant green 

anemone (Anthopleura xanthogrammica), aggregating anemone (Anthopleura 

elegantissima), and other species of bryozoans, nudibranchs, sponges, and tunicates. 

Intertidal fishes, such as the crevice kelpfish (Gibbonsia montereyensis) and the tide pool 

sculpin (Oligocottus maculosus), are limited to tide pools or to passing through the 

intertidal zone at high tide (NMS and NOAA 2006). 

Birds forage in the intertidal zone at low tide or roost in the cliffs just above the shore. 

There are a great many species of shorebirds along the beaches, including sanderlings 

(Calidris alba), short-billed dowitchers (Limnodromus griseus), western gulls (Larus 

occidentalis), glaucous-winged gulls (Larus glaucescens), and California gulls (Larus 

californicus). Shorebirds, such as sanderlings and dowitchers, routinely forage in the 

receding surf, an indication that there are sand-dwelling crustaceans available. Another 

bird found in this area is the snowy plover (Charadrius alexandrinus nivosus), whose 

threatened status has resulted in some significant resource management actions in central 

California, including restrictions on access or types of use in some shoreline areas. In 

addition to the snowy plover, typical shorebird breeders in this habitat include the black 

oystercatcher (Haematopus bachmani), killdeer (Charadrius vociferus), sanderlings, 

willets (Catoptrophorus semipalmatus), and marbled godwits (Limosa fedoa). Brown 

pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis), surf scoters (Melanitta perspicillata), grebes (family 

Podicipedidae), cormorants (Phalacrocorax spp.), and many other seabird species can be 

found in water beyond the breaking waves or flying through the area. Caspian terns 

(Sterna caspia), Forster terns (Sterna forsteri), and whimbrels (Numenius phaeopus) are 

some of the summer migrants that forage along the coastal beaches. Winter migrants 

include loons (Gavia spp.), willets, black-bellied plovers (Pluvialis squatarola), godwits 

(Limosa spp.), and turnstones (Arenaria melanocephala) (NMS and NOAA 2006). 

Marine mammals are also found in this habitat. Pacific harbor seals (Phoca vitulina), and 

California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) are frequently seen seaward of the surf 

zone; sea otters (Enhydra lutris) and Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) are occasional 

visitors. Seals and sea lions haul out on intertidal shores for warming and breeding (NMS 

and NOAA 2006). 

At Alcatraz Island, the rocky intertidal community on the Alcatraz reef is characterized 

by attached flora and fauna such as rockweed (Fucus gairdneri), turfweed (Endocladia 

muricata), and barnacles. Areas with crevices and overhangs often harbor mobile species 

such as shore crabs and seastars. 

Subtidal and Nearshore Waters 

Subtidal habitats (depths below mean low water) and nearshore waters (shallow inshore 

waters of the continental shelf) support many different species. Krill (euphausiids) is a 

crucial or “keystone” species in the area. They are small, shrimp-like crustaceans that 

congregate in large dense masses called swarms or clouds. Two krill species form the 

primary forage for upper tropic levels in the adjacent sanctuary. Krill feed on 

phytoplankton and are very important in the food web because many other species feed 

on krill. Krill form a key trophic link in coastal upwelling systems between primary 

production and higher trophic level consumers. Most marine predators subsist at least 

part of the year on krill, which is the primary prey of seven of the ten most important 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 48 

commercial fishes on the central California coast. Krill are also very important food 

sources for baleen whales and seabirds (NMS and NOAA 2006). 

The nutrient-rich sanctuary waters near Golden Gate National Recreation Area provide 

forage for the largest concentration of breeding seabirds in the continental United States. 

More than 120 species of birds use these three sanctuaries for shelter, food, or as a 

migration corridor. Of these, over 40 species are known to use the sanctuary during their 

breeding season (NMS and NOAA 2006). 

These same productive waters also support a variety of marine mammals, including gray 

whales (Eschrichtius robustus), humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae), blue 

whales (Balaenoptera musculus), Dall’s porpoise (Phocoenoides dalli), harbor porpoise 

(Phocoena sinus), Pacific white-sided dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens), northern 

right whale dolphins (Lissodelphis borealis), Risso’s dolphins (Grampus griseus) and 

killer whales (Orcinus orca). Some species, such as the gray whale, are only seasonal 

migrants; others, such as the blue, humpback, and killer whale, travel to the area to feed. 

Other marine mammals, such as harbor seals and sea lions, can be found in these areas 

year round (NMS and NOAA 2006). 

Six species of pinnipeds, some of which are federal listed, are found in the waters 

offshore of the park. Pinnipeds spend a large amount of time in offshore waters or on 

offshore islands, but some of the rookeries (breeding places or breeding colonies usually 

crowded with the same species) and haul-out areas occur in this habitat. Species found in 

the area are California sea lion, Pacific harbor seal, Steller sea lion, northern elephant seal 

(Mirounga angustirostris), northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus), and on occasion, the 

Guadalupe fur seal (Arctocephalus townsendi). The various species have numerous seal 

rookeries or colonies and are found at different times of the year, feeding on the abundant 

fish and invertebrate resources of the island shelves or hauling out on rocks and beaches 

(NMS and NOAA 2006). 

A variety of fish species occur within these habitats, including rockfishes, cabezon, 

surfperch (family Embiotocidae), wrasses (family Labridae), and señorita, (Oxyjulius 

californica). Commercially harvested species include salmon, tuna, crab, squid, and 

various rockfish. Salmon and crab fisheries are the most important fisheries in the 

sanctuaries. The West Coast Dungeness crab fishery is considered the most sustainable 

large-scale commercial crab fishery in the world. Both chinook and coho salmon are 

coastal migrants. (NMS and NOAA 2006). 

Kelp forests support a variety of species, including sea otters and sea urchins. Other 

marine mammals, such as harbor seals and California sea lions, are common in and 

around kelp forests, as are a variety of fishes, such as the señorita, the kelp surfperch 

(Brachyistius frenatus), blue rockfish (Sebastes mystinus), blacksmith (Chromis 

punctipinnis), and olive rockfish (S. serranoides). The kelp canopy, stipes, and holdfasts 

increase the available habitat for nearshore species and offer protection to juvenile 

finfish. Bat star (Asterina miniata), sea lemon (Anisidoris nobilis), barnacles (Balanus 

spp.), red volcano sponge (Acarnus erithacus), and urchin are a few of the many types of 

invertebrates that inhabit the kelp forest and rocky subtidal habitats (NMS and NOAA 

2006). 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area contains areas of sandy beaches, some barely 

accessible narrow strips along the shoreline while others are large expanses readily 
Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 49 

accessed and heavily used by visitors. Beach wrack—a thick tangle of kelp and sea grass 

that washes ashore during high tides—supports an intricate food web and community. 

Until recently, beach wrack was removed from many park beaches; now this practice has 

been discontinued. Recreational activities on park beaches, unleashed dogs, and kayaks 

impact both shorebird and pinniped populations. Efforts to minimize disturbance during 

the past 5 to 10 years appear to have met with some success and certain species such as 

snowy plover and harbor seal populations seem stable after years of decline (NPS 2007a). 

Although local data are not comprehensive, notable trends and observations for key 

indicators in California nearshore marine and estuarine habitats likely to occur in the 

parks include the following: 

 a decline in populations of all California abalone 

 northward spread of the ricketsial-like bacteria responsible for withering 

syndrome in black abalone which was recently observed just south of Golden 

Gate National Recreation Area 

 a decline in rockfish species such as bocaccio (Sebastes paucispinus) 

 a decline in the extent of kelp forests caused by pollution, wave damage due to 

storms, and El Niño warming 

 stable Dungeness crab populations as a result of successful fisheries management 

 an increase in dune- and beach-dependent snowy plovers after significant 

declines observed in the mid 1990s resulted in protective management 

 stable population levels of harbor and elephant seals 

 a decline in pelagic sea birds due to climate regime shifts and human disturbance 

including bycatch, nest disturbance, and oil spills 

 an increase in tidal marsh lands due to restoration activities and protective 

measures (NPS 2007a) 

Estuarine and Lagoon 

Estuaries and lagoons serve as important habitats for many fishes, birds, and mammals. 

They provide suitable habitat for reproduction, feeding, resting, and cover. Estuaries and 

lagoons support unique biological communities with both aquatic and terrestrial 

characteristics. Halophytic vegetation, such as pickleweed (Allenrolfea occidentalis),

grows higher in the marsh where flooding occurs less frequently and salt may become 

concentrated. However, little vegetation can grow in areas characterized by high 

evaporation and high soil salinity. A diverse assemblage of wetland plants grows in areas 

near tidal creeks where fresh water input is high. As the plant matter breaks down into 

detritus, it is consumed by various filter feeders, deposit feeders, and other omnivores and 

scavengers. These species, in turn, provide abundant food resources for other species of 

fish, birds, and mammals. Brackish water supports a distinctive assemblage of 

invertebrate and fish species, including the endangered tidewater goby (Eucyclogobius 

newberryi). Other estuarine species can include jacksmelt (Atherinopsis californiensis), 

Pacific sardine (Sardinops sagax caerulea), Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii), staghorn 

sculpins (Leptocottus armatus), several rockfishes, salmonids, and clupeids 

(Clupeleonella ssp.) (NMS and NOAA 2006). 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 50 

The estuaries and bays of coastal California are part of the Pacific Flyway, one of the 

four principal bird migration routes in North America. San Francisco Bay supports a 

large number of migratory and resident birds. Also important for birds are Tomales Bay, 

Bolinas Lagoon, Pescadero Marsh, and Elkhorn Slough. Bolinas Lagoon and Tomales 

Bay are designated wetlands of significant international importance under the Convention 

on Wetlands. Marine mammals, including harbor seal, harbor porpoise, and sea otter, 

occur in these bays (NMS and NOAA 2006). 

Seagrass beds, which occur in the bays and lagoons, are highly productive habitats that 

support a unique assemblage of invertebrates and fishes. Many fishes, including Pacific 

herring, spawn in seagrass beds among other habitats. The structure of seagrass beds 

provides protection from predation for juvenile invertebrates and fishes. Large numbers 

of shorebirds and waterfowl are attracted to seagrass beds, where they feed on the 

seagrass, fishes, and invertebrate eggs and young (NMS and NOAA 2006). 

The marine environment around Slide Ranch includes exposed outer coastlands with a 

rich display of sponges, hydroids, bryozoans, and tunicates. Muir Beach is also home to a 

variety of submarine sponges, hydroids, bryozoans, and tunicates. Tennessee Cove 

contains unique geological features including the only California central coast display of 

highly polished and fossilized shells of Collisella digitalis. Sea caves contain unusually 

large isopod (Ligia occidentalis) specimens. Kirby Cove contains giant isopods of 

unusually large size and high densities of starfish (Pisaster ochraceous and Patiria 

miniata). Bird Island, with its guano-covered sea stack, produces abnormally sized 

marine invertebrates and plants, including large California mussels and surfgrass, marine 

kelp and giant kelp, sea anemones and purple seastar, as well as high densities of marine 

copepod (Tigriopus californica). The underwater marine life is abundant and includes 

high densities of sponges, hydroids, bryozoans, and tunicates. The Alcatraz intertidal 

zone ranks high in its abundance and diversity of marine algae (NPS 1999b). 

Estuaries, bays, and lagoons provide rich habitats including subtidal seagrasses, tidal 

mudflats, and marshes that support a rich diversity of wildlife. Past shoreline 

modifications, including wetland fill and seawalls, dramatically reduced the extent of 

tidal marsh within the park. Inherently lower rates of hydrologic mixing in estuaries and 

especially in lagoons, enhances their vulnerability to pollution and invasive species (NPS 

2007a). 

Although at much lower levels and not as well studied as in San Francisco Bay, invasive 

species are established in estuaries and lagoons in northern coastal areas of the park. 

Despite these threats, Tomales Bay and Drakes Estero are considered relatively pristine 

and support variable but healthy biological communities. Wetland restoration projects, 

such as the Muir Beach / Big Lagoon restoration project will further enhance resource 

condition (NPS 2007a). 

Due to its favorable currents and nearshore foraging areas, the waters around Alcatraz 

Island provide rich sources of food for the colonial waterbirds that nest on the island 

(NPS 2001). These waters are subject to the same influences as the rest of San Francisco 

Bay. 

Benthic Communities 

The benthic community is made up of organisms that live in and on the bottom of the 

ocean floor. Benthic species include worms, clams, crabs, lobsters, sponges, and other 
Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 51 

tiny organisms that live in the bottom sediments. Benthic species are divided into the 

filter feeders and the deposit feeders. Filter feeders filter their food by siphoning particles 

out of the water. 

Various benthic habitats and substrates are found within the waters off Golden Gate 

National Recreation Area. In addition, benthic communities occur in a variety of the 

habitats described in this section, including subtidal rocky reefs, kelp forests, soft bottom 

habitats, and deep ocean floor habitats. The continental shelf descends gradually from the 

coast to the shelf break. Benthic communities along the continental shelf are covered in 

part by a layer of mud. Outcropping bedrock and sand cover the continental shelf at 

depths greater than 295 feet. Benthic organisms play a critical role and make up a diverse 

group that is a major link in the food chain (NMS and NOAA 2006). 

Terrestrial/Freshwater 

Plant Communities 

The vegetation of Golden Gate National Recreation Area is a result of the juxtaposition 

of physical landforms and water masses, and associated geology, climate, and history. 

The moist maritime climate along the coastline is a dominant influence, while the park's 

east-facing sites are subject to drier inland conditions. Distinct changes in soils from the 

rich conditions of the Franciscan melange to the unique chemistry of serpentinitic 

outcrops have created a diverse mosaic of vegetation communities. Natural processes, 

including landslides, rainfall patterns, and fires, affect these patterns and add another 

layer of complexity to the system. Golden Gate National Recreation Area is known to 

support 572 native species, including 336 nonnative terrestrial plant species (NPS 2005a). 

Alcatraz Island generally consists of grasses, shrubs, historic gardens, nonnative trees, 

and cliffs and other barren areas, along with buildings and other paved areas. The 

landscape vegetation consists of a diverse group of nonnative ornamental shrubs and 

trees, which provide the vegetative structure and habitat for wildlife on the island (NPS 

2001). 

Coastal Scrub and Chaparral. The coastal scrub community is dominated by coyote 

brush (Baccharis pilularis), California sagebrush (Artemisia californica), bush lupine 

(Lupinus arboreus), and poison oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum), with variations in 

dominant species based on moisture levels, soil types and slopes, and past land use 

history. This community intergrades and creates a mosaic with the grassland community, 

and is found throughout the park from near sea level to 2,500 feet in elevation. The 

coastal scrub community includes a wide variety of native perennial forbs (Lupinus 

albifrons and others) and large numbers of nonnative species; at times it is dominated by 

nonnative shrubs such as French broom (Genista monspessulana) and thoroughwart 

(Ageratina adenophora). Chaparral stands exist within the park, but are not all that 

abundant. Small communities of chaparral exist in Muir Woods National Monument and 

the Marin Headlands, as well as larger areas on Bolinas Ridge. There are several types of 

chaparral in the park, including chamise chaparral, ceanothus chaparral, and manzanita 

chaparral (NPS 2005a). 

Grasslands. The grassland community at Golden Gate National Recreation Area extends 

from sea level to nearly 2,600 feet in elevation. It forms a mosaic with the coastal scrub 

community and mixed evergreen forests. The coastal prairie areas appear to have evolved 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 52 

under light seasonal grazing pressure from native tule elk and other herbivores with 

occasional fire (NPS 2005a). 

Pristine grassland was thought to have been composed of evenly spaced bunchgrasses 

with annual forbs occupying areas between tussocks. It has been shown that purple 

needlegrass (Nasella pulchra)—the California state grass—was a major dominant of that 

grassland type along with other perennial grasses. These grasslands have had the greatest 

disturbance of any natural habitat in this area. Four main factors have contributed to this 

disturbance: 1) an increase in grazing pressures from nonnative cattle, sheep, and horses, 

2) the introduction of highly competitive nonnative plants, 3) cultivation, and 4) the 

elimination of fire (NPS 2005a). Today, the grasslands are dominated by nonnative 

annual grasses and forbs adapted to Mediterranean conditions. (NPS 2005a). 

The extirpation of large native mammals, exclusion of grazing by native herbivores, and 

suppression of wildfires have caused a marked increase in acreage covered by coyote 

brush and the resulting coastal scrub community in the Bay Area. It should be noted that 

grassland and coastal scrub communities are a dynamic mosaic with changes in 

dominance over time, and in some areas these two communities are in equilibrium with 

no invasion occurring (NPS 2005a). 

Riparian Forest and Scrub. These streamside forests and shrub lands are dominated by 

broad-leaved deciduous trees or shrubs, most commonly willows (Salix lasiolepis or S. 

lucida ssp. lasiandra) and occasionally red alder (Alnus rubra). The understory is 

typically dense, with a variety of shrubs including native berries—native salmonberry 

(Rubus spectabilis), thimbleberry (R. parvijlorus), and California blackberry (R 

ursinus)—as well as nonnative Himalayan blackberry and cape ivy. Numerous 

herbaceous species, including ferns, rushes, and sedges, dominate the shrub understory. 

Nonnative trees, including eucalypts (Eucalyptus spp.) and Monterey cypress (Cupressus 

macrocarpa), have become successfully established within the riparian forest strands in 

the park (NPS 2005a). 

Douglas-fir and Coast Redwood. The majestic old-growth redwood forest at Muir 

Woods National Monument, with Redwood Creek peacefully flowing through groves of 

tall trees, attracts much visitor attention. This tranquil scene is a rare sight close to a large 

metropolitan area. Many species contribute to this ecosystem. Major overstory and 

understory trees include coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), Douglas-fir 

(Pseudotsuga menziesii), California bay laurel (Umbellularia calijornica), tanoak 

(Lithocarpus densiflorus), California hazel (Corylus calijornica), and madrone (Arbutus 

menziesii) (NPS 2005a). Douglas-fir communities are found on Bolinas Ridge and within 

Muir Woods National Monument. The communities on Bolinas Ridge have been 

previously logged. 

Nonnative Evergreen Forest. Many nonnative tree species have become established in 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area through both intentional and unintentional 

introductions, including ornamental plantings, plantings for windbreaks or shade for 

pastures, and escapes from cultivated and developed areas. Many of these trees—

including a number of eucalypts (Eucalyptus spp.), acacia (Acacia spp.), Monterey pine 

(Pinus radiata), and Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa)—have invaded native 

communities. Most are very flammable, or significantly change the fire potential in areas 

that otherwise would support low-intensity or minimal fires, such as the coastal scrub and 

grassland areas of the park (NPS 2005a). 
Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 53 

Plant Communities of Alcatraz Island. Before occupation by Europeans, Alcatraz 

Island was sparsely vegetated. Trees and shrubs were planted as part of military fort and 

penitentiary life on the island. Soils brought from the mainland and surrounding islands 

in the bay contained seeds of native plants, including coyote brush, California poppy

(Eschcholzia californica), and California blackberry (Rubus ursinus), which have become 

established on the island. Only about 5% of the island has native grasses or coastal scrub 

species; the rest is dominated by nonnative species (NPS 2001). 

The landscape vegetation is nonnative, but it provides significant shelter and habitat on 

the island. Shrubs are common and include nonnative rose, mirrorbush, fig, blackberry, 

agave, Australian tea ivy, mimosa, plume acacia, Monterey cypress, and native coyote 

brush. A small stand of native grasses dominated by creeping wildrye (Leymus 

triticoides) is located on the Northeast Perimeter Trail near the Power House complex. 

Another smaller stand is present in the Cistern area. Ruderal vegetation occurs along the 

edges of walkways, buildings, and building remains. Dominant species in these areas are 

wild oats, wild radish, mustard, and cheeseweed. Rocky cliffs and bluffs are found 

primarily along the island perimeter. The southwestern cliffs support various succulents, 

agave, sourgrass, sweet alyssum, wild radish, and large shrubs in areas where Brandt’s 

cormorants, western gulls, and pigeon guillemots nest. These plants provide nesting 

material and protection for the birds (NPS 2001). 

Wetlands. Herbaceous wetlands are known as emergent wetlands in the Cowardin 

wetlands classification. They consist of a mix of low-growing species of native sedges 

(Carex spp.), rushes (Juncus spp.), and other wetland-dependent species (Scirpus 

microcarpus, Typha spp. Cyperus eragrostis, Equisetum spp.), as well as some nonnative 

species of grasses and forbs. The nonnative grasses include velvet grass (Holcus lanatus)

and harding grass (phalaris aquatica) and the forbs include cape ivy (Delairea odorata)

and vinca (Vinca major and V. minor). Also included are areas covered with various 

reeds along the shores of lagoons and ponds, herbaceous strips of vegetation along 

perennial and ephemeral stream courses, and isolated wetland patches where seeps spring 

from the hill slopes. Some special status plant species—locally to regionally rare—occur 

within this community (NPS 2005a). 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area has abundant wetland resources, including wet 

meadows, seeps, streams, riparian forests, lakes, ponds, and lagoons. Wetlands, according 

to the definition developed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and adopted by the 

National Park Service, are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems, 

where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow 

water. Wetlands generally include marshes, riparian zones, mudflats, rocky intertidal 

zones, and gravel beaches. Deepwater habitats such as rivers, lakes, and estuaries are not 

technically wetlands but are classified as aquatic sites using the same classification 

system. Wetland ecosystems act to buffer hydrologic and erosional cycles, control and 

regulate cycles of nitrogen and other key nutrients, and create valuable habitat for animal 

species. 

The wetlands in Golden Gate National Recreation Area have been field-mapped in 

several watersheds, including the Rodeo Creek watershed, the Presidio of San Francisco, 

and portions of the Redwood Creek and Bolinas Lagoon watersheds. The remainder of 

the park has not been field-mapped, but likely contains areas of wetland vegetation based 

on parkwide vegetation mapping results that need field verification. The majority of 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 54 

wetlands in Golden Gate National Recreation Area are located in the valley bottoms, with 

seeps and small intermittent streams reaching into the higher portions of the watersheds 

(NPS 2005a). 
Muir Beach

Stinson Beach

Marin Municpal 

Water District

Mount Tamalpais

State Park

Fort Point 

National Historic Site

Angel Island 

State Park

Richmond

Berkeley

Sausalito

Tiburon

Marin 

City

Mill Valley

San Rafael

Oakland

City of 

San Francisco

San Mateo 

County

San Mateo

Pacifica

Daly 

City

San Francisco 

International Airport

Half Moon Bay

State Beach

Pillar Point Bluff

Fitzgerald 

Marine Reserve

Fort Mason

Fort Baker Alcatraz

Island

Fort Funston

Mori 

Point

San Pedro 

Point

Devil’s 

Slide

Rancho Corral

de Tierra

Milagra Ridge

Sweeney Ridge

Phleger Estate

Half

Moon

Bay

Presidio of 

San Francisco

Muir Woods 

National Monument

Marin Headlands

Golden Gate Northern Lands

(Managed by Point Reyes NS)

Peninsula Watershed

(San Francisco Public 

Utilities Commission)

NPS Easement

Rodeo Beach

Lands End

Ocean Beach

Sharp Park

280

280

280

101

101

580

101

101

101

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Pacific Ocean

San Pablo Bay

Monterey Bay

National Marine Sanctuary

Gulf of the

Farallones National

Marine Sanctuary

Monterey Bay

National Marine 

Sanctuary

S a n

F r a n c i s c o

B a y

San Francisco Maritime 

National Historical Park

Cit y and Count y of San Francisco

San Mateo Count y

380

92

Audubon 

Canyon 

Ranch

Vegetation Community

Built-Up Disturbed

Coastal Dunes

Coastal Scrub

Coast Redwood/Douglas-fir

Grassland

Herbaceous Wetlands

Native Hardwood Forest

Non-Native Evergreen Forest

Riparian Forest

Unvegetated Shoreline/Outcrop

GGNRA Legislative Boundary

U.S.Department of the Interior • National Park Service

DSC • August 5, 2009 

0 4

Miles

Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 57 

Wildlife 

The entire park is included within the Central California Coast International Biosphere 

Region. The park's diverse habitats support a rich assemblage of wildlife. At least 387 

vertebrate species are known to occur within the park boundaries. Species lists compiled 

from a variety of sources and incomplete inventories include 11 amphibians, 20 reptiles, 

53 fish, 53 mammals, and 250 birds. Terrestrial invertebrates in the park are less well 

known; however, two areas of the park, Marin Headlands and Milagra Ridge, support 

diverse butterfly populations. Wildlife habitats within the park include introduced 

eucalyptus and closed-cone Monterey pine and cypress forests; hardwood, mixed 

evergreen, Douglas-fir, redwood, and riparian forests; coastal scrub; annual and perennial 

grasslands; freshwater and saline wetlands and wet meadows; and estuarine, lacustrine, 

marine, and riverine aquatic habitats (NPS 2005a). 

Alcatraz Island is a valuable natural habitat for colonial waterbirds due to favorable 

currents and nearshore foraging areas. The island supports a diverse assembly of marine 

and estuarine colonial nesting birds. Species of particular interest are black-crowned 

night herons, pigeon guillemots, Brandt’s and pelagic cormorants, and western gulls 

(NPS 2001). 

Mammals. Terrestrial habitats within the planning area support a diversity of mammals. 

Meso-carnivores, including the gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), bobcat (Felis 

rufus), and the recently reestablished coyote (Canis latrans), inhabit coastal scrub and 

grasslands. Mountain lions (Felis concolor) have been sighted in some undeveloped areas 

of the park. These carnivores feed on a variety of small and large mammals such as the 

Pacific black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus), broad-footed mole 

(Scapanus larimanus), pocket gopher (Thomomys bottae), deer mouse (Peromyscus 

maniculatus), western harvest mouse (Reithrodontomus megalotis), California vole 

(Microtus californicus), and brush rabbit (Sylvilagus bachmani). Badgers (Taxidea taxus)

are also infrequently encountered. Some species, such as the western harvest mouse, 

appear to be restricted to areas where native perennial grasses persist (NPS 2005a). 

In addition to many of the aforementioned mammals, Muir Woods National Monument 

and other forested areas within the planning area support vagrant shrew (Sorex vagrans), 

Trowbridge's shrew (Sorex trowbridgii), Sonoma chipmunk (Tamius sonomae), western 

gray squirrel (Sciurus griseus), opossum (Didelphis virginiana), and dusky-footed 

woodrats (Neotoma fuscipes). Other mammalian carnivores include the raccoon (Procyon 

lotor), striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), and spotted skunk (Spilogale gracilis), longtailed weasel (Mustela frenata), and the recently returned river otter (Lontra Canadensis) 

(NPS 2005a). 

Seventeen species of bats have been detected within the park. Ten species of bats have 

been documented in Muir Woods National Monument, including four at-risk species: 

Townsend's western big-eared bat (Corynorhinus townsendii townsendii), fringed myotis 

(Myotis thysanodes), long-legged myotis (Myotis volans), and Yuma myotis (Myotis 

yumanensis). Many of the bats have been observed using redwood fire-scar cavities for 

roosting. At the Marin Headlands, several historic World War II structures were found to 

be occupied by the Townsend's western big-eared bat and the Yuma myotis. The 

Brazilian free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis) forages over coastal scrub habitat within 

the Marin Headlands (NPS 2005a). 
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Volume II: 58 

Isolated coastal rocks, beaches, and lagoon sand flats in the park serve as haul-outs for 

harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) and California sea lions (Zalophus californianus). Up to 

250 harbor seals haul out in Point Bonita Cove along the slopes of the Marin Headlands. 

As the northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris) population rapidly increases, the 

seals are encountered more frequently on sandy beaches throughout the region. California 

gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus), humpback whales (Megaptera novaeagliae), and

harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) use offshore waters; young whales occasionally 

wander into San Francisco Bay. Southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) are 

infrequently seen offshore with numbers increasing as the population spreads north (NPS 

2005a). 

Alcatraz Island is home to deer mice and several bat species. Small numbers of seals and 

sea lions haul out on the island’s rocky areas (NPS 2001). 

Birds. Located along the Pacific Flyway, Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

provides habitat for a great diversity of breeding, overwintering, and migratory birds. 

Nineteen species of diurnal raptors have been detected in migration over the ridges of the 

Marin Headlands. Red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), red-shouldered hawks (Buteo 

lineatus), and great horned owls (Bubo virginianus) nest in many of the large nonnative 

eucalyptus trees in the park. A wide range of other raptors and at least ten owl species 

occur within the planning area. Numerous species of waterbirds also occur within the 

park in marine and rocky intertidal habitats, cliffs, beaches, and tidal and wetland areas 

(NPS 2005a). 

Point Reyes Bird Observatory (now Point Reyes Bird Observatory Conservation Science) 

encountered 83 bird species during 1997 breeding landbird censuses in coastal grassland, 

coastal scrub, riparian, and mixed hardwood habitats. From point count censuses in 1999 

and 2000, white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys), red-winged blackbirds 

(Agelaius phoniceus), savannah sparrows (Passerculus sandwichensis), and song 

sparrows (Melospiza melodia) were the most commonly detected species in grasslands. 

The most abundant species in coastal scrub were white-crowned sparrows, spotted 

towhees (Pipilo maculatus), and wrentits (Chamaea fasciata). In forested habitats, 

bushtits (Psaltriparus minimus), chestnut-backed chickadees (Poecile rufescens), dark 

eyed juncos (Junco hyemalis), Pacific-slope flycatchers (Empidonax difficilis), and winter 

wrens (Troglodytes troglodytes) were commonly detected. Based on songbird nest 

monitoring in riparian habitats along Redwood and Lagunitas creeks, the song sparrow, 

Swainson's thrush (Catharus ustulatus), warbling vireo (Vireo gilvus), and Wilson's 

warbler (Wilsonia pusilla) were the most commonly observed nesters. The brown-headed 

cowbird (Molothrus ater) is a nest parasite that negatively affects the reproductive 

success of open-cup nesting songbirds and occurs throughout the planning area. Many of 

the landbirds in the planning area are Neotropical migrants, with others identified as 

species of management concern and riparian species of conservation priority by 

California Partners in Flight (NPS 2005a). 

Alcatraz Island is a particularly important site for birds. A number of colonial waterbird 

species inhabit Alcatraz Island. Waterbird species of interest include Brandt's cormorants 

(Phalacrocorax penicillatus), pelagic cormorants (P. pelagicus), western gulls (Larus 

occidentalis), pigeon Guillemots (Cepphus columba), black oystercatchers (Haematopus 

bachmani), black-crowned night herons (Nycticorax nycticorax), snowy egrets (Egretta 

thula), great egrets (Casmerodius albus), great blue herons (Ardea herodias), and 
Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 59 

California gulls (Larus californicus). The Brandt’s cormorant colony on Alcatraz Island 

is one of the few known estuarine breeding sites for this species. Pigeon Guillemots breed 

nowhere else in the San Francisco Bay, and the western gull and black-crowned night 

heron colonies are among the largest in the Bay (Acosta et al. 2008). None of the 

waterbird species on Alcatraz Island are special status species. 

This diversity of species exists in a delicate balance with the considerable human 

presence both on and around Alcatraz Island. Colonial waterbird populations on the 

island experience substantial disturbance from a number of different sources. A large 

number of visitors tour the island annually, and associated historic preservation and 

safety construction projects, public access to breeding areas, gardening activities that are 

part of a historic garden restoration program, and special events could disrupt the 

breeding efforts of Alcatraz Island seabirds. Encroachment near the Alcatraz Island 

shoreline by large numbers of commercial or recreational boaters (e.g., tour boats, 

anglers, kayakers), and uncontrolled aircraft overflights (e.g., air tour operators), may 

have similar effects. In addition, dredging and other projects that disturb and alter the 

subtidal environment are potentially disruptive to seabird populations, as these activities 

may remobilize contaminants, increase turbidity, and destroy essential foraging habitat 

(Acosta et al. 2008). 

In 1993, Golden Gate National Recreation Area completed a management plan for 

Alcatraz Island, which included provisions for maintaining breeding populations of 

colonial waterbirds. This plan emphasized protection of the island's natural resources, 

while maintaining opportunities for visitor access, special events, and other island uses. 

The plan called for natural resource monitoring and the development of protocols to 

determine baseline information for key wildlife populations (Acosta et al. 2008). 

Amphibians and Reptiles. Small populations of the federal listed threatened California 

red-legged frog (Rana aurora draytonii) occur within the planning area. 

Within San Mateo County, historic and current records indicate the presence of the 

federal listed endangered San Francisco garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis tetrataenia). 

More common terrestrial amphibians in the planning area include ensatina (Ensatina 

eschscholtzii) and California slender salamander (Batrachoseps attenuatus). Common 

species spending a substantial amount of time at streams or ponds for breeding or rearing 

purposes include California newts (Taricha torosa), rough-skinned newts (Taricha 

granulosa), Pacific treefrog (Hyla regilla), and California giant salamander 

(Dicamptodon ensatus). Common reptiles include the Western fence lizard (Scelopoms 

occidentalis), northern alligator lizard (Gerrhonotus coemleus), Pacific gopher snake 

(Pituophis melanoleusus), and western terrestrial garter snake (Thamnophis elegans) 

(NPS 2005a). 

Alcatraz Island has large populations of California slender salamanders, which are small 

lungless salamanders that do not require water for breeding. The northern end of the 

island has moist substrate, which supports the salamanders. Neither the eggs nor the 

salamanders can tolerate salt spray, so they are limited to upland areas of the island (NPS 

2001). 

Fish. The planning area includes both resident and transitory fish species that occupy 

marine, estuarine, and freshwater habitats. Common, nearshore resident estuarine and 

marine fish include Pacific staghorn sculpin, arrow goby (Clevelandia ios), and topsmelt 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 60 

(Atherinops afjinis). The brackish Rodeo Lagoon in the Marin Headlands supports a large 

population of the federal listed endangered tidewater goby (Eucyclogobius newberryi) 

(NPS 2005a). 

Freshwater streams within the planning area are characterized by naturally low species 

diversity. Perennial streams may include resident fish such as threespine stickleback 

(Gasterosteus aculeatus) and prickly sculpin (Cottus asper). Several important 

anadromous fish species are present in the creeks and watersheds within the planning 

area. Anadromous species are those that spawn or breed in streams and rivers and then 

migrate to and mature in the ocean. Anadromous species that breed and rear in streams 

within the planning area include endangered coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and 

steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Coho salmon are listed as endangered and 

steelhead trout are listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act. Intermittent 

streams or the intermittent headwater streams may support only steelhead trout (NPS 

2005a). 

Invertebrates. Two coastal grassland/scrub areas in the park are known for their high 

numbers and diversity of butterflies: Marin Headlands and Milagra Ridge. The federal 

listed endangered mission blue butterfly (Icaricia icarioides missionensis) occurs at both 

sites, while the San Bruno elfin butterfly (Euphydryas editha bayensis) is found at 

Milagra Ridge, where it inhabits rocky outcrops. At least 44 species of butterflies occur 

in the Marin Headlands and 34 species occur at Milagra Ridge, illustrating the 

importance of habitat fragments within largely developed landscapes. Various species of 

skippers, swallowtails, hairstreaks, blues, ladies, admirals, and crescents inhabit these 

areas. Monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) are found in clusters overwintering in 

many areas of the park, often in groves of nonnative trees. Other terrestrial invertebrates 

have not been well documented (NPS 2005a). 

Limited information is available regarding the freshwater invertebrates that are present 

within the planning area. Targeted inventories have been conducted in streams such as 

Redwood Creek. Two hundred twenty-three freshwater species are known. The only 

federal listed species is the endangered California freshwater shrimp, which is found 

within the Lagunitas Creek watershed, an area managed by Point Reyes National 

Seashore. Limited information is also available regarding invertebrates from marine and 

estuarine habitats within the planning area. Two hundred seventy-nine marine and 

estuarine species are known (NPS 2005a). 

Alcatraz Island includes a small but significant site used briefly by Monarch butterflies in 

their fall migration. The butterflies are usually on the island for one to five days during 

this period and have been reported on vines on the east side of the island and near the 

chapel (NPS 2001). 

Nonnative Wildlife. Many species of nonnative wildlife have been identified as problem 

species within the park. These species negatively affect populations of native animals 

through competition for resources, predation, and as vectors for disease. Nonnative 

terrestrial mammals include fallow deer (Cervus dama), feral hogs (Sus scrofa), red fox 

(Vulpes vulpes), opossum, house cats (Felis domestiells), and Norway and black rats 

(Rattus norvegieus and R. rattus). Nonnative birds found in the planning area include 

wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo), European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), peasows 

(Pavo eristatus), house sparrows (Passer domestieus), and rock doves (Columba livia). 

Nonnative invertebrates present in the planning area include Argentine ant (Iridomyrmex 
Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 61 

humilis). Nonnative fish present within various human-made ponds include mosquitofish 

(Gambusia affinis) and various sunfish, while estuarine areas may support yellowfin goby 

(Aeanthogobius flavimanus). Nonnative amphibian and reptile species include bullfrog 

(Rana catesbeiana), red-eared slider (Chrysemys pieta), and the occasional caiman (NPS 

2005a). 

Norway rats have been observed on Alcatraz Island since 1998. The Norway rats are a 

concern because of their potential as predators of waterbird eggs and chicks on the island. 

These rats have been known to reduce native rodent populations (NPS 2001). 

Special Status Wildlife Species 

Habitat for numerous rare or special status wildlife species (i.e., federal and state listed 

species, species of special concern, and candidate species) exists within the lands and 

waters of the park's legislative boundary. These special status species are permanent 

residents of the park, seasonal residents of the park, or rely on the land and waters of the 

park for migration. Twenty-seven wildlife species that occupy the land and waters of 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area are listed as threatened or endangered under the 

Endangered Species Act as amended (16 USC 1536 [a] [2] 1982). Of these, 14 are federal 

endangered and 14 are federal threatened. It is important to note that three separate 

populations of the chinook salmon species and two populations of the steelhead trout 

species exist in the planning area. Since the federal status of the chinook salmon varies 

across populations (two are threatened, one is endangered), the sum of federal 

endangered and federal threatened species (28) does not directly coincide with the 

previously-noted 37 protected species under the Endangered Species Act. 

Fourteen of the wildlife species that occupy the lands and waters of the park are also 

listed as threatened or endangered by the California Endangered Species Act. Of these, 

10 species are state endangered, and 4 are state threatened. All but three of these statelisted wildlife species are also federal listed: the exceptions being the bald eagle, bank 

swallow, and California black rail. 

Numerous other wildlife species (birds in particular) are considered sensitive by the 

Audubon Society, Partners in Flight, or the California Department of Forestry, or are 

designated Migratory Nongame Birds of Management Concern by the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service. Nearly all of the native birds documented in the park are protected 

under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (16 USC 528-531). Thirty-eight rare or special 

status plant species are currently identified within the park. Of those species, 9 are federal 

listed endangered, 1 is federal listed threatened, and 15 are included or proposed for 

inclusion by the California Native Plant Society (NPS 2005a). 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration National Marines Fisheries Service provided a list of federal listed 

threatened and endangered species for consideration during development of the fire 

management plan in 2005. This list was used as the initial baseline of information for the 

development of this general management plan, because the planning areas for the two 

plans are identical (NPS 2005a). To refine and update the list of special status species in 

the planning area, the NPS Endangered Species Act Database, the California Department 

of Fish and Game’s California Natural Diversity Database, and park staff data were 

referenced. 
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Volume II: 62 

The table in Appendix D identifies the threatened and endangered species that could 

occur in the planning area. Their current federal and state status and county-specific 

habitat location are also identified in the table. Appendix D also identifies which of these 

species have been retained for further analysis of impacts (also see the summary table of 

impact topics at beginning of part 9 of this document, “The Affected Enviroment.”). 

To evaluate the effects on special status species, a set of species considered likely or 

possible to experience impacts from GMP actions was selected for assessment based on 

the presence of suitable habitat within the project area and discussions with NPS 

biologists. 

Marin County 

Mission Blue Butterfly – Federal Endangered 

Mission blue butterflies (icaricia icaroides missionensis) are closely tied to the lupine 

larval host plants Lupinus albifrons, L. variicolor, and L. formoslls, with L. albifrons

considered to be the preferred host. These host plants tend to occur in grasslands on thin, 

rocky soils within broader coastal scrub habitats. Lupine are susceptible to fungal 

outbreaks, which have been documented to cause rapid contractions of lupine distribution 

at the Marin Headlands. Competition from nonnative plants, including eucalyptus, 

Monterey pine, grasses, and broom, also threatens lupine host plants. Lupine is a fireadapted species, and fire may enhance suitable lupine habitat for mission blue butterflies. 

Adults feed on nectar from numerous plants, though they may prefer wild buckwheat 

(Erigonum latifolium), golden aster (Chrysopsis vilosa), blue dicks (Brodiaea pulchella), 

and Ithuriel's spear (Brodiaea laxa). Habitat loss is probably the primary threat to mission 

blue butterflies, with trampling of host and nectar plants, larvae, and pupae also of 

concern. Other threats to mission blue butterflies at various stages of their life cycles 

include parasites, predators, and desiccation and disease during diapause (NPS 2005a). 

Adults have one generation per year, with a flight period from mid-March to mid-May at 

the Marin Headlands and late May to mid-June at San Bruno Mountain. Analyses suggest 

that warmer air temperatures are associated with higher numbers of adults at the seasonal 

peak and that rainfall is not related to the peak number of adults. Eggs are usually laid on 

the dorsal surface of larval host plants. Ants (Prenolepis imparis and Formica lasioides)

may tend the later-instar mission blue larvae. Mission blue butterflies occur at the Marin 

Headlands, Tennessee Valley, Milagra Ridge, and Sweeney Ridge within the planning 

area (NPS 2005a). 

California Red-legged Frog – Federal Threatened 

The California red-legged frog (Rana aurora draytonii) is found primarily in wetlands 

and streams in coastal drainages of central California. Red-legged frogs found north of 

the Marin-Sonoma county border exhibit intergrade characteristics of the California redlegged frog and the northern red-legged frog. The frog requires specific aquatic and 

riparian features. Adults require a dense, shrubby, or emergent riparian vegetation closely 

associated with deep (>2.3 feet) still or slow-moving water. The highest densities of 

California red-legged frogs have been associated with deep-water pools with dense stands 

of overhanging willows and an intermixed fringe of cattails. Breeding sites are located up 

to 85 feet from water in dense riparian vegetation. Nonbreeding sites can be found up to 

98 feet from water in adjacent dense riparian vegetation (Rathbun et al. 1993). A final 

rule designating critical habitat identified a small sliver near Sweeney Ridge, San Mateo 

(UFWS 2006). A recent court decision eliminated critical habitat within the planning area 
Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 63 

by changing the habitat definition. Critical habitat had been defined to include essential 

aquatic habitat, associated uplands, and dispersal habitat connecting essential aquatic 

habitat (NPS 2005a). 

Tidewater Goby – Federal Endangered 

The tidewater goby (Eucyclogobius newberryi) is a small benthic fish that occurs in the 

upper end of California coastal lagoons in salinities less than 10 parts per thousand. 

While generally found in coastal embayments, gobies are also known to occur in streams. 

In San Antonio Creek in Santa Barbara County, the goby is known to occur up to five 

miles upstream of the lagoon habitat. Within the planning area, tidewater goby is known 

only from Rodeo Lagoon in the Marin Headlands (NPS 2005a). 

Chinook Salmon – Federal Threatened and Endangered; State Threatened and 

Endangered 

Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchu tshawytscha) spawning and juvenile rearing habitat 

occurs in the Sacramento River and its tributaries, and large streams and rivers connected 

to the Pacific Ocean. Chinook salmon have unique populations with distinguishable 

“runs” based on the timing of upstream migration and their spawning period. Winter-run 

chinook are listed as endangered (federal and state). Central Valley spring-run chinook 

are listed as threatened (federal and state). Adult and juvenile migratory corridors exist 

along the San Francisco Bay portion of Golden Gate National Recreation Area lands. 

Critical habitat for winter-run chinook includes the San Francisco Bay to the Golden Gate 

Bridge. 

Recent data indicate that most juvenile chinook salmon are using the Central Bay as a 

migratory corridor with most juvenile chinook moving along the northern corridor 

through Raccoon Strait and around the Tiburon peninsula, by Fort Baker, and out to the 

Golden Gate. Based on the occurrence of juvenile chinook at the Delta pumps and a one 

month transit time from Chipp's Island to the Golden Gate, winter-run chinook juveniles 

would be present near the Fort Baker area from January through June, while spring-run 

chinook juveniles would be present from March through June (MacFarlane 2002). 

Coho Salmon – Federal Threatened and State Endangered 

Coho salmon occur in several creeks within the planning area, as well as the nearshore 

waters of the Pacific Ocean and estuarine sites such as Bolinas Lagoon and San Francisco 

Bay. Coho salmon are found in Redwood Creek in Marin County. A single cohort of 

coho salmon was found in Easkoot Creek (Marin County). Coho are an anadromous 

species. They are born and reared in freshwater streams; as juveniles, they migrate to 

estuaries, adjust to saltwater, and then migrate to the ocean to mature into adults. 

Designated critical habitat for coho in Golden Gate National Recreation Area includes 

accessible estuarine and stream areas in the coastal watersheds of Marin County except 

areas above longstanding naturally impassable barriers. Optimal habitat conditions for 

juvenile coho seem to be deep pools created by rootwads and boulders in heavily shaded 

stream sections (NPS 2005a). 

Steelhead Trout – Federal Threatened 

Steelhead trout occur in several creeks within the planning area. Steelhead are found in 

Redwood Creek in Marin County, as well as in the drainages to Bolinas Lagoon and 

Rodeo Lagoon. In San Mateo County, steelhead are found in West Union Creek, a 

tributary to San Francisquito Creek. Like coho, steelhead are an anadromous species. 

Adult steelhead enter Golden Gate National Recreation Area streams in the late winter 
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Volume II: 64 

through spring to reach spawning sites, typically well-aerated areas with small- to 

medium-sized gravel. Habitat preferences for juvenile steelhead are deep pools created by 

rootwads and boulders in heavily shaded stream sections, although young-of-the-year 

steelhead are often forced into shallow-water habitats. The amount of time steelhead rear 

in freshwater and marine/estuarine habitats is variable, ranging between one to three 

years. For most drainages, surveys have been conducted for presence or absence of 

salmonids, while in watersheds supporting coho salmon, abundance data on both species 

are available. The variable life cycle of steelhead makes population analysis more 

difficult, but also makes steelhead more resilient to adverse environmental conditions. In 

general, if the habitat requirements for coho were met, steelhead habitat requirements 

would also be met (NPS 2005a). 

Designated critical habitat for steelhead in Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

includes the width of the stream channel defined by the ordinary high water line (U.S. 

Department of Commerce, NOAA 2005).

Northern Spotted Owl – Federal Threatened 

Lands within Marin County support a northern spotted owl population of possibly 75 

pairs. This population is isolated from spotted owl populations to the north by large areas 

of grassland and shrubs and constitutes the southern end of the subspecies range. Genetic 

analysis has shown low levels of genetic diversity within and low levels of gene flow 

between spotted owl populations in Marin County and Mendocino National Forest. The 

Marin County population supports the highest known density of northern spotted owls 

throughout their range. Threats to spotted owls in the planning area include urbanization, 

intense recreational pressure, disturbance from wildlife photographers and birders, 

genetic isolation, West Nile virus, possible catastrophic wildfire, expansion in the range 

of the barred owl (Strix varia), and habitat changes due to Sudden Oak Death. 

Spotted owls in Marin inhabit coniferous forest, including second growth and remnant 

stands of Douglas-fir, bishop pine (Pinus muricata), coast redwood (Sequoia 

sempervirens), and mixed conifer-hardwood habitats comprised of tanoak, coast live oak 

(Quercus agrifolia), and California bay (Umbellularia californica).

Spotted owls tend to nest in older stands of conifer and hardwood trees that create a tall 

overstory. Spotted owls often select larger trees with defects, such as broken tops or 

mistletoe (Arceuthobium spp.) infestations, for nesting, but also have been found nesting 

in young bay trees in smaller stands. Preliminary pellet analyses indicate that spotted 

owls forage primarily on dusky-footed woodrats (Neotoma fuscipes) in addition to other 

forest dwelling small mammals and songbirds. Within the planning area, known spotted 

owl locations are currently limited to Muir Woods and the Stinson Gulch area (NPS 

2005a). 

San Francisco County 

Chinook Salmon – Federal Threatened and Endangered; State Threatened and 

Endangered 

Chinook salmon spawning and juvenile rearing habitat occurs in the Sacramento River 

and tributaries, and large streams and rivers connected to the Pacific Ocean. Chinook 

salmon have unique populations with distinguishable “runs” based on the timing of 

upstream migration and spawning period. Winter-run chinook are listed as endangered. 
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Central Valley spring-run chinook are listed as threatened. Adult and juvenile migratory 

corridors exist along the San Francisco Bay portion of Golden Gate National Recreation 

Area lands. Critical habitat for winter-run chinook includes the San Francisco Bay to the 

Golden Gate Bridge. See further description under Marin County. Chinook within the 

vicinity of Alcatraz Island are assumed to be present as migrating juveniles and adults. 

Research indicates that juvenile chinook salmon are using the Central Bay as a migratory 

corridor. The waters around Alcatraz Island have been designated as critical habitat for 

Chinook salmon (NPS 2001). 

Western Snowy Plover – Federal Threatened 

The Pacific Coast breeding population of the western snowy plover is federal listed as 

threatened. On March 22, 2004, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service determined that 

substantial information existed to support the possible delisting of the species, and a 

status review was initiated. This population of snowy plovers occurs along coastal 

beaches; they nest primarily on sand spits, dune-backed beaches, beaches at creek and 

river mouths, and salt pans at lagoons and estuaries. Snowy plovers nest in coastal Marin 

County. The western snowy plover occurs within the park at Ocean Beach and Crissy 

Field from mid-July through early May. Snowy plovers have been observed on rare 

occasions and for short periods of time (over a few days) at Rodeo Beach and 

overwintering on Ocean Beach; they have been periodically sighted at other beaches. 

Snowy plovers breed primarily on coastal beaches from southern Washington to southern 

Baja California, Mexico (NPS 2005a). 

Bank Swallow – State Threatened 

Bank swallows (Riparia riparia) are colonial nesters, nesting primarily in riparian and 

other lowland habitats west of the desert. Bank swallows require vertical banks or cliffs 

near streams, rivers, lakes, or the ocean; they need fine textured or sandy soils in which to 

dig nesting holes. Erosion by water and wind is important in creating and maintaining 

banks and bluffs suitable for nesting. Proximity to water is important at all seasons. 

During migration and in winter, wetlands provide a steady source of insects and a buffer 

against extreme temperatures. This species nests in the Fort Funston cliffs (NPS 2005a). 

San Mateo County 

Mission Blue Butterfly – Federal Endangered 

See prior discussion under Marin County. 

San Bruno Elfin Butterfly – Federal Endangered 

The larval host plant for San Bruno elfin butterflies (Callophrys mossii bayensis) is 

Sedum spathulifolium, a succulent that grows on rocky, north-facing slopes along the 

coast (Lambert 2002). Adults are thought to stay within about 330 feet of host plants. 

Adults have one generation per year, with flight season from late February to early April. 

Eggs are laid on the ventral surface of the leaves of host plants. The fourth instar larvae 

pupate at the base of host plants where they remain through the summer, fall, and early 

winter. Habitat loss and trampling of host plants, larvae, and pupae are the primary 

threats to these butterflies. The San Bruno elfin butterfly is known to occur only at 

Milagra Ridge within the planning area (NPS 2005a). 

San Francisco Garter Snake – Federal Endangered; State Endangered 

The San Francisco garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis tetrataenia) is endemic to the San 

Francisco peninsula and is currently restricted to localities within San Mateo County. 
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Volume II: 66 

This listed species is primarily threatened by the loss and alteration of suitable wetland 

habitat due to urban development, freeway and road construction, illegal collection, 

agricultural practices, and trampling. It is considered semi-aquatic and is found along the 

margins of ponds, lakes, streams, and estuaries (above tidal influx). It feeds on small 

amphibians and fish, especially the federal listed threatened California red-legged frog 

(Rana aurora draytonii). The planning area contains three sites (Sweeney Ridge, Milagra 

Ridge, Mori Point / Sharp Park) that appear to have suitable habitat for the San Francisco 

garter snake; however, no recent surveys specifically designed to locate the snake and 

assess habitat have been conducted. Only Mori Point / Sharp Park has had a documented 

occurrence of the San Francisco garter snake; however, no recent population data are 

available (NPS 2005a). 

California Red-legged Frog – Federal Threatened 

See prior discussion under Marin County. 

Steelhead Trout – Federal Threatened 

Adult and juvenile steelhead trout migratory corridors exist along the San Francisco Bay 

portion of Golden Gate National Recreation Area lands for two listed population 

segments (California Central Valley and California Central Coast). 

Marbled Murrelet – Federal Threatened; State Endangered 

The marbled murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus) nests in old-growth forests or on the 

ground at higher altitudes where trees cannot grow. The marbled murrelet has 

experienced a decline in numbers due to loss of nesting habitat. This member of the auk 

family feeds at sea in pelagic offshore areas and inshore in protected bays. 

Special Status Plant Species 

The lands and waters of the park provide natural conditions for several special status 

plant species (i.e., federal and state listed species, species of special concern, candidate 

species). Fourteen plant species that are present in Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

are listed as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act as amended (16 

USC 1536 [a] [2] 1982). Of these, twelve are federal endangered and two are federal 

threatened. 

Eleven of the plant species that are present in the park planning area are also listed as 

threatened or endangered by the California Endangered Species Act. Of these species, 

nine are state endangered, and two are state threatened. All but one of these state listed 

plant species (San Francisco popcornflower) are also federal listed. 

Other plant species in the park planning area are also of management concern to the park 

and are listed by the California Native Plant Society on List 4 – “Plants of Limited 

Distribution” (locally rare). Although these species are not actually listed as threatened or 

endangered under the federal Endangered Species Act, NPS Management Policies 2006 

states that the National Park Service will inventory, monitor, and manage state listed and 

locally listed species in a manner similar to its treatment of federal listed species. 

Management policies also state that the Park Service will inventory other species that are 

of special management concern to parks such as locally rare, declining, sensitive, or 

unique species (NPS 2005a). 
Natural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

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San Francisco Lessingia – Federal Endangered; State Endangered 

The San Francisco lessingia (Lessingia germanorum) is federal listed as endangered. It is 

found in open sandy soils and dunes in coastal scrub. San Francisco Lessingia has 

historically been endangered by competition with invasive nonnative vegetation and 

native scrub vegetation, development, sand quarrying, trampling and recreational 

activities, incidental use of fertilizers, and other activities (NPS 2005a). 
Volume II: 68 

NATURAL RESOURCES – MUIR WOODS NATIONAL 

MONUMENT 

INTRODUCTION 

Muir Woods National Monument is a part of Golden Gate International Biosphere 

Reserve—one of the planet’s richest and most threatened reservoirs of plant and animal 

life. Muir Woods National Monument occupies 558 acres of the Central California Coast 

Range in Marin County, California, only a few miles north of San Francisco. 

Muir Woods National Monument preserves one of the last remaining ancient redwood 

forests on the Pacific Coast and in the world. The monument was established in 1908 to 

protect a unique old-growth redwood forest. Specifically, it was created in recognition of 

the “extraordinary scientific interest and importance because of the primeval character of 

the forest in which the monument is located, and the character, age, and size of the trees” 

(Proclamation No. 793, Jan. 9, 1908, 35 STAT. 2174). These protected redwoods are the 

“last contiguous stand of old-growth coastal redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) and 

Douglas-fir in Marin County.” From its inception, the monument was designed to protect 

the “primeval character” of the redwood forests, and today, “ecological integrity” is a 

major driving force (Hall 2009). 

The area surrounding Muir Woods National Monument is largely protected lands, 

including other units of Golden Gate National Recreation Area and lands managed by the 

state (Mount Tamalpais State Park) and by the Marin Municipal Water District. Muir 

Woods National Monument is located entirely within the watershed of Redwood Creek. 

Originating on Mount Tamalpais (over 2,400 feet in elevation), Redwood Creek flows 

through the heart of Muir Woods National Monument, bisects Frank Valley, and 

discharges into the Pacific Ocean at Muir Beach. 

In addition to preserving the California Coast Redwood, Muir Woods National 

Monument is home to several federal endangered and threatened species, including the 

northern spotted owl, coho salmon, and steelhead trout. 

PHYSICAL RESOURCES 

Air Quality 

Muir Woods National Monument is within a Class II air quality area and is located in the 

San Francisco Bay Air Basin. There are no air quality monitoring stations located at or 

near monument. Therefore, no specific data are available. See the Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area section for a description of monitoring information for the general area. 

Carbon Footprint 

See description under Golden Gate National Recreation Area. 
Natural Resources – Muir Woods National Monument 

Volume II: 69 

Soils and Geologic Resources and Processes 

Muir Woods National Monument is subject to many of the same geologic processes 

described for Golden Gate National Recreation Area. Slopes are inherently unstable. 

Intense shearing associated with faulting along the plate margin has reduced the strength 

of the rock. Ongoing uplift of the mountains causes continued erosion as the landscape 

strives to become stable. Surface disturbances, such as cuts for trails and roads, 

vegetation clearing, and alteration of surface water drainages, can trigger or lead to slope 

failures (NPS 2005a). 

Auwaerter and Sears (2006, p. 18–19) describe the California Coast Range as 

“a narrow band of low mountains along four hundred miles of coastline on the 

western edge of the North American tectonic plate... characterized by bedrock formed 

from ancient sea floor sediments and igneous rock that was heavily folded and 

uplifted due to lateral slipping along the juncture of the North American and Pacific 

plates.” 

Within Muir Woods National Monument, elevations range from 120 to 1,340 feet above 

sea level. Redwood Creek loses approximately 50 feet in elevation from where it enters 

the monument on the north to where it exits approximately 0.5 miles downstream. 

Redwood Creek Canyon is the major topographical feature within the monument, and its 

hillslopes are quite steep, often exceeding 65%. These steep slopes provide considerable 

shade within the canyon. The monument extends a short distance into Kent Canyon on 

the northwest, and the newer additions on the southeast occupy a side canyon. 

Soils 

Based on the lands included within the monument in 1978, six soil complexes were 

identified within Muir Woods National Monument, which are distinguished by their soil 

type and slope. Howell et al. (no date) noted that the primary types are CentissimaBarnabe (derived from chert), basalt, and Franciscan formation sandstones. The Redwood 

Creek canyon floor is characterized as consisting of mostly “gray-podzolic soils” with 

clay-silt and clay-sand (Hall 2009). 

Geology 

Faulting and uplift in the Coast Range have left relatively unstable slopes subject to 

landslides and mass wasting. Valley bottoms have deep alluvial or colluvial fills. The 

mainstem alluvial valley fill in lower Frank Valley (about 4 miles downstream of the 

monument) is at least 37 feet deep, and may be locally as deep as 90 feet. Nearly half of 

the Redwood Creek watershed’s hillslopes are landslide deposits. There are outcrops of 

rock dispersed throughout the watershed, and in the headwaters, rocks have weathered to 

soils that can be very thin (<1 foot), although there are reports that soils in the upper 

Redwood Creek watershed can be as deep as 10 feet (Hall 2009). 

Water Resources and Hydrologic Processes 

Surface Water 

The Redwood Creek watershed extends from Mount Tamalpais to Muir Beach. Redwood 

Creek is the dominant hydrologic feature within the Muir Woods National Monument. 

The Redwood Creek watershed encompasses approximately 8.9 square miles (including 
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Volume II: 70 

Green Gulch Creek, which flows into Big Lagoon). Above the monument, the precipitous 

headwater tributaries of Redwood Creek (Fern, Spike Buck, and Rattlesnake) descend the 

steep south slope of Mount Tamalpais with many waterfalls. These upper tributaries flow 

through deep, steep canyons, with step-pool channel morphology. Redwood Creek, which 

is formed by the confluence of Bootjack and Rattlesnake creeks, flows through the heart 

of the monument for approximately 0.5 mile, being fed by several intermittent streams. 

Fern Creek, which originates on Mount Tamalpais, flows into Redwood Creek just within 

the northern boundary of the monument. Once Redwood Creek enters the monument, the 

channel flattens considerably, to less than a 2% grade, with a bed comprised of mixed 

gravel and cobble. During the 1930s, Redwood Creek within the monument was lined 

with rock revetments, and check dams were installed to channelize the creek and protect 

the old growth redwoods. Since this time, the check dams have been removed and the 

creek is being returned to a more natural state. Consequently, the section of Redwood 

Creek that flows through the monument has more riffles and fewer deep water pools than 

would occur in a highly natural creek with a similar slope (Hall 2009). 

Below the monument, Redwood Creek is joined by Kent Canyon Creek as it flows 

through Frank Valley and becomes a relatively broad alluvial floodplain. This stretch has 

experienced significant impact from agriculture and pasturing and is incised and isolated 

from its floodplain. Below Frank Valley, the creek enters the ocean at Muir Beach, 

through a 2.2-acre intermittent tidal lagoon, typically referred to as “Big Lagoon,” which 

is also fed by Green Gulch Creek. During winter and spring the lagoon experiences tidal 

influences. As streamflow declines in late spring or summer, the beach berm builds up 

across the mouth of the creek, blocking surface flow from Redwood Creek to the Pacific 

Ocean and tidal exchange between the lagoon and Pacific Ocean. Lower Redwood Creek 

in the Muir Beach area has been altered through water diversions, agricultural levees, the 

construction of an NPS parking lot, and stream bank alterations. One outcome of this 

cumulative change has been significant aggradation of the channel (Hall 2009). 

Groundwater and Municipal Water Use 

Although most of the Redwood Creek watershed is managed as state and federal park 

lands, it also provides water for local firefighting, residential, and agricultural uses. Marin 

Municipal Water District stores water from springs in the upper watershed (upstream of 

the monument) for firefighting. Downstream of the monument, the Muir Beach 

Community Services District supplies the Muir Beach Community with water from a 

well near the creek, and Green Gulch Farm impounds and diverts flow in the Green 

Gulch subwatershed. Diversions in Big Lagoon have been abandoned, though the water 

right remains in place (Hall 2009). 

Floodplains 

Within Muir Woods National Monument, 100-year floodplains are located along 

Redwood Creek. As a result of natural weather events and the topography and soil 

characteristics of the area, runoff in the Redwood Creek watershed is high in the winter, 

with occasional flash floods. Two-year flood magnitudes are estimated at approximately 

800 cubic feet per second (cfs), while the 50-year flood magnitude estimate is just over 

4,000 cfs. However, during summer, flows are much lower—often below 1 cfs at the 

State Route 1bridge—and many tributary streams are intermittent (NPS 2005b). 
Natural Resources – Muir Woods National Monument 

Volume II: 71 

Water Quality 

Water quality monitoring has been conducted at various times and with differing intensity 

within Redwood Creek and its tributaries. Monitoring has mostly been conducted outside 

of the monument because most inputs are from agricultural uses and other sources 

outside the monument. In 2005, Stillwater Sciences designed a water quality monitoring 

protocol for the watershed that can be used to isolate general areas of contaminant 

sources. This protocol was implemented once in 2005 as a baseline and may be 

implemented in future years depending on the availability of funding. A review of a 

history of water quality sampling in the watershed is compiled in the Existing Conditions 

Report for the Big Lagoon Wetland and Creek Restoration (Philip Williams & Associates 

2003). Don Weeks (2006) issued the Water Resources Foundation Report, a background 

document on water resources that also identifies relevant laws and policies. Lendvay and 

Benning (2004) collected baseline water quality data, including pH, alkalinity, metals and 

ions, temperature, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, and turbidity, at five locations throughout 

the watershed. Their extensive study compares findings to an earlier, similar study by 

Madej (1989). In 2008, the Regional Water Quality Control Board established monitoring 

sites along the length of Redwood Creek as part of their Surface Water Ambient 

Monitoring Program that is focusing on benthic macroinvertebrates, periphyton, 

nutrients, and basic water quality parameters (Hall 2009). 

Field surveys and aerial photograph analysis have been conducted to identify and 

quantify current and potential future sediment supply from roads, trails, culvert stream 

crossings, and (to some extent) bank erosion in the Redwood Creek watershed. Sediment 

sources were assessed for 27 miles of roads and 40 miles of trails, leading to 

recommendations for erosion control priorities to protect fish and other aquatic species 

within the watershed. These results were incorporated into a more comprehensive 

watershed sediment budget developed for the Lower Redwood Creek Restoration Project 

(Hall 2009). 

Madej (1989) summarized water quality monitoring that was done between 1986 and 

1989 in the lower Redwood Creek watershed (below the monument). Most metals were 

not detected, although there was one unusually high reading for copper (80 g/L). Later 

reports attribute this to pesticide use, although this appears to be speculation (NPS 1991). 

Park staff report that this may have been related to the use of copper hoof treatment used 

at the stables, a practice that has been discontinued. Levels of coliform bacteria and 

nitrogen were high, evidently due to horse pastures and agricultural activities at Green 

Gulch Farm, as well as septic leach. Phillip Williams and Associates (1995) reported the 

lowest levels of nutrients and bacteria in the headwaters of Redwood Creek and the 

highest downstream of the monument; the number of organisms per 100 ml was 50 

upstream of Banducci, 300 below Banducci, and 1900 at Pacific Way. Stillwater Sciences 

(2005) also report that NPS testing during the 1990s at Muir Woods National Monument 

found fecal coliform levels within the monument to be within California state thresholds 

(Hall 2009). 

Several studies have found that temperatures in Redwood Creek are within the tolerances 

of salmonids. Lendvay and Benning (2004) reported temperatures across their sample 

locations to range from 10.8 to 11.0C in early March and from 14 to 16C in late April. 

They concluded that temperatures during spawning season should be cool enough for 

coho. Their study, conducted from March through April, found dissolved oxygen levels 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 72 

to be adequate for insects and salmon. However, others have found dissolved oxygen 

levels to be reduced in Big Lagoon in the summer, and this is considered a “key factor” 

limiting juvenile fish survival (Hall 2009). 

Lendvay and Benning (2004) determined that most water quality parameters were within 

EPA standards for aquatic life. Here pH ranged from 7.3 at Muir Beach to 8.0 at Bootjack 

Creek. Nitrate, though variable, was far below the standard of 90.0 mg/L, suggesting little 

concern about eutrophication. Somewhat high ammonia readings at specific sites on 

specific dates might suggest some concern, but the authors said that typical levels were 

well below the threshold for salmonids in most parts of the watershed. Sulfate levels were 

extremely low. This study found low levels of copper, in contrast to the levels reported 

by Madej (1989). Turbidity levels were high on sampling dates following storms, but 

quickly fell to levels within EPA standards. The low turbidity found in the Redwood 

Creek watershed suggests conditions suitable for salmonids, aquatic vegetation, and 

benthic macroinvertebrate populations (Hall 2009). 

Other parameters reported by Lendvay and Benning (2004) were out of compliance with 

EPA standards. Alkalinity measures exceeded the EPA minimum standard for freshwater 

aquatic habitat of 20.0 mg/L (even the lowest reading, 42.8 at Fern Creek, was 

significantly above the standard). Phosphate readings, though highly variable, exceeded 

the guideline of 0.1 mg/L at every site. Aluminum concentrations exceeded the 

recommended limit for fish at all sites on one date and at two sites on other dates, and the 

authors concluded that “aluminum may be a threat to aquatic species in Redwood Creek.” 

Similarly, zinc concentrations were frequently above the EPA limit for freshwater 

ecosystems, indicating possible negative effects (Hall 2009). 

Overall, Lendvay and Benning (2004) conclude that the water quality of Redwood Creek 

is excellent. Despite the fact that some parameters were elevated, in the context of other 

parameters such as very healthy benthic macroinvertebrates, these do not seem to be 

posing significant threats (Hall 2009). 

BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES 

The majority of Muir Woods National Monument (approximately 80%) is occupied by 

old-growth coastal redwood/Douglas-fir forests in uneven aged stands (NPS 2005b). 

Although it is difficult to age old-growth redwoods, individual trees on alluvial flats in 

the monument are estimated to be as much as 1,000 years old. 

Muir Woods National Monument is located within the center of the California Floristic 

Province, one of only five regions in the world with a Mediterranean climate. At the 

landscape scale, plant associations are shaped by aspect, marine influence, and elevation 

(NPS 2005a). Generally, within the San Francisco Area Network, the three provinces 

represented are the California Coastal Chaparral Forest and Shrub; the California Dry 

Steppe; and the California Coastal Steppe, Mixed Forest and Redwood Forest. The 

redwood forests of Muir Woods National Monument fall within the last of these, while 

around the edges of the monument are small patches of other plant communities that are 

much more common in parts of Mount Tamalpais and the Marin Headlands (NPS 2005a). 

To the southwest is coastal scrub dominated by coyote brush, grasses and forbs; and to 
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the northeast is a mosaic of coast live oak, California bay, and chaparral. At the south end 

of the monument, the Redwood Creek riparian area loses the redwoods and becomes 

dominated by deciduous trees like red alder and broadleaf evergreen trees such as 

California bay and tanoak (Hall 2009). 

The monument provides important habitat for federal listed threatened or endangered 

species, namely northern spotted owls, coho salmon and steelhead, and several species of 

bats that are listed as sensitive species. All of these species breed within the monument. 

Redwood Creek has been identified as “a high priority restoration area for coho salmon” 

under the California Department of Fish and Game’s 2004 Recovery Strategy. While 

suitable marbled murrelet habitat has been identified in the monument, there has been no 

confirmation that this species uses the park for breeding (Hall 2009). 

Habitat (Vegetation and Wildlife) 

Plant Communities 

Muir Woods National Monument is the most intact old-growth coastal redwood forest in 

the Bay Area. It is estimated that nearly 2 million acres of forest similar to those in Muir 

Woods National Monument once covered a narrow strip along the coasts of California 

and Oregon. Today, 97% of this area has been impaired or altered and most coastal 

redwoods now grow in protected second and third growth forests or managed timber 

plantations. Muir Woods National Monument remains as a very accessible yet prime 

example of an old-growth forest. 

Sudden Oak Death is a common name given a pathogen (Phytophthora ramorum) 

responsible for widespread tree death throughout northern and central California. This 

pathogen first appeared in Muir Woods National Monument during the mid-1990s, and 

although many plants in the redwood forest are affected, the tanoaks have suffered the 

most. 

“NPSpecies,” a National Park Service database, documents 263 vascular plant species 

present in the monument. Approximately 29 other species are probably present, but have 

not been verified, and 17 species are unconfirmed. Forty-four species are listed as 

historic, meaning they were previously present but are believed to be extirpated. The 

basis for this determination is staff knowledge of the site, although no field inventory of 

plants has yet been completed. A 1966 lichen inventory identified 7 fruticose lichens, 9 

foliose lichens, and several unidentified species of crustose lichens (Hall 2009). 

There do not appear to be many native plant species of concern in the monument. The 

1980 general management plan (NPS 1980) identified the San Francisco wallflower 

(Erysimum franciscanum var. franciscanum) and Presidio clarkia (Clarkia franciscana) 

as being species of special status, but no further mention is made of these in subsequent 

planning documents, and they are not mentioned in current lists of species of 

management concern. They have never been documented within the monument and 

evidently their inclusion on the list and in the 1980 plan was an error. Oakland star tulip 

or mariposa lily (Calochortus umbellatus) is described in the fire management plan (NPS 

2005a) as a California Native Plant Society listed species, which has been found “in the 

vicinity of Muir Woods” in grasslands. Additionally, the California bottle-brush grass 

(Elymus californicus) is a federal species of concern; this species prefers coniferous 
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forests and riparian woodlands, and has been documented in the monument (NPS 2005a). 

The only active management for rare plant species within the monument has been some 

fencing along the valley floor to protect the California bottle-brush grass, which appears 

to have been effective (Hall 2009). 

Coast Redwood / Douglas-fir Forests 

As noted earlier, most of the monument is comprised of mixed age coast redwood and 

Douglas-fir (NPS 2005a). In the monument, the redwood forest “extends along the 

canyon floor north beyond the monument, across most of the northeastern-facing canyon 

wall up to the Dipsea Trail, and along portions of the lower southwest-facing wall and 

adjoining side canyons extending to the Ocean View Trail. In these areas, the redwoods 

thrive in a cool microclimate with loamy soils and ample moisture from fog, rain, and 

groundwater” (Hall 2009). 

Although this forest is largely isolated within the larger landscape, due to natural 

conditions such as physiography and the restricted environmental requirements of 

redwoods, as well as logging and conversion of lands in the surrounding area, the tracts 

of forest within the monument have had a serendipitous history of protection that has 

preserved many of the structural and functional ecological features. The monument’s 

redwood forests were never logged (McBride & Jacobs 1978), although logging did 

occur in Conlon Canyon. While it is true that substantial impacts were historically 

imposed by recreation and tourism (e.g., trampling, campfires, and collecting plants) and 

park management (e.g., stream alteration, removal of woody debris), it is possible to 

recover from some of these impacts with in a period of years or decades. Indeed, studies 

have shown that areas formerly devoid of vegetation along Redwood Creek have 

recovered to the point that it is not possible to discern restoration plantings from natural 

vegetation. On the steep hillsides away from Redwood Creek, it appears that impacts to 

ecosystems were even more limited. Stillwater Sciences (2005) noted that “understory 

cover today is probably the most extensive that it has been in a century.” National Park 

Service staff considers the health of the redwood forest to be good. Public ownership of 

surrounding lands is an aspect that helps maintain certain ecosystem functions within the 

monument’s redwood forests. 

Other Terrestrial Vegetation Types 

Outside the redwood and Douglas-fir forests, there are small patches of other vegetation 

types in the monument that are much more extensive in other parts of the watershed 

outside the monument. McBride and Jacobs (1978) described five vegetation types: 

hardwoods, brush, grassland/brush, hardwood/brush, and grassland. These include the 

habitat types identified in the fire management plan (NPS 2005b) as native hardwood, 

coastal scrub/chaparral, grassland, nonnative evergreen, and developed. While the 

redwood forests are largely intact or recovering, these other habitat types have been more 

extensively altered (Hall 2009). 

The native hardwood forest (or mixed hardwoods) covers 800 acres of the Redwood 

Creek watershed (Stillwater Sciences 2005), of which only 59 are within Muir Woods 

National Monument. These forests have not been well studied. In places like the Monte 

Vista tract in the Camino del Canyon and Camp Hillwood areas, where development and 

residential uses have occurred, the hardwood forests have been substantially reduced in 

extent. Presumably, under NPS management, these areas will begin to return to a more 

natural state, although there are concerns about invasive species such as eucalyptus, 
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which can dramatically alter forest structure and composition. In areas along Camino del 

Canyon, various landscape plants have escaped, and invasive exotics such as yellow 

starthistle (Cenaurea solstitialis) and French broom (Genista monspessulana) are 

problems. Additionally, the native hardwoods are at great risk from sudden oak death 

(Hall 2009). 

The remaining native vegetation types—coastal scrub/chaparral and grassland—have 

been highly altered, due to a combination of fire suppression, land use practices, and 

invasion by nonnative species (Stillwater Sciences 2005; NPS 2005b). The coastal 

scrub/chaparral occurs at upper elevations, and seems to be invading grasslands as a 

result of fire suppression (NPS 2005a). In turn, coniferous forests are invading the lower 

elevations of the scrublands. Within the Redwood Creek watershed, most native 

grasslands, which occupy ridge tops and slopes, have become dominated by nonnative, 

Mediterranean annual grasses (Stillwater Sciences 2005). 

Invasive Plants 

Invasive exotics are a considerable problem within all other habitat types. In fact, 

approximately one-third of the plants (108 species) identified within the monument are 

nonnatives, many of which are landscape plants found in the Monte Vista additions. 

Within the redwood forests, McBride and Jacobs (1978) identified three exotic forbs, but 

considered them to be rare and not a threat. There are isolated patches of exotic aquatic 

plants, but these seem to be limited in extent and are relatively stable. Today, there are 

two main exotic species of concern in the riparian redwoods: the forget-me-not (Myosotis 

sylvatica and Myosotis latifolia) and panic veldtgrass (Ehrharta erecta). Originally 

introduced to “improve” the aesthetics of the forest, forget-me-nots quickly spread 

throughout the monument. Fortunately, diligent work by park staff and volunteers has 

kept this species in check along the canyon floor, although there is concern about the 

ability to eliminate it from steep, inaccessible slopes. Along Redwood Creek, removal of 

this species has led to an increase in native plant cover. Outside the riparian forests, the 

park has worked to eliminate other invasive species, including cape ivy, brooms (Genista 

monspessulana, Cytisus scoparius, Spartinum junceum), acacia (Acacia melanoxylon, 

Acacia decurrens), and other species (Hall 2009). 

Aquatic Systems 

The major ecosystem elements within the monument that have been altered include the 

aquatic and riparian systems. For decades, concerted efforts were made to “clean up” the 

Redwood Creek valley to alleviate problems with flooding and provide an aesthetically 

pleasing visitor experience. This amounted to removing woody debris from the forests 

and engineering the creek to create a more consistent gradient and protect its banks from 

erosion. Most of this was a result of intensive Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) work 

during the 1930s, when Redwood Creek within the monument was leveled and rock 

revetment was installed (Auwaerter & Sears 2006; Stillwater Sciences 2005). The 

revetment occupies 57% of the total stream bank length (3,541 feet) within Muir Woods 

National Monument. As late as the early 1990s, woody material was being removed from 

the stream to prevent logjams that might increase flooding. Channelization has decreased 

flooding and, consequently, deposition. It has also drastically altered instream 

morphology, reducing the number and depth of pools and eliminating undercut banks 

(Fong 2002). Fong’s survey showed that pools occupied only 32% of that portion of 

Redwood Creek within the monument, with flatwater or shallow riffles being much more 
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extensive. In summer, some riffles become so shallow that fish are forced downstream. A 

survey in 2003 showed a lower biomass of salmonids was associated with the presence of 

riprap. The channel immediately downstream of the monument’s boundary, where riprap 

was never installed, appears more natural than the area within the monument. However, 

Redwood Creek within the monument has the least amount of fine substrate and more 

riffles, and therefore the largest number of spawning areas (Hall 2009). 

Other impacts to Redwood Creek, both upstream and downstream of Muir Woods 

National Monument, have impacted ecosystem functions. Sedimentation from upstream 

associated with roads and culverts have impacted the entire length of the creek. However, 

sedimentation from roads and culverts is not the major player in channel habitat 

downstream of the monument. The watershed sediment budget identified and quantified 

sediment sources to Redwood Creek for three historical periods and included future 

projections. In the recent past, channel incision was the largest source of sediment to the 

creek downstream of the monument (57% of total supply from 1921 to 1980). As channel 

incision slows or ceases, erosion from roads and trails is expected to contribute 23% to 

total sediment yield in the lower creek. In addition to roads and trails, future sediment 

sources include hillslope erosion (19%), tributary bank erosion (29%), and channel 

incision (28%). Additionally, changes at Lower Redwood Creek at Muir Beach appear to 

have had a significant impact on habitat characteristics necessary for salmon, steelhead, 

and red-legged frogs. Nevertheless, despite its degraded condition, Lower Redwood 

Creek appears to be a major holding area for run-back steelhead adults, and its important 

ecological role has led to it being a high priority for restoration (NPS 1999b; NPS and 

Marin County 2007; Hall 2009). 

Philip Williams and Associates (1995) characterized the Redwood Creek watershed as a 

whole as 

“unique among California coastal watersheds of its size in that it remains largely 

undeveloped and is protected as state and federal park lands. The creek has largely 

recovered from historical grazing activities in the watershed, and now supports 

sustainable populations of coho salmon.” 

Thus, there clearly have been alterations to cover and habitat that have influenced 

ecological functioning. However, within the larger landscape, the Redwood Creek 

watershed is a primary target for restoration and maintenance of important habitats. The 

facts that there are no impoundments, except in the Green Gulch subwatershed (Martin 

2000; Philip Williams & Associates 2003) that would severely fragment habitat, and 

most watershed land is in local, state, or federal government ownership, create opportune 

conditions for protection (Hall 2009). 

Wildlife 

Within the Redwood Creek watershed, riparian woodlands provide breeding habitat and 

forage for 85 bird species and 16 mammal species. Two mammals, the shrew-mole and 

the broad-footed mole, were found only in this habitat. Nineteen of the bird species and 

one mammal are species of management concern. Cape ivy—which is present in the 

Monte Vista tract but not yet in the redwoods—has had documented impacts on the 

diversity of bird species (Hall 2009). 

Redwood / Douglas-fir forest in the Redwood Creek watershed provide habitat for 30 

bird species and 20 mammals. Hall observed that “this habitat supports an average-to-
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high bird diversity and low bird abundance compared to other habitat types in the 

watershed.” Mammals that are preferentially associated with these forests include deer 

mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus), gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), opossum,

trowbridge shrew (Sorex trowbridgii), Sonoma chipmunk (Tamias sonomae), western 

gray squirrel (Sciurus griseus), and raccoon (Procyon lotor) (Howell et al. no date); 17 

species of concern (4 bats and 13 birds) have been detected in this habitat type (Hall 

2009). 

Mammals 

According to NPSpecies, 27 mammal species are confirmed present in Muir Woods 

National Monument, while 9 are unconfirmed. Domestic and feral cats, local dogs, and 

turkeys are presently considered pests. None of the mammals is considered at risk of 

exploitation. Howell et al. (no date), in a mammal survey, documented black-tail deer 

(Odocoileus hemionus), meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus), and opossum, which do 

not appear in the NPSpecies list. Additionally they documented domestic dogs 

(“unconfirmed” in NPSpecies) and western spotted skunk (Spilogale gracilis) (“false 

report” in NPSpecies). NPSpecies lists no “historic” (extirpated) species, but various 

historic documents suggest that several large mammals, like bears, were historically 

present but disappeared as long ago as the late 1800s. The NPSpecies data provide no 

information on nativity, abundance, or residency for the mammals in the monument (Hall 

2009). 

Among the mammal species, bats have received significant investigation. Habitat for bats 

in Muir Woods National Monument is considered high-quality, and the diversity of 

species is notable—Heady and Frick (2004) reported 10 species foraging and/or roosting 

in the monument; this number represents 69% of the species that are likely to occur in the 

region. Redwoods are particularly good habitat because they provide hollows and 

crevices for roosting. The Townsend’s big-eared bat (also called the Pacific western bigeared bat) occupies humid coastal regions of California, roosting in caves, mines, 

buildings, and fire scars (NPS 2005a). It is very sensitive to disturbance and suffers from 

a lack of suitable roosting sites; because of their large cavities, large diameter redwoods 

offer some of the only suitable habitat. The fringed myotis occurs in a wide variety of 

habitats, although it prefers foothill hardwoods and hardwood-conifer forests and has 

been considered preferentially associated with redwood forests. The long-legged myotis 

is most common above 4,000 feet in elevation in primarily coniferous forest habitats. It 

uses trees as day roosts and creates nursery colonies in hollow trees. This has led to 

increased protection of fire scars. The Yuma myotis prefers open woodlands and forests, 

and requires still water sources that attract prey insects. It is quite tolerant of human 

habitation. Little is known about the western red bat (U.S. Forest Service sensitive 

species), although it is known to roost in cottonwoods and willows and is thought to be 

migratory (Hall 2009). 

Birds 

Over 50 species of birds have been identified in Muir Woods National Monument over a 

year's time. Their abundance and periods of song vary with time of day, season, and 

weather conditions. A deep, wooded redwood canyon is a specialized habitat. Although 

this old growth forest supports spotted owls and pileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus 

pileatus), the overall lack of food is the primary reason for the apparent scarcity of birds. 
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There are few insects in a redwood forest, as the tannin repels insects and the deep shade 

limits the number of flowers and fruits produced. 

In addition, federal threatened northern spotted owls nest in coniferous and mixedhardwood forests surrounding Muir Woods National Monument. The monument also 

contains potential marbled murrelet habitat, but no breeding murrelets have been detected 

in two years of surveys. 

The following quotation from the superintendent's annual report for 1923 indicates little 

change during the past 80 years in the bird life found in Muir Woods: 

"Birds, as is generally the case in a redwood forest, are conspicuous by their 

absence—Steller's jays being the only bird seen in any numbers." 

Fifty-nine bird species are confirmed present in the monument, according to NPSpecies, 

although the 1999 resource management plan indicated that “at least 69 bird species 

occupy Muir Woods” (NPS 1999b). Seven are migratory species, and 23 are known to 

breed within the monument. The only federal listed threatened species is the spotted owl, 

which breeds in and near the monument. Although Muir Woods National Monument 

appears to provide habitat suitable for marbled murrelets, which nest only in redwood 

trees, none have been detected, despite a focused inventory. Appendix D, which provides 

detailed information about all special status species, lists two State Species of Concern in 

Muir Woods National Monument: Cooper’s hawk (Accipiter cooperi) and sharp-shinned 

hawk (A. striatus). Inventories in 2000 did not detect either hawk species. However, 

Allen’s hummingbird (Selasphorus sasin) and hermit thrush (Catharus guttatus)—both 

species of management concern—were observed, as well as the chestnut-backed 

chickadee (Parus rufescens), which is on the Audubon watch list. According to their 

point count data, the Pacific-slope flycatcher (Empidonax difficilis), a species of 

management concern, was the most common bird; it was observed at 93% of the census 

points. The other most common species were winter wrens (65%), chestnut-backed 

chickadees (56%), golden-crowned kinglets (54%), brown creepers (47%), and dark-eyed 

juncos (30%) (Hall 2009). 

Amphibians and Reptiles 

NPSpecies lists five amphibians as present within the monument along with two species 

that were documented historically, but are no longer present, the foothill yellow-legged 

frog and yellow-eyed ensatina (Ensatina eschscholtzii xanthoptica). Yellow-legged frogs 

were collected in 1954, but they were not found in 1993 within the monument, and Hall 

noted that this species is “now very rare or absent” in areas where it formerly was 

abundant. Very little information is available about the abundance or status of many of 

these amphibian species (Hall 2009). 

The nonnative signal crayfish has long been established in Redwood Creek and Fern 

Creek. It is the only nonnative aquatic species in the monument. It is possible that this 

species displaced the native sooty crayfish (Pacifastacus nigrescens) (Hall 2009). 

The California giant salamander is found from Sonoma to Santa Cruz county, particularly 

in humid coastal conifer forests. A recent survey found that salamander larvae were rare 

in the main stem of Redwood Creek, but more abundant in tributaries. Fong and Howell 

noted that the signal crayfish and giant salamander were rarely found together in any 

stream habitat type, but they were unable to determine whether the crayfish were 

displacing the salamanders from preferred habitats. They noted that, because crayfish 
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tend to favor pools, actions that might be taken to restore stream features such as pools 

could increase the abundance of crayfish (Hall 2009). 

NPSpecies lists 12 reptile species as present within Muir Woods National Monument. 

The abundance, residency, and nativity of most of these species are unknown. Very little 

is reported about any of these species in any planning or research reports. However, the 

Pacific (western) pond turtle (marmorata, formerly Clemmys marmorata), a federal 

species of concern, is listed as present in the monument, although none of the recent 

aquatic habitat assessments make mention of it (Hall 2009). 

Fish 

An old-growth forest is very interconnected; through time, many of the plants and 

animals become reliant on one another. One example at Muir Woods National Monument 

is found in Redwood Creek. The redwoods depend on the creek for most of their water 

and the trees help keep the gravel in the creek clean by stabilizing the soil. The trees also 

help keep the temperature of the stream cool and constant. As the trees die and fall into 

the creek, they create pools and enrich the stream with their nutrients. Because salmon 

need clean gravel, constant water temperature, and pools for spawning, Redwood Creek 

provides good habitat for salmon. It is one of the last streams in California to have its 

native stock of salmon, due largely to the undisturbed forest surrounding it. Both coho 

salmon and steelhead trout are found in Redwood Creek. 

There are four native fish species present in the monument, although additional species, 

including some nonnative fish, occupy lower reaches of Redwood Creek. The two most 

significant species—targets of extensive monitoring—are coho salmon (recently 

upgraded federally to endangered status) and steelhead (federal listed as threatened). 

Redwood Creek is critical habitat for both; Muir Woods National Monument provides 

good spawning habitat but, due to loss of pools and structure, juvenile rearing habitat is 

very limited. Both runs have been considered stable, although significantly reduced from 

historic times (Hall 2009). 

The Redwood Creek coho are part of the Central California Evolutionarily Significant 

Unit (ESU), found in three watersheds in the Park Service’s San Francisco Bay Area 

Network (NPS 1999a). However, genetic analysis shows that the coho in Redwood Creek 

are a genetically distinct subgroup that is not closely related to other coho in the same 

ESU (NPS and Marin County 2007). Spawning occurs between December and February, 

depending on when storm flows increase enough to permit returning adults to breach the 

sandbar at Big Lagoon. Emergence occurs in March and April, and the juveniles remain 

in fresh water for approximately 15 months, before heading to the ocean for 16 months. 

This cycle creates three “year-classes” of fish; for instance, the fish returning to spawn in 

2007 and 2008 were from the 2004/2005 year class. Given their lifecycle, habitat 

requirements vary; fish need habitat for spawning, juvenile rearing and migration, growth 

to adulthood, and adults need migration corridors (NPS and Marin County 2007). 

Juvenile rearing habitat with refugia and shelter appears to be especially limiting in 

Redwood Creek. Big Lagoon’s altered environment does not provide high-quality 

salmonid-rearing habitat (Hall 2009). 

Nonnative Wildlife 

A few nonnative mammals have been of concern to the monument. In the past, feral hogs 

were widespread in Golden Gate National Recreation Area (including Muir Woods 

National Monument), but they have been largely controlled (NPS 1999b). They can 
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seriously degrade habitat, disturb soils, compete for food, and transmit diseases. Feral 

cats and domestic dogs (unconfirmed), though not major concerns, can present problems 

for native wildlife (Hall 2009). 

There have been anecdotal reports of chukars (Alectoris chukar), an exotic species, near 

but not yet within the monument. Also, wild turkeys are considered nonnative and 

increasing in and around Muir Woods National Monument. This species was introduced 

by California Department of Fish and Game for hunting, but Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area considers it invasive and uncontrolled. It competes with native species 

for food and has been known to harass people. National Park Service staff are 

contemplating small pilot removals (Hall 2009). 

Special Status Species 

Coho Salmon – Federal Threatened; State Endangered 

Coho salmon occur in several creeks within the planning area, as well as the nearshore 

waters of the Pacific Ocean and estuarine sites such as Bolinas Lagoon and San Francisco 

Bay. Coho salmon are found in Redwood Creek in Muir Woods National Monument. A 

single cohort of coho salmon was found in Easkoot Creek (Marin County). Coho are an 

anadromous species; born and reared in freshwater streams, as juveniles they migrate to 

estuaries, adjust to saltwater, and then migrate to the ocean to mature into adults. 

Designated critical habitat for coho in Golden Gate National Recreation Area includes 

accessible estuarine and stream areas in the coastal watersheds of Marin County except 

areas above longstanding naturally impassable barriers. Optimal habitat conditions for 

juvenile coho seem to be deep pools created by rootwads and boulders in heavily shaded 

stream sections (NPS 2005a). 

See previous discussion under Golden Gate Natural Recreation Area. 

Steelhead Trout – Federal Threatened 

Steelhead are found in Redwood Creek which flows through Muir Woods National 

Monument, as well as the nearshore waters of the Pacific Ocean and estuarine sites such 

as Bolinas Lagoon and San Francisco Bay. Like coho, steelhead are an anadromous 

species. Adult steelhead enter Golden Gate National Recreation Area streams in the late 

winter through spring to reach spawning sites, typically well-aerated areas with small- to 

medium-size gravel. Habitat preferences for juvenile steelhead are deep pools created by 

rootwads and boulders in heavily shaded stream sections, although young-of-the-year 

steelhead are often forced into shallow-water habitats. The amount of time steelhead rear 

in freshwater and marine/estuarine habitats is variable, ranging between one and three 

years. For most drainages, presence/absence salmonid surveys have been conducted, 

while in watersheds supporting coho salmon, abundance data on both species are 

available. The variable life cycle of steelhead makes population analysis more difficult, 

but also makes steelhead more resilient to adverse environmental conditions. In general, 

if the habitat requirements for coho were met, steelhead habitat requirements would also 

be met (NPS 2005a). 

In April 2002, the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia approved a National 

Marine Fisheries Service consent decree withdrawing a February 2000 critical habitat 

designation for steelhead trout. Designated critical habitat for coho includes all accessible 
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estuarine and stream areas in the coastal watersheds of Marin County except areas above 

longstanding, naturally impassable barriers. Through this designation, NOAA-Fisheries 

identified ten essential features of critical habitat: substrate, water quality, water quantity, 

water temperature, water velocity, cover/shelter, food, riparian vegetation, space, and safe 

passage conditions (NPS 2005a). 

See previous discussion under Golden Gate Natural Recreation Area. 

Northern Spotted Owl – Federal Threatened 

Marin County supports a northern spotted owl population of possibly 75 pairs. This 

population is isolated from spotted owl populations to the north by large areas of 

grassland and shrubs and constitutes the southern end of the subspecies range. Genetic 

analysis has shown low levels of genetic diversity within and low levels of gene flow 

between spotted owl populations in Marin County and Mendocino National Forest. The 

Marin County population supports the highest known density of northern spotted owls 

throughout its range (NPS 2005a). 

Spotted owls tend to nest in older stands of conifer and hardwood trees that create a tall 

overstory. Spotted owls often select larger trees with defects, such as broken tops or 

mistletoe infestations, for nesting, but also have been found nesting in young bay trees in 

smaller stands. Preliminary pellet analyses indicated that spotted owls forage primarily on 

dusky-footed woodrats (Neotoma fuscipes) in addition to other forest dwelling small 

mammals and songbirds. Within the planning area, known spotted owl locations are 

currently limited to Muir Woods National Monument and the Stinson Gulch area (NPS 

2005a) (see discussion under Marin County). 

Northern spotted owls within the monument are at the southernmost extreme of the 

species range, and the population in Marin County is genetically isolated, although 

relatively large; 161 distinct nests were documented between 1998 and 2003 (Stillwater 

Sciences 2005). This species was listed at the federal level as threatened in 1990. 

Monitoring in the county over the past several years has shown stable fecundity, with 

approximately 0.5 female young fledged per breeding female and nearly 90% of nests 

being occupied for the past several years. Old redwood forests are important nesting 

habitat; 43% of nests in Marin County are in redwood trees and 36% are in Douglas-fir 

trees. Across northern California, owls were found to select locations with large diameter 

conifer overstory and an understory of large hardwoods. The mean diameter of platform 

nest trees in Marin County is 36 inches. Two pairs have historically nested within Muir 

Woods National Monument or immediately adjacent to the monument (Hall 2009). 

There are several threats to spotted owls in the region, although the habitat conditions 

within the monument itself are presently of high quality. Urban development destroys 

habitat, owls are especially susceptible to West Nile virus (first confirmed in Marin 

County in 2005), and Sudden Oak Death may affect both nesting habitat and prey 

species. Additionally, there are anecdotal reports of people disturbing nests and luring 

owls with mice. Finally, the barred owl is suspected of displacing spotted owls in Marin 

County. This species, once limited to the eastern United States, has been extending its 

range over the past century and is now found throughout the Pacific Northwest and in 

California. Aggressive behavior toward spotted owls has been documented in Marin 

County, and in 2005, a male barred owl was detected in the monument for the fourth year 

in a row, which coincided with the second year of spotted owl nest failure in the 
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monument. In 2007, the first breeding pair of barred owls was observed, and breeding 

was observed again in 2008 (Hall 2009). 

Kelly et al. (2003) conducted extensive historical analysis of the location of spotted owl 

and barred owl territories at five study areas in Oregon and Washington from 1987 to 

1999. The study concluded that there had been a steady increase in the number of barred 

owls at all long-term spotted owl monitoring sites, and that when barred owls invade, the 

occupancy of territories by spotted owls declines significantly. The study concludes that 

“land managers and regulatory agencies should regard barred owls as a threat to spotted 

owls.” There is some debate about whether the barred owl in Muir Woods National 

Monument should be considered native or not (it is listed as such in NPSpecies, but other 

park planning documents list it as invasive and uncontrolled). Nevertheless, barred owls 

have been identified as the primary threat to spotted owl recovery in the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service’s final recovery plan. National Park Service staff consider the barred 

owl to be a species of concern, and feel a need to track and potentially manage the 

species due to its potential impact on spotted owls. It appears that the presence of the 

breeding barred owls in the monument has displaced the historically nesting spotted owls 

(Hall 2009). 

Marbled Murrelet – Federal Threatened; State Endangered 

See description in the discussion of habitat in San Mateo County. 
Volume II: 83 

CULTURAL RESOURCES – GOLDEN GATE NATIONAL 

RECREATION AREA 

INTRODUCTION 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area is home to a remarkable constellation of cultural 

resources, among the most diverse in the entire national park system. A cultural resource 

may be a tangible entity or a cultural practice. For NPS management purposes, tangible 

cultural resources are categorized as districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects for 

the National Register of Historic Places, and as archeological resources, cultural 

landscapes, structures, museum objects, and ethnographic resources. The park includes 

more than 700 historic structures, and the park’s planning area covered by this general 

management plan includes 5 national historic landmarks, 2 national historic landmark 

nominations presently in draft, 13 properties listed in the National Register of Historic 

Places, and 6 properties determined eligible for national register listing; most are related 

to military and maritime commercial themes stretching over a period of more than 200 

years, with many pre-contact archeological resources associated with the Coast Miwok 

and Ohlone cultures extending back thousands of years. See Table 5 for a listing of these 

properties. 

The park’s nationally significant seacoast fortifications and military installations span the 

Spanish, Mexican, and American eras and illustrate the military architectural and 

engineering heritage of the United States and the broad patterns of the nation’s history. 

Other cultural resources include an array of buildings, sites, and features that reflect the 

local and regional historical industrial, commercial, and recreational development of the 

San Francisco Bay Area, including the bay’s European discovery (San Francisco Bay 

Discovery Site National Historical Landmark); maritime-related resources such as 

historic lighthouses, shipwrecks, wharves, piers, docks, and other shoreside embarkation 

points; and remnants of the area’s historic ranching, agricultural, logging, and mining 

activities. 

Some 370 archeological sites have been inventoried, including properties constituting the 

tangible connection between the Coast Miwok and Ohlone communities and park lands. 

Historic archeological properties constitute significant, yet incompletely documented, 

elements of existing national historic landmarks, national register listed properties, and 

cultural landscapes. Nine documented cultural landscapes in the park include rural 

landscapes and dairy ranches. Remnants associated with agricultural pursuits that were 

carried on by the same families for generations remain extant in the park, comprising a 

rich legacy of folkways, rural landscapes, and architecture. 

Alcatraz Island, a 22.5-acre island in San Francisco Bay is best known for its reputation 

as the maximum security, minimum-privilege federal penitentiary that housed some of 

America’s most notorious criminals between 1934 and 1963. However, the island also 

contains layers of history from its prior uses as a military fort, military prison, federal 

penitentiary, and as the site of the occupation by Indians of All Tribes from 1969 to 1971. 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 84 

Although numerous cultural resource studies have been undertaken for Golden Gate 

National Recreation Area, the park’s cultural resource surveys are limited for some 

significant resource types. Less than 10% of the park has been surveyed for archeological 

resources. Fifteen cultural landscapes have been identified in the park, but only nine have 

been inventoried or evaluated. Detailed surveys for archeological, cultural landscape, and 

ethnographic resources, as well as historic resource studies, national register eligibility 

determinations, and inventory updates for the park’s List of Classified Structures (LCS), 

Cultural Landscape Inventory (CLI), and Archaeological Sites Management Information 

System (ASMIS) will provide critical information needed for park planning and historic 

property preservation. 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area includes recently acquired lands in San Mateo 

County, which are the subject of a recently completed historic resource study that further 

identifies historic properties and themes associated with these park lands. The primarily 

Spanish colonial and Mexican settlement history and the agricultural, military, maritime 

and transportation themes of the area are not dissimilar to those of other park lands, and 

evidence of numerous prehistoric sites, both inside and adjacent to park lands, suggest 

important opportunities for joint stewardship between the park and its neighbors. 

AREA OF POTENTIAL EFFECT (APE) 

Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act requires federal agencies to take 

into account the effects of their undertakings on historic properties. The Advisory 

Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP) regulations that implement section 106 require 

that impacts to historic resources be identified and evaluated by determining the area of 

potential effects (APE) and by identifying cultural resources present in the area of 

potential effects that are either listed in or eligible for listing in the national register (36 

CFR Part 800, “Protection of Historic Properties”). The area of potential effect is the 

geographic area or areas within which an undertaking may directly or indirectly cause 

alterations to the character or use of historic properties, and it is influenced by the scale 

and nature of an undertaking. The area of potential effects encompasses both those areas 

where proposed actions might occur that would directly impact cultural resources, as well 

as adjacent areas that contain resources that might be indirectly affected (see figure 6). 

The area of potential effects for this general management plan was discussed in a meeting 

between the National Park Service and the California state historic preservation office on 

March 16, 2010 and is generally defined as the park boundary and those properties 

adjacent to the park boundary where potential indirect impacts may occur. A description 

of the resources within the area of potential effects follows and is organized by National 

Register of Historic Places properties, resources that are either eligible or in need of a 

determination of eligibility for listing in the national register, archeological resources, 

and ethnographic resources. See the following table for a listing of these properties. 

 
Cultural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 85 

Table 5: Area of Potential Effect 

HISTORIC PROPERTIES WITHIN THE PARK BOUNDARY 

(By County, Alphabetically) 

RESOURCE COUNTY LISTED ON 

NATIONAL 

REGISTER 

NATIONAL 

HISTORIC 

LANDMARK 

AREAS OF 

SIGNIFICANCE 

Alcatraz 

Island 

San Francisco Yes Yes Social History, 

Engineering, Military, 

Commerce (District), 

Historic Archeology 

Camera 

Obscura 

San Francisco Yes No Engineering (Structure) 

Fort Mason 

Historic 

District 

San Francisco Yes No Architecture, Military, 

Transportation, Landscape 

Architecture (District), 

Historic Archeology 

Fort Miley 

Military 

Reservation 

San Francisco Yes No Military (District) 

Fort Point 

National 

Historic Site 

San Francisco Yes Yes Architecture, Maritime 

History, Military, Historic 

Archeology 

Golden Gate 

Bridge 

San 

Francisco, 

Marin (owned 

by Golden 

Gate Bridge 

District, on 

parkland) 

Eligible Eligible Engineering, 

Transportation History 

King Phillip 

and Reporter 

Shipwreck 

Site 

San Francisco Yes No (Naval) Architecture, 

Transportation, 

Commerce, Maritime 

History 

Merrie Way 

Stands Site 

San Francisco Eligible No Recreation History, 

Historic Archeology 

Mile Rock 

Tunnel 

San Francisco Eligible No Engineering 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 86 

HISTORIC PROPERTIES WITHIN THE PARK BOUNDARY 

(By County, Alphabetically) 

RESOURCE COUNTY LISTED ON 

NATIONAL 

REGISTER 

NATIONAL 

HISTORIC 

LANDMARK 

AREAS OF 

SIGNIFICANCE 

Point Lobos 

Archeological 

Site 

San Francisco Yes No Ohlone History, 

Archeology 

Pumping 

Station #2, 

San Francisco 

Fire 

Department 

Auxiliary 

Water Supply 

System 

San Francisco 

(owned by 

City of San 

Francisco, 

located on 

park land) 

Yes No Community Planning And 

Development, Engineering 

(Structure) 

Presidio of 

San Francisco 

San Francisco Yes Yes Hispanic, Historic - NonAboriginal, Military, 

Exploration/Settlement 

(District), Architecture, 

Landscape Architecture, 

Historic Archeology 

San Francisco 

Port of 

Embarkation 

San Francisco Yes Yes Military (District), 

Architecture 

Seacoast 

Fortifications 

of San 

Francisco Bay 

San 

Francisco, 

Marin, San 

Mateo 

Individual 

properties 

already 

listed, 

eligible as a 

district 

Eligible Military (District), 

Architecture, Engineering, 

Cultural Landscape, 

Historic Archeology 

Six-inch Rifled 

Gun No. 9 

(Baker Beach) 

San Francisco Yes No Military (Object) 

Dipsea Trail Marin (part of 

the trail is on 

parkland) 

Yes No Entertainment/Recreation 

(Sports) (Structure) 

Forts Baker, 

Barry, and 

Marin Yes No Military (District), 

Architecture, Cultural 
Cultural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 87 

HISTORIC PROPERTIES WITHIN THE PARK BOUNDARY 

(By County, Alphabetically) 

RESOURCE COUNTY LISTED ON 

NATIONAL 

REGISTER 

NATIONAL 

HISTORIC 

LANDMARK 

AREAS OF 

SIGNIFICANCE 

Cronkhite Landscape, Historic 

Archeology 

Hill 640 

Military 

Reservation 

Marin Eligible No Military 

Hillwood 

Camp 

Marin Eligible No Social History 

Muir Beach 

Archeological 

Site 

(CA.MRN333) 

Marin Yes No Coast Miwok History And 

Archeology 

Muir Woods 

National 

Monument 

Marin Yes No Conservation (District), 

Architecture, Landscape 

Architecture 

Olema Valley 

Historic 

District 

Marin 

(administered 

by Point 

Reyes 

National 

Seashore) 

Eligible No Agriculture (Dairy 

Ranching), Cultural 

Landscape 

Point Bonita 

Historic 

District 

Marin Yes No Architecture, Maritime 

History, Commerce, 

Transportation (District) 

Ranch A/B 

(Miwok 

Stables) 

Marin Eligible No District, Cultural 

Landscape, Agriculture 

(Dairy Ranching) 

Ranch M 

(Golden Gate 

Dairy) 

Marin Eligible No District, Cultural 

Landscape, Agriculture 

(Dairy Ranching), Historic 

Archeology 

Sara Seaver 

Randall 

Marin 

(administered 

Eligible No Agriculture (Dairy 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 88 

HISTORIC PROPERTIES WITHIN THE PARK BOUNDARY 

(By County, Alphabetically) 

RESOURCE COUNTY LISTED ON 

NATIONAL 

REGISTER 

NATIONAL 

HISTORIC 

LANDMARK 

AREAS OF 

SIGNIFICANCE 

House by Point 

Reyes 

National 

Seashore) 

Ranching), Social History 

Steamship 

Tennessee 

Remains 

Marin Yes No Invention, Transportation, 

Commerce, Maritime 

Archeology 

San Francisco 

Bay Discovery 

Site 

San Mateo Yes Yes Exploration/Settlement 

HISTORIC PROPERTIES ADJACENT TO THE PARK BOUNDARY

RESOURCE COUNTY 

LISTED ON 

NATIONAL 

REGISTER 

NATIONAL 

HISTORIC 

LANDMARK

AREAS OF 

SIGNIFICANCE 

Aquatic Park 

Historic District 

San Francisco 

(owned and 

managed by 

San Francisco 

Maritime 

National 

Historical 

Park) 

Yes Yes Architecture, 

Community Planning 

And Development, 

Art, Military (District) 

Point Montara 

Light Station 

San Mateo 

(owned and 

managed by 

United States 

Coast Guard) 

Yes No Architecture, Maritime 

History, Commerce, 

Transportation 

(District) 

San Francisco 

Veterans Affairs 

Medical Center 

San Francisco 

(owned and 

managed by 

Department 

of Veterans’ 

Affairs) 

Yes No Architecture, 

Engineering, 

Health/Medical 

(District) 
Cultural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 89 

OTHER PROPERTIES WITHIN THE PARK 

 POTENTIALLY ELIGIBLE FOR THE NATIONAL REGISTER OF 

HISTORIC PLACES 

(In Need of Determination of Eligibility)

RESOURCE COUNTY AREAS OF SIGNIFICANCE MANAGEMENT 

JURISDICTION 

China Beach San 

Francisco 

Architecture, Community 

Planning and Development, 

Recreation 

NPS 

Cliff House San 

Francisco 

Architecture, Recreation NPS 

Crissy Field 

Ohlone District 

San 

Francisco 

Ohlone History, Archeology, 

And Heritage 

NPS 

Fort Mason 

Ohlone District 

San 

Francisco 

Ohlone History, Archeology, 

And Heritage 

NPS 

Marine 

Exchange 

Lookout 

(Octagon 

House) 

San 

Francisco 

Architecture, Maritime 

History, Commerce, 

Transportation 

NPS 

Neptune 

Shipwreck 

San 

Francisco 

Maritime Archeology Multiple 

O’Shaughnessy 

Seawall (Ocean 

Beach) 

San 

Francisco 

Engineering, Community 

Planning and Development, 

Recreation 

NPS 

Ocean Terrace 

Site 

San 

Francisco 

Historical Archeology NPS 

Shipwrecks of 

the Golden 

Gate 

San 

Francisco, 

Marin, San 

Mateo 

Maritime Archeology Multiple 

Sutro Baths San 

Francisco 

History, Engineering, Historic 

Archeology 

NPS 

Sutro Heights San 

Francisco 

History, Cultural Landscape, 

Historical Archeology 

NPS 

Angel Island 

Coast Miwok 

Sites 

Marin Coast Miwok History, 

Archeology, And Heritage 

State of California

Bolinas Copper 

Mines 

Marin Mining And Industrial 

History 

Point Reyes 

National Seashore 

Bolinas Lagoon 

Coast Miwok 

Sites 

Marin Coast Miwok History, 

Archeology, And Heritage 

Multiple 

Druid Heights Marin Social History NPS 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 90 

OTHER PROPERTIES WITHIN THE PARK 

 POTENTIALLY ELIGIBLE FOR THE NATIONAL REGISTER OF 

HISTORIC PLACES 

(In Need of Determination of Eligibility)

RESOURCE COUNTY AREAS OF SIGNIFICANCE MANAGEMENT 

JURISDICTION 

District 

Elk Valley 

Coast Miwok 

Site 

Marin Coast Miwok History, 

Archeology, And Heritage 

NPS 

Marin 

Headlands 

Coast Miwok 

Sites 

Marin Coast Miwok History, 

Archeology, And Heritage 

Multiple 

Miwok Trail Marin History, Recreation Multiple 

Muir Beach 

Coast Miwok 

District 

Marin Coast Miwok History, 

Archeology, And Heritage 

NPS 

Tomales Bay 

and Olema 

Valley Coast 

Miwok Sites 

Marin Coast Miwok History, 

Archeology, And Heritage 

Point Reyes 

National Seashore 

Francisco 

Guerrero 

Adobe Site 

San Mateo Social History, Mexican 

California 

Multiple 

Martini Creek 

Ohlone Sites 

San Mateo Ohlone History, Archeology, 

And Heritage 

NPS 

Phleger Estate 

Logging Sites 

San Mateo 1850s Redwood Logging 

History 

NPS 

Rancho Corral 

de Tierra 

San Mateo Agriculture, Cultural 

Landscape 

NPS 

Shelldance 

Nursery 

San Mateo Commerce NPS 

 
Cultural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 91 

OTHER PROPERTIES, NOT ELIGIBLE FOR THE NATIONAL REGISTER 

OF HISTORIC PLACES WITH SPECIAL MANAGEMENT 

RESOURCE COUNTY STATUS

Sutro Heights 

District 

San Francisco Determined ineligible for listing on the National 

Register. Park manages the district and associated 

features as a cultural resource. 
Volume II: 92 

CULTURAL RESOURCES LISTED IN OR ELIGIBLE TO BE LISTED IN 

THE NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES 

National Historic Landmarks 

National historic landmarks are buildings, sites, districts, structures, and objects that have 

been determined by the Secretary of the Interior to be nationally significant in American 

history and culture. National historic landmarks possess exceptional value or quality in 

illustrating or interpreting the heritage of the United States in history, architecture, 

archeology, technology, and culture, and possess a high degree of integrity of location, 

design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, and association. National historic 

landmarks are significant because they 

 are associated with events that have made a significant contribution to, and are 

identified with, or that outstandingly represent, the broad national patterns of 

United States history; or 

 are associated importantly with the lives of persons nationally significant in the 

history of the United States; or 

 represent some great idea or ideal of the American people; or 

 embody the distinguishing characteristics of an architectural type specimen 

exceptionally valuable for the study of a period, style, or method of construction, 

or that represent a significant, distinctive, and exceptional entity whose 

components may lack individual distinction; or 

 are composed of integral parts of the environment not sufficiently significant by 

reason of historical association or artistic merit to warrant individual recognition 

but collectively compose an entity of exceptional historical or artistic 

significance, or outstandingly commemorate or illustrate a way of life or culture; 

or 

 have yielded or may be likely to yield information of major scientific importance 

by revealing new cultures, or by shedding light upon periods of occupation over 

large areas of the United States. 

All national historic landmarks are included in the national register of Historic Places, 

which is the official list of the nation’s historic properties worthy of preservation. 

National historic landmarks constitute more than 2,400 of the almost 83,000 entries in the 

national register; the other entries in the national register are of state and local 

significance. The process for listing a property in the national register is different from 

that for national landmark designation with different criteria and procedures. Some 

properties are recommended as nationally significant when they are nominated to the 

national register, but before they can be designated as national historic landmarks, they 

must be evaluated by the National Park Service’s National Historic Landmark Survey, 

reviewed by the National Park System Advisory Board, and recommended to the 

Secretary of the Interior. 
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C i t y o f

S a n F r a n c i s c o

Berkeley

Oakland

Angel Island

State Park

S a n M a t e o

C o u n t y

S a

n

F r a

n

c i s c o

B a y

Richmond

S a n P a b l o B a y

Pacifica

Half Moon Bay

Daly

City

SFO

San Mateo

Tiburon

Sausalito

Marin

City

San Rafael

Mill Valley

Golden Gate Bridge

S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y

P a c i f i c O c e a n

Francisco Guerrero

Adobe Site

Hill 640

Military

Reservation

Dipsea

Trail

Hillwood

Camp

Muir Woods

National Monument

Druid

Heights

District

Miwok

Trail

Ranch M

(Golden Gate Dairy)

Muir Beach

Coast Miwok District

Steamship

Tennessee

Remains

Ranch A/B

(Miwok Stables)

Fort

Cronkhite

Fort Barry

Point Bonita

Historic District

Fort Baker

Fort Point National

Historic Site

China Beach

Alcatraz

Island

Aquatic Park Historic District

Pumping Station #2, SF Fire Dept.

Fort Mason Historic District

San Francisco Port of Embarkation

Presidio of

San Francisco

Six-inch Rifled

Gun No. 9

(Baker Beach)

King Philip and Reporter Shipwreck Site

O'Shaughnessy Seawall

Neptune Shipwreck

Olema Valley

Historic District

Bolinas Lagoon

Coast Miwok Sites

Bolinas

Copper

Mines

Sara Seaver Randall House

Elk Valley

Coast Miwok Site Marin Headlands

Coast Miwok Sites

Milagra

Ridge

Pilar

Point

Bolinas

Lagoon

Fort Mason Ohlone Sites

Crissy Field

Ohlone Sites

Shelldance

Nursery

Rancho Corral de Tierra

Martini Creek

Ohlone Sites

Point Montara

Light Station

Phleger Estate

Logging Sites

San Francisco

Bay Discovery Site

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#* San Francisco

Veterans

Administration

Medical Center

Cliff

House

Sutro

Baths

Sutro Heights

Merrie Way

Stands Site

Mile Rock

Tunnel (Outfall)

Point Lobos

Archeological

Sites

Camera

Obscura

Fort Miley

Military Reservation

Marine Exchange

Lookout

(Octagon House)

Ocean

Terrace

Site

Sutro District

Area of Detail

0 6 2

Miles

#* Historic Property

Area of Potential Effect

Historic Properties

National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Golden Gate National Recreation Area

Muir Woods National Monument

APE - Park Owned and Managed

Lands and Adjacent Historic Sites

Seacoast Fortifications of San Francisco Bay:

Numerous individual sites comprising the

potential Seacoast Fortifications National Landmark

extend from Hill 640 Military Reservation

in the north to Milagra Ridge in the south.

Shipwrecks of the Golden Gate:

There are numerous individual

shipwreck sites along the extent

of the park shoreline from Bolinas

Lagoon in the north to Pilar Point

in the south.

Note: See the associated list of Historic Properties (p. ????)

for more detailed information about the sites indicated on this map.

Volume II: 95 

Within the park’s boundaries, the Secretary of the Interior has designated five national 

historic landmarks: 

 Alcatraz Island 

 Fort Point National Historic Site 

 Presidio of San Francisco 

 San Francisco Bay Discovery Site 

 San Francisco Port of Embarkation 

In addition, Aquatic Park Historic District, a national historic landmark managed by San 

Francisco Maritime National Historic Park, is adjacent to the Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area and could be affected by actions proposed in the general management 

plan. Brief descriptions of all of these properties are included here. 

Alcatraz Island National Historic Landmark

Alcatraz Island includes cultural landscapes, historic structures, archeological sites, 

object collections, and stories associated with its use as a Civil War fort, military prison, 

federal penitentiary, and the site of the Indian Occupation of 1969 to 1971. Because of its 

strategic location in the San Francisco Bay, the island has been the site of events that 

have had a significant impact on the nation as a whole, from before the Civil War through 

the Indian Occupation. Its significance in the areas of military history, social history 

(penology), and maritime commerce (related to the Gold Rush and the Civil War) is 

enhanced by the integrity of its resources, which has resulted from the fact that access to 

the island has been strictly limited throughout its history. 

Maritime commerce was aided by the first U.S. lighthouse on the Pacific Coast built on 

the island in 1854; its successor still serves. First garrisoned on December 30, 1859, the 

post was officially designated Alcatraz Island but was often referred to as Fort Alcatraz. 

By the start of the Civil War, Alcatraz was the key fort in the center of the most 

significant Pacific port in 19th century America. It mounted the first permanent cannon 

on the west coast of the United States, and featured a brick and masonry defensive 

barracks known as the “Citadel,” which may have been unique in the annals of American 

military architecture. Alcatraz was designated as the official military prison for the entire 

Department of the Pacific on August 27, 1861, and was the first official army prison in 

the nation. 

When Alcatraz became a civilian penitentiary in 1934, it quickly gained nationwide 

attention due to its association with many of the most infamous criminals of the gangster 

era and the bloody escape attempts made from there. It is representative of the far end of 

the penology spectrum, because it was a prison designed for punishment and 

incarceration only, not rehabilitation. It is of national importance in this regard because of 

its use as a repository of incorrigibles throughout the federal prison system, including 

Robert Stroud (“Birdman of Alcatraz”), Alphonse Capone, and George Kelly Barnes 

(“Machine Gun Kelly”). Alcatraz Island is certainly the best known prison in American 

history and arguably, along with France’s “Devil’s Island,” is among the most infamous 

prisons in the world. 

Alcatraz Island was occupied by “Indians of All Tribes” from November 1969 to June 

1971 during an internationally publicized protest to focus attention on the plight of 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 96 

American Indians and to assert the need for Indian unity and solidarity for achieving selfdetermination and securing political rights. Thus, the occupation increased awareness of 

the American Indian’s political, economic, and social concerns and provided foundation 

for what would become a political movement—the American Indian Movement—to 

promote racial pride and secure and protect Indian rights. Tangible evidence of their 

occupancy on the island includes graffiti and physical alterations attributed to their 

actions. 

The period of significance for Alcatraz stretches from 1847, when the island was first 

surveyed for military fortifications, to 1971 when the National Park Service acquired the 

land. This period of significance covers the military fortifications period (1847–1907), 

military prison period (1861–1933), federal prison period (1933–63), and American 

Indian occupation period (1969–71). Alcatraz Island was opened to the public as part of 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area in 1973, listed in the National Register of Historic 

Places in 1976, and designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1986. 

The current landscape of Alcatraz consists of features and characteristics from each of the 

island’s historically significant periods that are used to define cultural landscapes—

buildings, structures, spatial organization, circulation, small-scale features, topography, 

vegetation, natural systems and features, archeological sites, and land use. It includes 

numerous contributing buildings and structures, and 81 areas of historic archaeological 

concern not yet listed in the Landmark inventory. 

Fort Point National Historic Site

Fort Point National Historic Site is located within the Presidio of San Francisco, near the 

south anchorage of the Golden Gate Bridge. Though this landmark is within the park 

boundary, it is not included in the planning area. Constructed between 1853 and 1861, 

Fort Point is the only example of a casemated Third System fort completed on the Pacific 

Coast. It is also the most unaltered such fort left in the United States. Situated on the 

southern tip of the Golden Gate, the fort was a vital part of San Francisco’s harbor 

defense during the Civil War, and played a role in defending the harbor entrance during 

World War I and World War II. Associated historic resources include Battery East, build 

to supplement the obsolete brick fort, the historic seawall and promenade and numerous 

historic landscape features and historic archeological sites. 

Presidio of San Francisco National Historic Landmark

Established in 1776 by the Spanish and continued as a military post under the Mexicans 

and the Americans, the Presidio possesses a visual unity and a high degree of integrity 

that relates well to its historical importance and continuity through successive periods of 

development. The Presidio of San Francisco was the oldest Army installation operating in 

the American West and was one of the longest-garrisoned posts in the country. More than 

200 years of military occupation of the Presidio have resulted in the development of a 

complex historic district of several overlaying historic landscapes, each composed of 

buildings, structures, objects, sites, and other features that represent multiple phases of 

development. Among the Presidio’s over 450 historic buildings are examples of every 

major building period of U.S. military history since the 1850s. Over the years, the U.S. 

Army’s careful site planning and extensive landscape design complemented the natural 

beauty of the site and made the Presidio unique among U.S. Army posts. As headquarters 

for the protection of the Bay and for military expeditions throughout the West, the 
Cultural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 97 

Presidio remained strategically the most significant military post on America’s Pacific 

Coast during most of its extended history, until its closure in 1994. In 1994 the U.S. 

Army transferred the Presidio to the NPS. In 1996, the Presidio Trust Act enacted by 

Congress, gave jurisdiction of the inland area of the Presidio (known as Area B) to the 

Presidio Trust; the National Park Service continues to manage the shoreline areas, known 

as Area A. The Presidio is not part of the planning area covered by this general 

management plan. 

San Francisco Bay Discovery Site National Historic Landmark

Located in the city of Pacifica, California, the site of the discovery of San Francisco Bay 

consists of the point at which the Portola Expedition of 1769 crossed over Sweeney 

Ridge and for the first time, came to view one of the world’s largest sheltered 

anchorages. From the top of Sweeney Ridge, one can see not only inland to the Bay, but 

north along the ocean coast as far as Point Reyes. This landmark is on the crest of 

Sweeney Ridge and commemorates the place from where the main body of Spanish 

explorer Gaspar de Portola’s expedition first sighted San Francisco Bay on November 4, 

1769. The bay would become the most important harbor on the Pacific Coast of the 

United States and one of the great anchorages of the world. Following this discovery by 

the Spaniards, a presidio and two missions were established in what is now San 

Francisco. No structures are on the site nor are any in the immediate vicinity. It is likely 

that no structures ever have been there. Today, the site consists essentially of two knolls 

from which the member of the expedition acquired the view. The total acreage of the site 

is approximately 18.15. There are two commemorative monuments that celebrate the 

Gaspar de Portola Expedition. The view of course has changed considerably with the 

growth of the Bay Area, now including widespread suburban development. 

San Francisco Port of Embarkation National Historic Landmark 

This historic district is listed as a national historic landmark for its association with 

World War II in which it was defined as the principal port on the West Coast for 

delivering personnel, material, weapons and ammunition to the military campaigns in the 

Pacific Theater of War. During the months after the United States first entered World 

War II, the U.S. Army’s San Francisco Port of Embarkation shipped more military 

supplies than all other military ports in the United States combined. 

The statistical returns for the entire war showed that San Francisco was second only to 

New York in the numbers and amounts of personnel shipped to the war zones. Between 

December 1941 and August 1945, 1,745,000 personnel embarked at San Francisco. In 

addition, more than half a million veterans of the war debarked at San Francisco during 

the same period. An equal number came through the Golden Gate after conclusion of the 

hostilities. All American dead being returned to the United States from the Pacific were 

brought through the port. Japanese and German prisoners of war were processed through 

this port’s facilities, as well. 

During the war years, more than 25 million measurement tons of cargo were shipped 

through San Francisco. For various periods of time between 1941 and 1944, the ports of 

Los Angeles, California; Portland, Oregon; and Seattle, Washington were administered 

by San Francisco. In the Bay Area, Fort Mason oversaw port operations for no fewer than 

13 other installations. San Francisco was the primary port for Army troops and supplies 
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in the central, south, and southwest Pacific areas. Moreover, the task force that drove the 

Japanese from Alaska’s Aleutian Islands was mounted from San Francisco. 

The district is significant within the area of military history for the period from 1912 to 

1945. It contains 210 acres, 14 buildings, and 5 structures predominantly located at lower 

Fort Mason. Building 201 at upper Fort Mason, currently the park headquarters is a 

contributing resource to the district. 

Aquatic Park Historic District National Historic Landmark 

This property is outside the general management plan planning area but is adjacent to the 

park’s Fort Mason Historic District in San Francisco. Aquatic Park Historic District is 

bounded by Van Ness Avenue and Hyde and Polk Streets and has an important 

interrelationship with Golden Gate National Recreation Area. Developed from 1936 to 

1939, the park was one of California’s largest Works Progress Administration projects, 

reflecting President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s policy of providing employment to architects 

and artists during the Great Depression. The centerpiece of this group of “streamline 

moderne” structures, all employing nautical metaphors, is a multipurpose structure 

containing the bathhouse, concession stand, and lounge. Its rounded walls, recessed upper 

stories, tubular steel railings, and porthole windows were designed to create the illusion 

of an ocean liner. Murals and other artwork carry out the nautical theme. This main 

building, lifeguard stations, stadium, Sea Scout building, a seawall, and a semicircular 

pier form the Aquatic Park Historic District, which now is part of the San Francisco 

Maritime National Historical Park. The district contains ten acres of land with three 

buildings and five structures that are significant for the period from 1920-1945. 

Potential National Historic Landmark Properties 

Coastal Seacoast Fortifications of San Francisco Bay

The coastal seacoast fortifications of San Francisco Bay, which are currently being 

evaluated for designation as a national historic landmark, today comprise what is widely 

considered to be the most comprehensive collection of military architecture and coastal 

defense systems and the finest surviving examples of military engineering for coastal 

defense in the United States. The significance of the seacoast fortifications structures of 

the Bay Area as a group is of the highest order. These fortifications span San Mateo 

(Milagra Ridge, Devils Slide), San Francisco (Presidio, Fort Funston, Fort Mason, Fort 

Miley, Alcatraz and Fort Winfield Scott in the Presidio), and Marin (Forts Baker, Barry 

and Cronkhite) counties and encompass over 40 major caliber gun batteries and scores of 

other supporting structures. Moreover, as well-preserved examples of nearly every 

important development in military fortification architecture and engineering from before 

the Civil War to the guided missile era, they embody an extraordinary range of 

distinguishing characteristics of military architecture, engineering, style, and construction 

and outstandingly illustrate military culture and technique. They are tangible 

manifestations of changing periods in the nation’s history and of its changing military 

responses, and provide associative links with people important to the history of the nation 

as a whole, from John C. Fremont and “Kit” Carson to Irvin McDowell and Douglas 

MacArthur. The military reservations that provide a relatively unchanged physical 

context for these fortifications also provide a spectacular scenic backdrop of largely 

undeveloped open space at the very edge of a great urban metropolis. 
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Golden Gate Bridge 

The Golden Gate Bridge is on park property but is owned and managed by the Golden 

Gate Bridge, Highway, and Transportation District. It was determined eligible for listing 

on the national register in 1980 and was designated a California State Historic Landmark 

in 1990. The Golden Gate Bridge has not yet been listed in the national register. In 1997, 

the National Park Service prepared a national historic landmark nomination for the 

Golden Gate Bridge but it has not yet been designated as a landmark. The National Park 

Service was a concurring party to a Memorandum of Agreement for the Golden Gate 

Bridge Physical Suicide Deterrent System Project to complete and submit a landmark 

nomination for the Golden Gate Bridge that includes significant associated buildings, 

structures, roadways and pedestrian circulation features and landscaping. 

Olema Valley Historic District 

This rural historic landscape consists of former dairy ranches in West Marin County and, 

although within the authorized boundaries of Golden Gate National Recreation Area, is 

managed by Point Reyes National Seashore for reasons of geographic proximity. 

National Register of Historic Places 

The National Register of Historic Places is a list of properties (districts, sites, buildings, 

structures, and objects) that possess the quality of significance in American history, 

architecture, archeology, engineering, and culture, as well as integrity of location, design, 

setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, and association. Properties listed in the national 

register are significant because they

 are associated with events that have made a significant contribution to the broad 

patterns of our history; or 

 are associated with the lives of persons significant in our past; or 

 embody distinctive characteristics of a type, period or method of construction, or 

represent the work of a master, or possess high artistic values, or represent a 

significant and distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual 

distinction; or 

 have yielded, or may be likely to yield, information important in prehistory or 

history. 

Properties Listed in the National Register of Historic Places 

Marin County 

Dipsea Trail. The historic Dipsea Trail, which extends from Mill Valley to Stinson 

Beach, and runs through parts of Muir Woods, is one of the oldest foot races in the 

nation. 

Forts Baker, Barry, and Cronkhite. These military fortifications and installations 

comprise some of the earliest coastal defense artillery batteries in Marin County and are 

significant landmarks for tracing the development of the American defense system. The 

land, on which they were constructed, strategically located at the northern point of the 

Golden Gate, commands the approaches to the San Francisco Bay entrance. The batteries 

and their ancillary structures (observation posts and cantonments) created a coordinated 
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system of defense at the Golden Gate from the Civil War to the Cold War. The scope of 

the landscape afforded by the three military fortifications includes both Native American 

and European-associated attributes. 

In 1866, Forts Baker and Barry were acquired by purchase to be used for military 

defense. Fort Cronkhite was acquired in the same manner in 1914, but was considered a 

portion of Fort Barry until officially designated as Fort Cronkhite in 1937. The 

fortifications proposed for construction at the northern point of the Golden Gate were to 

augment those at the Presidio of San Francisco and elsewhere in San Francisco to prevent 

successful passage of hostile ships through the Golden Gate into the Bay. The batteries 

and their ancillary structures (observation posts and garrisons) created a coordinated 

system of defense at the Golden Gate. From the Civil War to the Cold War eras, this 

system of defense offered equipment ranging from smoothbore muzzle-loading cannon to 

rifled, breach-loading artillery, including anti-aircraft and anti-breach-landing defense 

from World War II and Nike anti-aircraft missiles from the Cold War. The Fort 

Cronkhite cantonment is not only highly representative of the once ubiquitous 700-Series 

World War II mobilization cantonments; it is considered the best-preserved example of 

its type in the nation. The district is spread over 1400 acres and over 100 historic and 

structures. 

Muir Beach Archeological Site. This Coast Miwok archeological site dating from about 

AD 1300 is one of only a few such properties known in southwestern Marin County. It 

was recorded in 1909, and appears to be part of a series of periodic villages or 

encampments formed around the estuary at the mouth of Redwood Creek below present 

day Muir Woods between AD 1100 and as late as 1800. 

Muir Woods National Monument. In 2008, Muir Woods National Monument historic 

district was listed on the NRHP for its significance as an early and lasting example of 

natural resource conservation by the federal government. In addition to the forest of giant 

redwood trees, the monument’s collection of historic buildings, structures, and cultural 

landscape are representative of the National Park service’s rustic design style. It is a 425-

acre historic district with 5 contributing buildings, and numerous historic structures 

which comprise the principal elements of the cultural landscape. See the “Cultural 

Resources—Muir Woods National Monument” section of this document for more 

detailed information. 

Point Bonita Historic District. The Point Bonita Historic District, located at the entrance 

to San Francisco Bay from the Pacific Ocean, includes both the Point Bonita Light 

Station and the Point Bonita Life-Saving Station and associated landscape features. 

Established in 1855 to mark the entrance to San Francisco Bay and to warn of local 

navigational hazards, the district is linked to the historic growth of commercial shipping 

along the West Coast and to California’s critical reliance on maritime transportation and 

the aids that made navigation possible. The light station contains an intact lighthouse 

tower with an intact lens and an associated fog signal building. The tower and fog signal 

building, clustered together at the end of the rocky point, retain a high degree of integrity 

and give cohesiveness to the light station site. This is heightened by the buildings’ 

separation from the main access path by a pedestrian suspension bridge; Point Bonita is 

the only lighthouse in the United States approached by a suspension bridge. The light 

station retains the general form of a formal late 19th – early 20th century light complex. 
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Steamship Tennessee Remains. The SS Tennessee, a side-wheel commercial passengercargo steamer, owned by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company and destined for Panama, 

crashed against the rocks in Indian (Tennessee) Cove, some three miles north of Point 

Bonita on March 6, 1853, amid dense fog and high surf. Today the Tennessee Valley 

Trail leads visitors to the cove where the ship’s remains are occasionally uncovered by 

the restless surf. 

San Francisco County 

Camera Obscura. The Camera Obscura was added to the National Register of Historic 

Places in 2001 on the basis of the engineering significance of the camera mechanism—

the largest camera obscura remaining in situ in the nation. The exterior of the building 

was extensively modified in 1957 to appear as a giant camera, and may be reevaluated for 

historical significance upon reaching fifty years of age. 

Fort Mason Historic District. Beginning in 1797 and lasting through the Spanish and 

Mexican administrations of Alta California, Fort Mason (including Batteria San José, 

Punta Medanos, Battery Yerba Buena, Point San José, Black Point, and the Post of Point 

San José) was one of two sites in San Francisco Bay that was armed with artillery for the 

defense of the harbor. For over 40 years of American administration, from the Civil War 

to the post-Spanish American War era, Fort Mason played a role in the coastal defenses 

of the Bay. It also served as an important element in the first submarine mining of San 

Francisco Bay during the Spanish American War. From the Spanish American War to the 

Korean War, Fort Mason was the headquarters of the San Francisco Port of Embarkation. 

Fort Mason contains a collection of military structures dating from the 1850s to the 

Korean Conflict that illustrates the evolution of an army post and seacoast fortifications 

over a period of some 100 years. The variety and contrasts among many styles of the 

architecture, the effect of the Army’s caste system on the quarters, the charm of the 

earliest officers’ row, the simple lines of the Endicott battery, the Works Progress 

Administration architecture of the Great Depression, and the Army’s determination in 

landscaping all blend together to present a history of this place and its times. The district 

includes 146 historic buildings and structures spread over 68 acres of land. A wooden 

pier (Pier 4) and small buildings at its terminus are associated with prison operations on 

Alcatraz Island. The historic landscape is also a contributing feature of the district. Five 

archeological sites associated with Ohlone native peoples and other historic archeological 

sites are located at Fort Mason; however, they listed in a separately-themed historic 

district nomination. 

Fort Miley Military Reservation. This historic district is a military landscape comprised 

of battery emplacements, fire control stations, and searchlight facilities that served as part 

of the defense system for the strategic harbor of San Francisco. These features of East 

and West Fort Miley were part of the defense system for the strategic harbor of San 

Francisco, long regarded by Army engineers and strategists as the most important harbor 

on the west coast of the United States. The fortification of Point Lobos in 1899 marked 

the final phase of the Endicott system of seacoast defense, when it was determined that 

the guns and mortars should be placed as far toward the sea as possible and that the inner 

harbor defense represented by the early Endicott-type batteries was of less importance. 

The guns of Fort Miley, together with those of Fort Barry on the northern side of the 

Golden Gate, became San Francisco Bay’s important “outer line of defense” at the turn of 
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the last century. The massive concrete and earth batteries, Chester and Livingston, 

represented the latest in design and engineering of the Endicott works as of 1900. Later 

installations at Fort Miley, such as a coastal searchlight powerhouse and fire control 

stations for other and later batteries, mark further advances in the theory, practice, and 

technology of seacoast defenses. 

Fort Miley’s continuing importance in the harbor defenses of San Francisco is illustrated 

by construction of a 6-inch gun battery during World War II and the subsequent arming 

of this battery as late as 1948—the last of the coastal guns to be mounted in the San 

Francisco Bay Area. 

King Philip / Reporter Shipwreck Site. The King Philip, a three-masted wooden clipper 

ship named for the Indian chief who was involved in King Philip’s War in 1675, crashed 

on Ocean Beach amid heavy surf on January 25, 1878, after leaving San Francisco 

without cargo. First launched in 1856, the ship went into the lumber trade working for 

Pope and Talbot of San Francisco after its glory days as a clipper. The location, and the 

remains, has also been associated with the 1876 three-masted schooner “Reporter”, which 

wrecked in the same location March 13, 1902. The remains appear whenever storm surf 

scours the beach sands low enough to expose the hull. 

Point Lobos Archeological Sites. The Point Lobos sites include two prehistoric Ohlone 

archeological sites dating from about AD 300–1100. These sites are encampments in the 

dunes of western San Francisco that evidence harvesting of sea mammals and shellfish 

from the nearby ocean shoreline. They are among a handful of prehistoric sites left in San 

Francisco. 

Pumping Station #2, San Francisco Fire Department Auxiliary Water Supply System.

Pumping Station #2 of the San Francisco Fire Department Auxiliary Water Supply 

System represents an example of an innovatively planned and designed “earthquake 

proof” fire fighting system for San Francisco. The pumping station is significant within 

the areas of community planning and engineering for the City of San Francisco. Its period 

of significance is 1912 to 1975. Although the building is sited on park land in the Fort 

Mason Historic District, the facility is still owned and utilized today by the City of San 

Francisco. 

Six-inch Gun No. 9 (Baker Beach). The Six-inch Gun Number 9 and disappearing 

carriage were received by the National Park Service in 1977 from the Smithsonian 

Institution. The gun and carriage were installed at gun emplacement Number Four at 

Battery Chamberlin, located in the Presidio of San Francisco, and are the same type 

originally used there. Battery Chamberlin is an Endicott-era battery completed and armed 

in 1904 with four six-inch guns mounted on disappearing carriages. The battery was built 

to protect underwater minefields laid outside the Golden Gate during the time of war. The 

original guns were dismounted in 1917 for use in World War I, but the battery was 

modified to receive two six-inch guns on simple barbette carriages in 1920. During 

World War II, the Sixth Coast Artillery (Harbor Defense) Regiment, Battery “D,” 

manned the two guns at Battery Chamberlin, which were placed under camouflage 

netting to hide them from potential air attack. In 1948, the Coast Artillery Corps was 

deactivated, the battery disarmed, and the guns scrapped. Today, an underground 

magazine contains photos and small exhibits on the harbor defenses of San Francisco.

Operation of the gun and the magazine are open to the public periodically. 
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In addition to these properties which are within the park boundaries, there are two 

additional properties within the area of potential effects that are adjacent to the park 

boundary and could be affected through actions proposed in this plan. These are 

Point Montara Light Station. Point Montara Light Station District covers 73 acres 

containing three contributing buildings and one contributing structure. The Light Station 

was established in 1875 as the Point Montara Fog Signal, and the house was built for the 

keepers. The first light was not installed until 1900, a simple lantern hung on a post. In 

1912, a Fresnel lens was mounted on a skeleton tower, and in 1928, the existing cast-iron 

lighthouse was built to house the lens. The old-fashioned fog horn continued to be 

important because the fog on this part of the coast is often thick enough to restrict even 

the bravest beam. The property is owned and managed by the United States Coast Guard, 

but will likely be added to the park in the near future. 

San Francisco Veterans Affairs Medical Center. This property occupies a 29-acre 

campus in the northwest corner of San Francisco, of which the historic district is 

approximately 12 acres. It is surrounded on three sides by Fort Miley. It is owned and 

managed by the Department of Veterans’ Affairs. 

Properties Determined to be Eligible for Listing in the National 

Register of Historic Places 

Several properties within the park boundary have been identified, evaluated and assessed 

for their eligibility for listing on the National Register of Historic Places. The term 

eligible for inclusion in the national register refers to properties formally determined as 

such in accordance with regulations of the Secretary of the Interior and to all other 

properties that meet the national register criteria without a formal determination. For 

purposes of park management and planning, these properties are treated as contributing 

resources. 

Marin County 

Sara Seaver Randall House. Habitation of one of the earliest Anglo settlers in Marin 

County. The property is managed by Point Reyes National Seashore.

Hill 640 Military Reservation. This reservation, including the cultural landscape as well 

as the remains of its radar set and fire control stations are prime examples of the methods 

that evolved for the better direction of coast artillery fire against enemy vessels at sea. 

Overlooking the Pacific Ocean and the southern end of Stinson Beach, they are the best 

surviving representatives of the most northerly complexes of fire control installations for 

the defense of San Francisco Bay during the critical years of World War II. The radar, a 

surface detector set, was the first of its type assigned to the San Francisco Harbor 

defenses. These features are little disturbed from World War II and retain very high 

integrity. 

Ranch M (Golden Gate Dairy).The Golden Gate Dairy at the lower end Redwood Creek 

is one of the last agricultural operations remaining with historic integrity intact. It was 

originally one of dozens of Portuguese-owned dairies in southern Marin County. The 

main house was built circa 1898–1900 by Azorean immigrant M. A. Mattos. The Lopez 

family operated a Grade A dairy here from approximately 1943 to 1962. The site contains 

several residences, corrals, utilitarian structures, fence lines, pastures, windbreaks, and 
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historic archeological deposits. The cultural landscape of the Golden Gate Dairy includes 

residences, corrals, utilitarian structures, fence lines, pastures, and windbreaks. 

Ranch A/B (Miwok Stables). The Rapozo Ranch in the Tennessee Valley of the Marin 

Headlands, currently operated as the Miwok Ranch or Stables, is one of the last 

agricultural operations remaining with intact historic integrity. It was originally one of 

dozens of Portuguese-owned dairies in southern Marin County. The main house was 

probably built circa 1903 by Azorean immigrant M. F. DaCunha, the first single owner of 

the ranch. The ranch was used by the Rapozo family from 1945 to the present. The site 

contains a hay barn, riding barn, sanitary (dairy) barn, two residences, corrals, a 

eucalyptus windbreak, and other ranching features. 

Hillwood Camp. The earliest surviving example in Marin County of a rural camp 

reflective of an effort to immerse urban-dwelling youth in a natural environment. The 

property includes the main lodge and associated features. 

Olema Valley Historic District. Collection of properties along State Route 1, north of 

Bolinas representing a cultural landscape of rural farming from the late-19th and early20th century period. The district is managed by Point Reyes National Seashore.

San Francisco County 

Merrie Way Stands Site. An historic archeological site associated with an early San 

Francisco amusement park established by Adolph Sutro at Land's End in 1895. The 

pleasure ground and its concession stands lining Lobos Avenue existed until about 1920, 

when the last of the amusement structures were demolished. 

Mile Rock Tunnel. Completed in 1915, the tunnel is an example of the reconstruction 

and reconfiguration of the City of San Francisco’s public works system following the 

1906 earthquake. Designed by M. M. O’Shaughnessy, a San Francisco City Engineer best 

known for his design of the Hetch Hetchy Water System, the tunnel was the first 

constructed in the city using a combination of open cut timber cribbing and boring 

through solid rock, a technological and engineering innovation for the city. It served as 

the storm drainage facility for the Sunset and West Mission districts and portions of the 

Richmond and Ingleside districts. 

Properties Potentially Eligible for Listing in the National Register 

of Historic Places 

Potentially eligible properties include those that have been identified by park staff and 

other cultural resource professionals as being potentially eligible for listing in the national 

register. These properties need to be further assessed and evaluated in order to make a 

determination of eligibility in the near future. A determination of eligibility would be 

made in advance of activity or work that could directly affect them. 

Marin County 

Bolinas Copper Mine. The scenic Wilkins Ranch, at the head of Bolinas Lagoon, 

witnessed three waves of mining fever on the upper slopes of Bolinas Ridge, beginning in 

the 1860s. The Chetco Mining Company, more successful than its predecessors, closed 

its doors in 1918; it was the last operation to work the vein. Cultural landscape features 

include the mine’s adit and shaft, a mining road, concrete foundations and cabin site, a 
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Volume II: 105 

rusty boiler and cable, and other large debris. The property is managed by Point Reyes 

National Seashore. 

Bolinas Lagoon Coast Miwok Sites. A series of four pre-contact archeological sites 

which contain significant information on Coast Miwok history in southwestern Marin. 

Druid Heights. Potentially significant as the site of a colony of artists, writers, Zen 

philosophers (Alan Watts) influential in the development of the counter-culture of the 

1960s. 

Marin Headlands Coast Miwok Sites. A series of three pre-contact archeological sites 

which contain significant information on Coast Miwok history near Rodeo Lagoon in 

Fort Barry and Fort Cronkhite.

Miwok Trail. Potentially significant as one of the earliest trails in the region. 

Muir Beach Coast Miwok Sites. A district of three pre-contact archeological sites, 

including the National Register Muir Beach Archeological Site, which encompass the Big 

Lagoon area of the mouth of Redwood Creek. 

San Francisco County 

China Beach. Potentially significant for its architecture and design as an early postWorld War II civic recreational complex. 

Crissy Field Ohlone Sites. A district of two pre-contact archeological sites along Crissy 

Field in the Presidio of San Francisco. 

Fort Mason Ohlone Sites. A district of six pre-contact archeological sites in Fort Mason, 

constituting the densest archeological site cluster remaining in the City of San Francisco. 

Marine Exchange Lookout Station (Octagon House). Potentially significant in maritime 

history and commerce as well as for its rare and unusual style of architecture. 

O’Shaughnessy Seawall. Potentially significant in the fields of engineering, city 

planning and recreation as part of the long recreational history of Ocean Beach. 

Ocean Terrace Site. An historic archeological site of a commercial district associated 

with Adolph Sutro’s Lands End properties. 

Sutro Baths. Archeological remains of a major public natatorium constructed by Adolph 

Sutro in the 1890s and lasting until its destruction by fire in 1966. The site is a significant 

historic landmark in San Francisco and maintains key engineering features that facilitated 

its operation. 

Neptune Shipwreck. Remains of the shipwreck of the 1882-constructed schooner SS 

Neptune, which wrecked on Ocean Beach near Fort Funston in 1900. Exposed by winter 

scour of beach sands in 1983. 

San Mateo County 

Phleger Estate. The Phleger Estate cultural landscape contains historic archeological 

sites relating to the area’s logging history such as numerous skid roads, camps, and mill 

sites, as well as potential Ohlone archeological sites. 

Rancho Corral de Tierra. The cultural landscape of Rancho Corral de Tierra may 

include structures, landscape features, and archeological sites associated with historic 
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ranching operations dating back as far as the Mexican rancho era. These could include 

the site of the historically-documented 1840s adobe residence of Francisco Guerrero y 

Palomares, original grantee of the northern part of Rancho Corral de Tierra; and the 

Martini Creek Ohlone Sites: a district of pre-contact Ohlone sites north of Montara 

Shelldance Nursery. Potentially significant as representative of the cut-flower industry in 

west San Mateo county. 

Properties Ineligible for Listing in the National Register of Historic 

Places with Special Management 

The state historic preservation office determined the Sutro Heights District, located at 

Point Lobos in San Francisco, to be ineligible for listing on the NRHP in 1979 and again 

in 2000, although the recently restored Cliff House and the remains of the water pumping 

system may be reassessed for eligibility as further information is developed. The district 

is approximately 78 acres and includes the Cliff House, Sutro Heights, and Sutro Baths 

ruins. The park has chosen to manage the district and associated features, including the 

historic designed landscape, as a cultural resource. 

ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES 

Definition 

Archeological resources are the physical evidence of past human activity, including 

evidence of the effects of that activity on the environment. Information revealed through 

the study of archeological resources is critical to understanding and interpreting 

prehistory and history. Although archeological and ethnographic resources (which are 

covered in the following section) are considered as separate cultural resource types by the 

National Park Service, the two are closely interrelated. 

Currently, less than 10% of Golden Gate National Recreation Area has been surveyed for 

pre-contact and historic archeological resources. To date, approximately 370 

archeological sites have been inventoried, but the significance of those sites requires 

further study and evaluation. Furthermore, comprehensive consultations with Coast 

Miwok and Ohlone tribes and descendants regarding archeological sites with 

ethnographic significance in the park will continue into the future. As a result of this need 

for additional survey, assessment, and consultation, archeological resources in the park 

are subject to deterioration from natural erosion processes, inadvertent but deleterious 

visitor, park management, or partner activities, vandalism, and looting. 

On Alcatraz Island, some 81 areas of historic archeological interest have been identified 

through documentary research, including substantial buried resources worthy of 

consideration for future incorporation into the visitor experiences on the island. There is a 

clear need for a comprehensive archeological survey and evaluation of the island to 

incorporate contributing archeological properties and issues into both the National 

Historic Landmark documentation and the park’s future planning. Consultation with 

American Indian tribes regarding ethnographic significance is also needed. 
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Resources 

Currently, there are more than 370 inventoried archeological sites in the park. Continuing 

research and expanding knowledge of the park’s resources has resulted in a logical 

increase in known and expected archeological sites. Amendments to existing National 

Historic Landmark and National Register property documentation with this new 

information has lagged. Archeological sites and related historic property types in the park 

and monument are associated with the following themes or topics:

 Pre-contact Period (Prior to contact between indigenous and European peoples) 

 Historic/Spanish, Mexican, and American Periods 

 Military Reservations/Installations 

 Seacoast Fortifications 

 Ranching/Agriculture 

 Logging 

 Lighthouse/Life Saving Reservations 

 Shipwrecks and Associated Remains 

 Recreational Development 

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESOURCES 

Definitions 

Ethnographic resources include sites, structures, objects, landscapes, or natural resource 

features assigned traditional and contemporary legendary, religious, subsistence, or other 

significance in the cultural system of a group associated with them. 

Traditional cultural properties are ethnographic resources eligible for listing in the 

National Register of Historic Places. Traditional cultural properties are associated with 

cultural practices, beliefs, the sense of purpose, or existence of a living community that is 

rooted in that community’s history or is important in maintaining its cultural identity and 

development as an ethnically distinctive people. 

Currently, there are no identified ethnographic resources within the boundaries of Golden 

Gate National Recreation Area, although Alcatraz Island has very important ethnographic 

significance for American Indians, and every Coast Miwok or Ohlone pre-contact site has 

significant heritage values to park-affiliated native people. 

History 

Native Americans have called the San Francisco Bay region home for more than 10,000 

years, and the park still contains archeological sites and landscapes influenced by native 

land management and activities. Park areas south of the Golden Gate, from the San 

Francisco Peninsula to the East Bay and south to Monterey, are the aboriginal lands of 

the Ohlones (also called Costanoans). Park lands north of the Golden Gate, primarily in 

Marin County and southern Sonoma County, are the aboriginal lands of the Coast 

Miwoks. 
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Both the Ohlone and Coast Miwok peoples were organized into small, politically 

independent societal groups or tribes; the Ohlones had about 50 tribes and the Coast 

Miwoks had approximately 14 tribes. Ethnohistory suggests that small villages were 

maintained along the marshlands. In San Francisco, villages were located in the park at 

present-day Fort Mason, Crissy Field, and Point Lobos. In Marin County, the Coast 

Miwok encampments were located in the Rodeo and Tennessee Valleys and along 

Redwood Creek, and at Bolinas Lagoon. Groups moved annually between temporary and 

permanent village sites in a seasonal round of hunting, fishing, and gathering. Periodic 

burning of the landscape was conducted to promote the growth of native grasses for seed 

gathering and to create forage for deer and elk. The worldview and spirituality of both the 

Ohlones and Coast Miwoks were expressed in a complex woven tapestry of stories, myth, 

song, dance, and ritual. 

In 1776, when Spanish military and civilian settlers arrived in the San Francisco Bay area 

to establish military garrisons (presidios), Franciscan missions, and civilian settlements 

(pueblos), life abruptly and dramatically changed for the region’s native peoples. With 

Spanish colonization came the introduction of new diseases and the establishment of 

mission communities meant to supplant the existing tribal organization. 

Because they lived close to the Presidio’s military garrison, members of the Ohlone tribes 

that inhabited the San Francisco Peninsula, called the Yelamu, were baptized and taken 

into the missions as early as the 1770s and 1780s. Because the Coast Miwok tribes lived 

further north, their indoctrination occurred somewhat later. In 1783, several members of 

the Huimen community, who inhabited the southernmost part of Marin County, were the 

first of the Coast Miwok to leave their homeland for Mission San Francisco. By 1810, 

introduced ideas, forced labor, and efforts to indoctrinate the indigenous peoples into an 

alien society and religion led to the destruction of the way of life of the Ohlones and 

Coast Miwoks. 

Today, descendants of Ohlone and Coast Miwok peoples live throughout the San 

Francisco Bay area. Ohlones are organized into eight tribal bands, none of which are 

federally recognized, although several are seeking recognition. While participating in 

contemporary society, they are actively involved in the preservation and revitalization of 

their native culture. Restoration of native language, protection of ancestral sites, practice 

of traditional plant uses, story-telling, dance, song, and basket weaving are all aspects of 

these restoration efforts. The National Park Service works with Ohlones in stewarding the 

preservation and interpretation of ancestral sites and landscapes in the Presidio and 

throughout the park south of the Golden Gate. Additionally, the National Park Service 

has a government-to-government relationship with the Coast Miwoks who today form a 

single, federally recognized tribe, the Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria, whose 

recognized status was restored by congressional legislation in 2000. If and when any of 

the Ohlone tribes receive federal recognition, the nature of the park’s relationship with 

these tribes will become government-to-government. 

Sites 

Native peoples were severed from their homelands in the park for two centuries due to 

European and American colonialism, irreparably rupturing their traditional connections to 

place; this magnifies the significance of indigenous archeological sites as focal points of 

native heritage today. 
Cultural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 109 

Archeological sites related to indigenous peoples, such as the Point Lobos Archeological 

Sites, the Muir Beach Archeological Site, and sites at or near Tomales Bay, Olema 

Valley, Bolinas Lagoon, Redwood Creek, Tennessee Valley, Rodeo Lagoon, Angel 

Island, Fort Mason, Land’s End, Crissy Field, Mori Point, Montara, and Phleger Estate, 

constitute the most tangible connection between Coast Miwok and Ohlone peoples and 

park lands and provide a basis for understanding the history of their life ways and 

cultures. 

Collaboration 

In the late 1990s—in equal measures due to evolving NPS policy and to the rekindling of 

California Indian tribal life—the National Park Service made its first efforts to reach out 

and work with the Coast Miwok and Ohlone communities. Since the late 1990s, the 

National Park Service has worked on a consistent basis with the Federated Indians of 

Graton Rancheria (the federally recognized tribe comprised of park-associated Coast 

Miwoks and Southern Pomos), with the many Ohlone tribes seeking federal recognition, 

and with Ohlone individuals who partake in the stewardship of Ohlone heritage. 

Cooperative work has encompassed a broad range of park activities such as consultation 

on the identification, inventory, and treatment of cultural resources; collaboration on the 

interpretation of native history, genealogy, and culture; development of Indian-led 

educational programs; teacher training for Native American curricula; permanent and 

temporary exhibits on native history and culture; annual commemorative festivals with 

native components; and the permitting of religious activities on park lands and gathering 

of natural materials for use in traditional crafts. Recent natural resource restoration 

projects involving the identification and preservation of archeological sites related to 

indigenous peoples (i.e., the Crissy Field tidal marsh and planned Big Lagoon restoration 

projects) have inspired an interest in exploring the re-creation of ethnographic landscapes 

as a value-added component of natural resource restoration 

Alcatraz Island 

Although there are no identified ethnographic resources in Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area, Alcatraz Island has very important historical significance to American 

Indians. After Alcatraz became part of Golden Gate National Recreation Area, each 

November the International Tribal Council conducted an annual “Unthanksgiving”

sunrise ceremony on the island. The island was occupied by “Indians of All Tribes” from 

November 1969 to June 1971 as an internationally publicized protest to focus attention 

on the plight of American Indians and to assert the need for Indian unity and solidarity 

for achieving self-determination and securing political rights. Thus, the occupation 

increased awareness of the American Indian’s political, economic, and social concerns 

and provided foundation for what would become a political movement—the American 

Indian Movement—to promote cultural pride and secure and protect Indian rights. The 

occupation resulted in the nation’s increased awareness of American Indian concerns and 

issues and the establishment of D-Q University at Davis, California, as well as other 

institutions throughout the nation. Commemorations were held on the island to remember 

the 20th and 30th anniversaries of the Indian Occupation. Tangible evidence of the 

occupation on the island includes painted political slogans and symbols on the buildings 

and physical alterations attributed to the Indians’ activities. Since the occupation, the 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 110 

island has become a symbolic focal point of American Indian pride and solidarity among 

relocated American Indians in the San Francisco Bay area as well as the nation at large. 

Thus, the National Park Service recognizes the ethnographic significance of Alcatraz 

Island for American Indians and the island’s potential for listing in the national register as 

a traditional cultural property. 

PARK COLLECTIONS 

Definition 

Park collections are prehistoric and historic objects, artifacts, works of art, archival 

documents, and natural history specimens valuable for the information they provide about 

processes, events, and interactions among people and the environment. 

Resources 

U.S. Military history, from 1846 to the 1990s, is one of Golden Gate National Recreation 

Area’s major themes. Much of the park land is comprised of former military fortifications 

and installations. The park’s collections and its cultural and natural resource holdings are 

inextricably bound. The two largest collection types in the park are archives and 

archeology. The park has a park collection of more than 4.2 million objects, including 

archeological and historical objects and archives, oral histories, maps, and historic 

documents and records, which are directly associated with the wealth of historic 

properties in the park. Of particular importance are the documents, maps, and engineering 

drawings relating to the layout, construction, development, and operation of the park’s 

military sites and installations as well as its fortifications. 

The park’s collections consist of the following components: 

 Archival collections (3.8 million) include subjects related to lands governed by 

the park covering the span of history from the mid-19th century through the 

present, and include all media types, such as architectural drawings, maps, 

photographs, documents, books, and oral history recordings. Representative 

topics include Alcatraz and penal history in the Bay Area; Sutro Baths, Sutro 

Heights and Cliff House properties and history; military fortifications from the 

early 19th century forward; U.S. Army infantry, cavalry and coastal artillery on 

the Presidio of San Francisco and at multiple other sites around the mouth of San 

Francisco Bay; Pacific Theatre of military operations originating in the San 

Francisco Bay Area; military life in the 19th and 20th centuries; historic 

structures and cultural landscapes; farming and ranching in the Marin Headlands; 

and Muir Woods and the early conservation movement. Archival collections 

support ongoing park management as well as diverse uses by both staff and the 

public. 

 History collections (19,757) include such things as original FBI evidence from 

the 1962 Alcatraz escape, original uniforms, accoutrements, and everyday objects 

from the U.S. Army, swimsuits and advertising materials from Sutro Baths, 

architectural features from historic structures, Nike Missile Site collections, and 

California related materials from the former Presidio Army Museum. 
Cultural Resources – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 111 

 Archeological collections (378,901) include formally and informally recovered 

prehistoric and historic artifacts derived from park lands and from specific sites 

listed in the NPS Archeological Sites Management Information System. These 

historic properties include two National Historic Landmarks (Presidio of San 

Francisco and Alcatraz Island), as well as many sites listed in or eligible for 

listing in the National Register of Historic Places. 

 The natural history collection (2,030) includes a small herbarium, insect 

collection, and invertebrate specimens. The park’s active Inventory and 

Monitoring program documents significant and endangered or threatened species 

collected from scientific research as well as paleontological specimens. While the 

park only maintains a small collection, other Golden Gate National Recreation 

Area natural history specimens are maintained in other repositories in California 

and New York State. The purpose of natural history collections is to support 

scientific research, resource management, and education; provide baseline data of 

park resources; and document changes that these resources are undergoing 

because of internal park conditions and external effects. These collections 

preserve locally significant species collected in response to specific research or 

interpretation needs, and guarantee the protection of important specimens whose 

preservation cannot be assured. The natural history collection is divided into 

three disciplines: biology, geology, and paleontology. 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area houses its park collections in 15 separate facilities 

throughout the park that function as visitor centers, interpretive exhibits, or dedicated 

storage areas. Of the four largest storage repositories, two are located in buildings owned 

by the Presidio Trust with no lease agreements in place. The lack of a lease places park 

collections in a vulnerable position due to potential eviction, and deteriorating structural 

conditions. There is a historic tie between the park’s collection and that of San Francisco 

Maritime National Historical Park, which was part of the park until 1988. The themes and 

resources of the two parks are inextricably tied together. Under an agreement between the 

two parks, San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park continues to house and 

provide limited management of most of the non-Presidio materials in Building E of 

Lower Fort Mason, which is part of Golden Gate National Recreation Area. 

The current conditions for park collections in the park do not meet NPS standards for the 

long-term preservation, protection, and use of park collections. Staffing for the park 

collections has never been stable, thus precluding realistic access for researchers, the 

general public, and park staff. Although planning has been underway for some 15 years, a 

suitable location for the park’s park collections has yet to be finally determined. 
Volume II: 112 

CULTURAL RESOURCES – MUIR WOODS NATIONAL 

MONUMENT 

INTRODUCTION 

Muir Woods National Monument remains an enduring and renowned example of natural 

resource conservation in the United States. The redwood forest, long recognized for its 

significance as a natural resource, is also historically significant—along with its overlay 

of cultural resources—for its association with the history of the American conservation 

movement, early conservation efforts in the Bay Area, and the legacy of rustic design in 

the National Park Service. 

Muir Woods National Monument is nationally significant as an early and lasting example 

of natural resource conservation by the federal government. The monument was 

designated on January 9, 1908, by President Theodore Roosevelt, who acted in large part 

on the advice and support of Gifford Pinchot, Chief of the United States Forest Service. 

The creation of Muir Woods National Monument occurred at the beginning of the federal 

government’s proactive role in conservation and preservation of natural and historic 

resources. Muir Woods National Monument was the tenth monument designated under 

the Antiquities Act of 1906, and the first designated through donation of private land—a 

gift from William and Elizabeth Thacher Kent. The proclamation of Muir Woods as a 

national monument helped spur conservation efforts elsewhere, notably protection of 

resources not under federal ownership. During the four decades following its 

establishment, Muir Woods National Monument—the first national monument located in 

close proximity to a major city—gained national and international renown as a place that 

expressed the ideals of American conservation. This perception culminated historically in 

a ceremony held on May 19, 1945, by the United Nations Conference on International 

Organization in memory of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. During the service in 

Cathedral Grove, speakers often referred to the spiritual quality of the site, thus attesting 

to the power of Muir Woods to function as a transcendent sacred space. 

Muir Woods is also significant in the area of conservation for its association with early 

conservation achievements in the San Francisco Bay Area. It was the first public park 

established in an extensive conservation district that today extends along much of the 

western Marin Peninsula, directly across the Golden Gate from the City of San Francisco. 

This area is administered at the federal, state, and local levels by Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area, Mount Tamalpais State Park, Marin Municipal Water District, and 

Marin County Open Space District, an administrative structure that traces its origins back 

to the management structure William Kent established for Muir Woods and the adjoining 

lands under his ownership. 

NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES 

In 2008, a 425-acre Muir Woods National Monument Historic District was listed in the 

National Register of Historic Places. The historic district includes the 295 acres within 

the original national monument boundaries and additions of some 130 acres before 1940. 
Cultural Resources – Muir Woods National Monument 

Volume II: 113 

The district’s historic buildings and structures were built during the first 32 years of Muir 

Woods National Monument’s existence. In addition to the national monument’s primary 

significance in the area of conservation, its buildings and major structures are also 

significant in the area of architecture. Dating from 1922 to 1940, the structures are 

representative examples of pre-World War II vernacular rustic architectural and 

engineering design in the National Park Service. The buildings were designed by wellknown NPS architects and landscape architects and built in part through New Deal-era 

federal work-relief programs including the Civilian Conservation Corps. They reflect the 

systemwide effort that advocated a high degree of craftsmanship and the use of native 

materials to help harmonize built features with the national monument’s forested natural 

landscape. 

The most visible building, the Administration-Concession Building (1940) constructed 

through federal work relief programs, remains the focal point of the entry area, and 

retains overall massing and details that reflect the early development of the Park Service 

Modern style that became popular in the national park system after World War II. To the 

rear of the Administration-Concession Building is the Utility Area, which retains an 

intact collection of historic buildings, including the Superintendent’s Residence (1922 

with 1930s additions), Garage (1931), and Equipment Shed (1934) that reflects the NPS 

rustic style with exposed timber framing details that were consistently employed on all 

monument buildings up until the late 1930s. 

Historic structures, which comprise the principal elements of the cultural landscape in the 

historic district, include trails, bridges, roads, erosion-control structures, walls and stairs, 

and monuments. The cultural landscape of Muir Woods National Monument historically 

illustrated characteristics of the National Park Service’s rustic style through design of 

buildings, naturalistic design of trails and roads, use of natural stone for Redwood Creek 

revetments, and a pervasive log motif applied to footbridges, signs, gates, benches, and 

drinking fountains. Within the boundaries of the Muir Woods National Monument 

Historic District is the heart of the old-growth redwood forest. This area includes the 

Cathedral Grove and Bohemian Grove; main buildings and structures in the 

administrative and utility area which remain from the historic period; main trails and 

roads and their associated landscape structures that fan out from this headquarters to the 

northwest and south; and four monuments, one each to Ralph Waldo Emerson, Gifford 

Pinchot, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and William Kent. 

The heart of the redwood forest on the canyon floor along the main trail retains much of 

the character it had during the latter part of the historic period. The forest retains its 

overall spatial organization formed by a corridor along the Redwood Creek and main 

trail, with secondary corridors along the side trails. Central focal points and nodal spaces 

within the forest remain Cathedral Grove and Bohemian Grove, with secondary nodal 

spaces at the entrance area/Administration-Concession Building and the utility area, all 

retaining much of their historic character. 

The trail system is composed of the main trail (pre-1883) and its extension, Camp Alice 

Eastwood Trail (circa 1906); Ben Johnson Trail (circa 1904); Bohemian Grove Trail 

(circa 1905–07); Dipsea Trail (pre-1883); Fern Creek Trail (pre-1883); Hillside Trail 

(1908); and Ocean View Trail (1908). The Dipsea Trail, which extends from Mill Valley 

to Stinson Beach and runs through parts of Muir Woods, is the site of one of the oldest 

foot races in the nation. It was listed in the national register in 2010. 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 114 

The main trail retains three bridges dating from the trails improvement by the Civilian 

Conservation Corps in 1934: most notably the Fern Creek Bridge, a stone-faced concretearch vehicular bridge, and two small wood stringer bridges over minor tributaries. There 

are also two log bridges remaining on the Ben Johnson Trail, probably built by the 

Civilian Conservation Corps between 1933 and 1937. With the exception of the three 

previously noted, most of the bridges on the canyon floor across Redwood Creek have 

been removed or replaced since 1947. 

Roads in the historic district include a portion of the Dipsea Fire Road (Civilian 

Conservation Corps 1934–35) and the service drive, originally built in 1892 by the 

Bohemian Club as Sequoia Valley Road and realigned in circa 1906. Between1934 and 

1938, the Civilian Conservation Corps constructed an extensive system of stone 

revetments along Redwood Creek, portions of which have collapsed or been removed. 

Additionally, a log dam (1932) was constructed near the Emerson monument. 

Historically significant monuments to Ralph Waldo Emerson (1903), Gifford Pinchot 

(1910), William Kent (1929), and Franklin D. Roosevelt (1947) retain their integrity. 

Legislation to acquire the Camp Monte Vista Tract south of the monument’s main 

entrance was approved in 1972. Intended to support park operations relocated from 

within the redwood forest, it contains Hillwood Camp and Druid Heights. Hillwood is the 

earliest surviving example in Marin County of a rural camp reflective of an effort to 

immerse urban-dwelling youth in a natural environment. The property includes the main 

lodge and associated features and is eligible for listing in the national register. Druid 

Heights is potentially eligible for listing on the National Register as the site of a colony of 

artists, writers, and Zen philosophers (Alan Watts) influential in the development of the 

counter-culture of the 1960s. 

ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES 

Although archeological sites were not comprehensively inventoried or evaluated as part 

of the study to nominate the Muir Woods National Monument Historic District to the 

National Register of Historic Places, eight historic archeological sites have been 

identified in the historic district; all are associated with vestiges of early uses of the 

monument. Additionally, numerous precontact artifacts have been identified in the 

national monument suggesting pre-monument native occupation. A comprehensive 

archeological survey of the national monument and adjoining related lands is warranted 

to determine if there are resources of both precontact and historic significance. An 

archeological survey could provide information on issues not presently well documented, 

such as the area’s use by Native Americans; the exact locations of early buildings, 

structures, and landscape features that have been removed; the limits and use of the 

picnic areas; and construction and alignment of roads and trails. 
Cultural Resources – Muir Woods National Monument 

Volume II: 115 

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESOURCES 

The National Park Service has not identified any ethnographic resources or traditional 

cultural properties within the national monument. However, an ethnographic survey and 

assessment needs to be conducted. 

PARK COLLECTIONS 

The park collections of Muir Woods National Monument are incorporated into the 

collections of Golden Gate National Recreation Area, and are discussed in that section of 

this document. 
Volume II: 116 

VISITOR USE AND EXPERIENCE—GOLDEN GATE 

NATIONAL RECREATION AREA 

“These are the places I go when...urban life becomes too stressful. To be able to 

walk in these beautiful places; to watch the birds, hang gliders, surfers, children 

at play, and fishermen is a balm to the soul.” – Golden Gate National Recreation 

Area visitor during public scoping 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area lands, which stand in sharp contrast to the nearby 

metropolitan areas, span three Bay Area counties and afford visitors outstanding 

recreational opportunities. Residents and visitors alike value the “wilderness next door,” 

an appropriate description for the park lands and waters that abut the highly developed 

areas of Marin, San Francisco, and San Mateo counties. Astounding scenic views, diverse 

recreational opportunities, and educational experiences coexist within Golden Gate 

National Recreation Area, making it a place for all ages. 

DIVERSITY OF RECREATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES AND NATIONAL 

PARK EXPERIENCES 

The wide-open spaces preserved here are a dramatic contrast to the surrounding city 

environment. Visitors to the park have expressed enjoyment in the open space and clean 

air; quiet and solitude; and the ability to commune with nature, slow down, and relax. 

Activities such as walking along a quiet beach, discovering a deserted coastal 

fortification, and watching a hawk soar high overhead become spiritual experiences for 

many. These places, where city, nature, and history are mixed together in breathtaking 

beauty, call deeply to the psyche of urban dwellers. 

The spectacular setting of ocean, windswept coastal headlands, the bay, islands, and the 

iconic Golden Gate Bridge has afforded San Francisco international recognition as one of 

the world’s most beautiful cities. The Golden Gate National Recreation Area serves as 

the panoramic backdrop to the Bay Area. Some of the most scenic views in the region are 

of the ocean and bay from lands within the park. Views of the Golden Gate Bridge, 

Alcatraz Island, and the Marin Headlands from sites in San Francisco have been captured 

in countless photographs. The Marin Headlands offer dramatic views of the San 

Francisco Bay and the City of San Francisco. Another important viewshed in the park is 

the view of Marin County park lands in the darkness. These lands are undeveloped; from 

San Francisco, they appear truly dark and wild, especially in comparison to the city lights 

on the peninsula. During scoping for this plan, the public expressed significant 

appreciation for the scenic qualities of the park, and concern about the long-term 

protection of the park’s scenic integrity. 

Viewing nature is another popular activity for visitors. Raptors can be spotted from the 

Marin Headlands and shorebirds can be viewed along beaches. The park has an 

abundance of protected land populated with 1,200 plant and animal species. The area has 

been designated as the Golden Gate Biosphere Reserve due to the diversity of its natural 
Visitor Use and Experience – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 117 

habitat. Visitors have strongly expressed a belief that the unique fauna and flora should 

be protected. 

Learning about the area’s history is also an important part of the visitor experience at the 

park. Military coastal defense sites are a major reason the park is preserved today. Signs 

of the military history are scattered throughout the park lands. Forts Baker, Barry and 

Cronkhite, and the fortifications along the Presidio Bluffs, offer interpretation of the 

structures and strategies used to defend the Bay Area. Other interpretive exhibits and 

programs offered by both park staff and park partners give visitors an opportunity to learn 

about the diverse and extensive history of the area. 

Beaches play an important role in recreational activities available to visitors in the park. 

Over 25% of surveyed visitors to the park lands in southern Marin County went to the 

beach (Godbe Research and Analysis 2002). Stinson, Rodeo, Tennessee Valley, and Muir 

beaches in Marin County and Ocean Beach, Fort Funston, and China Beach in the City of 

San Francisco provide places for visitors to walk, jog, sunbathe, swim, surf, fish, play 

volleyball, and picnic. Visitation to these areas is highly weather dependent; heaviest use 

occurs during the summer months (Godbe Research and Analysis 2002). 

Trails are a significant part of the park. Trails provide access so people can connect to the 

area’s natural and historic treasures. With 196 miles of trails that range from paved 

surfaces to single-track paths, much of Golden Gate National Recreation Area is a 

paradise for walkers and hikers. Multiuse trails also serve mountain bikers and 

equestrians. Scenic touring on both roads and trails, including viewing scenery from 

overlooks reached by foot or vehicle, is a related and important visitor opportunity. 

The public has expressed their strong support for the diversity of trail opportunities 

provided in the park. They also have noted how much they enjoy the diversity of natural 

landscapes, historic sites, wildlife, and native plants that are visible along the trails. Some 

visitors, however, are concerned about conflicts between some trail uses, particularly 

safety concerns between bicyclists and equestrians. In addition, some of the public is 

concerned that certain trail activities, such as dog walking, horseback riding, and 

mountain biking, might be more restricted in the future. A desire to increase the number 

of trails that meet the Americans with Disabilities Act requirements was also mentioned 

during scoping for this plan. 

Overnight lodging facilities exist within the park provided by both the National Park 

Service and partners, including hostels at Fort Mason, Montara Lighthouse, and the 

Marin Headlands, and camping areas in Marin County. Overnight accommodations allow 

visitors to explore a trail or area more extensively than would be possible in a day trip. 

Overnight areas can also serve as hubs for activities, such as at Fort Mason, where 

visitors can explore the park and its setting from a convenient location. Camping 

overnight is an important experience in itself. It is an experience most often associated 

with more distant national parks, but made available to local populations. It also allows 

for the appreciation of the night sky and natural sounds that cannot be appreciated during 

other times. 

The park and partner programs offer many opportunities to get involved in stewardship of 

the park. In 2008, the National Park Service and Golden Gate National Parks 

Conservancy team brought thousands of volunteers to the park for activities such as trail 

building, habitat restoration and conservation, and organized youth programs in the park. 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 118 

In 2008, community volunteerism yielded over 300,000 hours of service to the park. 

Stewardship activities bring in thousands of school-aged children to the park, allowing all 

who participate to forge a deeper connection with park lands and the resources within 

those lands. Environmental education programs exist through partners at several sites, 

including Slide Ranch and Fort Cronkite. These mutually beneficial relationships 

between the park, its partners, and park visitors, allow the park lands to thrive at a level 

much higher than could be accomplished through federal funding alone. 

VISITOR OPPORTUNITIES AT ALCATRAZ ISLAND 

Alcatraz Island sits in a highly visible location in the San Francisco Bay and is a major 

visitor attraction within Golden Gate National Recreation Area, with a significant 

demand for visitation. Although it has been used for a variety of purposes over the years, 

it is best known for its service as a federal prison from 1934 to 1963. The island was 

opened to the public in 1973 and has become a popular tourist destination. The National 

Park Service and its partners offer visitors extensive interpretation of the federal 

penitentiary period of the island, as well as the military prison and American Indian selfdetermination movement. In addition, the ferry trip over to the island and many locations 

on the island offer great scenic viewing of the Golden Gate Bridge, the Pacific Ocean, 

San Francisco Bay, the City of San Francisco, and the Marin Headlands. Further, learning 

about the island’s role in the ecological system of the Bay, including its contribution as 

important bird habitat, is another highlight of a visit to the island. Alcatraz Island also 

offers overnight experiences a few times a year through special organized events that 

typically involve the use of volunteers. 

VISITOR USE AND CHARACTERISTICS 

The Golden Gate National Recreation Area lands and waters serve many millions of 

visitors a year, making Golden Gate National Recreation Area one of the largest urban 

parks in the world. Extending 80 miles from north to south, the various sites of Golden 

Gate National Recreation Area form an expansive public green space for both the local 

urban population and tourists to enjoy. 

In 1972, the first year that Golden Gate National Recreation Area was established, the 

park had over 42,000 visitors. There have been substantial increases, and a few 

intermittent decreases since then, but annual visitation has remained around 14 million 

visitors over the last 10 years (see figure 8) (NPS 2009d). 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area receives about 5% of the total visitation to 

national parks across the nation, ranking it as the second most visited park in the park 

system (NPS 2009d). Many of the sites within Golden Gate National Recreation Area are 

located in the “backyard” of Bay Area residents who use the park lands for recreation and 

exercise. At many of the park sites, visitors from the local area account for the majority 

of visitors. Other sites, such as Alcatraz Island and the park lands of the Marin 

Headlands, are major tourist destinations, receiving visitors from across the nation and 

around the world. Visitor use levels remain relatively stable to Golden Gate National 
Visitor Use and Experience – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 119 

Recreation Area throughout the year, given the area’s temperate climate and year-round 

attractions and support services. However, the park does experience higher visitation in 

the spring and summer, and on holidays (NPS 2009d). See the following figure. 

Figure 9: Golden Gate National Recreation Area Recreational Visitors by Year 1999–2009 

The National Park Service and others have conducted numerous visitor studies in Golden 

Gate National Recreation Area in order to provide greater insight into the current visitor 

profile in terms of demographics, trip characteristics, and preferences. Although the 

visitor populations to the various sites within the park often vary significantly, there are 

several specific characteristics that the majority of park visitors share. 

The collection of surveys and studies of park visitors reveal that most arrive in personal 

vehicles (Sheffield 2008). Visitors most often come alone or in small groups of up to four 

people. Day users are coming to the park to sightsee, hike, walk, spend time with friends 

and family, escape, find respite, enjoy nature, and participate in events. A large majority 

of visitors come from the local area and enjoy the undeveloped open space that is nearby 

and easily accessible. For instance, it was found in a recent study of visitors to the park 

lands in San Mateo County that a majority of visitors live close to the park—some within 

2 miles—and use the park on a regular basis (Manning 2007). However, at some specific 

sites, such as Alcatraz Island, studies indicate a much greater mix of local and out-oftown visitors (Sheffield 2008). 

12,000,000

12,500,000

13,000,000

13,500,000

14,000,000

14,500,000

15,000,000

15,500,000

Total Visits

Year
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 120 

Figure 10: Golden Gate National Recreation Area Visitor Use by Month, 2004–2008 

Several visitor surveys of trail users have been completed at Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area. The surveys found that trail users come primarily for exercise, rest, and 

relaxation, as well as to spend time with friends and family (Sheffield 2008). Some of the 

areas surveyed include Point Bonita and the Marin Headlands (2006), Lands End (2005 

and 2007), and Mori Point and Sweeney Ridge (2004). Trails are used by both local and 

out-of-town visitors, although many users are frequent visitors; up to 75% to 85% are 

return visitors. Trail users are generally split evenly between men and women and are 

generally between the ages of 20 and 55, well educated, and coming to trails alone or in 

pairs (Sheffield 2008). 

Visitors to Alcatraz Island 

Over 1.4 million visitors tour Alcatraz Island each year; this has been holding fairly 

steady over the recent past (NPS 2009d). On peak use days, up to 4,400 visitors travel to 

the island, and up to 5,000 visitors travel there on days when evening programs are 

offered. 

Several visitor studies, conducted since 1988, reveal that Alcatraz Island has a distinct 

visitor profile compared to the rest of Golden Gate National Recreation Area. The island 

gets far more first time visitors than does the rest of the park. It also gets a larger 

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

1,400,000

1,600,000

Total Visits

Month

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008
Visitor Use and Experience – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Volume II: 121 

percentage of nonlocal and international visitors. Over 70% of visitors surveyed stayed 

between two and three hours on the island (Manning et al. 2007). 

Characteristics of Infrequent and Nonusers 

Many of the diverse groups living in the San Francisco Bay Area have not traditionally 

been park visitors. However, some of the factors that have served to keep them from the 

park have recently been studied. Some of these barriers include lack of public 

transportation, language differences, lack of access to information, equipment costs, and 

lack of time. Other barriers include a minimal representation of ethnicity and race in the 

park staff and perceived intolerance. Lack of knowledge, experience, and awareness of 

where to go, what to do, and the skills needed to partake in activities were additional 

factors in not visiting (Roberts 2007; Winter, Jeong, and Godbey 2004). 

Although some of these groups visit the park infrequently, their interests for park visits 

are much the same as those of more frequent visitors. In Roberts’ study (2007) of ethnic 

minorities and visitation constraints, participants expressed a range of preferences for 

recreational activities (indoor and outdoor). All groups in the study expressed a clear 

desire to enjoy the numerous benefits associated with outdoor recreation, along with an 

interest in education about national parks. Cultural connections to nature and the natural 

environment ranged from mental and physical benefits to spiritual and religious gains in 

personal life. Participants identified the benefits of parks in relation to nature being 

healthy, with a typical emphasis on mental health (parks as reducing stress or strains of 

everyday life) and in reference to increasing their connection to “God or spirituality” 

(Roberts 2007). 

VISITOR UNDERSTANDING, EDUCATION, AND INTERPRETATION 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area offers unique and varied experiences to visitors 

through the interpretation, education, and stewardship programs offered by the park and 

park partners. Interpretation is delivered through a variety of media and at a variety of 

locations. Opportunities to learn range from self-guided to formal educational programs, 

and these opportunities appeal to a variety of people and learning styles. 

Participation in interpretation programs helps visitors to form their own intellectual and 

emotional connections with the meanings and significance of the park’s resources. The 

park interprets its resources by several methods, including visitor center exhibits, audio 

tours at Alcatraz Island, ranger talks, educational brochures, and interpretive signs. 

Visitor and park information centers are located in Fort Mason, Marin Headlands, 

Pacifica, and Crissy Field. According to the 2008 Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Visitor Survey Card Data Report, the park is meeting visitor needs, and excelling in 

categories such as visitor centers and sightseeing facilities (NPS 2008b). It was 

frequently noted during this planning process that the public places a high value on the 

educational and stewardship programs offered at the park and would like to see those 

opportunities maintained and even expanded. The public expressed specific interest in 

having more signs, maps, and interpretive programs available. Another request was for 

more opportunities to learn of the American Indian stories related to the park. 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 122 

Partners of Golden Gate National Recreation Area are vital to the success of the park’s 

efforts at promoting visitor understanding, education, and interpretation. A wide range of 

enthusiastic and committed partners operate within the park lands, offering visitor 

opportunities such as environmental education, art appreciation, children’s programs, 

equestrian programs, marine mammal conservation, agricultural education, and 

conservation of the parks. Partners operate park bookstores, hostels, and other facilities 

that offer visitor-related services on park lands, thus enhancing and deepening visitor 

experiences and creating a community of park stewards. Partners also fund interpretation 

and volunteer efforts, as well as capital construction projects such as rehabilitation of 

historic structures for visitor programs. Their advocacy is integral to engaging people in 

the parks, and facilitating visitors’ understanding of park stories and resources. 

SAFE AND ENJOYABLE ACCESS AND CIRCULATION TO AND 

WITHIN THE PARK 

(See also transportation section.) 

Safe and enjoyable transportation to and within the park lands is important to the visitor 

experience at Golden Gate National Recreation Area. The many roads, trails, and 

overlooks throughout the park provide scenic viewing opportunities for visitors. There 

are also many transportation options for connecting visitors to park sites, including auto, 

bicycle, and public transit. 

Further, within Golden Gate National Recreation Area are miles of trails, making it 

possible for hikers, bikers, and equestrians to travel great distances through park lands. 

The Trails Forever Program was launched in 2003 to build a world-class system of trails, 

which has been vital to the improvement of trails within Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area. Public scoping comments sometimes focused on the need for trail 

design improvements to make the trails safer, and the need for loop trails. Trails in all 

areas of the park lands could be improved to connect to neighborhoods, nearby public 

lands, and the regional trail network. 

Currently, the majority of visitors—especially those from outside of San Francisco—

arrive by personal vehicle. This sometimes causes congestion problems along roadways, 

in parking areas, and in nearby neighborhoods. Public transportation connections to the 

park are limited outside of San Francisco, so the large population of regional residents 

without personal vehicles cannot easily travel to the park. Although there is an extensive 

public transportation system that serves the City of San Francisco, some connections stop 

short of the park, or serve the park only on weekends and holidays. Further, there are 

some portions of park roads that have limited options for bicycle access. The limitations 

with the public transit system and bicycle access are being addressed as part of a 

systemwide strategic planning effort. 

The ferry pier to Alcatraz Island is accessible by public transportation. However, once on 

the island, visitors must walk up steep roads to get to the cell house and other attractions. 

There is a tram available for visitors who need assistance, but the road is narrow and 

steep, with few turn around points or pull-off areas. Although very few incidents have 

occurred, conflicts between visitors and vehicles are a concern to park staff. 
Visitor Use and Experience – Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

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The Transportation Section of this document goes into further detail about the intricacies 

of the transportation environment to and within Golden Gate National Recreation Area. 

VISITOR SAFETY 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area experiences safety issues similar to those found in 

any national park and also faces additional visitor safety challenges due to its urban 

location. The park staff make considerable effort to provide safety information in easily 

accessible locations and formats. However, there are many points of entry to the park, 

and visitors are sometimes unaware and unprepared for dangers. 

Urban challenges include criminal activity, crowding, and congestion that affect the 

ability of law enforcement to respond in a timely manner. Additionally, as visitors to the 

park are moving from urban areas to undeveloped open space, they may fail to bring 

adequate food and water, become lost in unknown areas, or get into a situation too 

difficult for their skill or experience level. The Point Bonita and Marin Headlands visitor 

survey identified a lack of trail signs that makes it difficult to stay on the correct trail 

(Tierney 2007). At Mori Point and Sweeney Ridge, visitors identified the lack of good 

information about the area as a concern (Tierney 2004). 

The physical features of the land and the natural habitat can also pose safety risks. The 

park encompasses ocean and bay waters, which have associated dangers. At ocean 

beaches, rip tides are common and can be dangerous for swimmers. Visitor risks are 

associated with steep and crumbling cliffs. 

Conflicts between users can also pose safety problems, such as those between vehicles 

and pedestrians, or between equestrians and bicyclists. During public scoping, people 

expressed concern that some trails were not designed appropriately or managed to help 

users avoid conflicts. 

Road safety is also a component of visitor safety. Access to and from State Route 1 poses 

a problem at several points in Golden Gate National Recreation Area, such as at Montara 

Lighthouse and Shelldance Nursery in San Mateo County. In some areas, closed or 

unmaintained facilities may pose risks to visitors who explore them and require area 

closures. In particular, Alcatraz Island has a number of buildings in very poor condition 

that can pose safety hazards to visitors. 
Volume II: 124 

VISITOR USE AND EXPERIENCE – MUIR WOODS 

NATIONAL MONUMENT 

“Time stands still in Muir Woods.” – Visitor to Muir Woods

Surrounded by the tallest living tree species in the world, visitors to Muir Woods 

experience a majestic and awe-inspiring setting. These majestic giants, in combination 

with Redwood Creek, cannot help but awe visitors and take them to a more serene place 

and time. The monument offers a quiet sanctuary in a growing urban setting. 

Conservationist John Muir summed it up best when he said “this is the best tree-lovers 

monument that could possibly be found in all the forests of the world." 

DIVERSITY OF RECREATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES AND NATIONAL 

PARK EXPERIENCES 

Muir Woods National Monument offers outstanding opportunities to walk and hike 

among the giant redwoods. There are six miles of trails within the monument, including 

three loop trails. One and a half miles of trail are paved surface or boardwalk, thus 

providing greater access to the forest for disabled visitors. Other more challenging trails 

extend out of the monument and connect to nearby public lands such as Mount Tamalpais 

State Park and Muir Beach. Opportunities for visitors include self-guided walking tours, 

ranger led talks and tours, volunteer activities, and educational and restoration programs. 

In visitor surveys at the monument, people identified the trees, beauty, peacefulness, 

trails, and other aspects of the natural surrounding as the features they most enjoyed. One 

visitor commented on the special ability to commune with nature while at the monument. 

Some visitors expressed their dislike for the crowds, noise from groups, lack of parking, 

and closed trails. Crowding issues primarily occur at peak times in the monument, 

especially on weekends and holidays in the summer. While most visitors had no 

suggestions for improvement, some visitors mentioned that more information and 

interpretation, more trails, and more parking would be appreciated (Manning et al. n.d.). 

The natural soundscape at Muir Woods National Monument is a highly valued part of the 

visitor experience. Some members of the public complained about the noise from other 

visitors, particularly noise from large groups. The monument has recently implemented 

“quiet days” and “quiet zones” to encourage visitors to voluntarily modify their behavior 

to enhance the contemplative feeling of the monument’s natural setting. 

VISITOR USE AND CHARACTERISTICS 

While annual visitation to Muir Woods National Monument peaked in the late 1990s, it 

has since stabilized over the last 10 years at around 750,000 (see Figure 10). Monthly 

visitation varies significantly, with the summer months attracting the highest number of 

visitors. This is likely due to the greater numbers of out-of-town visitors, who often travel 
Visitor Use and Experience – Muir Woods National Monument 

Volume II: 125 

during the summer (see figure 11) (NPS 2009). Local residents may also visit Muir 

Woods more often in the summer when children are out of school. 

Muir Woods National Monument, like Alcatraz Island, has been the focus of many visitor 

surveys. Studies conducted between 2003 and 2005 provide good demographic 

information on visitors (Manning et al. n.d.). For example, 72% of visiting groups are 

families with the majority of groups consisting of 2 to4 people. Over half of the survey 

respondents were first-time visitors, suggesting that Muir Woods is an important urban 

gateway to the national park experience. Ninety-two percent of visitors were from the 

United States, with almost 40% of domestic visitors residing in California. The 

educational attainment of visitors was very high; about 80% of all visitors had a postsecondary degree. Most visitors were there for less than four hours (Manning et al. n.d.). 

Figure 11: Muir Woods National Monument Recreation Visitors by Year, 1999–2009 

0

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Volume II: 126 

Figure 12: Muir Woods National Monument Visitor Use by Month, 2004–2008 

VISITOR UNDERSTANDING, EDUCATION, AND INTERPRETATION 

The stories of Muir Woods are many: the ecology of the watershed, the natural history of 

the redwood forest, the history of the conservation movement, and the establishment of 

the biosphere reserve. There are various ways in which visitors can learn these stories: at 

the visitor center with exhibits and information; on a self-guiding walk; by attending 

ranger talks, tours, or evening programs; and by attending a junior ranger program. In 

addition, the monument staff collaborate with many local organizations that offer 

learning and educational programs, thus expanding the interpretive and educational 

offerings available to visitors. 

In public scoping for this plan, some people commented that they particularly appreciate 

the messages associated with the preservation values of the monument and its connection 

to conservation history. A few others noted that additional information and signage at 

Muir Woods National Monument would be desirable to enhance knowledge about the 

ecosystem processes. 

0

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2008
Visitor Use and Experience – Muir Woods National Monument 

Volume II: 127 

SAFE AND ENJOYABLE ACCESS AND CIRCULATION TO AND 

WITHIN THE PARK (SEE ALSO TRANSPORTATION SECTION) 

For many visitors, traveling to Muir Woods National Monument at peak times can be a 

frustrating experience. The parking lot fills up quickly, and often people resort to parking 

along the road. For example, during the 2003 visitor study, researchers found that 92% of 

visitors arrived by car, and of those, 76% were able to park in parking lots, with the 

remainder having to park along the road (Manning et al. n.d.). 

It is likely that some visitors who drove to the monument may have left when faced with 

no easily accessed parking options. Public transportation via shuttle is now available on 

weekends and holidays in the summer, but at other times, there is no public transportation 

service to the monument. The shuttle system, implemented in 2004 to help ease the 

parking limitations at the monument, has improved access for visitors. Once within the 

monument, visitor access is by walking and hiking on trails. The monument has three 

loop trails, and 1.5 miles of accessible paved or boardwalk trail. There is also trail access 

from nearby public lands, including Mount Tamalpais State Park. 

VISITOR SAFETY 

A safety concern mentioned by members of the public relates to access to the monument. 

The road to Muir Woods National Monument is narrow, winding, and steep in parts. 

Comments indicated that larger vehicles do not always stay in their lanes on the curves, 

causing danger to oncoming traffic, including vehicles and bicycles. In addition, roadside 

parking at the monument results in real and perceived safety dangers for visitors who 

must traverse the road to gain access to the monument’s entrance. 
Volume II: 128 

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT 

(INCLUDING BOTH GOLDEN GATE NATIONAL 

RECREATION AREA AND MUIR WOODS NATIONAL 

MONUMENT) 

INTRODUCTION 

The social and economic conditions of the Bay Area and the gateway counties of Marin, 

San Francisco, and San Mateo influence Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir 

Woods National Monument and how they are managed. Conversely, the park and 

monument directly contribute to the social and economic conditions of these three 

counties and the Bay Area as a whole. This section describes the existing conditions 

related to this relationship by highlighting the park’s quality of life benefits as well as the 

Bay Area’s demographic and economic trends. 

The San Francisco Bay Area is not only one of the most diverse metropolitan areas in the 

United States, it also has a unique culture and community ethic that distinguishes itself 

from most other American urban centers. Generally speaking, the Bay Area’s cultural 

identity exhibits an intrinsic sense of awareness, stewardship, and activism toward social 

and environmental issues. 

This section summarizes the existing social and economic conditions in the Bay Area, as 

well as in the three counties most affected by Golden Gate National Recreation Area and 

Muir Woods National Monument (Marin, San Francisco, and San Mateo). The section 

also includes projections of how some of these conditions may change over the next 20 

years, which is the planning horizon of the park’s general management plan. To maintain 

consistency with regional demographic analyses, the term “Bay Area” in this section will 

refer to the nine-county region defined by the Association of Bay Area Governments. The 

nine counties of the Bay Area are Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, Napa, San Francisco, 

San Mateo, Santa Clara, Solano, and Sonoma. 

THE IMPORTANCE OF PARKS TO A COMMUNITY 

Park and open space areas in and around an urban area are key contributors to the quality 

of life in the community. This becomes even more significant in very large metropolitan 

areas, where population densities and the travel distance to open, public lands are greater. 

The San Francisco Bay Area is the fifth largest metropolitan area in the United States. 

Thus, the park and monument play a vital role in sustaining and enhancing the quality of 

life for the residents of the Bay Area. The significance of this role becomes more evident 

when we consider the following four specific ways parks and open space contribute to 

quality of life. 
Social and Economic Environment 

(Including both Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument) 

Volume II: 129 

“Woven into the Fabric” of the Bay Area 

In a literal sense, the size, geographic orientation, and location of Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area within the Bay Area make the park a large physical component of this 

metropolitan area. The public lands of Golden Gate National Recreation Area serve as a 

natural and scenic backdrop to the urban landscape of the Bay Area by day and an open 

expanse of darkness by night. In addition, the park’s close proximity to the urban centers 

of the Bay Area elevates its importance. However, equally important and in a more 

figurative sense, Golden Gate National Recreation Area is “woven into the fabric” of the 

Bay Area community. The park is part of the community and the community’s identity. 

The themes and aesthetics of the various park components help feed the conservation 

ethic of the Bay Area community. In turn, this community ethic fuels the residents’ 

valuation and appreciation of the park and its intrinsic natural and cultural resources. This 

cyclical dynamic helps strengthen the bond between the community and the park and 

helps sustain a heightened quality of life for the community residents. 

Community Building 

On a related but distinct note, Golden Gate National Recreation Area helps instill a sense 

of community in the Bay Area. This community-building effect occurs on two primary 

levels. First, the many diverse park resources and features help provide a sense of 

community identity for Bay Area residents. Many of the landmarks, natural wonders, and 

amenities of the park are not only known on a local or state level, but also admired at a 

national and international level. For example, many people around the U.S. and 

throughout the world identify with the Bay Area by thinking of the coastal redwoods of 

Muir Woods National Monument, historic sites such as Alcatraz Island, or even the 

idyllic views of open lands and water around the San Francisco Bay. This local and 

global admiration contributes to a sense of identity and pride in being a resident of the 

Bay Area community. Just as residents may identify with the community via its cultural 

diversity, culinary quality, free spirit, or even 49ers or Raiders, they also find a sense of 

identity with the many attractions of Golden Gate National Recreation Area. 

Secondly, Golden Gate National Recreation Area contributes to community building by 

providing numerous park sites and open lands for the diverse residents of the Bay Area to 

congregate and socialize. Parks are one of the most effective ways to build a sense of 

community and enhance quality of life by providing common places for people to interact 

in a shared environment (Francis 2006). Urban parks are one of the few public places 

where people of diverse cultures, ethnicities, ages, and lifestyles can congregate and 

communicate openly in a community. 

Health Benefits for Bay Area Residents 

In addition to community benefits, Golden Gate National Recreation Area also helps 

enhance the Bay Area quality of life by improving the psychological and physiological 

health of the Bay Area residents. A recent report by California State Parks indicates that, 

“Two-thirds of Californians consider outdoor recreation important to their quality of life” 

(California State Parks 2005). 

An urban interface park such as Golden Gate National Recreation Area can help improve 

the community’s health by offering residents opportunities for personal fitness, active 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 130 

recreation, and other physical exercise. A 2001 Center for Disease Control task force 

report indicated that regular physical activity correlates with a prolonged life expectancy 

and enhanced health, including a reduced risk for cardiovascular disease, obesity, 

diabetes, some cancers, and musculoskeletal conditions. The report also notes that only 

25% of U.S. adults report engaging in adequate physical activity. As a result of this 

shortfall, the CDC task force “strongly recommended” that communities improve access 

to places that offer physical activity (e.g., hiking and biking trails, parks) (CDC 2001). In 

turn, evidence shows that when people have access to parks, they tend to exercise more. 

Research also indicates that contact with the natural world improves physical and 

psychological health (Sherer 2006). Golden Gate National Recreation Area helps satisfy 

these essential community needs in the Bay Area. 

In terms of psychological or mental health benefits, regular physical activity can reduce 

the severity of many mental health disorders, alleviate depression, and decrease stress and 

anxiety (California State Parks 2005). Furthermore, even if a park visitor opts for a lessactive, more relaxing park experience, an urban park such as Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area can provide an open and free feeling that helps offset the more 

congested feeling that can be generated by high-density urban living. 

The park also contributes several other community health benefits for Bay Area residents. 

For example, the numerous attractions and open areas of the park offer a place for 

children to stay active, safe, and socially engaged. A community that offers a healthy 

environment for children reaps numerous social benefits in the short and long term, as the 

kids have ample opportunities to learn, socialize, exercise, and get “hands-on” exposure 

to the natural world. During the comment period for the preliminary alternatives for this 

plan, many children submitted letters that expressed the importance of various park 

features to them. Comments such as “It teaches kids how to love nature” and “kids learn 

and discover lots of cool stuff” were plentiful. 

The Increasing Value of Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

A fourth contributor to the Bay Area’s quality of life relates to how the community value 

of the park’s open spaces increases over time as population growth and urban sprawl 

continue in the region. As of 2007, the Bay Area had a population of roughly 7 million. 

By 2035, the Association of Bay Area Governments projects that the population of this 

nine-county region will grow by 2 million people (ABAG 2007). With this population 

growth on the horizon, housing production will need to increase as well. In recent 

decades, a significant amount of Bay Area housing growth has occurred along the fringes 

of the Bay Area to accommodate the population growth. This fringe development 

resulted in an expanded urban area and a decrease in open and agricultural land in the 

Bay Area. This trend will likely continue over the next 20 years, along with additional 

infill development in existing urban areas. As a result, the anticipated population and 

housing growth in the future will displace a significant volume of land that is currently 

open, undeveloped, or agricultural. Moreover, with every acre of open land that is 

displaced by urban development, the community value of every acre of existing park land 

will increase. 

This “increasing park value” dynamic has other implications that need to be considered in 

park planning. As Golden Gate National Recreation Area lands become more and more 

important (and unique) as urban growth continues, pressure will likely mount to allow 
Social and Economic Environment 

(Including both Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument) 

Volume II: 131 

more intense and nontraditional uses on these park lands. With higher population 

densities and less available open land in the Bay Area, both public and private interests 

may petition for uses such as municipal infrastructure corridors, public parking, or as 

places for more active and consumptive recreational uses. So, just as park lands may 

become more precious to the community, they also may become more at risk from 

demands other than the demand for preservation of open space. 

POPULATION AND COMMUNITY TRENDS 

The current and future management of the park and monument is directly affected by the 

population dynamics and composition of the communities that surround it. With the 

majority of visitors being Bay Area residents, the visitation and involvement from the 

local Bay Area communities play an integral role in sustaining the park. As the 

population grows, there will be an increase in visitor use and demands for the park to 

accommodate traditional and new outdoor recreation opportunities. 

General Description of Overall Bay Area Community 

The nine-county Bay Area is generally centered on San Francisco Bay. The urban lands 

of the Bay Area include 101 cities, with three primary urban centers (San Francisco, 

Oakland, and San Jose). About half of the projected population increase in the Bay Area 

over this planning horizon is due to the difference between the number of births and 

deaths; the other half is due to expected migration into the area—as a result of abundant 

employment opportunities (ABAG 2008). 

The Population...by the Numbers 

The Bay Area population grew steadily from 2,681,332 in 1950 to 6,783,760 in 2000 

(U.S. Census Bureau, 2009). As of 2006, the Bay Area population estimate was 

7,167,500. Over the next 20 years, the region’s population will continue to grow to a 

projected 8,709,000 people by 2030. Although the projected population growth is 

significant, the growth will not be distributed evenly throughout the Bay Area’s nine 

counties. The vast majority of the growth (both numerically and by percentage) will be 

occurring in the eastern counties, such as Alameda, Contra Costa, Santa Clara, and 

Solano counties, where more developable land exists. This substantial population growth 

in the fringe areas of the Bay Area will contribute to future increases in park visitation. 

Also, given the longer travel distance and more limited transportation options from these 

eastern areas to the park, shifts may occur in visitor use patterns (e.g., duration of stay, 

preferred park destinations, number of vehicles in park). 

Although most population growth is forecast for these eastern fringe counties, a modest 

level of infill population growth is also expected in the park’s gateway counties of Marin, 

San Francisco, and San Mateo (see following two figures). Given San Francisco’s larger 

population on its relatively small land area of the peninsula, San Francisco’s population 

density is over 30 times greater than the Bay Area average. 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 132 

Figure 13: 2006 Estimated Populations of Gateway Counties 

Source: California Department of Finance, Demographic Research Unit 

and Economic/Financial Research Unit, 2009. http://www.dof.ca.gov/

Figure 14: Past and Projected Population Growth of Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Gateway Counties 

Sources: * U.S. Census Bureau, 2009.; ** California Department of Finance – Demographic 

Research Unit, 2009. 

254,769

802,651

729,366

0

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Marin San Francisco San Mateo

People

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City & County of

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San Mateo

County
Social and Economic Environment 

(Including both Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument) 

Volume II: 133 

Cumulatively, the three gateway counties will account for about 8% of the projected 

population growth in the overall Bay Area by 2030. As displayed in the following figure, 

the three counties of Marin, San Francisco, and San Mateo will become an increasingly 

smaller component of the overall Bay Area population, given the west-to-east shift in 

future population growth. In 1970, these three counties accounted for roughly one-third 

of the total Bay Area population. Over the next few decades, Marin, San Francisco, and 

San Mateo will account for only about one-fifth of the Bay Area population. Despite 

having access to other local and regional parks closer to home, it is likely that people in 

these more distant communities of the Bay Area will still seek the unique and distinct 

experiences provided at the park and monument. 

Figure 15: Past and Projected Population Growth of Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Gateway Counties Relative to Overall Bay Area 

Sources: * U.S. Census Bureau, 2009.; * California Department of Finance – Demographic 

Research Unit, 2009. 

The People and the Households 

In addition to assessing the status and forecast for overall population growth in the Bay 

Area, it is also important to understand the changing characteristics of area residents and 

the composition of the community’s households. This section discusses the community 

characteristics of median age, household size, race, income, poverty levels, and education 

levels. 

Median Age and Household Size 

As of 2007, the Bay Area had a median age of 37.7 years. Marin, San Francisco, and San 

Mateo counties had median ages of 43.8, 39.5, and 39.7, respectively. The average 

household size in the Bay Area at that same time was 2.70 people per household. Marin 

County and the City and County of San Francisco both had lower average household 

0

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Marin, San Francisco, &

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PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 134 

occupancies, which were 2.35 and 2.30 people per household, respectively. San Mateo 

County’s average household size of 2.75 people per household was slightly higher than 

the Bay Area average (U.S. Census Bureau 2008). 

These community characteristics are expected to shift over the next 25 years due to 

societal changes and economic conditions. By 2035, the Association of Bay Area 

Governments is anticipating an increase in the Bay Area’s median age to 42.5 years. The 

expansion of these older age groups will primarily be due to an aging population and 

increasing average life spans (ABAG 2007). This is consistent with other projections for 

the entire state of California, which indicate that the number of citizens over the age of 65 

in California will double by 2020 (Roberts 2007). The Association of Bay Area 

Governments also anticipates that more and more people will likely be working beyond 

their “retirement years” over the next few decades. With a larger number of older people 

employed, the Association of Bay Area Governments predicts that a higher percentage of 

older people will be living in urban areas, which provide better public transportation 

opportunities and job opportunities. This trend may eventually place higher demands on 

public transit systems in the Bay Area, and may perhaps generate a greater need for water 

transport across San Francisco Bay and other bays in the region. 

In addition, by 2035, the Association of Bay Area Governments anticipates that the 

average household size will decrease due to a percentage increase in one- and two-person 

households. This projection is based on the likelihood that 1) more young professionals 

will continue to choose not to have children or will wait longer before having them; and 

2) children will be growing up and leaving the existing family households (ABAG 2007). 

Race 

Racial diversity is one of the Bay Area’s unique characteristics. The following four 

figures show the 2007 population estimates and percentages for each racial group in the 

Bay Area as a whole and in each of the three adjacent counties. From a park management 

standpoint, understanding the racial makeup of the community can help shed light on 

ways to make the park more inviting, develop better outreach with the community, and 

improve park program relevance. In addition, this awareness contributes to improving the 

quality of life in the community. As discussed in the “Visitor Use and Experience” 

section, many people from the Bay Area’s diverse racial, ethnic, and cultural groups are 

not visiting Golden Gate National Recreation Area due to social “barriers” (Roberts 

2007). 
Social and Economic Environment 

(Including both Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument) 

Volume II: 135 

Figure 16: 2007 Population Estimates in Bay Area, by Race 

Source: California Department of Finance – Demographic Research Unit, 2009. 

Figure 17: 2007 Population Estimates in Marin County, by Race 

Source: California Department of Finance – Demographic Research Unit, 2009 

Caucasian

3,239,434, 45%

Hispanic

1,511,773, 21%

Asian

1,486,825, 20%

Pacific Islander

44,250, 1%

African‐American

691,194, 10%

American Indian

30,263,  <1% Multi‐race

240,905, 3%

Caucasian

188,240, 74%

Hispanic

42,129, 17%

Asian

10,988, 4%

Pacific Islander

377, 0%

African‐American

7,325, 3%

American Indian

756, 0%

Multi‐race

5,958, 2%
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 136 

Figure 18: 2007 Population Estimates in San Francisco, by Race 

Source: California Department of Finance – Demographic Research Unit, 2009. 

Figure 19: 2007 Population Estimates in San Mateo County, by Race 

Source: California Department of Finance – Demographic Research Unit, 2009. 

Caucasian

364,968, 44%

Hispanic

116,686, 14%

Asian

252,599, 31%

Pacific Islander

3,431, 0%

African‐American

61,708, 8%

American Indian

2,514, 0%

Multi‐race

27,942, 3%

Caucasian

327,574, 45%

Hispanic

183,651, 25%

Asian

165,295, 23%

Pacific Islander

10,137, 1%

African‐American

24,502, 3%

American Indian

1,833, 0%

Multi‐race

19,650, 3%
Social and Economic Environment 

(Including both Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument) 

Volume II: 137 

Just like the other community attributes, race percentages in the Bay Area will be shifting 

over the next few decades. By 2030, the California Department of Finance Demographic 

Research Unit projects that roughly 90% of the overall Bay Area population will be 

somewhat evenly divided among Caucasian, Hispanic, and Asian residents. This shift can 

be seen by comparing the following figure with figure 15 for Bay Area racial 

composition. This significant increase in the population of various minority racial and 

ethnic groups over the next 20 years further emphasizes the importance and need for the 

National Park Service to improve outreach and eliminate barriers that might keep people 

of all races and ethnic groups from experiencing the park. 

Figure 20: 2030 Population Estimate in Bay Area, by Race 

Source: California Department of Finance – Demographic Research Unit, 2009. 

In the three gateway counties, the racial percentage shift from the present to 2030 varies 

considerably (see the following three figures). 

Caucasian

3,130,545, 36%

Hispanic

2,706,418, 31%

Asian

2,007,640, 23%

Pacific Island

101,363, 1%

African‐American

445,744, 5%

American Indian

61,036, 1%

Multi‐race

256,457, 3%
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 138 

Figure 21: Population Estimate by Race in Marin County in 2007 and 2030 

Source: California Department of Finance – Demographic Research Unit, 2009. 

Figure 22: Population Estimate by Race in City & County of San Francisco 

in 2007 and 2030 

Source: California Department of Finance – Demographic Research Unit, 2009. 

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

140,000

160,000

180,000

200,000

People

Race

2007

2030

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

350,000

400,000

450,000

People

Race

2007

2030
Social and Economic Environment 

(Including both Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument) 

Volume II: 139 

Figure 23: Population Estimate by Race in San Mateo County in 2007 and 2030 

Source: California Department of Finance – Demographic Research Unit, 2009. 

Income, Poverty, and Education 

Another factor that plays a role in park management and visitation trends is the income 

levels and poverty levels of residents who live in the vicinity of the park. A statistic from 

the California Department of Finance indicates that the three counties with the highest 

per capita incomes in the state as of 2005 were Marin, San Francisco, and San Mateo. In 

2005, Marin County had a per capita income of $75,844 (the highest in the state), with 

San Francisco at $62,614 and San Mateo at $59,213 (California Department of Finance 

2009). 

As of 2007, 9.3% of the Bay Area’s population was living below the poverty level, which 

was notably lower than the statewide figure of 12.7% (U.S. Census Bureau 2005–2007; 

American Community Survey 2008). Marin and San Mateo counties had even lower 

poverty rates in 2007: 7.0% and 6.7%, respectively. The City and County of San 

Francisco had a 2007 poverty rate of 11.7%. 

The level of education attained by community residents can often correlate to the 

aforementioned income and poverty characteristics. The following table lists the 

percentage of residents in each area (25 years or older) who attained various levels of 

education as of 2007. Generally, the Bay Area education levels are notably higher than 

that of the state of California as a whole (U.S. Census Bureau 2008). 

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

350,000

People

Race

2007

2030
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 140 

Table 6: Percentage of 2007 Population (25 or older) Reaching Various Levels of Education 

California Bay Area Marin San 

Francisco San Mateo

No high school 

diploma (or equal) 20% 14% 8% 15% 12% 

High school 

diploma 

(or equal) 

23% 20% 14% 15% 19% 

Some college, 

but no degree 20% 19% 18% 14% 19% 

Associates degree 8% 7% 6% 5% 7% 

Bachelors degree 19% 25% 31% 31% 27% 

Graduate or 

professional 

degree 

10% 16% 23% 19% 16% 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2005–2007 American Community Survey, 2008. 

Housing and Urban Growth 

This section will identify current and projected trends in the housing market and highlight 

housing indicators such as home values, housing affordability, own/rent ratios, and 

single-family/multifamily dwelling ratios. One of the most notable characteristics of the 

Bay Area housing market is its very high home prices and values. Several variables affect 

home prices in this area. However, generally speaking, the Bay Area’s expensive housing 

is a result of a high level of housing demand (due to population growth over the past 

several decades) coupled with a low level of housing construction (ABAG 2008). 

Compounding matters, high housing costs also result from an imbalance in available 

housing types, as primarily large, single-family housing units have been planned and built 

in many suburban Bay Area communities; these housing options may not meet the needs 

of area residents (ABAG 2007). 

According to the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2005–2007 American Community Survey, the 

2007 median home value in the Bay Area was $676,800. In the same year, Marin County 

had a median home value of $895,100; San Francisco’s median home value was 

$789,400; and San Mateo County had a median home value was $807,400. However, 

because the majority of San Francisco housing consists of attached, multifamily units, the 

price per square foot in San Francisco is likely higher than that in surrounding areas (see 

following table) (U.S. Census Bureau 2008). 
Social and Economic Environment 

(Including both Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument) 

Volume II: 141 

Table 7: Percentage of 2007 Housing Stock, Detached and Attached Housing 

Bay Area Marin San Francisco San 

Mateo 

Single-family, 

Detached 64% 71% 34% 68% 

Multifamily, 

Attached 34% 28% 66% 31% 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2005–2007 American Community Survey, 2008. 

Given the high housing costs, many Bay Area residents cannot afford to own a home. In 

2007, only about 15% of Bay Area households could afford a median-priced home. With 

the projected decrease in Bay Area household size, and the projected increase in the 

number of senior citizens who may be living (and possibly still working) in urban areas, 

demands for more compact urban housing units will likely increase. This demand may 

shift the housing production trends in the high demand urban areas of the Bay Area. The 

Association of Bay Area Government’s FOCUS initiative is one multijurisdictional effort 

that may complement this dynamic. FOCUS is a regional planning strategy that promotes 

efficient and compact land development, which in turn maximizes open land 

conservation. The strategy also acknowledges the transportation link by encouraging the 

development of livable communities in areas served by public transportation. 

As discussed earlier, the projected population growth in the eastern counties (Solano, 

Alameda, Contra Costa, and Santa Clara) will likely spur additional low-density, singlefamily housing development, and a subsequent reduction of open space or undeveloped 

lands in these areas. 

Table 8: Percentage of 2007 Housing Stock, Owner-occupied and Renter-occupied Housing 

Bay Area Marin San Francisco San Mateo 

Owner-occupied 60% 65% 38% 63% 

Renter-occupied 40% 35% 62% 37% 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2005–2007 American Community Survey, 2008. 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 142 

ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF THE PARK ON THE COMMUNITY 

Just as population growth and community demographics have effects on the management 

and use of Golden Gate National Recreation Area, the park has effects on the economy of 

the community around it. Like many other economic engines in the Bay Area (e.g., hightech and finance industries), Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods 

National Monument contribute to the local and regional economy by generating business 

and revenue, creating jobs, and indirectly fueling economic growth in other industries. 

This section identifies these economic impacts of the park and monument and provides a 

synopsis of the overall Bay Area economy. 

The Park’s Contribution to the Economic Stability of the Bay Area 

The park and monument have many direct and indirect positive effects on the Bay Area’s 

economy. This impact can be traced to several sources and attributes, such as money 

spent by visitors at local businesses, jobs created at these local businesses due to the 

visitor demands, NPS jobs created at the park and monument, NPS contracts with local 

businesses, and other Bay Area tourism generated by the park and monument. This 

section will highlight some of these factors and explain the relevance to the overall Bay 

Area economy. 

Contributions to Local Economy from Golden Gate National Recreation 

Area Visitor Expenditures 

Each year, millions of park and monument visitors contribute hundreds of millions of 

dollars to the Bay Area economy. This money directly sustains the revenue stream and 

jobs at hotels, restaurants, and stores that serve park visitors. Primarily, businesses in the 

gateway counties of Marin, San Francisco, and San Mateo are the direct beneficiaries of 

this economic contribution. In addition, the visitor money stream can also have other 

indirect, or secondary, effects. For example, this injected money that directly supports 

local businesses and jobs eventually recirculates further into the Bay Area economy and 

beyond. This recirculation happens when the gateway local businesses buy products or 

services from other sources (e.g., from wholesale suppliers), or when employees at the 

local businesses use their income earned at the local gateway business at other businesses 

in the area to sustain their lifestyle (e.g., grocery shopping, entertainment). This 

secondary effect is often referred to as an economic “multiplier,” as one dollar injected 

into the local economy often has more than one dollar of effect in the local economy. 

With funding from the NPS Social Science Research Program, researchers at Michigan 

State University have created the NPS “Money Generation Model 2” (MGM2) to 

measure these direct and indirect contributions from visitors to local economies. Dr. 

Daniel Stynes and Dr. Dennis Propst used the MGM2 to analyze the effect that park and 

monument visitors had on the local economy in 2003. The following table lists the 2003 

visitation totals and the associated spending for each visitor type. “Visitor Party Days” 

refers to the number of days each visitor party or group spends in the Bay Area. 

As noted in the table, local day trips accounted for 80% of all park and monument 

visitation in 2003, with each local day trip party spending an average of $32 per day. 

Understandably, hotel-based visitor parties spent much more locally per day ($229 per 

day). When all visitor types are included, the average park visitor party spent $43 at local 
Social and Economic Environment 

(Including both Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument) 

Volume II: 143 

businesses per day. When these visitor expenditures are totaled for the entire year, the 

MGM2 estimates that park and monument visitors directly injected $226,810,000 into the 

local economy in 2003. 

Table 9: 2003 Visits and Estimated Spending, by Visitation Type 

Local Day 

Trips 

Nonlocal 

Day Trips 

Hotel Camp Total 

Recreation Visits 11,036,074 2,069,264 730,271 19,141 13,854,750 

Percentage of 

Recreation Visits 80% 15% 5% <1% 100% 

Visitor Party Days 4,216,401 790,575 244,090 5,915 5,257,245 

Avg. Spending 

Per Party Day $ 32 $ 47 $ 229 $ 91 $ 43 

Total Spending 

(million's) $ 132.89 $ 37.48 $ 55.87 $ 0.55 $ 226.81 

Source: Daniel Stynes, Ph.D. & Dennis Propst, Ph.D., Michigan State University, “Economic 

Impacts of Visitor Spending, by Parks” NPS Money Generation Model 2 (MGM2), 2003. 

The model estimates in the following table show how this injected money circulated 

through the local economy. Both direct and secondary effects are included. The direct 

effects of these visitor expenditures include sales, income, and jobs in businesses selling 

goods and services directly to park visitors. Thus, the $226.81 million in visitor spending 

supported an estimated 4,107 jobs, as well as $176.96 million in sales and $67.05 million 

in personal income (wages and salaries.) As for secondary, or multiplier effects, an 

additional $94.13 million in sales and $34.31 million in personal incomes were generated 

by park spending as the money circulated through the local economy. An additional 

1,194 jobs were supported by this secondary effect. When all of these effects are totaled, 

the $226.81 million in visitor spending supported a total of $271.09 million in sales, 

$101.35 million in personal income and 5,300 jobs in the community. 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 144 

Table 10: 2003 Estimated Economic Contributions of Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

Visitor Spending, By Sector 

Sectors Sales 

(millions) 

Personal 

Incomes 

(millions) 

Jobs 

Supported 

Value Added 

(millions) 

Direct Effects 

Motel, Hotel, B&B 

and Cabins $ 26.39 $ 9.34 489 $ 14.19 

Campsites $ 0.13 $ 0.05 2 $ 0.07 

Restaurants & Bars $ 63.84 $ 22.67 1,725 $ 31.58 

Admissions & Fees $ 30.03 $ 10.61 819 $ 17.36 

Retail $ 35.49 $ 18.10 870 $ 28.28 

Others -- $ 6.28 201 $ 9.80 

Total $ 176.96 $ 67.05 4,107 $ 101.29 

Secondary Effects $ 94.13 $ 34.31 1,194 $ 58.51 

Total Effects $ 271.09 $ 101.35 5,300 $ 159.80 

Source: Daniel Stynes, Ph.D. & Dennis Propst, Ph.D., Michigan State University, “Economic 

Impacts of Visitor Spending, by Parks”; NPS Money Generation Model 2 (MGM2), 2003. 

Contributions to Local Economy from National Park Service Operations 

The employment offered by the National Park Service also contributes to the local 

economy. The social and economic benefits of this job base are two-fold. First, the jobs 

made available by the park and its partners provide hundreds of Bay Area residents with 

a steady income that helps sustain their lives and those of their families. Secondly, similar 

to the economic effects of revenue generated by park and monument visitation (as 

previously explained), the income earned by park and partner employees also has direct 

and secondary effects on the local economy. These employees contribute to the local 

economy by spending the money they earn on goods and services in the community. This 

spending directly supports local businesses and their growth. The local communities also 

benefit directly via the sales tax generated by this spending. In addition, secondary 

economic benefits (i.e., the multiplier effect) are realized when this money eventually 

circulates further into the Bay Area economy and beyond. 

Because NPS employees reside throughout the entire Bay Area, the economic effect of 

their earned salaries (and subsequent spending in their respective communities) extends 

throughout the area as well. The following table summarizes the job base provided by the 

National Park Service as well as the salary totals for these jobs. It also identifies where 
Social and Economic Environment 

(Including both Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument) 

Volume II: 145 

NPS employees live, which hints at where the most direct contributions to the local 

economy occur. 

Table 11: 2009 National Park Service Jobs and Salaries, By Location of Residence 

Location of Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area Employee Residence Jobs Salary Totals 

Marin County 88 $6,354,302 

San Francisco City & County 96 $6,192,113 

San Mateo County 33 $2,031,223 

Other Bay Area Counties 116 $7,755,854 

Beyond Bay Area in California 8 $465,400 

Totals 341 $22,798,892 

Source: Golden Gate National Recreation Area, National Park Service, 2009. 

As highlighted in the above table, the operation of Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

and Muir Woods National Monument creates 341 NPS jobs. The salaries for these jobs 

total to $22.8 million per year. Although each individual employee spends and saves their 

earned salary money according to their own personal standards, one can conclude that a 

large percentage of this $22.8 million circulates back into the local economy via the 

purchase of goods and services. All but $465,400 of this salary total goes to employees 

who reside and spend directly within the Bay Area. In addition, nearly two-thirds of the 

park employees reside in the three gateway counties (totaling to 217 jobs and 

$14,577,638 in salary). 

In addition to the employee salaries, the NPS operation also supports the local economy 

by contracting out services with private enterprises in the Bay Area. These government 

contracts help support other businesses and their employees, which also has secondary 

multiplier effects when this money circulates through the community. In the NPS fiscal 

year of 2008, the National Park Service spent $14,807,075 on contracts with private 

entities. 

Tourism Attraction that Complements San Francisco and Other Bay 

Area Sites 

In addition to injecting money directly into the local economy and supporting other local 

institutions, Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument 

also contribute to the economy by helping generate tourism to other Bay Area attractions. 

This economic value primarily applies to visitors who come from outside of the Bay 

Area. From a tourist perspective, the allure of visiting the Bay Area is notably enhanced 

by the many sites, amenities, and resources of the park and monument. When these 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 146 

attractions are considered collectively with other Bay Area attractions, the Bay Area 

becomes a very appealing region to visit. 

The value of this synergistic effect extends well beyond the state of California, and the 

nation. International tourism in the Bay Area is a strong and growing industry. In 

addition, Golden Gate National Recreation Area contributes to the Bay Area’s 

international tourism draw. For example, nearly 25% of visitors to Alcatraz Island came 

from other countries (Manning et al. 2007). When combined with the Bay Area’s other 

diverse attractions, the many sites and resources of Golden Gate National Recreation 

Area play an important role in sustaining and expanding this international tourism 

market. 

Bay Area Commerce and Industry Trends 

As the Bay Area population has grown and diversified over the past 100 years, the local 

economy has also expanded and evolved. These changes have been brought on by local, 

state, national, and international attributes and events. For example, events such as World 

War II and the technology boom have played integral roles in the Bay Area’s economic 

development. The Bay Area’s economic history over the past 100 years can be defined by 

three general eras: 

 1900s to World War II – This economic era can be described as being 

somewhat pastoral, with the local economy driven by industries such as seaport 

commerce, dairy farming, and fishing. 

 World War II era – The Bay Area served as Central Command for the U.S. 

Army Pacific operations during WWII. As a result, the driving force on the local 

economy shifted toward military sea base and air base activities and 

manufacturing. 

 Post-World War II through late 20th century to present – Over the past 

several decades, the Bay Area’s economy has evolved, grown, and diversified 

considerably. The notable driving forces of the diversified economy include 

finance, education, local and regional tourism, health, arts, information 

technology, and expanding Asian markets. 

The following two graphs display the current and future projected distribution of jobs 

across various sectors or industries. 
Social and Economic Environment 

(Including both Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument) 

Volume II: 147 

Figure 24: 2005 Bay Area Jobs, by Sector 

Source: Association of Bay Area Governments (ABAG), “Projections 2007,” 2007.

Agriculture &

Natural Resources

1% Construction

6%

Manufacturing &

Wholesale

16%

Retail

11%

Transport & Utilities

5%

Information

Technologies

5%

Financial & Leasing

8%

Professional, Manag

erial Services

14%

Health & Education

Services

17%

Arts, Recreation &

Other

13%

Government

4%
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 148 

Figure 25: 2005 – 2030 Bay Area Employment Projections, by Sector 

Source: Association of Bay Area Governments (ABAG), “Projections 2007,” 2007 

0

100,000

200,000

300,000

400,000

500,000

600,000

700,000

800,000

900,000

1,000,000

Jobs

Sector

2005

2030
Volume II: 149 

TRANSPORTATION 

(INCLUDING BOTH GOLDEN GATE NATIONAL 

RECREATION AREA AND MUIR WOODS NATIONAL 

MONUMENT) 

This section summarizes existing transportation conditions for the planning area in 

Golden Gate National Recreational Area and Muir Woods National Monument. It 

addresses both internal circulation and access by all modes, including automobile, public 

transportation, bicycle, and pedestrian. Descriptions of conditions for Golden Gate 

National Recreation Area park sites are grouped by county (Marin, San Francisco, and 

San Mateo), with the exception of two park sites, Alcatraz Island and Muir Woods 

National Monument, which are addressed separately. 

Analysis was conducted using a range of available materials, most of which are 

referenced directly within the text. Primary sources included the Phase 1 Transportation 

Analysis developed for this general management plan, for which a database incorporating 

information from close to 100 sources was developed by Golden Gate National 

Recreational Area staff. Raw data on transportation conditions collected in recent years 

were provided to the authors by Golden Gate National Recreation Area staff. Additional 

sources, such as California Department of Transportation traffic counts, were also used. 

REGIONAL TRANSPORTATION CONTEXT 

Existing and Projected Travel Demand 

The Golden Gate National Recreation Area is located within the San Francisco Bay Area, 

a metropolitan region of approximately 7 million residents. In the counties surrounding 

the Bay Area, there are another 3.9 million residents (U.S. Census Bureau 2009). In all, 

close to 11 million people live within roughly a two-hour drive of Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area park sites. 

This urban context, along with their popularity among tourists, places heavy demands on 

park sites. In 2007, Golden Gate National Recreation Area experienced total visitation of 

20.8 million. While park sites in San Francisco are generally accessible to motorists, 

transit users, cyclists, and pedestrians, roads to and within many park sites in Marin and 

San Mateo counties are winding and narrow; both parking and public transit are limited 

in many places. These locations can “feel” remote during nonpeak periods despite their 

relative proximity to millions of residents; they are served by rural roads that were not 

designed to accommodate the level of traffic demand of major destinations, such as a 

national park. On busy summer weekends, two-lane roads leading to popular park sites 

can become severely congested. 

Already, the Bay Area is America’s second most-congested metropolitan region, behind 

only Los Angeles (Schrank and Lomax 2007), with an average yearly delay per motorist 

caused by congestion of 60 hours. By 2030, the population of the Bay Area is expected to 

grow to 8.7 million, and the surrounding counties are projected to reach 5.7 million, 

resulting in a total population within a two-hour drive of Golden Gate National 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 150 

Recreation Area park sites of approximately 14.4 million. The total number of vehicle 

miles traveled in the Bay Area on an average weekday is projected to increase from 

approximately 136 million in 2006 to as much as 179 million by 2035 (Metropolitan 

Transportation Commission 2008). Still, residents of the San Francisco-Oakland 

urbanized area take more trips, per capita, on public transportation than do residents of 

any other U.S. urbanized area except New York: about 130 per year, on average 

(American Public Transportation Association 2008). 

Regional Transportation Policy 

In order to accommodate population growth without compromising the regional 

environment or economy, Bay Area policymakers have increasingly sought to steer 

development and transportation trends in more sustainable directions. In its introduction 

to the Transportation 2035 Plan for the San Francisco Bay Area, the Metropolitan 

Transportation Commission, stated that: 

“By means of its investment choices and adopted policies, the Draft Transportation 

2035 Plan aims to stimulate the use of public transit, increase the safety, utility and 

appeal of bicycling and walking, and reduce emissions by private automobiles in the 

Bay Area while increasing the efficiency of the roadway systems for all users." 

While the Metropolitan Transportation Commission—through the regional transportation 

plan and related Transportation Improvement Program—sets funding priorities 

regionally, most transportation planning decisions in the Bay Area are made either at the 

county level by congestion management agencies or by transit agencies as part of their 

short range transit plans. Regional and local transit agencies are identified on the 

following pages. Congestion management agencies in counties with Golden Gate 

National Recreation Area park sites include the Transportation Authority of Marin, San 

Francisco County Transportation Authority, and City/County Association of 

Governments of San Mateo County. Marin, San Francisco, and San Mateo are all “selfhelp” counties under California law, meaning that voters have approved local sales taxes 

devoted to transportation. 

Regional Transportation Network 

The Bay Area is home to one of the nation’s most expansive highway systems. The 

regional transit network is less developed, although regional rail systems and ferry routes 

provide access to some Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites via local rail 

and feeder bus connections. 

Three major highways provide primary access to Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

park sites: 

 Highway 101, which is a freeway in Marin and San Mateo counties and southern 

San Francisco and an arterial surface route in northern San Francisco, provides 

access to park sites in all three counties. 

 State Route 1, which transitions from a two-lane highway in Marin County to an 

urban arterial in San Francisco and a freeway in northern San Mateo County 

before returning to a two-lane highway in southern San Mateo County, also 

provides access to park sites in all three counties. 
Transportation 

(Including both Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument) 

Volume II: 151 

Note: While many segments of this road have local names (e.g., Shoreline 

Highway, 19th Avenue, Pacific Coast Highway), throughout this document it is 

referred to as State Route 1. 

 Interstate 280, a freeway, provides access to Golden Gate National Recreation 

Area park sites in San Francisco and in San Mateo County. 

Two regional railways and several ferry routes provide transit access to Golden Gate 

National Recreation Area park sites: 

 Bay Area Rapid Transit, or BART, is a metro system serving San Francisco, 

Alameda, and Contra Costa counties, as well as northern San Mateo County. 

From BART stations in San Francisco and San Mateo counties, local transit 

service is available to park sites in San Mateo, San Francisco, and Marin 

counties. 

 Caltrain is a 77-mile-long commuter rail line operating from Santa Clara County 

through eastern San Mateo County to San Francisco. Local buses provide 

connections from Caltrain stations to park sites in San Mateo, San Francisco, and 

Marin counties. 

 Ferry service is provided by the Golden Gate Bridge, Highway & Transportation 

District as Golden Gate Ferry, and by a private operator, Blue & Gold Fleet. At 

Sausalito in Marin County and in San Francisco, ferry service provides 

connections to transit or bike routes that can then be used to reach Golden Gate 

National Recreation Area park sites. Ferries also provide the only public access 

to Alcatraz Island. The 2007 Golden Gate National Recreation Area Water 

Shuttle Access Study & Conceptual Plan proposed additional ferry service to 

three Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites: Fort Baker, Fort Mason, 

and the Presidio/Crissy Field in San Francisco. 

“Transbay” buses operated by the East Bay’s AC Transit also connect to San Francisco 

Municipal Railway (MUNI) routes serving Golden Gate National Recreation Area park 

sites at San Francisco’s Transbay Transit Center. While most Transbay routes are 

commuter-oriented—offering the greatest amount of service during weekday morning 

and evening commuting periods—a few provide midday and weekend service. 

Summary 

In general, the Bay Area transportation network is oriented toward commuters; access to 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites, which are generally relatively remote, 

is limited. In San Francisco, park destinations are closer to the community and wellserved by transit. Even there, however, many Golden Gate National Recreation Area park 

sites are on the city’s west side, some distance from regional road and public transit 

networks. Transit access to park sites in Marin and San Mateo counties is especially 

limited. Demand exists for expanded transit options. 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 152 

PARK TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 

In this section, transportation conditions are first described for the two most-visited park 

sites in the planning area, Muir Woods National Monument and Alcatraz Island. Then 

conditions are described for park sites in each county: Marin, San Francisco, and San 

Mateo. Within each section, conditions are first summarized, then described by mode. 

Conditions are analyzed both in terms of access to park sites and internal circulation. 

Detailed maps of each county’s transportation network can be found at the end of the 

transportation discussion. 

Muir Woods National Monument 

Muir Woods National Monument is a fee site, where an entrance fee is collected, and is a 

major tourist destination with an annual visitation of more than 800,000. For visitors 

accessing the site from Highway 101, the trip requires travel on almost 10 miles of 

winding two-lane county and state roads. Traffic on the two-lane roads leading to the site 

is often congested, especially at intersections of State Route 1 (Shoreline Highway). In 

addition, parking lots regularly fill by noon on busy summer weekends. Private tour 

buses serve Muir Woods National Monument year round. With the exception of summer 

and “shoulder season” weekends, there is no public transit service. Bicycle and pedestrian 

access to the remote canyon site is arduous. Parking at the site is especially problematic; 

on busy days, more cars are parked informally along roadside shoulders than in the 

designated lots, resulting in traffic congestion near the park entrance and conflicts 

between autos and pedestrians. 

Traffic and Parking 

Auto access to Muir Woods National Monument is along a narrow, twisting route that 

approaches from the east by way of a steep descent (with an average grade of more than 

8%). 

Traffic congestion along State Route 1 (Shoreline Highway) approaching the monument 

can be severe during peak periods, as noted previously. In the 2004 report from HDR, 

Inc. Transportation Planning to Address Access and Congestion Issues – Muir Woods 

National Monument, traffic studies indicated a peak season intersection level of service 

(LOS) of “F,” where State Route 1 intersects with Tennessee Valley Road and Flamingo 

Road; and a LOS of “D” where State Route 1 intersects Muir Woods Road and 

Panoramic Highway. “F” is the lowest level of service, indicating average delay per 

vehicle of more than 50 seconds. The Comprehensive Transportation Management Plan 

also reported an accident rate along Panoramic Highway, a two-lane but relatively direct 

route along the spine of Dias Ridge between State Route 1 and Muir Woods Road, that 

was 140% higher than the statewide average for similar roads (Robert Peccia & 

Associates 2004). 

It is estimated that even on summer weekends when Muir Woods Shuttle service is 

available, more than 60% of Muir Woods National Monument visitors arrive by private 

automobile (Nelson\Nygaard Consulting Associates 2008). Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area has estimated average vehicle occupancy of 2.5 persons, meaning that 

close to 1,200 autos might arrive at the National Monument over the course of a busy 

day. In 2004, as many as 2,855 cars were counted on Upper Muir Woods Road in a single 
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day, suggesting that the actual number of cars arriving at the National Monument on a 

busy day might be even higher. Also in 2004, up to 344 cars were observed arriving at 

the monument in a single hour (Robert Peccia & Associates 2004). 

There are no current mode share data indicating how many visitors reach Muir Woods 

National Monument by tour bus, bicycle, or hiking. 

This traffic results not only in congestion on roads approaching the national monument, 

but in congestion in the main and satellite parking lots, as cars circle in search of parking. 

It also results in congestion and auto-pedestrian conflicts along Muir Woods Road just 

west of the monument—where overflow parking is accommodated along the shoulder 

and pedestrians must at some points walk in the roadway. Officially, there are 179 

parking spaces at Muir Woods National Monument in the main and satellite lots, and 

approximately 175 additional spaces that are considered legal along Muir Woods Road; 

the total then is approximately 350 parking spaces. However, up to 475 cars have been 

observed parked along the road near the monument at one time (Robert Peccia & 

Associates 2004). This is possible because motorists will park along the shoulder of Muir 

Woods Road up to a mile from the monument entrance, and walk along or in the road to 

the trail that leads to the entrance. 

Transit 

Muir Woods Shuttle. Established in 2005 as a pilot program, the Muir Woods Shuttle is 

now funded on an annual basis by Golden Gate National Recreation Area and the Marin 

County Transit District, or Marin Transit. 

The shuttle is a seasonal service, operating on weekends during the five months from 

May through September. From Memorial Day weekend to Labor Day weekend, it 

consists of two routes: 

 A Marin City to Muir Woods National Monument route operating on 20-minute 

headways from the Golden Gate Transit hub at Marin City (where connections 

can be made to buses from San Francisco) to the monument. This route also stops 

at satellite parking lots near the junction of Highways 101 and State Route 1 

(approximately 9 miles from the monument). 

 A Sausalito to Muir Woods National Monument route timed to connect with 

Golden Gate Ferry service from San Francisco at Sausalito (this route also serves 

Marin City and the Highway 101 / State Route 1 junction) 

During the “shoulder season,” there is no Sausalito service, and the Marin City route 

operates on 30-minute headways. 

Much of the shuttle’s ridership consists of motorists who, informed by changeable 

message signs on Highway 101 that the monument parking lots are full, follow 

instructions to exit at State Route 1, park, and take the shuttle instead. The service has 

proved to be extremely successful, currently providing 35,000 trips on weekends and 

holidays during the May to September season. The farebox recovery rate is 22%, 

comparable to many urban transit services) and ridership has grown from just a little 

more than 10,000 in its first year, even as the formerly free service has increased fares to 

$3. Close to 10% of summer weekend visitors to the park now arrive by shuttle, and in 
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2008, it averaged 18.9 passengers per hour, higher than many suburban bus routes 

(Nelson\Nygaard Consulting Associates 2008). 

The Muir Woods Shuttle has eased pressure on the overburdened parking areas at the 

monument and on the roads leading to the site. In addition, by connecting to regional 

transit services, it has greatly expanded non-automobile access for visitor to the park. 

Moreover, surveys of shuttle riders and other park visitors indicate that significant 

demand may exist for direct service between San Francisco and the monument; while 

relatively expensive to operate, this would serve to further reduce demand for automobile 

access to the monument. 

Tour Bus. While no data is available on private tour bus operators serving Golden Gate 

National Recreation Area park sites, park staff estimate that up to 20% of visitors to the 

monument may arrive by tour bus. Twelve to fourteen spaces in the lower parking lot are 

reserved for tour buses, and multiple operators provide tours, typically departing from 

San Francisco and including a stop in Sausalito. 

Bicycle and Pedestrian 

Bicycle access to Muir Woods National Monument is poor. State Route 1 and Muir 

Beach Road are narrow, winding two-lane roads and lack bike lanes and shoulders for 

much of their length, although bicycle parking is provided. Pedestrian access is also poor, 

limited to trail connections that converge at the monument (including the popular Dipsea 

Trail, which connects the monument to the town of Mill Valley 3 miles away, and to 

Stinson Beach to the west). 

Summary 

Muir Woods National Monument is accessed primarily by automobile or tour bus, 

although public transit service is available on summer and “shoulder season” weekends. 

Cyclists and pedestrians must bike or hike long distances to reach the remote site, 

although trails to and within the monument are very good. Parking at the monument is 

limited and not well-configured—overflow parking along the shoulders of a narrow road 

is common—and this results both in congestion and in conflicts between traffic and 

pedestrians. 

Alcatraz Island 

With approximately 1.4 million annual visitors, Alcatraz Island is Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area’s most visited site. Alcatraz is an island in San Francisco Bay; while 

admission to the park itself is free, the only access to the island is a 15-minute trip by 

ferry at a cost of $26 per person (2009). Ferries depart from a landing near Fisherman’s 

Wharf in San Francisco, which is relatively accessible by all modes of transportation. 

Traffic and Parking 

Automobile access to the Alcatraz Island ferry landing at Pier 33, just southeast of 

Fisherman’s Wharf, is generally good. The site is immediately adjacent to the 

Embarcadero, a six-lane boulevard connecting directly to the San Francisco-Oakland Bay 

Bridge (Interstate 80) and Interstate 280, and indirectly to Highway 101. Pier 33 is also 

near Bay Street, a four-lane city street connecting to Highway 101 and the Golden Gate 

Bridge. However, all of these routes can become congested during peak hours. 
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Parking near the Alcatraz Island ferry landing at Pier 33 is fee parking, and much of it 

consists of on-street meters with time limits of two hours or less. However, several large 

parking garages are located nearby. 

Public Transit 

Ferry service to Alcatraz Island currently departs from Pier 33. Service is provided by 

Alcatraz Cruises, a park concessioner, and operates as often as every 30 minutes. Other 

ferry operators also offer Bay tours that pass by Alcatraz Island and other Golden Gate 

National Recreation Area waterfront park sites. A number of public transportation 

options within San Francisco provide visitors with good access to Pier 33. 

Bicycle and Pedestrian 

Pier 33 is easily accessible by bicycle, and several bicycle rental companies are located 

nearby. Bicycles are not allowed aboard Alcatraz Island ferries, but limited bicycle 

parking is available at Pier 33 on a first-come, first-served basis. 

Likewise, pedestrian access is good. From the south, a broad promenade runs alongside 

the Embarcadero, and San Francisco city streets to the west generally feature spacious 

sidewalks. 

Summary 

Alcatraz Island can be accessed only by ferry from San Francisco, although access to the 

ferry landing is good for all modes of transportation. While parking is available for a fee, 

there is on-street metered parking and several large garages nearby. public transit access 

is excellent, and bicycle and pedestrian access over San Francisco city streets is likewise 

very good. 

Marin County Park Lands 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites within Marin County are generally 

distinct in character from those in San Francisco and San Mateo counties. As Marin 

County park sites are located within western Marin County, many are some distance from 

the county’s developed eastern corridor. Due to this isolation, Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area park sites in Marin County are accessed primarily by automobile, 

although limited public transit service is available, and many recreational cyclists ride 

long distances to access them. In addition, there are directional and park identity signs 

both within the park lands and on roads leading to them that are generally clear and 

highly visible; there is also limited water access for private boats to Fort Baker through a 

marina. 

The relative remoteness of Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites within Marin 

County contributes to their popularity with both residents and tourists. However, it also 

results in severe congestion at the most accessible sites during peak periods, both on 

roads leading to the park sites and around parking areas. Congestion is compounded by 

insufficient parking and conflicts between automobile and pedestrians, who often must 

walk in or alongside roadways due to a lack of infrastructure—including both sidewalks 

and trails paralleling roadways—at popular destinations (such as Tennessee Valley). 

Means of visitor access to the Marin Headlands were sampled on Fridays, Saturdays, and 

Sundays in the summer of 2000 and spring of 2001. The survey showed that 91% arrived 
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by private automobile, 4.7% by bicycle, 4% by bus (including public transit as well as 

private, chartered, and school buses), while just 0.2% arrived on foot (NPS 2009a). 

Traffic and Parking 

Many visitors to Marin County Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites arrive in 

the county by driving over the Golden Gate or Richmond-San Rafael bridges, and even 

residents of Marin County use Highway 101 for parts of their trips. Once motorists have 

exited Highway 101, however, access to many Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

park sites requires steep, winding drives on narrow rural roads. 

Average volumes of traffic on these roads do not necessarily suggest congestion, and 

outside of the busiest peak periods, there is little congestion on roads leading to or within 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites in Marin County. Traffic studies 

conducted in October and November of 2009 show LOS A and B on State Route 1 

(Shoreline Highway) between Highway 101 and Northern Avenue. However, traffic 

increases significantly on summer and holiday weekends. Annual average daily traffic on 

State Route 1 in the area of Stinson Beach, for example, is just 4,100 vehicles per day, 

and peak hour traffic is 420 cars per hour, or 7 vehicles per minute in both directions 

combined (California Department of Transportation 2009). Yet, the number of cars at the 

entrance to Stinson Beach reached 39,709 in July 2007, 455% higher than in January, and 

in 2004, counts reached 4,451 in a single summer day (Nonmotorized Transportation 

Pilot Program 2005). Even greater monthly traffic has been observed along Conzelman 

Road in the Marin Headlands, where 80,300 vehicles were recorded at a point in the 

Rodeo Valley in the month of September 2007. In 2000, traffic counts on roads entering 

and exiting the Marin Headlands near the northern end of the Golden Gate Bridge found 

combined traffic on summer weekends of approximately 10,200 vehicles, with about 

two-thirds on Conzelman Road and the remainder on Bunker Road. Summer 2000 

weekend traffic on Alexander Avenue (which is just outside the Marin Headlands, and 

thus not maintained by the National Park Service), connecting the Golden Gate Bridge to 

Sausalito and providing access to the Marin Headlands and Fort Baker, was 

approximately 11,300 vehicles (NPS 2009a). 

Roads within the park lands of Marin County managed by the National Park Service are 

often in a poor state of repair. A 1999 survey of pavement conditions within the Marin 

Headlands and Fort Baker found fully two-thirds of roads to be in poor condition (NPS 

2009a). Conditions have not changed significantly since then, although all 18 miles of 

NPS roads in the Marin Headlands and Fort Baker are programmed for rehabilitation 

beginning in 2010. 

The greatest traffic congestion within Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites 

appears to occur immediately around parking areas at popular destinations. Whether they 

consist of large lots or informal, roadside parking along shoulders, cars pulling into or out 

of parking areas and pedestrians traveling to or from their cars can create congestion and 

unsafe conditions along narrow roads. 

This congestion is a result of demand exceeding supply, with undesirable shoulder 

parking as a result. At the Tennessee Valley trailhead, where there are 86 formal parking 

spaces, the Comprehensive Transportation Management Plan reported maximum 

occupancy, including cars parked alongside Tennessee Valley Road, of 202 vehicles or 

235% of capacity. Parking lots at Stinson Beach (124%) and Muir Beach (107%) were 
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also found to be filled beyond capacity (Robert Peccia & Associates 2004). The Marin 

Headlands / Fort Baker Transportation Plan, meanwhile, reported up to 35 cars parked 

at Battery Mendell in the Marin Headlands, in an area with a capacity of 30, and 24 cars 

were in 24 spaces at Battery Spencer, where, as at Muir Woods National Monument, cars, 

buses and pedestrians come into conflict when there is parking along a narrow road (NPS 

2009a). Although all Golden Gate National Recreation Area parking within the plan area 

is currently free, approved plans will introduce fee parking in the Marin Headlands and at 

Fort Baker. 

Public Transit 

Public transportation access to Marin County Golden Gate National Recreation Area park 

sites is limited. Most destinations within the park lands are inaccessible via transit 

without significant hiking or biking from the closest transit stops, although a few park 

sites are served directly or indirectly by infrequent, weekend-only, or seasonal bus routes. 

Most of those routes serve a limited area, although connections can be made to regional 

services in eastern Marin County and San Francisco. Three public transit agencies 

provide some form of service to Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites, while 

a seasonal shuttle service to Muir Woods National Monument is operated jointly by the 

National Park Service and a local transit provider. In general, transit service in Marin 

County is either oriented toward commuters (Golden Gate Transit) or those taking local 

trips (Marin Transit), or serves Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites but only 

on a limited basis (West Marin Stagecoach). More information on public transit services 

to Marin County Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites can be found in 

appendix E. 

While no data is available on private tour bus operators serving Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area park sites, park staff believes that up to 20% of visitors to Muir Woods 

National Monument may arrive by tour bus. Twelve to fourteen spaces in the lower 

parking lot are reserved for tour buses, and multiple operators provide tours, typically 

departing from San Francisco and including a stop in Sausalito. Tour bus use is also 

common (if accounting for a relatively small mode share) in the Marin Headlands and 

Fort Baker. 

Bicycle 

Western Marin County is a popular destination for recreational cyclists. Despite blind 

curves and heavy traffic, road cyclists seeking a challenge are a common sight on its 

steep, narrow roads, while mountain biking remains popular on fire roads and trails 

throughout Marin County, the birthplace of the sport. Many San Francisco visitors rent 

bicycles and ride them over the Golden Gate Bridge making the return trip via ferry from 

Sausalito. Alexander Avenue between Sausalito and the Bridge, which is a regional road 

administered by the Golden Gate Bridge District, is a popular route for cyclists (although 

it lacks a complete bike lane, and is confusing and potentially unsafe for novice cyclists). 

On May 11, 2008, a sunny Sunday, Golden Gate National Recreation Area counted 1,432 

cyclists northbound on Alexander at Bunker Road, above Fort Baker. 

Although amenities for cyclists are currently limited, there is bicycle parking at Battery 

Spencer. As part of the Marin Headlands & Fort Baker Transportation Infrastructure & 

Management Plan (2009), a number of improvements for bicyclists are being made. 

These include roadway improvements to enhance bicycle safety, a new bicycle and 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

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pedestrian path between the Marin Headlands and Fort Baker, new trail access, and an 

uphill bicycle lane on Conzelman Road from Alexander Avenue to McCullough Road. 

Pedestrian 

The key issue for pedestrians at Marin County park sites is conflicts with automobiles 

near congested parking areas; this issue was described at length in the previous sections 

on Marin County Traffic and Parking. Remaining pedestrian issues are addressed below. 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites in Marin County are generally relatively 

remote. Muir Beach and Stinson Beach are 6 to 12 miles from the Highway 101 corridor, 

and are adjacent to small communities that are surrounded by park land, while the eastern 

edge of the park lands in the county’s southwestern corner is bordered by the larger 

communities of Marin City, Tamalpais Junction, and Mill Valley. Despite several trails 

that extend into these communities, pedestrian access to park sites is fairly limited. Even 

in those residential areas adjacent to park lands, there are few sidewalks, and residents of 

southern Marin County often drive to nearby trailheads, such as Tennessee Valley. 

Tourists sometimes walk over the Golden Gate Bridge from San Francisco into Marin 

County, but are not likely to ascend into the Marin Headlands farther than Battery 

Spencer, which is a short distance beyond the northern end of the Bridge. 

However, Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites in Marin County feature an 

extensive network of fire roads and trails of all types. Trail connectivity is good, both 

within Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites and to trails extending into 

adjacent park lands such as Mount Tamalpais State Park. Coverage is dense in the 

southern park lands, extending from Muir Beach into Tennessee Valley and the Marin 

Headlands. While many trails within Marin County park sites are multiuse, bikes, dogs, 

or horses are not allowed on some trails. 

Summary 

Marin County park sites are accessed primarily by private automobile. The most popular 

destinations experience considerable congestion during peak periods on winding, twolane roads and exceed the capacity of limited parking areas. There is little public transit 

service to park sites within Marin County. While bicycle access can be challenging due to 

topography and narrow roadways, these park lands are popular destinations for 

recreational cyclists. There is little pedestrian access to the park sites, but hiking is a 

popular activity within them. 

San Francisco Park Lands 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area park lands in San Francisco are generally 

immediately adjacent to urban neighborhoods. As a result, San Francisco park sites are 

distinct: they are much more multimodal in terms of both access and circulation than are 

park sites in Marin and San Mateo counties, which are strongly oriented toward the 

automobile. Pedestrian, bicycle, and public transit access is generally very good. One 

site—Ocean Beach—is directly served by two rail transit lines. The park sites include 

large parking lots. Signage is good within park sites, although trails to park sites from the 

city are not always well marked. 
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Traffic and Parking 

Automobile access to Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites in San Francisco 

is generally good. While access to most park sites requires travel over San Francisco city 

streets—some of which can be quite congested during commuting hours—multiple 

access routes are available, and there are sizable parking lots available at almost every 

location.These lots often become full at peak times. 

Public Transit 

In general, park sites in San Francisco enjoy the sort of frequent and extensive transit 

service that is rare in the national park system. All Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

park sites in San Francisco and the Alcatraz Island ferry are served at least indirectly by 

MUNI light rail, historic streetcar, cable car, or bus routes operating on headways of 20 

minutes or less from early morning until late in the evening. 

MUNI stops near Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites, however, generally 

lack many amenities (including park-related signs or other wayfinding information). 

MUNI vehicles are often crowded, especially at commute times, with 4.3% of morning 

peak period trips exceeding 125% of seating and standing capacity (San Francisco 

Municipal Transportation Agency 2009). Details of MUNI routes serving Golden Gate 

National Recreation Area park sites can be found in appendix E. 

A number of changes have been planned to MUNI service that would impact access to 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites. Some reductions in service have been 

implemented in response to a budget issues, but improvements in service are also 

planned, such as the MUNI E-line extension. Other changes are detailed in appendix E. 

Transit service to selected Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites is also 

provided by the PresidiGO shuttle, operated by the Presidio Trust within the Presidio, 

with a downtown express shuttle connecting to regional transit, and by Golden Gate 

Transit from Marin County. 

Bicycle 

Bicycle access both to and within Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites in 

San Francisco is good. Unlike in Marin and San Mateo counties, where steep grades and 

rough trail conditions make many routes accessible to only the most expert cyclist, San 

Francisco’s bicycle system and the park sites offer opportunities for cyclists of all skill 

levels. 

Designated bicycle routes, including on-street bike lanes and, in Golden Gate Park, offstreet paths, connect to all Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites in San 

Francisco. An off-street multiuse trail runs along the northern waterfront from Aquatic 

Park to the Warming Hut at Crissy Field; from there it is a short distance to the Golden 

Gate Bridge, which features a dedicated bike path on its west side connecting cyclists to 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites in Marin County. Additional paths and 

lanes can be found within the Presidio, and there are several multiuse trails at Lands End. 

A bike path constituting a segment of the Pacific Coast Bicycle Route runs on city land 

along nearly the entire 3.5 mile length of Ocean Beach, and there are numerous paved 

multiuse trails within Fort Funston. 
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Pedestrian 

The uniquely urban context of park sites within San Francisco results in much greater 

pedestrian access than can be enjoyed at park sites in Marin and San Mateo counties. 

Streets leading to park sites typically include sidewalks, and the only obstacles to 

pedestrian access are distance, busy streets, and hills in some locations. However, all 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites are along the city’s waterfront, and thus 

most are at a lower elevation than the majority of pedestrian trip origins. 

There are, however, some obstacles to pedestrian access. Fort Funston in the city’s 

southwestern corner is relatively isolated, located west of Lake Merced and across the 

Great Highway and Skyline Boulevard from city streets. Pedestrian access to Ocean 

Beach requires crossing the Great Highway at signalized pedestrian crosswalks over a 

four-lane highway. All of the park sites in San Francisco, however, are connected to each 

other by the Bay Trail and Coastal Trail, including segments that meet accessibility 

standards for people with disabilities. 

Within park sites, pedestrian routes vary from sidewalks to paved paths, boardwalks, and 

unpaved trails. Accessibility for people with disabilities is much higher here than at park 

sites in Marin and San Mateo counties, where few paved, level paths exist. 

Coastal Trail and Bay Trail improvements are planned as part of the Trails Forever 

Program, a collaborative effort of the Golden Gate National Parks Conservancy, the 

Presidio of San Francisco, and the park. 

Summary 

San Francisco park sites, uniquely situated within an urban environment, are generally 

connected to their surroundings by public transit and a network of streets, bike routes, 

and sidewalks. Parking is generally available, and there are extensive trail networks 

within the larger park area. 

San Mateo County Park Lands 

Just as Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites in Marin County and in San 

Francisco share many characteristics in common that make them distinct from the park 

sites in other counties, park lands in San Mateo County are notable in a number of ways. 

They are generally less developed in terms of amenities, less used (although some park 

sites are popular with local residents), less connected to one another, and different in 

terms of their primary means of access. As in Marin County, private automobiles are the 

primary mode for access to Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites in San 

Mateo County. 

Directional and park identification signs, as well as parking at most park sites is limited, 

if they exist at all. The “typical” Golden Gate National Recreation Area site in San Mateo 

County consists of open space with trails of various qualities that are accessible from a 

trailhead, which either provides limited, informal parking, or no parking at all. Some park 

sites are relatively remote and inaccessible to pedestrians and transit users, while others 

are immediately adjacent to suburban neighborhoods and feature many “social” or 

informal entrances. Bicycle access is generally good, although some park sites do not 

accommodate cyclists and safer routes are needed along much of State Route 1 south of 

Pacifica. 
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Traffic and Parking 

Auto access to San Mateo park sites is generally good, although parking at trailheads can 

be in short supply or available only on an “informal” basis on nearby streets; also some 

roadways experience congestion. 

Highways 1 and 280 provide primary access to most park sites, along with Highway 35, 

or Skyline Boulevard, which is a suburban arterial in its northern segment, near Milagra 

Ridge, and a two-lane rural road in the south, near Phleger Estate. Highway 92, Sharp 

Park Road, and other rural and suburban roadways also provide access to Golden Gate 

National Recreation Area park sites. State Route 1 experiences relatively high volumes of 

traffic (California Department of Transportation 2009). 

A segment of State Route 1 between Pacifica and Montara, called Devil’s Slide, has long 

been prone to landslides that have closed the road for periods of several months. This 

segment is now being replaced by an inland bypass including twin tunnels and bridges. 

These are due for completion in 2011. At that time, the existing segment of roadway will 

be converted to a multiuse California Coastal Trail segment extending north and south to 

connect to Golden Gate National Recreation Area and state park sites along the coastline. 

Finally, data on parking demand is not available. However, at park sites in San Mateo 

County, parking is generally both limited and informal; in addition to trailhead lots at 

Milagra Ridge, Shelldance Nursery, and Sneath Lane, parking is found along roadsides, 

in neighborhoods, and in business parking lots. 

At San Francisco Public Utility Commission (SFPUC) watershed trailheads, parking is 

likewise along roadsides. However, there are more than 40 spaces at the southern end of 

the popular Sawyer Camp Trail. At Rancho Corral de Tierra, parking is associated with 

the equestrian facilities. 

There are several parking areas that serve to access the park at adjacent college or state 

park parking lots. 

Access to Phleger Estate is generally through Huddart County Park, which provides 

adequate parking on most days. 

Public Transit 

The San Mateo County Transit District, or SamTrans, provides bus service throughout 

the county. As San Mateo is a relatively low-density, suburban county, much of this 

service is relatively infrequent, operating on headways of 30 minutes to as much as 180 

minutes, and some routes do not operate on weekends or mid-days, outside of normal 

commuting hours. Stops generally lack amenities, and pedestrian routes from stops to 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites often lack sidewalks and directional 

signs. However, as many park sites in San Mateo County are immediately adjacent to 

neighborhoods, a few stops are located within walking distance of Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area park sites. In general, SamTrans provides a fair level of service to 

Pacifica and Montara, including relatively frequent service to Mori Point and Milagra 

Ridge. Service to these two areas also connects to BART and operates seven days a 

week. Service to the Sawyer Camp and San Andreas trails, however, is limited to 

weekdays, and Phleger Estate is currently not served by transit. More information on 

SamTrans service can be found in appendix E. 
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Bicycle 

Bicycle access to Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites in San Mateo County 

is mixed; however, bicycle amenities within the park are generally good, as cyclists are 

allowed on most trails. 

While most bicycle access is over roadways without separate bicycle facilities, a gradeseparated, off-road bike path parallels State Route 1 along the Pacifica shoreline, 

connecting Pacifica State Beach just north of Pedro Point to Rockaway State Beach and 

Mori Point. Another unpaved path runs north from Mori Point to Sharp Park Beach, and 

there are bike lanes along Sharp Park Road connecting to Milagra Ridge. Cañada Road, 

running south from the SFPUC watershed, is closed to motor vehicles for several hours 

on county-sponsored “Bicycle Sundays.” 

Milagra Ridge, meanwhile, features a paved loop within the site. The popular Sneath 

Lane Trail at Sweeney Ridge is paved, and the popular Sawyer Camp and San Andreas 

trails in the SFPUC watershed are primarily high capacity, paved, multiuse trails with 

median striping and mile markers. Bicycles are prohibited on trails within the Phleger 

Estate. 

The San Mateo County Bicycle Plan proposes improvements to routes popular with 

cyclists, including Cañada Road, and while improvements are not planned, a route 

allowing bike access from the San Mateo County suburbs east of Interstate 280 to the 

road and mountain bike trails west of Skyline Boulevard has been identified as a priority 

for cyclists. This could require bicycle access in the vicinity of Phleger Estate. 

At Rancho Corral de Tierra, several miles of existing trails are primarily multiuse, though 

mostly steep and unpaved. The northern area of Rancho Corral de Tierra is connected to 

McNee Ranch State Park, by Old Pedro Mountain Road, a multiuse county trail that 

continues north to Pacifica. 

Pedestrian 

Pedestrian access to Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites in San Mateo 

County is limited. Trailheads at a few park sites, such as Milagra Ridge, Sweeney Ridge, 

Mori Point, Pedro Point, and Rancho Corral de Tierra, are adjacent to suburban 

neighborhoods and thus are relatively accessible to pedestrians (although sidewalks 

leading to the park sites are sometimes lacking). However, pedestrian circulation within 

San Mateo County park sites is in many cases very good, as most San Mateo County park 

sites are essentially open space preserves with trail networks. Also, two park sites, 

Rancho Corral de Tierra and Phleger Estate, offer extensive equestrian access. Trails 

within San Mateo County Golden Gate National Recreation Area park sites are detailed 

in appendix F. 

Summary 

San Mateo County park sites are generally adjacent to suburban developments and are 

easily accessible by automobile. However, they are not well served by public transit, 

which is oriented toward commuters. Bicycle access is generally good, and hiking is 

popular within the parks. While more discontinuous than park sites in Marin County or 

San Francisco, San Mateo County park sites are connected in part by both the California 

Coastal Trail and the Bay Area Ridge Trail. San Mateo park sites are also popular with 

equestrians, and there are many multiuse trails, with little conflict among users. 
C

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Fairfax - Bolinas Rd

W

Ridgecrest Blvd

Bolinas - Farifax Rd

1

GGNRA: Muir Woods, Stinson Beach

0 1.25 2.5

Miles

Regional TrailsRidge TrailCoastal Trail

Golden Gate TransitBasic & Commute Bus RoutesGolden Gate TransitMarin Co Local Routes

GGNRA GMP AreaMarin MunicipalWater DistrictOther Park Areas

xx

ParkingArea

VisitorCenter

TRAILS

TRANSIT

GOGA Trails

SF Bay Trail

Muir Woods ShuttleMarin Stagecoach

xx

T Transfer Point

Park &Ride

B

C

R

Central Marin Ferry

Marin County Transportation Network: Muir Woods, Stinson Beach

...

Dipsea Trail

Old Springs Trail

...

...

...

...

1

101

Mt Tamalpais

State Park

FORT

CRONKHITE

Rodeo

Lagoon

Pacific

Ocean

TENNESSEE

VALLEY

RODEO

BEACH

MUIR

BEACH

Green

Gulch

KIRBY

COVE

FORT

BARRY

Sausalito

Bothin

Marsh

OSP

Richards

Bay

1

Marin

City

101

GERBODE

VALLEY

Coyote Ridge Trail

Fox Trail

TENNESSEE

BEACH

76

MUIR WOODS

NATIONAL

MONUMENT

Tamalpais

Valley

2

4

22

1

2

6

15

22

36

71

70

80

9

8

15

70

8

80

10

Miwok Trail

Miwok Trail

Miwok Trail

Haypress

Camp Trail

Rhubarb Trail

Miwok Trail

Green Gulch

Redwood Creek Trail

Diaz Ridge

Oakwood Valley Trail

Tennessee Valley Trail

Rodeo Valley Trail

Bobcat Trail 

Marincello Trail

MUIR WOODS

RD

PANORAMIC HWY

TENNESSEE VALLEY RD

MCCULLOUGH

RD

Dias Ridge

B

C

R

B

C

R

B

C

R

C

R

B 

B

B

B

C

C

C

R

R

R

Regional TrailsRidge TrailCoastal TrailMUNI Bus RouteGolden Gate TransitBasic & Commute Bus RoutesGolden Gate TransitMarin Co Local Routes GGNRA Structures

GGNRA GMP AreaOther Park Areas

xx

Bikeways

xx

ParkingArea

VisitorCenter

TRAILS

TRANSIT

GOGA Trails

SF Bay Trail

Muir Woods ShuttleMarin Stagecoach

xx

Ferry Routes

T Park & Ride Ferry to Bus Transfer Point

I

B

C

R

GGNRA: Marin Headlands

0 0.5 1

Miles

Marin County Transportation Network: Marin Headlands

BAY ST

G

POLK ST

MARINA BLVD

SCOTT ST

AVILA ST

FRANKLIN ST

BEACH ST

LAGUNA ST

BAKER ST

PIERCE ST

GOUGH ST

BRODERICK ST

DIVISADERO ST

YACHT RD

OCTAVIA ST

FILLMORE ST

MOULTON ST

CERVANTES BLVD

WEBSTER ST

MARINA GREEN DR

LYON ST

NORTH POINT ST

PIXLEY ST

MALLORCA WAY

LOMBARD ST

VAN NESS AVE

POPE RD

DEWITT RD

MAGNOLIA ST

RICO WAY

STEINER ST

RETIRO WAY

TRUBY ST

MACARTHUR AVE

BUCHANAN ST

TOLEDO WAY

JEFFERSON ST

HARRIS PL

RICHARDSON AVE

FUNSTON RD

FRANCISCO ST

BEACH ST

BAY ST

CHESTNUT ST

JEFFERSON ST

FRANCISCO ST

BAY ST

BEACH ST

Great

Meadow

Paths

BAY ST

101

101

LOMBARD ST

101

VAN NESS AVE

30

76

22

30

82X

30X

28

28 43

93 70 80

30X

82X

28

30 30X

30 30X

76 82X

19

82X

47

49

B

B

B

B B

B

B

Palace

of

Fine

Arts

San Francisco Bay

GGNRA: Fort Mason, Alcatraz

Marina Green

Marina

Green

Moscone

Playground

FORT

MASON

Aquatic

Park

SF MARITIME

NATIONAL

HISTORICAL

PARK

xx

GOGA TrailsRegional TrailsMUNI Bus RouteMUNI Light RailGolden Gate TransitGGNRA GMP AreaOther Park Areas

xx

SF Bay Trail

ParkingArea

VisitorCenter

TRAILS

TRANSIT

X

Ferry Routes

Cable Car

B

Bikeways

BEACH ST

NORTH POINT ST

JEFFERSON ST

HYDE ST

0 0.25 ALCATR AZ Miles

Pier

41

Ferry to Sausalito

Ferry to Tiburon & Angel Island

Ferry to Alcatraz

EMBARCADERO

Pier

39

Pier

33

San Francisco Transportation Network: Fort Mason, Alcatraz

28

29

76

28 1

29

1

4

33

44

28L

1AX

10

93

70 80

10

93

70

80

4

44 

29

29

29

29

29

2

29

28

28

1

B

C

R

B

C

R

B

C

R

B

C

R

C

R

R

R

CALIFORNIA ST

LINCOLN BLVD

MASON ST

PARK BLVD

WEST PACIFIC AVE

ARGUELLO BLVD

25TH AVE

26TH AVE

KOBBE AVE

27TH AVE

SPRUCE ST

5TH AVE

7TH AVE

6TH AVE

24TH AVE

MESA ST

STOREY AVE

14TH AVE

OLD MASON ST

21ST AVE

GO

UPTON AVE

15TH AVE

22ND AVE

20TH AVE

3RD AVE

18TH AVE

2ND AVE

LOCUST ST

19TH AVE

17TH AVE

16TH AVE

8TH AVE

11TH AVE

9TH AVE

12TH AVE

10TH AVE

30TH AVE

MAPLE ST

29TH AVE

GRAHAM ST

4TH AVE

MARINE DR

SEACLIFF AVE

SHERIDAN AVE

EDIE 

PORTOLA ST

23RD AVE

CHERRY ST

MACARTHUR AVE

BARNARD AVE

FUNSTON AVE

LONG AVE

28TH AVE

TAYLOR RD

PALM AVE

KEYES AVE

MORAGA AVE

HALLECK ST

RALSTON AVE

PARKER AVE

QUARRY ST

LIG

HAYS ST

JORDAN AVE

PERSHING DR

LAKE ST

MAYFAI

COMPTON RD

IRIS AVE

31ST AVE

NAUMAN RD

MCDOWELL AVE

MERCHANT RD

RODRIGUEZ ST

PIPER LOOP

HOWARD RD

HARDIE PL

WYMAN AVE

STILWELL RD

GIBSON RD

MAULDIN ST

THOMAS AVE

GIRARD RD

MCLAREN AVE

BLISS ST

SANCHES ST

BROOKS ST

SCENIC WAY

MARINE DR

FUNSTON AVE

Presidio

Golf Course

PRESIDIO

San Francisco B

Mountain Lake

Park

San Francisco

Military

Cemetery

CRISSY

FIELD

FORT POINT

NATIONAL

HISTORIC SITE

BAKER

BEACH

Pacific Ocean

1

101

CHINA

BEACH

GGNRA: Baker Beach, Presidio, Crissy Field

VETERANS BLVD

T

Presidio

Transit

Center

LINCOLN AVE

MONTGOMERY

GOGA TrailsRegional TrailsRidge TrailMUNI Bus RouteGolden Gate TransitPresidiGoGGNRA GMP AreaOther Park Areas(including Presidio Trust)

xx

Coastal Trail

xx

ParkingArea

VisitorCenter

TRAILS

TRANSIT

B

C

R

SF Bay Trail

Bikeways

0 0.25 0.5

Miles

San Francisco Transportation Network: Baker Beach, Presidio, Crissy Field

30TH AVE

ANZA ST

FULTON ST

BALBOA ST

32ND AVE

CABRILLO ST

36TH AVE

47TH AVE

41ST AVE

CLEMENT ST

34TH AVE

35TH AVE

38TH AVE

39TH AVE

40TH AVE

44TH AVE

45TH AVE

33RD AVE

42ND AVE

43RD AVE

37TH AVE

46TH AVE

48TH AVE

JOHN F KENNEDY DR

GREAT HWY

MARTIN LUTHER KING JR DR

EL CAMINO DEL MAR

31ST AVE

MIDDLE WEST DR

POINT LOBOS AVE

LA PLAYA ST

LINCOLN WAY

LAKE ST

CHAIN OF LAKES DR

CALIFORNIA ST

SEAL ROCK DR

SUNSET BLVD

METSON RD

VETERANS DR

MCCLAINS BEND

SEA VIEW TER

GEARY BLVD

32ND AVE

40TH AVE

EL CAMINO DEL MAR

36TH AVE

31ST AVE

38TH AVE

34TH AVE

VETERANS DR

29 16AX

18

18

18

C

C

C

C

C

C

GIS Data Source: GGNRA, City & County of San Francisco,

GreenInfo Network, MTC, MUNI, CASIL

GGNRA: Lands End, Sutro Heights

GOGA Trails

Regional Trails

Coastal Trail

MUNI Bus Route

GGNRA GMP Area

Other Park Areas

xx

Parking Area

TRAILS

TRANSIT

C

Bikeways

Golden Gate Park

Pacific Ocean

O C E A N B E A C H

Spreckles

Lake

North

Lake

Middle

Lake

South

Lake

LANDS END

CHINA

BEACH

SUTRO

HEIGHTS

PARK

Cliff

House

Point

Lobos

Sutro

Baths

California

Palace of

the Legion

of Honor

Lincoln Park

Golf Course

18

18

18

38

38

38

31 38

31 38

5

5

31

2

5

38

2

2

1

1

Department of

Veterans Affairs

Medical Center

0 0.25 0.5

Miles

San Francisco Transportation Network: Lands End, Sutro Heights

BART

18

66

66

48 48

29

23

71

71

L

18

18

23

18

18

L

N

29

29

16AX

16BX

16AX 16BX

K

M

M

28L

28

28L

28

88

18

88

88

17

17

17

48

L

C R

C R

C

R

C

R

C

C

C

R

R

R

JOHN DALY BLVD

WILSHIRE AVE

NORTHGATE AVE

LAKE MERCED BLVD

WESTDALE AVE

LAKE VISTA AVE

WESTLAWN AVE

NIANTIC AVE

GLENWOOD AVE

GREAT HWY

34TH AVE

37TH AVE

36TH AVE

35TH AVE

42ND AVE

45TH AVE

44TH AVE

47TH AVE

46TH AVE

43RD AVE

IRVING ST

19TH AVE

17TH AVE

30TH AVE

28TH AVE

31ST AVE

ULLOA ST

41ST AVE

33RD AVE

29TH AVE

32ND AVE

48TH AVE

ORTEGA ST

KIRKHAM ST

TARAVAL ST

VICENTE ST

WAWONA ST

SANTIAGO ST

MORAGA ST

19TH AVE

OCEAN AVE

QUINTARA ST

27TH AVE

40TH AVE

38TH AVE

SKYLINE BLVD

JOHN MUIR DR

EUCALYPTUS DR

15TH AVE

PACHECO ST

RIVERA ST

CRESTLAKE DR

14TH AVE

HARDING RD

LAKE MERCED BLVD

MONTICELLO ST

GELLERT DR

LA PLAYA ST

BEVERLY ST

SERRANO DR

GARCES DR

STRATFORD DR

LUNADO WAY

25TH AVE

23RD AVE

21ST AVE

SLOAT BLVD

HERBST RD

FONT BLVD

CLEARFIELD DR

LAKESHORE DR

CAMBON DR

MORNINGSIDE DR

CECELIA AVE

LINCOLN WAY

EVERGLADE DR

GRIJALVA DR

INVERNESS DR

SUNSET BLVD

BROTHERHOOD WAY

CHESTER AVE

PINTO AVE

QUINTARA ST

25TH AVE

20TH AVE

YORBA ST

FONT BLVD

15TH AVE

22ND AVE

39TH AVE

21ST AVE

26TH AVE

26TH AVE

LAWTON ST

23RD AVE

JUNIPERO SERRA BLVD

23RD AVE

24TH AVE

15TH AVE

RIVERA ST

Golden Gate Park

Pacific Ocean

Lake

Merced

(South)

Sunset

Reservoir

San Francisco Zoo

Sigmund

Stern

Grove

LINCOLN WAY

JUDAH ST

NORIEGA ST

20TH AVE

19TH AVE

Pine Lake

Park

San Francisco

State University

Harding Park

Golf Club

Stonestown

Galleria

Olympic Club

Golf Course San Francisco

Golf Club

Lake Merced

Golf Club

FORT

FUNSTON

O C E A N B E A C H

San Francisco County

San Mateo County

35

1

1

Lake

Merced

(North)

280

McCoppin

Square

Parkside

Square

West

Sunset

Playground

Larsen

Park

Sunset

Recreation

Center

South

Sunset

Playground

Grand

View

Park

0 0.5 1

Miles

GIS Data Source: GGNRA, CASIL, City & County of San Francisco,

County of San Mateo, GreenInfo Network, MTC, MUNI, BART

GGNRA: Ocean Beach, Fort Funston

GOGA Trails

Regional Trails

Coastal Trail

MUNI Bus Route

MUNI Light Rail

SamTrans

GGNRA GMP Area

Other Park Areas

xx

Ridge Trail

Parking

Area

Visitor

Center

TRAILS

TRANSIT

X

C

R

Bikeways

San Francisco Transportation Network: Ocean Beach, Fort Funston

!(

!(

!(

!(

!(

!(

Daly City

Colma

South San

Francisco

San

Bruno

SFO

Millbrae

B

C

R

B

C

B

C

R

R

R

R

R

R

R

C

C

C

C

B B

B

C

S a n Fr a n c i s c o

B a y

San Bruno Mountain

County Park

MILAGRA

RIDGE

PEDRO

POINT

MORI

POINT

SWEENEY

RIDGE

DEVIL’S

SLIDE

CATTLE

HILL Pacifica

State

Beach

Rockaway

Beach

San

Andreas

Reservoir

San Francisco

International

Airport

Pacific

Ocean

Lower

Crystal

Springs

Reservoir

Pilarcitas

Lake

El Granada

Moss

Beach

Half Moon

Bay

Airport

Montara

San

Bruno

Millbrae

Pacifica

South

San

Francisco

Daly

City

Brisbane

C

C

C

294

101

92

101

101

1

1

San Francisco County

San Mateo

County

280

280

380

280

280

Golden Gate

National

Cemetery

JUNIPERO SERRA BLVD

GRAND AVE

LINDA MAR BLVD

FASSLER AVE

294

294

14

112

110

112

110

121

140

140

123

110 120

120

120

110

112

110

121

123

112

121

123

14

17

17

17

294

342

342

140

Junipero

Serra

County

Park

Colma

EL CAMINO REAL

EL CAMINO REAL 82

82

McNee Ranch

State Park

SFPUC

PENINSULA WATERSHED

(NPS Easement)

CORRAL

D E

TIERRA

SNEATH

LN

Daly City

BART

110 121

San Bruno

BART

140

Millbrae

Caltrain / BART

342

Colma BART

112 121 123

GIS Data Source: GGNRA, San Mateo County, MROSD, City & County of San Francisco,

GreenInfo Network, MTC, SamTrans, MUNI, BART, CalTrain, CASIL

GGNRA: Northern San Mateo County

0 1.25 2.5

Miles

Regional Trails

Ridge Trail

Coastal Trail

MUNI Bus Routes

BART with Station

GGNRA GMP Area

Other Park Areas

Parking Area

TRAILS

TRANSIT

GOGA Trails

Bikeways

C CalTrain with Station 

xx SamTrans Routes

B SF Bay Trail

C

R

Easement Area

Future Park Area

Park & Ride

San Mateo County Transportation Network: Northern San Mateo County

Huddart

County Park

Burleigh H. Murray Ranch

Edgewood

County Park

Purisima Creek

Redwoods OSP

Teague Hill OSP

Mills Creek OSP

Pulgas

Ridge OSP

El Corte de

Madera Creek OSP

CANADA RD

RALSTON AVE

OLD CANADA RD

PURISIMA CREEK RD

31ST AVE

PARROTT DR

CRESTVIEW DR

CHULA VISTA

28TH AVE

W HILLSDALE BLVD

CLUB DR

EDGEWOOD RD

CAHILL RIDGE RD

POLHEMUS RD

HACIENDA ST

26TH AVE

HILLER ST

41ST AVE

HALLMARK DR

W 39TH AVE

BRITTAN AVE

37TH AVE

EDISON ST

LEXINGTON AVE

OLD COUNTY RD

SARATOGA DR

SWETT RD

HASSLER RD

TOURNAMENT DR

22ND AVE

GREER RD

PATROL RD

FLORES ST

W 20TH AVE

STAR HILL RD

E 40TH AVE

DEVONSHIRE BLVD

HASTINGS DR

CURTISS ST

EXETER AVE

CIPRIANI

YEW ST

BAYVIEW AVE

RUNNYMEDE RD

PICO AVE

WARE RD

ARCHERY FIRE RD

ALAMEDA DE LAS PLUGAS

ORINDA DR

LAURELWOOD DR

43RD AVE

HENRIK

IRENE CT

C 101

92

92

280

Upper Crystal Springs

Reservoir

Lower

Crystal

Springs

Reservoir

35

92

294

RALSTON

NOTRE DAME

PHLEGER

ESTATE

35

35

295

260

260

294

San Mateo

294

294

260

294

295

295

295

262

C

262

262

260

260

262

Belmont

San Carlos

Hillsborough

SFPUC

PENINSULA WATERSHED

(NPS Easement)

B

B

B

R

R

R

R

R

R

R

R

Regional Trails

Ridge Trail

Bikeway

GGNRA GMP Area

Other Park Areas

Parking Area

TRAILS

TRANSIT

GOGA Trails

C CalTrain with Station 

xx SamTrans Routes

B SF Bay Trail

R

Park & Ride

Belmont

Caltrain

260

Hillsdale

Caltrain

294 295

GGNRA: Phleger Estate, SF Watershed

GIS Data Source: GGNRA, San Mateo County, MROSD, City & County of San Francisco,

GreenInfo Network, MTC, SamTrans, MUNI, BART, CalTrain, CASIL

0 0.75 1.5

Miles

San Mateo County Transportation Network: Phleger Estate, SFPUC Watershed 

Volume II: 179 

PARK MANAGEMENT, OPERATIONS, AND FACILITIES 

(INCLUDING BOTH GOLDEN GATE NATIONAL 

RECREATION AREA AND MUIR WOODS NATIONAL 

MONUMENT) 

STAFFING 

The park management team and staff are responsible for both Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument. In 2009, the park was staffed by 

335 full-time-equivalent employees (FTEs), which includes full-time, part-time, term, 

temporary, and student employment. The NPS staff is supplemented by the staff of the 

Golden Gate National Parks Conservancy, numerous park partners, and a large number of 

volunteers who fulfill critical roles within the operations and programming of the park 

and monument. 

Office of the Superintendent 

The Office of the Superintendent includes managerial activities of the Superintendent, 

Deputy Superintendent, Public Affairs, and Strategic Planning and Initiatives, as well as 

administrative staffs. The Deputy Superintendent’s Office is responsible for a 

considerable portion of the park management including staff in the areas of 

administration, business management, cultural resources and museum management, 

interpretation and education, environmental and safety, maintenance, natural resources 

management and science, planning and compliance, visitor resources and protection and 

administration. 

Planning, Projects and Compliance 

The Division of Planning is an assemblage of planning, environmental review, 

transportation, and design professionals who provide park management with the technical 

expertise and policy guidance needed to plan for preservation and protection of the park’s 

natural and cultural resources, provide for appropriate public use, and manage public 

involvement in the planning and decision-making process. Planning staff work as a team 

with other park divisions, park partners, other agencies, and consultants to make this 

mission a reality. 

Given the complexity of managing a large park unit adjacent to a high density, urban 

population, the project workload into the future is substantial. Adequate planning staff is 

critical for achieving the park’s vision; maintaining positive relationships with the public; 

and meeting the high expectations set internally by the National Park Service and 

externally by the community. The park’s ability to benefit from the philanthropic 

capacity of the Bay Area will continue to depend heavily on the park’s ability to plan for 

and manage projects and programs funded by outside sources. Current funding provides 

about two-thirds of the needs for management and administration with the balance 

derived from external sources. 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Volume II: 180 

Cultural Resources and Museum Management Division 

This division oversees management of more than 365 inventoried archeological sites, 

some of which predate European contact and constitute the most tangible connection 

between the Coast Miwok and Ohlone communities and park lands, and more than 700 

historic structures, most of which related to military and maritime commercial themes 

stretching over a period of more than 200 years. The park includes 5 national historic 

landmarks, 12 properties listed in the National Register of Historic Places, and 7 

properties determined eligible for national register listing; 9 documented cultural 

landscapes, including rural landscapes and dairy ranches; and 4.2 million items in 

museum collections. The staff for this division includes authorization for 16 FTEs, 

however, 4 key positions (3 Historical and Landscape Architects and 1 Compliance 

Assistant) are term appointments and dependent on funding levels. The division is 

working toward documenting baseline conditions of all park resources in an effort to 

guide future operations and programs. Volunteers are necessary to support the park staff, 

given the large number, diversity, and significance of the park’s cultural resources. 

Environmental and Safety Division 

This group is responsible for environmental protection and occupational health and 

safety; the staff consists of 1% of the total park workforce. The division manages the 

park’s sustainability programs and is central to addressing climate change. Minimizing 

the park’s environmental impact and movement towards being climate neutral are core 

responsibilities of the division. The group also manages comprehensive water and energy 

conservation programs, reduced fossil fuel consumption, sustainable waste management, 

hazardous and universal waste management, air permits, hazardous materials, and 

hazardous waste remediation projects. 

Facility Operations and Maintenance Division 

The Operations and Maintenance Division is responsible for ensuring the physical 

integrity of park assets and infrastructure. Facility management includes responsibility 

for buildings, utilities, roads, trails, grounds, housing, and project management. The park 

staff maintains over $150 billion worth of structures and infrastructure. One-third of park 

staff work in the division. This workforce includes electricians, gardeners, engineering 

equipment operators, and other specialists that work to ensure the parks are safe and 

prepared for visitors. 

Responsibilities are divided geographically, as well as by asset type: trails, roads, 

housing, buildings, and utilities. Project management and special fund source projects 

also have separate groups. Nearly half of the park building square footage is occupied by 

park partners in exchange for assuming building maintenance and other responsibilities. 

Further, in 2009, park volunteers provided 24,500 hours of support toward maintenance 

projects, mostly trail projects. Despite creative approaches in supplementing the work of 

park staff, the workload needed to maintain and support the park assets exceeds the 

available staff resources, resulting in a significant maintenance backlog. The maintenance 

of aging infrastructure within the park requires increasing resources and results in 

increased operational and environmental risks. A majority of the maintenance needs 
Park Management, Operations, and Facilities 

(including both Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument) 

Volume II: 181 

annually go unmet due to insufficient funding, which results in an increasing backlog of 

deferred maintenance. 

Visitor and Resource Protection Division 

This group includes responsibilities for law enforcement, structural fire suppression, and 

wildland fire control. Safety services are particularly unique within the park due to its 

urban location, its large area, and the variety of water and land-based recreation that 

occurs within the park. The staff in this division make up 30% of the total staff for the 

park. Law enforcement and the U.S. Park Police are responsible for enforcing law and 

protecting the public’s safety. Law enforcement staff is organized into several geographic 

areas north and south of the Golden Gate Bridge. Patrol operations are conducted in 

marked and unmarked police cruisers, motorcycles, bicycles, on foot, horseback, and 

with all-terrain vehicles, although a lack of sufficient patrolling units has resulted in 

adverse impacts to the park’s resources. 

Safety services include search and rescue, emergency medical services, and structural and 

wildland firefighting. The structural fire department also includes paramedic support and 

lifeguards. Wildland fires are managed by a staff of nine. The Office of Fire Management 

monitors and responds to all wildand fires within the park and maintains an appropriate 

preparedness level in accordance with the park’s 2006 fire management plan. Structural 

fires within the park and in the Presidio are handled by the Presidio Fire Department. The 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area's Fire Management Program is part of the San 

Francisco Bay Area Network. Fire staff based at Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

also serve Point Reyes National Seashore, John Muir National Historic Site, Eugene 

O'Neil National Historic Site, and Pinnacles National Monument. Professional lifeguards 

are located at Stinson Beach and patrol units cover the 6-mile stretch of Ocean Beach. A 

small park horse patrol, using 3 or 4 NPS horses, is managed by division staff, with over 

7,200 volunteer hours provided in 2009. 

Interpretation and Education Division 

The Interpretation and Education Division aims to connect people to their parks. The 

division includes Community Outreach, Education Programs, and the Volunteers-InParks Program, and provides staff for specific interpretation services throughout Golden 

Gate National Recreation Area, Fort Point National Historic Site, and Muir Woods 

National Monument. Staff in this division make up 10% of the park’s workforce, which 

includes permanent and term staff as well as students. The interpretation and education 

division has the responsibility of communicating the value and significance of the park 

and monument’s resources to the public through signs, exhibits, brochures, ranger-led 

programs, and audio tours. Interpretation programs are offered at Alcatraz Island, Muir 

Woods National Monument, Fort Point National Historic Site, the Presidio, Fort Funston, 

the Sutro District, Marin Headlands, San Mateo County, the Crissy Field Center, and 

other locations throughout the park. Community Outreach staff are responsible for 

managing communications and outreach to the local community. 

Education Programs staff deliver formal curriculum-based educational programs to 

approximately 20,000 Bay Area children annually on topics including habitat restoration, 

invasive species, marine biology, plate tectonics, geology formations, and day-to-day life 
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at Fort Point National Historic Site. The Volunteers-In-Parks program manages 

thousands of volunteers who contribute over 300,000 hours annually to park programs. 

The demand for education and interpretive programs far exceeds what the park is 

currently able to deliver. Many valuable resources within the park and monument are not 

interpreted due to limited staff and funding for program development. Park partners such 

as the Bay Area Discovery Museum, Headlands Institute, Marine Mammal Center, Point 

Bonita YMCA, and Slide Ranch assist in meeting the public’s demand for educational 

and interpretive programs; however, a significant gap remains between park offerings and 

the public demand. 

Natural Resources Management and Sciences Division 

The Natural Resources Division includes responsibility for protection of a diverse array 

of aquatic, vegetation, wildlife, and physical resources. The park’s 80,500 acres of land 

and water extend from Tomales Bay in Marin County south into San Mateo County. 

Division staff manages the park’s ecosystems and numerous plant and animal species, 

including many sensitive, rare, threatened, or endangered species. With only 4% of the 

park’s total staff working in the division, including base-funded and project-funded staff, 

the division’s work is further supported by specialists from the Golden Gate National 

Parks Conservancy and by Volunteers-In-Parks natural resource stewards. Current 

staffing levels prevent the park from completing the baseline studies and monitoring 

necessary to guide the park’s natural resources preservation efforts in the future. 

Management, Administration, and Business Services 

This division makes up 15% of the park’s staff and is responsible for integrating 

operations and organizational support across the park. The staff consists of personnel in 

Administration, Budget and Finance, Contracting and Procurement, Fee Collection, 

Human Resources, Information Technology, Public Affairs and Special Events, the 

Superintendent’s Office, and the Office of Strategic Planning. The Business Management 

office oversees complex contracts and partnership agreements that provide key services 

within the park. The division also manages leases, concessions, and the legal aspects of 

park and partner projects, including property easements, encroachments, and acquisition 

of new lands.

PARTNERS AND OTHER ENTITIES 

The Volunteer-In-Parks program is critical to the ongoing operation of Golden Gate 

National Recreation Area and Muir Woods National Monument. Volunteers provide 

between 300,000 and 400,000 volunteer hours to various programs and efforts within the 

park in a typical year. However, due to staff limitations to manage volunteer efforts, the 

volunteer program does not have the capacity to grow and provide additional benefit to 

the parks. 

As a park partner for more than 24 years, the nonprofit Golden Gate National Parks 

Conservancy has provided more than $80 million in assistance to the park and 

monument. This organization provides support with education and interpretation 
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programs and with the protection of natural and cultural resources; the Golden Gate 

National Parks Conservancy also collaborates with the National Park Service with visitor 

program partnerships, including the Crissy Field Center and the Institute of the Golden 

Gate. The organization has been instrumental in facilitating visitor enhancements 

throughout the park, including the spectacular transformation of Crissy Field, 

improvements to Alcatraz Island, and the successful Trails Forever program. 

In addition to programs offered by the National Park Service, park visitors can enjoy 

programs provided by a number of nonprofit organizations in facilities owned by the 

National Park Service. There are many other excellent park partners who provide 

conservation restoration and protection, environmental education, outreach programs, and 

recreational opportunities that support the goals of the park while achieving their own 

organization’s missions. 

Many of the parks’ better known partners are located in the Marin Headlands, just north 

of the Golden Gate Bridge. These include the Marine Mammal Center, Headlands 

Institute (a part of NatureBridge), Bay Area Discovery Museum, Headlands Center for 

the Arts, Point Bonita YMCA, and Hostelling International. The Fort Mason Center 

houses 23 nonprofit organizations and provides meeting, exhibit, recreation, and 

performance space in 11 historic landmark buildings. Alcatraz Cruises LLC (a part of 

Hornblower Cruises and Events) brings visitors to and from the island. The park staff 

continues to explore new partnerships and to improve ways to nurture and sustain them to 

extend ongoing collaborations. 

PARK FACILITIES 

The large size of Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Muir Woods National 

Monument, in combination with the diversity of natural and cultural resources and the 

history of land use, makes for numerous facilities to be maintained and managed. The 

park lands contain approximately 1,150 total facilities that include buildings, trails, roads, 

and other structures and landscapes. 

The park has been at the forefront of asset management planning, and has creatively 

found ways to adaptively reuse historic buildings, to lease space to park partners, and to 

prioritize funding towards most needed maintenance and deferred maintenance. 

Sustainability goals are being incorporated into facility and systems construction. The 

park has also proactively worked with partners to obtain outside funding for projects. 
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Table 12: The Golden Gate National Recreation Area Portfolio Summarized by Record 

Count for Various Asset Types 

Asset Type NPS Partner Total 

Historic Buildings 142 88 230

Nonhistoric 

Buildings 

105 117 222 

Maintained 

Landscapes 

35 1 36 

Trails 146 1 147 

Paved and 

Unpaved Roads 

215 1 216 

Parking Lots 113 0 113 

Water Systems 16 2 18 

Wastewater 

Systems 

13 2 15 

Other Assets 187 4 191 

Note: Many of the park’s historic assets such as archeological sites and cultural 

landscapes are described in the Cultural Resources section. 

Historic and Nonhistoric Buildings 

Nearly half of the buildings within park lands are historic, carrying special consideration 

for maintenance. A significant number of buildings are managed and maintained by the 

partner organizations occupying them. 

Maintained Landscapes 

The park maintains landscapes for public use, such as the grounds surrounding buildings. 

The Upper Fort Mason grounds and the Alcatraz Island gardens are examples. 

Trails, Roads, and Parking 

The staff maintains paved and unpaved roads throughout the park. Roads need continual 

maintenance in which lack of funding reduces the ability to maintain them at an optimum 

level. 

The park maintains extensive trail networks. Additional trails will be coming into park 

management with the acquisition of new areas in San Mateo County. The park has an 

extensive trails network, which is heavily used due to the urban park setting. This 
Park Management, Operations, and Facilities 

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requires diligent maintenance; it is a challenge to find funding sources to support the 

necessary work. Park partners assist in this area through donations. 

The park maintains 113 parking lots, which range in size, and serve many of the major 

sites. 

Utilities 

Water and wastewater capacity are critical to all sites within the park lands. System needs 

vary over time and can be stressed by increases in use as well as the age and level of 

maintenance. Planning for utilities is critical in order to ensure excellence in operational 

effectiveness, sustainability, and conservation. Current water and wastewater system 

constraints occur at Alcatraz Island and Stinson Beach. Several systems are antiquated 

and many are failing and require constant maintenance. Replacement of these systems is 

a high priority. 

Park Operations, Maintenance, and Public Safety Facilities 

Park operations, maintenance, and public safety functions are presently scattered 

throughout the park at sites and facilities that were not intended for these uses. Staff 

carrying out these functions have been forced to adapt to conditions that do not 

adequately meet their space, size, function, mobility, and security requirements. 

Maintenance and public safety operations have moved numerous times over a short 

period, requiring staff to reprogram their operations; this has resulted in operational 

inefficiencies. Ideally, park maintenance and public safety staff would have adequate 

space for both personnel and facilities located with appropriate access to various park 

units. Additionally, sheltered space for a variety of equipment is needed for equipment 

protection and efficient operations. 

Park Maintenance Facilities 

For efficient operations, park maintenance staff require secured vehicle parking, ability to 

receive cell and radio transmissions, access to arterial roads and highways for moving 

equipment, and ideally access to transit for ease of access for staff. Many of these criteria 

are not currently met by the existing facilities. Given the coastal climate, with its salt air 

and blowing sand, equipment life is significantly shortened by storage outdoors or in 

unenclosed shelters. Currently, there is inadequate enclosed storage for maintenance 

equipment within the park. 
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Table 13: Maintenance Facilities 

Location Description 

Muir Woods National Monument 

Park maintenance is supported by a small office in the 

Administration-Concession Building, maintenance 

operations in the Old Inn, and facilities at Lower Conlon 

Avenue. These spaces support trail maintenance, building 

maintenance, and office space. A maintenance yard is 

located adjacent to Muir Woods Road near Conlon Avenue.

Marin County 

Stinson Beach 4 modular buildings for offices, a workshop, and storage 

Tennessee Valley Barn used for the storage of trail maintenance supplies and 

shared with the park horse patrol 

Nike Missile Site Maintenance yard, road maintenance operations, and for 

storage of fill materials 

Fort Baker Buildings and utilities shop and parking for vehicles and 

equipment (the building is temporary and scheduled for 

demolition to provide space for visitor parking) 

Fort Cronkhite Grounds maintenance operations, a sign shop, offices, and 

storage 

San Francisco County 

Alcatraz Island Park operations and maintenance facilities within former 

prison buildings 

Upper Fort Mason Grounds maintenance operations and administrative offices

East Fort Miley A small onsite maintenance facility, heavy vehicle repairs, 

office space and shops on the east side in a warehouse 

and battery 

Fort Funston Park maintenance support located in former military 

structures 

The Presidio Additional maintenance functions and storage 
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Location Description 

San Mateo County 

Shelldance Nursery Vehicle storage 

Native Plant Nurseries Small native plant nurseries are located at Tennessee 

Valley, Marin Headlands, and adjacent to Muir Woods Road 

in Marin County and at Fort Funston in San Francisco 

County. Another native plant nursery is located in the 

Presidio. The National Park Service, Presidio Trust, and the 

Golden Gate National Parks Conservancy cooperate in its 

use and management. All nurseries serve as volunteer 

stewardship centers and facilitate significant volunteer 

contributions to the parks natural resource and restoration 

programs. 

Public Safety Facilities 

Currently public safety staff shares space with other divisions throughout the park. This is 

less than ideal because there are certain public safety functions that need to be exclusive 

and secured. Further, efficient operation requires adequate space for training and 

meetings, visibility to the public for reporting incidents, adequate cell and radio coverage, 

and access to public transportation for staff. Current public safety facilities do not meet 

these requirements in each location, and reassignment of space for public safety is 

desirable. 

Within Marin County, the park’s public safety program has an office at Stinson Beach 

that provides space for law enforcement, water safety, and seasonal Emergency Medical 

Services staff, along with storage. Fort Cronkhite Building 1056 is the main, parkwide 

law enforcement office. The small park horse patrol is located at lower Tennessee Valley. 

The park’s public safety office in San Francisco County includes Presidio Building 223, 

Fort Miley and Upper Fort Mason, Fort Funston, and lifeguard operations at China 

Beach. The Alcatraz Island public safety office is housed in Building 64, the historic 

barracks on the north end of the island. 

The public safety staff at Muir Woods National Monument is located in the 

Administration-Concession Building.

Residential Facilities 

The park continues to provide some limited housing for employees. The park staff 

manages park housing units located in the Marin Headlands. Housing in the San 

Francisco Bay Area is among the most expensive in the United States. Recruitment and 

retention of employees for both the park and park partners are hindered by the expense of 

housing in the area and low number of available park housing units. 
PART 7: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

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ASSET MANAGEMENT 

With a large number of facilities and constrained funding, the park staff strives to address 

the challenge of maintaining assets in acceptable condition and sustaining them over 

time. Park staff is responsible for maintaining nearly 1,150 assets; base funding of $5.3 

million covers only a portion of the annual operations and maintenance requirements of 

$24.6 million. 

For the same NPS-occupied and NPS-maintained assets, annual special project funding of 

approximately $6.0 million covers only a small portion of its $148.8 million in deferred 

maintenance backlog. Including the park assets managed by park partners, total 

documented park deferred maintenance exceeds $198.1 million. 

In 2006, the park staff developed one of the first park asset management plans to describe 

its asset inventory, summarize its current budget, communicate funding requirements, 

and provide strategies to better manage assets that are essential to park operations and to 

high-quality visitor experiences. This document was updated in 2009. 

Operations and Maintenance Funding Priorities 

Assets maintained and managed by the park’s Maintenance Division (e.g., nonpartner 

assets) were categorized into priority levels based on a variety of factors. Those factors 

include the importance of the assets to the mission of the park and the recognized level of 

maintenance needed to keep the assets operational to suit their intended functions. 

Funding is then directed towards the highest priority assets, while lower priority assets 

will be maintained to the best level that limited available funding allows. However, even 

with prioritization, there remains $2.9 million in priority band 1 and 2 assets that would 

remain unfunded and therefore represent the most pressing unfunded needs for operations 

and maintenance. See table 14. 

Partner Assets 

Roughly one-half of all park buildings are affiliated with partners or concessioners. 

While the park shares maintenance responsibility for many of these assets, most of the 

concession and partner facilities are under contractual arrangements. The park asset 

management plan has identified some specific funding needs and issues for key park 

partners; with new draft maintenance plans in place, park management can now followup with partners to clearly communicate recommendations for best addressing needed 

maintenance. The goal is for the park staff to help its partners identify and address 

maintenance needs in a way that sustains the overall asset portfolio in support of the park 

mission. 
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Table 14: Golden Gate National Recreation Areas Operation and Maintenance Planned 

Funding Summary 

O&M* Optimizer 

Priority Band 

Asset 

Count 

Base O&M 

Allocations 

O&M 

Benchmarks 

Percent 

Coverage 

O&M 

Funding Gap

 Highest 

Priority 

81 $3,561,497 $5,148,089 69% $1,586,592**

 High 

Priority 

133 $1,012,566 $2,405,661 42% $1,393,095**

 Medium 

Priority 

132 $545,513 $2,298,316 24% $1,752,803 

 Lower 

Priority 

290 $200,043 $7,987,277 3% $7,787,234 

 Lowest 

Priority 

276 $718 $6,781,986 0% $6,781,268 

Totals 912 $5,320,337 $24,621,329 22% $19,300,992

*Operation and Maintenance 

**Gap for bands 1–2: $2,979,687 

Removal of Assets 

Removing unneeded assets that are not mission related is essential to keeping the 

portfolio a manageable size and allowing available funding to be spent on a smaller pool 

of higher priority assets. In developing the GMP alternatives, the park staff identified 

potential assets that could be disposed of over the life of the plan. The facilities identified 

through this process generally consist of nonhistoric structures in poor condition with no 

mission related use existing or planned. 

Addressing Deferred Maintenance 

Recognizing that the park cannot reasonably address all of its deferred maintenance in the 

short run, the park has a schedule of facility projects that extends out 10 years; this plan 

addresses the highest priority assets and most critical equipment needs. The condition of 

these more important assets will show the most rapid improvement, measured by the 

facility condition index. If 100% of project funding were applied to critical needs and 

projected component renewal, the park would stabilize the condition of the critical 

components of its portfolio. 

The GMP process has also identified deferred maintenance savings that would be 

achieved by taking the actions proposed in the alternatives. Deferred maintenance issues 

can be addressed through several actions recommended in the general management plan, 

including removal, stabilization, restoration, renovation, and preservation of facilities. 

The park is pursuing a reduction in deferred maintenance through other funding methods 
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as well, such as the use of historic leasing as a source of funds to reinvest in historic 

structures, pursuing Federal Land and Highway Program (FLHP) funds, pursuing annual 

special project funds, using a portion of proceeds from concession franchise fee funds, 

and dedicating some repair and maintenance funds for component renewal. The park will 

also continue to look for opportunities to work with partners in addressing deferred 

maintenance when updating or issuing new partner agreements. 

Table 15: Project Funding and Deferred Maintenance 

Type of Funding Amount 

Estimated Annual Special Project Funding $6.0 million 

NPS Deferred Maintenance $148.8 million 

Combined NPS and Partner Deferred Maintenance $198.1 million 

Sustainability 

In a ‘funding-constrained’ world, it is also extremely helpful for the park to identify more 

efficient ways of operating and managing its assets. The park staff has identified goals for 

achieving a higher level of sustainability, including managing and tracking energy 

performance, using renewable fuels, conserving water at high use areas, and continuing 

to enact best practices in waste management. The park managers also recognize the need 

to broadly communicate sustainability goals with park staff and to collaborate with park 

partners. These measures are opportunities for the park to find cost savings and become 

more fiscally responsible. 

Coordination between the General Management Plan and the Park 

Asset Management Plan 

Asset data from the park asset management plan helped to inform the development of the 

GMP alternatives. The updates of the park asset management plan, in light of the 

planning process for the general management plan, provide an extraordinary opportunity 

for park managers to promote sound asset management principles, incorporate the value 

and objectives of partnership relationships, and advance sustainability goals in a 

coordinated manner.