Annual Report No. 8

Fiscal Year 2001

OCS Study MMS 2002-001
This study was funded in part by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service

(MMS), through Cooperative Agreement No. 14-35-01-98-CA-30909, Task Order No. 15161,

between the MMS, Alaska Outer Continental Sheff Region, and the University of Alaska Fairbanks.

The opinions, findings, condusions, or recommendations expressed in this report or product are those

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Minerals Management Service, nor does

mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement of recommendation for use

by the Federal Government.
SUBMITTED BY

Vera Alexander

Director

University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute

TO

U.S. Department of the Interior

Minerals Management Service

Alaska OCS Region

Anchorage, Alaska

January 2002
Contact information

e-mail: cmi@sfos.uaf.edu

phone: 907.474.7707

fax: 907.474.7204

postal: Coastal Marine Institute

School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences

University of Alaska Fairbanks

Fairbanks, AK 99775-7220
Kinetics and Mechanisms of Slow PAH Desorption from Lower Cook Inlet

and Beaufort Sea Sediments

[TO 15170]

Susan M Henrichs, John A. Terschak and David G. Shaw 28

An Experimental Approach to Investigate Seasonal Differences in the Role of

Zooplankton in the Distribution of Hydrocarbons

[TO 15171]

Thomas C. Shirley and Switgard Duesterloh 39

Seabird Samples as Resources for Marine Environmental Assessment

[TO 15173]

Kevin Winker and Deborah A. Rocque 48

Beaufort and Chukchi Sea Seasonal Variability for Two Arctic Climate States

[TO 15174]

Andrey Y. Proshutinsky, James A. Maslanilç Mark A. Johnson

and Tatiana 0. Pros hutinsky 52

In
Arctic Alaska) as Related to the Prudhoe Bay Industrial Region

[TO 15181]

A. Sathy Naidu and John J. Kelley 102

Importance of the Alaskan Beaufort Sea to King Eiders (Somatena spectabilis)

[TO 15182]

Abby N. Powell 103

Funding Summary 104

University of Alaska CMI Publications 107

iv
How do OCS activities affect people in terms of jobs and the economy? What are the

direct and indirect effects on local culture? What are the psychological effects of the

proposed OCS activities?

Because MMS and individual states have distinct but complementary roles in the decision-making

process, reliable scientific information is needed by MMS, the state, and localities potentially affected

by OCS operations. In light of this, MMS has developed a locally managed CMI program. Under this

program, MMS takes advantage of highly-qualified scientific expertise at local levels in order to:

Collect and disseminate environmental information needed for OCS oil & gas and

marine minetals decisions;

Address local and regional OCS-related environmental and resource issues of

mutual interest; and

Strengthen the partnership between MMS and the state in addressing OCS oil & gas

and maiine minerals information needs.

CMI is administered by the University of Alaska Fairbanks School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences to

address some of these mutual concerns and share the cost of research. Alaska was selected as the location

for this CMI because it contains some of the major potential offshore oil and gas producing areas in

the United States. The University of Alaska Fairbanks is uniquely suited to participate by virtue of its

flagship status within the state and its nationally recognized marine and coastal expertise relevant to the

broad range of OCS program information needs. In addition, MMS and the University of Alaska have

I
Initial guidelines given to prospective researchers identified Cook Inlet and Shelikof Strait, as well as

the Beaufort and Chukchi seas, as areas of chief concern to MMS and the state. Primary emphasis has

subsequently shifted to the Beaufort Sea, and to the Chukchi Sea as it relates to the Beaufort Sea.

However, a strong interest in Cook Inlet and Shelikof Strait remains.

The proposal process is initiated each summer with a request for letters of intent to añdress one or more of

the Framework Issues. This request is publicized and sent to researchers at the University of Alaska and

to various state agencies, and to relevant profit and non-profit corporations. The CMI technical steering

committee then decides which of the proposed letters of mtent should be developed into proposals for

more detailed evaluation and possible funding.

Successful investigators are strongly encouraged to publish their results in peer-reviewed journals as well

as to present them at national meetings. In añdition, investigators report their findings at the CMI's annual

research review, held at UAF in February. Some investigators present information directly to the public

and MMS staff in seminars.

Alaskans benefit from the examination and increased understanding of those processes unique to Alaskan

OCS and coastal waters because this enhanced understanding can be applied to problems other than oil,

gas, and mineral extraction, such as subsistence fisheries and northern shipping.

Many of the CMI-funded projects añdress some combination of issues related to fisheries, biomonitonng,

physical oceanography, and the fates of oil. The ultimate intent of CMI-related research is to identify the

ways in which OCS-related activities may affect our environment, and potential economic and social

impacts as well.

2
3

Abstract

The proportion of radio-tagged ringed seals visible on the ice surface from April to June in 1999 and

2000 was used to estimate correction factors for aerial surveys. Eight and ten ringed seals were livecaptured in 1999 and 2000, respectively, and their time resting on the ice was monitored by radio

telemetry. The transition period, defined as the period during which the majority (75%) of the tagged

seals began resting outside of lairs, was longer in 2000 (24 days) than it was in 1999 (7 days). The

midpoint of the transition period, the day by which 50% of the tagged seals began resting in the

open, was 31 May in both years. Only once each year was a lair used subsequent to each seal 'sfirst

appearance outside of a lair. Changes in the number ofseals counted during ground-based, visual

surveys ofsea ls resting on the ice corresponded to changes in the number of radio-tagged seals basking.

Tagged seals spent approximately 20% of the time out of the water before appearing outside of lairs and

approximately 30% of the time out of the water after they began to abandon lairs. The transition from lair

use to resting in the open appeared to be related to measurable characteristics of the snow.
and Beaufort sea coasts of Alaska and related the observed differences to habitat features and human

activities including industrial activities [Burns and Harbo 1972; Burns and Kelly 1982; Frost and Lowry

1988, 1999; Frost Ct al. 1988, 1997, 1998]. More recently LGL Limited environmental research associates

(LGL) used aerial surveys to contrast densities at a much finer scale to assess potential impacts of oil

developments on ringed seals [Green and Johnson 1983; Link et al. 1999; Moulton and Elliott 1999;

Moulton et al. 2000].

In the case of ringed seals, the proportion of the population that is visible during a survey is not only a

function of the proportion of seals in vs. out of water (as in other prnnipeds) but also of the proportion

under vs. on top of the snow. During winter and much of the spring, ringed seals come out of the water to

rest primarily in subnivean lairs excavated above breathing holes in the sea ice [Chapskii 1940; McLaren

1958; Smith and Stirling 1975]. Surveys of ringed seals have been concentrated in late May and early

June when some of the seals are visible resting on the surface of the ice. Adult seals are molting then and

regeneration of the epidermis requires that they bask in the sun to elevate skin temperatures [Feltz and

Fay 1966; King 1983]. At that time of year, seals partition their time between diving under the ice, where

they are not visible, and resting on top of the ice, where they may or may not be visible.

Comparisons of local densities of seals visible on the ice have been used to assess the effects of human

activities on ringed seals [Frost and Lowry 1988; Kelly et al. 1988; Richardson and Williams 2000].

Frequently, the human activities of concern occurred some months before the surveys were conducted,

and the assumption was made that local seal densities had not changed in the interim. Radio tracking and

intensive aerial survey efforts, however, indicated that some ringed seals may move away from their

4
October when there is open water on the Beaufort Sea providing moisture [Dingman et at. 1980; Walker

et al. 1980]. Snow is redistributed by winds throughout the winter [Benson et al. 1975] forming areas of

shallow snow over smooth ice and drifts on the windward and leeward sides of irregularities in the ice

surface (e.g., pressure ridges). Wind-packed snow, in which ringed seals excavate subnivean lairs, reaches

maximal depth in May, averaging 30-40 cm [Benson et aL 1975].

Dogs, trained to indicate sources of ringed seal odor, located subnivean breathing holes and lairs [Smith

and Stirling 1975; Kelly and Quakenbush 1987], and we marked those sites with numbered wooden

stakes and recorded the locations with Global Positioning Systems.

We captured seals in nets that pursed below them when they entered breathing holes [Kelly 1996], and we

glued VHF radio transmitters with unique frequencies to the hair on each seal's back. We monitored radio

signals hourly from stations equipped with 8-element Yagi antennas on a 35-ft high mast and within 5 km

of the seal capture sites. We rotated the antenna through 360° while monitoring and recorded the direction

from which each signal was received. Each time a seal came out of the water, as indicated by the presence

of its radio signal, we determined its location using a mobile receiver and hand-held directional antenna

array. The directional antenna array consisted of two H-antennas communicating with the acoustic

receiver by way of a null combiner. Thus, the bearing from the array to a transmitter was indicated by

a null surrounded by high amplitude signals. Typically, five or more bearings (with an accuracy of

approximately ±3°) from points surrounding a tagged seal were obtained and the seal's position read as

the intersection of those bearings. Once the seal's position was determined, we recorded whether each

seal was concealed within a lair or visible on the snow surface.

5
set nets 41 times and captured 10 seals 15 times (5 recaptured). We tagged and tracked 2 male and 6

female seals in 1999 and 7 male and 3 female seals in 2000.

Temporal patterns in the proportion of seals visible

Aerial surveys of ringed seals in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea have spanned nearly one month, with surveys

conducted as early as 25 May and as late as 21 June. In the 1970s, surveys were always conducted in

June, but in the 1980s and 1990s, surveys were conducted increasingly earlier (Figure 1).

The first radio-tagged seals appeared on the ice outside of lairs on 21 May 1999 and on 3 May 2000.

The latter, an adult male (ELOO) was captured on 3 May 2000 at a hole already open to the surface and,

apparently, began basking there as early as 26 April when a seal was visually observed resting next to that

hole.

Seals spent more time out of the water once they began emerging outside of lairs. The probability of a

tagged seal being out of the water increased from 0.18 when seals were using lairs to 0.30 when seals

were basking in 1999 and from 0.14 when using lairs to 0.37 when basking in 2000. When basking, the

tagged seals showed a strong diel pattern in the proportion of time spent on the ice. Less than 20% of the

tagged seals were visible on the ice between 0000 h and 0800 h (Alaska daylight time), after which the

proportion increased rapidly until about 1200 h (Figure 2). The proportion continued to increase slowly

until 1600 h, after which it declined slowly until about 1900 h and then rapidly until about 0300 h. More

than 45% of the tagged seals were visible on the ice between 1200 h and 1900 h.

6
were centered on nearly the same date. In both years, the transition periods corresponded to changes in

the temperature of the snow near the snowice interface. Most of the radio-tagged seals were basking as

the temperature of the snow reached 0°C.

It may be possible to use historical records of snow conditions to estimate the transition period for

previous years and to correct past surveys for the proportion of ringed seals not visible. Records of snow

temperature on the ice are lacking, but it may be possible to use snow temperature records from the tundra

as a proxy.

The transition from dry, insulating snow to wet, conductive snow is visible in Ku-band radar backscatter

signatures. In collaboration with S.V. Nghiem at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California, we obtained

Ku-band backscatter images of our study area in spring 2000 and were able to correlate the transition of

radio-tagged seals from lair use to basking with the changes in the radar backscatter. The use of the

Ku- band radar data as an early indicator of snowmelt conditions and as a means to determine (remotely

and in real tine) when to fly aerial surveys of ringed seals is worthy of further investigation.

7
2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980 1979 1978 1977 1976 1975 1974 1973 1972 1971 1970 

IIIIIIIII

23 24 25 26 

Figure 1. Dates of aer

Alaska Dep

Zr((
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

4/19 4/29 5/9 5/19 6/8 6/18

Date

Figure 3. The cumulative proportion of radio-tagged seals visible on the surface of

the ice and the total number of seals visible, expressed as a fraction of the

maximal count of visible seals.

9
2 

00

Figure 4. The proportion of radio-tagged seals visible on the ice from 9 May

through 9 June in 1999 (upper panel) and 2000 (lower panel).

10
allo tagged seals visible, and CF estimated as greater than the CF calculated when one seal was

visible.

Acknowledgements

This project is funded by the University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute (Minerals Management

Service), the National Marine Mammal Laboratory (National Marine Fisheries Service), and the Natural

Resources Fund (University of Alaska). ARCO Alaska, Inc. and Phillips Alaska provided extensive

logistic support in the form of snowmachines, generator, fuel, room and board, air transportation of our

field crew, and ground transportation of our field gear. Mike Joyce, Linda Allen, Michael Stewman and

the crew at the Seawater Treatment Plant (ARCO Alaska) were extremely helpful with logistics in the

field. Special thanks to Ole Olsgard and Dennis Wall in the shop for helping us keep eveiything running.

In 1999, Alaska Clean Seas provided two snowmachines and the Spill Response Team delivered them

directly to our camp. Four undergraduate students from the University of Alaska SoutheastRaychelle

Daniel, Shannon Crowley, Oriana Harding, and Philip Singerput in many long hours in the field. Three

graduate studentsKaren Blejwas (University of California, Berkeley) and Michael Simpkins and Jamie

Womble (both of the University of Alaska Fairbanks)also assisted the project in 1999. Oriana Harding

continues to be of great assistance in data reduction. Doug Wartzok of the University of Missouri

provided expertise and assistance in the field. John Bengston and Peter Boveng of the National Marine

Mammal Laboratory provided PTFs and excellent help in the field in 1999. We appreciate the efforts of

11
Burns, JJ., and S.J. Harbo. 1972. An aerial census of ringed seals, northern coast of Alaska. Arctic

25:279-290.

Bums, JJ., and B.P. Kelly. 1982. Studies of ringed seals in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea during winter

impacts of seismic exploration. Unpublished Annual Report, OCSEAP Research Unit 232, to U.S. Dept.

Comm., NOAA, Off. Mar. Pollut. Assess., Juneau, Alaska. S7p.

Caughley, G. 1977. Sampling in aerial survey. J. Wildl. Manage. 41:606-615.

Chapman, D.G., L.L. Eberhardt and J.R. Gilbert. 1977. A review of marine mammal census methods.

Final Report to U.S. Marine Mammal Commission for Contract MM4ACOI4.

Chapskii, K.K. 1940. The ringed seal of western seas of the Soviet Arctic (The morphological

characteristic, biology and hunting production). Tr. Vses. Arkt. Inst. (Leningrad) 145:1-72. (Tiansl.

from Russian by Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 1971, Transl. Ser. 1665, 147p.)

Daniel, R., L. Jemison, G. Pendleton and S. Crowley. 1999. Molting phenology of harbor seals on

Tugidak Island, Alaska. 13th Biennial Conf. on Biology of Marine Mammals. Wailea, Hawaii.

Dingman, S.L., R.G. Barry, B. Weller, C. Benson, E.F. LeDrew and C.W. Goodwin. 1980. Climate,

snowcover, microclimate, and hydrology, p. 30-65. In J. Brown, P.C. Miller, L.L. Tieszen and F.L.

Bunnell [eds.], An Arctic Ecosystem, U.SJI.B.P. Synthesis Series No. 12. Dowden, Hutchinson &

Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania.

12
Garner, G.W., S.C. Amstrup, J.L. Laake, B.F.J. Manly, L.L. McDonald and D.G. Robertson [eds.]. 1999.

Marine Mammal Survey and Assessment Methods. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam.

Green, J.E., and S.R. Johnson. 1983. The distribution and abundance of ringed seals in relation to gravel

island construction in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea, p. 1-27. in BJ. Gallaway [ed.], Biological Studies

and Monitoring at Seal Island, Beaufort Sea, Alaska 1982. LGL Ecological Research Associates, Inc.

Bryan, Texas.

Green, K., H.R. Burton, V. Wong, R.A. McFarlane, A.A. Flaherty, B.C. Pahl and S.A. Haigh. 1995.

Difficulties in assessing population status of ice seals. Wild!. Res. 22:193-199.

Harding, O.R., B.P. Kelly, L.T. Quakenbush and B.D. Taras. 2001. Importance of snow for ringed seal

pups, p. 64. In Abstract Book. Aquatic Sciences Meeting. American Society of Limnology and

Oceanography. 12-16 February 2001.

Harwood, L.A., and I. Stirling. 1992. Distribution of ringed seals in the southeastern Beaufort Sea

during late summer. Can. J. Zool. 70:891-900.

Huber, H.R., S.J. Jeifries, R.F. Brown, R.L. DeLong and G. VanBlaricom. 2001. Correcting aerial

survey counts of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richards:) in Washington and Oregon. Mar. Mamm.

Sri. 17:276-293.

Jeniison, L.A., and B.P. Kelly. 2001. Pupping phenology and demography of harbor seals (Phoca

vitulina richardsi) on Tugidak Island, Alaska. Mar. Manun. Sci. 17:585-600.

13
McLaren, l.A. 1958. The biology of the ringed seal seals (Phoca hispida Schreber) in the eastern

Canadian Arctic. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Ms. Rep. (Biology) 653. 146 p.

Moulton, Vi)., and R. E. Elliott. 1999. Fixed-wing aerial surveys of seals near BP's Northstar and

Liberty sites, 1999, p. 3-1, 3-39. In W.J. Richardson and M.T. Williams [eds.], Monitoring of Ringed

Seals during Construction of Ice Roads for BP's Northstar Oil Development, Alaskan Beaufort Sea,

1999: 90-day Report. LGL Limited, King City, Ontario.

Moulton, V.D., R.E. Elliott and M.T. Williams. 2000. Fixed-wing aerial surveys of seals near BP's

Northstar and Liberty sites, 2000, p. 3-1, 3-329. In W.J. Richardson and M.T. Williams [eds.],

Monitoring of Ringed Seals during Construction of Ice Roads for BP's Northstar Oil Development,

Alaskan Beaufort Sea, Winter and Spring 1999-2000:90-day Report. LGL Limited, King City,

Ontario.

Richardson, W.J., and M.T. Williams [eds.] 2000. Monitoring of ringed seals during construction of ice

roads for BP's Northstar oil development, Alaskan Beaufort Sea, 1999. Report from LGL Alaska

Research Associates, Inc., Anchorage, Alaska and Silver Spring, Maryland. 103 p.

Rogers, T.L., and M.M. Bryden. 1997. Density and haul-out behavior of leopard seals (Hydrurga

leptonyx) in Piydz Bay, Antarctica. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 13:293-302.

Scheffer, V.B. 1958. Seals, Sea Lions and Walruses. A review of the Pinnipedia. Stanford University

Press, Stanford, California.

14
15
Abstract

This program has collected hourly time series of ocean velocity, temperature, and salinity properties from

moored instruments deployed along the outer shelf and slope of the Alaskan Beaufort Sea for a period

of one year. The goals are to: 1) quantify the vertical and cross-shore spatial and temporal scales of

variability in the circulation and the density (thermohaline) field in this region and 2) estimate the

transport within the eastward flowing subsurface undercurrent. The flow and the density structure on the

outer shelf and slope affect the cross-shelf transfer of momentum, water properties (heat, salt, nutrients,

etc.), contaminants, and pollutants. The region is also an important migratory corridorfor marine

mammals, particularly bowhead whales that feed here during part of the year. Previous measurements

showed that the near surface flow (< -50 m depth) here, and over the inner shelf is westward andforced

by the winds. However, flow reversals are common and often a result of upwelling of the undercurrent.

Further, the pressure field responsible for the undercurrent must influence the dynamics of the inner

shelf The undercurrent originates in the eastern Arctic as a result of inflow through Fram Strait and is

fed by oiqflows from the Eurasian shelfseas and the Chukchi Sea. Hence it is circumpolar in extent and

carries with it a variety of water masses. The flow could thus transport pollutants from these regions

to the Alaskan shelf The proposed observations will provide information crucial in guiding model

development and evaluating the performance ofpollution transport models. The study site is practical

(from the resource manager's perspective andfor logistical reasons) and optimal from a scientific

perspective, for measurements here will capture the integrated effects of the circumpolar forcing which

we believe force the undercurrent.

16
and spatial scales associated with this variability?

2. What is the relation between variations in temperature and salinity and variations in the

flow field at time scales from the synoptic to the seasonal? Are changes in the

baroclinic flow consistent with changes in the cross-shore density structure?

What are the cross-shore fluxes of heat, salt, and momentum? Do these appear to be

related to instabilities (eddy generation mechanisms) of the along-shore flow?

How are these variations related to changes in the surface wind field?

Compare the results obtained from the proposed field program with those collected in

1987/88 by Aagaard [1989], to determine whether recent large changes in the Arctic

Ocean are also reflected in conditions in the Beaufort Sea.

Combine this data set with other measurements recently acquired from around the

Arctic Ocean to provide an updated synthesis that relates the Beaufort Sea to the

large-scale circulation of the Arctic Ocean.

17
18

Mooring ID Isobath

(m)

Current Meter Depth (m)

RCM = Default; F = FSI

TIC Depth (m)

(M-Cats at 60 m;

elsewhere)

Latitude (N) Longitude (W)

Mpiw ArnAv

B1-98 80 50,70 none 70 54.30' 146 41.15'

BF-S-98

(JAMSTEC) 500 50,90, 180,240,400 (S4+CT) 60, 90, 120, 150,180, 210, 240 56.94' 146 35.48'

B3-98 1200 50, 150, 250,400, 900 60, 125, 200, 300 71 00.78' 146 36.58'

B4-98 1700 50, 250, 500, 800 (F), 1200 60, 125, 200, 300 71 07.46' 146 31.27'

B5a-98 1000 50, 250, 500, 1000 (F), 1500 60, 125, 200, 300 70 35.62' 139° 57.54'

WESTERN MoofwlG (JAMSTEC)

BF-K-98 120 60. 65(600 kHz ADCP), 95,

io, 115 flOfl 7123.00' 152 04.72'
74°N - 73°N - 72°N - 71°N - 70°N -165°W 

lOOm 

Figure 1. Bathymetric 

locations indlaunched fro
1999, and weak but generally westward from May through September 1999. By contrast, the northsouth

velocity component is comparatively weak, suggesting that there is little onshore-offshore flow.

Temperature and salinity variations are closely correlated throughout the record, indicating water masses

from within and below the Arctic Ocean's halocline. Indeed, over most of the record the temperature

range is between 0.4 and 0.2°C and the salinities are between 34.5 and 34.8. These water mass

characteristics are of Atlantic Ocean waters that entered the Arctic Ocean through Fram Strait and flowed

counter-clockwise around this basin.

Figure 3 shows the along-shore dynamic height obtained from the SSXCTDs collected by the USS

Hawkbil in April 1999. These data show a trough in the dynamic height at about 150°W (longitude 210).

The dynamic height slopes upward to the east and west of the trough. The structure of the along-slope

dynamic height field (in conjunction with the cross-shore dynamic height which is not shown) implies a

flow with eastward velocity shear (eastward velocities increase or westward velocities decrease with

decreasing depth) to the west of 150°W and westward velocity shear (westward velocities increase or

eastward velocities decrease with decreasing depth) to the west of 150°W. The dynamic height picture is

consistent with the velocity time series from Figure 3 that shows that the eastward flow at 150-m depth

decreased from early winter 1998-99 to April 1999. The joint analyses of these data are ongoing.

20
Figure 2. From top to bottom are time series of the salinity, temperature, eastwest (U), and

northsouth (V) velocity components from mooring B3-98 at the 150-rn depth. Each time

series was smoothed with a 3-day miming mean to highlight longer period fluctuations.

Study Products

Weingartner, T.J. 2001. Circulation, thermohaline structure, and cross-shelf transport in the Alaskan

Beaufort Sea. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Research Review, February

2001, Fairbanks.

Weingartner, T.J. 2001. Circulation, thermohaline structure, and cross-shelf transport in the Alaskan

Beaufort Sea, MMS Information Transfer Meeting, April 2001, Anchorage.

21
SSXCTD #

Figure 3. The variation in dynamic height at selected depths (and all

referenced to 600 dl,) from west to east along the Beaufort

Sea slope in April 1999.

Reference

Aagaard. K. 1989. A synthesis of the Arctic Ocean circulation, Rapp. P.-V. Reun. Cons. hit. Explor. Met

188:11-22.

22
The major accomplishment for the project this year has been the development of the database, adapted

from a University of Calfornia Berkeley program. Data ently is web based and platform independent. We

have started expanding the system to include other University ofAlaska Museum collections. The Alaska

Frozen Tissue Collection continues to grow and is becoming one of the largest resources of its type.

Agreements have been made with Native commissions, and subsistence hunters are actively contributing

samples to the collection.

Database

Development of the database was a major activity this year. We moved data on mammals into the Oracle

database management system running on Arctos, a Sun Enterprise 250 server dedicated to our collections.

The data model has been adapted from the National Science Foundationfunded "Collections

Re-engineering Project" at the University of California Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology,

and this allows us to collaborate with Berkeley on programming and the development of data standards.

We are no longer operating the database on personal computers, although we do almost all data entry and

editing with platform-independent applications run over the web.

Migration of the data necessitated standardization that is more rigorous. Now, both the power of the

relational information architecture, and the increased visibility of the data have revealed many

23
Collection Growth

The AFTC continues to grow, establishing itself as a default repository for samples from regional

management agencies, and becoming one of the largest resources of its kind.

Formal agreements for specimen deposition were reached with two Alaska Native marine mammal

co-management commissions: the Alaska Native Harbor Seal Commission, and the Alaska Sea Otter

and Steller Sea Lion Commission. Both organizations were established under the Native co-management

mandate of the Marine Mammal Protection Act, and give Native subsistence hunters substantial control

over scientific sampling and the disposition of scientific samples. Both commissions have agreed to

deposit samples collected by their members in the AFTC.

The AFFC has cemented its relationship with the Alaska Native Sea Otter and Sea Lion Commission

by accepting fissue samples from 299 sea otters taken by subsistence hunters over the past several years.

Linda Comerci of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, who works with this co-management commission,

provided access to the specimens in Anchorage and assisted with the sub-sampling.

No formal agreement exists with the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission, but the Department of

Wildlife Management at the North Slope Borough regularly contributes samples from harvested bowhead

whales and many other marine mammals. Such long-term arrangements will steadily build chronological

samples relevant to environmental change and to parameters that may be changing naturally over time.

24
pppp y g 

permanent chairman of the Department of Biological Sciences. His research continues to be largely based

in Alaska. The Museuiu and the UAF Department of Biology and Wildlife have formed a search

committee for the new curator of mammals.

Gordon Jarrell is serving as acting curator of mammals and coordinator of the AFTC. We are in the final

stages of recruiting a replacement for him as mammal collection manager. This eventual separation from

the Mammal Collection will allow Dr. Jarrell to concentrate on bringing other marine taxa into the Frozen

Tissue Collection.

Gordon Haas has just started at the Museum as curator of fishes. This is a joint appointment with the UAF

School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences. A tenure-track curator for this collection will certainly result in

expansion of the AFTC's icbthyological holdings.

25
gy g p

established. The highest transmissivity signals were observed in early October 1999 during a strong gale

and in early June, when the landfast ice was still intact and windc were weak We believe that the June

turbidity signal was associated with the summerfreshetfrom the Sagavanirlaok River, which flows

beneath the landfast ice and (at least) 10 km offshore of the river mouth.

These data represent the first year-round (including the freeze-up and ice melt seasons) current

ineasurem ents for this area. This information is critical for designing oil spill response protocols for

offshore drilling operations specflcally at the nearby Northstar and Liberty fields and generally for

similar landfast ice regions of the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. The data should also be useful in evaluating

regional numerical circulation models that would be usedfor oil spill trajectory predictions. While these

were the principal reasons for this study, the data will have broader scientific applications relevant to

other arctic shelves. For example, the low current energy beneath the landfast ice zone implies little

vertical mixing, which has important implications for the fate of river waters entering the shelf in early

summer. Consequently, this data will lead to a better understanding of mixing processes and circulation

on the innermost portion of arctic shelves.

26
27
28

correlation with the humic acid N/C ratio and with the sum of amide and carboxylic carbons, a measure

of the polarity of the humic acids. Desorption ofphenanthrene was inversely related to the concentration

of organic matter coating mineral particles, indicative ofslow d!/Jusion ofpolycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons from the organic matrix.

introduction

Aromatic hydrocarbons make up only about 10% of the complex mixture of compounds in petroleum,

but are a special concern as environmental contaminants, because they are among the most toxic,

mutagenic, and carcinogenic constituents [Black et al. 1983; White 1986]. They are also the most soluble

constituents, and thus the most likely to be transported in solution, to affect organisms from the dissolved

phase, and to be affected by adsorption-desorption reactions in the marine environment. However, in

absolute terms, aromatic hydrocarbons have low to very low aqueous solubilites and high affinities for

surfaces in aquatic ecosystems [Fanington and Westall 1986]. Their adsorption is usually not rapidly or

completely reversible, indicating that this process is probably a factor in polycydic aromatic hydrocarbon

(PAll) retention by contaminated sediments [Brusseau and Rao 1991; Hatzinger et al. 1995]. Adsorption

may decrease the availability of contaminants to microbial degraders [Carmichael et al. 1997; Braddock

and Richter 1998]. Weissenfels et al. [1992] concluded that biodegradability and biotoxicity of PAll were

decreased by adsorption and migration into an organic matter matrix.
in this study. N/A= not applicable, as lower Cook Inlet samples were intertidal. NID=not

determined.

29

Location Station Latitude

(W)

Longitude

(N)

Depth

(m)

Humic

Acid

Humic

Acid

5N

Humic

Acid

NIC

Sediment

N/C

PoitValdez 25 61° 05.5' 146° 23.3' 73 -27.57 1.27 0.0657 0.1036

Port Valdez 82 61° 05.4' 146° 22.3' 79 -24.37 4.35 0.0878 0.0987

Lower Cook Inlet HBH 59° 36.3' 151° 25.0' N/A -21.04 8.56 0.0879 0.0966

Lower Cook inlet JB2 59° 27.1' 151° 29.3' N/A -17.38 6.95 0.1067 0.1142

Lower Cook Inlet TB2 59° 24.8' 151° 17.0' N/A -18.21 5.72 0.1297 0.1497

Beaufoit Sea 5A 70° 29.7' 148° 46.0' 11.4 -25.94 7.34 0.1109 N/D

Beaufort Sea 6G 70° 31.3' 149° 53.9' 2.1 N/I) N/I) N/I) N/D
A montmorillonite standard (A.P.I. # 26, 49 E 2600 from Clay Spur, Wyoming; Wards Natural Science

Establishment, Inc.) was ground for 2 mm using a shatter box equipped with carbide rings. The resulting

powder was sieved through a 270 mesh (53 m) sieve using a Roto-Tap apparatus. Organic material was

removed from the clay by oxidation with 30% hydrogen peroxide.

Humic acids were coated onto the inorganic substrate for use in the adsorption/desorption experiments.

Approximately 1 g lyophilized humic acid was dissolved in 100 mL organic-free water and maintained at

a pH of 10 with sodium hydroxide by mixing under an atmosphere of ultra high purity nitrogen for 3-7 d.

The humic acid solution was then added to the washed clay and mixed for 24 h. The suspension was

transferred to a centrifuge bottle containing the salts resulting from the evaporation of an equal volume

of artificial seawater and mixed for 48 h, then centrifuged at 12,000 rpm for 2 h and the supernatant

discarded. A sample of the humic acid coated clay was dried and submitted for TOC analysis. The

remaining humic acid coated clay was stored in a refrigerator at 5-10°C in a container flushed with ultra

high purity nitrogen.

Radiolabeled phenanthrene was used to examine adsorption and desorption [Henrichs et al. 1997]. All

glassware and Teflon® liners used were cleaned to remove any hydrocarbon contamination before use. A

stock solution was prepared by dissolving [9i4C] phenanthrene (5-15 mCi mmoF', Sigma Chemical Co.)

and non-radiolabeled phenanthrene in acetonitrile. After evaporation of the acetomtrile, artificial seawater

was added to aliquots of the stock solution to produce 50, 300, and 700 ig L' phenanthrene solutions.

The artificial seawater [Lyman and Fleming 1940] was prepared from reagent grade salts and water that

had been glass distilled over a satuTated solution of potassium permanganate. Mercuric chloride (0.500 g)

was added as an antimicrobial agent.

30
0.16 to 0.27 with a mean of 0.22±0.041.

As indicated by '3CW4J data, the carboxyl-free aromaticities ranged from 15 to 34% for natural humic

acids and 10 to 18% for the synthetic humic acids. Aliphaticity ranged from 31 to 44% for the natural

humics and 37-44% for the synthetics. The percentage of carbon atoms involved in carboxyl and amide

bonds ranged from 10 to 14% for natural humic acids and 16 to 22% for the synthetic humic acids. As

expected, increasing nitrogen/carbon ratios corresponded to an increase in the relative proportions of

carbon atoms associated with amide bonds (?=0.90, t= 10.091). The trend was similar for natural and

synthetic humic acids, although the natural humic acids were consistently lower in amide carbon and N/C.

A negative correlation existed between aromaticity and polarity, as measured by N/C (?=0.55, t=3.649)

and fraction carboxyl and amide C (?=0.44, t=2.914), but aromaticity did not correlate with the aliphatic

fraction (?=0.05, t=l.718).

Fourier transform infrared spectra of the natural and synthetic hwnic acids were similar but not identical,

as found in earlier studies [Ertel and Hedges 1983; Rubinsztain et al. 1984]. All had absorbance bands

for hydrogen-bonded OH at about 3400 cm; aromatic C-H stretch as a shoulder between 3100 and

3000 cnf'; aliphatic C-H stretch between 3000 and 2850 cnf'; C=O stretch of aldehydes, ketones, and

acids as a shoulder at 1710 cnf'; arnide linkages of proteins at 1650 cm'; C-O stretch of ethers, esters,

and phenols at 1230 m'; COO- stretching at 1532 and 1386 cnc'; C-O stretch of carbohydrates at

1040 m'; and possible NH3torsional vibrations at 530 and 470 cm1. The Beaufort Sea 5A humic acid

showed stronger absorption bands associated with ethers, esters, and phenols than the other natural and

synthetic humic acids, including a sharp phenolic and alcoholic OH stretch at 3622 cm'. The lower Cook

31
-J

E 15000

C) 2

1 I

4

I

32

o---------------r....

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

N/C Rato of Humic Acid

Figure 1. Phenanthrene partition coefficients (K0) decrease with increasing nitrogen to

carbon (N/C) ratios of huniic acids.
Phenanthrene desorption was incomplete in most experiments and increased with time for at least 14 d.

Phenanthrene desorption at 3 d and beyond was negatively correlated with the proportion of extractable

hurnic acid from the organic matter of marine sediments (IIA/OM). Before 3 d of desorption, no

correlation was found. Values of desorption were found to decrease from 53.6% to 12.1% as the ratio of

extractable humic acid to total organic matter of sediment increased from 10.6 to 53.1 (r2=0.85, t=6.211).

No significant correlation was found between desorption and the percent of nonpolar carbon

(r2=0.06, t=0.683).

Partition coefficients (Kr; not normalized to organic carbon content) did not correlate with the amount of

organic carbon coated on the clay particles (mg OC g' clay) used in the laboratory experiments (r2=0.03,

t=0.429). However, the extent of phenanthrene desorption, as the ratio of observed to expected percent

desorption, was weakly negatively correlated with the amount of organic carbon coated onto the clay

particles (mg OC g' clay) (r2=0.37, t=2.037,p=0.l0).

Discussion

Organic matter properties

Sediment isotopic ratios tend to reflect the sources of orgamc carbon, namely photosynthetic organisms

[Ikan et at. 1990]. Biomolecules formed in the marine enviromnent usually have isotopic signatures of

about 20 to 23%o. Terrestrially derived biomolecules from C3 plants have 613C values around 25 to

2796o. Nitrogen isotopic signatures in the marine environment are usually in the range of 6-10%,

33
Phenanthrene adsorption and desorption

The mechanism of adsorption of neutral hydrophobic organic compounds to organic matter is not fully

understood, but is thought to involve rapid van der Waals type interactions [Brusseau and Rao 1991].

Sediment organic matter, of which humic acid is a part, is a flexible, cross-linked, branched, amorphous,

polyelectrolytic, polymeric substance within which organic pollutants can diffuse [Brusseau et al. 1991].

Humic acids appear to have an open structure with hydrophobic cavities that are dynamic and ephemeral

[Schlautman and Morgan 1993]. It has been proposed that humic acids, being amphiphilic, form regions

similar to detergent micelles. These "pseudomicelles" are considered to have a hydrophobic interior into

which nonpolar compounds can partition [Ragle et al. 1997].

Partition coefficients of phenanthrene determined by our research (14,O0O6O0O mL g' C) are within the

range found by others. For example, Karickhoffet al. [1979] found K to be 23,000 mL g' C for course

silt fractions of two ponds of northern Georgia. Partition coefficients of 19,8OO954 mL g' C were

measured for Boston Harbor sediments by Chin and Gschwend [1992]. Partition coefficients (K) for

intact Jakolof Bay sediments were about 50,00020,O00 mL g' C [Henrichs et al. 1997]; these are larger

but of similar magnitude to the values for the extracted humic substances reported here.

Although a positive correlation between sediment organic matter concentiation and partition coefficients

for hydrophobic organic compounds was found in several earlier studies [Karickhoffet al. 1979; Means

et al. 1980; Gundersen et al. 1997; Maruya et al. 1996], it was absent here, probably because of the wide

range of organic matter properties. This correlation is more likely where organic matter properties are

fairly uniform over the range of organic matter concentrations. Except for those of Means et al. [1980],

34
organic matter input (PV25, PV82, and 5A). It has been proposed that terrestrial humic acids bind better

due to their lignin precursors, and therefore greater aromaticity [Chin et al. 1994, 1997], but aromaticity

was not a predictor of adsorption in our study. Rather, the data indicated that humic acids in these mixed

environments were less polar, i.e., had fewer carboxylic and amide carbons, and that these properties were

related to their greater adsorption of phenanthrene.

The slow and incomplete desorption of phenanthrenc observed in our study has been reported for a wide

variety of other organic compounds [Brusseau and Rao 1991; Kan et al. 1994; Hatzinger et al. 1995] as

well as PAH [Carmichael et al. 1997]. Slow intraorganic matter diffusion is thought to be the most likely

mechanism for hydrophobic organic compounds [Bmsseau etal. 1991]. Phenanthrene desorption did not

show any patterns based on geographical location or sources of organic matter. Desorption decreased

as the amount of bumic acid that could be extracted from the organic matter of the parent sediments

(HAIOM) increased. This might be a function of the humic acid's polarity; the more base extractable

humic acids are likely to be more polar. However, no direct relationship was found between HAJOM and

any of the measures for polarity of the humic acids. HA/OM was correlated (r2=0.69, t=3.937) to the

amount of organic carbon that coated the mineral particles in the laboratory experiments (mg OC g'

clay), but desorption itself was only weakly correlated (=r0.37, t=2.037,p=0.l0) with mg OC g1 clay.

Although not measured in our study, the molecular weight of the humic acids is another possible reason

for these patterns [Chin et al. 1994]. The decrease of desorption with increasing organic content of the

clay (mg OC g' clay) is consistent with the idea that desorption is incomplete at shorter reaction times

because of slow diffusion within the organic matrix of particles. It was expected that this effect would

increase with the amount of coating, as was observed.

35
Acknowledgments

This work was funded by the University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute/Minerals Management

Service, Alyeska Pipeline Service Company, the State of Alaska, and the Alaska Sea Grant College

Program. The authors would like to express their thanks to T.E. Gedris at the Florida State University's

NMR laboratory for his efforts in acquiring solid-state humic acid spectra, J.F. Braddock, A.S. Naidu,

J.J. Goering and J.J. Kelly at the University of Alaska Fairbanks for supplying sediment samples, and

J.F. Braddock, T.P. Clausen and B.P. Finney, also at the University of Alaska Fairbanks, for their

comments and review of the manuscript.

References

Anderson, D.W., and J.J. Schoenau. 1983. Soil humus fractions, p. 39 1-395. In M.R. Carter [ed.], Soil

Sampling and Methods of Analysis. Canadian Society of Soil Science, Lewis.

Black, J.A., WJ. Birge, A.G. Westerman and P.C. Francis. 1983. Comparative aquatic toxicology of

aromatic hydrocarbons. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 3:353-358.

Braddock, J.F., and Z. Richter. 1998. Microbial degradation of aromatic hydrocarbons in marine

sediments. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 97-0041, University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute,

University of Alaska Fairbanks and USD0!, MMS, Alaska OCS Region, 82p.

Brusseau, M.L., R.E. Jessup and P.S.C. Rao. 1991. Nonequilibrium sorption of organic chemicals:

elucidation of rate-limiting processes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 25:134-142.

36
, , y99pppg

on estuarine sediments: The effects of humic acids and TOC. Environ. Sci. Technol. 31:188-193.

Hatcher, P. G., R. Rowan and MA. Mattingly. 1980. 'H and '3C NMR of marine humic acids. Org.

Geochem. 2:77-85.

Hatcher, P.G., M. Schnitzer, L.W. Dennis and G.E. Macjet. 1981. Aromaticity of hwnic substances in

soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 45:1089-1094.

Hatzinger, P.B., and M. Alexander. 1995. Effect of aging of chemicals in soil on their biodegradability

and extractability. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29:537-545.

Henrichs, S.M., M. Luoma and S. Smith. 1997. A study of the adsorption of aromatic hydrocarbons by

marine sediments. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 97-0002, University of Alaska Coastal Marine

Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks and USD0!, MMS, Alaska OCS Region, 47 p.

han, R., T. Dorsey and I.R. Kaplan. 1990. Characterization of natural and synthetic hwnic substances

(melanoidins) by stable carbon and nitrogen isotope measurements and elemental compositions. Anal.

Chim. Acta232:lI-18.

Kan, A.T., G. Fu and M.B. Tomson. 1994. Adsorption/desorption hysteresis in organic pollutant and

soil/sediment interaction. Environ. Sci. Technol. 28:859-867.

Karickhoff, S.W., D.S. Brown and TA. Scott. 1979. Sorption of hydrophobic pollutants on natural

sediments. Water Res. 13:241-248.

Karickhoff, S.W., and K.R. Moms. 1985. Sorption dynamics of hydrophobic pollutants in sediment

suspensions. Environ. Toxicol. Chew. 4:469-479.

37
hydrocarbons in Lower Cook Inlet and Port Valdez, Alaska. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 98-0033,

University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks and USD0!, MMS,

Alaska OCS Region, 27p.

Uhie, M.E., Y.P. Chin, G.R. Aiken and D.M. McKnight. 1999. Binding of polychiorinated biphenyls to

aquatic huniic substances: The role of substrate and sorbate properties on partitioning. Environ. Sci.

Technol. 33:2715-2718.

Weissenfels, W.D., H.-J. Kiewer and J. Langhoff. 1992. Adsorption of polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PANs) by soil particles: influence on biodegradability and biotoxicity. Awl.

Microbiol. Biotechnol. 36:689-696.

White, K.L. 1986. An overview of immunotoxicology and carcinogenic polycycic aromatic

hydrocarbons. Environ. Carcinogen Rev. C4:163-202.

Xing, B. 2001. Sorption of naphthalene and phenanthrene by soil humic acids. Environ. Pollut.

111:303-309.

Yamamoto, S., and R. Ishiwatari. 1989. A study of the formation mechanisms of sedimentary humic

substances -II. Protein-based melanoidin model. Org. Geochem. 14:479-489.

Yunker, M.B, R.W. MacDonald, B.R. Fowler, W.J. Cretney, S.R. Dallimoreand F.A. McLaughlin. 1991.

Geochemistry and fluxes of hydrocarbons to the Beaufort Sea shelf: A multivariate comparison of

fluvial inputs and coastal erosion of peat using principal components analysis. Geochim. Cosmochiin.

Acta 55:255-273.

38
39

relatively insensitive to aqueous petroleum concentrations (sublethal responses for several species were

measured at concentrations between 1 and 100 ppm [Capuzzo 1985], oil toxicity is increased by afactor

of 1000 in the presence of UVradiation. After exposure ofCalanus marshallae and Metridia okhotensis to

total PA C (TPA C) concentrations of-2 ppb and subsequent daylight exposure for 3.3 h on a sunny and

8.2 h on a rainy day, respectively, mortaliiy, immobilization and discoloration of lipid sacs were

observed. The interaction effect of PA C exposure and UV exposure was highly signflcant (P< 0.005).

Doseresponse experiments with Neocalanus plumchrus and N. flemingeri had high correlations between

PAC dose in the exposure water and biological response at equal UVeposure levels. Exclusion of UV-B

radiation by the use ofMylar-D reduced observed biological responses only slightly, indicating that the

phototoxic component of sunlight is UV-A radiation.

Objectives

To assess the role of zooplankton in the transport of polyaromatic compounds (PAC) in the environment,

the development of a reproducible system for the experimental exposure of plankton organisms to

constant concentrations of the water soluble fraction of oil is a prerequisite. A further objective of this

study was to determine whether a correlation exists between lipid content of copepods and their PAC

accumulation. Passive uptake rates of water soluble PAC, rather than feeding behavior on particulate oil

globules, were investigated. Passive PAC accumulation by copepods is important because of their role as

primary prey for many higher irophic level consumers, including several economically important species.
frozen for later processing and analysis to derive PAC concentrations in the exposure water.

Chemical extractions and analysis

All chemical extractions of water and tissue samples were and will be conducted at the Auke Bay

Laboratory (National Marine Fisheries ServiceINOAA). Procedures for the quantitative determination

of PAC in water and in tissues are described by Short and Harris [1996]. Seawater samples (0.9 L) were

extracted twice with 100 mL of dichioromethane. Copepods were pulverized in a porcelain grinder with

3 x 1 niL of dichioromethane. Dichloromethane extracts of the PAC were reduced in volume and

exchanged with hexane over a steam bath, followed by fractionation and purification by alumina/silica

gel chromatography. PAC were measured by gas chromatography/mass spectrometly in the selected ion

monitoring mode. PAC analytes were comprised of dibenzothiophenes and PAC containing 2-5 rings,

including the alkylated homologues listed in Figure 1.

PAC uptake experiments

In 2001, five oil exposure experiments were conducted with Neocalanusfiemingeri and N. plumchrus at

concentrations of -'2 ppb. Copepods were collected at various stations in Prince William Sound and the

adjacent Gulf of Alaska. Each experiment consisted of a 24-h oil exposure and immediate freezing of

replicate samples of oiled copepods at the end of the exposure. At time of sorting, three replicate samples

of copepods were collected and frozen for total lipid analysis. All samples are presently awaiting further

processing.

40
50

0

o-e ZZZZZ3 LL(LILILOOOOn-n0

-Cl Figure 1. Concentrations of PAC analytes inexposure water (N=6) and copepod tissue; white: Calanus marshallae (N= 16), grey: C. marshallae (N=20), black: Metridia okhotensis (N4O). NO=napthalene, NI=C-I napthalenes, N2=C-2 napthalenes, N3=C-3 naptbalenes, N4=C-4 napthalenes, bip=biphenyl, ace =acenaphthylene, acn =acenapthene, FO=flourene, Fl=C-I flourenes, F2=C-2 flourenes, F3=C-3 flourenes, DO=dibenzothiophene, DI=C-I dibenzothiophenes, D2=C-2 dibenzotbiopbenes, D3=C-3 dibenzothiophenes, P0= phenanthrene, P1=C-1 phenanthrenes, P2= C-2 phenanthrenes, P3= C-3 phenanthrenes, P4= C-4 phenanthrenes, ant =anthracene, fla=flouranthene, pyr =pyrene, CI f,=Cl flouranthenes/pyrenes, baa=benz-a-anthracene, CO=chrysene, CI=C-I chiysenes, C2=C-2 chrysenes, C3=C-3 chrysenes, C4=C-4 clwysenes, bbf= beiizo-b-flouranthene, bkf= benzo-k-flouranthene, bep=benzo-e-pyrene, bap=benzo-a-pyrene, per =perylene, icp=indeno-1 ,2,3-c,d-pyrene, daa=dibenzo-a,h-anthracene, bgp=benzo-g,b,i-perylene.

- 41
treatment with no copepods was that a possible correction factor for the contribution of sedimented algae

to the PAC content of the copepod feces was to be established. At the start of the experiment and every

24 h thereafter, concentrated algae were added to the experimental flasks. At 48 and 72 h all sediment

from the bottom of the flasks was pipetted onto a pie-weighed GF/C filter and frozen for later PAC

analysis. Two experiments were initiated with this design. In May 2001, ISO Neocalanus spp. copepods

were added to each of the treatments "with copepods" and fed concentrated algae from a phytoplankton

sample collected from the dock of the Seward Marine Center (Institute of Marine SciencefUAF) in

Seward, Alaska with a 63-jtm mesh size phytoplankton net. During the oil exposure a refrigeration failure

in the laboratory occurred and the temperature rose to 15°C in the exposure water. High mortality began

to occur and the experiment was tenninated. In August, the experiment was repeated with 120 Calanus

marshallae per ireatment. Copepods were fed once daily with a combination of the diatoms Chaetoceros-B

and Phaeodacylum fricornutum and the flagellate Nannochioropsis oculata (algae paste spat formula,

Innovative Aquaculture Products, Ltd.) at a concentration of initially 4000-8000 cells mL'. This resulted

in veiy limited fecal pellet production (addition of algae directly into the exposure flasks). On 3 and 4

August, 2 L of algae solution containing a total of-5 billion cells, were added to the 72-L flow-through

overhead tank. This provided food concentrations in the flasks that followed a bell shaped curve over

time. However, fecal pellet production did not increase.

42
exposure, two-thirds (six animals) died by the following day in experiment 1, while one other unpaired

copepod recovered. In experiment 2, only one copepod immobile at the end of the UV exposure died by

the following day, while three immobile copepods recovered the ability to move their swimming

appendages but not their antennules.

The pattern of results forM. okhotensis was similar to that of C. marshallae, except a higher UV

sensitivity was observed (Figure 2e). While only one copepod died in the oil only treatment (n =31), 17

died in the UV only treatment (n = 40) with 12 alive and unaffected, and 11 either immobile or impaired

in their swimming ability. All copepods in the Oil-i-UV treatment were dead (n = 31) by the end of the

UV exposure.

Calanus marshallae in the Oil+UV treatment that were impaired or immobile had opaque rather than

transparent lipid sacs, whereas copepods in the oil only or UV only treatments had transparent lipid sacs.

Preliminary results of the phototoxicity experiments with Neocalanusfleiningeri and N. plumchrus

reflected increased toxicity of oil to copepods in the presence of ambient daylight. Toxicity increased with

oil concentration and daylight exposure dose (intensity x time). While this reciprocal relationship between

oil exposure dose and radiation seemed to hold under the influence of UV-A alone, effects were greater in

the full spectrum treatments.

Effects of phototoxicity as reported in Figure 3 include mortality and paralysis. A separate analysis of

effects on the species Neocalanusfiemingeri and N. plumchrus in the second experiment revealed no

difference between these two very similar species.

43
Limpaired dead

Oil only UV only oil + uv

Figure 2. Biological responses in phototoxicity experiments, a) Calanus marshallae: 24-h oil exposure

followed by 3.8-h UV exposure on a sunny day; b) as in a) but afier 17.5-h depuration;

Calanus marshallae 24-h oil exposure followed by 8.2-h UV exposure on a rainy day;

as in c) but afier 22.5-h depuration e) Metridia okhotensis: 24-h oil exposure followed

by 8.2-h UV exposure on a rainy day. Impaired = unable to move posterior appendages.

44
40

20

.-Oppb -2ppb -6.5ppb-12 ppb

Figure 3. Phototoxicity of oil to a) Neocalanusfiemingeri and b) N flemingeri

and N. plumchrus at different concentrations.

Discussion

Copepods rapidly accumulate PAC because of their high ratio of surface area to volume. They may thus

form an important and largely unrecognized ecological compartment for the accumulation of PAC from

the water and the transfer of PAC to higher trophic level consumers. Bioaccumulation factors of ANS

crude measured in this study were 8000 for C. marshallae and 2000 for AL okhotensis. These are within

the range of 100 to 10,000 reported for Daphnia pulex in a single compound study [Southworth et al.

45
the environment to higher trophic levels.

Study Products

Duesterloh, 5. 2000. Part 1: Copepod reproduction in culture experiments, and Part 2: Synergistic effects

of oil and ultraviolet radiation (UV) on copepods. Seminar summarizing research results at the Juneau

Center School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences public seminar series. December 2000, Juneau.

Duesterloh, S., and T.C. Shirley. 2001. An experimental approach to investigate seasonal differences in

the role of zooplankton in the distribution of hydrocarbons. Oral repoTt of research progress at the

University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Research Review. February 2001, Fairbanks.

Shirley, T.C. 2001. An experimental approach to investigate seasonal differences in the role of

zooplankton in the distribution of hydrocarbons. Seminar summarizing research progress at Minerals

Management Service office. April 2001, Anchorage.

Shirley, T.C. 2001. An experimental approach to investigate seasonal differences in the role of

zooplankton in the distribution of hydrocarbons. Seminar to the National Science Foundation

Research Experience for Undergraduates Symposium. University of Alaska Southeast. June 2001,

Juneau.

46
47
This project stems from an increasing interest and needfor samples ofpreserved marine bird specimens,

particularly for genetic, contaminan4 and stable isotope studies. Critical to these studies is the

availability of materialfrom time periods and geographic areas of interest. Recent requests for samples

of various types have made it clear that demand exceeds supply and that low rates ofspecimen influx

were not meeting this demand, particularly in the documentation of the present. By supporting a graduate

assistantship to process marine bird specimens, this project is making such sample preservation both

active and less geographically and taxonomically haphazard than in the past. In the first two years of this

project, more than 510 seabirds have been prepared and archived as skin, skeleton, and tissue samples at

the University ofAlaska Museum (UAAi9. A snowballing effect is apparent, both in the deposition of more

specimens and in the level of interest in this new material. Two visiting researchers used some of this

preserved material, a request for associated data was filled, and several inquiries were fielded that will

probably lead tofliture uses. Presentations on this project were made at two CMI/MMS meetings.

Introduction

More than 100 species of Alaska birds depend on marine environments. These species occupy three

trophic levels and represent a major component of the nation's marine ecosystems. These birds are

vulnerable to both natural and anthropogenic changes (e.g., outer continental shelf activities) and are also

politically sensitive organisms because they are protected by international treaties with such countries as

Russia, Japan, Canada, and Mexico. Also, many are a source of food for humans. Birds have long served

as environmental indicators"canaries in the coal mine"and specunens representing baseline

48
meet the needs of this research community, and the UA Museum is in a unique position to address this

need. The archived samples enable the testing of numerous hypotheses, particularly those addressing

environmental changes from events such as contaminations and other OCS activities mipacting Alaska's

marine environments.

One of our most miportant goals in sample archiving is to maximize the usefulness of each individual bird

to the scientific community. When possible, we preserve a combination skin/skeleton prep, two tissue

samples, and stomach contents from each bird. We use no chemicals in the preparation process, except

when a specmlen is particularly fatty; in these cases the fat remaining after fleshing the skin is often

removed with a solvent (e.g., mineral spirits). Skin and skeleton preparations are archival in quality and

are expected to last for centuries. Tissue samples are archived in two, 2-mL plastic cryovials and archived

at -80°C in the Alaska Frozen Tissue Collection (AFTC). Stomach contents are preserved in isopropyl

alcohol.

Results

Following notification of funding approval in 1999, a nationwide search for a graduate assistant resulted

in the recruitment of Deborah Rocque, who joined UAF as a Ph.D. student in the fall of 1999. Deb

received a Master's degree at the University of Connecticut, where she gained experience studying

contaminants in birds. The match between her interests and this project was excellent, and her research

on stable isotopes and contaminants in seabirds is being augmented by samples being preserved by this

project.

49
50

0 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Figure 1. Summary of the number of specimens of 14 seabird genera

catalogued into the UAM bird collection annually since 1994.

The dramatic increase after 1999 is entirely due to this project.

Collection Use

Two visiting researchers coming to use the UAM bird collection found recent material preserved by this

project to be useful in their studies. One was studying Alaska gulls; the other was synthesizing data on

the birds of the Pribilofs. We also sent specimen data for North Pacific Puffinus grL.'eus to a researcher in

New Zealand (where these birds breed; the North Pacific is part of their nonbreeding range). Deb Rocque

is using some of this preserved material to augment her dissertation research on stable isotopes and

contaminants in Aleutian seabirds. In addition, we have fielded several queries of specimen holdings that

will in all likelihood lead to important uses of these specimens in the coming year.

50
(), p, pg

Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA-API-ITS). We thank permitting officers for their continued

facilitation of permits and related matters.

51
The major goal of this research £ to document the atmospheric, ice, oceanic, and terrestrial signals

showing seasonal variability of environmental parameters during cyclonic and anticyclonic climate states

in the Beaufort and Chukchi seas. In order to fulfill the third year project objectives, we have developed

two high resolution models of the Beaufort and Chukchi seas. The spatial resolutions of these models are

13.89 km and 2.5 km respectively. The bathymetry data were obtainedfrom the International Bathymetric

Chart of the Arctic Ocean with a resolution of 2.5 km. To calibrate these models we simulated one of the

strongest storm surges observed in the Beaufort and Chukchi seas (August 2000). Simulation results are

in relatively good agreement with observations ofsea level heights and ice drift. Detailed studies showed

that the spatial and temporal resolutions of the NCEP/NCAR sea level pressure data (2.5x2.5 degrees,

6 hours) are too low and do not reproduce well the extreme conditions of the relatively small polar

cyclones.

We also simulated trajectories of a non-reactive, conservative soluble tracer onginating from the mouth

of the Mackenzie River. Results from this research demonstrate realistic potential flow pathlines and we

describe how those pathlines change in response to climate forcing. These results can be used to aid

current andfuture scenario risk assessments and may provide MMS with the tools to determine where

and when risks from contaminants might &ist.

52
heights at six locations. Five of these locations had tide gauge data available for this period. The best

results were obtained for the Prudhoe Bay station where simulation results in the 2.5-km resolution model

practically coincide with observations (dashed and dotted lines, respectively). The other station results are

not so successful and, in general, the models underestimate observations by about 30%. We carried out

several numerical experiments testing different model parameters and forcing factors (wind speed and

wind stress, ice concentration and ice thickness, model resolution, and a role of atmospheric pressure

gradients). We have concluded that the spatial and temporal resolutions of the NCEPINCAR (National

Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research) sea level pressure data

(2.5x 2.5 degrees, 6 hours) are insufficient to properly reproduce the extreme conditions in the relatively

small polar cyclones.

Storm and sea ice condition statistics

At this stage we are completing our studies of storm statistics and sea ice parameter variability for the

cyclonic and anticyclonic circulation regimes.

53

100908070 C.9 60 (lC4)o 50 CC0a)o 40 cli a> U) 302010 Figure Ia. R

100908070605040302010 Figure lb. R

am

100908070605040302010 Figure Ic
100

80

60

2.40

0

>0

U)

-20

-40

Prudhoe Bay

5 10 15 20

August 2000 (days)

25 30

100

80

60

40

Barrow

Figure 2. Sea level time series (cm) at 6 tide gauges during the August 2000 storm event. Dotted lines

depict observations, solid lines show results from the 13.89-km resolution model, and dashed

lines show simulated sea level from the 2.5-km horizontal resolution model.

61

10 15 20 25 30

August 2000 (days)
near a source of pollution. Analysis of these data allows us to speculate that hypothetical sediment cores

must have a layered structure with contaminants from different sources. Thickness of the layers and their

composition will depend on a duration of the circulation regime. Based on this approach, Bischof and

Darby [1997] analyzed ice-railed debris in four Arctic sediment cores and found evidence of regimes

similar to our cyclonic and anticyclonic circulation regimes in the Arctic Ocean within the last 700,000

years, although the duration of their regimes is much longer than the decadal scale discussed here.

Work in Progress

We plan to continue to investigate relationships between environmental parameters using statistics that

may provide an improved ability to predict the likelihood of their behavior during years with cyclonic and

anticyclonic circulation regimes. Continued work is needed to assess how basic circulation modes interact

with more localized atmospheric patterns and underlying ice conditions, storm characteristics and coastal

erosion rates.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful for information provided by EOSDIS NSIDC Distributed Active Archive Center,

University of Colorado at Boulder.

62
Figure 3. Simulated trajectories of ice parcels (moving with pack ice) released in the mouth of the

Mackenzie River monthly. The left figure shows trajectories in 1972-1979 (typical years with

an anticyclonic circulation regime) and the right figure shows results in 1986-1996 (typical

years with a cyclonic circulation regime).

63
Investigation of the Beaufort Sea seasonal variability. NOAA arctic exploratory expedition planning

workshop, NOAA, Washington, DC, 25-26 July 2001.

References

Bischof, J.F. and D.A. Darby. 1997. Mid- to late Pleistocene ice drift in the western Arctic Ocean:

Evidence for a different circulation in the past. Science 277:74-78.

CMI. 2000. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Report No.7. OCS Study MMS

2000-070, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 92p.

Johnson, M.A., A.Y. Proshutinsky and I.V. Polyakov. 1999. Atmospheric patterns forcing two regimes

of arctic circulation: A return to anticyclonic conditions? Geophys. Res. Left. 26:1621-1624.

Proshutinsky, A.Y., and M.A. Johnson. 1997. Two circulation regimes of the wind-driven Arctic Ocean.

J. Geophys. Res. 102:12493-12514.

Proshutinsky, A. Yu., 1.V. Polyakov and M.A. Johnson. 1999. Climate states and variability of arctic ice

and water dynamics during 1946-1997. Polar Res. 18:135-142.

64
heterofroph medium. Most probable numbers of culturablephenanthrene and hexadecane degraders

were fairly high, about 1O-1(/ g' dry wt sediment each, and populations of both types of organisms

were sign flcantly higher offshore Prudhoe Bay than offshore Barrow. In addition, culturable crude

oil degraders were sign flcantly greater offshore Prudhoe Bay than Barrow. It is likely, but not yet

determined, that these dyferences are due to naturally occurring variability in these sediments rather

than anthropogenic inputs. Mineralization potentials were low for both hexadecane and phenanthrene

at both geographic locations. Despite the low organic carbon content of these sediments (S 1.5%),

substantial adsorption to particles occurred; adsorption was rapid. Laboratory bioavailabiliiy studies

using these same sediments are ongoing. The results of this study will be useful in predicting the fate of

spilled peirokum hydrocarbons in the Arctic Ocean.

Introduction

The response to recent lease sales in the Beaufort Sea suggests that Beaufort Sea offshore oil development

projects will be increasing in number and frequency over the upcoming decade. Increased offshore oil and

gas production can lead to both chronic and acute additions of petroleum hydrocarbons to the arctic

marine environment. One important unanswered question in this context is, "What is the long-term fate

of petroleum hydrocarbons spilled in the Arctic Ocean?"

Biodegradation often is a significant factor iii removal of spilled petroleum hydrocarbons from the

environment. For example, following the Exxon Valdez oil spill (EVOS) it was estimated that, by 1992,

65
Arctic Nearshore Impact Monitoring in the Development Area (ANIMIDA) project at sites near Prudhoe

Bay. This report briefly highlights our work to date, focusing on the results from year two. The results of

this study will be the basis of a Master's degree project in environmental chemistry.

Methods and Materials

In the second year of this project we focused our efforts on sediments collected near Prudhoe Bay,

Alaska. Sampling was conducted by Arthur D. Little, Inc. (in coordination with the ANIMIDA project)

from 19-25 August 2000 (see Table I for specific locations). From each grab, sediment samples were

collected with a disinfected metal spoon and placed into sterile containers and kept cold until processing.

Additionally, a I 5-mL ciyovial was filled from each grab sample to be frozen and preserved to have

available for genetic or fatty acid analysis at a later date. Samples for microbial analysis were chilled

until return to the laboratory in Fairbanks. Cryovials were frozen (-20°C) as soon as possible (within

ca. 4 h after collection) and stored frozen until returned to Fairbanks, at which point they were transferred

to an ultracold freezer (-80°C). The unfrozen sediments were then analyzed for existing populations of

microorganisms and hydrocarbon degradation potentials.

66
Microbial population and activity assays to determine the existing potential of the sediments were

initiated within two days after returning to Fairbanks. Analyses included estimates of total, heterotrophic,

crude oil emulsifying, and substrate-specific degrader microbial populations, and assays for metabolic

67

Between Liberty

& Northstar

4 C 70° 26.144' N 147° 42.957' W 9

SD 70° 24.488'N 148° 33.605'W 2

5 H 70° 22.210'N 147° 47.744'W 7

5 (0) 70° 22.210' N 148° 47.744' W 5

5(1) 70° 25.024' N 148° 03.569' W 6

5(5) 70°26.106'N 148°18.127'W 7

5(10) 70° 27.323'N 148° 29.980'W 8

CoMlie River

COL-Ol 70° 15.96'N 1S0°49.29'W

COL-02 70° 11.36'N 150°52.12'W

Kuparuk River

KUP-01 70° 17.70' N 148°59.37'W

KUP-02 70° 17.70' N 148° 59.37'W

Sagavanlrktok River

SAG-Ol 70° 01.68'N 148° 33.77'W
3B 67±5 28±2

Boulder Patch

4A 64±7 27±2

4B 99±6 52±5

LOl 63±4 40±4

Between Liberty

& Northstar

4C 55±10 31±2

SD 81±13 36±3

5H 50±8 26±2

5(0) 72±8 30±2

5(1) 73±8 31±2

5(5) 59±7 30±2

5(10) 27±8 21±2

CoMlie River

COL-Ol 35±0 15±1

COL-02 46±4 19±3

Kuparuk River

KUP-Ol 58±10 19±1

KUP-02 133±10 21±2

Sagavanirktok River

SAG-Ol 50±4 19±1

68
either total direct counts or culturable heterotrophs.

Phenanthrene and hexadecane degrader populations ranged between l0 and l0 cells g1 dry sediment.

For both carbon substrates, samples collected offshore the townsite of Barrow and offshore the former

Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL) had significantly lower populations than samples collected in

Elson Lagoon or near Prudhoe Bay (Figure 1). In addition, the cultw-able population growing on Prudhoe

Bay crude oil (oil degraders) was greater at all sites near Prudhoe Bay than at sites near Barrow (including

Elson Lagoon) (Figure 1). The reasons for the results are at present unclear. However, it is likely that

differences in sediment properties or naturally occurring carbon substrates may account for the results

obtained. Since our samples were co-collected with samples which will be extensively analyzed for

physical and chemical properties (ANIM1DA project), we should be able to determine if hydrocarbon

chemisiry or other measured properties can account for differences seen among the sites. Based on the

data reported in the draft final report for the ANIMIDA project from 1999, we predict that the higher

populations of hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms in samples collected near Prudhoe Bay are more

likely due to naturally occurring phenomena rather than anthropogenic hydrocarbon inputs.

While populations of microorganisms are present in these Arctic Ocean sediments, their ability to readily

degrade petroleum hydrocarbons appears to be limited. As was seen for samples collected near Barrow in

year one of this project [see Braddock and Gannon 2000], mineralization potentials for phenanthrene and

hexadecane were uniformly low in sediments collected near Prudhoe Bay (Table 2). These sediments

universally showed higher potentials for mineralization of the linear alkane, hexadecane, than the

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, phenanthrene. A further indicator of low activity is that our efforts to

enrich for a consortium that both degrades hexadecane and phenanthrene have been difficult. However,

69
8

6

4

2

a a --s---

0 r r r - c_ c;*

b

b -i-- b

-a

b

bb

Location

Figure 1. Populations of culturable microorganisms in sediments collected from sites near

Barrow and near Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. Different letters appearing above the bars

indicate significant differences among sites. Values represent the mean ± SE.

70

8-

6-

4-

2-

a a a a -i-li--'-

a

a

a

a

a

a

a -I--I0 i r r i i i
degrading microorganisms. Bioremediation J. 3:81-84.

Braddock, J.F., and K.A. Gannon. 2000. Petroleum hydrocarbon degrading microbial communities in

Beaufort Sea sediments, p.69-Ti. In University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Report No.

7. OCS Study MMS 2000-070, University of Alaska Fairbanks and USD0!. MMS, Alaska OCS

Region.

Braddock, J.F., J.E. Lindstrom and E.J. Brown. 1990. Microbial hydrocarbon degradation in sediments

impacted by the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Final Report to Science Applications International

Corporation for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, NOAA contract number 50..

DSNC-8-OO 14 1.

Braddock, J.F., and K.A. McCarthy. 1996. Hydrologic and microbiological factors affecting persistence

and migration of petroleum hydrocarbons spilled in a continuous permafrost region. Environ. Sth.

Technol. 30:2626-2633.

Brown, E.J., and LF. Braddock. 1990. Sheen screen, a miniaturized most-probable-number method for

enumeration of oil-degrading microorganisms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:3895-3896.

Brown, E.J., S.M. Resnick, C. Rebstock, H.V. Luong and J.E. Lindstrom. 1991. UAF radiorespirometric

protocol for assessing hydrocarbon mineralization potential in environmental samples.

Biodegradation 2:12 1-127.

Haines J.R., and R.M. Atlas. 1982. In situ microbial degradation of Prudhoe Bay crude oil in Beaufort

Sea sediments. Marine Environ. Res. 7:91-102.

71
=4

72
73

been collected through interviews of long-time residents of the Alaska coast and will be applied to verify

measured data and statistics. The GIS database will allow users to view a statistical average over a

broad area, a time series of conditions at a point, or an individual historical ice report. Meteorological

data related to ice growth, behavior, deformation, and decay is being retrievedfrom agency archives and

incorporated in the GIS database. Parameters to be incorporated include air temperature, freezing and

thawing degree-days, sea surface temperature, and wind speed and direction. Historic isobaric maps will

be applied to hindcast surface winds and wind stress divergence over ice as an index of ice compression,

the primary cause of ridge formation. A chapter will portray multi-year cycles of arctic climate. Final

prodwis will include an executable GIS on CD-ROM and on the world wide web.

Introduction

The two-year Alaska Sea Ice Atlas compilation was begun in June 2000, sponsored by the University of

Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, U.S. Minerals Management Service, Alaska Science and Technology

Foundation, Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities, Cominco Alaska, Inc., and the

University of Alaska Natural Resources Fund. The Atlas is intended to aid mariners, regulatory agencies,

engineers, and disaster response planners in the assessment of sea-ice impacts on current and future

logistical operations and construction works. The project is scheduled for completion in June 2002.
, p, py

UAA engineering, geomatics, and computer science students

Project technical steering committee

A steering committee of state and federal agency and private indusiry representatives has met twice, in

June 2000 and in July 2001. This committee first approved plans for the Ice Atlas compilation and many

conventions to be applied in the analysis of ice and ice-related information. The committee will next meet

in January 2002 after review of the draft Ice Atlas.

NIC digital reports

The Ice Atlas project has already incorporated a large volume of diverse spatial and non-spatial data. The

core data is the MC Legacy Data Set [National Ice Center 2001], a collection of weekly summaiy maps

of ice conditions from January 1972 to 2000, available on the internet as graphics images and Arcinfo

export files. The MC ice reports are typically compiled from satellite data including Canadian

RADARSAT, U.S. Defense Meteorological Satellite Program SSMfI, AVHRR, and intermittent aerial,

shipboard, and shore observations. The National Ice Center publishes a corresponding account of each

ice report's production that outliues the extent to which each data source was applied. Descriptive spatial

statistics in the Ice Atlas will rely almost exclusively on the MC weekly summary reports.

74
statistical summaries. The meteorological data collection generally covers the past 50 years (1950-2000).

A database was constructed that permits Atlas users to query data records and to construct statistical

summaries useful for ice-related risk analyses.

Simulated ice-related parameters

Hindcast numerical simulation results have been compiled to map some historical environmental

parameters pertinent to ice conditions offshore of Alaska including:

Atmospheric sea-level pressure [National Center for Atmospheric Research 1990];

Simulated surface wind velocity;

Simulated wind-induced ocean surface currents;

Simulated wind-induced water level changes (storm surges); and

Astronomical tides.

75
the Alaska Sea Ice Atlas.

Cell-based data model

Statistical analyses of the Ice Atlas are being compiled in the second half of the project through cell-based

modeling with the GRID feature of Arcinfo GIS software (© Environmental Systems Research Institute,

Inc. [ESRI]). A Cartesian matrix is established between the geographical boundaries of the Atlas (Figure

1) that is divided mto a hierarchical blockcell structure to economize data management and reflect

vaiying resolution of environmental records. The Atlas area is divided into 25-km square blocks and

blocks are divided into 5-km square cells. The gridded GIS database representation of these variables

is a matrix of floating-point values, identified with a point in time. The 1972-2000 sequence of weekly

reports organized in this way can be visualized as a stack of gridded matrixes, each associated with a

unique time, as illustrated in Figure 2.

76
77

incorporated in statistics computed from the entire time series. Minimum, mean, and maximum values

are to be determined for each parameter. Maps of average concentration and average stage for Cook Inlet

during the first half of February are shown in Figure 3.
Scale 1:5,000,000

>75%tol00%

Figure 3. Maps of average values for the period of record of ice concentration and stage of

development in Cook Inlet, Alaska, during the first half of February.

Ice Atlas analytical products now under development include:

Maps of average and extreme ice classification (concentration, stage, and form);

Time series, extremal statistics, and other parameters in any grid cell;

Ice-related meteorological and oceanographic parameters;

Ice-related parameters derived from basic measurements, such as freezing and thawing

degree-days, commonly used in modeling ice growth;

An index of wind-induced ice compression, computed as mathematical divergence of

hindcast wind stress;

Superstructure icing potential;

Potential for reduced visibility from fog or precipitation; and

An ice navigability index, based on a vessel traffic management system developed by

Transport Canada [1996].

78
Region (Marine), Transport Canada, Ottawa.

79
was run for several months, far beyond the needfor the operational purpose [Wang 2001]. We found that

surface circulation follows the wind direction (to the west), while the slope current along the Beaufort

Sea slope is reproduced below 100 m, flowing to the east, just opposite to the surface current. There are

some mesoscale eddies in the fine model. Neither the slope current nor the mesoscale eddies are captured

in the coarse model. Thus, this fine nested model preliminarily captures some dynamic features in the

Beaufort Sea and its shelves.

Introduction

The Beaufort Sea is located on the U.S. shelf ofthe Arctic Ocean. It draws much attention from world

researchers for its oil exploration and climate research. Hydrography of the Beaufort Sea shows that a

coastal current exists along the shelf of the Beafort Sea. The ocean circulation is dominated by the inflow

through the Bering Strait and Arctic circulation. Eddy motion is the important feature of circulation in

the Beaufort Sea [Manley and Hunkins 1985]. Chu et al. [1999] classify the thermohaline structure and

give four types of structure features.

The aim of this study is to develop a nested coupled ice-ocean model to study the ice and ocean features

and to implement the nowcasl/forecast models for the Beaufort Sea. The Beaufort Sea is perennially

an ice-covered area; ice growth/decay and movement play an important role in the heat budget and

hydrodynamics of the ocean. It is necessary to use a coupled ice-ocean model to simulate ocean

circulation and thermohaline structure. In order to achieve this goal, a fine-grid model with higher

80
which represents the creation of open water and ridging during ice deformation. The redistribution

process conserves ice volume. The redistribution function is parameterized as multiple categories used by

Yao et at. [2000]. In the equations below g(h)dh is defined as the fraction of area covered by the ice with

a thickness between h and h+dh. The concentration A and averaged thickness h of sea ice in a grid are

expressed from g(h) as

A =Jg(h)dh

and

h=g(h)hdh

The ice drift velocity u1 is determined from the momentum equation

d - m-uj+mfxuj=_mgVH+A(r

where f is the Coriolis parameter and m is the ice mass in a grid. VH is the gradient of sea surface

elevation, A is the ice-covered fraction, and ; and are the air and water stresses, respectively. ois the

two-dimensional internal ice stress tensor, which is derived from the viscous-plastic rheology {Hibler

1979].

81
Ice-ocean coupling

Heat and salt flux at the ice-ocean interface were governed by the boundary processes as discussed by

Mellor and Kantha [1989]. In grid cells in which ice is present the heat flux out of the ocean is

= -PCC7( T1 -T) (9)

where C, is the specific heat of seawater and Tis the ocean temperature at the uppermost model grid

(in our model the midpoint of the uppennost ocean layer). The heat transfer coefficient CT is given by

CTZ = P1n(-z/zo)/k+Br

BT=b(zou. /v)"2Pr113QAW (11)

where u is the friction velocity, Prt is a turbulent Prandtl number, z is the vertical coordinate

corresponding to the temperature 7', z0 is the roughness length, and k is the von Karman constant. The

molecular sublayer correction is represented by BTwhere Pr is a molecular Prandtl number, v is the

kinematic viscosity, and b is an empirical constant.

U.

82

(10)
I

Model domain and grid system

The nested fine (-resolution) model domain covers the Beaufort Sea with three open boundaries

(Figure 1). The coarse grid model domain includes the pan-Arctic and North Atlantic oceans (Figure Ia).

Bathymetry has been smoothed. The Bering Strait is enclosed. The only open boundary of the domain

is in the northern Atlantic Ocean. The ocean model variables are in the Arakawa C-grid system. The

variables for the sea ice model are staggered in the Arakawa B-grid system.

83

20

20 40 60 SO 100 120 140 180 ISO Figure 1. The domain and bathymetry for the coarse (top) and nested

fine-resolution (middle) coupled iceocean model in the

Beaufort Sea. The bottom figure is the tine-resolution grid.

85

20 40 60 80 1(0 020 140 00 '80

the climate drift. The climatological SST and SSS are interpolated to every day from PHC2.0 and used to

restore forcing with the restoring time scale of 36 days.

4.5

I

4.45

4.25

4.2

3

Figure 2. Mean kinematic energy of the coarse-grid model.

87

3.S 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7

Time (year)

>' 4.4

C

Ui

.9 4.35

E

C

4.3
occupies the layer between 500-1000 m and almost extends through the entire deep-water area. The warm

core may be due to the intrusion of the North Atlantic warm water.

Salinity (Figure Th) is lower in the shallow water near the Alaska coast and remains mostly uniform in the

entire water column. In deep water, salinity increases from 31 psu at the surface layer to 35 psu at the

bottom.

88
40

40 60 80 1W 120 14C 1 1

Figure 4. Simulated volume transport and transport belts.

89

Figure 3. Simulated circulation at 10, 100, 200, and 500 rn in the Beaufort Sea.

Volume Transport 0.03

0 005

D3001

0,0005

o 0005

0 0001 Se-OS Se 05

le-05

50- %

Se- %

lo100

61

Ternpornturn(°C) at Section B

(a)

01

(b)

Figure 6. Temperature (a) and salinity (b) along tile Alaska shelf along Section A. Note that the

vertical coordinate is in logarithm scale in meters (0, 10, 100, 1000, ...).

(b)

Figure 7. Temperature (a) and salinity (b) along Section B. Note that the vertical coordinate is in

logarithm scale in meters (0. 10, 100, 1000. ...).

91

a'

20 I

4

160

180

200-2

160

180

200

31

32 33 34 35

Figure 9. Temperature (a) and salinity (b) profiles in the shallow water region.

Concluding Remarks

A fine-grid coupled ice-ocean model, which is nested into a coarse coupled ice-ocean model for the

pan-Arctic and North Atlantic oceans, is being developed to simulate the ocean circulation in the Beaufort

Sea. The ocean circulation, transport and vertical distribution of salinity and temperature are analyzed.

The major conclusions are:

There is a significant coastal current along the Alaska coast slope. The coastal current

is westward in the top layer and coincides with wind forcing. The reverse coastal

current exists below 100 m and extends to a deeper layer.

Mesoscale eddies are a typical phenomenon in the Beaufort Sea and extend to

a deep layer. Some eddies are cyclonic, some anticyclonic.

A low salinity layer exists in all domains and can reach a depth of 200 m. The

thickness of the low salinity varies from place to place.

93

-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5
90:4911-4930.

Mellor, G.L., and L. Kantha. 1989. An ice-ocean coupled model. J. Geophys. Res. 94:10937-10954.

jMellor, G.L. 1996. User's Guide for a Three-Dimensional, Primitive Equation, Nwnerical Ocean Model.

Program in Atmos. and Oceanic Sci., Princeton University, 41 p.

Reed, R.K. 1977. On estimating insolation over the ocean. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 7,482-485.

Smith, S.D. 1988. Coefficients of sea surface wind stress, heat flux, and wind profiles as a function of

wind speed and temperature. J. Geophys. Res. 93:15467-15472.

Steele, M., R. Morley and W. Ermold. 2001. PHC: A global ocean hydrography with a high quality

Arctic Ocean. J. Clim. 14:2079-2087.

Thorndike, A.S., D.A. Rothrock, GA Maykut and R. Colony. 1975. The thickness of distribution of sea

ice. J. Geophys. Res. 80:4501-4513.

Wang, J., L.A. Mysak and R.G. Ingram. 1994. A numerical simulation of sea ice cover in Hudson Bay.

J. Phys. Oceanogr. 24:25 15-2533.

Wang J. 2001. A nowcast/forecast system for coastal ocean circulation using simple nudging data

assimilation. J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech. 18:1037-1047.

Yao, T., C.L. Tang and I.K. Peterson. 2000. Modeling the seasonal variation of sea ice in the Labrador

Sea with a coupled multicategory ice model. J. Geophys. Res. 105: 1153-1165.

94
known about them during the rest of the year. Satellite tagging provides a means to determine beluga

distribution and movements outside ofsummering areas. Recent satellite tagging studies of belugas in

the eastern Chukchi Sea revealed that these animals spent a good portion of the summer in the Beaufort

Sea and the Arctic Ocean north of the Beaufort Sea. Only afew belugas have been tagged to date in the

Chukchi Sea, and most of those were large males. li is unknown whether the females and smaller males

also regularly move into the Beaufort Sea, although initial results indicate that some of them do. Oil and

gas exploration and development have the potential to negatively impact the eastern Chukchi Sea stock

of beluga whales.

In this study, we proposed to capture and attach satellite tags to female and small male belugas to

determine their distribution and movements during the summer and early fall. It was our intent to attach

eight satellite tags in 2000 and an additional nine in 2001. Due to unusually heavy ice conditions at Point

Lay in late June and early July 2000, it was not possible to attach satellite tags. However, during July

2001, we successfully tagged eight belugas in Kasegaluk Lagoon near Point Lay. This includedfour

adults andfour juveniles. Four of these eight (three gray subadults and one adult male) were still

transmitting data as of 3 September. Male belugas moved the farthest north and east during July and

August. However, none of the males tagged in 2001 traveled asfar north as belugas tagged in 1998 and

1999. Both adult and gray female belugas stayed on the continental shelf or near the shelf break This

report describes progress madefrom project inception through August 2001.

95
Canadian scientists captured and satellite tagged 30 belugas from the eastern Beaufort Sea stock during

1992-1997. Information from those tagging efforts has dramatically changed our understanding of habitat

use, distribution and movements of Beaufort Sea belugas. It is now clear that belugas tagged in the

Mackenzie region do not remain in shallow, nearshore waters but travel hundreds of kilometers to the

north through heavy pack ice to feed. They often dive to depths exceeding 600 m and routinely travel

through pack ice of? 9/10 coverage.

In 1998 and 1999, the Alaska Beluga Whale Committee, North Slope Borough, ADF&G, National

Marine Fisheries Service/National Marine Mammal Laboratory (NMFS/NMML), and village of Point

Lay captured and tagged a total of ten belugas from the eastern Chukchi Sea stock. The data from these

first satellite tagged belugas in the eastern Chukchi Sea have provided new and surprising information

about their movements and distribution during late summer and autumn. These tagged belugas did not,

in contradiction to previous assumptions, spend the summer in pack ice of the north central Chukchi Sea.

Instead, they moved into the Beaufort Sea and Arctic Ocean [Suydam et al. 2001]. Some traveled more

than 2000 km from the tagging location. Additional data are needed about the use of the Beaufort Sea and

Arctic Ocean by the eastern Chukchi Sea beluga stock.

As part of its lease sale planning in the Beaufort Sea, MMS has focused on the eastern Beaufort Sea stock

of belugas since they were known to migrate through and summer in this region. Satellite tracking of

eastern Chukchi Sea belugas has revealed that they, too, spend a portion of the summer in the Beaufort

Sea [Suydam et al. 2001]. Satellite tagged belugas moved north along the Chukchi Sea coast of

northwestern Alaska and into the Beaufort Sea. Most of the tagged belugas moved far to the north and

96
Beluga hunters from the village of Point Lay conducted a successful drive hunt during the night and early

morning of 2 and 3 July. Belugas were located near Omalik Lagoon, and driven more than 50 km to the

lagoon in front of the old village site at Point Lay where the harvest took place. Approximately 30

belugas were harvested.

In conjunction with and immediately following the harvest, two adult belugas were captured and satellitetagged. They were captured in a set net, 200 m long, 4 m deep, and with 37.5 cm stretched mesh. The net

was set across the channel of the lagoon. Individual whales were driven into the net where they became

entangled. They were removed from the set net and secured with a hoop net over their head and flippers.

Once we pulled the belugas to shore, a padded rope was secured around their peduncle. The belugas were

held in water shallow enough that their dorswn was exposed. They were released immediately after the

transmitters were attached. Both left the lagoon soon after their release.

The remaining six belugas were captured with hoop nets during two separate capture events. Point Lay

hunters assisted biologists by driving a small group of belugas from outside a lagoon pass into shallow

lagoon waters where they could be maneuvered close to shore for netting. The first three of these (all

juvenile gray animals) were caught on 5 July approximately 8 km north of Point Lay. The other three (one

juvenile and two adult males) were caught on 7 July at the same location. After capture, these belugas

were handled in the same manner as those initially caught in set nets. Due to low water in the lagoon all

six remained in the channels of the lagoon for 2-5 days after they were tagged.

97
Chukchi Sea.

Three of the four tags attached to gray belugas were still transmitting on 3 September. Only one tag

attached to a light gray beluga failed early. This young male was in the same general location northeast

of Barrow as the two adult males with early tag failures. All three of the active tags were located along

the Beaufort Sea shelf break on 3 September. The gray male was more than 400 km east of Barrow, and

about 80 km offshore. The twoyfemales were 200-250 km east of Point Barrow, about 60 km

offshore, and about 30 km apart. The deepest dives for these four belugas during the first two months they

were tagged were 316-364 m.

Preliminarily, based on tags deployed in 1998 and 1999, as well as this year, it appears that female

belugas may not move as far north and off the shelf break as do males. All four females tagged in 2001,

as well as the small female tagged in 1999, remained within about 60 km of shore and quite near the

continental shelf break in the Beaufort Sea. In contrast, all of the males traveled north of the shelf break

over waters exceeding 3000 m in depth. We hope to increase our sample size of females and gray belugas

in 2002 and see if this difference is consistent among years.

98
No publications to date. No belugas tagged until July 2001.

Acknowledgments

This project would not have been possible without the help and cooperation of the people and hunters of

Point Lay. They invited us into their village to live and work, they allowed us to tag in conjunction with

their hunt, and they shared their knowledge about belugas in this area. Special recognition goes to James

Tazruk, Nick Hank and Charles Aniskette who served as an integral part of our field crew and helped

us to catch and tag belugas, and to Bill Tracey for helping with all aspects of our stay in Point Lay.

We also especially thank Greg O'Corry-Crowe for acting as crew leader during the tagging operations

and ensuring the success of this year's project. This project would not have happened without the

contributions and support of multiple people and organizations, including not only the funding from the

University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, but also funding and in-kind support from the Village of

Point Lay, North Slope Borough Department of Wildlife Management, National Marine Mammal Lab,

the Alaska Beluga Whale Committee, Commander Northwest, the Alaska Department of Fish and Game,

and the University of Alaska Fairbanks.

Reference

Suydam, R.S., L.F. Lowry, K.J. Frost, G.M. O'Corry-Crowe and D. Pikok, Jr. 2001. Satellite tracking of

eastern Chukchi Sea beluga whales into the Arctic Ocean. Arctic 54: 237-243.

99
Timeline 

* Final report and manuscrip

belugas was tagged in 200

Project Ac

Project planning Equipment ordering Logistical organization/preField work Data analysis Report preparation Quarterly report submissioAnnual report submission Draft final report submissioFinal report submission (intechnical summary, maps, Submission of manuscript tProject presentations 
Ringed seals are an important resource for Native people of northern and western Alaska and an

important ecological component of the northern marine ecosystem. Aerial surveys have been used to

monitor trends in the distribution and density of ringed seals in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea without

correction for variation in the proportion ofseals visible to aerial observers. With CMJ support, we

showed that the proportion ofseals visible changes rapidly during the typical survey period as seals shift

from resting in lairs to resting in the open. The end of that transition was associated with measured

changes in snow conditions during a two-year study. The aim of this project is to develop models of the

proportion ofseals visible as a function ofsnow conditions and to re-analyze previous aerial surveys.

101
102

metals as a result ofprogressive urbanization of the Barrow area. By comparing the results from this

study with those we collected earlierfrom the Prudhoe Bay-Colville Delta region, a basis could be

established to identify sources of anthropogenic contaminants of trace metals and hydrocarbons derived

from diverse origins in the North Slope nearshore, for example municipal and petroleum-related

activities. This information will be critical for efforts relating to ecological risk assessment of the study

area in context ofcontaminant inputs.
15 unsuccessful breeders) on breeding grounds in Prudhoe Bay, Alaska over a period of two years.

Transmitters will be programmed to record bird locations during breeding and brood-rearing

(June-August), fall migration (mid-August-October), early winter (November), and the following spring

migration (late April-June). A graduate research assistant in the Biology and Wildlfe Program,

University ofAlaska Fairbanks will conduct research under the supervision of two research faculty

(Abby Powell and Eric Rexstad) at the Institute ofArctic Biology, UAF. Results of this study will be used

to complement ongoing eider migration counts at Barrow, Alaska and aerial waterbird surveys along the

Arctic Coastal Plain and Beaufort Sea (U.S. Fish and Wildhfe Service). Because eiders congregate in

large, dense flocks during migration and molt, they may be particularly vulnerable to an offshore oil spill

in the Beaufort Sea. The researchers will identify when, where, and how long adult female king elders use

the Beaufort Sea. Valuable information on the importance of the Alaskan Beaufort Sea will be gained

from this study. Expected results include interim andfinal reports, an MS. thesis, and peer-reviewed

scientftcpublications.

103
g

,

SourceTotal $80,600 $21,500

Fiscal Year 98

2 Ph.D. students 27,240 0

I M.S. student 10,560 0

2 undedared/undergrads 2,610 0

SourceTotal $40,410 $0

Fiscal Year 99

4 Ph.D. students 26,318 28,710

4 M.S. students 32,419 15,444

2 undedared/undergrads 0 8,244

Source Total $ 58,737 $52,398

Fiscal Year 00

I Ph.D. student 7,630 8,305

I undergrad 0 15,826

Source Total $ 7,630 $24,131

Fiscal Year 01

I Ph.D. student 28,557 15,000

4 undergrads 0 16,530

SourceTotal $28,557 $31,530

Total to Date $ 617,934 $ 277,959

104
Cook Inlet Regional Citizens Advisory Council

Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada

Japanese Marine Science and Technology Center (JAMSTEC)

Kodiak island Borough

North Slope Borough

Oil Spill Recovery Institute

Phillips Alaska Inc.

Prince William Sound Aquaculture Corporation

University of Alaska Anchorage

University of Alaska Fairbanks

College of Science, Engineering and Mathematics

Institute of Arctic Biology

Institute of Marine Science

International Arctic Research Center

School of Agriculture and Land Resources Management

School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences

School of Management

105
106
OCS Study MMS 98-0005, University of Alaska Fairbanks and USD01, MMS, Alaska OCS Region, 81 p.

ALEXANDER, V. (Director). 1998. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Report No.5.

OCS Study MMS 98-0062, University of Alaska Fairbanks and USD01, MMS, Alaska OCS Region, 72p.

*ALE)(1p)ER, V. (Director). 2000. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Report No. 6.

OCS Study MMS 2000-046, University of Alaska Fairbanks and USD0!, MMS, Alaska OCS Region, 86p.

ALEXANDER, V. (Director). 2000. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Report No.7.

OCS Study MMS 2000-070, University of Alaska Fairbanks and USD01, MMS, Alaska OCS Region, 92p.

ALEXANDER, V. (Director). 2001. University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Annual Report No.8.

OCS Study MMS 2002-001, University of Alaska Fairbanks and USD01, MMS, Alaska OCS Region, 109 p.

BRADDOCK, J.F., andZ. RICHTER 1998. Microbial Degradation of Aromatic Hydrocarbons in

Marine Sediments. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 97-0041, University of Alaska Coastal Marine

Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks and USD0!, MMS, Alaska OCS Region, 82p.

COOK, LA., G.H. JARRELL, A.M. RuNcKandJ.R. DEMBOSKI. 1999. The Alaska Frozen Tissue

Collection and Associated Electronic Database: A Resource for Marine Biotechnology. Final Report.

OCS Study MMS 99-0008, University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks

and USD0!, MMS, Alaska OCS Region, 23 p.

107
KLINE, T.C., JR., and J.J. GOERING. 1998. North Slope Amphidromy Assessment. Final Report. OCS

Study MMS 98-0006, University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks and

USD0!, MMS, Alaska OCS Region, 25p.

NIEBAUER, H.J. 2000. Physical-Biological Numerical Modeling on Alaskan Arctic Shelves. Final

Report. OCS Study MMS 2000-041, University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska

Fairbanks and USD0!, MMS, Alaska OCS Region, 84p.

NORCROSS, B.L. 1996. Recruitment of Juvenile Flatfishes in Alaska: Habitat Preference near

Kodiak Island, Vol.1. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 96-0003, University of Alaska Coastal Marine

Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks and USD0!, MMS, Alaska OCS Region, 118p.

NORCROSS, B.L. 1996. Recruitment of Juvenile Flatfishes in Alaska: Habitat Preference near

Kodiak Island, Vol.11. Final Report, Appendices. OCS Study MMS 96-0003, University of Alaska

Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks and USD0!, MMS, Alaska OCS Region, 118p.

NORCROSS, B.L., B.A. HOLLADAY, A.A. AB00KIRE and S.C. DRESSEL. 1998. Defining Habitats for

Juvenile Groundfishes in Southcentral Alaska, Vol. !. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 97-0046,

University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks and USD0!, MMS, Alaska

OCS Region, 131 p.

108
WEINGARTNER, T.J., and T. PROSHUTINSKY. 1998. Modeling the Circulation on the Chukchi Sea

Shelf. Final Report. OCS Study MMS 98-0017, University of Alaska Coastal Marine Institute, University

of Alaska Fairbanks and USD01, MMS, Alaska OCS Region, 75p.

109

sound use of our land and water resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, and biological diversity;

preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and histoncal places;

and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses

our energy and mineral resources and works to ensure that their development is in the best

interests of all our people by encouraging stewardship and citizen participation in their care.

The Department also has a major responsibility for Amencan Indian reservation communities

and for people who live in island territories under U.S. administration.

The Minerals Management Service Mission

As a bureau of the Department of the Interior, the Minerals Management Service's (MMS)

primary responsibilities are to manage the mineral resources located on the Nation's Outer

Continental Shelf (OCS), collect revenue from the Federal OCS and onshore Federal and

Indian lands, and distnbute those revenues.

Moreover, in working to meet its responsibilities, the Offshore Minerals Management

Program administers the OCS competitive leasing program and oversees the safe and

environmentally sound exploration and production of our Nation's offshore natural gas, oil and

other mineral resources. The MMS Royalty Management Program meets its responsibilities

by ensuring the efficient, timely and accurate collection and disbursement of revenue from

mineral leasing and production due to Indian tribes and atlottees, States and the U.S. Treasury.

The MMS strives to fulfill its responsibilities through the general guiding principals of: (1) being

responsive to the public's concerns and interests by maintaining a dialogue with all potentially

affected parties and (2) carrying out its programs with an emphasis on working to enhance the

quality of life for all Americans by lending MMS assistance and eXpertise to economic

development and environmental protection.