“In my budget, I proposed new funding to continue our

aggressive, community­based strategy to reduce demand

for illegal drugs. Drug testing in our schools has proven

to be an effective part of this effort. ...The aim here is

not to punish children, but to send them this message:

We love you, and we don’t want to lose you.”

President George W. Bush

STATE OF THE UNION ADDRESS

JANUARY 20, 2004
OFFICE OF NATIONAL DRUG CONTROL POLICY
Acknowledgements

The Office of National Drug Control Policy extends thanks to the following

individuals and organizations for their help in producing this document:

Stephenie Colston, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services

Administration (SAMHSA); Bob Stephenson, Center for Substance Abuse

Prevention, SAMHSA; Charles LoDico and Walt Vogl, Division of Workplace

Programs, Center for Substance Abuse Prevention, SAMHSA; Deborah Price,

Robyn Disselkoen, Bill Modzeleski, and Helene Deramond, U.S. Department

of Education; and Jacqueline Mazza.

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM iii 
Foreword

In his 2004 State of the Union speech, President George W. Bush

reminded Congress and the Nation of our responsibility to help children

make the right choices. “One of the worst decisions children can make,”

he said, “is to gamble their lives and futures on drugs.”

The President directed our attention to recent

good news: survey results showing that drug use

among American teenagers has dropped 11

percent in the past two years. This achievement

not only marked improvement not seen in a

decade, it also met the national goal the

President set in February 2002 to reduce drug

use among 12­ to 17­year­olds by 10 percent

within two years.

Our progress demonstrated that, when we push back against drug use,

it will recede. And now that effort has been given an added boost.

In his speech, the President pledged $23 million in additional funding to

support one of the most powerful tools for preventing youth substance

abuse: school­based drug testing.

JOHN P. WALTERS

In June 2002, the U.S. Supreme Court broadened the authority of public

schools to test students for illegal drugs, thereby making this powerful

tool available to any school battling drug problems. Since that historic

ruling, a number of schools across the country have seized this opportunity to implement drug­testing programs of their own.

Parents and educators have a responsibility to keep children and teens

safe from drug use. We have made important progress. Our task is now

to move further. We must identify and use the best tools at our disposal

to protect kids from a behavior that destroys bodies and minds, impedes

academic performance, and creates barriers to success and happiness.

Drug testing is just such a tool—powerful, safe, and effective. It is

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM v 
available to any school, public or private, that understands the devastation of drug use and is determined to confront it. Many schools

urgently need effective ways to reinforce their anti­drug efforts. Drug

testing can help them.

I hope that schools considering adding a testing program to their current

prevention efforts will find reassurance in knowing that drug testing can

be done effectively and compassionately. Testing, after all, cannot be used

to punish kids who use drugs. Its purpose is to prevent use in the first

place, and to make sure users get the help they need to stop placing

themselves and their friends at risk. Random drug testing is not a

substitute for all our other efforts to reduce drug use by young people,

but it does make all those efforts much stronger and more effective.

John P. Walters

Director

Office of National Drug Control Policy

October 2004

vi WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM
Table of Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Early intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

The benefits of drug testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Before You Begin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Collect data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Consult legal counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Enlist community support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Develop a clear, written policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Obtain the approval of an Institutional Review Board,

if necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Provide access to student assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Conducting the Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Whom to test, and when . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

The procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Alternative testing methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Consequences of a positive test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Drug testing in schools will let students be accountable . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Other Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Assessing your program’s effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Funding your program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Conclusion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM vii
Introduction

School administrators faced with the task of keeping their students

drug­free have used a variety of prevention and education programs. A

precipitating event—a tragic drugoverdose death or an alarming

escalation in the level of drug use,

for example—will often spur a

school to seek additional means of

reducing the drug problem. Now,

as a result of a 2002 Supreme

Court decision (Board of

Education of Independent School

District No. 92 of Pottawatomie

County vs. Earls), public middle

and high schools are free to use a

powerful new tool for deterring

and detecting drug use: random

drug tests. Drug testing previously

was available only for students

involved in sports. In the 2002

ruling, however, the Court broadened the scope of testing to include all

students who take part in after­school activities—teams, clubs, and other

organizations—in which the participants compete against students at

other schools.

Student drug testing is but one part of a comprehensive drug and

alcohol prevention, intervention, and treatment program. Prevention

messages will keep many students from using drugs, and they may also

prompt some who experiment with drugs to stop. There are others,

however, who have begun using alcohol or drugs and who are not

responsive to prevention messages. Many of these users have not yet

experienced adverse health effects of their drug use, nor have they faced

criminal or social sanctions. It is through this group of users that a

serious community drug problem spreads.

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM 1 
Early intervention

One of the best ways to block the spread of drug use is through an

approach called early intervention, which encourages friends, family,

care­givers, and others to get actively involved in the lives of drug

users—and the sooner the better. The idea is to identify nondependent

users, through drug testing and other means, then steer them from drugs

and into counseling, if necessary, before they become addicted or entice

others to use drugs. Kids whose drug use has already progressed to abuse

and dependence may require more intense or clinical intervention, such

as specialty treatment. Drug testing not only helps identify students who

use drugs, it also creates a deterrent to use. It helps young people cope

with peer pressure, giving them a convenient reason to say “no” to drugs,

and it underscores the message that drugs are a barrier to achieving

one’s full potential.

Student drug testing has proven to be effective in schools that have tried

it. For example, Hunterdon Central Regional High School in

Flemington, New Jersey, experienced an overall decrease in student drug

use between 1997 and 2000. The only change in the school’s substanceabuse program during that

three­year period was the

implementation of random

drug tests for student athletes.

In September 2000, Hunterdon

suspended all random drug

testing after the American Civil

Liberties Union filed a lawsuit

in New Jersey state court on

behalf of students who claimed

their 4th Amendment rights were violated. Over the next two years,

during which the school made no other changes in its substance­abuse

program, the level of drug use at Hunterdon increased.

In a similar scenario, 85 percent of schools in Indiana that suspended

their drug­testing programs during a court challenge by the Indiana

Civil Liberties Union found that drug use increased during the

suspension, then decreased when testing resumed.

2 WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM
Results such as this show the power and the promise of student drug

testing. It is important to note, however, that drug testing may not be

appropriate for every school. An earlier

ONDCP publication, What You Need to

Know About Drug Testing in Schools,

provided an overview of the complex issues

involved in student drug testing, and it

raised some important issues that parents

and administrators must consider before

starting such a program. For example: Will

your school and community support such a

program? What are the legal requirements?

Which students should be tested? What

kinds of tests are available, and which are

best suited for your school?

As that booklet cautions, random drug testing should never be used to

punish students. Rather, it should be used to deter young people from

using drugs, or to identify current drug users so they may be referred to

counseling or treatment. And because no two communities face exactly

the same drug problem, each school must develop its own unique drugtesting program, carefully tailored to its particular needs and

circumstances.

What You Need to Know About Starting a Student Drug­Testing Program

is meant to complement and build on the information provided in the

earlier publication. This booklet assumes that you, as a school administrator, staff member, or parent involved in the decision, have considered

all the issues, weighed the pros and cons, collected data, and are now

ready to put together a plan for starting a drug­testing program in your

school. It reviews the steps you need to take before implementing a

testing program, such as conducting a needs assessment, consulting

legal counsel, enlisting the support of both the school and the local

community, developing a written policy, and providing access to

student assistance. It offers guidance on how to find funding for your

program, and it also includes a discussion of how some schools select

students for testing and what types of tests they use. A list of resources

includes Web sites and contact information for agencies and other

organizations that can answer any further questions you may have

about student drug testing.

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM 3 
The benefits of drug testing

Drug use can turn to dependence

and addiction, trapping users in a

vicious cycle that destroys families

and ruins lives. Students who use

drugs are statistically more likely to

drop out of school than their peers

who don’t.

Drugs and alcohol not only

interfere with a student’s ability to

learn, they also disrupt the orderly

environment necessary for all

students to succeed. Studies show

that students who use drugs are

more likely to bring guns and

knives to school, and that the more

marijuana a student smokes, the

greater the chances he or she will be involved in physical attacks,

property destruction, stealing, and cutting classes. Parents and students

expect schools to offer protection from violence, racism, and other

forms of abuse. It is likewise their right to expect a learning environment

free from the influence of illegal drugs.

As a parent or school administrator, you have a responsibility to ensure

that student drug use does not become a barrier to learning. What You

Need to Know About Starting a Student Drug­Testing Program can help

you meet that responsibility. If you conclude that drug testing would be

an effective method of detecting, confirming, and deterring drug use

among the young people under your care, this booklet offers valuable

advice and information that can guide you in the development of a

program that is effective, confidential, and compassionate.

4 WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM
Before You Begin

A great deal of preparation goes into developing a successful drugtesting program. Before you begin testing, it is important that you cover

all the bases and take these necessary first steps:

• Collect data to determine the scope and nature of your

school’s drug problem

• Consult legal counsel

• Enlist support within the school and local community

• Develop a clear, written policy

• Obtain the approval of an Institutional Review Board,

if necessary

• Provide access to student assistance

Collect data

Would your school really benefit from a drug­testing program? For some

schools, prevention and education programs may be sufficient responses

to the drug threat. For others, more powerful tools are needed to help

reduce student drug use.

A school might begin a drug­testing

program to confront an escalating

drug problem, for example, or when

overdose deaths among the student

body prompt action to avert more

tragedy. The Capistrano Unified

School District in California launched

a student drug­testing program after

requests from the community for a

program that would help students say

“no” to drugs. The voluntary program,

which started in 2002 at San Clemente

High School with the support of the

school board, principal, and parents,

now has a participation rate of more

than 50 percent.

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM 5 
The needs assessment should be done in the early stages, when you are

considering whether your school’s drug problem warrants a drugtesting program. Collecting data is important to help you determine the

scope and characteristics of your drug problem and to establish a

baseline from which to measure the effectiveness of your testing

program later on. Some schools find it helpful to establish an advisory

committee or task force. Such a group could be comprised of school

administrators, students, teachers, parents, student assistance counselors, coaches, club advisors, and representatives from local treatment

programs and police departments.

The advisory committee can be

helpful in many ways, including the

collection and assessment of data.

Reports by teachers, staff, and parents

can yield useful information about

the nature and extent of your school’s

drug problem. Keep data about drug

paraphernalia or residue found in or

around the school. Look at indirect

evidence, such as local police reports

and overdose data in the aggregate, to

help fill out the picture. Local

treatment programs can also provide

useful information about drug use by

students without breaching the confidentiality of their individual patients.

Government­funded surveys such as the National Survey on Drug Use

and Health, Monitoring the Future, and The Youth Risk Behavior Survey

all have questions regarding drug use that can be adapted for a school

survey. A number of states, as well as several private, non­profit organizations, can also provide support and survey materials designed to

reflect student drug and alcohol use. Student surveys can pinpoint which

drugs your students are using and, in turn, can help you decide which

drugs to target in your test panel.

6 WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM
Consult legal counsel

In June 2002, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a drug­testing program for

students involved in competitive extracurricular activities, thereby

expanding the authority of public schools to test students for drugs.

Although the ruling allows schools to drug­test greater numbers of

students, it is not a blanket endorsement of drug testing for all students.

Schools therefore should engage legal counsel familiar with Federal,

State, and local law regarding drug testing before implementing a testing

program. It is important to obtain a full legal review of your drugtesting policy and program before you begin testing.

Enlist community support

A key part of the development of an effective testing program is building

partnerships and trust with those in the community who would be

affected: parents, students, the Board of Education, the Superintendent,

local health care agencies, local businesses, legal counsel, community

coalitions, and others.

For some, student drug testing is an emotional and controversial issue—

all the more reason to keep everyone informed and listen to every point

of view, including the voices of opposition. Addressing concerns

whenever possible will strengthen your program. Holding focus­group

or town­hall meetings gives you an opportunity to share the information

that led to your decision to implement a drug­testing program. You may

find that some who were in denial about the drug problem will become

convinced when they see the results of the data you have collected.

There’s no guarantee that everyone will agree with the concept of

random drug testing, of course. But with careful preparation—educating

parents and students, and by assuring them that the program will not be

punitive, that confidentiality will be closely maintained, and that they

may freely voice their opinions—you can greatly improve your chances

of success. For those who will not be swayed, point out that no student

will be forced to submit to a drug test. Although children whose parents

refuse to give their consent may lose the privilege of taking part in

extracurricular activities, parents must always have the ability to opt out

of the drug­testing program.

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM 7 
Once your school’s leadership has understood and agreed to implement

a drug­testing program, and once parents, students, teachers, and other

school personnel have been fully informed, widen the circle of influence

by including local officials, merchants, and owners of area businesses.

In some areas, companies give incentives, such as discounts or preferential employment status, to students who take part in student

drug­testing programs.

Develop a clear, written policy

The committee or task force you have formed can help you decide

whether the tests will be administered by school staff or by someone

hired from outside the school. Many schools use the staff nurse to

administer the tests. Others, including those in Polk County, Florida,

hire staff from the local drug court who are trained in collection procedures and chain­of­custody issues. Your advisory committee can weigh

the pros and cons of the various types of tests—urine, hair, sweat, and

saliva—and also offer advice, based on the data you collected, on which

drugs to include in your test panel. A test normally targets a standard

group, or “panel,” of drugs—marijuana, cocaine, opiates, amphetamines,

and PCP. If steroids or other drugs outside the standard panel are a

problem in your school, you can decide to include them in your list of

target drugs. Once such decisions are made, the committee can help you

develop your school’s drug­testing policy.

There is no single model policy that will fit every school’s particular

needs. However, effective policies do share a number of common

elements that you should incorporate in yours. First of all, it should be a

written policy, rendered in clear, concise language that allows no ambiguity in what you are proposing.

There are four primary areas of concern that should be addressed in a

school drug­testing policy: First, the policy should contain a statement

about the need for a drug­free school. Second, it should have an introduction/position statement on substance use and student health, safety,

confidentiality, and implementation of your student drug­testing

program. Third, the policy should address the key components of the

drug­testing program, such as which categories of students will be

tested, how they will be selected for a drug test, what drugs will be tested

for, specimen collection and chain­of­custody issues, how consent for

8 WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM
testing will be obtained, how confidentiality of student information

will be maintained, how drug­test

results will be protected, and what

consequences will follow a positive

test result or refusal to take the test.

Finally, the policy should provide a

list of student rights, as well as an

explanation of the school’s responsibilities to the students.

Those who read your policy should

be able to understand the testing

procedure, and that positive test

results will undergo further review

by qualified medical personnel to

determine the likelihood of legitimate medications causing the

positive reading. Make sure your policy indicates whether the school or

the parents will pay for the confirmation test.

The policy should explain what recourses are available to a student if he

or she believes a positive result was an error, and it must articulate the

consequences of a true positive test. If students who test positive are

suspended from extracurricular activities until they provide a negative

test, the policy should make this clear, as well as whether graduated

sanctions will be imposed with repeated positive tests.

By the same token, the policy should state clearly that no academic

consequences will follow as a result of a positive drug test. Your drugtesting policy should clearly state the permissible use of test results,

indicating precisely who may (and may not) see them, and it should

underscore, above all, that school administrators will maintain 

strict confidentiality.

Working with your advisory committee, develop consent forms for

parents and students to sign indicating they have read your policy,

understand it, and agree to take part in the drug­testing program.

Announce the policy at least 90 days before testing begins. When

collecting information from students on drug use, be mindful of the

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM 9 
U.S. Department of Education’s regulations on confidentiality and

release of information. The two primary regulations are the Family

Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) and the Protection of Pupil

Rights Amendment (PPRA). See the Resources section for more information. Also listed among the Resources are links to Internet sites

offering samples of student drug­testing policies, as well as contact

information for non­profit organizations that can provide technical

assistance on developing a policy.

Obtain the approval of an Institutional Review

Board, if necessary

If your school district receives Federal funds to develop, enhance, or

implement a student drug­testing program, the project may be subject

to the approval of an Institutional Review Board (IRB), a special panel

charged with protecting the rights and welfare of human research

subjects. Projects that are

designed to test or demonstrate the effectiveness of

drug testing are considered

“research” by some

agencies under a Federal

policy governing human

subjects. Not all student

drug­testing programs fall

within the scope of this

policy. But it is essential

that you determine early in the process, before you begin drug­testing

students, whether your project requires IRB review. Check with your

funding agency to see if it has adopted the Federal policy for the

protection of human subjects. Some agencies, including the U.S.

Department of Education, offer guidance to grant recipients on finding

an IRB and obtaining the necessary approval. (See the Resources section

for more information, including lists of IRBs and a complete list of

agencies that have adopted the Federal policy regarding the protection of

human subjects.)

10 WHAT YOU N EED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTI NG A STU DENT DR UG­TESTI NG P ROGR A M
Provide access to student assistance

Some schools may be reluctant to initiate a testing program for lack of

understanding what to do with those students who test positive for

drugs. Indeed, it is essential for any school contemplating a student

drug­testing program to have some sort of mechanism in place for

working with students whose test results are positive. For those who

have just started using drugs or use them only occasionally, a few words

from a counselor and/or parents—coupled with the prospect of future

drug tests—may be enough to discourage further use. The counselor

may refer the student for recovery support services, which can be an

intermediary step for those not requiring clinical treatment services.

Frequent users or those in danger of becoming chemically dependent

will likely need clinical treatment.

One good way to assure these young people receive the appropriate

level of counseling or treatment is to provide access to a student assistance program. Operating in much the same way as employee assistance

programs in the workplace, student assistance programs have a long

history of helping schools remove barriers to learning. Some schools

use a core team of trained staff to provide student assistance services.

Others designate a single counselor as the student assistance counselor,

while still others contract with outside non­profit mental health or

substance abuse agencies to provide student assistance services.

Whatever the arrangement, student assistance programs help young

people improve their success in school by connecting them with the

most appropriate resources for the many issues that interfere with

learning, such as family problems, peer conflicts, depression, isolation,

illness, and substance abuse.

Student assistance services typically include linking students and their

families to appropriate community resources and school­based support

services. A positive drug test may result in referral to ongoing drug

testing, educational classes, attendance in a chemical awareness group, or

treatment for chemical dependency. Some students with positive test

results are referred through the student assistance program to a behavioral health assessor, a professional counselor who specializes in working

with chemically dependent youth. Maintaining strict confidentiality

throughout the process, the assessor can determine whether the student’s

alcohol or drug use requires recovery support or clinical treatment

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM 11 
services, or can be dealt with in less intrusive ways. For students who

have completed treatment and who are in recovery striving to stay

“clean,” returning to the school environment can be a difficult experience. Student assistance eases the re­entry process by offering aftercare

and other support services, then stays in touch with the students to

monitor their progress over time.

Studies have found that students who were referred through a student

assistance program to behavioral health specialists show improved attendance, fewer discipline problems, and better performance in school. For

more information, call the National Student Assistance Association at

800­257­6310 or visit the group’s Web site at www.nsaa.us.

12 WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM
Conducting the Test

Just as the drug problem differs from one school to another, so do the

mechanisms by which various schools conduct drug tests. You should

work closely with your advisory committee and legal counsel to map out

a strategy and set clear guidelines for the nuts­and­bolts operation of the

testing program. Your plan should cover, in detail, every step from

beginning to end, including procedures for choosing which students can

be tested, when and how they are summoned to the collection area, how

the tests are performed and analyzed, and what happens in the event of a

positive test.

Although there is no “one size fits all” approach to drug testing, there are

strategies and techniques that have proven to be effective. Understanding

these, and knowing how other schools have tackled some of the same

issues you are facing, can be immensely valuable in helping you develop

a plan for your school. Key issues, questions, and topic areas include:

• Whom to test, and when

• The procedure

o Specimen collection

o Certified labs

o Point­of­collection urine tests

o The confirmation test

o Medical review officer

• Alternative testing methods

• Consequences of a positive test

Whom to test, and when

Methods and procedures vary widely, but on average, schools with drugtesting programs submit approximately 10­25 percent of their eligible

students to drug tests each month. Typically, a school will test some

students weekly, but there are those that test bi­weekly or even monthly.

Most schools use a computerized system to select students randomly for

drug testing. Others rely on a lottery system and pull names out of a

“pool” of eligible students. On test days, schools often select a few

alternate candidates to account for absences.

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM 13 
The procedure

For years, urine has been the only specimen collected for many federally

regulated and most private­sector drug­testing programs. Today, the

majority of schools with drug­testing programs continue to use urine

tests because of the proven reliability, accuracy, and fairness of this

method. However, schools are increasingly using tests of hair and oral

fluids because both are easier to collect and more resistant to cheating.

Specimen collection. For urine tests, a school staff member usually

escorts those chosen from the testing pool to the collection site. Here,

students typically are given a specimen cup and sent to the lavatory

unobserved. Blue dye has been placed in the toilets, and the water to the

sink has been shut off or the faucets taped shut to lessen the risk of

having the specimen adulterated. The person overseeing the collection

procedure also checks the temperature of the specimen to make sure it is

valid and that no substitution has occurred.

Once the specimen is determined to be valid, the cup is sealed and then

initialed by the student, and the proper chain of custody is applied. To

preserve confidentiality, an identification number rather than the

student’s name or initials may be used for marking the specimens and

test results. Many schools send the specimens to a laboratory, where they

are analyzed by sensitive and carefully calibrated instruments. Laboratory

analysis gives the most accurate reading, but the test results may not be

known for 24 to 48 hours from the time the lab receives the specimen.

At the laboratory, technicians check every specimen for possible substitution or adulteration by substances that the student may have ingested

or put in the specimen afterward to “cleanse” it. (Specimen tampering or

adulteration is less of a concern in hair or saliva testing.) Even if it turns

out that an adulterated specimen does not reveal the presence of drugs

or drug metabolites, the fact that it has been tampered with should bring

on the same consequences as positive drug test.

Certified labs. Drug testing is mandated for Federal employees in

safety­ or security­sensitive positions. Because a positive drug test could

cost someone in such a position his or her job, every possible precaution

is in place to assure test accuracy. All specimens, for example, must be

sent to laboratories certified by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health

14 WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM
Services Administration (SAMHSA). Although school drug­testing

programs are not bound by the same strict procedures, many schools

use SAMHSA­certified labs to ensure a high level of accuracy. (For more

information about the Federal drug­testing program, as well as a list of

certified labs, see http://workplace.samhsa.gov/ResourceCenter/

lablist.htm.) This certification procedure is currently only for urine

testing, but Federal guidelines under development will extend the

process to hair, oral fluids, and sweat­patch testing.

Point­of­collection urine tests. Some schools perform a screening

test of the collected specimens on­site, in a procedure known as pointof­collection testing. For urine testing, the collection procedure is the

same as that for specimens being sent to a laboratory. The difference is

that, in point­of­collection screening, the specimen is read by the test

administrator, not by laboratory instruments. A variety of testing devices

are available that allow the tester to “dip and read,” “tilt and read,” or

“drop and read” the test results. This on­site collection test yields immediate results, most of which will be negative. However, because of the

human involvement in reading the tests, it is imperative that the tester

be properly trained. If a point­of­collection specimen tests positive, it is

then sent to a laboratory, using proper chain­of­custody procedures, for

a confirmation test.

Parents should be notified each time their child is tested, and the

results—positive or negative—should be shared with them. It is up to

each school to determine which staff members, if any, are permitted to

see the test results. High schools generally allow at least one staff

member access to the results. A middle school, on the other hand, might

send the results to the parents only, along with literature on what to do if

the test is positive.

The confirmation test. If the results of the screening test are negative,

no further action is necessary. However, if the specimen tests positive,

regardless of the testing method, a confirmation test should be done. In

the case of urine testing, the confirmation test involves an analytical

process known as gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS).

Technicians use gas chromatography to separate the various substances

in the specimen, and then make a positive identification through mass

spectrometry. Some schools automatically authorize a confirmation test

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM 15 
in the event of a positive screening; others do so only at a parent’s

request. If the confirmation test also comes up positive, a qualified

“medical review officer” should determine whether the positive reading

was caused by illicit drugs or by proper prescription medication.

Medical review officer. A medical review officer is a licensed

physician who is also an expert in drug and alcohol testing and the

Federal regulations governing such testing. It is the job of a medical

review officer to ensure the integrity of the drug test. If a test is positive,

the medical review officer consults with the student and/or the student’s

family and gives them an opportunity to supply evidence that there was

a justifiable reason for the positive test, such as a properly prescribed

drug. If the medical review officer determines that the positive test was

not the result of illegal drug use, the test is reported as negative. Having

a medical review officer on board helps protect the rights of students

and can have the added benefit of strengthening the school’s position if

the test results are ever challenged.

Most laboratories can provide a list of available medical review officers.

To verify the certification status of medical review officers, see the

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) Web site at

http://www.asam.org/search/search4.html. For more information about

certified labs, visit the Web site for SAMHSA’s Division of Workplace

Programs at http://workplace.samhsa.gov/DrugTesting/

MedicalReviewOfficers

Alternative testing methods

Drugs or drug metabolites can be detected in hair, oral fluids, and sweat.

Several factors, including the stigma of wearing a sweat patch, make

sweat testing more suited for use in the criminal justice system and for

follow­up testing after drug treatment.

Hair testing is less intrusive and has a longer detection window than

urine testing, but it may present some special problems. If, for example,

a student athlete shaves his head, where would you take a sample? (In

this case, a urine test could be used as an alternative.) Moreover, hair

specimens can be analyzed only in a laboratory.

16 WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM
Another less­intrusive alternative involves the testing of oral fluids, the

generic term for saliva and other material collected from the mouth.

Due to the sensitivity of testing devices required to detect marijuana and

cocaine in oral fluids, specimens should be sent to a laboratory to ensure

the most accurate readings. Although drugs and drug metabolites do not

remain in oral fluids as long as they do in urine, oral­fluids testing offers

a number of advantages. For example, specimens can be collected relatively easily—a swab of the inner cheek is the most common way—and

in virtually any environment. Oral fluids are also harder to adulterate or

substitute, and collection is less invasive than in urine or hair testing.

Consequences of a positive test

Depending on the school’s policy, students

who test positive for drug use may be

suspended from their extracurricular activities for a period of time. They may also be

required to attend drug education classes,

undergo counseling, or seek treatment for

clinical dependency. These students usually

must submit to follow­up drug tests as well.

What’s most important, once users have

been identified through drug testing, is for

those involved in their lives—family,

friends, counselors, treatment providers—

to practice early intervention and do all

they can to dissuade these students from

using drugs. Recovery support services can

be especially helpful at this time.

If subsequent tests also yield positive results, students might face graduated sanctions, such as a longer suspension from an extracurricular

activity. On the other hand, when a student admits drug use and shows a

willingness to come to grips with the problem, this is usually seen as a

positive step toward stopping the use, in which case sanctions may be

much lighter or lifted altogether. Whatever the consequences, it is essential

that students who test positive for drugs, particularly those who are in

recovery after treatment for chemical dependency, get all the help and

support they need, whether through student assistance or other services.

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM 17 
students be accountable

j

18 

Drug testing in schools will let

By Kyle Brown

Reprinted here, in part, is an opinion piece published June 23, 2004, in

the Fort Wayne, Indiana, Journal Gazette. Its author, then a rising

senior at Homestead High School, wrote the article in response to an

editorial in the newspaper urging Southwest Allen County Schools to

re ect drug testing.

I applaud Southwest Allen County Schools for taking the initiative to

stop drug and alcohol use in my school. The party atmosphere at

Homestead continues to grow every year, and the present methods of

education and prevention are proving to be ineffective. A new way of

thinking has to be developed to curb the trend, and that's what

Superintendent Brian Smith and his administration have put

together: a well­thought­out program designed to help students

rather than punish them.

Monday's editorial stated that random drug tests are too expensive, of

questionable deterrent value and a violation of privacy rights. Let me

dispense with those objections quickly. My school is considering drug

tests that cost $15 each. The first three years of this program will be

financed entirely from private donations, local foundations and

government grants. If drug testing works during its three­year trial,

then the tests would cost my school and the two middle schools

$54,000 annually. That's just $18,000 per school per year. When you

consider the costs of students missing school because of drugs and

alcohol and the lost revenue to the school system resulting from their

absences, this is a no­brainer.

Monday's editorial said drug testing violates my privacy rights. This

assumes that my fellow students and I value our privacy over the lives

of our friends. I would assert that it is just the opposite: We want

accountability. It seems the only reason to deny drug testing in the

schools is to protect underage drinking and drug use. And, frankly, I

give up my privacy every time I change clothes in the locker room.

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM
19 

Let me give you three reasons why I support drug testing in my

school. First, the program will encourage students to make

constructive decisions rather than destructive ones. Second, it gives

teeth to the drug­free promise that athletes and other students participating in extracurricular activities currently sign. (Currently, most of

my peers just consider that promise a joke; there's simply no means

to keep students accountable to it.) Finally, the new drug testing

program will give students a reason to say no to drugs and alcohol. It

will give students an opportunity to say “no” to drugs and alcohol

and “yes” to athletics, band, show choir, journalism and all the activities that make school a complete experience.

The program Dr. Smith and other members of the community have

developed will make the schools safer and stronger. Students will

knowingly or even unknowingly help themselves by participating.

Grades will increase, athletes will perform better and students will be

able to learn in a safer environment.

Furthermore, the program will keep students and athletes

accountable for their actions. The contractual promise every athlete

and extracurricular participant signs will no longer be worthless. By

establishing this program, we may never know all the good that will

come from it because of all the bad that is stopped before it gets

started.

As a member of a new generation who embraces accountability

rather than the gross indulgences of personal freedoms that previous

generations have embraced, I would urge you as a reader of this

paper to lend your support for a safer and stronger school

community by becoming a vocal advocate for random drug testing.

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM
Other Issues

Assessing your program’s effectiveness

One important measure of success for a student drug­testing program is

whether drug use at your school declines over time. Launching the

program is only part of the process. It is essential that you also monitor

the program closely and regularly by conducting surveys, watching for

signs of progress, and making

any necessary fine­tuning

adjustments along the way,

such as modifying the list of

drugs in your test panel. On

a continuing basis, you

should collect as much information as you can about the

amount and extent of drug

use at your school.

Anecdotal evidence of the

sort collected before starting the program, together with signs of changes

in overall student productivity and incidents of disruption and

detention, will give you a fairly good idea of how the program is

working. However, quantitative data—including the results of student

surveys compared to your baseline data and the percentage of positive

test results found each year during the course of your program—will

allow you to more definitively gauge your program’s success. In some

cases, schools have hired outside evaluators to review the progress of

their programs.

A recent survey of student athletes underscores the preventative power

of drug testing. As part of the Student Athlete Testing Using Random

Notification (SATURN) study, researchers compared rates of drug use

among student athletes at one Oregon high school with those at another

Oregon school that did not have a testing policy. At the start of the year,

7 percent of student athletes at both schools reported past­month use of

illicit drugs. By the end of the school year, however, drug use by student

athletes in the school with a testing program had decreased to 5 percent,

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM 21 
while use among athletes at the non­testing school had jumped to 19

percent. (This increase was due in part to the fact that the school did not

have a drug­testing program that would have provided students the

opportunity to say “no” to drugs.)

Funding your program

In a survey conducted recently by the Office of National Drug Control

Policy, more than 37 percent of respondents said they did not consider

implementing a drug­testing program in their public school because of

concern it would be too expensive.

While cost is certainly an important factor when weighing the pros and

cons of drug testing, it should not be viewed as an insurmountable

hurdle for schools eager to start a program. Depending on the type of

test used and the range of target drugs, individual tests can cost between

$10 and $50. Funds for drug­testing programs can come from any

number of Federal, State, local, or private sources, including those listed

below.

Safe and Drug­Free Schools and Communities Program. The

No Child Left Behind Act states that funds from the Safe and Drug­Free

Schools Program can be used for student drug testing as part of a

comprehensive program. It is important that schools follow the procedures set forth in No Child Left Behind for using state formula money. To

view or download the No Child Left Behind Act, visit http://www.ed.gov/

policy/elsec/leg/esea02/index.html

Grants for Student Drug Testing. Each year, Congress provides

funds through the Department of Education’s Office of Safe and DrugFree Schools, National Programs, for a variety of activities related to

alcohol, drug, and violence prevention. In FY 2003, $2 million was

provided to eight grantees nationally for student drug testing. The grants

were available to local education agencies and to other public and

private entities for implementing, enhancing, or evaluating school­based

drug­testing programs.

22 WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM
Faith­based organizations are eligible to apply for these grants.

Confidentiality of student identities must be preserved, and the grant

must contain a comprehensive plan for referral to treatment or counseling of those students who have been identified in the student

drug­testing program. More information can be found at

http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osdfs/programs.html#national

Asset Forfeiture Funds. In some jurisdictions, asset­forfeiture statues

require that a percentage of funds forfeited be used for drug­prevention

programs. Because the primary purpose of student drug testing is to

deter drug use, some jurisdictions have used forfeiture funds for their

school drug­testing programs.

Community Foundations. Tax­exempt, non­profit organizations

called community foundations are the fastest growing sector of

American philanthropy. Usually found in areas with a population of

over 100,000, these foundations are autonomous and publicly

supported, operating from an endowed permanent asset base that has

been created by local residents over a period of years. For more information, see the Web site for the Council on Foundations at

http://www.cof.org

Local Businesses. Many businesses today have drug­testing programs

of their own. Companies in your community can provide expertise in

conducting drug tests and devising strategies for assessment and referral.

Local businesses may also provide financial and other kinds of support

for your school’s drug­testing program.

Activity Fees. Some schools add the cost of drug testing to the student

activity fees charged to parents or allocate a portion of athletic boosterclub funds to pay for drug tests.

Existing Contracts. Some schools have reduced the cost of drug tests

by linking up with city or state agencies that already have contracts with

drug­testing companies. Small schools, in particular, can make testing

more affordable by “piggybacking” on existing contracts.

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM 23 
Conclusion

Drugs are a significant barrier to learning, and the use of drugs by even

a small number of students can affect the entire atmosphere of a school.

Recognizing this, many administrators, parents, and students appreciate

having a tool as powerful as student drug testing available as an additional component in their school’s comprehensive drug­and­alcohol

prevention and early intervention program.

Drug testing may

not always be the

solution to drug use

by young people,

nor is it right for

every school. But for

those schools that

have determined

that drug use is a

significant problem

and that testing is an

appropriate

response, it is

important to keep in mind that the purpose is not to punish students

who use drugs. The goals are to deter non­using students from ever

using drugs, to encourage non­dependent users to stop before they get

into more serious trouble with drugs or encourage others to follow suit,

and to identify those who need early intervention, recovery support,

and/or clinical treatment services.

Drug testing reinforces all other drug­prevention strategies and is a vital

part of a comprehensive approach to preventing adolescent drug use.

Because drug testing detects use at every level, it can identify not only

those users who are dependent on drugs, but also those who have just

begun using or who have not yet experienced the negative effects of their

use. Knowing which students are using drugs makes it much easier for

parents, counselors, and others to step in with early intervention, provide

the care these kids need, and put them on the road to better health.

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM 25 
Student drug testing should not be used just on a hunch or the

assumption that drug use is a problem. Rather, it should be implemented only when a specific threat has been identified, and when 

the evidence, carefully collected over time, reveals a genuine need. A

successful testing program involves extensive pre­planning, which must

include every effort to enlist the support of school officials, parents,

students, and anyone else who would be affected by it. Before testing

begins, some sort of student assistance program should be in place to

provide help to students who test positive for drugs. Every step of the

program should be designed to ensure fairness, accuracy, and respect

for confidentiality.

For schools with successful drug­testing programs, the rewards can be

abundant. With declining drug use comes less disruption in the

classroom and in the community, fewer health problems, higher productivity, better academic performance, and, for students, the promise of a

healthier, brighter future.

26 WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM
Resources

Government Agencies and Services

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

(SAMHSA)

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

www.samhsa.gov

SAMHSA offers information on prevention, treatment, and mental

health services, as well as free literature, topical searches, and identification of model programs and approaches for preventing and

treating substance abuse.

National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information

U.S. Department of Human Services/SAMHSA

Phone: 1­800­729­6686

TDD (Hearing Impaired): 1­800­487­4889

Fax: 301­468­6433

Spanish Line: 1­877­767­8432

E­mail: info@health.org

http://ncadi.samhsa.gov

The clearinghouse is a one­stop resource for the most current and

comprehensive information about substance abuse prevention and

treatment.

Substance Abuse Treatment Facility Locator

www.findtreatment.samhsa.gov

Division of Workplace Programs

SAMHSA offers information about testing technologies, products,

and services.

www.drugfreeworkplace.gov

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM 27 
State list of certified labs

SAMHSA’s list of certified laboratories is updated every month.

http://workplace.samhsa.gov/ResourceCenter/lablist.htm

Office of Safe and Drug­Free Schools

U.S. Department of Education

http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osdfs/index.html

Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)

www.ed.gov/offices/OM/fpco/ferpa

Protection of Pupil Rights Amendment (PPRA)

www.ed.gov/offices/OM/fpco/ppra

The Drug­Free Communities Program

A program of the Office of National Drug Control Policy and the

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, DrugFree Communities is designed to strengthen community­based

coalition efforts to reduce youth substance abuse. The site provides a

database of funded coalitions nationwide.

www.drugfreecommunities.samhsa.gov

Office of National Drug Control Policy

www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov

The Anti­Drug.com

www.theantidrug.com

Freevibe.com

www.freevibe.com

National Youth Anti­Drug Media Campaign

mediacampaign.org

druganswer.com (Asian languages)

National Institute on Drug Abuse

www.nida.nih.gov

28 WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM
Medical Review Officers

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM)

http://www.asam.org/search/search4.html

Division of Workplace Programs (SAMHSA)

http://workplace.samhsa.gov/DrugTesting/MedicalReviewOfficers

Institutional Review Boards

Institutional Review Board Registry

Office for Human Research Protections

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

http://ohrp.cit.nih.gov/search/asearch.asp#ASUR

Agencies that have adopted the Federal policy for the protection of

human subjects

Department of Agriculture

Department of Energy

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Department of Commerce

Consumer Product Safety Commission

Agency for International Development

Department of Housing and Urban Development

Department of Justice

Department of Defense

Department of Education

Department of Veterans Affairs

Environmental Protection Agency

Department of Health and Human Services

National Science Foundation

Department of Transportation

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM 29 
Grant Information

U.S. Department of Education

http://www.ed.gov/fund/landing.jhtml

Office of Safe and Drug­Free Schools

Programs/Initiatives

U.S. Department of Education

http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osdfs/programs.html#national

What Should I Know about ED Grants?

U.S. Department of Education

http://www.ed.gov/fund/grant/about/knowabtgrants/index.html

Developing Competitive SAMHSA Grant Applications: Participants

Manual

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

(SAMHSA)

http://alt.samhsa.gov/grants/TAManual/toc.htm

Student Surveys

2005 State and Local Youth Risk Behavior Survey

Department of Health and Human Services

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/yrbs/pdfs/2005highschoolquestionaire.pdf

2005 Youth Risk Behavior Survey: Middle School Questionnaire

Department of Health and Human Services

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/yrbs/pdfs/2005middleschoolquestionaire.pdf

30 WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM
Drug­Testing Guidelines

National Student Drug­Testing Coalition

www.studentdrugtesting.org

The booklet “Model Legislation For Student Drug­Testing Programs:

State Bill and Insertion Language” is available online at

http://www.studentdrugtesting.org/model%20state%20bill%20web%

20file.PDF

Guidelines Concerning Student Drug Testing in Virginia Public

Schools

http://www.pen.k12.va.us/VDOE/PC/DrugTestingGuidelines.pdf

Other Organizations

Community Anti­Drug Coalitions of America

Phone: 1­800­54­CADCA (1­800­542­2322) or 703­706­0560

Fax: 703­706­0565

E­mail: webmaster@cadca.org, or info@cadca.org

www.cadca.org

Drug­Free Schools Coalition, Inc.

Phone: 908­284­5080

Fax: 908­284­5081

E­mail: drugfreesc@aol.com

National Student Assistance Association

Phone: 800­257­6310

www.nsaa.us

Recovery Network

For information about substance abuse, addiction, and mental 

health problems.

www.recoverynetwork.org

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM 31 
Monitoring the Future

www.isr.umich.edu/src/mtf

American Medical Association

www.ama­assn.org

American Society of Addiction Medicine

www.asam.org

American Public Health Association

www.apha.org

32 WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STARTING A STUDENT DRUG­TESTING PROGRAM
“In my budget, I proposed new funding to continue our

aggressive, community­based strategy to reduce demand

for illegal drugs. Drug testing in our schools has proven

to be an effective part of this effort. ...The aim here is

not to punish children, but to send them this message:

We love you, and we don’t want to lose you.”

President George W. Bush

STATE OF THE UNION ADDRESS

JANUARY 20, 2004