THE NATIONAL 

INSTITUTE OF 

STANDARDS AND 

F. TECHNOLOGY 

NIST 

National Institute of 

NIST Standards and Technology 

Technology Administration 

5 P 955 U.S. Department of Commerce 
Responding 

to NatiOnal 

Needs 

The National Bureau of Standards 

Becomes the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology 

1969—1993 

James F. Schooley 

0FC0 

4% November 2000 

0c 

U.S. Department of Commerce 

Norman Y. Mineta, Secretary 

Technology Administration 

Dr. Cheryl L. Shavers, Under Secretary of Commerce for Technology 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Raymond G. Kammer, Director 
End papers for hard-bound version: 

Front end paper—Front gate from NBS in Washington, DC, now at NIST in Gaithersburg, MD 

Back end paper—Placing the sign for NIST in Gaithersburg, MD 

Nati. Inst. Stand. Technol., Spec. PubI. 955, 1032 pages (Nov. 2000) CODEN: NSPUE2 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, 

DC 20402—9325 
FOREWORD 

On March 3, 1901, Congress enacted the law that gave birth to the National Bureau 

of Standards (NBS), renamed the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

(NIST) in 1988. Although the bill defining NBS was only two pages long, the words 

carried much importance because the United States desperately needed a standards and 

measurement agency. To quote a committee report to the House of Representatives 

10 months earlier: "It is therefore the unanimous opinion of your committee that no more essential aid could be given to manufacturing, commerce, the makers of scientific 

apparatus, the scientific work of the Government, of schools, colleges, and universities 

than by the establishment of the institution proposed in this bill." Today, these words 

adorn the entrance to the NIST headquarters in Gaithersburg, Maryland, and continue 

to inspire the staff. 

Over the years NBS and NIST have made great contributions to these objectives 

and to the welfare of our country by distributing critically evaluated reference data and 

carefully certified reference materials and by developing reproducible measurement 

standards, including those of time, frequency, length, voltage and resistance that are now based on durable and reproducible quantized quantities. NIST scientists have also 

contributed to basic science in many ways, such as measuring the fundamental physical 

constants and showing the invalidity of the assumed parity symmetry for elementary 

particles. NIST continues to contribute to industry, computer science, health, medical 

science, safety, fire protection and other fields through its development of standards, 

quality assurance, and new technologies such as computer controlled manufacturing. 

In the year 2001, NIST will be celebrating its Centennial, honoring and recognizing 

its contributions to the world of science and technology, American industry, and the 

economy over the last 100 years. The theme for this celebration is "NIST at 100: 

Foundations for Progress." The history of the Institute's first 50 years was covered by 

Measures for Progress, which was published in 1966 by the U.S. Department of 

Commerce. It captures the achievements through which NBS expertise fostered the 

technological changes in our country during a time of revolutionary advances in 

science and technology, driven in part by the development of quantum mechanics and 

two world wars. Measures for Progress was followed by the publication of A Unique 

Institution, a history of the Institute between the years of 1950-1969, years heralding 

the dawn of the Information Age. 

This new volume, Responding to National Needs, covering the years 1969-1993, 

describes further scientific and technological advances and the evolution of NIST into an Institution that has also impacted and helped U.S. private industry and interests on 

111 
a global basis. For example, the Advanced Technology Program has aided the development of innovative technologies that brought many new products and services to 

market. The Baidrige National Quality program has emphasized quality as a national 

priority necessary to compete in a global marketplace, and the Manufacturing 

Extension Partnership has helped many small U.S. manufacturers enhance their global 

competitiveness by providing information and assistance on manufacturing technologies. At the same time, NIST, through its own efforts and through Precision Measurements Grants, has continued to make fundamental contributions to science and 

engineering, such as improved atomic clocks, the discovery of the first anapole 

moment, laser cooling of ions and atoms, and pioneering research that led to the 

observation of a Bose-Einstein Condensate in 1995. This book records the rich recent 

history of NIST and illustrates its many contributions to knowledge, technology, and 

society. 

Norman F. Ramsey 

Harvard University 

iv 
PREFACE 

Responding to National Needs is a remarkably appropriate title for this volume on 

the history of an institution that was created by Congress for that very purpose. In a sense, every Federal agency is established to respond to needs perceived as being 

important to the Nation's well-being. In that respect, the National Institute of Standards 

and Technology has much in common with hundreds of other organizations. But 

perhaps more than any other agency, our mission has been fine-tuned with the addition 

of literally dozens of new assignments, all designed to help the United States solve 

some problem, to take advantage of some opportunity, and to improve our economic 

strength and societal well-being. 

The evidence found in Federal statute books shows clearly that NIST has responded 

to National needs in a meaningful way over the past 100 years. But especially over 

the period covered in this volume, 1969-1993, the assignments by our country's 

lawmakers exploded. We gained or expanded responsibilities for work as varied as energy conservation and recycling, the metric system, fire safety, computer security, 

quality improvement, assistance to smaller manufacturers, advanced technology 

research and development funding and quality improvement in companies. In all, from 

1969 to 1993, 79 separate pieces of law recognized NIST's capabilities and added to 

them. 

The most significant of these literally changed the name of the institution from 

the venerable National Bureau of Standards to the National Institute of Standards and 

Technology. As this document notes, the change came because the Congress 

recognized an urgent need to help boost the competitiveness of U.S. industry. The 

change was not without tension and controversy, both within the institution and on 

Capitol Hill. I was intimately involved in discussions about the new assignments that 

accompanied the name change. There was as much debate at "the Bureau" as there 

was in Congress. Insiders worried about possible damage to our reputation for 

excellence in laboratory-based research, and about our ability to maintain our reputation for third-party independence. Those of us who supported the change took a chance. But we knew that NBS always had responded to national needs, and the 

Nation clearly needed the assistance of a Federal agency with a strong track record, 

close ties to industry, and a history of quality work. 

That risk-taking has paid off handsomely. Today, the NIST Advanced Technology 

Program—though still politically controversial among some that question the 

government's role in supporting civilian technologies—has generated dozens of 

successes by co-funding high-risk technologies developed by industry. The 

Manufacturing Extension Partnership—now offering services in every state and Puerto 

Rico—has helped more than 80,000 smaller companies to be more productive and 

competitive. The Baidrige National Quality Program has proven so successful in 

promoting and recognizing quality improvement and performance excellence by 

manufacturers and service firms that NIST recently was assigned to help foster this 

approach among organizations in the education and health care communities. V 
There was no need to fear that these additional assignments would negatively 

impact the measurement and standards laboratories—the core of the agency. Our laboratories are as healthy as they ever have been. While a variety of overseas metrology 

laboratories have been subjected to substantial reductions and privatization, the 

NIST laboratories remain intact and extraordinarily productive. In 1997 and 1998, we added a Nobel Prize in Physics and a National Medal of Science to the cache of 

distinctions held by NIST researchers. Today we count 11 members of the National 

Academies of Science and Engineering among our active staff. During the time 

covered in this historical installment, we branched out into entirely new—and sorely 

needed areas of science and technology. 

Responding to national needs is not easy. It certainly challenges the "comfort level" 

of an agency and its staff. As you read this volume, you will note the dozens of 

ways in which NBS and then NIST were called upon by the Nation—and how we 

delivered. I believe that is the ultimate test of an organization's usefulness. NIST has 

passed the test with flying colors. 

Raymond 0. Kammer 

Director 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

vi 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

Preparation of this history involved many people, probably more than I can remember. The willing cooperation they to the project was a continuing source of 

pleasure and strength for me as I strove to represent the multiple facets of NBS/NIST. 

Karma A. Beal guided me to the prime sources of information on this institution and 

answered endless questions with speed, grace, and accuracy. Along with Ralph P. 

Hudson, she also reviewed the entire manuscript. I thank them both for their generous 

assistance with the history project. 

Lisa A. Greenhouse produced an endless array of historical photographs from a variety of arcane locations, and she provided a consistently insightful judgment on their illustrative value. The text is much the richer for her enthusiastic participation. 

I am greatly in her debt. 

Among the most valuable contributions to the history came from the many present 

and former NBS/NIST employees who reviewed various portions of the text for 

relevance and accuracy. They saved me from many errors—any that remain are mine. 

I am deeply grateful to the following people for their efforts: Ernest Ambler, Karma 

Beal, Brian Belanger, Norman B. Belecki, Lawrence H. Bennett, Lewis M. Branscomb, 

Jack H. Coiwell, Bert M. Coursey, Gordon Day, Eugene Domalski, David Evans, 

Judson C. French, J. William Gadzuk, Jon Geist, Cary Gravatt, Daniel Gross, Gail 

Hixenbaugh, John D. Hoffman, Jeffrey Horlick, Emanuel Horowitz, Ralph P. Hudson, 

Marilyn Jacox, Donald R. Johnson, Ronald Johnson, Robert A. Kamper, Russell A. 

Kirsch, Ralph Klein, Samuel Kramer, Richard H. Kropschot, Lawrence M. Kushner, 

Walter Leight, David R. Lide, Jr., Frank Lovas, John W. Lyons, J. Franklin 

Mayo-Wells, Hans Oser, William R. Ott, H. Steffen Peiser, William D. Phillips, 

Shirley M. Radack, Roger A. Rensberger, Arthur W. Ruff, John J. Rush, Robert 

Schaffer, Johanna M.H. Levelt Sengers, John A. Simpson, Jack E. Snell, Wilbert E. 

Snyder, Barry N. Taylor, W. Reeves Tilley, Donald H. Tsai, John B. Wachtman, Jr., 

Robert S. Walleigh, James R. Wright, and Richard N. Wright. I apologize to those 

whose help I have forgotten to acknowledge. 

Accurate preparation of the endpapers, the front matter, the index, and specialized 

information needed for the appendices was challenging. Diane Cunningham, Susan 

Makar, and Stella Hsu, Research Librarians; Lori Frederick, Chief of the Electronic 

Information and Publications Program; Carolyn J. Stull of the Visiting Committee 

Office; Janet B. Miller and Suzanne C. Evans of the Budget Office; Gail K. Ehrlich of 

the Program Office; and Jane Watterson, Boulder Research Librarian, all contributed 

cheerfully and quickly to requests for assistance. 

vii 
Preparation of the text for printing was accomplished with great expertise by use E. 

Putman, Julian M. Ives, Warren F. Overman, Verna M. Moore, and their associates. 

I commend them for a job well done. 

Thomas F. Lacko and Wanda L. Reed provided valuable service in maintaining a computer-based facility for my use throughout the life of this project. 

The reader should note that, in many of 

the references quoted in the text, the units 

used by the authors were not those currently 

recommended as part of the International 

System of Units. In the interest of historical 

accuracy, the older units have been retained in 

the discussions of these projects. 

I am grateful to Paul Vassallo and to 

Mary-Deirdre Coraggio of the NIST Office of 

Information Services for their leadership of the 

history project, and to Sandra L. Kelley and 

Sandra E. Norris for their cheerful and efficient 

secretarial services. Ms. Coraggio, in particular, 

speeded the progress of the project by assigning 

full responsibility for indexing the text to the 

SAIC Corporation. John V. Norris of SAIC 

ably assisted with reviews of the text in proof. 

Chief, Temperature and Pressure 

Gairhersburg, Maryland Measurements and Standards Division, 

November2000 NBS 1978-1982 

viii 

JAMES F. SCHOOLEY 
CONTENTS 

Page 

FOREWORD iii 

PREFACE v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vii 

CHAPTER ONE: 

A UNIQUE INSTITUTION 1 CHANGE COMES TO A MIDDLE-AGED AGENCY 1 ORIGIN OF THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS 2 

Constitutional Authority 3 

"Customary Standards" 3 

The Office of Weights and Measures 5 

Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler 5 

Charles Sanders Peirce 8 

The Metric System 8 

At Last, a National Bureau of Standards 10 

A Word About Standards 11 

RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE NEWBORN NBS 12 

HISTORIES OF NBS 14 

War Work of the Bureau of Standards 15 

The Bureau of Standards: Its History, Activities, and 

Organization 16 

NBS War Research—The National Bureau of Standards in World 

War II 16 

The Story of Standards 16 

Measures for Progress: A History of the National Bureau of 

Standards 16 

Achievement in Radio: Seventy Years of Radio Science, 

Technology, Standards, and Measurement at the National Bureau 

of Standards 17 

A Unique Institution: The National Bureau. of Standards, 

1950-1969 17 

Former Directors of NBS 17 

Samuel Wesley Stratton 18 

George Kimball Burgess 19 

Lyman James Briggs 21 

Edward Uhler Condon 23 

Allen Varley Astin 25 

ix 
Page 

THE STATE OF NBS IN 1968 30 

NBS Facilities 30 

The Boulder Site 34 

The Gaithersburg Site 40 

Organization and Staffing 48 

Major Organizational Units 50 

"Matrix Management" Comes to the Bureau 51 

Equal Employment Opportunity 52 

Part-Time Employees, Guest Workers and Visitors 53 

Post-Doctoral Research Associates 54 

Professional Advancement, Education, and Awards 55 

Mens Sana in Corpore Sano 59 

Advisory Committees 60 

Budget 60 

Publications By NBS Staff 64 

Editorial Review 65 

NBS Journal of Research 67 

Technical News Bulletin 67 

Non-Periodical NBS Publications 68 

Publication in Non-NBS Media 68 

NBS TECHNICAL WORK IN 1968 69 

NBS Organizational Charts 70 

Office of the Director 70 

Office of Industrial Services 70 

Office of Engineering Standards Liaison 71 

Office of Public Informalion 71 

Office of Academic Liaison 71 

Office of Program Development and Evaluation 71 

Office of the Deputy Director 72 

Office of International Relations 72 

Office of Technical Information and Publication 72 

Library Division 73 

Instrument Shops Division 73 

Measurement Engineering Division 74 

x 
Page 

OFFICE OF THE ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR FOR ADMINISTRATION 74 

Patent Advisor 75 

Accounting Division 75 

Administrative Services Division 75 

Budget Division 75 

Personnel Division 75 

Plant Division 75 

Supply Division 75 

Management & Organization Division 75 

Institute for Basic Standards 76 

Office of Standard Reference Data 76 

Data Needs and Compilations 77 

National Standard Reference Data Series 78 

Critical Reviews 78 

Data Centers 79 

Handbooks 79 

Computerized Data Programs 80 

Applied Mathematics Division 80 

Information Theory 81 

Consumer Trends 81 

Data Retrieval 81 

Responsibilities of Other lBS Divisions 82 

Electricity Division 82 

Special Publication 300 83 

Electric Charge 83 

Capacitance Standards 84 

Voltage Standards 84 

Metrology Division 85 

International Comparison of Laser Wavelengths 86 

Mass Measurement 86 

Line Standards 87 

Microfilm Storage 87 

Color 87 

Thermal Properties 88 

Mechanics Division 88 

Humidity 90 

Pressure 90 

Fluid Flow 90 

Gravity 91 

Force Measurement 91 

xi 
Page 

Heat Division 91 

Special Publication 300 91 

Cryogenic Temperature Scales and Cryogenic Physics 92 

High-Temperature Radiation Thermometry and Radiometry 94 

Thermodynamic Properties of Materials 96 

High-Speed Measurements 96 

Computing Devices 97 

Atomic Physics Division 97 

Atomic Spectroscopy 97 

Office of the Deputy Director, lBS/Boulder 99 

Administrative Services Division/Boulder - 100 

Instrument Shops Division/Boulder 100 

Plant Division/Boulder 100 

Radio Standards Physics Divtsion/Boulder 100 

Calibration Services 100 

Laser Studies 100 

Material Properties 101 

Spectroscopy Data Compilation 101 

Electromagnetic Fields 101 

Radio Equipment 101 

Radio Standards Engineering Division/Boulder 102 

Calibration Services 102 

AC Current Standards 103 

Measurement Techniques 103 

Microwave Attenuation 104 

Time and Frequency Division/Boulder 104 

Calibration Services 104 

A New International Unit of Time 104 

Frequency Standards 105 

Flicker Noise 105 

Laboratory Astrophysics Division/Boulder 105 

Laser Technology 106 

Woif-Rayet Stars 106 

Electron Scattering in Stars 106 

Cryogenics Division/Boulder 107 

Thermal Properties 107 

Cryogenic Thermometry 109 

Cryogenic Flow 109 

Design of Cryogenic Apparatus 109 

xii 
Institute for Materials Research 

Office of Standard Reference Materials 

SRM 911, Certified Purity Cholesterol 

SRM 680 and 681, High-Purity and Doped Platinum 

SRM 1621 and 1622, Sulfiu in Residual Fuel Oil 

SRM 701b, Standard Light-Sensitive Papers 

SRM 1 14L, Surface Area of Portland Cement 

SRM 981, 982 & 983, Isotopic Standards for Lead 

SRM 1010, Microscopy Resolution Test Charts 

xlii 

Responsibilities of Other IMR Divisions.. 

Analytical Chemistry Division 

Section Summaries 

Isotopic Characterization 

Chemical Synthesis 

Microanalysis 

Automatic Data Acquisition... 

Chemical Constants 

Activation Analysis 

Crystal Studies 

Polymers Division 

Polymer Crystallization 

Polymer Properties 

Measurement Techniques 

Dental Materials 

Metallurgy Division 

Corrosion 

Crystal Growth 

Field-Emission Microscopy 

Mechanical Properties 

Mössbauer Effect 

Properties of Nickel 

Project Summaries 

Inorganic Materials Division 

Calibrations 

Crystal Studies 

Melting Phenomena 

Surface Effects 

Spin-Lattice Relaxation 

Optical Properties of SrTiO3.. 

X-Ray Powder Patterns 

Ceramics 

Page 

110 

110 

111 

112 

112 

112 

112 

112 

113 

113 

113 

113 

115 

115 

115 

116 

116 

116 

117 

117 

118 

118 

119 

120 

121 

121 

121 

122 

123 

123 

123 

123 

124 

124 

124 

124 

125 

125 

125 

126 

126 
Physical Chemistry Division 

Thermodynamic Data 

Calorimetry 

Photolysis and Radiolysis 

Theory of Chemical Reactions 

Surface Studies 

Institute for Applied Technology 

Manager, Engineering Standards 

Office of Engineering Standards Services 

Office of Weights and Measures 

Office of Invention and Innovation 

Office of Vehicle Systems Research 

Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical 

Product Evaluation Division 

NBS/GSA Test and Development Division 

Building Research Division 

Thermal Measurements 

Materials Properties 

Fire Studies 

Instrumentation 

Electronic Technology Division 

Data Compilations 

Semiconductor Measurements 

Measurement Methods 

Technical Analysis Division 

Center for Computer Science and Technology 

Office for information Processing Standards 

Office for Technical Information Exchange 

Computer Services Division 

Systems Research and Development Division 

Chemical Structures on Computers 

Assembly Language 

Character Recognition 

Computer Graphing 

Electronic Printing 

Information Processing Technology Division 

Fingerprint Identification 

Center for Radiation Research 

Calibration Services 

Radiation Theory 

Irradiation of Foods 

Page 

126 

127 

127 

127 

128 

129 

129 

129 

129 

130 

130 

130 

130 

131 

132 

132 

133 

133 

134 

134 

135 

135 

135 

136 

136 

136 

137 

137 

138 

138 

138 

138 

138 

138 

138 

139 

139 

139 

141 

142 

142 

Information 

xiv 
Page 

Reactor Radiation Division 142 

An Ethic of Collaboration 143 

Neutron Cross Sections 144 

Linac Radiation Division 144 

Detector Development 144 

Photodisintegration 145 

Photonuclear Data Center 145 

Nuclear Radiation Division 145 

Scattering 145 

Nucleon-Field Interactions 145 

Applied Radiation Division 145 

Electron Interactions and Detection 146 

Stopping Power 146 

Summary 146 

THE END OF AN ERA 147 

CHAPTER TWO: 

BRIGHT PROSPECTS FOR NBS (August 1969-May 1972) 151 

A NATION IN DISTRESS 151 

RICHARD MILHOUS NIXON 152 

Facing Adversity 154 

Vietnam, the Soviet Union, and China 154 

Domestic Issues 155 

A NEW DIRECTOR FOR THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS 156 

LEWIS MCADORY BRANSCOMB 158 

Branscomb's Negative Ion Photodetachment Experiments 158 

The Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics 160 

Branscomb's Outside Activities 165 

BRANSCOMB BECOMES NBS DIRECTOR 166 

Taking Charge 169 

Establishment of NBS Executive Board 170 

Establishment of NBS Program Office 170 

Measures forAir Quality 172 

Change in the Center for Radiation Research 173 

Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information 

Transferred to the National Technical Information Service 174 

Management of the NBS Instrument Shop 175 

xv 
Page 

Ruth M. Davis, A New Leader for the Center for Computer Science 

and Technology 175 

Willenbrock Recruited to Head fAT 176 

Equal Employment Opportunity for Minorities and Women 176 

The NBS Budget.. 182 

Fiscal 1971 Budget Hearings, March 1970 183 

Fiscal 1972 Budget Hearings, April 1971 185 

Fiscal 1973 Budget Hearings, March 1972 186 

NBS Staffing and Funding Levels Under Branscomb 188 

NEW CONGRESSIONAL OVERSIGHT HEARINGS FOR NBS 189 

Previous Reviews of NBS 190 

1959 Review 190 

1961 Review 191 

Subsequent Congressional Reviews 191 

Executive Branch Reviews 192 

Oversight Hearings Testimony 193 

AN UNEXPECTED DEPARTURE 201 

Assessing Branscomb's Directorship 202 

The Next Step 203 

TECHNICAL WORK OF THE BUREAU, 1969-1972 . 205 

NBS Completes a "Metric System Study" for Congress 206 

The Problem 206 

The Solution 207 

The "Metric" Team 208 

The Program 211 

Results of the Bureau's Metric Study 218 

Controversy and Inaction 219 

Metrification—An Epilogue 220 

Uncontrolled Fire, a Continuing Problem 221 

Flammable Fabrics, a Perennial Issue 222 

Flammable Fabrics Act, Amendment of 1967, (Public Lzw 90-189, 

81 Stat. 568 -5 74, December 1967) 223 

Fire Research and Safety Act of 1968, PL 90-259 225 

An Experiment in Technology Incentives Is Proposed 227 

A New Building for Fluid Mechanics Studies 229 

Science in Outer Space 230 

Lunar Ranging 230 

Stellar Atmospheres 233 

Cryogenics in Space 234 

Aerospace Calibrations 235 

Force Testing on a Large Scale 236 

Pieces of the Moon 241 

xvi 
Page 

Precision Measurement Grants 242 

NBS Nuclear Reactor Completes Its First Year At Full Power 243 

Water and Polywater 248 

"Anomalous Water" 249 

NBS Experiments On "Polywater" 250 

Questions About Impurities 253 

Sharper Tools and a Discarded Idea 253 

Advances in Microscopy 254 

The Elecfron Microprobe In Color 254 

New Scanning Electron Microscope Facility 255 

Chemistry Research 256 

Chemical Impurities at Parts Per Billion 256 

Chemical Analysis With Flame Spectroscopy 257 

Keeping Liquid Sodium Safely 257 

Research on Reactive Molecules 258 

Olefin Reactions at Low Temperatures 260 

Awards for Prominent Chemists 262 

Cryogenic Liquids, Then and Now 264 

Protecting the Consumer 266 

Standards for Law Enforcement 266 

Automobile Crash Testing 268 

Pushing on the Brakes 270 

Slippery When Wet! 271 

A Grading System for Tires 272 

Teaching Computers to Serve 273 

Managing the UNIVAC 1108 273 

FIPS Publications 274 

Computer Hardware and Software 274 

Consultations 275 

Superconductivity, a Versatile Property.. 276 

Superconductors, Josephson Junctions, and the Volt Standard.... 276 

Thermometry With Superconductors 277 

Fishing for Low-level Electromagnetic Measurements With SQUID 279 

Detecting High-Frequency Radiation With the Josephson Effect... 280 

Building Research 280 

Buildings Versus Mother Nature 280 

Applying Performance Standards 282 

Blest Be the Ties That Bind 283 

And the Walls Came Tumbling Down 283 

xvii 
Page 

Applied Mathematics 285 

100,000 "Handbooks" 285 

Making the Draft Fair 286 

Modeling the Flow of Truck Traffic 286 

Modeling Air Traffic 287 

Research in Solid State Physics 287 

Crystal Structures at High Pressures 287 

High-Speed Measurements for High-Temperature Materials 289 

Getting in Touch With Semiconductors 291 

Tuning a Radiation Detector 292 

Applications of Paramagnetism 293 

New Drive for Soft X-Ray Spectrometers 294 

Prize-Winning Research in Solid State Science 294 

Center for Radiation Research 297 

Handling Hot Accelerators 297 

Measuring Radioactivity Doses 297 

Verifying a Nuclear Theory 298 

Recognition for CRR Scientists 299 

Progress in Polymer Physics 300 

Lauritzen and Hoffman Share High Polymer Physics Prize 300 

Biting Into Dental Problems 301 

Optical Physics Research 303 

Far Ultraviolet Spectrum of Lithium 303 

Transition Probabilities in the Vacuum Ultraviolet 305 

New Test for Quality Optics 306 

Optical Properties of Laser Materials 306 

Measuring Laser Energy 307 

Oscillator Strengths and Transition Probabilities 308 

Physical Standards Research 309 

Telling Time by Television and by Satellite 309 

How Well Can We Measure Viscosity? 312 

New Calibration Service for Millimeter Waves 314 

Changing Time by Leap Seconds 314 

High-Level and Wide-Range Power Measurements 315 

Analyzing High-Intensity Electric Fields 316 

New Mass Standards From Ion Exchange Beads 316 

A New Standard for Voltage Ratios 317 

Forest K. Harris Retires 317 

Problems With an Unseasoned Temperature Scale 318 

xviii 
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CHAPTER THREE: 

A NATION IN TROUBLE; AN AGENCY IN CHANGE (May 1972-June 1975) 323 

SEEKING A NEW NBS DIRECTOR 324 

A SECOND TERM FOR RICHARD NIXON 327 

"Watergate" and the Loss of a President 328 

Searching for an End to the Vietnam War 329 

Stagflation 330 

A Crisis in Energy 331 

Science Loses Its Advocates 332 

PRESIDENT GERALD RUDOLPH FORD, JR 333 

A Short Acquaintance 334 

RICHARD WILLIAM ROBERTS 335 

A New Management Style 337 

NBS Holds An Open House 338 

Programmatic Center for Consumer Product Safety 339 

More Change for NBS Programs 339 

A New Management Team 340 

A New Secretary of Commerce 342 

Roberts Departs for the Energy Research and Development 

Administration 345 

Roberts' Impact on NBS 347 

TECHNICAL WORK OF THE BUREAU, 1972-75 348 

A Program in Technology Incentives 348 

The Bureau Gets a New Fire Law and a New Center 351 

America Burning 351 

Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 351 

Center for Fire Research 352 

Law Enforcement Steps Forward at NBS 353 

Communications Equipment 354 

Legal Record-Keeping 355 

Protective Gear 356 

Forensic Standards 356 

Security Systems 356 

Vehicles 358 

Properties of Materials 358 

Microbes and the Corrosion of Metals 358 

Cavitation in Mechanical Failure 361 

Fracture in Ceramics 362 

Ultra-Pure Materials 362 

xix 
Page 

Stable Lasers, Frequency Standards, the Speed of Light, and 

New Laser Physics 363 

The Elusive Speed of Light 363 

Laser Stabilization 365 

Frequency Measurement 366 

Wavelength Measurement 368 

A New Value for the Speed of Light 368 

A "Gaithersburg" Value for the Speed of Light 369 

Lasers and Magnetic Resonance 370 

Harmonic Generation 372 

Detecting Earth-Tides and Nuclear Explosions 373 

Progress in Physical Standards 374 

Fundamental Constants 374 

The National Measurement System 375 

A New Optical Radiation Calibration Service 376 

A Century of International Metrology 376 

Thermometry With Thermocouples 379 

Assigning Values to Mass 380 

New Density Scale 381 

Electromagnetic Units 382 

Primary Time and Frequency Standards 382 

Using the Superconducting Voltage Standard 383 

Evaluating X-Ray Wavelengths 383 

Progress in Chemistry Research 383 

A New Calorimeter 383 

Phase Diagrams for Ceramists 384 

Critical Behavior in Gases 386 

Reaction Rate Constants 387 

Clinical Chemistry Standards 388 

Mathematics in Analytical Chemistry 390 

Building Science 391 

A Center for Building Technology 392 

The Building Science Series 392 

Work of the New CBT 393 

Energy From Sunlight 395 

Building Systems—A Performance Concept 396 

Space Science 400 

Interstellar Species 400 

Stellar Modeling 401 

Rocket Technology 402 

xx 
Page 

Consumer Protection 402 

Materials for Prosthetic Devices 402 

Tumor Detection—the Birth of a New Medical Technique 403 

Sniffing Out Pollutants 406 

Sizing Aerosols With Lasers 407 

Honest Measure for Natural Gas 407 

What a Noise! 409 

Building Better Incinerators 412 

Meeting the Energy Crisis 413 

Meeting the Energy Crisis in Housing, Travel, and Business 413 

Preventing Electrical Blackouts 417 

Looking for Cleaner Power From Coal 417 

Modeling the Fusion Plasma 420 

Saving Energy At NBS 421 

Alternative Fuels for Vehicles 421 

New Ideas in Physics 422 

High-Precision Spectrophotometer 423 

A "Topografiner" Looks At Metal Surfaces 423 

Making Free Radicals Inside Lasers 424 

Progress in Optical Radiation Measurements 425 

Crystalline Response to Shock Waves 428 

Advice for Inventors 429 

Progress in Computer Science 431 

Networking With Minicomputers and Microcomputers 431 

More About Networking 433 

Data Encryption 434 

FORTRAN Test Programs 434 

Nuclear Physics 434 

Defining Ionizing Radiation 435 

Half-Lives of Radioactive Species 435 

Radiation Exposure Standards 435 

Sum Rules for Photon-Proton Scattering 436 

Radionuclide Metrology 436 

Welcome to CAMAC 437 

Electronic Technology 437 

Semiconductor Measurement Technology 437 

Electronic Devices in the U.S.S.R 439 

Resistivity of Silicon 439 

Thermal Impedance of Power Transistors 439 

xxi 
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CHAPTER FOUR: 

A DURABLE DIRECTOR (July 1975-March 1989) 441 

A PRESIDENCY IN TRANSITION 442 

JAMES EARL CARTER, JR 444 

RONALD WILSON REAGAN 446 

ERNEST AMBLER, TEMPORARILY AN ACTING DIRECTOR 449 

A New Administrative Structure for NBS 450 

A Director-In-Waiting 451 

A Push for Change 452 

Reorganizing to Deliver Technology 452 

Creating a National Engineering Laboratory 453 

Creating a National Measurement Laboratory 455 

Fine Tuning the New Organization... 455 

An Expanded Role for the Institute for Computer Sciences and 

Technology 456 

Reorganization Brings Stress 457 

Other Administrative Activities During Ambler's Directorship .... 458 

More Work for the Congressional Liaison 458 

NBSIERDA Energy Agreement 458 

NBS Celebrates Its 75th Birthday 458 

The Fiscal Year Moves to September 30th 461 

NBSIEPRI Agreement 462 

A Distinguished Federal Servant 462 

Oversight Hearings 463 

Remaking the Civil Service 465 

Scrutiny From a Conservative Administration 465 

Updating NBS Computers 467 

New Legislation for NBS 469 

Foreign Guest Workers 472 

Reagan's RIF 472 

NBS Voice Grows Weaker 473 

Organic Act Hearings, 1981 473 

The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award.... 474 

Civil Servants By Day, Public Servants By Night 475 

Ambler's Impact On NBS 477 

Win Some, Lose Some, But Keep On Leaning 477 

Leaning Towards Industrial Productivity 478 

xxii 
Page 

TECHNICAL WORK OF THE BUREAU, 1975—1989 479 

Research in Chemistry 479 

Isotopic Enrichment With Lasers 479 

Atomic Weights 481 

Quality Control Through Standard Reference Materials 482 

Excitable Chemical Species 482 

Calorimetry, a Basic Tool for Chemists 486 

New Equations for Steam 491 

A Hectic Decade for NBS Fire Science 491 

An NBS Center for Fire Research 491 

Topsy-Turvy Funding 492 

Flammable Fabrics 497 

Laboratory Work in Fire Fundamentals 499 

Atomic and Molecular Studies 499 

Combustibility and Combustion Products 504 

Combustibility Studies in the Space Shuttle 506 

Smoke Detectors and Alarms 507 

Smoke and Its Control 508 

Education 510 

Combustion of Furnishings and Room Interiors 511 

Combustion of Buildings, Aircraft, and Spacecraft 514 

Fire Data Compilations and Calculations 521 

Data on Fire-Related Properties of Materials 521 

Fire Modeling 521 

Fire Statistics 522 

Books and Conference Proceedings 522 

Conferences Attended 523 

Handbooks 523 

Textbooks 524 

Standards and Calibration 524 

Proton Gyromagnetic Ratio 524 

High-Precision Measurement and Test Equipment Program 526 

Voltage and Resistance Standards Based on Quantum Phenomena 527 

Building a New Temperature Scale 531 

Provisional 0.5 K to 30 K Scale of 1976 (EPT-76) 531 

Temperatures High and Low 532 

Nuclear Orientation Thermometry 532 

Sealed Triple-Point Cells 533 

Radiation Thermometry 535 

Flame Temperatures 535 

A Resistance Briige for Thermometiy 535 

xxiii 
Structural Disasters 

Earthquake! 

Stress-Wave Analysis of Concrete.. 

Projects in Preservation 

Helping OSHA 

Measuring Insulating Values 

Health & Safety Projects 

Magnetoencephalography 

Dental Work at NBS 

Medical Diagnosis With Ultrasound 

Safe Use of Ionizing Radiation 

A New Mercury Monitor 

Safety From Burning Metals 

Medical Thermometry 

New Body Parts for Old 

Energy Conservation.. 

Environmental Science 

A Deep Ocean Sampler Wins a Prize 

Chlorofluorocarbons vs the Ozone Layer. 

A New Molecule, Born in Smog 

Corrosion, an Expensive Problem 

Preparing for Oil Development in Alaska. 

Oil in the Monongahela 

Non-Destructive Evaluation 

Testing Prosthetics With Vibration 

Inspecting Objects With Neutrons 

X-Ray Magnifier 

Gentle Tests for Bipolar Transistors 

Page 

536 

536 

539 

540 

540 

541 

542 

542 

543 

544 

546 

547 

547 

549 

549 

550 

551 

553 

553 

554 

555 

556 

556 

557 

557 

558 

558 

558 

559 

559 

559 

562 

563 

563 

564 

564 

566 

567 

567 

570 

Frequency of Visible Light 

Calibrating Radio Antennas With the Moon and the Stars 

A Load Cell Mass Comparator 539 

Low-Velocity Airflow Facility 

Measuring Electromagnetic Interference 

A New High-Voltage Calibration Service 

A Prize for Hermach 

Technology of Buildings and Other Structures 

Designing Structures for Wind Loads 

ETIP Initiates the Modular Integrated Utility System Study 

Energy-Efficient, Automatic Control of Furnaces 

Insulating an Older Home 

Catching Energy Losses With Infrared Thermography 

xxiv 
Physical Sciences 

Surface Physics 

A "Renaissance" Scientist Comes to NBS 

An "Emmy" for NBS 

A Super Spring for a Super Gravimeter 

Identifying Molecular Impurities 

Measurements for Nuclear Materials 

Sharper Lines From Cooler Atoms 

Cold Neutrons for Science 

New Radius for the Carbon Nucleus 

New Classi:flcation for Critical Data 

Optical Fibers and the Information Age 

Electronics and Electrical Engineering 

Automated Test Facility for AID Converters 

Quick Checks of Integrated Circuits 

Solar Cell Workshop 

Evaluating an "Energy-Producing" Device 

Measuring Contact Resistance 

Computer Science 

High Speed for the NBS Net 

Aid for Computer-Aided Design 

Evaluating Computer Performance 

Information Processing Standards 

NBS Radiometry Comes of Age 

Electrical Substitution Radiometiy 

Electrically Calibrated Radiometers 

Lasers and Photodiodes 

Self-Calibration With Silicon Photodiodes 

High-Temperature Superconductivity 

A Presidential Initiative 

Phase Diagrams of High-Temperature Superconductors 

Instruments and Machines 

Other Properties of High-T. Superconductors 

Polymer Science 

Crystal Growth in Polymers 

Polymers—Sensors for Heat and Pressure.... 

Durability of High-Density Plastics 

Thermodynamic Properties of Macromolecules 

Measuring Tiny "Space Beads" 

Page 

570 

570 

571 

572 

573 

573 

574 

574 

576 

577 

578 

579 

581 

582 

584 

586 

586 

587 

588 

589 

589 

589 

590 

591 

591 

592 

593 

593 

594 

594 

595 

596 

597 

598 

598 

600 

600 

602 

xxv 
Page 

Recycling to Save Energy and Materials 602 

Recycling Oil to Save Energy 603 

NBS Opens an Office of Recycled Materials 604 

Recovering Energy From Municipal Wastes 605 

The Beginning of "Technology Transfer" 605 

A Change in Emphasis 606 

Automated Manufacturing Research Facility 607 

Measurements for Chemical Processing 609 

Sharing NBS Facilities 609 

CHAPTER FIVE: 

THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS BECOMES THE 

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY: 

PUBLIC LAW 100-418, AUGUST 23, 1988.... .. 613 

A NEW MISSION AND A NEW NAME 613 

SIGNS OF IMPENDING CHANGE AT NBS 615 

A Growing National Need 615 

What's In a Name9 616 

"New Activities in Technology" 617 

"Industrial Innovation and Productivity" 618 

"Automated Manufacturing" Shows the Way 618 

PLANNING FOR CHANGE 624 

PUBLIC LAW 100-418 628 

A New Organic Act 629 

Subpart A—A New Name for NBS 630 

New Functions and NewActivities 630 

NIST Director's Organization Plan 631 

Subpart B—Technology Extension Activities 631 

Regional Technology Centers 631 

State Technology Programs 632 

Non-Energy Inventions 632 

Subpart C—Advanced Technology Program 632 

Visiting Committee on Advanced Technology 633 

Subpart D—Technology Reviews 633 

Subpart E—Authorization of Appropriations 633 

Subpart F—Other Provisions 634 

xxvi 
Page 

A NEW AGENCY BEGINS WORK 634 

Raymond G. Kammer, Jr., Acting Director 634 

NIST Reorganization Plan 635 

An Associate Director for Quality Programs 636 

Regional Manufacturing Technology Centers 637 

New Appointments 637 

Settling in at NIST 638 

A Caution to Congress 639 

CHAPTER SIX: 

METROLOGY MAKES ROOM FOR INDUSTRIAL 

PRODUCTIVITY (February 1990-April 1993) 641 

GEORGE HERBERT WALKER BUSH 641 

JOHN LYONS 643 

Taking Charge 645 

Restructuring NIST 646 

Staffing Changes by Lyons 649 

Strategic Planning 650 

Personnel Policy 651 

THE 1990 REPORT OF THE VIsITING COMMITTEE ON ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY 651 

New VCAT Members 651 

NIST Organization 652 

Manufacturing Technology Centers 652 

Advanced Technology Program 652 

Baldrige Quality Award 653 

NIST Budget 653 

NIST RECEIVES AN EXAMINATION 653 

A PoLITICIzED AGENCY9 656 

TECHNICAL WORK OF NIST 1990-1993 656 

Technology Outreach Programs 656 

Advanced Technology 656 

Quality Programs 661 

Technology Services 662 

Manufacturing Technology Centers 662 

State Technology Extension Programs 663 

Office of Standards Services 663 

Standards Management 663 

Weights and Measures 664 

Laboratory Accreditation 664 

Standard Reference Data 665 

Standard Reference Materials 665 

xxvii 
Page 

Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory 666 

Electricity 667 

Quantum-Based Voltage and Resistance Standards 667 

Electrochemical Cell Calibrations 667 

Superconductive Volt Standard 669 

DC Resistance Calibrations 670 

Quantum-Based Resistance Standards 670 

Voltage and Resistance Calibrations 671 

Stabilizing Electrical Currents 671 

Semiconductor Electronics 673 

Semiconductors and Devices 673 

A Little History 673 

Analysis of Semiconducting Films 673 

Nanolithography 674 

X-Ray Absorption 674 

Electromagnetic Fields 674 

Antenna Measurements 674 

Millimeter-Wave Devices 675 

Electromagnetic Technology 675 

A 10 Volt Josephson Reference 675 

High-Temperature Superconductivity 676 

Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory 681 

Precision Engineering 681 

A Molecular Measuring Machine 681 

Coordinate Measuring Machines 681 

Measuring Surface Roughness 682 

Calibrating Optical Microscopes 683 

Automated. Production Technology 683 

Error Compensation in Machine Tools 683 

Robot Systems 684 

Factory Automation 685 

Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory 686 

Biotechnology 686 

Protein Characterization 686 

Center for Advanced Research in Biotechnology 687 

Chemical Engineering 689 

Pulse Tube Refrigerators 689 

Space Shuttle Engineering 691 

Cryogenic Fluid Flow 691 

Thermophysical Properties of Cryogenic Fluids 692 

xxviii 
Chemical Kinetics and Thermodynamics 692 

Combustion Kinetics 692 

Kinetics From Flash Photolysis Experiments 693 

Hydroxide Thermodynamics 694 

Estimating Thermodynamic Properties 694 

Inorganic Analysis 695 

Analyzing Fluorides 695 

Analysis by Mass Spectrometry 696 

X-Ray Analysis Program 696 

Ion Exchange Chromatography 697 

Organic Analysis 697 

Analyzing River Sediment 697 

Examining Human Plasma 698 

Carcinogens in Coal Tar 699 

Chemical Processes 699 

A New Scale of Temperature is Adopted, New Thermometry 

Tunneling Microscope 718 

X-Ray Optics Characterization Facility 719 

Theories of High-Temperature Superconductivity 719 

Page 

Projects Begin 

NBS/NJST Gas Thermometry—An Ending and a Beginning 

Surface Chemistry and Microanalysis.. 

A Festival of Microbeam Analysis 

Surface Science 

The rmophysics 

Replacing Chlorofluorocarbons 

Hot Wires for Thermal Conductivity Measurements.. 

Flowmeters for Vacuum Standards 

Membrane Diffusion 

Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium 

Physics Laboratory 

Physics Laboratory Office 

An Update on Physical Constants 

Electron and Optical Physics 

Images of Ferromagnetism. 

Peeking at Picometers With a Scanning 

xxix 
Page 

Atomic Physics 720 

Calibrating the Hubble Space Spectrograph 720 

A New Test of Quantum Electrodynamics 720 

Atomic Spectroscopy Data 721 

Ultraviolet Calibration for Semiconductor Processing 722 

Molecular Physics 723 

Infrared Spectroscopy of Chemical Complexes 723 

Picosecond Energy Transfer on Surfaces 724 

Orientation Effects in Chemical Reactions 724 

Vibrational Spectra of Acetylene Ions 725 

Radiometric Physics 726 

Absolute Cryogenic Radiometer 726 

More On Silicon Photodetectors 726 

Low Background Infrared Calibration Facility 727 

Quantum Metrology 728 

Lattice Period of Silicon 728 

Polarized X-Ray Emission Spectroscopy 729 

Ionizing Radiation 730 

Radon, Invader of Homes 730 

Perfecting a Radioactive Standard 731 

Estimating Absorbed Dose in Food Processing 731 

Radiation Transport Theory and Martin J. Berger 732 

Time and Frequency 733 

Rydberg Constant 733 

Essays on Time and Frequency 733 

Si'abiliiy of Precise Frequency Sources 734 

Frequency Standards Based on Trapped Ions 735 

Technology of Frequency and Time 736 

Optically Pumped Cesium Frequency Standard 737 

Quantum Physics 739 

Making New Lasers 739 

Electron-Impact Excitation Cross Sections 740 

Spectroscopy From the Hubble Space Telescope 740 

xxx 
Page 

Materials Science and Engineering Laboratory... 741 

Office of Intelligent Processing of Materials ... 742 

Ceramics 743 

Standards and Data 743 

Characterization of Ceramic Powders 744 

Facilitating Crack Detection With Electron Microscopy 744 

Machining Ceramics 745 

Properties of Alumina 746 

Creep in Ceramics 746 

Materials Reliability 746 

Diagnostics With Ultrasound 747 

Nondestructive Testing of Composites 747 

Cryogenic Properties of Materials 748 

Oxide Superconductors 749 

Polymers 749 

Polymer Vehicles for Printing Inks 750 

Thermodynamics of Polystyrenes 750 

Shear Stress and Fluorescence Anisotropy 750 

Modeling Tooth Decay 751 

Metallurgy 752 

Stress Corrosion Cracking 752 

Graphite Fiber Composites in Electrolysis 752 

Laser Vaporization Mass Spectrometry 753 

Reactor Radiatièn 754 

High-Ta Superconductors and Phonons? 754 

Vibrational Modes in Fullerene 755 

Low-Temperature Motion of Protons in Scandium 756 

Building and Fire Research Laboratory 757 

Structures 757 

Abating Earthquake Hazards 757 

Locating Reinforcing Bars in Concrete 762 

Building Materials 762 

Detecting Surface Defects 762 

Evaluating Roofing Materials 763 

Predicting Service Life of Concrete 764 

Building Environments 764 

Thermal Bridges in Buildings 764 

Improved Buoys for Water Safety 765 

New Lamps for Old 766 

Moisture Accumulation Under Roofs 767 

xxxi 
Page 

Fire Safety 767 

Predicting Fire Danger: HAZARD I 767 

Evacuating the Handicapped 768 

Fire Science 769 

Fire Danger and Heat Release Rate 769 

Fire At Sea 769 

A New Tool for Flame Studies 770 

Fire Hazards From Burning Furniture 771 

A New Particulate Generator 772 

Computer Systems Laboratory 772 

Information Systems Engineering 773 

Systems and Software Technology 774 

Computer Security 774 

Systems and Network Architecture 777 

Advanced Systems 777 

Computing and Applied Mathematics Laboratory 780 

Applied and Computational Mathematics 781 

Statistical Engineering 781 

Scientific Computing Environments 782 

THE MORE THINGS CHANGE, THE MORE THEY REMAIN THE SAME: 

INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTIVITY IN SEMICONDUCTORS—NIST PREFIGURED 783 

APPENDICES 

A. Legislation Relating to the Organization, Functions, and 

Activities of the National Bureau of Standards! National 

Institute of Standards and Technology 789 

B. Histories of the National Bureau of Standards 867 

C. NBS/NIST in the Federal Administration 871 

D. Site Information and Maps: Gaithersburg and Boulder 875 

E. NBS/NIST Staff, 1901-1999 881 

F. NBS/NIST Postdoctoral Research Associates, 1968-1993 883 

xxxii 
Page 

0. Scientific Awards Given by the Department of Commerce and 

NBS/NIST to Staff Members, 1968-1993 895 

H. Members of the Visiting Committee for NBS and the Visiting 

Committee on Advanced Technology for NIST 909 

I. NBS/NIST Actual Obligations, 1967-1999 915 

J. NBS/NIST Publications 917 

K. Structure and Leadership of NBS/NIST 935 

INDEX 989 

xxxiii 
CHAPTER ONE 

A UNIQUE INSTITUTION 

CHANGE COMES TO A MIDDLE-AGED AGENCY 

In 1968 the National Bureau of Standards was about to lose a Director who nearly 

had become an institution himself. With that loss the nature of the agency would begin 

to change, although no one could foresee the manner of change, so subtle were its 

beginnings. 

Allen Astin, leader of the Bureau for a decade and a half, was a scientist of the old 

school, not different in material ways from his four predecessors as Director: his most 

precious possessions were his scientific and personal integrity; his devotion to the 

institution was absolute; the efforts of his hours, days and years hewed to the goal of 

providing useful purpose for his staff and obtaining for them the best working environment he could provide. 

In the exercise of his duties Astin had asked no quarter from his superiors. And in 

truth, he had received but little. A more desired commodity, however, he had been 

granted in abundance by all who crossed his path—respect for his ability and for his 

unflinching honesty. 

Our story begins with Astin's last year as Director. Most of his work is chronicled 

in the volume that serves as companion to this one.' As we assess the institution that 

he left behind, however, we shall see that its uniqueness in 1968 derived in no small 

measure from the careful and devoted nurture of Allen Astin and his predecessors. 

The end of Astin's career as Director came as the Nation's funding of scientific 

research and development had ceased to grow at a double-digit rate. In fact, by every 

mark, funding of basic science and both civilian and military research and development 

reached a standstill during this period.2 The events that had led to the flagging of 

support for America's scientific establishment were linked tightly to the origins of 

impending change for the National Bureau of Standards. 

Gradually, during the decades of the l950s and 1960s, America began to lose the 

world dominance won at so great a price in World War II. The post-war boom in the 

U.S. economy had fueled a corresponding jump in its standard of living, with America 

leading a world-wide increase in trade. But the party became noticeably quieter as the 

strain of war—first in Korea, then in Vietnam—coupled with a multitude of problems 

within the Nation's borders to unsettle the lives of ordinary Americans. Growing 

'EIio Passaglia with Karma A. Beat, A UNIQUE INST1TUTJON: The National Bureau of Standards, 1950-1969 

(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1999). 2 Deborah Shapley and Rustum Roy, Lost At The Frontier: U.S. Science and Technology Policy Adrift, 

(Philadelphia: ISI Press, 1985), pp. 4-5, Figs. IA, lB. IC. 
inflation and interest rates, anti-trust actions, worry over pollution and loss of natural 

resources, all these factors created doubt in the minds of U.S. citizens that more and 

more science would provide the quality of life that they wanted for themselves and 

their children.3 

As a result of environmental and health concerns, Americans demanded better 

protection from the poisonous side effects of U.S. industrial production. There began a series of ecologically based actions by the Congress—the Land and Water Act of 

1964, the Water Pollution Act and the Clean Air Act of 1965, the Clean Water 

Restoration Act of 1966, and later the Environmental Protection Act, the Toxic 

Substances Control Act, the Occupational Health and Safety Act, and amendments to 

the Clean Air Act. This legislation would engender compliance costs estimated at $63 

billion for the year 1976 and $100 billion by 

Not until 1980 would the balance of payments shift dramatically to the negative for 

the United States, but worrisome signs abounded in 1968. As Astin prepared to retire, 

many members of Congress contemplated ways in which they could help American 

industry maintain leadership in the world economy. The solution seemed to lie in 

helping U.S. industry to apply modern technology more effectively. NBS was known— 

to the relatively few Congressmen who knew it at all—as a center of technical competence. It was the Nation's "problem-solver" as well as the final authority on measurement standards. If NBS were to exert more leadership in applying new technology, 

perhaps it could play a larger part in keeping America's production strong... 

But we get ahead of ourselves. Let us take the time to examine the National Bureau 

of Standards to see why, indeed, it should be known as a unique institution. 

ORIGIN OF THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS 

The Federal agency that is now called the National Institute of Standards and 

Technology was created as the National Bureau of Standards by the 56th Congress of 

the United States. The chartering legislation, reported in "The Statutes at Large of the 

United States of America," Volume XXXI, Chapter 872, page 1449, was approved on 

March 3, 1901, during the second session of the 56th Congress. The shorthand 

reference to the chartering act is 31 Stat. 1449 (the act is now known as Public Law 

56-177); it occupies less than two pages of text. 

The ten relatively short sections of Public Law do not appear remarkable 

from the distance of ninety-odd years, but they outline in succinct form a strong, 

laboratory-based agency with well-developed functions and a small but highly technical 

staff. 

Paul Johnson, Modern Times: The World From the Twenties to the Nineties, Revised Edition, (New 

York: Harper Perennial, 1991), Ch. 19. 

"Robert DeFina, Public and Private Expenditures for Federal Regulation of Business (St. Louis: Washington 

University, 1977). Murray L. Weidenbaum, Governmental Power and Business (Stanford, 1980). 

Reproduced in Appendix A. 

2 
The birth of the National Bureau of Standards followed a surprisingly long gestation. 

However, by virtue of the comprehensive powers given to it by its chartering legislation, the infant agency was able to develop quickly into an effective organization. 

The only ingredient that Congress, on its own, could not supply was spirited and 

forward-looking leadership. Fortunately, that ingredient quickly materialized in the 

person of Samuel W. Stratton, whose contributions will be discussed shortly. 

Constitutional Authority 

The founding fathers provided to Congress all the authority it needed for the 

creation of a National Bureau of Standards more than a century before its actual founding. This authority is explicit in the U.S. Constitution. There can be no doubt that the 

men who wrote the Constitution recognized the importance of uniform standards of 

measurement to ensure an equitable and orderly commerce for the new country, for 

they juxtaposed that authority with the basic monetary authority. The text of Article 1, 

Section 8 of the Constitution reads, in part: "The Congress shall have Power. . . To 

coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of 

Weights and Measures.. 

Following the organization of the major executive, legislative, and judicial branches 

of the new government, the Congress quickly acted to regulate the coinage of the new nation. A United States Mint was established by congressional action on April 2, 1792, a scant three years after the inauguration of George Washington as the first President. 

Curiously, however, the Congress was hesitant to act on its co-equal authority with 

respect to weights and measures, despite the clear and growing need for uniformity in 

manufacture and commerce and despite specific requests from President Washington. 

"Customary Standards" 

The need for Congress to "fix the standard" for weights and measures arose in substantial part from the complex state of industrial and commercial measurements prior 

to the 19th century. Early citizens of the United States, harking back to origins 

throughout Europe and, to some extent, in lands beyond, made use of a staggering 

variety of measured quantities and their scales. The "inch," the "hand," the "foot," the 

"yard," the "fathom," the "chain," and the "rod" were just a few of the linear measures 

in use during that time. Area was measured in terms of the "perch," the "square inch," 

the "square meter," the "acre," and the "hectare," among others. Volumetric measures 

included the "fluid ounce," the "gallon," the "peck," the "dry quart," the "bushel," 

the "cord," and the "firkin." Weight units were as diverse as the "grain," the "pound," 

the "troy ounce," the "ton," the "short ton," and the "long ton." The relationships 

among the various industrial and commercial measures were tenuous at best. Even 

merchants with the most honest intentions could not deliver uniform amounts of their 

goods to their customers for want of adequate measuring devices. The occasional 

instance of a vendor's greed, added to the difficulty of accurate measurement, made 

shopping a punishing exercise indeed for the early consumer! 

3 
The variety of coins that were intimate parts of the lives of America's citizens at 

the time it became a nation was not nearly so large as the panoply of weights and 

measures. Why did the Congress quickly choose to set up a system of coinage and a mint to regularize the monetary system, yet hesitate to select or concoct a standard set 

of commercial and manufacturing measures? From a distance of nearly two centuries, 

this inconsistency is puzzling. 

As the decades passed, various Congresses, urged on by a citizenry suffering under 

the chaotic state of U.S. measurement standards, made only halting efforts in the 

direction of establishing a National Bureau of Standards.6 The Congresses received 

periodic requests for action on standards from representatives of U.S. science and 

industry, reinforced by louder and louder outcries from hard-pressed citizens who 

clamored for uniformity in commercial weights and measures. Technical workers 

needed measurement standards in order to produce useful goods; ordinary citizens 

desperately wanted fair and uniform measurements from vendors of foods and other 

goods whose scales either were inaccurate as a result of poor construction or had 

been adjusted so as to maximize profits. Surely, something could be done for these 

people... 

John Perry, The Story of Standards (New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company, 1955) Chapters 1-6. 

4 

A Baltimore city inspector tested a grocery store scale for accuracy, about 1920. Photo appears courtesy of 

the Maryland Department of Agriculture (Weights and Measures Section). 
In 1816 President James Madison called for the adoption of a decimal system of 

measurement that had been proposed by Thomas Jefferson when the latter was Secretary of State. Considerable congressional discussion followed this suggestion, 

including an extensive report by then-Secretary of State John Quincy Adams. Nothing 

came of these efforts directly; it may be that the dominance of English roots among 

America's leaders kept them from embracing an idea that arose in France, or a lack of 

agreement over certain of the metric definitions. Nevertheless, the discussions became 

part of the legislative dossier that led eventually to the creation of a national standards 

bureau. 

The Office of Weights and Measures 

A palpable step towards creation of national weights and measures for America 

occurred in June of 1836 when a Joint Resolution of Congress (5 Stat. 133) was passed directing the Secretary of the Treasury to ". . . cause a complete set of all the 

weights and measures adopted as standards. . . to be delivered to the Governor of each 

State in the Union The astute reader will notice immediately the incongruity of 

the phrase in the resolution " .. . weights and measures adopted as standards.. ." in 

comparison with the constitutional authority to "fix the standard of weights and 

measures." One is impelled to ask, why did not the Congress adopt standards as the 

Constitution gave them the authority to do? Who did adopt measurement standards? 

What standards were available to be adopted? The answers to these questions will lead us to the creation of the National Bureau of Standards. 

The situation behind the curious phrase in the 1836 resolution relates particularly to a man named Ferdinand Hassler. We need to know something about Hassler—and 

Charles Peirce, another metrologist who carried forward Hassler's principles—if we are to understand the growth of the standards movement in America. The following 

material is based upon Cochrane's well-written and informative account in "Measures 

for Progress."7 

Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler 

Ferdinand Hassler was the first Superintendent of the Coast Survey and the first 

Superintendent of Weights and Measures. He has been described as "the first scientist 

of rank in the employ of the Federal He certainly provided the U.S. 

Congress with first-hand knowledge of both the inspirations and the exasperations 

involved in dealing with a determined scientific mind. 

Born to a well-to-do family in northern Switzerland in 1770, Hassler entered the 

University of Berne at age 16. His inquisitive and agile mind was captured by the 

subjects of mathematics, astronomy, and geodetics. With a professor from the school, 

Hassler began a lifelong pursuit of practical geodetics. While mapping the countryside 

Rexmond C. Cochrane, Measures For Progress Nati. Bur. Std. (U.S.) Miscellaneous Publication 275 

(Washington DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1966), Ch. I and Appendices A. B. and C. Hereafter, 

Measures For Progress will often be abbreviated as MFP. 

MFP, p. 525. 

5 
Ferdinand R. Hassler as a young man 

in the 1790s. Born and educated in 

Switzerland, he became America's 

first great metrologist. Photo appears 

courtesy of the American Philosophical Society. 

near the university, the two men found it difficult to use the measuring instruments at 

hand. The devices were imprecise and there were few measurement standards. Has 

sler's future life as a metrologist very probably was formed by this experience. 

Hassler decided to leave Switzerland because of the widespread turmoil that accompanied the French Revolution. In 1804 he conspired with a chance acquaintance to 

found a Swiss colony in the United States, entrusting the stranger with most of his 

fortune to precede him and buy land for this purpose. Meanwhile, Hassler assembled an entourage consisting of his wife, four children, considerable baggage, and some 120 

craftsmen and their families; he then chartered a small ship to carry his nascent colony 

to Philadelphia. 

Hassler's colonial venture disintegrated quickly when his erstwhile partner confessed 

to having gambled away the money that Hassler had entrusted to his care! 

Undaunted, Hassler contacted the Secretary of the Treasury, Albert Gallatin, a fellow 

Swiss by birth; through Gallatin, Hassler met President Thomas Jefferson. Perhaps they 

shared a common interest in metrology. In any case, when the 9th U.S. Congress 

appropriated funds in 1807 for a coastal survey of the United States, Hassler's plan for 

the survey was judged most satisfactory. Hassler advocated the use of astronomy to 

locate geographic positions at key coastal points, to establish networks of precise 

triangulation connecting them, and to create topographical surveys of coastal regions 

including coastal waters. 

6 
Delighted with his new position, Hassler soon traveled to London to oversee the 

production of suitable instruments for the task. He stayed in England and France for 

four years, consulting with geodesists on the techniques of measurement and designing 

astronomical instruments for purposes well beyond his statutory requirements. 

In 1815 Hassler returned to America. He already had overspent his budget by about 

10 percent, and only then was he about to begin working on the survey. The next year, 

hard at work training a cadre of assistants, Hassler was given the title of Superintendent of the Survey of the Coast, a salary, and permission to start the project. 

Hassler's progress was much too slow to satjsfy Congress. In 1818 the 15th Congress took the project away from him and gave it to the military in the hope of obtaining quicker results. While it is true that Hassler had made no maps of the coast to 

show Congress by that time, historian Elliott Roberts noted in 1957 that the survey was then still in progress with no end in sight.9 

For 10 years after losing his commission, Hassler tried more mundane occupations— 

farming, teaching, and writing textbooks. His temperament, erratic at best, prevented 

economic success. 

In 1829 Hassler took a position as gager (a measurement specialist) at the New York 

Custom House. American measurement standards were still in poor condition—in fact, 

Congress was of the opinion that the backward state of U.S. standards was hampering 

the Nation's progress in international trade. Fortune smiled upon Hassler then, for 

Congress authorized a comparison of the standards used in U.S. customhouses and 

Hassler was selected by President Andrew Jackson to head the project. 

Characteristically, Hassler immediately planned a bigger project than had been 

contemplated by Congress. He not only produced overwhelming evidence of serious 

deficiencies in American measurement standards—they were faulty in their definition 

and construction, and inconsistent in their results—but he also undertook to adopt, 

produce, and distribute better standards. 

With the approval of Treasury Secretary Samuel Ingham, Hassler selected units of 

measure and prepared new devices to realize the units. In 1832 the Treasury Department adopted Hassler's suggestions for length, mass, and capacity; it was these 

"adopted standards" to which Congress referred in its resolution of 1836. 

Historians regard the 1836 Resolution as the instrument of creation of the Office of 

Weights and Measures within the Coast Survey of the Treasury Department, with 

Ferdinand Hassler as its first Superintendent. This Office, 65 years later, would be 

subsumed into the National Bureau of Standards. 

Hassler was in certain respects a prototypical metrologist. He had set his own goals 

for the Coast Survey—to see first to the construction of instruments of the highest 

quality, never mind the time or cost. He endured the loss of his post that resulted from 

his choices; when his project was passed to the military because of his apparent lack of 

progress, he continued doggedly along his chosen path until he exhausted his personal 

fortune. It is entirely suitable that his abilities should have been recognized in 1922 by 

Samuel Stratton, first Director of the National Bureau of Standards, in the words "I 

9ElIiott B. Roberts, "United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1807-1957," Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Institution, 

1957, p. 222. 

7 
doubt if there were more than half a dozen people in the world at that time who possessed the scientific knowledge and the deftness of the artisan necessary to undertake 

his work." 

Charles Sanders Peirce 

Charles Peirce, born near the end of Hassler's tumultuous life, is remembered as an outstanding scientist and philosopher, with a strong bent for metrology. He spent 20 

years with the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, much of it in the study of weights and 

measures. Long before the advent of laser metrology, Peirce evaluated the meter in 

terms of a wavelength of light, and he spent considerable effort in the determination of 

relative values of gravity both in the United States and in Europe. In the process of 

these and other studies, Peirce advanced noticeably the scientific approach to measurement problems. '° 

During Peirce's brief tenure as head of the Office of Weights and Measures, a subsidiary of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, it happened that a Joint Commission of 

Congress was appointed under the chairmanship of Senator William B. Allison to 

"consider the present organization of the Signal Service, Geological Survey, Coast and 

Geodetic Survey, and the Hydrographic Office of the Navy Department." Asked to 

testify before the Allison Commission in January 1985, Peirce called attention to the 

inadequacy of then-current standards of weights and measures. He followed by noting a resolution of the American Metrological Society that called for the strengthening of 

the Office of Weights and Measures—in fact, the resolution sought the creation of a "national bureau of weights, measures, and physical units." 

Like the work of Hassler a half-century earlier, Peirce's efforts became part of the 

congressional dossier that culminated in the creation of the National Bureau of 

Standards. 

The Metric System 

As the United States of America came into being at the end of the 1 8th century, the 

so-called "metric system" was initiated in France. ' In this system, all quantitative 

measures are based upon the "metre" (herein we use the American spelling, "meter") 

and the "gramme" (herein spelled "gram").'2 The meter was to be the standard of 

length, defined by a committee of the French Academy of Sciences as one tenmillionth part of the distance from the equator to the North Pole.'3 The gram was to be 

0 Victor F. Lenzen, "The contributions of Charles S. Peirce to metrology," Proc. Amer. Philosophical Soc. 

109, pp 29-46 (1965). 

Chester H. Page and Paul Vigoureux, editors, The International Bureau of Weights and Measures 1875- 

1975, NatI. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Special Publication 420, May 1975. 

12 Barry N. Taylor, The International System of Units (SI), NIST (U.S.) Special Publication 330, August 

1991. Foreword. 

It is recorded (see MFP, Appendix B) that members of the French Academy actually participated in 

measurements evaluating the meter along the meridian that passes through Barcelona, Paris, and Dunkirk 

(approximately 2.4 degrees east of the Greenwich meridian), traveling through hilly terrain to do so. 8 
the standard of mass,'4 defined as the mass of one cubic centimeter of pure water at its 

maximum density (the maximum occurs near 4°C). 

The metric system had two very attractive features. First, it was defined in terms of 

natural units—in principle, any competent technician could duplicate the meter and the 

gram without recourse to artifacts. Second, the system was defined in a decimal 

fashion—multiples and sub-multiples of the units were derived by use of the factor 10. 

A simple system, indeed, compared to the complicated alternatives! 

The principle of a decimal system of weights and measures embodied in the French 

metric system was put in place in Switzerland during the first half of the 19th century. 

Twelve Swiss cantons entered an agreement to employ a set of decimal units for 

certain of their measurements.'5 It was only a small step, but one that accurately 

forecast the direction for future international standards. 

Although adoption of the metric system for measurement standards in the U.S. was recommended by—among others—President Jefferson, only in 1866 did the Congress 

authorize the use of metric standards. Even then, the system was not made 

compulsory—merely lawful. 

By 1869 the metric system was considered ready for use in international technology 

and trade. The system already was specified by law in France, Holland, Belgium, 

Luxembourg, Spain, Colombia, and Mexico, and was recognized in England, Germany, 

and the United States. In 1869 the government of France invited many countries to 

send delegates to Paris to attend an "International Commission for the Meter." A 

highlight of the meeting would be discussion of the designation of the French meter 

and kilogram, preserved in the Archives of Paris, as references for international 

measurement standards. As matters proceeded, meetings of the Commission were delayed until 1872 because of political unrest in France.'6 

On March 1, 1875, the French government convoked the Diplomatic Conference on the Meter. Its aims were substantially those of the earlier Commission. The conference 

was attended by representatives of 20 nations, including Elihu Benjamin Washburne— 

"Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary"—and Joseph Henry—first 

Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution—representing U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant. 

By May 20, the conferees had created an impressive organization for international 

standards of measurement. The organization included the following entities: 

The careful reader will note that the words "mass" and "weight" have been and often still are used interchangeably, as if they represent identical quantities. Strictly speaking, they do not; weight is actually a force, equal to mass times the acceleration due to gravity. The distinction is often overlooked because most masses are evaluated by weighing and because geographical variations in gravitational acceleration are small. 

Later in this book (Sec. 2.8.5, Force Testing on a Large Scale) we provide more details on the difference 

between mass and weight. 

W. Schwitz, Formation and Development of the Swiss Federal Measurement Systen,, translation by H. 

Steffen Peiser. 6 Actually, the word "unrest" hardly does justice to that period of time in France. The Franco-Prussian War 

took place in 1870. The same year saw the end of the reign of Louis Napoleon and the formation of the 

Third Republic of France. Unrest, indeed! 

9 
• An International Committee for Weights and Measures (known today by the 

acronym CIPM, corresponding to its title in French), intended to oversee the production of prototype standards. 

• An International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), an administrative 

organization and a building where the standards would be prepared and where the 

administrative offices would be housed. 

• Periodic General Conferences on Weights and Measures (CGPM), during which the 

signatory nations could adopt suitable standards for international reference.'7 

The United States was one of 17 countries that signed the "Convention du Metre" 

(Convention of the Meter, the oldest treaty of which the United States is still a signatory). Despite its agreement to recognize the 1875 Convention, and despite the growing use of metric measurements throughout the world, the U.S. Congress never enacted 

legislation to adopt the metric system as the compulsory national standard for weights 

and measures in America.'8 

We shall return again and again to discussions of the International Bureau of 

Weights and Measures, because its history and that of NBS were tightly intertwined. 

In later sections we shall also note a rebirth of congressional interest in mandating 

the metric system of measurement for everyday use in the United States. However, this 

issue has lost much of its urgency with the passage of time, inasmuch as all the units 

of the so-called "customary U.S." or "English" measures have long since been 

evaluated in terms of metric equivalents. Individuals or companies that need to use 

the metric system in manufacturing or in sales literature can readily make the 

transition—though often at the cost of duplication of equipment and inventories. 

At Last, a National Bureau of Standards 

As the 20th century opened, the House Committee on Coinage, Weights, and 

Measures received a letter from Lyman Gage, Secretary of the Treasury, who suggested the creation of a national standardizing bureau. This letter was the product of a meeting of the minds of Secretary Gage and one Samuel W. Stratton, a professor at the 

1 In 1927, the CIPM began to establish Consultative Committees to assist it in preparing new statements on standards. These committees were composed of scientists expert in one of the metrological areas. Eventually. most measurement units (for time, mass, length, temperature, electrical quantities, etc.) came under the care of a consultative committee. 

It is perhaps worth noting that the metric system of measurements was prescribed for use by the American 

Expeditionary Forces during World War I. A U.S. Army General Order dated January 2, 1918 specified that 

the metric system was to be used " . . . for all firing data for artillery and machine guns, in the preparation 

of operation orders, and in map construction." Metric literature that was distributed to both Army and Navy 

technical personnel included wall charts, sets of equivalents between metric and customary units, and 

National Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication No. 21 "Metric Manual for Soldiers—The Soldier's 

Manual of the System—An International Decimal System of Weights and Measures, adopted as the legal 

standard by France and 33 other nations and in world-wide use." Reference to NBS MP No. 21 can be found 

in War Work of the Bureau of Standards, NatI. Bur. Stand. Miscellaneous Publication 46, 1921, pp. 220-22 I. 

10 
University of Chicago. Stratton was convinced that the time for creation of a national 

bureau of standards had arrived. He had responded to a lesser offer from Gage—to 

appoint him chief of the Office of Weights and Measures—with a suggestion for a grander goal. 

Gage's letter to the House committee, written with the direct assistance of Prof. 

Stratton, was only the latest in a long series of requests for congressional action on national standards. But this time, the spark ignited a flame. Testimony from U.S. 

technical leaders, encouraged to speak before the Committee, offered enthusiastic 

support for the idea. Members of the Committee were disposed to offer HR 1452, 

"National Standardizing Bureau," to the House on May 14, 1900. The Act worked its 

way through the 56th Congress in accordance with the usual Congressional practice. 

On March 3, 1901, the legislation now known as Public Law 56-177, written by the 

Senate and the House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, was approved. It established the National Bureau of Standards. The act 

decreed that the Office of Standard Weights and Measures should thereafter be known as the National Bureau of Standards. However, the provisions of the act made it clear 

that "National Bureau of Standards" was not simply a new name for an old office. A 

wholly new agency was being created—one with considerably more responsibilities 

than its forerunner. In Appendix A we provide excerpts from all of the legislation 

affecting NBS, beginning with the U.S. Constitution. 

A Word About Standards 

It might be helpful at this point to consider for a moment the question "What are standards?" The question is not an idle one. Over the years, millions of dollars have 

been appropriated by one Congress or another for work at NBS that various members 

of Congress have criticized as lying beyond the scope of Public Law 56-177. 

Webster's New International Dictionary, 2nd Edition, defines "standard" as "That 

which is set up and established by authority as a rule for the measure of quantity, 

weight, extent, value, or quality, esp., the original specimen weight or measure sanctioned by government, as the standard pound, gallon, yard, meter, or the like."9 

From that definition, one can readily construct a menu of standards that includes all 

the physical metrics—units such as those of length, mass, time, frequency, temperature, 

pressure, electrical resistance, electrical current, voltage, electrical capacitance, 

electrical impedance, radiant flux, hardness, and a raft of derivative measures; and 

metrics for chemistry, biology, radioactivity, sound, color, and other measurementintensive fields. But what about standards for concrete fabrication? For computer 

security? For flammability of fabrics? For the safety of toys or tools? For the audibility 

of voice transmission? For tire wear? For police equipment? For home insulation? For 

earthquake-resistant buildings and bridges? Are these activities consistent with the 

instructions of Public Law 56-177? 

Walter G. Leight kindly points out that use of a single word—"standard," in the United States—both for 

scientific measurement methods and for guides to effective technical practices is not the case everywhere. In 

many countries, different words are used to refer to physical standards and to documentary guidelines. 

11 
Questions regarding the reasonable extension of the mandate contained in its 

Organic Act to new fields of derivative and applied standards of measurement surfaced on a regular basis after the Bureau was established in 1901. Sometimes a particular 

question has been avoided—by the Congress or by NBS management—and sometimes 

faced squarely (usually by modification of the Organic Act to include the contemplated 

project). 

We shall have more to say later about arguments on the suitability of particular 

projects for the NBS mission, because such debates often help define the nature of the 

agency.2° In proposing these projects, however, refining the mission of the Bureau was 

not ordinarily the intent of the petitioners for unusual work by the NBS staff. Instead, 

these people simply had problems to solve—and people with problems to solve tend to 

seek advice from other people whom they regard as experts. 

It is to the credit of its leadership that, whatever its mandate, the Bureau has consistently been fortunate enough to house world experts on an amazing variety of technical 

subjects. The ability of a relatively anonymous government agency to attract and 

hold a distinguished staff in the face of continuing restrictions on hiring, salaries, and 

operating funds is itself remarkable. By creating a strong sense of shared mission to 

function as the Nation's measurement and data experts, the Bureau management has 

made it routine. 

REsPoNsIBILITIEs OF THE NEWBORN NBS 

At its beginning, the National Bureau of Standards—"NBS" as it quickly became 

known throughout the metrological world—was only a tiny entity, hardly a match to 

its grand charter. 

Public Law 56-177 decreed that the Office of Standard Weights and Measures 

should thenceforth be known as the National Bureau of Standards. The law designated a substantial list of functions for the new agency. They included the following: 

• Custody of the standards. 

• Comparison of standards used in science, engineering, manufacturing, commerce, 

and educational institutions. 

• Construction of needed standards. 

• Testing and calibration of measurement apparatus. 

• Solution of standards-related problems. 

• Determination of physical constants. 

• Determination of properties of materials needed for science or industry, whenever 

such information might not be readily available from other sources. 

The agency was directed to serve the standards needs of a great many communities: 

government at the national, state, and municipal levels; scientific societies; educational 

20See Appendix A. 

12 
institutions; and corporations or individuals in the United States who were engaged in 

pursuits requiring the use of standards or standard measuring instruments. Its mandate 

was sufficiently broad as to permit nearly any activity in science or technology. 

To accomplish so many tasks the act provided only a minimal work force—a director, a physicist, a chemist, an engineer, five technical assistants, and four nontechnical 

staff. The total salary cost was not to exceed $27,140 per year. Approximately 

$135,000 was appropriated toward the siting, construction, and equipping of a new laboratory building. 

This was indeed a modest investment by a frugal Congress—but who could have 

foreseen the demands that would so soon be placed on the new Bureau by a nation that 

was rapidly becoming an industrial giant? It was a modest beginning, but it was a beginning nonetheless. 

As we examine the work done within the National Bureau of Standards we shall see how the new agency not only fulfilled the responsibilities of the Office of Weights 

and Measures but also performed many vital tasks that provided the scientific basis for 

measurements and standards in industry and commerce. In addition to maintaining 

custody2' of the standards, it was to offer a calibration service—free to governmental 

customers, at cost for others—and to harmonize the standards as used in the many 

technical aspects of U.S. life—for science, engineering, manufacturing, commerce, and 

education. Furthermore, the Bureau was required to "construct needed standards," a statement that is subject to differing interpretations but which literally directs the 

agency to respond to needs for measurement tools as expressed by its multi-faceted 

constituency. In time, these needs would include items as varied as radioactive 

standards, standard paint samples, a standard for iron in spinach, and standards for 

computer security. 

Two entirely new directions, not formerly given to any agency, were the authority 

for "solution of standards-related problems" and "determination of physical constants 

and properties of materials such as might be needed by science or industry." Some 

members of Congress must have seen that they were thus mandating a vigorous 

laboratory enterprise, one that perforce must be staffed by first-rate scientists and 

engineers. 

Similarly, the constituency of the new bureau was specified in the broadest of terms, as we have noted. 

After failing to act on its constitutional prerogative for a hundred years, the Congress compensated for its procrastination by endowing the new National Bureau of 

Standards with all the authority it might ever need to serve the standards requirements 

of the United States. To help it maintain a suitable level of fiscal support for its new 

21 The word "custody," suggesting as it does the physical possession of an object, applied very well to the 

first standards maintained by the Bureau—standards such as a platinum-iridium-alloy meter bar and a platinum-iridium-alloy kilogram mass. In fact, these standards did reside in safekeeping at NIBS. However, 

the word seems inappropriate when applied to the many modem standards that do not exist as artifacts at all. 

The position of the Bureau with respect to more recent standards such as length, defined in terms of a wavelength of light, or temperature, defined in terms of phase transitions in pure substances, seems better 

described by a word such as "responsibility." In this volume, we generally use the term "custody" only 

where an artifact standard is under discussion. 

13 
creation, Congress provided for oversight of the new bureau. This oversight was 

embodied in a "visiting committee," composed of five nongovernmental standards 

leaders appointed by the Secretary of the Treasury; the committee would visit the 

NBS annually and report to the Secretary on the efficacy of its work and the condition 

of its equipment. 

Public Law 56-177, usually known as the "enabling legislation" of NBS but 

occasionally described in congressional jargon as its "Organic Act," was modified 

substantially in 1950, in 1968, and again in 1988,22 but its foundation—the dual 

responsibilities for the Nation's standards and for resolving standards-related national 

problems—has remained in force throughout the agency's existence. 

One feature not placed in the Organic Act of the NBS by the 56th Congress is any 

explicit reference to international standards of measurement. The absence of any such 

reference seems surprising from a modern perspective, particularly in view of the 

great importance to present-day science and industry of international standardization. 

When this history was written, all scientific and industrial measurements were validated in terms of international scales that were promulgated by the International 

Committee of Weights and Measures. 

Why did the legislation establishing NBS not include a statement directing its staff 

to correspond with the BIPM, as the International Bureau of Weights and Measures is 

commonly known, the better to facilitate U.S. participation in world trade? Perhaps 

because the BIPM and its sister organizations were unknown to most members of 

Congress! Congress could not anticipate that the entities created by the Metric convention in 1875 would flourish with the years even as the National Bureau of Standards 

has done. In any case, this oversight has long since been rectified in practice; the 

newborn NBS soon found it necessary to participate in all areas of international 

standards work. Indeed, NBS has become a world leader in the development of 

international measurement standards. 

HISTORIES OF NBS 

The story of the growth of NBS, during its first 60-odd years, into a world-respected 

standards authority and a formidable scientific and engineering laboratory—literally a unique institution—is an important and fascinating one. However, it is not a story that we shall recount in detail here, because the interested reader can readily learn it from 

existing books. 

In several histories, the reader can trace the transition in American commercial life 

that has resulted from the efforts of the Bureau. From the missing, inadequate, or dishonest weights that characterized the U.S. marketplace before the founding of the 

Bureau, to the economic ruin that occasionally accompanied a lack of standards in fire 

safety, transportation, and manufacturing, to the flowering of engineering standards 

during and after two world wars, the role that NBS played at the forefront of progress 

in measurement and standards for nearly seven decades has been documented by 

several authors. 

22 See Appendix A. 

14 
We mention here seven histories. To facilitate review by the interested reader, we 

list chapter titles and appendices for each book in Appendix B. 

The careful reader will note that the titles of the first two histories refer to NBS not as "the National Bureau of Standards," but simply as "the Bureau of Standards"; these 

references do not indicate carelessness on the part of the authors, but rather a curious 

historical fact: in 1903, when the agency was transferred from the Treasury Department to the new Department of Commerce and Labor, the word "National" was eliminated from its title by George B. Cortelyou, the new secretary of Commerce and 

Labor. For about 30 years, the agency was known officially as the "Bureau of 

Standards." Through the efforts of Lyman J. Briggs, the agency's third director, the 

change was reversed.23 

I. War Work of the Bureau of Standards, by an anonymous author, Bureau of 

Standards Miscellaneous Publication 46, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1921, 299 

pp. This book contains fairly detailed discussions of some fifty groups of projects 

undertaken by Bureau staff members during WW I. 

"Miscellaneous Publication 46" is particularly interesting because of its absolute 

anonymity. It contains virtually no names of persons. Not only are the descriptions of 

individual projects bereft of any reference to the staff members who accomplished 

them, but the monograph itself has no author—not even a reference that would identify 

where in the Bureau it was written. The apparent intention of this anonymity—not an uncommon trait during this time in the history of American government—was to avoid 

any appearance of immodesty on the part of the agency staff. Instead, each staff 

member was expected to take pride in all the work of the agency. Certainly, the 

attitude of belonging to a highly effective team has permeated NBS during most of its 

existence. 

A glance at the NBS technical literature indicates that the names of scientific authors 

were listed under the titles of their scientific papers from the earliest days of the 

Bureau, but that summary accounts written by or for administrators generally were 

anonymous at least until the end of World War JI.2425 

23 Cochrane, Measures jbr Progress p. 47. 24 Churchill Eisenhart once mentioned an incident that occurred during the time when he was chief of the 

Statistical Engineering Section. Another Section staff member. Mary Natrella, prepared an extensive 

discussion of experimental statistics for the Office of Ordnance Research which was promulgated as U.S. 

Army Ordnance Pamphlets ORDP 20-110, ORDP 20-Ill, ORDP 20-112, ORDP 20-I 13, and ORDP 20-114. 

It was necessary for Eisenhart to negotiate with the sponsor the right to identify Ms. Natrella as the author. 

inasmuch as it was not the Army's policy to identify authorship of such documents. Later, the series was reprinted in book form under the title Experimental Statistics (NBS Handbook 91, 1963). Recollection of 

W. Reeves Tilley, former chief of the Technical Reports Section. 25 The tendency to modesty among the staff of the NBS reminds this writer of a statement he once heard in 

the NBS Heat Division from William R. Bigge, a physicist who operated a six-dial potentiometer at—and 

occasionally beyond—its uncertainty limit. Asked how he had mastered the arcane use of the device, Bigge 

shrugged, "Any high-school graduate could run this thing as well as I do—after, maybe, twenty years of 

practice." 

15 
Another interesting feature of this history is a statement in the Introduction revealing 

that ". . . practically all the time and energy of the Bureau's personnel were devoted to 

military problems during the period of hostilities . 2. The Bureau of Standards: Its History, Activities, and Organization, by Gustavus A. Weber, Johns Hopkins Press, 1925, 299 pp., is a concise, matter-of-fact sum- mary of the NBS as it appeared in the period following the First World War. It was 

written under the auspices of the Institute for Government Research, Washington DC, as one of a series of "Service Monographs." As of 1925, there were 36 titles in this 

series. In the course of describing the work of the Bureau, Weber provides details of 

various acts of Congress in which the Bureau was given new projects to supplement— 

either temporarily or permanently—its original mandate. These include such topics as flame standards (35 Stat. 904, March 4, 1909), accuracy in coin weights (36 Stat. 

1354, March 4, 1911), and accuracy of scales used in coal mines (43 Stat. 205, May 

28, 1924; 43 Stat. 364, June 30, 1926). 

As was the case in Miscellaneous Publication 46, Weber allows the NBS staff to toil 

in virtually complete anonymity. 

3. NBS War Research—The National Bureau of Standards in World War II, by 

Lyman J. Briggs (Director Emeritus), U.S. Government Printing Office, September 

1949, 188 pp. In the Foreword, Director Emeritus Briggs states that this book was written at the behest of Secretary of Commerce Henry A. Wallace, who wrote, 

"...You owe it to yourself, to the Bureau, to the Department, and to the country to 

shake off some of your customary modesty and let the world know something of what was done." Briggs acknowledges in his Foreword that much of the writing was done 

by staff members who had participated in the actual work, but these authors are not 

identified. And sufficient modesty remained in the authors that—from the atomic bomb 

to concrete ships—only a few names of staff members are given. Nearly no actions or 

ideas are ascribed to people. 

4. The Story of Standards, by John Perry, Funk & Wagnalls, 1955, 271 pp, is a sprightly collection of stories about the need for standards in many phases of American 

life before the advent of NBS. In addition, Perry highlights some of the important 

technical work done at the Bureau during its first 50 years. 

Individual Bureau staff members occasionally receive personal mention by Perry, but once again the emphasis is on NBS as an anonymous—though highly effective—force 

for improved standards. - 5. Measures For Progress: A History of the National Bureau of Standards, by 

Rexmond C. Cochrane, NatI. Bur. Std. Miscellaneous Publication 275, 1966, 703 pp. 

This book is a well-written, complete history of the Bureau during its first 50 years of 

existence. Prepared under the supervision of James R. Newman, a professional 

historian and well-known scientific editor, it presents comprehensive views of the 

origin and growth of NBS, its participation in research and development during two 

world wars, its continually growing standards work, and its intimate involvement with 

the U.S. standards movement. 

16 
In contrast with the writing of his predecessors, Cochrane's book fairly sings about 

the who and the why of Bureau work. The high level of his scholarship is obvious 

throughout the text, and the people of NBS, Congress, and the public at large come to 

life in vivid anecdotal descriptions. 

In addition to eight chapters of interesting and informative discussion of the Bureau, 

set within the framework of the national and international technical scene, Cochrane 

provides 15 appendices containing many details relative to NBS activities during its 

first half-century. 

6. Achievement in Radio: Seventy Years of Radio Science, Technology, Standards, and Measurement at the National Bureau of Standards, by Wilbert F. Snyder 

and Charles L. Bragaw (Boulder, CO staff members), Natl. Bur. Std. Special Publication 555, 1986, 842 pp. including 30 chapters, 7 appendices, and an excellent index. 

Although it is one of several existing histories of particular technical fields at NBS 

rather than a general history, this book is well worth the time of the interested reader. 

The authors set out to prepare an account of the work of NBS in the vital and 

pervasive field of radio. Beginning before the time of the Bureau itself, their text 

documents the origins of radio as well as the growing body of radio research and 

service within NBS. Also included is a detailed account of the creation of the radio 

laboratories at the Boulder, Colorado, site from 1950-54. 

7. A Unique Institution: The National Bureau of Standards, 1950-1969, by Elio 

Passaglia with Karma A. Beal, National Institute of Standards and Technology Special 

Publication 925, 1999. Elio Passaglia, a long-time Bureau staff scientist, describes the 

history of NBS during the period 1950-1969. Passaglia's approach and writing skills 

provide an excellent successor volume to Cochrane's history. The many descriptions of 

administrative and scientific projects that are presented in Passaglia's book benefit 

substantially from his background: scientific excellence, particularly in the areas of 

metallurgy, polymers, and crystallization, as well as experience in a variety of 

leadership positions at the Bureau, including nine years as chief of the NBS Metallurgy 

Division. But for his untimely death in 1994, Passaglia no doubt would have been the 

author of the present volume. 

The AD-X2 battery-additive incident, so traumatic for former Director Allen Astin, 

and the communist-hunting hysteria precipitated by the House Committee on Un-American Activities, which directly affected former Director Edward U. Condon 

and indirectly affected many others at the Bureau, are recalled in vivid detail in this 

history. Also recorded are the rise and divestiture of NBS efforts in military research 

and development during and after World War II. Passaglia's account provides a comprehensive record of the many-faceted activities that characterized NBS during some of its most productive years. 

Former Directors of NBS 

The Bureau had only five directors during its first 68 years of existence. Significantly, each was a dedicated professional scientist. One could surmise that all issues 

regarding the agency might first have been approached by these men from the viewpoint of science, rather than that of politics—though none of the five could have been 

17 
successful without some facility in politics. It is worthwhile to mention these leaders 

here, because their influence on the young and growing organization was profound. 

Similarly potent in determining the orientation—and in many cases, specific activities—of NBS have been the government officials who supervised the NBS Director. 

These officials included the U.S. Presidents at whose pleasure the NBS Directors 

served, the Secretaries of Commerce and—when their offices existed—subsidiary 

officials of the Department of Commerce such as Assistant Secretaries of Commerce 

for Science and Technology. A chronological listing of these officials is presented in 

Appendix C. 

Cochrane's Measures for Progress is an excellent source of biographical information on the first four directors of the NBS. Most of the information for the following 

sketches have been abstracted from that book. 

Samuel Wesley Stratton 

The founder and first director of the Bureau was Samuel W. Stratton. Trained in 

mechanical engineering, physics, and mathematics, Stratton served on the physics 

faculty of the University of Chicago from 1892 until he was appointed director of NBS 

in March 1901 by President William McKinley. 

As we noted earlier in this chapter, Stratton was instrumental in the establishment 

of the Bureau, collaborating with Treasury Secretary Lyman Gage in drawing up a plan for a national standards agency. It was this plan that the Congress accepted in 

1901. When the enabling act was passed, Stratton became a logical choice for its first 

director. Stratton's enthusiasm for the concept led him to accept the post forthwith. 

18 

First NBS Director Samuel W. Stratton at his desk in the South Building, 1905. 
A bachelor whose consuming passion was the practice of science, Stratton devoted 

himself wholly to making the Bureau strong in its science and in its integrity as an arbiter of standards. He succeeded brilliantly. 

Stratton served as director from 1901 until 1922. He saw the NBS staff grow from 

12 to more than 850. And as the reader might imagine, he continually testified before 

Congress, requesting more staff and more funds to accomplish an ever-expanding 

menu of services. Stratton was successful in making the Bureau grow because he could 

always demonstrate to Congress' satisfaction that the increased funding led directly to 

enormous advances in the technical capabilities of the Nation. A graphic example of 

those advances can be seen in "Miscellaneous Publication 46," mentioned previously, 

in which more than 50 groups of World War I projects appear; prodigious production 

for a teen-aged agency! 

After leaving the post of NBS Director in 1922, Stratton became the President of the 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology—indeed, it was the offer of the MIT presidency, 

coupled with the deaths of three of his long-time Bureau colleagues, that precipitated 

his departure. His annual salary increased by a factor of approximately three with his 

new position. 

Following his departure from the Bureau, Stratton agreed to become Chairman of 

the NBS Visiting Committee. His advice to the Bureau thus continued unabated for 

another eight years. 

George Kimball Burgess 

The second director of the Bureau, confirmed on April 21, 1923, was George K. 

Burgess. At the time of his appointment to serve under Herbert Hoover, then Secretary 

of Commerce, Burgess was Chief of the NBS Metallurgy Division and the senior 

Bureau physicist. 

Department of Commerce identification badge used by George K. 

Burgess in 1918. At that time he was Chief of the Bureau's Metallurgy 

Division. 

19 

certity tbal 

- Physi-:ist, qualt 

it the , of 

Depaittnent ol commerce, it ,uthorized to and perform the duties of itaid *111cc in accordance with the lawn of the United States and the regula(ions at the Dc ailment of Commerce will be ted accordingly. / 
Trained at MIT and the Sorbonne, Burgess worked at NBS in high-temperature 

research and organized the Metallurgy Division from scratch, turning it within a decade into a 50-man group with international renown. 

Burgess proved to have been a felicitous choice as successor to Stratton, being not 

only a scientist of great competence but also an extremely able administrator. He did 

not attempt to know all the Bureau projects first-hand, as had Stratton; instead, he 

concentrated his efforts on careful leadership of his division chiefs. This technique 

enabled the Bureau to function smoothly even though its staff grew in number to more than 1000 employees. NBS became the largest scientific laboratory in the world and 

one viewed with great respect for its technical competence. 

George K. Burgess. second Director 

of the Bureau of Standards. 

In 1927 Burgess initiated a "Standards Yearbook" "as a companion volume to the 

Commerce Yearbook."26 In his "Letter of Submittal," written to Hon. Herbert Hoover, 

Secretary of Commerce, Burgess succinctly explained his intention: 

I have the honor to submit herewith for publication the first issue of the 

Standards Yearbook, which will be brought out annually hereafter. 

Standards Yearbook, 1927, compiled by the National Bureau of Standards, George K. Burgess, Director, BS 

Miscellaneous Publication 77. 1927. "Price $1.00, clothbound." 

20 
Burgess had a grand goal for the book: 

(To) present an adequate picture of the diversification and 

ramification of the standardization movement which has 

spread throughout the world with astonishing vitality during 

the 25 years that have elapsed since the establishment of 

the National Bureau of Standards. 

Within the 250-odd pages of the book, Burgess and his colleagues presented synopses of work done not only at NBS, but throughout both the United States and the 

rest of the standardizing world; included were summaries of many individual projects 

in all of these institutions. As might be expected, a comprehensive treatment of this 

large and growing topic could not long be sustained. The last of the Standards 

Yearbook series, the 7th, was prepared during the directorship of Lyman Briggs.27 

Burgess died of a stroke while at his Bureau desk on July 2, 1932. He was not yet 

60 years of age. 

Lyman James Briggs 

The third director of the Bureau was Lyman J. Briggs. As assistant director of NBS 

for research and testing, he became Acting Director upon the death of Burgess. He was confirmed as Director on June 13, 1933, following the election of Franklin D. 

Roosevelt to his first term as President. 

Trained at Michigan State University, the University of Michigan, and the Johns 

Hopkins University, Briggs had been personally interested in soil science. He had 

come to NBS during World War I on an assignment from the Bureau of Plant 

Industry. Briggs became involved in aviation research at NBS and soon came to enjoy 

the work immensely. He later became Chief of the Mechanics and Sound Division of 

the Bureau, a post he held at the time Stratton left NBS. 

Burgess appointed Briggs to be Assistant Director for Research and Testing in 1927. 

Briggs, a modest man, had not particularly wanted the job, but he was well-qualified 

for it and accepted it the second time it was offered. 

Burgess died just as a severe retrenchment in funding and manpower hit NBS as a result of the Great Depression. It fell to Briggs to strive mightily to preserve the 

Bureau's competence in the face of nationwide unemployment. 

An amiable man and a capable scientist, Briggs succeeded in saving the Bureau 

from destruction during the depression era. Ironically, he subsequently supervised the 

rapid re-growth in Bureau responsibilities, staffing, and funding that accompanied its 

heavy participation in military research and development during World War II. 

During the directorship of Lyman Briggs, the value of NBS as a national scientific 

resource was underscored by the events surrounding the initiation of work on the 

27 Briggs nevertheless testified in his Letter of Submittal to the Hon. Roy D. Chapin, Secretary of Commerce, that the yearbook was "proving of much value to manufacturers, industrial experts, and engineers, as well as to purchasing agents, both governmental and general" (see BS Misc. Pub. 139, "Price $1.00, 

clothbound.") 

21 
Lyman J. Briggs. third Director of 

NBS. guided the Bureau through the 

hard times caused by the Depression 

and the expansion caused by World 

War 11. atomic bomb. As detailed by Richard Rhodes,28 when President Franklin Roosevelt was first approached on October 11, 1939 by Alexander Sachs—acting on behalf of 

Leo Szilard, Edward Teller, and Eugene Wigner—Roosevelt quickly realized the 

significance of German work on an atomic bomb and the importance of initiating an American program to counter it. 

Roosevelt ordered his assistant, General Edwin M. Watson, to form a small group to 

investigate the possibilities. Rhodes wrote: 

Watson went by the book. He proposed a committee consisting initially of the 

director of the Bureau of Standards, an Army representative, and a Navy 

representative. The Bureau of Standards, established by Act of Congress in 

1901, is the nation's physics laboratory, charged with applying science and 

technology in the national interest and for public benefit. Its director in 1939 was Dr. Lyman J. Briggs, a Johns Hopkins Ph.D. and a government scientist 

for forty-three years who had been nominated by Herbert Hoover and appointed 

by FDR. Briggs set a first meeting of the Advisory Committee on Uranium for 

October 21 in Washington. 

Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York: A Touchstone Book published by Simon and 

Schuster, Inc.. 1988) pp 313-315. The author is grateful to Donald H. Tsai for furnishing this reference. 

22 
Thus began America's entry into the atomic age. 

Briggs celebrated his 71st birthday in May 1945, only a month after the sudden 

death of Franklin Roosevelt. Within another month, he had submitted his resignation as Director. However, he had no intention to retire to a vine-covered cottage in the 

country; rather, he desired to return full-time to the laboratory that he had tried not to 

desert entirely during his tenure as Director. 

As we noted in the section on NBS histories, one of Briggs' first post-retirement 

projects was to write, at the request of Commerce Secretary Henry Wallace, a history 

of NBS activities during the Second World War. 

Briggs may be best known to the general public for his demonstration, more than 

10 years after his retirement, that a pitched baseball can be made to curve as much as one-third of a meter as it approaches home plate.29 Batters and catchers had long 

known for a fact that good pitchers could throw a curve with "at least a foot of break" 

to it, but Briggs proved it with scientific instruments, to the delight of baseball fans 

throughout the Nation. He also wrote two popular articles about the Bureau for the 

National Geographic Magazine; "Uncle Sam's House of 1,000 Wonders"3° and "How 

Old Is it?: Telltale Radioactivity in Every Living Thing Is Cracking the Riddle of 

Age."3' 

Edward Uhier Condon 

The fourth director of NBS (formally appointed on November 7, 1945) was Edward 

U. Condon, a brilliant physicist who had been in the thick of research on atomic 

physics and, subsequently, on various World War II projects. 

Condon was born, coincidentally, in Alamagordo, NM, site of the first atomic bomb 

test. He was educated at the University of California at Berkeley and in Germany, 

where he immersed himself in the new quantum physics. He later served on the 

physics faculty of Princeton University, collaborating with colleagues on several 

fundamental advances in the theory of atomic physics and, with George Shortley, 

writing a treatise on atomic spectra that quickly became a standard text on the subject. 

In 1937 Condon was hired as an associate director of research by Westinghouse 

Electric Corporation: while there, he organized a program of nuclear studies. Later, he 

helped create a Radiation Laboratory at MIT. In 1943, he became second-in-command 

to J. Robert Oppenheimer on the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos; his first-hand 

knowledge of the terrible power of the nuclear-fission atomic bomb led him thereafter 

to continually seek ways to prevent the use of nuclear energy for weapons of war. 

29 The scientific reference for this work is Lyman J. Briggs, "Effect of spin and speed on the lateral 

deflection (curve) of a baseball; and the Magnus effect for smooth spheres," Am. J. Phys. 27, 589 (1959). 

Briggs' demonstration was also reported in many U.S. newspapers, including the New York Times on March 

29, 1959, and in the magazine Newsweek (April 6, 1959). 

Lyman J. Briggs and F. Barrows Coulton, Uncle Sam s House of I ,000 Wonders, National Geographic 

100, No. 6, December 1951, pp. 755-784. 

" Lyman J. Bnggs and Kenneth F. Weaver, "How Old Is it?: Telltale Radioactivity in Every Living Thing 

Is Cracking the Riddle of Age," National Geographic August 1958, pp. 234-255. 

23 
Edward U. Condon, fourth Director of 

NBS. An accomplished theorist in 

physics, Condon was blunt, impatient, 

and inspiring. 

Energetic, a clear thinker and a prolific writer, Condon was thoroughly involved in the 

technical activities of the United States at the highest level. 

Condon was not the first choice of Lyman Briggs as his successor. That honor went 

to Hugh Dryden, a long-time Bureau colleague of Briggs and a distinguished scientist 

in his own right; Briggs sent Dryden's name to the NBS Visiting Committee for the 

consideration of Secretary of Commerce Henry Wallace. The committee was slow in 

transmitting Briggs' suggestion, however, and Wallace, interested in bringing new 

blood from outside the Bureau to the directorship, was captivated by Condon's obvious 

qualifications. President Harry Truman agreed with Wallace's choice, and so did the 

U.S. Senate. 

It surprised no one that Condon, once appointed to head NBS, decided that substantial changes in the organization of the Bureau were long overdue. Both the 

Congressional oversight committees and the senior staff of NBS, used to the gentle 

demeanor of Lyman Briggs, saw Condon as the proverbial "bull in the china shop." 

Under Condon's leadership the NBS administration—indeed much of the staffing— 

changed markedly. Many of its most senior leaders were of retirement age; many of 

its most capable technical members had been diverted to war projects, leaving the 

standards projects understaffed. Perhaps most noticeable of all to Condon, the Bureau 

organizational structure did not fully reflect the impact of the new science that had 

developed during the war years. These problems were seen simply as challenges by 

Condon; with energy and enthusiasm, and not always gently, he attacked them all. 

24 
Condon's intellect, his vigor, and his loyalty to America were highly respected by 

President Truman and by those members of Congress who knew him personally. 

However, his sometimes caustic repartee—particularly noticeable in the presence of 

slow or mediocre minds—almost certainly annoyed other members. In any case, 

Condon rather quickly ran afoul of a new phenomenon—the congressional witch-hunt 

for communists in the Government. Although the Soviets had been U.S. allies throughout World War II, their belligerence after the onset of the Cold War and the fear that 

they might wrest nuclear leadership from America through the efforts of spies and 

sympathizers terrified many leaders in and out of Congress. 

Condon, like many scientists who were personally able to understand the magnitude 

of the catastrophe that would accompany nuclear war, advocated disarmament and 

collaboration with the Soviets to minimize the likelihood of such a war. Because of 

this attitude, his loyalty to America became a subject of discussion on the floor of the 

U.S. House of Representatives. He became a prime target for the House Committee on Un-American Activities. Condon's travails during this period were portrayed in 

detail in Passaglia's history. Here we only note in passing that Condon found them 

distracting in the extreme as he managed the Bureau and attempted to represent its 

interests effectively before Congress. 

On August 10, 1951, as NBS marked its semicentennial with festivities and technical 

conferences, Condon announced his intention to resign his directorship. His active 

public and scientific lives were far from over, but he felt that he had become as much a liability to NBS as he was an asset. President Harry Truman had no reservations 

about the value of Condon's service; in a letter reluctantly accepting his resignation, 

Truman praised Condon's scientific standing, his loyalty, and his many accomplishments. 

Allen Varley Astin 

After Edward Condon resigned, effective September 30, 1951, Secretary of Commerce Charles Sawyer asked the National Academy of Sciences to provide the names 

of several possible successors to the NBS directorship. One of the people so identified 

was Allen V. Astin, an Associate Director of NBS who had been designated Acting 

Director after Condon's resignation. Sawyer submitted Astin's name to President 

Truman, who appointed Astin in May 1952; the Senate confirmed the appointment on June 12, 1952. 

Astin was then but 48 years old, although he had more than 20 years' service at the 

Bureau. His childhood in Utah had been marked by meager family circumstances that 

may have been responsible for his strong streak of self-discipline. He worked his 

way through the undergraduate physics curriculum at the University of Utah, won a scholarship to New York University, and completed M.S. and Ph.D. degrees there. He 

was awarded a postdoctoral fellowship at the Johns Hopkins University in 1928. 

Astin came to NBS directly from Hopkins in 1930. His post was that of a Research 

Associate on behalf of the Utilities Research Commission of the State of Illinois. 

Because of the depression, jobs were scarce; however, Astin's work was well received 

and the Bureau soon was able to hire him full-time to work on a Navy aircraft project. 

25 

was considerably enhanced by the quality of its war work and by the intense scrutiny it 

survived during the battery-testing ordeal, known as "the AD-X2 incident." 

Throughout the whole of his service as Director, Astin remained calm, steadfast in 

his defense of Bureau objectivity and procedures (which, during the AD-X2 incident, 

he personally reviewed in detail), and determined to maintain NBS as an effective 

scientific institution. 

The interested reader is urged to follow in Passaglia's history the stories of the shift 

of NBS attention from work on WW II projects and the intriguing tale of the AD-X2 

incident.32 

The post-War reorganization, requiring the divestiture of many of the NBS staff as various war projects were transferred bodily to other agencies, was a substantial 

administrative challenge and thus carries its own fascination. During 1953, Secretary of 

Commerce Sinclair Weeks transferred Bureau personnel working on the proximity fuze 

project to the Army Ordnance group, where the operation was renamed the Diamond 

Ordnance Fuze Laboratory. In the same year, the NBS guided missile division at 

Corona, CA, was transferred in toto to the Navy Department. During the next year the 

Institute for Numerical Analysis, located on the campus of the University of California 

at Los Angeles, was transferred to the university. Within the space of one year NBS 

lost 2000 of its 4800 employees.33 

The battery-testing controversy, which began in 1948, was replete with congressional 

hearings, newspaper headlines, and charges of Bureau bias against the "little guy." It 

had the makings of a literary thriller. Astin was relieved of his directorship at one point because of congressional pressure, for " . . . paying insufficient attention to the 

needs of the marketplace." Astin was reinstated only after public outcry from the NBS 

scientific staff and from many leaders of the U.S. scientific community. Despite its 

unblemished record of service to American technology and standards—so recently 

underscored by outstanding service on WW II military projects—the agency was bullied for many months by the Congress at the behest of one Jess Ritchie, an overly 

ambitious businessman who attacked the integrity of NBS testing procedures for the 

benefit of his company. 

Ritchie did not want to be told, as he had been many times by Bureau testing 

personnel, that his storage-battery additive, labelled AD-X2, was of no demonstrable 

value to a battery's working life.34 

32 Elio Passaglia, op. cit. Other material on this topic is contained in the following references: Elio Passaglia, 

"Science: Evidence, Truth and Integrity," NBS Special Publication 690, January 1985; "Battery AD-X2," 

Hearings before the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 83rd Congress, March 31, 

June 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26, 1953, U.S. GPO, 1953; Samuel A. Lawrence, The Battery Additive Controversy, 

Inter-University Case Program Series ICP No. 68, University of Alabama Press, 1962. 

See, for example, Elio Passaglia, Science: Evidence, Truth and Integrity, NBS Special Publication 690, 

January 1985, p. 23. 

The efficacy of a battery additive is difficult to prove because of the variety and sporadic nature of battery 

failure mechanisms. NBS test personnel therefore utilized a statistical approach to the testing of such 

additives. Ritchie much preferred an anecdotal test procedure, one battery at a time. 

27 
On June 22. 1953. Jess M. Ritchie 

demonstrated the battery additive ADX2 before the Senate Select Committee on Small Business. (AP/Wide 

World Photos). 

In order to force the Bureau to recommend his product, Ritchie organized a highpressure campaign through individual members of the Congress to call into question 

the Bureau's procedures and objectivity. Despite Ritchie's charges, the NBS testing 

was done with great care. Astin himself reviewed the battery-testing procedures and 

the statistical analyses of the results. The study was conducted strictly by the book. 

In early 1953 President Dwight Eisenhower appointed Sinclair Weeks as his new 

Secretary of Commerce. In turn, Weeks appointed Craig R. Scheaffer, a former 

president of the Scheaffer Pen Company, to the position of Assistant Secretary for 

Domestic Affairs. Supervision of NBS was among Scheaffer's duties. Neither Weeks nor Scheaffer was especially tolerant of governmental interference with business.35 In 

any case, Ritchie's campaign soon took hold. 

Weeks was very conscious of the "heavy burden" that government typically placed on the backs of businessmen; Scheaffer was more than willing to do his part to remove 

it. Scheaffer recommended that Astin be relieved of his post. Weeks, perhaps unaware 

of the apolitical heritage of Astin's position, agreed. Astin was called and 

asked to resign, which he did. 

Samuel A. Lawrence. "The Battery Additive Controversy," #68 in The Inter-University Case Program. 

(University. AL: University of Alabama Press, 1962). p. 8 ff. 

28 
Was that the end of the AD-X2 story? Not quite. There came another campaign, this one mounted by America's scientific establishment. It was enthusiastically abetted by a national press that was critical of what it perceived as a failure of backbone at the 

Department of Commerce. Leading scientists from several national scientific organizations insisted that the firing of Astin would cripple the ability of NBS to perform its 

mission—no longer would the Bureau staff be able to undertake testing duties free of 

political pressure. The senior staff of the Bureau also weighed in with demands for 

Astin's reinstatement. Hundreds of them threatened to resign if 

were to be accepted. This action would have seriously damaged the Bureau's ability to 

pursue its technical projects—many of them requested by other government agencies. 

Ultimately—following an agonizing peri&Iof meetings and hearings during which 

political gears were forced into reverse—Astin was again endorsed as NBS Director 

by Secretary Weeks. On September 18, 1953, Craig Scheaffer resigned his office. 

Gradually the AD-X2 matter receded from the public view. NBS emerged from the 

AD-X2 battle with flying colors and renewed vigor. The agency's methods and 

integrity had been examined publicly and found to be more sound than nearly anyone 

outside the organization had ever realized. 

Reinstated as Director, Astin continued in office for another decade and a half. His 

leadership—calm and quiet, but effective—was felt throughout NBS. Technical 

accuracy, absolute objectivity, and scientific merit remained the norm for Bureau 

projects. 

Having led the NBS for nearly 18 years, including some of the most trying times the 

agency had ever endured, Allen Astin made known in 1967 his intention to retire in 

1969, when he would reach the age of 65. He had served his government and his 

agency well. His personal involvement in research on proximity fuzes during World 

War II had contributed to the formation of the Harry Diamond Ordnance Fuze Laboratory. His devotion to high-quality technical work had helped to bring to NBS an 

outstanding staff, grounded in modern science, in nearly all technical areas. And he 

had led the Bureau through the stressful period of relocation of its major facilities to 

Boulder and Gaithersburg. 

Astin's personal, scientific, and leadership qualities were recognized by numerous 

awards. Of these awards, we list only a few. He was the 1947 recipient of His 

Majesty's Medal for Service in the Cause of Freedom, from England; the Office of the 

Legion of Honor, from France; the U.S. President's Certificate of Merit in 1948; in 

1952 the Department of Commerce Gold Medal Award for Exceptional Service; and 

the Rockefeller Public Service Award in 1963. He was elected to 'membership in the 

National Academy of Sciences in 1960. 

At age 65 Astin felt that he was entitled to take a break. No one questioned his 

decision. 

Astin had in mind as his successor a Bureau man who could be expected to raise 

still higher the level of NBS technical excellence: Lewis Branscomb, a bright, young, 

Harvard-trained atomic physicist and a proven administrator. However, between 

Astin's retirement announcement and the appointment of the next director there loomed 

the 1968 presidential election, already clouded by the unpopular Vietnam War and 

destined to be further darkened by ugly civil strife. The results of that election would 

have a definite impact on Branscomb's selection and tenure, as we shall see. 29 
THE STATE OF NBS IN 1968 

In 1968 the National Bureau of Standards occupied an enviable position in the 

firmament of Federal agencies. A heavyweight contributor to military research and 

development during two world wars, a highly respected authority on standards of 

measurement, renowned for the ability of its staff to solve tough scientific and technical problems, NBS was a sparkling asset to the national government. 

Let us glance inside this wonderful machine and see what kept it ticking so well 

when Cyrus Smith left his post as Secretary of Commerce and Lyndon Johnson left the 

Presidency of the United States. 

NBS Facilities 

The physical plant of NBS had never been in better shape than it was in 1968. New 

facilities in Boulder, Colorado, and in Gaithersburg, Maryland, many of them designed 

especially for complicated projects, provided the Bureau staff with seemingly endless 

technical capabilities. 

The Bureau had begun life in the Coast and Geodetic Survey building at New Jersey 

Avenue and B Street, in southeast Washington, DC. It was not an environment 

well-suited to breakthrough standards research; 14 people, including the night watchman, occupied the designated space in the modest building. Such a tiny agency could 

provide only minimal standards services to the Nation. 

One of the initial projects of its founding Director, Samuel Stratton, was to obtain 

larger and better facilities for the new agency. Stratton relieved the immediate space 

problem by acquiring two buildings standing near the Coast and Geodetic Survey 

offices. He also sought a larger, permanent home for the Bureau. In this endeavor he 

had the assistance of the first Visiting Committee. They quickly selected an 8-acre 

wooded site about 3 1/2 miles from the White House along Connecticut Avenue, at the 

end of Washington's trolley line.36 

This setting provided NBS with its main laboratories for more than 60 years. 

Periodic expansion of the duties and staff of the Bureau was accommodated by acquiring adjoining land for new laboratory construction; purchases in 1913, 1918, 1920, 

1925, 1930, and 1941 gradually increased the size of the Bureau site from its initial 

8 acres to just over 70 acres. Until the construction of a new site at Gaithersburg, 

however, there never was an administration building to house the Director, his staff, 

and the central service activities.37 

The Bureau occupied many small, special-purpose sites during its decades of 

These sites included both occasional and semi-permanent or permanent 

laboratory space acquired for a variety of purposes: 

See MFP, p 62. 

Robert S. Walleigh, "The Gaithersburg Site," in NBS/NIST: A Historical Perspective, NIST Special Publication 825, April 1992, p. 49. 

See MFP, App. J. 

30 
I. The study of structural materials occurred in: 

• Allentown, Pennsylvania. 

• Atlantic City. 

• Denver. 

• Kansas City. 

• Northampton, Massachusetts. 

• Pittsburgh. 

• Permanente, Riverside and San Jose, California. 

• Seattle. 

2. Railroad-car testing was done in Clearing, Illinois beginning in 1928, to serve the 

needs of the Nation's railroads.39 

"NBS Railroad Track Scale Project—What and Why," NBS Standard, Vol XV, No. 9, September. 1970, 

pp. 1, 3. In 1981, this program, involving two calibration personnel, two specially equipped railway track 

scale test cars, and a depot in Clearing, Illinois, was transferred to the Federal Grain Inpsection Service. 

31 

Aerial view of the Bureau of Standards campus in Washington, D.C., circa 1922. 
r 

In 1910. the Secretary of the Interior transferred the staff and equipment of the Geological Survey's 

structural materials laboratories to the Bureau of Standards. These included a Pittsburgh laboratory where 

cements for navy yard and dry dock construction, as well as clays, ceramics, lime, steel, and other structural 

materials were tested. This photograph of the Pittsburgh laboratory was taken in 1913. 

3. Radio field stations girdled the globe: • Anchorage and Point Barrow, Alaska. • Antarctica. 

• Kitt Peak Observatory in Arizona. 

• Australia. • Bolivia. 

• Brazil. • California. 

• Canada. • Canary Islands. 

• Canton Islands. 

• Chile. • Colombia. • Nearly 20 sites in Colorado. 

• Ecuador. 

• Greenland. 

32 
• Guam. • New Mexico. 

• Hawaii. • New Zealand. 

• Iceland. • Nigeria. 

• Illinois. • Okinawa. 

• India. • Oklahoma. 

• Japan. • Panama Canal Zone. 

• Kenya. .. Peru. 

• Malagasay. • Philippines. 

• Malaya. • South Africa. 

• Maryland. • Sweden. 

• Minnesota. • Puerto Rico. 

• Missouri. • Trinidad. 

• Morocco. • Virginia. 

• Nebraska. • West Indies. 

• New Jersey. • Wyoming. 

4. A lamp inspection station was established in Brookline, Massachusetts. 

5. The Institute for Numerical Analysis was created in Los Angeles. 

6. Electronics testing was performed in LaPlata, Maryland, and Tuckerton, 

New Jersey. 

7. Aircraft landing equipment was tested in Arcata, California. 

8. The Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics was established at the University 

of Colorado in Boulder. 

9. The Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information was placed 

in Springfield, VA. 

10. A laboratory for electronic research and development, including the development 

of guided missiles, was established in Corona, California. 

The so-called "field stations"—some small, some large—tended to come and go as the Bureau responded to its commitments. For many years, though, the sun did not set 

on the NBS "empire." 

By the time Edward Condon became its director in 1945, the Connecticut Avenue 

facilities had become overcrowded and seriously outdated or run-down. More than 100 

buildings dotted the site, some constructed for special projects during the First World 

War. Bureau personnel occupied space in a haphazard manner—the staff of one technical division was quartered in 17 different buildings.4° Personnel from the Public Buildings Administration, a Federal housekeeping agency, who were asked to evaluate the 

condition of NBS property during the mid-1950s, found many buildings that could 

only be described as decrepit. There were few records of the locations of the utilities 

for the various buildings—information that was essential to even attempt repairs for 

them. No funds had been provided for maintenance of the Connecticut Avenue site for 

years, and the buildings showed it. 

Robert S. Walleigh, "The Gaithersburg Site," p. 49 in NBSINIST: A Historical Perspective, NIST Special 

Publication 825, Karma A. Beal, editor, April 1992. 

33 
The NBS Visiting Committee had frequently made Congress aware that the work of 

the Bureau was hampered by the limitations of its main facility on Connecticut 

Avenue; Congress' own assessment in 1947 supported that claim. Congress responded 

to this case of clearly documented need with a decade of cogitation and study. 

Finally, in 1957, the Congress decided to permit the acquisition of a new principal 

location for the Bureau in Gaithersburg, Maryland. Strangely enough, by that time the 

ice had been broken by the creation of a major laboratory in Boulder, Colorado, as we shall see. 

Congress' decision to relocate the main Bureau facility was only partly motivated by 

the obvious crowding and decrepitude of many of the Connecticut Avenue buildings. 

Another consideration at that time was the desire to disperse vital governmental 

activities in case there should be a nuclear attack on Washington. A third motivation 

was the substantial need for special laboratories that couldn't be located "in town" 

because of space or technical requirements. 

A priority that influenced the selection of the new principal site was that of continuing to work on vital tasks during the course of a move. Although many specialized 

projects could not be undertaken at all in the old laboratories, many other activities 

were in progress despite the cramped quarters; some of those would suffer if the move 

entailed a long down-time. 

The Boulder Site 

Congress dithered over a move of the main NBS laboratory complex for a decade.4' 

However, not all of the Bureau's assigned tasks could wait that long. Radio science was one of these. As matters turned out, cryogenic engineering was another. 

The field of radio research included a whole set of projects that awaited a better 

environment. The area around the Connecticut Avenue site, no longer a quiet residential location, teemed with traffic, commerce, and the attendant vibration and electrical 

noise. Washington, DC, like any large city, was deluged by radio and other electromagnetic signals. High-power commercial stations broadcast their messages widely. 

Just as pervasive were radio communications networks run by police, air and ground 

transportation services, colleges, hospitals, and a multitude of other entities. Radio 

quiet and long sight-lines, essential for effective development of new standards for 

radio communication, no longer were available in the Nation's capital. 

The Central Radio Propagation Laboratory (CRPL), organized as a division of NBS 

in 1946 to consolidate and broaden the work of the wartime Interservice Radio 

Propagation Laboratory, was the focus of the arguments for a new site. The military 

Joint Chiefs of Staff had urged Commerce Secretary Henry Wallace in 1945 to 

establish within the Bureau a central source for the dissemination of information on Wilbert F. Snyder and Charles L. Bragaw, Achievenient in Radio: Seventy Years of Radio Science, Technology, Standards, and Measurement at the National Bureau of Standards Nati. Bur. Std. (U.S.) Special 

Publication 555, October 1986. The Boulder move is described in Ch XIX. The transfer of the Central Radio 

Propagation Laboratory to the Environmental Science Services Administration, later known as the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, is discussed in Ch. XX. 

34 
radio transmission and for conducting research on radio propagation. In turn, Wallace, 

early in 1946, asked the Director of NBS to create a Central Radio Propagation 

Laboratory. Edward Condon, then NBS Director, established the CRPL as Division 14 

of the Bureau as of May 1, 1946. The activities formerly conducted by the Radio 

Section of the Electricity Division were transferred to the new division. J. Howard 

Dellinger was named Chief of the CRPL; his deputy was Newbern Smith. 

At the first meeting of the Radio Propagation Executive Council—formed specifically to advise the CRPL staff on its programs—Dellinger noted the inadequacy of 

existing Connecticut Avenue facilities and described plans to erect a new building 

there. But these plans changed when the laboratory leaders realized in 1948 that they 

really needed a location with less interference and more open space, as well as access 

to a larger variety of terrain than could be found 

Once the decision was reached to seek a new location for radio work, three criteria 

for choosing it were developed. The new site had to be free, or nearly free, of 

electromagnetic interference for radio communications; it had to feature long lines of 

sight; and it must be near a good university-level electrical engineering department. 

Boulder, Colorado, Charlottesville, Virginia, and Palo Alto, California, seemed to be 

suitable choices. Boulder's location, with tall mountains on the west and flat plains on the east, offered the prospect of excellent sight lines; moreover, it was favored by 

Director Condon. The Boulder Chamber of Commerce clinched the choice with an 

offer of some 200 acres of land—purchased with money raised by public subscription—to be given to the Federal government for the site. 

Persuaded by the endorsement of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the gift of a site, 

Congress endorsed the relocation of NBS radio research to Boulder. 

As soon as the Boulder site was selected, planning for a new radio building began. 

The chosen design utilized reinforced concrete to produce a solid, long-lasting 

structure. A central spine was to be flanked by an auditorium and a library near the 

front, and by six perpendicular wings in the rear. The structure was to be set into the 

sloping land south of Boulder, with Green Mountain and the Flatiron rock formation 

behind it. 

Construction on the Boulder site began in 1951—but, surprisingly, not for the radio 

laboratories! 

Even before the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory mounted its crusade for a new environment—during the latter days of World War IT—the hydrogen bomb had 

entered the national picture, though only in the form of highly secret calculations and 

experiments. Later, in 1949, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) became 

aware that the U.S.S.R. weapons program had caught up in the international arms race by producing an "atomic" bomb—one utilizing the principle of a neutron-induced 

chain reaction to propagate nuclear fission throughout a mass composed mainly of 

Fearful of losing America's lead in munitions, the Defense Department and AEC 

leaders decided to mount a crash program to produce a still more powerful bomb, the 

"Super" thermonuclear weapon. 

35 
Aerial view of the National Bureau of Standards Boulder, Colorado laboratories and the nearby Rocky 

Mountains. 

Declassified reports indicate that the Superbomb concept originated in discussions 

between Enrico Fermi and Edward Teller during the development of the fission bomb 

that was used during the summer of 1945 to bring World War II to a close in the 

Pacific theater.42 Essentially, the idea behind the Superbomb was to use the enormous 

heat and pressure generated by a fission bomb to initiate nuclear fusion in hydrogen, 

unleashing potentially 1000 times the energy of a fission bomb. In fact, it appeared 

that the fusion of deuterium (2H) nuclei with other deuterium nuclei, or the fusion of 

tritium (3H) nuclei with deuterium nuclei, might provide even higher reaction rates 

than would the fusion of two ordinary (mass-i, hydrogen nuclei. A workable 

bomb, it was thought, might be assembled using large amounts of liquid hydrogen, 

liquid deuterium, or liquid tritium—a highly radioactive isotope—in conjunction with a fission-bomb 

42 F. 0. Brickwedde, E. F. Hammel. and W. E. Keller, History of Cryogenics in the USA," Chapter II in 

History and Origins of Cryogenics, R. Scurlock, ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992). 

36 
Thus it happened in 1950 that liquid hydrogen and expertise in cryogenics—both 

in large quantities—were wanted by the Atomic Energy Commission, and quickly. 

Seeking an appropriate laboratory where such Cold War weapons could be located, the 

AEC considered the new Boulder site chosen by NBS. Not only did the Bureau 

possess considerable experience in cryogenics, but the newly acquired location at once offered relative isolation from congested areas, yet relative proximity—only 400 

miles!—to the Los Alamos laboratory. 

The Bureau was well known to the AEC and highly respected for its "can do" spirit 

on many WW II projects. Furthermore, at its Connecticut Avenue site NBS housed a cadre of highly qualified low-temperature physicists and engineers including Ferdinand 

G. Brickwedde (Chief of the Heat and Power Division), Russell B. Scott (Chief of the 

Cryogenics Section), John R. Pellam, Emanuel Maxwell, and W.E. Gifford.43 In fact, 

Brickwedde's work at NBS on the properties of liquid hydrogen had led Harold C. 

Urey to collaborate with him in 1931-32 on work that established the very existence of 

deuterium as an isotope of 

The presence of Brickwedde, Scott, and their colleagues in the NBS low-temperature 

laboratory, plus the favorable location of the Boulder site, appeared to the AEC to be 

just the ticket for the creation of a large supply of liquid hydrogen within the confines 

of a versatile cryogenic engineering laboratory. The laboratory would be safely 

isolated, yet part of the NBS complex. The AEC suggested to Congress that a cryogenics laboratory should be established immediately at the NBS/Boulder site. The 

recommendation was quickly approved. 

Work on a monster hydrogen liquefier began immediately in the Washington 

cryogenics laboratory. Brickwedde assembled a team comprising himself, Scott, and 

Gifford from the NBS Cryogenics Section and he added Victor J. Johnson, a lowtemperature engineer from the Naval Research Laboratory, also located in Washington. 

Within one year's time the team had designed and built a hydrogen liquefier expected 

to produce 350 liquid liters per hour—lO times the capacity of the largest plant 

previously in use. It was because of this intense effort in cryogenics that, instead of an advance team 

from the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory, the first NBS staff to inhabit the 

Boulder location was a group of low-temperature experts—sometimes called 

"cryogenists"45 but, more often, "cryogenicists"—under the direction of Russell Scott. 

The group included Gifford, Johnson, Dudley Chelton, Bascom Birmingham, Robert B. 

Jacobs, Peter C. Van der Arend, Richard Kropschot, and Robert L. Powell. 

The hydrogen liquefier occupied a large building—about 1,300 square meters 

(14,000 square feet) in floor area—whose principal external distinguishing feature was a set of large ventilators that helped to change the air in the entire building every 

See Brickwedde, Hammel, and Keller, op. cit. 

This work helped Urey to earn the 1934 Nobel Prize in chemistry. A concise but readable account of the 

work can be found in Daniel J. Kevles, "The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern 

America" (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971) pp. 225-226. 

'° From the Greek "cryo" and "—geny," the creation of low temperatures. 

37 
Victor J. Johnson in front of a bank of air-operated selector valves connecting hydrogen compressors to hydrogen liquefying systems in the Boulder Cryogenic Engineering Laboratory. 

two minutes, a very desirable safety feature. As part of the hydrogen-liquefier project, a second liquefier capable of producing 450 liters of liquid nitrogen per hour was also 

built. The liquid nitrogen was used to pre-cool gaseous hydrogen prior to its liquefaction. The whole plant was heavily instrumented to provide information for eventual 

optimization of the liquefaction 

The hydrogen liquefier was the first installation in an extensive cryogenics laboratory that gradually took shape at the NBS/Boulder site.47 Besides the liquefier 

building, the cryogenics complex included an even larger—I ,860 square meters—main 

laboratory building and a half-dozen smaller, special-purpose buildings. 

The rapidly expanding cryogenics group initiated engineering studies of fundamental 

phenomena such as the exothermic ortho-para conversion process in hydrogen, 

augmented by a multitude of projects on the production, handling, transport, and 

instrumentation of cryogenic fluids and solids. 

Russell B. Scott, Cryogenic Engineering (Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1959). 

Snyder and Bragaw, Achievement in Radio, p 720; Robert A. Kamper, "History of the Boulder Laboratories," p. 43 in NBS/NJST: A Historical Perspective, Karma A. Beal, editor, NIST Special Publication 825 

(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992). 

38 
We shall have much more to say about low-temperature science at Boulder as our 

history continues. However, we should note here that, with the success of the 1951 

"George" experiment in the AEC's "Greenhouse" thermonuclear-fusion test series, the 

principle of thermonuclear ignition was proved. With the "Mike" shot at Eniwetok at 

the end of 1952, the great explosive force of the "Super"—the equivalent of about 

10 megatons of TNT, dwarfing the kiloton yields of fission bombs—was demonstrated. 

The thermonuclear project involved very substantial advances in cryogenic engineering—not just at NBS but by a whole consortium of laboratories. However, the cryogenics staff of the Bureau played a vital part in proving that America could harness the 

energy of the stars through the use of isotopes of hydrogen in liquid form. 

Construction of the main radio laboratory building began in 1952. On September 14, 

1954, President Eisenhower led a distinguished group to Colorado to dedicate the new 

Boulder NBS laboratories. 

The detailed history by Snyder and Bragaw provides evidence aplenty of the mushrooming demand for radio services that accompanied the opening of the new laboratories. As just one example, the Air Force asked for a whole group of new calibration 

and advisory services in radio while the Boulder expansion was still under study. 

Planners estimated that an additional facility costing $5 million should be added to the 

projected building expenditures just to satisfy the new Air Force needs. 

39 

Administration Building for the National Bureau of Standards Boulder. Colorado laboratories. 
By 1968, the Boulder complex included the large Radio building, a Cryogenics 

building, a hydrogen-liquefier building, a plasma-physics building, and about a dozen 

other structures. In addition to these facilities on the main site south of town, Bureau 

scientists assigned to the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics shared with their 

University of Colorado colleagues a new building on the CU campus. It was completed 

only in 1966 with funds from the National Science Foundation and the university. 

Appendix D includes a map of the NBS/Boulder site. 

The Gaithersburg Site 

The move of the main laboratories of NBS away from its outgrown home on Connecticut Avenue was eased considerably by the success of the Boulder enterprise. 

There was no question that a move to new and substantially larger quarters was necessary if the Bureau was to continue to meet its responsibilities to the nation's 

technical enterprise. The only cause for concern appeared to lie with the potential 

disruption of ongoing projects that might accompany a move. The Visiting Committee 

advocated retention of the Connecticut Avenue campus as late as 1957, at the same 

time citing the pressing need for immediate relief for certain projects from the 

conditions existing at the old site. 

Finally fully aware that NBS—a valuable national resource—could hardly prosper in 

the cramped, outmoded Connecticut Avenue site, Congress in 1956 decided to 

permit the main laboratories to take the same step taken earlier on behalf of radio 

science and cryogenics; an entirely new campus. 

At once, defining questions needed answering: Where should NBS relocate? How 

much money would relocation cost? How should the Bureau plan the new facilities? 

Could a move take place without interrupting or destroying the continuity of the 

Nation's physical standards? 

Responsibility for overall planning of the move was given to Robert Walleigh, NBS 

Associate Director for Administration, an engineer by training and a Bureau employee 

since 1943. Walleigh went to work immediately on the 

Where should NBS relocate? At least 20 miles from the White House, according to 

the criterion of dispersing government facilities to reduce the potential for damage by 

nuclear attack. Not much farther than 20 miles, by the practical criterion that unbearable staff attrition might accompany a move to a distant place. Of some 100 sites 

recommended for study by a task group composed of NBS personnel and members of 

the Public Buildings Service (a division of the General Services Administration), a 550-acre expanse of farmland near Gaithersburg, Maryland, was chosen by Director 

Astin with the advice of Walleigh and other planners. 

Relocation to nearby Maryland—a short automobile ride from the Van Ness site— 

mitigated the fear of interrupting Bureau services during the move. The staff simply 

could—and did—carry certain critical instruments in their own vehicles to minimize 

downtime and the likelihood of damage. 

Robert S. Walleigh, "The Gaithersburg Site." in NBS/NIST: A Historical Perspective, NIST Special 

Publication 825, April 1992, PP. 49-55. See also the NBS Annual Report for 1966, Miscellaneous Publication 283, April 1967; and the NBS Technical News Bulletin for November 1966. 

40 
On October 24, 1961, a red oak was planted at the new, as yet undeveloped Gaithersburg. Maryland site in 

honor of Director Emeritus Lyman J. Briggs. Briggs shoveled the first dirt on the tree while William R. 

Stevenson held it in place and Director Allen V. Astin stood by. 

How much money would relocation cost? Asked this question on short notice by 

Congress, the NBS management consulted the General Services Administration. GSA 

personnel performed a quick estimate of the cost of constructing a single building with no special facilities and came up with the number $40 million, lower than the eventual 

cost by nearly a factor of four. The unrealistic GSA estimate would haunt NBS management for years to come. How should the Bureau plan the new laboratory facilities? An architectural firm with 

experience in designing laboratory space for the Bell Telephone Laboratories, for the 

E.I. DuPont de Nemours Co., and for the Ford Motor Co. was engaged. An NBS 

Gaithersburg Planning Committee was selected to work with the architects and the 

technical staff. A laboratory planning committee composed of senior, active Bureau 

staff members began thinking about the optimum design of new laboratory space. A 

wide range of possibilities—from specially designed laboratories in a single building to a group of buildings containing simple, cinder-block rooms to permit maximum flexiblity—was considered by the planners. Ultimately, a combination of connected generalpurpose laboratory buildings, plus separate special-purpose structures, was chosen. Use 

of cinder-block construction, however, was not approved for the buildings. 

41 
Floor plan of general-purpose laboratories at the National Bureau of Standards in Gaithersburg, Maryland. 

Experimental spaces were located in the central portions of the buildings, offices along the exterior walls. 

Minimizing the effects of electromagnetic interference, a constant problem at the 

Van Ness site, was tackled by Clarence J. Saunders. Saunders, a Bureau veteran of 

many years' standing, assisted Walleigh in planning the electrical grounding and 

shielding systems. 49 

Further emphasis on the importance of better facilities for NBS, had any been 

needed, came from outer space! When the Soviets launched Sputnik I on October 4, 

1957, they inadvertently intensified the desire of the U.S. Congress to improve 

America's technological capabilities. Suddenly, science became a more important 

national enterprise than it had been before the little beeper orbited the earth. 50 

Planning of the new laboratories was thorough. Each project leader was permitted to 

suggest modifications to a standard modular design used in the general-purpose 

laboratories so that the space could meet special requirements. Special buildings were 

planned to house one-of-a-kind activities; Walleigh was adamant that no poorly 

constructed or temporary buildings should be allowed on the site. 

Construction of the facilities comprising the Gaithersburg complex began in 1961. 

Appendix D provides information on the progress of construction through 1990. 

Although most of the construction was completed within 7 years, a new major laboratory building was under construction even as this history was written. Most of the 

structures shown on the accompanying map were built during the initial construction 

period. 

The overall plan for the Gaithersburg complex called for a central electrical power 

station and a central air-cooling facility. Both services would be available for all 

49 "The importance of electromagnetic compatibility at NBS," NBS Standard, Vol XV, No. 3, March 1970, 

pp. 1,4. 

50 See, for example, pp. 421-423 in Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, 

House of Representatives, 85th Congress, Second Session USGPO (1958). 

42 
buildings via underground supply lines. Laboratory buildings would be furnished with 

cooled, dried air which would be heated in each building as needed.5' 

The first of the laboratory buildings to be built on the Gaithersburg site was the 

Engineering Mechanics building. It would house calibration equipment for load cells, 

force measurements, proving rings, creep measurements, machines, and 

dynamic materials testing. The needs of NASA and the Department of Defense for 

calibrations of high-thrust rockets were critical, so construction—at the intersection of 

Center Drive and South Drive—was begun as soon as possible in 1961. The building 

took two years to complete. The pressing need for large-force calibrations led the staff 

to begin work several months prior to completion. 

Construction of the Radiation Physics building was started during 1962. At the same time, the Supply and Plant and the Instrument Shop service buildings were begun. The 

following year, a Nuclear Reactor facility was begun near the Radiation Physics building. When occupied in 1964 and 1965, respectively, these two laboratories provided 

51 This plan worked well. The only hitch developed because typical general-purpose laboratory electronic 

equipment, expected to consist largely of hot vacuum tubes, instead incorporated relatively cool electrical 

transistors, thus placing unexpectedly large demands on the laboratory re-heat systems. 

43 

The National Bureau of Standards Engineering Mechanics Building in Gaithersburg. Maryland. It was built to house a one-million-pound dead-weight tester. 
the core of a Center for Radiation Research. The capabilities that were thus created 

soon placed NBS in the forefront of research and standards in these areas. The 

Radiation Physics structure incorporated an electron linear accelerator and a number 

of other radiation-producing machines and sources to support a wide range of 

research and standards capabilities. The NBS research reactor—since upgraded from 

10 megawatts to 20 megawatts—quickly became a national resource, with programs of 

dosimetry, activation analysis, isotope production, and fundamental studies involving 

cold neutron fluxes and materials analyzers. 52 Visitors to the new Bureau facility in Gaithersburg usually first saw the Administration Building as they approached the site; eleven stories high, it towered over all the 

other buildings. Most administrative functions of the Bureau were located there. 

Integral with it were two auditoriums, the main library, the central computer, a large 

cafeteria, sundry lecture rooms and other smaller facilities including a bank, a barber 

shop, and a gift shop. Construction of the administration-building complex was begun 

in 1962; it was first occupied in 1965. 

A tree, reputed to be a direct descendant of the legendary apple tree that prompted 

Sir Isaac Newton to propose his law of universal gravitation, was planted in the library 

courtyard at the Gaithersburg site. The NBS Administration Building appears on the 

right-hand side of the photo. 

52Reactor Radiation Division: Annual Progress Report. NBS Technical Notes 567 (1970), 714 (1971), 758 

(1972),813(1973),860(1974),896(1975),939(1976),969(1977),995(1978). 1117(1979), 1142(1980), 1160 

(1981). 1178 (1982), 1190 (1983), 1207 (1984), 1217 (1985), 1231 (1986), and 1257 (1988). 

44 
Seven general-purpose laboratory buildings—some of them built with three stories 

above ground and one below, others without basement space—were connected to the 

Administration Building by a central hallway two stories high. These buildings were named for scientific and technical disciplines involved in Bureau work—Metrology, 

Physics, Chemistry, Materials, Polymers, Technology (initially known as Instrumentation) and Building Research. Each of these except the one devoted to Building 

Research was constructed with peripheral offices separated by corridors from central 

laboratory spaces. This design eased considerably the problem of stabilizing laboratory 

temperatures, since sunlight—with its variable heating rate—was excluded from the 

laboratory space. 

The Building Research laboratory was constructed with a view to testing structures on a large scale. Sections of bridges, piers, walls, and other structural components 

could be subjected to mechanical or thermal stresses in a variety of modes—indeed, one project featured a test of the efficiency of the thermal insulation in an entire modular home. 

Construction of all the general-purpose laboratories was begun in 1963, and all were occupied by the end of 1966. 

A pair of small, special-purpose buildings devoted to the study of low-level 

magnetism were built behind the Nuclear Reactor building. Construction was begun in 

1964, and they were first occupied in February 1968. These buildings had the interesting distinction of having been constructed without the use of ferromagnetic materials— 

no steel nails, no iron reinforcing rods, no steel conduit for electrical wires. 

The Sound building, dedicated to the study of acoustic phenomena, featured a large 

anechoic chamber and a reverberation chamber as well. It was begun in 1965 and 

occupied early in 1968. It was located between West Drive and Gate C. 

During 1966, construction of the Hazardous Materials building, the Concreting 

Materials building, and the Industrial building was begun. Like the Sound building, 

these were good examples of separate, special-purpose buildings on the Gaithersburg 

site built to accommodate specific technical projects. One of these projects was a study 

of the properties of a mixture of liquid sodium and potassium, used as the primary 

coolant for certain nuclear reactors because of the low neutron-capture cross-sections 

of these two elements. This mixture was extremely dangerous to handle; it could 

combine explosively with several ordinary materials. The Hazardous Materials building was built to isolate such projects. The building was placed on the southern edge of 

the grounds, well away from the general-purpose laboratories. It was first occupied 

during 1968. The Concreting Materials building took two years to complete; its service 

life also began during 1968. The Industrial building, containing special equipment for 

the study of paper making and textiles, also was completed and occupied during 

1968. 

The Fluid Mechanics building was built across South Drive from the Engineering 

Mechanics building. Begun in 1967, it was completed and occupied two years later. 

Specialized studies of the flow characteristics of a variety of fluids could be accomplished on a routine basis in this building. 

45 
Although the Bureau's fire-studies program was among its oldest endeavors, work on a Fire Research building was begun only in October, 1973, in response to a national 

outcry for more effort in fire prevention. The Fire Research building was occupied in 

April 1974 and dedicated on June 25, 1974. However, it was regarded as complete 

only during October, 1975. Like the Hazardous Materials building, it was placed 

somewhat away from the general-purpose laboratories for added safety. In the Fire 

Research laboratories, entire rooms full of furniture could be heavily instrumented and 

then burned in order to observe the nature, progress, and noxious products of fires 

typical of all types of residential and commercial buildings. 

An unusual circumstance permitted interesting studies of the cost savings that could 

be realized by retrofitting an ordinary home with modern thermal insulation. The 

Bowman House, an existing rural residence which NBS had more or less inadvertently 

purchased along with the rest of the new grounds, was used for the insulation study by 

the Building Research Division. The useful life of the building was extended in a 

uniquely satisfying manner when it was given over to an on-site child-care program 

after completion of the thermal study. 

As each building was completed, the occupying groups measured the new space 

against plans they had prepared prior to the construction. In fact, many—if not all— 

had designated one or more staff members to monitor the progress of the construction. 

These people planned and tracked the placement of group property in the new space, 

with special emphasis on the well-being of experimental apparatus. Nearly everyone 

moving into the new quarters felt that metrology and science at the Bureau were about 

to move up a notch. 

Although many buildings were constructed on the Gaithersburg site, its large area 

still provided a park-like setting. The extensive grounds had been requested by the 

Bureau planners to provide a buffer against the electrical and mechanical disturbances 

that plagued the old site. Together with an absence of heavy industry near the site, 

achieved through an agreement with the Montgomery County government, the 

encircling open space proved effective in forestalling the encroachment of both types 

of interference as the nature of the surrounding area changed from rural to urban. The 

use of steel in the construction of the walls of most of the buildings played a role as well in shielding sensitive experiments against electromagnetic interference. 

From the beginning of the Bureau's occupation of the Gaithersburg site, a small 

herd of deer (originally approximately five in number) inhabited the area inside the 

boundary fence. The protection of the fenced Bureau grounds these few 

animals to increase steadily to a very noticeable herd of several hundred. The deer lent a sylvan beauty to the site, but the price of that beauty was the ravaging of many 

decorative plants that contributed to its extensive landscaping.53 Canada geese, too, 

proved a mixed blessing. Attracted by the large expanse of grass and two ponds 

placed on the grounds as emergency water sources,54 they inhabited the grounds on a Among the plantings on the Gaithersburg site were nearly all of the azaleas from the Van Ness NBS grounds. 

These plants were quickly destroyed by the deer. 

Robert S. Walleigh, personal recollection. 

46 
Aerial view taken in 1966 of the new National Bureau of Standards laboratory complex in Gaithersburg, 

Maryland. 

year-round basis. Like the deer, they found NBS a hospitable landlord. It was not 

unusual to see a nesting goose outside a window that featured predictions of hatching 

dates and other information on a placard. Unfortunately, the unrestricted goose 

population made for messy sidewalks and roadways. 

The official dedication of the Gaithersburg laboratories took place in November 

1966, after about 90 percent of the staff had moved to the new site. Left behind were 

several groups, including the Fluid Meters, Hydraulics, and Aerodynamics Sections— 

the last to move to the Gaithersburg site, in 1969—and the Office of Vehicle 

Safety, which remained in the old Industrial Building until it was transferred to the 

Department of Transportation in 1972. 

47 
A Symposium on Technology and World Trade was one of the events that took place 

during the dedication of the NBS Gaithersburg laboratories in November 1966. Vice 

l'resident Hubert Humphrey addressed symposium attendees at a banquet held at the 

Department of State. Seated to the left of the dais was Professor Marshall McLuhan of 

the University of Toronto, well-known for his explorations of the relationship between 

technology and culture. 

Organization and Staffing 

In 1968, as Allen Astin prepared to hand over the directorship of NBS to his successor, he supervised a staff of over 3000 full-time employees, divided among the many 

scientific disciplines of the Bureau—in physics, chemistry, materials, mathematics, and 

engineering. The staff also included administrators, technicians, and clerical workers as well as other support personnel such as firefighters, police, a medical unit, and 

buildings-and-grounds workers. The most noticeable change in the composition of the 

Bureau staff during the previous 15 years had been the growth in the number of 

administrators, arising from increasing demands for planning and documentation. 

The reader should recall that nearly all the staff and projects devoted more or less 

entirely to military work during World War II had been transferred as whole units to 

defense organizations by 1954, substantially reducing the size of the Bureau population 

froni its previous high of nearly 4800. A further reduction occurred in 1965, when 

the entire Central Radio Propagation Laboratory—approximately 650 people—and a group of 15 staff members from the Sound Section were transferred from NBS to the 

48 
Medical staff serving the Bureau Gaithersburg site during the mid-l960s. Chief of the staff was physician 

George H. L. Dillard. 

Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA) in order to bring the Nation's 

predominantly environmental programs into a single agency. Renamed the Institute for 

Telecommunication Sciences and Aeronomy, the old CRPL joined the Weather Bureau 

and the Coast and Geodetic Survey to form ESSA. The CRPL staff continued to occupy their previous quarters until 1967, becoming temporary tenants of the Bureau. 

Thus departed from NBS the group that, more than any other, had precipitated the 

acquisition of its Boulder site. 

A chart showing the numbers of people employed by the Bureau during its first 90 

years of existence is presented in Appendix E. The influence of war work as well as other events that affected the level of NBS staffing show clearly in this graph. 

The reassignment of so many staff members during the post-WWII period—nearly 

40 percent of the Bureau's permanent force—was not seen by NBS management as a blow to its influence or importance. Instead there was a sense of refocusing of the 

efforts of the agency on its central mission of providing measurement standards and 

scientific and technical support for the needs of the Nation—leaner and cleaner, so to 

49 
speak. Many projects remaining at NBS were related to the mission of the Defense 

Department and its contractors, but these now mainly took the form of solving 

scientific, technical, or metrological problems, not primarily the development of 

weapons hardware. 

The pared-down (and partially rebuilt) permanent staff of NBS as of June 30, 1968, 

numbered 3,519, of which about one-third held academic degrees (509 physicists, 279 

chemists, 261 engineers, 56 mathematicians, and 133 in assorted other disciplines). 

One-sixth of the permanent staff were located in the Boulder laboratories.55 

Major Organizational Units 

A hierarchy of three "institutes" was created by Allen Astin in 1964 in order to 

reduce the number of technical organizations reporting to the Director. Seventeen 

division chiefs had reported directly to Astin, but by 1968 the entire Bureau staff was 

represented by only five major organizational units. 

The Institute for Basic Standards, placed under the leadership of Ernest Ambler, 

incorporated most of the old-line standards and calibration divisions in Gaithersburg, as well as all of the staff at the Boulder site. 

The Institute for Materials Research, with John D. Hoffman as director, was 

composed of five materials-oriented divisions and the Office of Standard Reference 

Materials. 

The Institute for Applied Technology, directed by Lawrence M. Kushner, comprised 

some 16 divisions whose activities ranged from computer science to engineering 

standards. 

In 1968, the four NBS divisions concerned with the theory and application of 

ionizing radiation were formed into a Center for Radiation Research, with Carl 0. 

Muehlhause as Acting Director. By 1971, the Center had been incorporated into the 

Institute for Basic Standards. 

The Office of the Associate Director for Administration was supervised by Robert S. 

Walleigh. This group provided accounting, personnel, supply and other Bureau-wide 

services to the staff. 

Nearly all of the permanent Bureau staff—and most of the part-timers—worked in 

one or another of these five major units. 

The institute and center directors were "...responsible for the development and 

direction of research programs and central national services essential to the fulfillment 

of a broad segment of the Bureau's mission."56 They also provided general supervision 

to the division chiefs, as well as guidance on overall space and financial matters. 

Although final Bureau management authority resided in the five units identified above, 

the division management level still provided the backbone of the Bureau's scientific 

n 1968 Technical Highlights of the National Bureau of Standards: Annual Report, Fiscal Year 1968, NatI. Bur. 

Stand. (U.S.) Special Publication 308, November 1968. 

1964 Technical Highlights of the National Bureau of Standards: Annual Report, Fiscal Year 1964, NatI. Bur. 

Stand. (U.S.) Miscellaneous Publication 264, December 1964. 

50 
and technical effort. Day-to-day direction of the staff, equipment and space needs of 

individual scientists, and the first level of personnel evaluation and counseling took 

place within the divisions. 

"Matrix Management" Comes to the Bureau 

Since 1904 the Bureau had utilized the principles of sharing project responsibility 

among its technical units. A major fire that year in Baltimore, followed by a smaller 

one on the grounds of NBS itself, showed an abysmal lack of standardization in the 

firefighting apparatus of the Nation.57 Called upon to improve the situation, staff 

members throughout the Bureau contributed to the design of standard hose connectors 

and other equipment items and to the education of firefighters regarding their use. Because of the continuing national need for fire research, the fire program of the 

Bureau continued to flourish to the present day. 

With the creation of programs in Standard Reference Data and Standard Reference 

Materials in the mid-1960s, cooperation across the boundaries of technical division 

lines became more formalized, leading to a new type of management. In both the SRD 

and the SRM programs, the managers directly supervised small staffs to "market the 

product"—standard data and standard samples, respectively. The actual generation of 

the "product" was mostly in the hands of scientists located elsewhere in the NBS 

organization or, occasionally, outside NBS altogether. Encouragement (and frequently, 

money) provided the incentive that caused the desired work to be accomplished. 

The inauguration of an administration-wide initiative on Program Planning and 

Budgeting during Lyndon Johnson's presidency provided a surge of effort throughout 

the Federal government to understand and apply the idea of program-based management interlocking with a discipline-based staff. 

The system whereby a given employee might owe allegiance to, say, the Analytical 

Chemistry Division and simultaneously participate as a member of a Standard 

Reference Data project came to be known as "matrix management." In one form or 

another it was in use for decades; during the I 960s and I 970s use of the name became 

more 

To the analytical minds of NBS managers, the name matrix management was 

well-chosen because of its similarity to the mathematical matrix, which is composed of 

rows and columns. Individual rows of the management matrix, for example, might 

each denote a technical division within NBS and individual columns might define 

program responsibilities for particular members of that division. A given column could 

be identified, say, as the Office of Standard Reference Data; a checkmark at the 

intersection of the OSRD column and a particular division's row would indicate that one or more of the division staff contributed to the work of the OSRD, either "for 

free" or as a grantee. Such a matrix management diagram was useful mainly as a tracking device, showing the reach of particular programs across Bureau disciplinary 

lines. 

MFP, p. 82. 

"See, for example, Kenneth Knight, editor, Matrix Management (New York: PBI-Petrocelli Books, 1977). 

51 
In most cases, the "program" or "office" involved in matrix management included no laboratory space, but only a responsibility to produce certain results on behalf of an outside organization or a congressional mandate. Sometimes "program" results were 

simply accounts of work done in pursuit of a division goal that happily fit into the 

program's objective. In other cases, the program manager, by the judicious insertion of 

money into one or more of the laboratory units, could focus a division's technical 

work on a desired program objective. This type of administrative work demanded a nice mix of technical ability and administrative cooperation.59 

The Standard Reference Data program, under Edward Brady, and the Standard 

Reference Materials program, under W. Wayne Meinke, were two of the major 

managed programs at NBS in 1968. Many other such programs followed, as we shall see. The matrix management system, whenever it involved funds from other government 

agencies or from organizations outside the government, could provide needed financial 

support beyond that available directly from the NBS congressional appropriation, and 

ipso facto could show the relevance of Bureau work to the collaborating organization. 

Both of these characteristics were good, but the level of such funding often was 

subject to change without notice, which was bad. Bureau managers were often hardpressed to avoid staff disruption resulting from rapidly varying funding levels. 

Equal Employment Opportunity 

From earliest times, employment at NBS was not governed by distinctions based 

upon race, gender, or other incidentals. The natural tendency of Bureau technical 

managers was to hire the best person available for a given position so as to produce 

the best possible results. The unintended result of this tendency was to perpetuate the 

status quo. In 1964, passage of the Civil Rights Act, which mandated the formation of an Equal Employment Opportunity structure, impacted Bureau hiring policies as it did 

in nearly all Federal agencies. 

The first formal steps toward an EEO structure were taken in 1965 by Director 

Allen Astin, with a plan for a two-person NBS Equal Employment Office and specific 

attention to the hiring, training, and promotion of minorities.60 In 1968 Astin ordered 

the formation, within the Personnel Division, of an advisory committee to review 

progress in hiring minorities.61 The committee, consisting of Donald C. Fletcher, 

Karl E. Bell, and Robert F. Bain, was to receive any complaints of incidents of 

discrimination occurring on the Bureau grounds. 

H. Steffen Peiser recalls a suggestion by In C. Schoonover, then Deputy Director of NBS, that the sole 

function of program managers be the awarding of funds, with no project management to be exercised. 

Memorandum to Secretary of Commerce John T. Connor from A.V. Astin, "NBS plan for expanding equal 

employment opportunities," December 15, 1965. (NIST RHA, Director's Office, Box 381, Folder Nov. I— Dcc. 31, 1965.) 

Memorandum from Director Astin to NBS Deputy Director; Associate Director for Administration; Institute Directors; Director, Center for Radiation Research; and Division Chiefs, "Reaffirmation of Equal 

Employment Opportunity Policy and Practices," May 16, 1968. (NIST RHA, Director's Office, Box 386, 

Folder Chrono File May I—June 30 1968.) 

52 
In that same year, Astin and his peer at the National Institutes of Health, James A. 

Shannon, advised the Montgomery County, Maryland, County Council of their desire 

to see a positive stance on equal access to county housing. The Council quickly re- sponded by enacting a Public Accommodations Ordinance forbidding discrimination in 

housing and public places. A Montgomery County Commission on Human Relations 

was created to deal with complaints of discrimination in the community.62 

One of Astin's last acts as Director was to refine the Bureau's EEO system. The 

EEO Committee was expanded to nine members selected from divisions throughout 

NBS: Harvey E. McCoy, Nina Knight, and Charles W. Anderson (Administrative Services Division); Avery T. Horton (Inorganic Materials Division); Donald G. Fletcher 

(Product Evaluation Division); Jon T. Hougen (Atomic Physics Division); Elizabeth L. 

Tate (Library Division); Karl E. Bell (Personnel Division); and Joyce J. Grimes (Physical Chemistry Division). 

At the same time, an Affirmative Action Plan was developed for the Bureau. This 

plan identified recruitmeht, training, publicity, and incentive awards as areas where 

NBS could improve its utilization of minority employees. In addition to the committee 

and the plan, a new Civil Service program for the resolution of grievances was adopted 

by the Bureau.63 

Avery Horton, named Chairman of the EEO Committee, took his committee responsibilities seriously. A chemist with an active interest in the properties of he 

nevertheless spent considerable time in an effort to ensure fair treatment for minorities, 

both in the Bureau and in the community. At one point, distressed by the refusal of a local barber to cut his hair, Horton filed and won a discrimination lawsuit against him. 

This suit helped to end the segregation of commercial public facilities in Montgomery 

County.65 

Part-Time Employees, Guest Workers and Visitors 

In addition to the full-time staff members at NBS in 1968, there were 353 part-time, 

Youth Opportunity Corps, intermittent, and temporary workers. In addition, 

147 research associates and guest workers, including many from foreign countries, 

were part of the Bureau staff. The research associates represented 31 different organizations—trade associations and individual firms—whose activities involved measurements and standards at a level where they needed to have one or more people working 

at NBS. 

62 Memorandum to All Employees from A. V. Astin, "Equal Opportunity," July 12, 1968 (NIST RHA), 

Director's Office, Box 386, Folder Chrono File 7-1-68—8-31-68. 

"i "NBS Moves to Insure Equal Opportunity For All Employees," NBS Standard, June 1969, p I. 

See, for example, R. Brooks, A. T. Horton, and J. L. Torgesen, "Occlusion of mother liquor in solutiongrowth crystals," J. Crystal Growth 2, pp. 279-283 (1968). 65 Karl E. Bell recollects that Horton and the barber eventually became friendly to the extent that Horton, an amateur cabinetmaker, refurbished the man's barbershop. 

For a personal insight into the summer-student program, see "NBS Summer Programs," NBS Standard, 

Vol XV, No. 9, September, 1970, pp. 7-8. 

53 
The Bureau had actively welcomed visits from foreign scientists and engineers for 

many years. Most of these visitors came from other national standards laboratories or 

from international agencies with strong interests in standards, such as the International 

Bureau of Weights and Measures, the United Nations, the North Atlantic Treaty 

Organization, the International Atomic Energy Agency, and the International Standards 

Organization. Visitors from countries whose standards programs were still developing 

often came with the dual objectives of studying the NBS organization and management 

techniques and of participating in scientific projects; among other countries, Mexico, 

Iran, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, and Taiwan sent this type of visitor. Visitors 

from countries with advanced efforts in metrology usually came as full partners in 

continuing research programs. During 1968 some 700 foreign scientists visited NBS; 

24 other foreign scientists representing 16 different countries had guest status.67 

Post-Doctoral Research Associates 

Included in the full-time-permanent category in 1968 were 42 postdoctoral research 

associates assigned to the Bureau through a joint program of the National Research 

Council, the National Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Engineering. In part, the selection process included approval by the potential mentor of a plan 

for a scientific or engineering project to be accomplished at NBS. Each of the successful candidates received an opportunity to work at NBS with a world leader in metrological science. But the Bureau received enormous benefits as well; the influx of 

vigorous young scientists, trained in up-to-the-minute scientific methods in the 

Nation's best graduate schools, brought a flood of new ideas and techniques that 

permeated the NBS laboratories. The program was important, too, because it provided an opportunity for NBS managers to appraise in detail the quality of potential. future 

staff 

In the following paragraphs, we list the names of the 1968 postdoctoral associates, 

officially called "NRC-NBS Postdoctoral Research Associateships recommended by the 

NAS-NRC." We list as well their graduate schools and (in parentheses) their NBS 

mentors: 

• Donald W. Alderman, Cornell University (Robert J. Mahler, head of solid state 

electronics in the Radio Standards Physics Division in Boulder). 

• Michael J. Bielefeld, University of Pennsylvania (Jon J. Spijkerman, Analytical 

Chemistry Division). 

• Edith F. Bone, University of North Carolina (Leonard C. Maximon, Radiation 

Theory group, Center for Radiation Research). 

Ronald 13. Johnson, Executive Officer for the Institute for Materials Research during that period, kindly 

points out that the term "Guest Researchers" was much preferred by many visiting scientists over the lesselegant "Guest Worker" title commonly used in Bureau personnel reports. 

An informative account of the the origin and early history of the postdoctoral program at NBS is given by 

Joseph Hilsenrath, "The National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council's Postdoctoral Research 

Associateship Program," NI3S/GCR-85/500, September l985. 

54 
• Arnold M. Denenstein, University of Pennsylvania (Chester H. Page, chief of the 

Electricity Division). 

• Gabriel L. Epstein, University of California, Berkeley (Joseph Reader, Atomic 

Physics Division). 

• Benjamin Gibson, Stanford University (Michael Danos, Radiation Theory group, 

Center for Radiation Research). 

• Roger A. Hegstrom, Harvard University (Jon H. Shirley, Time and Frequency 

Division, Boulder, and Richard P. Reed, Cryogenics Division, Boulder). 

• John W. Knoeck, Iowa State University (John K. Taylor, head of microchemical 

analysis in the Analytical Chemistry Division). 

• Hassell M. Ledbetter, University of Illinois (Richard P. Reed, Cryogenics Division, 

Boulder). 

• William R. Ott, University of Pittsburgh (Wolfgang L. Wiese, head of plasma 

spectroscopy in the Atomic Physics Division). 

• Stephen J. Pierce, University of California, Santa Barbara (Morris Newman, head 

of numerical analysis in the Applied Mathematics Division). 

• LeRoy W. Schroeder, Northwestern University (John J. Rush, Reactor Radiation 

Division). 

• Stuart K. Searles, University of Alberta, Canada (Pierre J. Ausloos, head of radiation chemistry in the Physical Chemistry Division). 

• Stanley E. Stokowski, Stanford University (Ludwig H. Grabner, Inorganic Materials 

Division). 

• Donald D. Thornton, Syracuse University (Billy W. Mangum, Heat Division). 

• Edward F. Zalewski, University of Chicago (Richard A. Keller, Physical Chemistry 

Division). 

Of the 1968 postdoctoral group, Ledbetter, Ott, Schroeder, and Zalewski (one-fourth 

of the group) became permanent Bureau researchers. 

From the beginning of the postdoctoral program in 1955 until 1969 there were a total of 173 of these awards. Alumni of the program were prominent among NBS 

leaders in scientific and management programs at NBS. Names of subsequent postdoctoral research associates are listed in Appendix F. 

Professional Advancement, Education, and Awards 

From the time of its move to Connecticut Avenue, NBS possessed some of the 

characteristics of a technical university. Many Bureau scientists and engineers were 

motivated to give extra effort as much by the desire to learn as by the desire to take 

home an extra-large paycheck. In areas of front-line research, NBS staff members and 

their university colleagues enjoyed very close professional relationships, belonging to 

55 
the same organizations, attending the same conferences, publishing in the same journals and competing for the same types of professional recognition. In addition, there 

was a steady flow of teacher-student interactions among the technical staff of the 

Bureau, both in Boulder and Gaithersburg. 

In 1968, the NBS Graduate School program was already in its 60th year; four new 

diplomas were added that year to the 344 graduate degrees awarded to Bureau staff 

members since its inception.69 

Staff development was not limited to graduate-level training, however. Educational 

programs were also in place for more than 600 undergraduates, technicians, secretaries, 

and other non-technical staff, fulfilling the twin goals of keeping up with current 

technology and providing Bureau employees with an avenue for personal advancement. 

Instruction, often by outside consultants, was available both on-site and in conjunction 

with local schools, not only for the Gaithersburg facility but also for Boulder 

personnel. 

Most of the technical divisions scheduled periodic seminars, colloquia, or staff 

meetings—often on a weekly basis—on subjects related to division projects. These 

technical meetings, held in small conference rooms maintained in the Administration 

building and in each of the technical buildings, generally were led by local staff or by 

visiting experts. Advertised on local technical bulletin boards, they usually attracted 

interested participants from outside the Bureau—other government scientists, professors 

from area universities, visitors from far-off places, and, increasingly, personnel from 

small-scale, high-technology industries developing on the "doorstep" of NBS. 

Technical meetings provided a good mechanism whereby new projects could be 

explored, current ones could be exposed to scrutiny by peers, and completed work 

could be publicized. In addition, frequent lectures were offered in the major auditoriums. The "Red" auditorium, seating about 700, and the "Green" auditorium, seating 

about half that number, were the largest Gaithersburg halls, while the Radio Building 

Auditorium hosted the largest meetings at the Boulder site. These lectures provided 

large technical audiences—from NBS and elsewhere—with talks of general interest. 

High-quality work by the staff of the NBS was recognized every year by awards 

from outside groups, from the Federal government and from the Bureau itself. More 

than 30 NBS staff members were recognized in 1968 by external professional groups, 

including the following: 

• Samuel N. Alexander, the Harry Good Memorial Award of the American Federation of Information Processing Societies. 

• Melvin R. Meyerson, the George Kimball Burgess Award of the Washington 

Section of the American Society for Metals. 

• Robert D. Stiehler, Award of Merit of the American Society for Testing and 

Materials. 

1968 Technical Highlights of the National Bureau of Standards: Annual Report, Fiscal Year 1968, NBS 

Special Publication 308, November 1968. 

56 
• Allen V. Astin, the Commendation Plaque of the National Conference on Weights 

and Measures, and the Distinguished Alumni Award of the University of Utah 

Alumni Association. 

• F. Cecil Brenner, the Notable Services Award of the Apparel Research Foundation. 

• Lewis M. Branscomb, the Career Service Award of the National Civil Service 

League. 

• Robert D. Cutkosky, the Scientific Achievement Award of the Washington 

Academy of Sciences. 

• Jon T. Hougen, the Coblentz Society Award. 

• Malcolm W. Jensen, the Commendation Plaque of the National Conference on Weights and Measures. 

• W. Wayne Meinke, the American Nuclear Society 1968 Special Award for Industrial Applications of Radiation Techniques. 

• Morgan L. Williams, the Bissell Award of the Washington Section of the American 

Welding Society. 

In 1968 the Department of Commerce honored eight Bureau staff members with the 

Department of Commerce Exceptional Service Award (the "Gold Medal"). Those 

honored were: • Louis Costrell, for radiation physics instrumentation. 

• Henry J. Kostkowski, for radiation thermometry. 

• Lawrence M. Kushner, for research management. 

• David R. Lide, Jr., for molecular structure studies. 

• Kurt E. Shuler, for chemical physics. 

• Carl 0. Muehlhause, Harry H. Landon, Jr., and Robert S. Carter, a group award for 

nuclear radiation research. 

The Department of Commerce also awarded silver medals for Meritorious Service 

to: 

• David W. Allan, for atomic frequency and time standards. 

• Clarence N. Coates, Jr., for legislative programs. 

• William C. Cullen, for materials durability studies. 

• John R. Cuthill, for alloy physics. 

• James R. DeVoe, for radiochemical analysis techniques. 

• Samuel B. Garfinkel, for radioactivity standards. 

• Kurt F. J. Heinrich, for x-ray spectrometry. 

57 
• Frank L. McCrackin, for ellipsometry studies. 

• Harvey Marshak, for low-temperature nuclear orientation. 

• William C. Martin, Jr., for atomic spectroscopy. 

• Hans J. Oser, for studies in systems dynamics. 

• James F. Schooley, for superconductivity. 

• W. Reeves Tilley, for technical communication. 

• William W. Walton, for building research. 

• Andrew W. Weiss, for plasma spectroscopy. 

• Harold F. Wollin, for weights and measures. 

• William R. Shields and Thomas J. Murphy, a group award for studies in analytical 

mass spectrometry. 

Department of Commerce Superior Service (Bronze Medal) Awards went to 12 Bureau members: 

• Richard M. David, for radiation chemistry. 

• Herbert H. Garing, for instrument construction. 

• Elizabeth L. M. Henley, for administrative systems. 

• Albert E. Ledford, Jr., for molecular energy level work. 

• Katherine S. Lunsford and Minnie R. Massie, a group award for thermometry calibration. 

• Cornelius H. Pearson, for thermophysical properties. 

• Ruth L. Peterson, for spectroscopy. 

• Marion S. Roberts, for employee development techniques. 

• Wilbert F. Snyder, for radio standards engineering. 

• Earl S. Williams, for electrical instrumentation. 

The Bureau itself that year presented the Eugene C. Crittenden Award to eight staff 

members for superior performance by support personnel: 

• James Hester, for electrical services. 

• John Hydro, Jr., for glassblowing. 

• Harman L. Lantz, for floor care. • Grace S. Lederer, for procurement services. 

• Susan B. Mayers, for cleaning services. 

• John L. Michalak, for structural testing. 

• Arthur Pittman, Jr., for payroll services. 

• Lawrence Schneider, for precision instruments. 

58 
The 1968 NBS Samuel Wesley Stratton Award was given to David R. Lide, Jr. for 

his outstanding work in the field of microwave spectroscopy. 

The Edward Bennett Rosa Award, recognizing outstanding achievement in the 

development of standards of practice in the measurement area, was presented to W. 

Wayne Meinke for his efforts with the Standard Reference Materials program. 

In Appendix G we list the recipients of major awards given from 1968-1993 by the 

Department of Commerce and by NBS/NIST. 

Cash awards, grade-level promotions or certificates for outstanding work were 

presented to other high-achieving employees by most NBS divisions. 

Mens Sana in Corpore Sano 

The history of recreational activities at the Bureau has long been closely intertwined 

with the history of the Standards Employees Benefit Association (SEBA). Perhaps the 

first participation in organized sports at NBS was the Interdepartmental Tennis League; 

tennis teams from the Bureau competed with other agency teams as early as the 1920s. 

Eventually, SEBA sponsored many intramural activities for Gaithersburg employees, 

including the following: 

• Chorus. 

• Slow-pitch softball. 

• Fast-pitch softball. 

• Women's softball. 

• Football. 

• Golf. 

• Tennis. 

• Basketball. 

• Bowling. 

The Gaithersburg site also saw considerable noon-time and after-hours intramural 

and extramural athletics, including volleyball, basketball, softball, bicycling, and. 

jogging. 

Recreational activities for the Boulder employees of NBS were substantially less 

well-organized, but no less enthusiastic. The Boulder Laboratories Employee 

Association (BLEA) occasionally sponsored picnics, softball, and other group events; 

however, most sports and other hobbies were organized informally. 

According to the recollection of Robert A. Kamper, cycling, running, hiking, fishing, 

rock and mountain climbing, and skiing in the nearby mountains attracted many of the 

Boulder staff. It was not unusual for Bureau individuals or groups to "take to the hills" 

for a day's recreation in any manner favored by the weather. Kamper also recalled a period of time during the early l970s when musicians from the Bureau joined in 

annual treks up the mountain with symphonic instruments to perform in the Altissimo 

Music Festival—a fine combination of art and athletics. 

59 
During the early 1990s, James D. Siegwarth and B. James Filla, assisting paleontologist Robert Bakker in his search for the remains of dinosaurs, discovered a previously 

unknown species. Professor Bakker named the species Nisti, in honor of his volunteer 

colleagues, thus gaining for the Boulder laboratory the distinction of being the only 

Federal agency with a dinosaur named for it. 

Advisory Committees 

Following the practice introduced at its founding (Sect. 1.3), NBS programs and 

equipment were monitored annually by a Visiting Committee of outside technical 

experts appointed by the Secretary of Commerce. The Secretary often sought the 

advice of the senior Bureau management on new appointments to the Visiting Committee. Over the years, the Visiting Committee was a strong advocate for the NBS/NIST 

programs as well as a critical observer of the state of Bureau facilities, equipment, 

and output. Its reports offered strong encouragement to the Department to shore up 

weaknesses or to enter new areas of research. The membership of this important group 

is given in Appendix H. 

In 1968 the Visiting Committee was chaired by Robert Sproull, Vice President of 

the University of Rochester. Other members of the committee included Norman 

Ramsey, Professor of physics at Harvard University; Emanuel R. Piore, Vice President 

and Chief Scientist of IBM Corp; Elmer W. Engstrom, President of RCA; and Paul C. 

Cross, President of the Mellon Institute. 

In addition to the NBS Visiting Committee, technical evaluation panels annually 

reviewed the work of many technical divisions of NBS from 1959. The President of 

the National Academy of Sciences appointed members of the panels that advised the 

divisions of the Bureau's Institute for Materials Research and the Institute for Basic 

Standards. Similarly, the President of the National Academy of Engineering appointed 

panels for the divisions of the Institute for Applied Technology. The committees 

prepared formal reports for the use of the National Research Council, but perhaps more 

important was the guidance that they gave informally to the division leadership. 

Budget 

The NBS budget often resembled the heroine in the serial thriller "The Perils of 

Pauline." The draft of the budget document, with its carefully drawn plans and requests 

for their support, lurched from crisis to crisis, with painful injury or death imminent 

from moment to moment. This resemblance was particularly apt in 1968, when 

Congressman John J. Rooney of New York served as Chairman of the Subcommittee on Departments of State, Justice, and Commerce, The Judiciary, and Related Agencies 

Appropriations, a unit of the House Committee on Appropriations. Mr. Rooney's 

subcommittee held annual hearings on the NBS budget, and there was no doubt who was in charge. For the entire duration of his chairmanship, 1963 to 1974, the appropriations hearings featured a running Rooney-against-the-bureaucrats sideshow that makes 

fascinating reading but could only have been a nightmare for NBS management.7° 

The text of the hearings is contained in bound records published by the U.S. Government Printing Office. 

60 
The difficulties that NBS encountered in balancing its commitments against its 

budget, like the budgetary problems of many another federal agency, arose from the 

dichotomy that is characteristic of the U.S. Congress: Congressional authorization vs Congressional appropriation. 

Continuing oversight of NBS programs resided in 1968 in the House Committee on Science and Astronautics and its Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development, along with its Senate counterpart, the Senate Commerce Committee and its 

Subcommittee on Science and Technology. Most of the assignments given to the 

Bureau by Congress originated in these subcomniittees, whose members were generally 

familiar with its staff and the capabilities of the agency. The members of these 

subcommittees were, in general, supportive of NBS. They felt that the Bureau gave 

good value for the Congressional dollar, and they were willing to entrust new projects 

to it through the authorization process. 

Once a particular project was outlined by the authorizing committees for NBS, 

however, the House Appropriations Committee could decide whether the proposed 

project was worthy of funding to pay for personnel, facilities, and operations needed to 

execute it. The wherewithal to perform either existing or new projects at the Bureau 

necessarily came from the House Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on 

Departments of State, Justice, and Commerce. Not infrequently, the authorizing committee and the appropriations committee did not see eye to eye on the necessity of a given task or on the suitability of NBS to perform it, let alone its proper funding level. 

Thence came trouble, with the Bureau cast in the hapless role of the shuttlecock in a game of Congressional badminton. 

A typical NBS budget document began life at least one year before funds were 

expected from it. Its beginning was generally peaceful and straightforward, as befitted 

the nature of its scientific authors: plans were laid for continuing and new projects, 

based upon technological needs or scientific opportunities as foreseen by NBS in 

consultation with the Congressional oversight committee; justifications were written for 

any foreseeable changes necessary in Bureau space, personnel, or operational costs to 

accomplish them; and prospective sources were identified for funding—typically 

Congressional appropriations, other Federal agency funds, calibration fees, or sales of 

standard reference materials. 

Aggregation of these ideas from throughout the Bureau resulted in the preparation of 

the first draft of a budget document. The document generally incorporated requests 

arising from arcane scientific projects—in 1968, such a project involved collecting data 

on the energy content and behavior of nuclear particles—side by side with requests 

arising from the most practical technical needs, exemplified in 1968 by NBS participation in technical committees of the American Standards Association.7' 

The basic budget document then entered the first phase of its perilous journey to 

reality—examination by the Department of Commerce, where fiscal and political pressures of a type unknown within NBS made all the difference. Endowed with different 

Now known as the American National Standards Institute. 

61 
viewpoints, with substantially different training, and with stimuli markedly different 

from those felt by the originators of the budget draft, the DoC examiners typically 

added to and subtracted from the document until it reflected an entity that they could 

vigorously defend in the dangerous second phase—review by the Bureau of the Budget 

(later known as the Office of Management and Budget). 

In the BoB review, other pressures—frequently a desire to restrain spending 

throughout the Executive Branch—and different politics came into play, resulting in a new draft that all too often only vaguely resembled the original budget document. On 

the bright side, this budget, once prepared, generally was supported by the President of 

the United States. 

The greatest peril to the document usually—but by no means always—occurred 

during the hearings of the House Appropriations subcommittee that enjoyed jurisdiction over the Bureau's finances. The scientific content of the budget draft often 

faded into insignificance in comparison with wrangling over issues totally unrelated to 

NBS activities. Logic became twisted or, not infrequently, abandoned completely. 

Political motives usually dictated the fate of portions of the document. In the meantime, other Federal agencies were learning of their own budgetary destinies, which in 

turn might determine whether they could participate financially in planned cooperative 

projects with NBS staff members. 

Finally, a joint conference of House and Senate members could further adjust the 

NBS budget. The result of this lengthy process was that the President often signed a budget document for the Bureau that was barely recognizable as the offspring of the 

original draft. 

Not uncommon was a disappointing situation wherein no budget at all was passed, 

months after the beginning of a new fiscal year. In these cases the process had broken 

down, with Congress so involved with other activities that it did not complete one of 

its most basic tasks. The usual solution in that case was known as a "Continuing 

Resolution," which could be translated roughly by the instruction "Do what you did 

last year at the same (or a lower) level of spending."72 In this event, of course, the 

NBS leadership had to make educated guesses as to what should be done about very 

desirable new projects or tasks that Congress had ordered NBS to perform. During 

"continuing resolution" years, Congressionally requested projects usually were 

undertaken by reassigning existing staff, space and equipment. New projects proposed 

by NBS usually were deferred. 

During any budget cycle, it was not unusual for a congressional authorizing committee to formally ask ("mandate") the Bureau to perform specific tasks that one or 

another member deemed desirable at the time.73 Sometimes the instructions for the 

72 Poor as it was, the continuing-resolution option was preferable to the alternative—temporarily closing the 

doors of NBS for want of authorization to continue operations. 

Congressional request might have been made of the Secretary of Commerce, asking him to utilize his 

"scientific resources" for a particular task, an instruction that often resulted in an assignment for .NBS. 

62 
assigned tasks were included in legislation that was not part of the appropriations 

process; such legislation may or may not have authorized reimbursement to the 

Bureau for the costs involved in fulfilling the requested work. Any such "unfunded 

mandates" usually caused the Bureau management to generate staff, space, and funds 

for the work by deferring or abandoning other work. Congressionally mandated work 

at NBS in 1968 included the following: 

• In December 1967 the 90th Congress amended Public Law 88-164 (15 U.S.C. 

1191; 67 Stat 111), originally passed on June 30, 1953, and known as the 

"Flammable Fabrics Act." The amendment, PL 90-189 (81 Stat 568), authorized 

the Secretary of Commerce (and thus NBS) to (1) conduct research into the 

flammability of products, fabrics, and materials; (2) conduct feasibility studies on 

the reduction of flammability in such items; (3) develop flammability test methods; 

and (4) offer training on flammability issues. The Act authorized $1.5 million to 

pay the costs of all its provisions during FY 1968, with $2.25 million authorized in 

each of the following two years. 

• The Fire Research and Safety Act of 1968 (PL 90-259, 82 Stat 34, passed in 

January 1968) amended the Organic Act of NBS to authorize the Bureau to undertake a wide-ranging program in fire research and information dissemination. It 

authorized $5 million in funding through June 30, 1970. 

• The Standard Reference Data Act of 1968 (PL 90-396, 82 Stat 339, passed on July 

11, 1968) gave the Secretary of Commerce authorization for the ".. . collection, 

compilation, critical evaluation, publication, and sale of standard reference data." 

The sum of $1.86 million was authorized for expenditure on this task through June 

30, 1969. Authorization also was given for the recovery of costs through sales of 

data. The Bureau was permitted to copyright data publications as well; this privilege was unique among Federal agencies. The provisions of this act enlarged and 

formalized an activity that had been under way for many years in conjunction with 

the Nation's chemistry, physics, and engineering communities, the Federal Council 

for Science and Technology, and the President's Science Advisory Committee.74 

The overall financial support of NBS in 1968 amounted to slightly over $65 million. 

Of this amount, almost $33 million was appropriated by Congress to fund Bureau 

operating programs; this sum was augmented by $28.4 million received for work done 

on behalf of other Federal agencies, for other outside groups, or as payment for 

calibrations, standard reference materials, or other services. Congress also provided 

nearly $4 million to be used for plant and facilities support and for new construction.75 

In Appendix I we provide a chronological display of the regu'ar congressional and 

74The acts containing these mandates are recorded in Appendix A. 

75Annual Report for 1968 (NBS Special Publication 308, November 1968) p. 162. 

63 
special appropriations for NBS/NIST as well as funds provided by other government 

agencies for the period 1968-1993. 

One can only hope that the eventual funding level of Bureau requests for support 

from Congress rested upon firmer ground than is indicated by the 1968 hearings of 

Congressman Rooney's subcommittee.76 Mr. Rooney routinely reacted to the very 

detailed, heavily justified budget request of Director Astin as if Astin were part of a conspiracy to raid the U.S. Treasury for nefarious purposes. Perhaps more aggravating, 

in frequent side comments Rooney seemed at pains to denigrate the highly trained 

scientific staff of the Bureau. It has been said that Rooney's comments were intended 

to portray for his constituents an image of fiscal responsibility on the part of one 

who controls public purse strings. Nevertheless, one finds these congressional barbs 

disturbing—in part because they took place in a "game" in which only one team was 

allowed to "play," but also because of the possibility of real damage to the Nation's 

scientific enterprise under the pretext of fiscal responsibility. 

Publications By NBS Staff 

It can be argued that the most important output of many an NBS scientific project 

was a number—the quantitative result of a careful measurement, expressed in the 

appropriate unit. The number might describe the frequency of an atomic transition, the 

temperature of a phase transition, the spacing of a crystalline lattice, or the breakingstrength of an aerospace material, to be compared with measurements made in a similar project elsewhere or to be used in defining a new standard of measurement. 

However, the national technical community probably valued most highly—perhaps 

more than NBS calibration results, Standard Reference Materials, or service on 

technical committees—the publications that described Bureau work. Even when a long-awaited number such as those mentioned above had been communicated by the 

quickest means available, its significance had to be documented by a carefully 

recorded exposition of the experimental techniques that produced it, along with its 

uncertainty. The intention of most Bureau publications was to provide information of 

such quality that the results described therein could be duplicated elsewhere even if the 

originating laboratory was destroyed or abandoned. The aim of the Bureau was to 

make these publications as widely available as the technical public desired. 

In 1968 the NBS staff published its scientific and technical results in many different 

outlets. The effort to communicate the results of the Bureau's research, development, 

and service work was a vigorous one, producing as many as 1000 items each year. 

Titles of most of these publications were printed in the NBS Annual Report series, 

prepared for the use of the NBS Visiting Committee and for distribution to the Department of Commerce and other interested parties. Abstracts of publications originating 

Hearings Before a Subcommittee, 90th Congress, First Session, Part 3, Department of Commerce. 

64 
in 1968-69 were printed in NBS Special Publication 305, Supplement 1, issued under 

the editorial leadership of Betty L. Oberholtzer in December This series was 

continued through 1997 with annual or biennial supplements. 

Individuals who wished to consult Bureau publications generally had two options: 

they could subscribe to any of the Bureau periodicals or purchase, from the Government Printing Office, copies of listed Bureau publications; or they could visit one of 

the many technical libraries that possessed the publications and consult them there. 

Besides libraries in large cities and at educational institutions, a class of "Depository 

Libraries" in various states and U.S. possessions routinely received and stored NBS 

publications. This large network of outlets made the results of Bureau projects available on a wide basis indeed. 

Editorial Review 

The mechanism for oversight of Bureau publications was modified by Director Astin 

in 1965. Responsibility for enforcing Bureau policies in its publications was transferred 

to the Associate Director for Technical Support. Technical review of NBS publications 

resided in the Washington Editorial Review Board (WERB), which was the oldest 

committee at the and in three Boulder Editorial Review Boards representing 

the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory; the Radio Standards Laboratory and the 

Cryogenics Division; and the Laboratory Astrophysics Division.79 

All publications written by NBS staff members and any publications to be printed on the authority of NBS were reviewed by one or more peers of the author. The usual 

process involved an Editorial Record form which accompanied each manuscript on its 

way to becoming an NBS publication. The administrative superior of the author was expected to review the draft, often with the assistance of a colleague in the originatirig 

The last comprehensive record of NBS staff publications—referencing all the publications since its founding—was prepared while Edward Condon was the director. NBS Circular 4.60, published in August 1948, 

contained a listing of Bureau publications from 1901 to June 30, 1947. Papers published before 1942 were 

listed by title only; later entries included abstracts. 

A supplement to Circular 4.60 was printed in May 1958—it updated the earlier document with abstracts of 

papers published from July 1947 through June 1957. 

In April 1961 Betty L. Arnold of the Office of Technical Information and Publications edited Miscella- neous Publication 240, "Publications of the National Bureau of Standards, July 1, 1957 to June 30, 1960." 

For the first time, titles of articles written by NBS staff members for publication in outside journals were 

included in the listing. 

A supplement to MP 240 prepared by Betty L. (Arnold) Oberholtzer was issued in April 1967. It contained abstracts of in-house publications from July 1960 through June 1966 and titles of outside publications 

from 1960-65. 

The Special Publication 305 series was commenced in April 1969, again prepared by Oberholtzer. The 

initial volume covered the period 1966-67. 

As this history was written, the NIST administration contemplated discontinuing the paper catalog in favor 

of a computerized "on-line" edition. 

Personal recollection of W. Reeves Tilley, former chief of the Office of Technical Information and 

Publications. 

Although each of the institute directors was given the authority to create its own editorial review board by 

NBS Administrative Bulletin 65-24 (superseding NBS Admin. Bull. 63-3), the Washington directors decided 

to create a single Washington Editorial Review Board with membership from each of the institutes. 

.65 
section. The chief of the author's division supervised a separate review before sending 

the approved manuscript to the appropriate ERB for final review and disposition 

(except that the Laboratory Astrophysics Division ERB conducted its own final 

review). Occasionally the process was truncated if a particular lower-level reviewer was known to be especially knowledgeable on the topic and thorough in reviewing. 

The ERB final reviewer, besides judging the technical merit of the draft, also sought 

to ascertain that no Bureau policies would be violated by the publication. 

The Bureau review and publication procedures appeared cumbersome and, to some, 

even paranoid. However, they served to keep the technical and editorial levels of 

NBS publications as high as the levels anywhere in science; editors of periodicals, 

conference proceedings, and books found few outright errors, half-digested ideas, or ambiguous expressions in Bureau writing. The members of the ERBs were among the 

most experienced of Bureau scientists, whose recommendations could not be taken 

lightly. 

In 1965, the Chairman of WERB was Chester H. Page. Other members were Roger 

G. Bates, Randall S. Caswell, Vernon Dibeler, Myron G. Domsitz, Churchill Eisenhart, 

D. McIntyre, Robert D. Elbourn, W. Reeves Tilley, and John E. Carpenter. Carpenter 

served as Secretary to the Board. 

The Chairman of the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory ERB was Douglas D. 

Crombie. J. Krantz was the Secretary. The membership included Edwin L. Crow, 

Kenneth Davies, Martin T. Decker, Mark T. Ma, George C. Reid, D.V. Row, James R. 

Wait, and Bernard Wieder. 

David M. Kerns chaired the Radio Standards Laboratory ERB. Members included 

Vincent D. Arp, Edwin L. Crow, Glenn F. Engen, Thomas N. Gautier Jr., Richard C. 

Mockler, Robert C. Powell, Balfour B. Stewart, and Robert W. Zimmerer. Ms. Krantz 

was the Secretary of this board also. 

The three-person Laboratory Astrophysics Division ERB was headed by Lewis 

Branscomb. Peter L. Bender and Sidney Geltman served as members. 

By 1968, the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory was no longer part of NBS, 

having been assigned to the Environmental Science Services Administration. 

NBS/JILA papers were then monitored by the Laboratory Astrophysics Division ERB, 

and the Radio Standards Laboratory ERB reviewed all other papers originating in 

NBS/Boulder. 

In 1969 Edward Brady was appointed Chairman of WERB. When asked in 1987 

about the usefulness of the ERB system, Brady said: 

I think [the NBS Editorial Review Board} is enormously valuable to the 

Bureau. To have a peer review inside the Bureau before anything goes out 

adds another level of technical quality control that has been exceedingly 

helpful in guaranteeing that the material put out by the Bureau is high quality 

and not something foolish or something incorrect.50 

80 Edward L. Brady, Oral History, August 17, 1987. 

66 
NBS Journal of Research 

The premier NBS technical periodical in 1968 was the Journal of Research of the 

National Bureau of Standards. It was issued in three parts. Section A, Physics and 

Chemistry, edited by Charles W. Beckett with assistance from Donald D. Wagman and 

John M. Richardson, was issued bimonthly. Section B, Mathematical Sciences, edited 

by Morris Newman with assistance from Frank W. Olver and John R. Edmonds,and 

Section C, Engineering and Instrumentation, edited by Martin Greenspan with the as- sistance of G. Franklin Montgomery, R.V. Smith, and A.F. Schmidt, were issued quarterly. Typically, archival descriptions of completed projects, with extended discussions 

of equipment, procedures, analytical techniques, and significance of the results in the 

respective fields, made up the majority of papers published in the Journal of Research. 

Technical News Bulletin 

Information concerning Bureau activities in research, development, cooperative 

projects with other scientific or technical groups, and publication notes was available 

during 1968 in the Technical News Bulletin (TNB). Feature articles in this periodical 

were selected from a Summary Technical News Service prepared specifically for the 

editors of hundreds of scientific, technical, and trade They provided information on both the technical nature of the work and its relevance to the public at large. 

The TNB was intended for industrial readers working in strongly technical areas. In 

1968 this periodical was issued monthly. The Editor was W. Reeves Tilley. William K. 

Gautier was the Technical Editor, the Managing Editor was Richard W. Seward, and 

Carla Messina was the Visual Editor. 

The January 1968 issue of the TNB, a fairly typical example, contained short articles 

describing fire safety studies of apartments, the results of an investigation into static 

fatigue of glass, and the properties of slush hydrogen that were of particular importance to the aerospace industry. It also contained notes on coming technical conferences and a report on the I 3th General Conference on Weights and Measures. Other 

features included standards and calibration news, developments in the National Standard Reference Data and Standard Reference Materials programs, and titles of new NBS publications. 

During 1973, Director Richard W. Roberts "restructured" the Technical News Bulletin, converting it to a "public relations" document with a new name: "Dimensions." 

" The Summary Technical News Service articles were synopses of NBS archival papers. They were prepared 

in the Office of Technical Information and Publication by physical science editors Sharon L. Butrymowicz, 

Robert T. Cook, Donal K. Coyle, Jack R. Craddock, Carol R. Naas, Arthur Schach, and Don E. Webb. 

Circulation of the articles greatly increased public understanding of the work of the Bureau. 

67 
Non-Periodical NBS Publications 

The Bureau offered nine non-periodical publication outlets in 1968. These outlets 

and the types of communication intended for publication therein were: • NBS Monographs, "...major contributions to the technical literature on various 

subjects . . 

. • NBS Handbooks, "...recommended codes of engineering and industrial practice 

developed in cooperation with interested industries, professional organizations, and 

regulatory bodies"; 

• NBS Special Publications, "...proceedings of. . . national and international conferences sponsored by NBS, precision measurement and calibration volumes, NBS 

Research Highlights.. . "; 

• NBS Applied Mathematics Series, ".. . mathematical tables, manuals, and studies"; 

• National Standard Reference Data Series, "...quantitative data on the physical 

and chemical properties of materials . . 

. "; 

• NBS Building Science Series, "...research results, test methods, and performance 

criteria . . 

. "; 

• NBS Technical Notes, "...communications and reports of limited or transitory 

interest. Often. . . final reports of work sponsored at NBS by other Government 

agencies"; 

• NBS Product Standards, "...developed cooperatively with interested Government 

and industry groups, and used voluntarily"; and 

• Federal Information Processing Standards Publications (FIPS), ". . . the official 

source of information in the Federal Government regarding (I) uniform Federal 

information processing standards.. . and (2) data elements and codes standards in 

data systems. 

Publication in Non-NBS Media 

Although NBS publications clearly offered a multitude of avenues for the promulgation of results of work by Bureau staff members, there were excellent reasons 

for publishing certain results in outside journals, in books, or—on rare occasions—in 

newspapers. 

The most cogent reason for publication in an "outside" venue was the desire to 

reach a specific audience as directly as possible. Thus a discussion of "Tests of the 

Born approximations: differential and total 23S, 2'P, and 2'S cross sections for 

excitation of He by 100 eV to 400 eV electrons," by John Arol Simpson and Stanley 

R. Mielczarek of the Atomic Physics Division and their colleague L. Vriens, a guest 

worker from the University of Utrecht in The Netherlands, was published in the 

journal Physical Review because that journal provided a principal forum for atomic 

68 
physics topics. Similarly, Ernest E. Hughes' description of a simple method for the 

determination of the absolute concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere was published 

in the journal Environmental Science and Technology in order to reach a high percentage of the environmental scientists who might find such measurements helpful. And a 50-page study of the smoke and gases produced in the burning of materials typically 

used in aircraft interiors, performed by Daniel Gross, Joseph J. Loftus, Thomas G. Lee, 

and Vannie E. Gray of the Building Research Division, was published as an individual 

monograph by the Federal Aviation Agency to expeditiously bring the work to the 

attention of the air-transportation community. 

Conference proceedings, specialized books or book chapters, and voluntary standards 

publications also were frequent vehicles for the scientific exposition of NBS authors 

who wanted to reach specific audiences. 

In many cases, material written by Bureau authors was requested by outside groups 

who wished to make use of the expertise of particular NBS staff members. Textbooks, 

technical encyclopedias, instructional literature, and data compilations—all of these 

coaxed NBS writing away from NBS-based publications. 

Not infrequently, questions of scientific priority led Bureau authors to publish their 

findings in journals that specialized in rapid communication. Physical Review Letters, 

Chemical Physics Letters, and Nature were examples of such journals. In Appendix J we provide a comprehensive listing of the publications of NBS and NIST. 

NBS TECHNICAL WORK IN 1968 

The quality of the National Bureau of Standards as an effective technical agency can best be judged by the range and significance of its scientific and engineering work. 

Here the historian's problem is an oversupply of the fabulous. Development and 

calibration of ingenious and wonderfully capable tools and standards for measurement; 

study of light from the stars; heat from the earth; water from ancient ice; transportation; communication; manufacturing; sales; medicine; agriculture; and space travel—all 

these activities and many others engaged the inquiring minds of NBS scientists and 

engineers over the years. The challenge for the historian is not that of finding fascinating topics to illustrate the significance of Bureau work, but to refrain from creating an indigestible catalog of scientific and technological exploits. 

In the following sections we take a whirlwind tour through the Bureau's technical 

divisions as they were constituted in 1968. This tour provides an identity for each 

division, illustrating the type of work in which it was engaged as Director Allen Astin 

left NBS. The discussion also is meant to help the reader follow the relevance and 

origins of technical work that will be described in subsequent chapters.82 

82 Most of the information given here was obtained from the NBS Annual Reports, from material provided to the Senate Committee on Commerce at the time of its hearings on the nomination of Lewis Branscomb as NBS Director (Senate Committee on Commerce, Nonünations—1969: Hearings before the Committee on Com,nerce, 91st Cong., 1st Sess., Dr. Lewis M. Branscomb, 31 July 1969: pp. 86-93), or from publication 

records of the period 1965-68. 

69 
In 1968, Bureau projects exhibited variety not only in the breadth of the their 

science and engineering, but in the composition of the work groups that produced 

them. In many—perhaps most—cases, a project was in the hands of one or two people 

who patiently pursued a technical goal, sometimes over a period of many years. 

Other efforts were undertaken by small groups of scientists or engineers, frequently 

assisted by one or more technicians. A few projects involved large numbers of NBS 

staff members, sometimes coordinating massive efforts with colleagues scattered 

throughout the world. Part of the unique nature of the institution resided in the 

flexibility of its approach to its tasks. 

NBS Organizational Charts 

There may not exist a governmental agency that does not circulate—at least among 

its own staff—an Organizational Chart showing the relationships that connect its 

component groups. It is only natural that this should be so, since the chart quickly 

establishes relative rank and helps to identify responsibilities within the agency. Yet 

the information conveyed by an organizational chart generally is of the most 

rudimentary kind—little of the depth of the agency's activities is to be found within a given entry. And seldom is an inkling given of the number of staff members 

represented by the listed organizational units. 

NBS was always a dynamic entity—the more so during times of major change, 

when whole groups joined or disappeared from the agency. An updated organizational 

chart was issued at least twice a year, almost always with some changes from the 

previous edition. 

For our technical tour of the Bureau, we utilize the chart issued on June 14, 1968, 

only months before Allen Astin retired. We here identify only a skeletal portion— 

approximately 60 organizational units including the division level—of the more 

complete listing given in Appendix K. 

In Appendix K we also provide a chronological progression of the evolving NBS/ 

NIST through 1991 as portrayed by its changing organizational charts. 

Office of the Director (Allen V. Astin, Director, NBS). 

The Director was responsible for the policies of the Bureau and for the development 

and execution of its programs. Besides the Deputy Director, Irl C. Schoonover, several 

other individuals reported directly to Astin. These included an assistant for metric 

study, Alvin G. McNish; a legal advisor, Allen J. Farrar; a senior research fellow, 

Churchill Eisenhart; and the heads of the following offices: 

Office of Industrial Services (George S. Gordon, Chief). 

The OIS examined the need for joint industry-NBS research activities; recommended 

methods by which NBS research results could best be utilized in industry and commerce; promoted cooperative research with industry for the solution of technical 

problems; and maintained the Research Associate Program. 

70 
The Research Associate Program was by then a 50-year-old Bureau activity. In 1968 

it included 61 scientists and engineers. These visitors worked on a full-time basis at 

NBS on projects of mutual interest to their own organizations—industrial corporations, 

technical trade associations, professional societies, and other Federal agencies—and the 

Bureau. The salaries of Research Associates were paid by the sponsoring organizations. 

The OIS performed an outreach function to encourage and facilitate participation in the 

program, providing industrial groups with information about NBS and its projects. 

Office of Engineering Standards Liaison (A. Allan Bates, Chief). 

This office provided administrative liaison between the Bureau and engineering standards bodies, both domestic and international; evaluated Bureau engineering standards 

activities; and developed policy in this area. In keeping with his responsibilities, Bates 

published in 1967 a short note on engineering codes for the building 

Office of Public Information (A. Victor Gentilini, Chief). 

This office prepared press releases for the news media. 

Office of Academic Liaison (Shirleigh Silverman, Chief). 

The major responsibilities of this office were to keep the academic world and other 

government agencies aware of the types of work being done at NBS and to facilitate 

cooperative research with them. In pursuit of these goals, Silverman presented, at a symposium on biological science, a paper on the role of bioengineering in interdisciplinary research.TM 

Office of Program Development and Evaluation (Robert D. Huntoon, Chief). 

This office was newly created in 1968 to provide the Director with guidance on programs, including in its recommendations relative priorities and information on the 

changing needs of U.S. science and industry. 

Papers by Huntoon, for the journal Science85 and for the journal Physics Teacher86 

provided insighiful discussions of the principles of a National Measurement System for 

A. A. Bates, "Building code viewpoints," J. Bldg. Res. last. 4, No. 1, 48 (Jan. 1967). 

S. Silverman, Reflections on bioengineering, Bioengineering—An Engineering View, pp. 103-106 (San 

Francisco: San Francisco Press, Inc., June 1968). 

R. D. Huntoon, "Status of the National Standards for physical measurement," Science 150, No. 3693, 169- 

178 (Oct. 8, 1965). 

R. D. Huntoon, "The basis of our measurement system," Phys. Teacher 4, No. 3, 113-120 (March 1966). 

71 
physical quantities and helped define the intent of the new office. The concept of a national measurement system for each of the different measurement units was new at 

that time, part of an effort originating with Allen Astin to refine and publicize the 

mission of NBS. 

Office of the Deputy Director (In C. Schoonover, Deputy Director, NBS) 

Apart from providing daily assistance to Director Astin and acting on his behalf 

when necessary, the Deputy Director also supervised several administrative units. The 

Office of International Relations, the Office of Technical Information and Publications, 

the Library Division, the Instrument Shops Division, and the Measurement Engineering 

Division all reported directly to him. 

Office of International Relations (Ladislaus L. Marton, Chief). 

The OIR provided services to ease the path to NBS for visitors from other countries, as well as assisting NBS staff traveling abroad. Marton, famous for his scientific work 

in electron microscopy, not only served as Chief of the OIR in 1968, but he was still 

publishing technical papers at 67 years of age.sl Before Astin left office, however, he 

relieved Marton of his OIR responsibility, replacing him with H. Steffen Peiser. Peiser, 

born in Europe and educated at Cambridge University in England, was—like Marton— a natural choice to represent NBS to its foreign peers. Besides his cosmopolitan upbringing and a flair for language, he was an expert crystallographer, he had lectured in 

physics at the university level, and he possessed the virtue of tact in abundance. 

Office of Technical Information and Publication (W. Reeves Tilley, Chief). 

Tilley supervised a section devoted to the staging of special events for NBS, 

publications-oriented sections that included editorial, redacting, photographic, and 

illustration capabilities, and a computer-assisted-printing section. His groups rendered 

assistance to all Bureau staff members in preparing their work for publication. In 

addition, they prepared motion pictures on Bureau projects, scheduled tours, interacted 

with the technical press, arranged conferences, and responded to queries from the 

public. 

L. Marton. "Progress in electron physics during the last 20 years," pp. 17-25 in Proc. Third Czechoslovak 

Conf. Electronics and Vacuum Physics, Prague, Czechoslovakia, Sept. 13, 1965 (Czechoslovak Academy of 

Sciences, Prague, 1967). A biography of Marton was written by Charles SUsskind, "L. L. Marton, 1901- 

1979," Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics, Supplement 16, p. 501 (Academic Press, Inc, 1985). 

Marten retired from NBS in July, 1970, after 24 years of service to the Bureau. Among his many awards was the Department of Commerce Gold Medal, presented in 1955. Marton was a member of the Royal 

Society of Belgium, the Graduate Faculty of Maryland, and (during 1962-63) the University of Paris. He was 

the author of several books on electron physics and microscopy. 

72 
Library Division (Elizabeth L. Tate, Chief). 

Besides conventional library services, the Library Division provided bibliographic, 

reference, and translation services, and it served as a focal point for legislative materials and information issued by other Federal agencies. 

Instrument Shops Division (Frank P. Brown, Chief). 

Staffed by experienced machinists, draftsmen, and other shops experts, the Instrument Shops designed, constructed, and repaired high-precision instruments and 

auxiliary equipment for the use of Bureau scientists. 

73 

Allan M. Houck worked in the 

National Bureau of Standards 

instrument shops for over two 

decades. Most of those years were spent in the glassblowing shop where 

Houck was called on by Bureau 

scientists to manufacture custom 

glassware to very close tolerances. 
Butch Robinson, mechanic in the National Bureau of Standards instrument shops, 

selected an arbor and a collet from the shops' instrument crib for use in fabricating 

one—of-a-kind scientific apparatus. 

This group was mirrored by a shops division at the Boulder site. 

Measurement Engineering Division (G. Franklin Montgomery, Chief). 

The MED provided consultations in the area of measurement technology, including 

electronics, optics, thermometry, and mechanical systems. 

Office of the Associate Director for Administration (Robert S. Walleigh, Associate 

Director for Administration). 

In 1964 the Associate Director for Administration had been given new and manifold 

responsibilities, all dedicated to the objective of keeping the Bureau running smoothly. 

Walleigh managed the NBS buildings, plants, and other non-scientific facilities, in 

addition to supervising several administrative functions. The effectiveness of Walleigh as an administrator had led Astin to entrust him with the management of this large 

and complex domain. 

74 
Patent Advisor (David Robbins). 

David Robbins provided assistance with patent searches, advice on patent-related 

record-keeping, and information on disclosure processes for the NBS staff. He also 

provided similar assistance to other Commerce employees. In addition to these activities, Robbins recently had prepared a note on a semi-automatic editing machine.88 

Accounting Division (James P. Menzer, Chief). 

This division housed the central NBS fiscal records. It also was the focus of the 

Bureau's accounting activities—billing, payments, test administration, and financial 

reports. 

Administrative Services Division (George W. Knox, Chief). 

George Knox supervised the distribution of Bureau mail, janitorial services, the 

guard force, safety, emergency planning, transportation, and special services such as 

the maintenance of the Bureau's lecture rooms and lecture equipment. It also maintained an NBS records holding area. Budget Division (James E. Skillington, Jr., Chief). 

Skillington advised NBS managers on the preparation, review, and presentation of 

the budget. He was responsible for maintaining fiscal balance between income and 

expenses for all NBS programs. 

Personnel Division (George R. Porter, Chief). 

The Personnel Division was the center for recruitment, placement, and classification 

of employees, as well as employee development. It also provided the focus for employment policies such as evaluation and promotion criteria. 

Plant Division (Hylton Graham, Chief). 

Personnel of this division repaired and improved the buildings and grounds at the 

Gaithersburg site and served as a focal point for similar work at other NBS locations. 

Supply Division (George B. Kefover, Chief). 

George Kefover had supervisory responsibility for property records and procurement 

and acted as the contracting officer for the Bureau. 

Management & Organization Division (John T. Hall, Chief). 

John Hall was responsible for maintaining management policies, for employee training and development, for preparing and circulating management announcements, and 

for creating management records and forms. 

D. Robbins, editor, Disclosure on: Auioeditor—a semi-automatic copy-editing apparatus, NBS Technical 

Note 440, April 1968. 

75 
Institute for Basic Standards (Ernest Ambler, an expert in cryogenic physics, was newly appointed in 1968 as Director, IBS). 

The main responsibility of the lBS was to provide a central national basis for a complete system of physical measurements, internally consistent and in harmony with 

international standards. A second task was to develop, maintain, and disseminate 

standards to facilitate measurement of physical quantities in America's technical 

activities. The lBS also was called to provide measurements of critically needed 

physical properties. 

The measurement of physical quantities was an important and continuing preoccupation Standards. The concerns of this Institute included development and maintenance 

of standard units of measurement59 as well as the application of these standards to 

particular problems of technical importance. In this section we provide a few examples 

to characterize the efforts of the lBS. 

Henry L. Mason, internationally renowned for his research on the application of 

computer technology to scientific problems, filled the post of Coordinator for 

Measurement Services until the fall of 1968. Mason reviewed the work of lBS calibration services, focusing especially on the quality of the data analysis that supported the 

various services. He acted as a point of contact between calibration personnel and NBS 

statisticians, often helping the services to improve the presentation of their results. 

During 1968, an Office of Measurement Services was created within lBS to increase 

the visibility of the function that Henry Mason had performed. Joseph M. Cameron was appointed Acting Chief. Cameron had received the Department of Commerce Gold 

Medal Award for Exceptional Service in 1963 for "outstanding success in winning 

acceptance of statistical engineering as a research tool in physical science and 

engineering." His interest in that topic had not waned; in 1969 Cameron published a note for the journal Technometrics on the role of the statistical consultant in scientific 

work.9° 

Office of Standard Reference Data (Edward L. Brady, Chief). 

The staff of this office coordinated the critical evaluation of the quality of sets of 

data that were basic to the success of a great variety of national scientific, technical, 

and engineering projects. In 1968, long-time efforts in this area were formalized by 

Congress in Public Law 90-396 (82 Stat 339), The Standard Reference Data Act. 

Among the long list of organizations cooperating with NBS on this project were the Chemical Abstracts Service of the American Chemical Society, the American 

Institute of Physics, the Engineers Joint Council, the Atomic Energy Commission, the 

Department of Defense, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 

89These standards were embodied in the International System of Units (SI), defined by the 11th and the 12th General Conferences on Weights and Measures in Paris. 

90j. M. Cameron, "The statistical consultant in a scientific laboratory," Technonietrics 11, No. 2, 247 (1969). 

76 
The relatively small staff of the OSRD included: Stephen A. Rossmassler, whose 

responsibility lay in the area of atomic and molecular data; Lewis H. Gevantman, 

chemical kinetics and mechanical properties; Howard J. White, Jr., colloid and surface 

chemistry, thermodynamics, and transport data; Herman M. Weisman, information 

services; Joseph Hilsenrath, design of information systems; and David T. Goldman, 

nuclear data. Their efforts were multiplied many times over by assistance from NBS 

experts and from other technical organizations. 

After completion of baccalaureate and masters degrees in chemistry at the University 

of California at Los Angeles, Brady joined one of the major laboratories of the atomic 

bomb project at the University of Chicago in 1942. His war-time work included a stint, at the forerunner of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, where he helped design 

and operate the first large-scale high-level-radioactivity facilities for the U.S. nuclear 

program. Following World War II, he completed doctoral studies in nuclear physics at 

the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, then in succession held positions in nuclear 

science at the General Electric Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, with the U.S. Atomic 

Energy Commission, and with the General Dynamics Corporation. When NBS established the National Standard Reference Data System in 1963, Brady was recruited to 

head the program. He retained a personal interest in the NSRDS activity until his 

death in 1987, although he accepted an appointment as Associate Director of NBS for 

International Affairs in 1978, in which post he was successful in creating agreements 

with the USSR and China on the exchange of scientific information. 

Brady described the work of the NSRDS in an NBS Technical Note and for the 

Journal of Chemical Documentation. 91 In the Technical Note, he identified numerous 

projects supported by the NSRDS, as well as the scientists involved in the research. 

Data Needs and Compilations 

One example of the types of work done under the NSRDS program was that of 

gathering information. Herman M. Weisman and his colleague Gerda B. Sherwood 

used the results of a questionnaire sent by the American Chemical Society to its 

members, asking about their needs and resources for critically eva'uated property data on a variety of materials. Using this information, they prepared a list of data compilations. Some 16,000 replies, analyzed for the NSRDS, revealed a high level of need 

and, surprisingly, a number of compilation activities previously unknown to the 

system.92 

91 Edward L. Brady, editor, STATUS REPORT: National Standard Reference Data System, NBS Technical 

Note 448, June 1968. See also E. L. Brady, "The National Standard Reference Data System," J. Che,n. Doc. 

7, No. 1, pp. 6-9 (1967). 92 H. M. Weisman and G. B. Sherwood, "Annotated accession list of data compilations of the NBS Office of 

Standard Reference Data," NBS Technical Note 554, September, 1970, 196 pp. 

77 
An excellent example of the encouragement offered by NSRDS to outside groups to 

prepare much-needed technical information is provided by NBS Technical Note 482, 

compiled by Ben W. Roberts of the General Electric Research and Development 

Center in Schenectady, NY.' This compilation, based on an earlier effort published in 

the journal Progress in Cryogenics,94 brought up to date the most important superconductive properties of hundreds of elements, compounds, and alloys. It also included 

more than 700 references to original data papers, review articles, and books, thus 

collecting in one handy publication a great deal of information of interest to experimentalists and theoreticians alike. 

National Standard Reference Data Series 

The initial publications of the NSRDS took the form of National Standard Reference 

Data Series publications, issued serially whenever contributions were ready. One 

publication in the NSRDS series, Section 2 of NSRDS-NBS 3, prepared by Charlotte 

E. Moore of the Atomic Physics Division, was devoted to the analysis of optical 

spectra of Si j•95 Another contribution, a critical analysis of the literature on the heat 

capacity of the noble metals and an evaluation of their thermodynamic properties for 

temperatures between 0 K and 300 K, was prepared by George T. Furukawa, William 

G. Saba, and Martin L. Reilly of the Heat 

A third contribution to the NSRDS series during this period was made by Lester 

Haar of the Heat Division, who evaluated the thermodynamic functions of ammonia as an ideal gas.97 

Walter J. Hamer of the Electricity Division prepared NSRDS tables of theoretical 

activity coefficients for strong electrolytes in water solutions based upon seven 

different widely used expressions for these coefficients.'4 

Critical Reviews 

An 80-page discussion of the excitation of atoms by electron impact was presented 

by Stephen J. Smith of JTLA and his colleague Benjamin L. Moiseiwitsch of the 

Queen's University of Belfast, Northern This critical review was divided into 

B. W. Roberts, Superconductive Materials and Some of Their Properties, NBS Technical Note 482, May 

1969. 

'4B. W. Roberts, "Superconductive Materials and Some of Their Properties," Progress in Cryogenics 4, pp. 

160-231 (1964). 

'5Charlotte E. Moore, Selected Tables of Atomic Spectra: A. Atomic Energy Levels—Second Edition. B. 

Multiplet Tables: Si I., Standard Reference Data Series-US. National Bureau of Standards, 

NSRDS-NBS 3, Section 2, November 30, 1967. 

'5George T. Furukawa, William G. Saba, and Martin L Reilly, Critical Analysis of the Heat-Capacity Data 

of the Lierature and Evaluation of Thermodynamic Properties of Copper, Silver, and Gold from 0 to 300 °K, 

NSRDS-NBS 18, April 1968. 

Lester Haar, Thermodynamic Properties of Ammonia as an Ideal Gas, NSRDS-NBS 10, August 1968. 

'5 Walter J. 1-lamer, Theoretical Mean Activity Coefficients of Strong Electrolytes in Aqueous Solutios from 0 

to 100 °C, NSRDS-NBS 24 December 1968. 

'5B. L. Moiseiwitsch and S. J. Smith, Electron Impact Excitation of Atoms, NSRDS-NBS 25, August 1968. 

78 
theoretical discussions of excitations in hydrogen, helium, neon, argon, mercury, the 

alkali metals, oxygen and nitrogen, followed by an analysis of experimental work on most of the same elements. It contained more than 200 references to original papers 

and more than 60 tables of data. 

Data Centers 

David Garvin and Henry M. Rosenstock provided information on data centers for 

chemical kinetics and mass spectrometry for the Journal of Chemical Documentation. 

In their discussion, they compared the methods of operation of the centers, including 

the methods of evaluation and retrieval.'00 

Stephen A. Rossmassler described the NSRDS center for atomic and molecular 

properties for a symposium on the compilation of data on chemical and physical 

properties.'°' 

The NBS Alloy Data Center, formed to stimulate cooperation among groups generating physical-property information on well-characterized alloys and to aggregate the 

data in one location, was described in some detail by Gesina Carter with the assistance 

of Lawrence H. Bennett, John R. Cuthill, and Daniel J. Kahan.'°2 Not only did the 

Center utilize an automated retrieval system, but its staff also maintained an up-to-date 

bibliography. 

Handbooks 

During 1968 NBS Handbook 101 OMNITAB, A Computer Program For Statistical 

and Numerical Analysis went into its second printing. Originally prepared for the 

Heat Division by Joseph Hilsenrath, Guy G. Ziegler, Carla G. Messina, Philip J. 

Walsh, and Robert J. Herbold the handbook described OMNITAB, a general-purpose 

digital computer program that enabled the average scientist to use computers in 

analyzing data and performing other calculations even though he or she was not 

familiar with the usual programming languages. The occasion of the second printing 

was used to make corrections and clarifications in the original text and to add an 

illustrative appendix by David Hogben. Hilsenrath and Alfred E. Beam, a colleague 

from the University of Maryland (and a former NBS staff member), published a full 

description of a multiple-precision version of OMNITAB.'°3 The new program, 

labeled PRECISE, mitigated the loss of precision that ordinarily resulted from roundoff operations in numerical computing. 

'°o D. Garvin and H. M. Rosenstock, "Two National Bureau of Standards data centers—chemical kinetics and 

mass spectrometry," J. Chen,. Doc. 7, No. 1, 3 1-34 (Feb. 1967). 

'°' S. A. Rossmassler, "The National Standard Reference Data System program in atomic and molecular 

properties" (Proceedings of a Symposium on Compilations of Data on Chemical and Physical Properties of 

Substances, 152nd National Meeting, Am. Chem. Soc., New York, NY. Sept. 12, 1966), J. Chein. Doc. 7, 

No. I, 15-18, February 1967. 02 Gesina C. Carter with L. H. Bennett, J. R. Cuth ill, and D. J. Kahan, The NBS Alloy Data Center: 

Function, Bibliographic System, Related Data Centers, and Refrrence Books, NBS Technical Note 464, 

August 1968. 

Alfred E. Beam and Joseph Hilsenrath, PRECISE: A Multiple Precision Version of O,nnitab, NBS 

Technical Note 446, June 1968. 

79 
Computerized Data Programs 

With colleague Robert C. McClenon, Hilsenrath also described a new generalpurpose program for manipulating formatted data.'°4 

Also described during this period was a group of five utility computer programs 

written in the Fortran language to make overall changes in existing data sets. 05 Applied Mathematics Division (Edward W. Cannon, Chief). 

The origin of an applied mathematics unit at NBS dated to 1946, when Director 

Edward Condon hired Churchill Eisenhart, one of the first mathematicians to graduate 

from Princeton University in the specialty of statistics.t06 Condon realized the value 

of creating at the Bureau the capability to apply the rigor of statistics to scientific 

measurements, which generally feature data sets much smaller than were suited to the 

generation of ordinary statistical manipulations, and he knew from personal experience 

that Eisenhart shared his view. To create such an applied mathematics group, Eisenhart 

hired Lola Deming, Helen Herbert, Joseph M. Cameron, and William J. Youden.'°7 

This group became the nucleus of a Statistical Engineering Laboratory. 

In 1963 Eisenhart was appointed Senior Research Fellow and was assigned to the 

Office of the Director. He retired from NBS in 1983 with many honors for the high 

quality of his work. 

The Applied Mathematics Division staff utilized the methods of mathematics and 

statistics to assist in the development of new measurement techniques and to evaluate 

the results of measurement. The staff also performed a variety of other research and 

service functions. 

The work of the division was separated into sections on operations research, led by 

Alan J. Goldman; statistical engineering, headed by Joseph M. Cameron until he was 

reassigned to head the Office of Measurement Services, then placed under the leadership of Joan Rosenblatt; numerical analysis, under Morris Newman; and systems 

dynamics, under the guidance of Hans J. Oser. 

04 Robert C. McClenon and Joseph Hilsenrath, "A General-Purpose Program for Manipulating Formatted 

Data Files.' NBS Technical Note 444, August 1968. 

Carla G. Messina and Joseph Hilsenrath, "EDPAC: utility programs for computer-assisted editing, copyproduction, and data retrieval," NBS Technical Note 470, January 1969. 106 Ingrain 01km. "A Conversation With Churchill Eisenhart," Statistical Science, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 5l2-53C 

(1992). 

The hiring of Youden illustrates a strength of NBS—its attraction as a fine place to work. Elsenhart state 

in his oral history that he was reluctant to approach Youden, a well-known statistician then employed by 

Rand Corporation at a salary of perhaps $15,000 per year, about coming to work at the Bureau, where the 

Director's salary was only $9,000. When approached, however, Youden confessed to a long-term desire to be associated with NBS and paid little mind to the pay cut. Youden was a productive applied mathematiciar at NBS until his death in 1971. 

80 
The Statistical Engineering section served an unusual purpose for all the Bureau 

staff: it offered direct assistance in statistical analysis. Those scientists who needed to 

evaluate uncertainties of measurement in the preparation of SRMs, those who were 

assessing the results of fundamental measurements, and other Bureau staff involved in 

the analysis of data could receive assistance from section personnel in the often-arcane 

generation of accurate statistical values. Volume 1 of NBS Special Publication 300, 

edited by Harry H. Ku, provided much-valued guidance with sections entitled The 

Measurement Process, Design of Experiments in Calibration, Interlaboratory Tests, 

Functional Relationships, and Statistical Treatment of Measurement Data. Certain 

examples for this text came from actual NBS calibration work. 

Information Theory 

With the collaboration of S. Kuilback of the George Washington University, Ku 

utilized an information-theory approach to the problem of interaction in multidimensional contingency tables, including illustrative examples.'°9 

The division staff applied their efforts to problems arising in other government 

agencies as well as NBS. Division personnel conducted fundamental mathematical 

research in several areas. Consumer Trends 

In an investigation supported by the Department of Commerce Office of High-Speed 

Ground Transportation, J. M. McLynn, Alan J. Goldman, Philip R. Meyers, and R. H. 

Watkins analyzed mathematically how the "market"—a group of consumers—might 

divide its buying among competing products.tt° 

Data Retrieval 

An intensive study of the usefulness of multiple-access computer-retrieval methods 

for searching the scientific citation literature was performed by Franz L. Alt and 

Russell A. It was hoped that the study, which involved a group of NBS 

physicists and citations in some 25,000 physics publications, would help to refine such 

methods in the future. 

"Precision measurement arid calibration. Selected papers on statistical concepts and procedures." NBS 

Special Publication 300; 1, H. H. Ku, editor, February 1969, 436 pp. 

i-I. H. Ku and S. Kullback, "Interaction in multidimensional contingency tables; an information theoretic 

approach," J. Res. NBS, 72B, No. 3. 159-199 (1968). 

'° J. M. McLynn, A. J. Goldman, P.R. Meyers, and R. H. Watkins, "Analysis of a market split model," 

J. Res. NBS, 72B, No. 1, pp. 43-60 (1968). 

F. L. Alt and R. A. Kirsch, "Citation searching and bibliographic coupling with remote on-line computer 

access," J. Res. NBS 72B, No. 1, pp. 61-78 (1968). 

81 
Responsibilities of Other lBS Divisions 

Each division of lBS except the Applied Mathematics Division shared a variety of 

specialized functions. Among these were the following: 

• Develop and maintain U.S. standards of physical measurement, including multiples 

and sub-multiples as appropriate, and develop transfer standards and standard 

instruments. 

• Calibrate instruments in terms of the national standards and provide other needed 

services to promote the accuracy and uniformity of physical measurements. 

• Provide advisory services to other government agencies and to U.S. science and 

industry on basic measurement problems. 

• Correlate with other nations the standards and definitions in measurement science. 

• Determine values for relevant fundamental physical constants. 

• Conduct experimental and theoretical studies of physical phenomena that might be 

relevant to the creation of new measurement methods or standards. 

Meeting these requirements required each division to maintain a staff of highly 

capable scientists, as well as world-class calibration personnel and facilities. It is a testament to the competence of Bureau management that, for the most part, these goals 

were reached. 

Electricity Division (Chester H. Page, Chief). 

The Electricity Division grouped its activities into sections on resistance and reac- tance, headed by Chester Peterson; electrochemistry, under Walter J. Hamer; electrical 

instruments, led by Francis L. Hermach; high voltage, under F. Ralph Kotter; and 

absolute electrical measurements, headed by Forest K. Harris. 

As listed in the NBS Special Publication 250, Electricity Division personnel provided a number of calibration services to the public and to other governmental 

organizations, including the following types: 12 • Electrical resistance, inductance, capacitance, and emf. 

• Electrical instruments. 

• Voltage ratios and high-voltage measurements. 

• Dielectric constants and dissipation factors. 

• Magnetic induction, hysteresis, permeability, core loss, and fluxmeters. 

112 Calibration and Test Services of the National Bureau of Standards, NBS Special Publication 250, May 

1968. NBS Special Publication 250 constitutes a series of documents announcing and describing the many 

Bureau calibration services. The series was begun in November 1963. 

82 
Special Publication 300 

In 1968 there were published two volumes of NBS Special Publication 300, a multivolume compendium on specialized topics in the area of high-precision measurement 

and calibration. These volumes were used as reference sources by metrologists 

throughout the world. Replacing a similar series published in the 1950s as NBS Handbook 77, SP 300 was intended to present up-to-date reprints of papers in a dozen standards areas. 

One of the SP 300 volumes, No. 3, covered the field of electricity; it was edited by 

Francis L. Hermach and Ronald F. Nearly 500 pages long, it contained 

reprints of 45 papers and nearly as many abstracts of papers dealing with standard cells 

and Zener diodes, resistors and resistance-measurement equipment, capacitors, inductors, ac-dc transfer standards, transformers and inductive voltage dividers, high 

voltages, dielectrics, magnetic measurements, and general papers on electrical standards. The interested reader could find in its pages information on, or at least references to, most contemporary electrical standards work. 

Electric Charge 

One of the electrical measurement quantities to which NBS contributed significantly 

was electric charge. The classical method used in determining values of the unit of 

electric charge, at that time known as the Faraday, involved the electrolytic deposition 

of silver from an aqueous solution of silver nitrate. However, many other methods 

were used as well. A summary of values obtained by five different methods, converted 

to the contemporary unified '2C international scale of atomic weights, was given by 

Walter J. Hamer. He compared the values of the Faraday as determined by Norman 

Craig and James I. Hoffman using silver deposition, iodide oxidation, oxalate oxidation, silver dissolution, and the omegatron instrument. A recommended value of 

(96,487.0 ± 1.6) coulombs/gram-equivalent, using the dissolution of silver in aqueous 

solutions, proved most reliable. The results varied by as much as one part in 10,000. 

Later (see Sect. 4.5.1), Richard S. Davis and Vincent E. Bower, using improved 

methods, would bring measurements of the Faraday to a new level of accuracy—better 

than I ppm. 

At present, the SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb."5 

Precision measurement and calibration. Selected NBS papers on electricity—4ow frequency, F. L. Hermach and R. F. Dziuba, editors, NBS Special Publication 300, Volume 3, December 1968, 498 pp. 

"4W. J. Hamer, "Résumë of values of the Faraday," J. Res. Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), 72A, No. 4, 435-439 

(1968). 

'° See, for example, Barry N. Taylor, "Guide for the use of the International System of Units (SI)," N/ST 

Special Publication 811, 1995 Edition, April 1995, p. 50. 

83 
Capacitance Standards 

The quality of the standard for capacitance improved noticeably at that time as a result of a collaboration between the National Measurement Laboratory (NML) of 

Australia and NBS. A.M. Thompson and D.G. Lampard of NML initiated the work 

with a new theoretical discussion of capacitance. They followed their advance by 

developing new practical standards and measurement techniques in a long-term 

collaboration with Robert D. Cutkosky, John Q. Shields, and Lai H. Lee of the NBS 

Electricity Division. 

Cutkosky and Lee reported development of an improved, transportable 10 pF capacitor during a 1965 meeting of the Consultative Committee for Electricity at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris."6 Later, Cutkosky reported a new value for the absolute farad obtained with the new tools; it stood as the world's best 

for a decade. 

Voltage Standards 

The Bureau's voltage standard in 1968 resided in a bank of saturated standard cells. 

The NBS realization of the volt was derived from intercomparisons of these cells, so that the methods used in performing the intercomparison were significant. In an example of the usefulness of the statistical capabilities of the staff of the NBS Office 

of Measurement Services, Joseph Cameron of that office collaborated with Woodward 

0. Eicke in designing procedures for monitoring the NBS collection of standard 

cells.' 8 Zener diodes, much easier to maintain than electrochemical cells, were calibrated at 

the Bureau as secondary-level voltage standards. Eicke and Henry H. Ellis prepared for 

long-term study a group of these diodes of normal voltage 8.1 V to 9.2 V. During the 

study, the devices were maintained within 0.02 °C of 25 °C. The authors tracked the 

stability of the group of devices over a 3 year period. The level of voltage stability of 

the diodes over the period ranged from 3 ppm to 10 ppm, as reported during a meeting of the Consultative Committee for Electricity at the International Bureau of 

Weights and Measures in Paris."9 

The problem of comparing ac voltages to dc standard voltages at high accuracy 

became more significant as advances in operational amplifiers and inductive voltage 

116 R. D. Cutkosky and L. H. Lee, An improved transportable ten capacitor, Proceedings of the 

11th Session of the Consultative Committee for Electricity, May 10-12, 1965 (BIPM, Paris, France). 117 R. D. Cutkosky, "New NBS measurements of the absolute farad and ohm" IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 

IM-23, No. 4, 305-309 (1974). 

W. G. Eicke and J. M. Cameron, Design for the surveillance of the volt maintained by a small group of 

saturated standard cells, NBS Technical Note 430, October 1967. 

"9W. G. Eicke and H. H. Ellis, On long-term stability of Zener ref èrence diodes, Proceedings of the 11th 

session of the Consultative Committee for Electricity, May 10-12, 1965 (BIPM, Paris, France). 

84 
dividers achieved linearity and day-to-day stability levels better than 100 ppm. Francis 

L. Hermach conceived the idea of using thermal converters for ac/dc comparisons; he 

performed careful studies to elucidate the frequency dependence of the devices. 

Earl S. Williams and Hermach assembled a group of thermoelements which they 

examined at audio frequencies at currents from 5 mA to 20 mA. They found that they 

could evaluate the ac-dc differences with uncertainties of about 2 ppm. Inserting these 

thermoelements into circuits with a range of series resistors to create thermal voltage 

converters, they were able to measure voltages in the range 0.5 V to 500 V with 

uncertainties less than 10 ppm.'2° 

A new method for self-calibration of inductive voltage dividers was described by 

Wilbur C. Sze. Characterized as a "boot-strapping" injection method, the new 

technique was suggested for determining both in-phase and quadrature deviations. 

Advantages of the new technique over earlier methods were discussed as well.'2' 

Metrology Division (Theodore R. Young, Acting Chief). 

The Metrology Division consisted of three branches. One of these specialized in 

optical techniques under the leadership of Louis E. Barbrow. It was composed of 

sections in photometry led by Charles A. Douglas, another in image optics and photography under Calvin S. McCamy, and a third in colorimetry and spectrophotometry 

headed by Isadore Nimeroff. A second branch, in length metrology, was headed by 

Young himself. It consisted of a section on length led by John S. Beers, and another on engineering metrology headed by Arthur G. Strang. A third branch, in mass and 

volume metrology, was headed by Paul E. Pontius. 

Calibration and testing services provided by the staff of the Division included the 

following services listed in NBS Special Publication 250: 

• Photometry. 

• Image Optics and Photography. 

• Spectrophotometry. 

• Length. 

• Engineering Metrology (length and diameter, end standards, step gages, threads and 

gears, spherical diameters, internal diameters and ring gages, master gears, calipers, 

flatness, straightness, optical reflecting planes, roundness, surface texture, angles, 

mass, volume, and density). 

20 F. L. Hermach and E. S. Williams, "Thermal converters for audio-frequency voltage measurements of 

high accuracy," IEEE Trans. on Insir. and Meas. IM-15, No. 4, pp. 260-268 (1966). 

21 W. C. Sze, "Comparator for calibration of inductive voltage dividers from I to 10 kHz," ISA Trans. 6, 

No. 4, 263-267 (Oct. 1967). 

85 
international Comparison of Laser Wavelengths 

Laser wavelength calibrations, undertaken jointly by scientists at NBS, at the 

National Physical Laboratory in England, and at the Physikalisch-Technische 

Bundesanstalt in Germany, showed agreement among stabilized helium-neon lasers at 

the level of 5 parts in in wavelength. Bureau scientists involved in this type of 

measurement included Klaus D. Mielenz and Karl F. Nefflen of the Metrology 

Division. 122 Mass Measurement 

With the assistance of Joseph Cameron of the Office of Measurement Services, Paul 

E. Pontius reviewed the procedures for accurate mass measurement.'23 Included in 

Klaus D. Mielenz aligned the apparatus used at NBS to measure laser wavelengths as part of an international 

study. Light from a standard lamp (extreme left) was brought to a common focus along with a helium-neon laser beam. The beams were then recollimated to illuminate an interferometer (upper center). 

The ring pattern produced by the interferometer was photographically recorded by a spectrograph. Finally a computer was used to calculate the laser wavelength relative to the standard. 

122 K. D. Mielenz. R. B. Stephens, K. E. Gillilland. and K. E. Nefflen. of absolute wavelength 

stability of lasers." J. Opt. Soc. Am. 56. No. 2. 156-162 (1966). 23 P. E. Pontius and J. M. Cameron, "Realistic uncertainties and the mass measurement process. An illustrated review." NBS Monograph 103, August 1967. 

86 
this discussion was the idea of incorporating a laboratory standard in the calibration 

routine as an unknown, to provide a check on the quality of the calibration process; 

this technique became the basis for Measurement Assurance Programs. 

Line Standards 

The use of a 633 nm helium-neon laser as a light source for an automatic fringecounting interferometer made possible an improved calibration technique for line 

standards, leading to uncertainties less than 0.1 ppm. The advance was made through a collaborative effort involving Kitt E. Gillilland, Herbert D. Cook, Klaus D. Mielenz, 

and Robert B. Stephens.'24 

Microfilm Storage 

In a continuing study of problems related to the storage of microfilm, performed in 

part at the request of the U.S. Library of Congress, Chester I. Pope reported on the effects that the details of the film processing procedures could cause later in 

storage. 25 Pope and his colleague Calvin S. McCamy had recently published several 

discussions on this topic.'26 During this period McCamy also reviewed photographic 

standardization and research at NBS for the journal Applied Optics. 127 Color 

Deane B. Judd, soon to retire after an illustrious scientific career at NBS, wrote an extensive summary work on color vision and colorimetry for the second edition of the 

Handbook of Physics, a comprehensive tome originally prepared during the years 

1948-1958 under the editorship of Edward Condon, then Director of NBS, and Hugh 

Odishaw. 28 

24 K. E. Gillilland, H. D. Cook, K. D. Mielenz, and R. B. Stephens, "Use of a laser for length measurements 

by fringe counting," Metrologia 2, No. 3, 95-98 (1966). 

'25C. I. Pope, "Blemish formation in processed microfilm,"). Res. NBS 72A, No.3,251-259(1968). 26 C. S. McCamy, "Inspection of processed photographic record films for aging blemishes," NBS Handbook 

96 (Washington, DC: USGPO, 1964). See also, 

C. S. McCamy and C. I. Pope, "Summary of current research on archival microfilm," NBS Technical Note 

261 (Washington, DC: USGPO, 1965). 27 C. S. McCamy, "Photographic standardization and research at the National Bureau of Standards," App!. 

opt. 6, No. I, 27-30 (1967). 26 D. B. Judd, "Color vision and colorimetry," Chapter 4 in Handbook of Physics, Second Edition, Part 6, 

Optics, E. U. Condon and H. Odishaw, editors, McGraw-Hill, NY, 1967, pp. 6-65 to 6-77. Judd retired after 

42 years at NBS in October 1969. At that time, he held the honorific position of Senior Research Scientist. 

Among many awards for his scientific achievements were the Department of Commerce Gold Medal (1950), 

the Frederic Ives Medal of the Optical Society of America (1958), the Gold Medal of the Illuminating Engineering Society (1961), and the NBS Stratton Award (1965). 

87 
Another substantial work on colorimetry, NBS Monograph 104, written by Isadore 

Nimeroff, was published in January 1968.129 The monograph superseded NBS Circular 

478, dating from 1950, which had been reprinted several times but had become 

obsolete in many respects. Parts of the original text were retained where they were 

correct and useful. Aspects of the topic included the involvement of the eye in defining 

color, early color standards, colorimetry by comparison, colorimetry by material 

standards, and color scales. 

As part of a continuing investigation into color vision, Gerald L. Howett reported 

the results of a study of the variation in the shape of spectral absorptance curves 

obtained using pigment solutions of varying concentration. He discussed his results in 

terms of the current theory of color vision.'30 

An NBS research associate from IBM Corp., Carl F. Shelton, determined the photoexcitation, spectral-emission properties of 10 phosphor samples issued as standards 

by NBS.'3' Radiation was observed at 253.7 nm and 365 nm. Thermal Properties 

Temperature-dependent properties of materials received attention from several NBS 

divisions. Bruce D. Rothrock and R. Keith Kirby completed the development of an apparatus for the measurement of thermal expansion of refractory materials at temperatures to 1600 °C.'32 The apparatus consisted of an optical comparator and a controlledgradient vacuum furnace; it provided results estimated to be accurate within 50 ppm. 

Kirby also completed measurements of the thermal expansion of a single crystal of 

Ti02 (rutile) over the range 100 K to 700 K, using an Abb-Pulfrich interferometer to 

obtain the results in terms of the tetragonal symmetry of the crystal. 133 Mechanics Division (Edward C. Lloyd, Acting Chief). 

The Mechanics Division consisted of sections involved in measurements of sound, 

headed by Martin Greenspan; engineering mechanics, under Lafayette K. Irwin; and 

rheology, led by Robert S. Marvin. Lloyd himself supervised a branch for mechanical 

measurements: its sections included pressure measurements, also headed by Lloyd; 

vacuum measurements, under Stanley Ruthberg; vibration studies, led by Roscoe L. 

Bloss; and humidity measurements, headed by Arnold Wexler. A branch on fluid 

mechanics consisted of sections on fluid meters, led by Fillmer W. Ruegg; hydraulics, 

under Gershon Kuhn; and aerodynamics. 

29 Nimeroff, "Colorimetry," NBS Monograph 104, January 1968, 50 pp. 311G. L. Howett, "Variation of absorptance-curve shape with changes in pigment concentration," J. Res. NBS 

72A, No. 4, 309-340, 1968. 131 Carl F. Shelton, "Spectral Emission Properties of NBS Standard Phosphor Samples Under Photo-Excitalion," NBS Technical Note 417, March 1968. 32 B. D. Rothrock and R. K. Kirby, "An apparatus for measuring thermal expansion at elevated temperalures," J. Res. NBS 71C, 85-9 I (1967). 

R. K. Kirby, "Thermal expansion of rutile from 100 to 700 °K," J. Res. NBS 71A, 363-369 (1967). 

88 
The division offered several calibration and test services, which were listed in NBS 

Special Publication 250: 

• Acoustics. 

• Vibration. 

• Humidity. 

• Engineering Mechanics (hardness, load cells, proving rings, and elastic force). 

Arnold J. Mallinger inspected a proving ring before its calibration as a force standard 

in a deadweight machine at the National Bureau of Standards. 

• Fluid Meters. 

• Hydraulics. 

• Aerodynamics. 

• Pressure and Vacuum. 

• Railroad Track Scales. 

89 
Humidity 

The construction and use of a new adiabatic saturation psychrometer were described 

by Lewis Greenspan and Arnold Wexler.'34 The instrument was intended for use in 

atmospheric humidity measurements, but was tested for use in other vapor-gas combinations. Its uncertainty in humidity measurements was evaluated as +0.2 % of the 

reading. The new device was expected to be especially valuable in the fields of air 

conditioning and the chemical process industries. 

Pressure 

In an investigation of potential pressure-scale reference points, Peter L. M. 

Heydemann reported the use of a dead-weight piston gage to determine the pressure of 

the bismuth I—bismuth II transition at about 25.3 kbar (approximately 2.6 GPa).'35 

He used two samples of different purity; the less-pure sample yielded a transition 

pressure about I % higher, well outside the estimated measurement uncertainty of 

0.2 %. 

In support of the use of the vapor pressure of carbon dioxide at 0 °C as a pressurescale reference point, Daniel P. Johnson and his student, J. L. Edwards of The 

George Washington University in Washington DC, developed a dynamic method to 

determine that value.'36 The method involved the use of a controlled-clearance 

piston gage. The value obtained, 34.8516 bar, differed by as much as three parts in 

10,000 from earlier measurements. The authors cautioned that the quality of the 

pressure measurements, the temperature environment, and the sample preparation were 

all of comparable importance to the success of the measurement. 

Fluid Flow 

A study of high-order correlations in turbulent fluid fields was reported by Philip 

S. Kiebanoff and his associate François N. Frenkiel, a physicist at the David Taylor 

Model Basin in Carderock, Maryland.'37 Wishing to extend the analysis of turbulence 

that was found, for example, in air or water flow, in sea waves, or in acoustic noise, 

the authors constructed a grid of 0.5 cm diameter bars with a mesh size of 2.5 cm. 

They placed the grid in the NBS wind tunnel and recorded the turbulence thereby 

created in a 15 cmls air flow some 50 diameters downstream from the grid. They 

pointed out the indications of non-Gaussian probability distributions in the experimental results, and they obtained several relations between correlation coefficients for these 

distributions. 

L. Greenspan and A. Wexier, "An adiabatic saturation psychrometer," J. Res. NBS 72C (Engineering and 

Instrumentation), No. I, 33-47 (1968). P. L. M. Heydemann, "The Bi I-lI transition pressure measured with a dead weight piston gage," J. App!. 

Phys. 38, No. 6, 2640-2644 (1967). 36 L. Edwards and D. P. Johnson, "A dynamic method for determining the vapor pressure of carbon 

dioxide at 0 °C," J. Res. NBS 72C (Engineering and Instrumentation), No. I, 27-32 (1968). F. N. Frenkiel and P. S. Klebanoff, "Higher-order correlations in a turbulent field," Phys. Fluids 10, No. 

3, 507-520 (1967). 

90 
Gravity 

Douglas R. Tate used the "free fall" method to measure the acceleration of gravity 

at a reference point in the Engineering Mechanics building in 1965; the value obtained 

was 980.1018 cm/s2. In a 1968 NBS Monograph, No. 107, he described the experimental apparatus used, the techniques employed, and the data analysis on which the 

value was based.'3' Gradient techniques were utilized to transfer the measurement to 

another reference point in the gravity room of the Department of Commerce building 

in Washington, DC. That value was determined to be (980.1048 ± 0.0005) cm/s2. 

Force Measurement 

Richard A. Mitchell provided an analysis of the various methods used to optimize 

the shape of proving rings and other elastic ring-type force transducers. 139 The intent of 

the project was to minimize the weight of the rings without losing the flexibility 

needed for the device. 

Heat Division (Ralph P. Hudson, Chief). 

The Heat Division consisted of sections on heat measurements, led by Defoe C. 

Ginnings; cryogenic physics, headed temporarily by James F.. Schooley; equation of 

state, under Max Klein; statistical physics, led by Melville S. Green; temperature, 

under Harmon H. Plumb; and radiation thermometry, headed by Henry J. Kostkowski. 

The division listed several calibration services in NBS Special Publication 250: 

• Temperature (Liquid-in-glass, Thermocouple, and Resistance Thermometers). 

• Cryogenic Resistance Thermometers. 

• Radiation Thermometers and Standard Lamps. 

• Radiometers. 

Special Publication 300 

In the notes on the Applied Mathematics and Electricity Divisions we called attention to NBS Special Publication 300, a multi-volume compendium on precision 

measurement and calibration. In 1968 Volume 2, Temperature, was published. NO This 

500-page volume was edited by James F. Swindells, former chief of the Temperature 

Section. Topics presented in the 30-some papers reprinted in the volume included the 

D. R. Tate, "Acceleration due to gravity at the National Bureau of Standards," NBS Monograph 107, June 

1968, 24 PP. 

R. A. Mitchell, "Analysis of n-degree elliptical elastic rings of nonuniform cross section," J. Res. NBS 

72C (Engineering and Instrumentation), No. 2, 139-160 (1968). 

'4°J. F. Swindells, editor, "Selected NBS papers on temperature," Volume 2 in NBS Special Publication 300, 

Precision Measurement and Calibration, August 1968, 520 pp. 

91 
expression of uncertainties, temperature scales, resistance thermometry, thermoelectric 

thermometry, liquid-in-glass thermometry, optical pyrometry, and spectroscopic 

thermometry. Most of the thermometry research that undergirded the International 

Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 was represented in this volume. A bibliography 

covering the period 1953-65 was appended to it. 

Cryogenic Temperature Scales and Cryogenic Physics 

A provisional temperature scale for the range 14 K to 20 K was put forth by Harmon 

H. Plumb and George Cataland in 1966. The scale relied upon the relationship between 

the saturated vapor pressure of liquid hydrogen and the temperature as determined by 

acoustic isotherms in helium gas.'4' This work also provided information on the second 

virial coefficient of 4He in the same temperature range; the values were derived and 

published in a collaborative effort with Marjorie E. Boyd and Sigurd Y. Larsen of the 

Statistical Physics Section. 142 A temperature scale for even lower-temperature use was described by Ralph P. 

Hudson, the division chief, and Robert S. Kaeser. By measuring the internal energy of 

cerous magnesium nitrate (CMN) as a function of its entropy, using magnetic cooling 

and gamma-ray heating, they were able to deduce the thermodynamic temperature, 

correlate it with the paramagnetic susceptibility of CMN, and thus to develop a scale 

that extended from 0.002 K to 2 K.'43 

As part of a study of the behavior of paramagnetic materials at low temperatures, 

Billy W. Mangum and Jack H. Coiwell reported measurements of the heat capacity of 

neodymium and praseodymium chlorides in the range 0.3 K to 4 K. They interpreted 

the results in terms of the linear Ising model of paramagnetism."4 

The thermodynamic properties of ammonia were studied intensively at NBS over a period of many years. The substance was used in refrigeration throughout the United 

States prior to the introduction of freons. During this period, Lester Haar evaluated and 

published values for several thermodynamic functions of ammonia as an example of a nearly ideal gas.'45 

141 H. Plumb and G. Cataland, "Acoustical thermometer and the National Bureau of Standards provisional 

temperature scale 2-20 (1965)," Metrologia 2, No. 4, 127-139 (1966). 42 Marjorie E. Boyd, Sigurd Y. Larsen, and Harmon Plumb, "Second virial coefficient of He4 in the temperature range from 2 to 20 °K," J. Res. NBS 72A, No. 2, 155-156 (1968). 143 R. P. Hudson and R. S. Kaeser, "Cerous magnesium nitrate: a magnetic temperature scale 0.002-2 °K," 

Physics 3. No. 2. 95-I 13 (1967). 

B. W. Mangum and J. H. CoIwell, "Low-temperature heat capacity of NdCI3 and PrCI3," J. App!. Phys. 

38. No. 3, 1468-1469 (1967). L. Haar, "Thermodynamic properties of ammonia as an ideal gas," J. Res. NBS 72A, No. 2, 207-2 16 (1968). 

92 
Using the methods pioneered during the Bureau's "free radicals" program, Stanley 

Abramowitz, collaborating with Nicolo Acquista of the Atomic Physics Division, 

studied the infrared spectra of LiF embedded in matrices of argon cooled to low 

temperatures by liquid The results were interpreted in terms of the 

formation of dimers or possibly trimers of LiF. 

Progress to date on understanding the existence of superconductivity in semiconducting SrTiO3 and mixed titanates was summarized in papers written by Ernest 

Ambler, Jack Colwell, Earl R. Pfeiffer, and James Schooley of the Heat Division and 

their colleagues Hans P.R. Frederikse, William R. Hosler, and W. Robert Thurber of 

the Inorganic Materials "s The variability in the concentration of the 

electrical charge carriers in SrTiO3, readily controlled in sample preparation, made it a 

particularly interesting superconductor since the temperature of transition to the 

superconductive state depended upon the carrier concentration. A theoretical correlation 

between charge-carrier concentration and superconducting transition temperature was 

developed by Calvin S. Koonce and his mentor from the University of California, 

Marvin L. Cohen. This work won for Koonce the Distinguished Young Scientist 

Award of 1969 from the Maryland Academy of Sciences. 

The first observation of the superconducting energy gap by electron tunneling in a semiconductor, GeTe, was reported by Schooley and his colleagues Philip J. Stiles 

and Leo Esaki of the IBM Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, NY.'5° 

Measurements were made by cooling an Al-Al203-GeTe tunnel junction to temperatures ranging from 0.085 K to 2.5 K in an adiabatic demagnetization cryostat, then 

measuring the conductance dI]dV vs V. At temperatures above 0.5 K the structure in 

the conductance due to the GeTe superconductivity disappeared. 

S. Abramowitz and N. Acquista, "Infrared matrix spectra of lithium fluoride," J. Res. NBS 72A, No.5, 

487-493 (1968). 147 F. Schooley and W. R. Thurber, "Superconductivity in semiconducting Proceedings of the 

International Conference on the Physics of Semiconductors, Kyoto, Japan, September 8-11, 1966, J. Phys. 

Soc. Japan 21, 639-642 (1966). 

E. Ambler, J. F. Schooley, J. H. CoIwell, E. R. Pfeiffer, H. P. R. Frederiske, W. R. Hosler, and W. R. 

Thurber, "Transition temperatures and critical fields of and mixed titanates," Proc. Xth Intern Conf 

Low Temperature Physics, Moscow, USSR, Aug 31-Sept 6, 1966, Vol. 2B, Superconductivity, Paper S 123. 

142-148 (1968). 

C. S. Koonce, M. L. Cohen, J. F. Schooley, W. R. Hosler, and E. R. Pfeiffer, "Superconducting transition 

temperatures of semiconducting SrTiO30" Phys. Rev. 163, 380 (1967). P. J. Stiles, L. Esaki, and J. F. Schooley, "Observation of the superconducting energy gap in a semiconductor (GeTe)," Phys. Leit. 23, No. 3, 206-207 (1966). 

93 
High-Tenzperature Radiation Thermometry and Radiometry 

A new stable and inexpensive temperature reference at 1083 °C was developed by 

Richard D. Lee, using NBS copper standard samples and a carefully designed furnace. 

The copper sample was incorporated into a blackbody-type radiation source that was 

capable of stability at the level of 0.01 °C.'5' 

Lee and and his colleague Ernest Lewis, Jr., determined the radiance temperatures 

at a wavelength of 650 nm displayed by 20 different graphite electrodes used in an electric arc . All of the electrode temperatures fell in the range 3786 K to 3808 K. The 

estimated uncertainty of the measurements was ±2 K.'52 

Lee also wrote a major paper describing the newly developed NBS photoelectric 

pyrometer and its use to realize the international temperature scale with enhanced 

accuracy.'53 At the level of 95 % confidence, the experimental uncertainties were 

±0.12°C at 1063°C, ±0.24°C at 1256°C, and ±3°C at 3525°C. 

Albert 1. Hattenburg determined the spectral radiance of the anode of a low-current 

graphite arc in the region 210 nm to 850 nm. In performing these measurements, 

Hattenburg utilized a recently developed spectroradiometer of improved accuracy. 

The radiance values showed an uncertainty estimated as 1 .5 % to 5 %, with the 

smaller uncertainty at the longer wavelengths. 

Donald A. McSparron, Charles A. Douglas, and Herbert L. Badger of the Metrology 

Division reviewed available radiometric methods for measuring the output of pulsed 

lasers. They recommended use of a thermopile or phototube, as well as attenuating the 

laser power to a value similar to the calibrating source. The total uncertainty for the 

measurements was estimated to be 5 %•155 

A new tungsten-filament lamp standard for total irradiance was brought into service. 

It replaced the type of 50 W carbon-filament lamp that had been in use for 50 years. 

The new lamps were made available in 100 W, 500 W, and 1000 W units. They 

operated at higher temperatures than the previous standard lamps, producing sources of 

considerably higher irradiance. The new lamps were prepared in a collaborative effort 

by Ralph Stair of the Metrology Division, in collaboration with William E. Schneider, 

and William B. Fussell.'56 

R. 0. Lee, "Construction and operation of a simple high-precision copper-point blackbody and furnace," 

NBS Technical Note 483. May 1969. 16 pp. 52 R. 0. Lee and E. Lewis, "Radiance temperature at 6500 A of the graphite arc," App!. Opt. 5, No. I 1858 (1966). 

R. 0. Lee, "The NBS photoelectric pyrometer and its use in realizing the International Practical Temperature Scale above 1063 °C," Metrologia 2, No. 4, 150-162 (1966). 

A. T. Hattenburg, "Spectral radiance of a low current graphite arc," App!. Opt. 6, No. 1, 95-100 (1967). 

0. A. McSparron. C. A. Douglas, and H. L. Badger, "Radiometric methods for measuring laser output," 

NBS Technical Note 418, November 1967. 

R. Stair. W. E. Schneider. and W. B. Fussell, "The new tungsten-filament lamp standards of total irradiance,' App!. Opt. 6, No. I, 101-lOS (1967). 

94 
Joseph C. Richmond and Gerhart J. Kneissl, collaborating with their colleagues 

Douglas L. Kelley and F.J. Kelly of the Institute of Applied Technology, reported new procedures for the precise determination of total normal emittance of ceramic materials 

at very high temperatures. 57 Kneissl and Richmond also reported the construction and testing of an integrating 

sphere for use with laser light sources. Using the new equipment, they were able 

to measure the reflectance of a variety of refractory materials to 2150 °C, with an imprecision less than 0.05 %•15K 

Gerhart J. Kneissl obtained reflectance measurements from the laser-source reflectometer. The laser beam was alternately directed into a large integrating sphere (outside picture at left) and a small averaging sphere 

(left center). Reflectance values were indicated by a digital voltmeter. 

J. C. Richmond, G. J. Kneissi. D. L. Kelley, and F. J. Kelly, "Procedures for precise determination of 

thermal radiation properties," NBS Technical Note 292, February 1967. 

Gerhart J. Kneissl and Joseph C. Richmond, "A Laser-Source Integrating Sphere Reflectometer," NBS 

Technical Note 439, February 1968. 

95 
In a related work, William Fussell and Jon C. Geist measured the normal spectral 

emissivity of single-crystal calcium fluoride in the wavelength range 2 urn to 12 

and the temperature range 500 °C to 600 °C.59 

Thermodynamic Properties of Materials 

Thomas B. Douglas calculated the high-temperature energies of dilute solid solutions 

for all 96 cases of binary alkali halides excepting cesium. His results compared 

favorably with available experimental data. 

In the area of statistical physics, Raymond D. Mountain reviewed a comprehensive 

calculation of the interaction of light with density fluctuations in a dense, simple 

fluid. In the calculation, Mountain used the hydrodynamic equations of irreversible 

thermodynamics; he was able to confirm the results of Landau and Placzek and to 

develop a procedure for deriving certain correction terms as well. 

Melville S. Green and his colleague Leopold S. Garcia-Cohn of the Mexican 

National Commission for Nuclear Energy analyzed the meaning of temperature in the 

kinetic theory of dense gases. 162 These ideas were related to the general question of 

useful macroscopic variables in non-equilibrium statistical mechanics. 

Critical phenomena in a variety of materials—gases, binary liquids, binary alloys, 

magnets, and superfluids—were compared by Jan V. Sengers and Johanna M. H. L. 

Sengers for the journal Chemical and Engineering News. 63 They found strong similarities in the thermodynamic behavior among these very different systems. It was their 

hope to obtain a universal equation of state for all critical anomalies. 

High-Speed Measurements 

A lengthy discussion on the use of the exploding-wire technique to provide information on the high-temperature properties of a variety of materials was presented by 

Esther C. Cassidy, Stanley Abramowitz, and Charles W. Beckett in NBS Monograph 

No. 109, issued in November 1968. Time-resolved measurements of electrical energy, 

159 W. B. Fussell and J. C. Geist, "Approximate normal emissivity spectra in the infrared at elevated temperatures of single-crystal and polycrystalline calcium fluoride," App!. OJJL 6, No. I. 119-124 (1967). 

T. B. Douglas, "Calculated heats of dilute solid solution among the alkali halides other than cesium salts," 

J. Chen:. Phys. 45. No. 12, 4571-4585 (1966). 

161 R. D. Mountain, "Spectral distribution of scattered light in a simple fluid," Revs. Mod. Phys. 38, No. 1, 205-2 14 (1966). 62 L. S. Garcia-Cohn and M. S. Green, "Definition of temperature in the kinetic theory of dense gases," 

Phys. Rev. 150 No. I, 153-158 (1966). 

V. Sengers and J. M. H. L. Sengers, "The critical region," Chen:. Eng. News 46, No. 25, 104-118 

(1968). 

96 
power, voltage and current; high-speed photographs of the explosions; and timedependent recordings of the radiant output of the sample all were described, along 

with notes on the types of apparatus available. 64 This technique would later be 

exploited by a group led by Ared Cezairliyan for the study of refractory metals. 

Computing Devices 

With the collaboration of Robert C. Thompson of the Office of Standard Reference 

Data, Charles H. Popenoe prepared a recipe for simple modifications to a teletypewriter to facilitate its use as a remote console for a computer. 65 This work led to 

pioneering developments in computer-assisted typesetting, led by Joseph Hilsenrath, 

Robert C. Thompson, and Carla G. Messina. 

Atomic Physics Division (Karl G. Kessler, Chief). 

The Atomic Physics Division was composed of 6 sections: spectroscopy, headed by 

William C. Martin; infrared and microwave spectroscopy, under David R. Lide, Jr.; 

far-ultraviolet physics, led by Robert P. Madden; electron physics, under John A. 

Simpson; atomic physics, headed by Richard D. Deslattes; and plasma spectroscopy, 

under Wolfgang L. Wiese. 

Atomic Spectroscopy 

One of the most important contributions of the Bureau's Atomic Physics Division 

was the observation, analysis, and tabulation of spectral lines arising from the 

excitation of neutral and ionized atoms. William F. Meggers, a world-renowned 

spectroscopist, was heavily involved in this work from 1914 until the year of his death 

in 1966. In recognition of his painstaking and prolific contributions to the knowledge 

of atomic spectra during a half-century at NBS, an entire issue of the NBS Journal 

of Research (Vol. 71A, No. 6, 1967) was dedicated to Meggers' work. In an introductory tribute to the work of Meggers, Division Chief Karl Kessler wrote, "More than 

any other man, Dr. Meggers came to be identified with this voluminous increase in 

our knowledge of atomic structure." 

Kessler's tribute was followed by a paper describing Meggers' last work, on the 

second spectrum of ytterbium (Yb II); 166 Charlotte E. Moore-Sitterly, one of his 

long-time colleagues, edited the 148-page paper which analyzed spectra involving 

some 315 energy levels. In the same issue, a second Meggers work, accomplished 

jointly with William R. Bozman, Charles H. Corliss, and Jack L. Tech, presented a new description of the spectrum of Tc I and Tc II. Corliss and Tech also discussed the 

164 E. C. Cassidy, S. Abramowitz, and C. W. Beckett, "Investigation of the exploding wire process as a source of high temperature studies," NBS Monograph 109, November 1968, 53 pp. 65 Charles H. Popenoe and Robert H. Thompson, "Accessory Equipment and Teletypewriter Modifications 

for Remote Computer Consoles," NBS Technical Note 4/9, February 1968. 

In the standard notation used in the spectroscopy of atoms, Tc II refers to the "second spectrum" of 

technetium, i.e., the spectrum of the singly ionized atom. In this notation, Tc I refers to neutral Tc, Tc III to 

doubly ionized Ic, and so on. See, for example, P. H. Heckmann and E. Träbert, Introduction to the SpectroscoJ)y of Atoms, translated from the German by S. Bashkin (New York: North-Holland, 1989) p. 10. 97 
lifetimes of energy levels, oscillator strengths, and transition probabilities in neutral Fe 

(some of this material appeared in NBS Monograph 108, March 1968); Corliss and 

John B. Shumaker, Jr. of the Heat Division, measured transition probabilities in Ar I: 

Victor Kaufman and Jack Sugar observed a dozen spectral lines in Pr V: and Joseph 

Reader and Sumner P. Davis (on leave from the University of California, Berkeley) 

examined the fundamental energy levels of Pm I. 

Spectroscopic instrumentation specifically designed for use with the NBS 180 MeV 

electron synchrotron was described by Robert P. Madden, David L. Ederer, and Keith 

Codling. 167 These instruments included a 3 m grazing-incidence spectrograph and a monochromator. 

Richard Deslattes, working with William Sauder of the Virginia Military Institute, 

completed a study of the Zeeman effect in the annihilation of positronium.'68 With 

Robert E. LaVilla, Deslattes also described the spectra obtained from several 

67 R. P. Madden. D. L. Ederer, and K. Codling, "Instrumental aspects of synchrotron XUV spectroscopy." 

App!. opt. 6, No. I, 3 1-38 (1967). 

611 W. C. Sauder and R. D. Deslattes, "Zeeman effect in positronium annihilation at low temperatures," 

J. Res. NBS 71A, No. 5. 347-353 (1967). 

98 

Spectroscopist William F. Meggers adjusted interferometer for use with the lamp, which he developed in 1947. Although the 86 Kr lamp became the international standard in 1960, the lamp was frequently used for laboratory length measurements because of its relative ease of operation. 
chlorinated hydrocarbons, using a two-crystal x-ray spectrometer with high 

resolving power.'69 

John A. Simpson described the physical limitations on electron beams and the 

design of electron guns in one chapter of the text Methods of Experimental Physics and 

the production and use of monoenergetic electron beams in another.'7° 

In collaboration with Elio Passaglia, Chief of the Metallurgy Division, and Nicholas 

N. Winogradoff of the Electronic Technology Division, Karl G. Kessler, Chief of the 

Atomic Physics Division, prepared a summary of NBS laser standards and materials 

projects supported by either the Advanced Research Projects Agency or the U.S. Air 

Force Avionics Laboratory.'7' The projects included the following: laser energy and 

power measurement and continuous-wave power measurements, by Donald A. 

Jennings; I72 laser pulse measurements, continuous-wave power measurements, and 

radiometric techniques at new laser wavelengths, by Donald McSparron of the 

Metrology Division; CO2 laser power measurements, by Louis J. Schoen; laser power 

and energy measurements, properties of long-wavelength lasers, and semiconductor 

laser materials, by Nicholas Winogradoff; far- and near-field laser studies, by Merritt 

M. Birky; bulk optical properties of laser materials, by Given W. Cleek of the 

Inorganic Materials Division; laser characterization standards, by John L. Torgeson, 

also of the Inorganic Materials Division; optical evaluation of laser rods, by Fred 

W. Rosberry of the Metrology Division; magnetic resonance studies of laser materials, 

by Te-Tse Chang of the Inorganic Materials Division; laser-rod holography, by Klaus 

D. Mielenz and Arthur T. Funkhouser, both of the Metrology Division; and optical 

characterization of crystals, by Robert F. Blunt and Martin I. Cohen, both of the 

Inorganic Materials Division. 

Office of Deputy Director, lBS/Boulder (Bascom W. Birmingham, Acting Chief). 

In 1968 all the activities at the Boulder site were brought under the supervision of one manager, who in turn reported to the Director of lBS. By that time, the NBS 

Central Radio Propagation Laboratory already had been transferred to the Environmental Science Services Administration—another unit of the Department of 

R. D. Deslattes and R. E. LaVilla, "Molecular emission spectra in the soft x-ray region," App!. opt. 6, 

No. I, 39-42 (1967). On the basis of this and related atomic constants work utilizing x-rays and optical 

interferometry, Deslattes received the 1969 Arthur S. Flemming Award. The Flemming Award was given to 

outstanding government researchers under the age of 40. 170 A. Simpson, "Electron guns," and "Special sources of monoenergetic electrons," in a Chapter entitled 

"Sources of Atomic Particles" in Methods of Experimental Physics, Volume 4, "Atomic and Electron 

Physics," pp 84-95 (New York: Academic Press, Inc., 1967) pp. 84-95 and 124-135. 

" K. 0. Kessler, E. Passaglia, and N. N. Winogradoff, editors, "Research on laser standards and materials at the National Bureau of Standards," NBS Technical Note 449, June 1968, 32 pp. 72 See, for example, D. A. Jennings, E. D. West, K. M. Evenson, A. L. Rasmussen, and W. R. Simmons, 

"Laser power and energy measurements," NBS Technical Note 382, October 1969, 64 pp. 

99 
Commerce—although the personnel involved still occupied part of the NBS/Boulder 

Radio Building. Five technical divisions and three administrative divisions made up the 

Boulder laboratories. 

Adininistralive Services Division/Boulder (Barton F. Betts, Chief). 

The Instrument Shops Division at Boulder under R. S. Perrill and the Plant Division 

at Boulder headed by E. A.' Yuzwiak rendered services that were similar to those of 

their counterparts in Gaithersburg. Their personnel contracted for materials and 

equipment, performed mail deliveries and managed other communications activities, 

provided the Boulder staff with visual aids and graphics, maintained records, 

constructed specialized scientific equipment, and cared for buildings and grounds. 

Radio Standards Physics Division/Boulder (Harold S. Boyne, Acting Chief). 

This division was composed of three sections: solid state electronics, under Robert 

J. Mahler; quantum electronics, headed by Donald A. Jennings; and plasma physics, 

led by Karl-Birger Persson. 

Calibration Services 

Calibration of certain electromagnetic properties of materials was offered by the 

RSP division. These properties included the permittivity of nonmagnetic liquids and 

solids, the permittivity of ferrites, magnetic permeability of toroids and rods, and 

ferromagnetic-resonance linewidths and gyromagnetic ratios of samples of various 

geometric shapes. 

Laser Studies 

A first for the Boulder laboratories—a pulsed ruby laser—was achieved by Donald 

A. Jennings in The laser, powered by xenon flash lamps, was "bootlegged," 

according to Snyder and Bragaw, since no funds had been included in the Division 

budget for its construction. The new instrument made accessible a whole range of 

experiments that had been beyond the laboratory capabilities. It was also the forerunner of many other lasers, developed at Boulder and Gaithersburg, and of lasercharacterization methods. 

In 1968, an HCN laser was used to observe electron-paramagnetic-resonance absorption between two ground-state levels of oxygen. The laser-based spectrometer was 

constructed and used by a group that included Kenneth M. Evenson, Joseph S. Wells, 

and Robert J. Mahler from the Radio Standards Division, Herbert P. Broida—famous 

Wilbert F. Snyder and Charles L. Bragaw, "Achievement in Radio: Seventy Years of Radio Science, 

Technology, Standards, and Measurement at the National Bureau of Standards," (Washington, DC: USGPO, 

1986): p 631. Jennings received the Department of Commerce Gold Medal Award for Exceptional Service 

in 1970 for this work. 

100 
for his contributions to the NBS free radicals program but then on his way to the 

University of California at Santa Barbara—and Masataka Mizushima of the University 

of Colorado. 

Material Properties 

The accurate and convenient measurement and comparison of the complex permeability of magnetic materials in the range 30 MHz to 100 MHz were discussed by 

A. L. Rasmussen and his colleague from the Radio Standards Engineering Division, C. 

McKay Allred.175 The manner by which an admittance meter could be used for this 

purpose was described in some detail. 

William S. Lovell and Lynn M. Thiel discussed interferometric methods for the 

determination of the complex dielectric constants of liquids; in addition, they pointed 

out sources of error in these methods. 176 Spectroscopy Data Compilation 

During 1968, Volumes IV and V of Monograph 70, Microwave Spectral Tables, 

were published by Marian S. Cord, Jean D. Peterson, Matthew S. Lojko, and Rudolph 

H. Haas. Volume IV, containing some 400 pages, was devoted to a compilation of 

literature values up to 1961 for the spectra of polyatomic molecules without internal 

rotation. Volume V, about 25 % larger, contained a listing of the spectral lines given 

in Vols. I, II, and III. Monograph 70 had been initiated as a service to the user 

community by Paul F. Wacker in 1964. It expanded upon the first atlas of microwave 

spectra, NBS Circular 518, published in 1952 by P. Kisliuk and C. H. Townes. 

Electromagnetic Fields 

In a study of the radial distribution of radiation from a cylindrical source, Earl R. 

Mossburg, Jr., and Matthew S. Lojko used orthogonal polynomial expansions to solve 

the Abel integral transform. 

Radio Equipment 

Noting the need for regulated, low-voltage power supplies for use with transistorized 

circuits, John H. Rogers offered three different circuit designs for such supplies)78 The 

designs differed principally in the available circuit gain. 

74 K. M. Evenson, H. P. Broida, J. S. Wells, R. J. Mahler, and M. Mizushima, "Electron paramagnetic 

resonance absorption in oxygen with the HCN laser," Phys. Rev. Len. 21, 1038-1040 (1968). 

A. L. Rasmussen and C. M. AlIred, "An admittance meter technique to measure the complex permeability at VHF," J. Res. NBS 72C, No. I, 81-89 (1968). 176 W. S. Lovell and L. M. Thiel, "Interferometric Measurements of the Complex Dielectric Constant of 

Liquids," NBS Technical Note 369, August 1968. 

Earl R. Mossburg, Jr. and Matthew S. Lojko, "Solution of the Abel Integral Transform for a Cylindrical 

Luminous Region With Optical Distortions at Its Boundary," NBS Technical Note 368, July 1968. 78 John H. Rogers, "Transistorized Low Voltage Regulator Circuits and Design," NBS Technical Note 371, 

September 1968. 

101 
In 1968, John H. Rogers prepared a schematic diagram from simplified design equations for low-voltage regulator circuits. The equations led to the construction of 

inexpensive and dependable regulator circuits. 

Radio Standards Engineering Division/Boulder (Helmut M. Altschuler, Chief). 

The RSED conducted research in the following areas: radiofrequency electrical 

standards, under C. McKay Alired; radiofrequency impedance standards, ordinarily 

headed by Robert C. Powell but temporarily in the charge of Cletus A. Hoer; 

microwave circuit standards, under M. B. Hall; and electromagnetic field standards, led 

by Ramon C'. Baird. 

Calibration Services 

The division offered calibrations of radiofrequency standard instruments used for 

measurements of voltage, power, impedance, attenuation, phase shift, effective noise 

temperature, pulse properties, and electromagnetic field strengths. Karl W. Wendt and 

Roy E. Larson were in charge of the calibration services. 

George E. Schafer described for the journal Proceedings of the IEEE the system of 

electromagnetic measurements in the United States, using Huntoon's national measurement system as a model. 

"Calibration and Test Services of the National Bureau of Standards." NBS Special Publication 250, 1968. 

E. Schafer, "A systems concept of electromagnetic measurements in the U.S.A.," Proc. IEEE 55, No 6, 

775-778 (1967). 

102 
AC Current Standards 

In connection with the Gaithersburg Electricity Division, we already have mentioned a study of alternating current standards by Winston W. Scott, Jr. and Nolan V. 

Frederick of the Radio Standards Engineering Division in Boulder. In this case, however, the comparisons involved current measurements at the higher frequencies utilized 

in radio work. Scott and Frederick focused on state-of-the-art techniques, including 

thermocouple ammeters, electrodynamic ammeters, photoammeters, and air-thermometer ammeters. The study emphasized frequency ranges, current-level ranges, and 

convenience as much as it did the accuracy of the methods. 

Allan S. Risley and Howard E. Bussey reported studies indicating success with 

calculations on nonresonant circuits modeled using resonant-circuit theory. 

Measurement Techniques 

Progress in an international intercomparison of electromagnetic measurements at 

high frequencies—from 30 kHz to 40 GHz—were reported by Myron C. Selby. Besides NBS, other international organizations involved in the project included the International Electrotechnical Commission, the International Radio Scientific Union and the 

International Bureau of Weights and Measures. At that time, measurements of power, 

attenuation, and permittivity already had been compared; the new objective was to 

standardize both measuring equipment and measurement procedures. 

In a related effort, A. Y. Rumfelt and Lyman B. Elwell reviewed bolometric, calorimetric, and other types of radio-frequency power measurements, emphasizing techniques for minimizing error from mismatch, dc substitution, and bolometer-mounting 

inefficiency. S4 An error analysis in the use of a Wollaston-wire element in bolometers 

(a device known as a barretter) was outlined as well, by Stephen Jarvis, Jr., and John 

W. Adams. 

Donald N. Homan showed how parasitic ioop currents in ac bridge circuits could be 

suppressed by the use of coaxial choke coils. This technique soon became standard 

practice. 

Winston W. Scott, Jr. , and Nolan V. Frederick, "The measurement of current at radio frequencies," Proc. 

IEEE, 55, No. 6, PP. 886-891 (1967). 

A. S. Risley and H. E. Bussey, "Interpretation of ferromagnetic resonance measurement made in a nonres- onant system," IEEE Trans. Insir. Meas. IM-5, No. 4, 393-396 (1966). 

M. C. Selby, "International comparison of measurements at high frequencies," IEEE Spectrum 3, No. I, 

89-98 (1966). 

A. Y. Rumfelt and L. B. Elwell, "Radio frequency power measurements," Proc. IEEE 55, No. 6, 837-850 

(1967). 

'° S. Jarvis, Jr. and J. W. Adams, "Calculation of substitution error in barretters," J. Res. NBS 72C, No. 2. 

127-237 (1968). 86 D. N. Homan, "Applications of coaxial chokes to ac bridge circuits," J. Res. NBS 72C, No. 2, 16 1-165 

(1968). 

103 
Microwave Attenuation 

Robert W. Beatty, scientific consultant to division chief Helmut Altschuler, described microwave attenuation measurements and standards in NBS Monograph 97. 

Ramon L. Jesch and Robert M. Jickling outlined the principles of impedance measurements for coaxial waveguides. 88 Time and Frequency Division/Boulder (James A. Barnes, Chief). 

James L. Jesperson was in charge of one of the division's three sections, frequency 

and time dissemination research; Donald W. Halford led another, atomic frequency and 

time standards. Peter P. Viezbicke headed the time and frequency broadcast services. 

Calibration Services 

Most of the services concerning NBS time and frequency were delivered via the 

broadcast signals from radio stations WWV, WWVL, WWVB, and WWVH. These 

signals included standard radio frequencies, standard audio frequencies, standard 

musical pitch, standard time intervals, time of day, universal time (UT2) corrections, 

radio propagation forecasts, and geophysical alerts. NBS Special Publication 236, NBS 

Frequency and Time Broadcast Services, issued in 1968, provided a brief discussion of 

these services. However, the division also offered an in-house frequency-calibration 

service involving direct comparison of the user's signal source with the NBS 

Frequency Standard. 

Alvin H. Morgan reviewed the distribution of the standard time and frequency 

signals in a paper prepared for the Proceedings of the iEEE. 

A New international Unit of Time 

As a result of research performed over the previous several years, much of it at 

NBS, the 13th General Conference on Weights and Measures was able to adopt a new definition of the second. The new definition was: "The second is the duration of 

9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two 

nuclear hyperfine levels of the fundamental state of the atom of cesium- 133." Heavily 

involved in the research that led to the new definition were James Barnes and David 

W. Allan. 

187 R. W. Beatty, "Microwave measurements and standards," NBS Monograph 97, April 1967. 188 R. L. Jesch and R. M. Jickling, "Impedance measurements in coaxial waveguide systems," Proc. IEEE 55, 

No. 6, 9 12-923 (1967). 

A. H. Morgan, "Distribution of standard frequency and time signals," Proc. IEEE 55, No. 6, 827-836 

(1967). 

'9° J. A. Barnes and D. W. Allan, "An approach to the prediction of coordinated universal time," Frequency, 

5, No. 6, 15-20 (1967). 

104 
Frequency Standards 

David Allan also published a theoretical treatment on the statistics of frequency 

standards based on atomic transitions.'91 The work established a relationship between 

the expectation value for the standard deviation of thefrequency fluctuations of 

short-term data samples and the infinite-duration standard deviation. It also included 

methods for determining the power spectral density of the frequency fluctuations, the 

sampling time, and the dependence on system bandwidth. 

In a cooperative study involving the NBS Time and Frequency Division, the Quantum Electronics Division of Varian Associates, and the Hewlett-Packard Co, an 

intercomparison was completed for hydrogen and cesium frequency standards. These 

standards included the NBS III cesium-beam United States Frequency Standard, a cesium-beam device from Hewlett-Packard, and two hydrogen masers built by Varian 

Associates.'92 The group found that the level of stability exhibited by the two hydrogen 

masers reached 1 X over a two-month period. The other devices showed similar 

levels of stability. The frequency of the atomic transition in hydrogen observed during 

the work, corrected to conditions of free space, zero magnetic field, and zero absolute 

temperature was (1420,405,751.7860 ± 0.0046) Hz. 

Flicker Noise 

The subject of flicker noise—random noise occurring in electrical circuits, whose 

spectral density is larger at lower frequencies—was treated by Donald Halford. He 

developed a general mechanical model for frequency-dependent noise.'93 This topic had 

been treated earlier by Barnes and Allan, using the method of fractional order of 

integration. 

Laboratory Astrophysics Division/Boulder (Lewis M. Branscomb, Chief). 

The Laboratory Astrophysics Division served as the "home" for NBS staff members 

working at the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics (JILA). The brainchild of 

Lewis Branscomb and Richard N. Thomas, JILA was established in 1962 on the 

campus of the University of Colorado at Boulder. The LAD/JILA group quickly 

became known within NBS as a fertile source of scientific achievement in aerospace 

physics. The intimate connection with the graduate program of the University of 

Colorado provided an abundant supply of eager scientific collaborators. Branscomb 

was the first LAD chief. 

D. W. Allan, "Statistics of atomic frequency standards," Proc. IEEE 54, No. 2, 221-230 (1966). 192 R. l3eehler, D. Halford, R. Harrach, D. Allan, D. Glaze, C. Snider, J. Barnes, R. Vessot, H. Peters, J. Vanier, L. Cutler, and L. Bodily, "An intercomparison of atomic standards," Proc. IEEE 54, No. 2, 301-302 

(1966). 

D. Halford, "A general mechanical model for lfl" spectral density random noise with special reference to flicker noise 1/10," Proc. IEEE 56, No. 3, 25 1-258 (1968). J. A. Barnes and D. W. Allan, "A statistical model of flicker noise," Proc IEEE 54, No. 2, 176-178 

(1966). 

105 
Laser Technology 

Laser technology became one of the first major efforts in a collaboration that linked 

scientists from several divisions. As noted previously, Donald A. Jennings, Chief of the 

Quantum Electronics Section of the Radio Standards Physics Division, built the first 

laser at the Boulder site. John L. Hall, who came to the Bureau as a Postdoctoral 

Research Associate, received the Department of Commerce Gold Medal Award in 

1970 for his exceptional research on lasers and their application to length metrology. 

Details of laser collaborations appear in later chapters. 

Woif-Rayet Stars 

A small (38 participants) symposium on WoIf-Rayet stars was held at the University 

of Colorado June 10-14, 1968. The symposium was co-sponsored by the American 

Astronomical Society, the Harvard College Observatory, JILA, and the Smithsonian 

Astropysical Observatory. Katharine B. Gebbie and Richard N. Thomas edited the 

proceedings. An interesting feature of the 275-page proceedings is that an enormous 

amount of astronomical effort up to that time had apparently produced relatively few 

widely held conclusions regarding an interesting group of radiating celestial objects. 

Electron Scattering in Stars 

The importance of Doppler noncoherence in electron scattering in particular types of 

stars was discussed by David Hummer and D. Mihalas in the Astrophysics Journal. 96 In a study of excitation of light atoms, Robert L. Long, Jr., Donald M. Cox, and 

Stephen J. Smith reported an investigation of the excitation of the 2p state of atomic 

hydrogen by electron impact.'97 The results confirmed the existence of a substantial 

discrepancy between theoretical predictions and experimental findings at electron 

energies below 50 eV. 

Branscomb, the Division Chief, described his study of photodetachment of the 

negative hydroxyl ion,'98 and summarized the progress in electron atomic and molecular physics over the previous two decades. 

Katherine B. Gebbie and Richard N. Thomas, editors, "WoIf-Rayet Stars" in Proceedings of a Synzposiu,n 

Held at the Joint Institute Jbr Laboratory Astrophysics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO. June 10-14, 

1968, NBS Special Publication 307, December 1968, 275 pp. 96 D. 0. Hummer and D. Mihalas, "Line formation with noncoherent electron scattering in 0 and B stars," 

Astrophys. J. 150, No. I, L57-L59 (1967). 

R. L. Long, Jr. , D. M. Cox, and S. J. Smith, "Electron impact excitation of hydrogen Lyman-s radiation," J. Res. NBS 72A, No. 5, 52 1-535 (1968). L. M. Branscomb, "Photodetachment cross section, electron affinity, and structure of the negative hydroxyl ion," Phys. Rev. 148, No. 1, 11-18 (1966). 

L. M. Branscomb, "Twenty years of physics: atoms, molecules, and electrons," Physics Today 21, No. 5, 

36-39 (1968). 

106 
Cryogenics Division/Boulder (Dudley B. Chelton, Acting Chief). 

Members of the Cryogenics Division participated in nearly every major U.S. cryogenic engineering program from the time of its founding. Of particular importance 

to America's space effort was the division's studies of the thermodynamic properties of 

fluids, in the early days directed by Robert J. Corruccini. 

The Division provided many services to the cryogenics community in 1968. The Cryogenic Data Center, headed by Victor J. Johnson, collected low-temperature-properties 

information on materials of interest to both engineers and scientists. Other division work 

featured research on cryogenic properties of solids—headed by Richard H. Kropschot— 

and fluids, under the temporary leadership of Duane L. Diller. Research on fluid-transport 

systems was led by R. V. Smith, and cryogenic systems research was headed by R.W. 

Arnett on an acting basis. Cryogenic metrology was the specialty of a group led by 

Douglas B. Mann. W. A. Wilson headeda group offering cryogenic technical services. 

Thermal Properties 

The kinetic-theory approach to transport-property calculations for dilute gases was employed by Howard J. M. Hanley and Gregory E. Childs to derive values for the 

coefficients of viscosity and thermal conductivity of dilute nitrogen and oxygen 200 and, in a separate NBS Technical Note, of dilute neon, krypton, and xenon.20' In this context, the 

term 'dilute' reflected the temperature-dependent choice of a typical interatomic spacing, 

chosen with a particular calculational method in mind. 

During the 10th International Conference on Low Temperature Physics, held in Moscow 

in 1966, John J. Gniewek, John C. Moulder, and Richard H. Kropschot reported measurements of the electrical conductivity of copper single crystals and polycrystalline wire in the 

temperature range from 4K to 77K.202 Resistivity ratios (273 K/4K) exceeded 3 X 

and 1 X iOn, respectively. In a related effort, L. A. Hall reported results of a survey of 

electrical resistivity measurements on 16 pure metals in the range OK to 273 K.203 Graphs 

illustrating the differences between samples of varying size and purity were included. 

Integrated tables of pressure, volume, and temperature, from the triple point to the 

critical point of saturated liquid oxygen, nitrogen, argon, and parahydrogen, were presented by Hans M. Roder, Robert D. McCarty, and Victor J. Johnson.204 

2000 E. Childs and H. J. M. Hanley, "The viscosity and thermal conductivity coefficients of dilute nitrogen 

and oxygen," NBS Technical Note 350, October 1966. 201 H. J. M. Hanley and 0. E. Childs, "The viscosity and thermal conductivity coefficients of dilute neon, 

krypton, and xenon," NBS Technical Note 352, March 1967. 202 j Gniewek, J. C. Moulder. and R. H. Kropschot, "Electrical conductivity of high purity copper," in Proc. Tenth Intern. Conf Lo,v Temperature Physics, Moscow, USSR, Aug. 31-Sept. 9, 1966, (Moscow, 

USSR: Viniti, 1967), pp. 366-370. 203 L. A. Hall, "Survey of electrical resistivity measurements on 16 pure metals in the temperature range 0 to 273 °K," NBS Technical Note 365, February 1968. 204 H. M. Roder, R. D. McCarty, and V. J. Johnson, "Saturated liquid densities of oxygen, nitrogen, argon, 

and parahydrogen," NBS Technical Note 361, January 1968. 70 pp. 

107 
In a study related to the needs of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

for data on liquid and solid hydrogen, David E. Daney, Paul R. Ludtke, Dudley B. 

Chelton, and Charles F. Sindt described certain physical properties of "slush" 

hydrogen, composed of partially frozen hydrogen of high enthalpy content.205 

Slush hydrogen was formed at the bottom of 

this Dewar flask. Solid hydrogen, formed on the surface of liquid hydrogen, sank to 

the bottom and broke into very fine 

particles. This combination of liquid and 

very fine, solid particles of hydrogen—slush 

hydrogen—provided a desirable rocket fuel. 

As a first step in the critical evaluation of the thermophysical properties of methane 

at low temperatures, L. A. Hall presented a bibliography of these properties selected 

for the temperature range 0 K to 300 K.206 The bibliography contained more than 600 

references. 

205 D. E. Daney, P. R. Ludtke, D. B. Chelton, and C. F. Sindt, "Slush hydrogen pumping characteristics," 

NBS Technical Note 364, April 1968. 

L. A. Hall. "A bibiography of thermophysical properties of methane from 0 to 300 °K," NBS Technical 

Note 367, May 1968. 

108 
Cryogenic Thermometry 

Lawrence L. Sparks and Robert L. Powell described the results of a study of lowtemperature thermocouple thermometers in the range 78 K to the ice point.207 In 

this work, they produced tables of emf vs temperature, as well as typical levels of 

reproducibility. 

Cryogenic Flow 

In a study that also was related to the design of cryogenic fluid-transport equipment, 

James A. Brennan, D. K. Edmonds, and Raymond V. Smith recorded experimental 

results of two-phase, mass-limiting flow measurements on hydrogen and nitrogen.208 

The experimental data were compared to the results of simple analytical model 

calculations. 

Design of Cryogenic Apparatus 

Ray Radebaugh presented a complete and consistent set of data for the thermodynamic properties of liquid 3He — 4He solutions for the temperature range 0 K to 

1.5 K.209 The information was important for the optimization of the design of a novel, 

effective type of cryogenic refrigeration based on the injection of liquid 3He into liquid 

4He in the region below I K. The so-called "3He — 4He dilution refrigerator" had been 

suggested by Heinz London in 1951, but only in 1966 had a successful model been 

built by Hall, Ford, and Thompson of the University of Manchester in the United 

Kingdom. 

A detailed analysis of the performance of the type of refrigerator conceived in 1873 

for use at much higher temperatures by George Brayton, a Boston engineer, was presented by R. C. Muhienhaupt and T. Richard Strobridge.21° The Brayton cycle had seen extensive use in aircraft cooling and was considered a good candidate for use in 

space-flight power systems. Muhlenhaupt and Strobridge discussed the use of nitrogen, 

parahydrogen, and helium as potential refrigerants. Some 75 tables of projected 

performance data were included in the note. 

207 L. L. Sparks and R. L. Powell, "Cryogenic thermocouple thermometry," Meas. Data I, No. 2, 82-90 

(1967). 

2011 J. A. Brennan, D. K. Edmonds, and R. V. Smith, "Two-phase (liquid-vapor), mass-limiting flow with 

hydrogen and nitrogen," NBS Technical Note 359, January 1968. 209 R. Radebaugh, "Thermodynamic properties of He3—He4 solutions with applications to the He3—He4 dilution refrigerator." NBS Technical Note 362, December 1967. 210 R. C. Muhlenhaupt and T. R. Strobridge, "An analysis of the Brayton cycle as a cryogenic refrigerator." 

NBS Technical Note 366, August 1968. 

109 
Institute for Materials Research (John D. Hoffman, a theoretician in the field of 

polymer science, was appointed Director of IMR in 1968). 

Whereas the mission of the Institute for Basic Standards was focused on the 

maintenance and creation of standards of physical measurement, that of the IMR was to assist and stimulate industry in the development of new and improved products by 

increasing the understanding of the relevant properties of useful materials; to develop 

criteria by which the performance characteristics of basic materials could be evaluated; 

and to create standard reference materials to facilitate measurement comparisons and tc 

aid in the control of production processes. 

Office of Standard Reference Materials (Wayne W. Meinke, Chief). 

The program in standard reference materials was one of the most successful of all 

Bureau activities. Even as an unofficial service, the program had benefited U.S. scienc 

and industry from 1905 by furnishing standard samples, standard materials, and 

reference materials. The activity had begun in response to a request from the Americar 

Foundrymen's Association for help in producing standard samples of cast iron to 

promote uniform analytical and manufacturing techniques.2M In 1950, Congress 

amended the NBS enabling legislation—in part to create a more direct emphasis on standard reference materials. In 1964, the title Standard Reference Materials was given 

to a freshly integrated program and the OSRM was formed with Meinke as its head. 

The official mission of the OSRM was to evaluate the requirements of science and 

industry for carefully characterized reference materials and to stimulate NBS efforts to 

create, produce, and distribute such materials. As a "matrix-management" office, the 

OSRM was substantially smaller than a technical division. J. Paul Cali served as Deputy Chief, John L. Hague was coordinator for research on inorganic standards, 

Robert E. Michaelis coordinated work on metallic standards, Thomas W. Mears was 

the coordinator for organic standards, Hugh F. Beeghly provided technical liaison, and 

Margaret E. Guggenheimer was the Administrative Officer. There were about a dozen 

other OSRM employees. Two were machinists, preparing samples; Herbert L. Carter 

and 0. Eugene Deardorff. The others were administrative staff; Margaret E. Graury, 

Linda L. Grimes, James L. Izlar, Suzanne Chew Love, Ruth H. Meyer, William P. 

Reed, Mary H. Roth, Patricia E. Schmitz, Connie L. Stanley, Robert J. Stewart, and 

Leo F. Wright. Their responsibilities included preparing certificates, tracking funding 

and expenditures, interacting with the public, and preparing program information. 

As a consequence of their many contributions to the Nation's technology, standard 

reference materials were one of the outputs of the Bureau that was easiest for the 

layman to understand. 

211 See "Measures For Progress," p. 93. 

110 
Standard Reference Materials (SRMs) were well-characterized materials that proved 

extremely useful in calibration programs or as references for the control of commercial 

or scientific processes. After preparation at the Bureau or elsewhere, SRMs were 

compared to NBS master standards and certified with respect to a particular characteristic. The NBS certification was provided as a quantity, with a numerical value and 

uncertainty limits that enabled the users to make comparisons with their own products 

rather than to perform absolute determinations of the characteristic, a far more 

challenging task. 

In 1968, NBS Miscellaneous Publication 260, Standard Reference Materials: 

Catalog and Price List of Standard Materials Issued by the National Bureau of Standards provided a ready guide to the availability and cost of these materials. Over 650 

different types of SRM's in 70 different categories were in production, in compositions as diverse as biological specimens, ceramics, chemicals, gases, metals, minerals, ore samples, polymers, and radioisotopes. These materials were used as references in such 

enterprises as aerospace, oceanography, pollution control, nuclear energy, medicine, 

and transportation, as well as in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, plastics, glass, 

cement, steel, and non-ferrous metals. 

The SRM program at the Bureau circa 1968 was partly self-supporting through sales 

of the individual units; the sales price of each unit was set so as to recover the cost 

to produce it. In 1968 some 43,000 units were sold to more than 4500 customers, 

returning just over $1 million to NBS to continue the program. Often a particular SRM was developed in the course of a project whose objective was essentially unrelated to 

the eventual use of the unit; demand for the standard from potential customers would 

then be satisfied by initiating a production project within NBS which would last until 

the demand was satisfied or until the reference standard might become available from a source outside the Bureau. 

During 1968 more than 100 SRMs were introduced or renewed. Thirteen of the 

Bureau's technical divisions were involved in producing these standards. Among the new materials were the following: 

• SRM 911, Purity Cholesterol. 

This standard, requested by the College of American Pathologists and the American 

Association of Clinical Chemists, provided a cholesterol reference of high purity, 

(99.4±0.3) %, for laboratory comparisons. The purity was determined using several 

methods—gas chromatography; thin-layer chromatography; and mass, infrared, and 

nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The analyses were performed by Alex 

Cohen, David H. Freeman, Robert T. Leslie, Rolf A. Paulson, Charles B. Romain, and 

Robert Schaffer of the Analytical Chemistry Division and Connie L. Stanley of the 

Office of Standard Reference Materials.212 

212 Copies of the certificates that accompanied each shipment of SRMs were kept on tile in the OSRM. The 

information given in this section came mostly from review of certificates in the files. 

Ill 
• SRM 680 and 681, High-Purity and Doped Platinum. 

These standards were prepared as reference materials for the analysis of purified 

platinum, which was used in a variety of technical applications. The high-purity 

samples contained a total of only about 10 parts per million (ppm) by weight of 

oxygen or metallic impurities; each lot was certified as to impurity levels. The doped 

samples typically contained 2 ppm to 10 ppm each of a list of a dozen common 

impurities, again with the amounts in each lot certified. In this case, the samples were 

prepared by commercial laboratories, then tested both at NBS and at participating 

laboratories for impurity levels and homogeneity. 

• SRM 1621 and 1622, Sulfur in Residual Fuel Oil. 

About 16 % of the sulfur dioxide that appeared as an air pollutant in 1968 came 

from residual fuel oil. SRMs 1621 and 1622 were produced to provide references for 

the analysis of fuel oil for sulfur. They were prepared from commercial fuel oils with 

natural sulfur contents. Gravimetric analysis of the sulfur content showed values 

certified to be (1.05 ± 0.02) % and (2.14 ± 0.01) %. The analytic work was performed 

by Booker S. Carpenter, Roif A. Paulson, and William P. Schmidt of the NBS 

Analytical Chemistry Division. 

• SRM 701b, Standard Light-Sensitive Papers. 

This standard was developed to evaluate the dosage of radiant energy of commercial 

carbon-arc lamps that were used to test textiles for fading on exposure to light. The 

papers used in the SRM were prepared at the NBS paper mill under the supervision 

of Donald G. Fletcher, then calibrated by Paul J. Shouse and Elio Passaglia of the 

Polymers Division, using a standard carbon arc. • SRM I 14L, Surface Area of Portland Cement. 

This type of standard had been used for more than a quarter-century as a reference 

in cement manufacture. The mean particle diameter and the surface area per gram as determined by two commercially available instruments were certified by members of 

the NBS Building Research Division. 

• SRM 981, 982 & 983, Isotopic Standards for Lead. 

Isotopic abundance ratios of lead samples were used in measuring the age of rocks, 

meteorites, and mineral deposits—important information for geological work throughout the world. However, great accuracy in measurement of the ratios was required in 

order to achieve believable results. These three new SRMs allowed laboratory personnel to calibrate with suitable accuracy the instruments used in this type of geologic 

measurements, as well as satisfying the many other requirements for isotopic standards 

of lead. 

112 
The SRMs provided three different ratios of the lead isotopes of mass 204, 206, 

207, and 208, with the atomic fraction of each isotope certified within 0.01 % or better (substantially better, for the geological-age projects mentioned above). 

Preparation and analysis were performed by Edward J. Catanzaro, Thomas J. Murphy, 

William R. Shields, and Ernest L. Garner of the Analytical Chemistry Division. 

• SRM 1010, Microscopy Resolution Test Charts. 

American industrial and governmental organizations spent nearly $300 million 

annually to preserve records on microfilm. To ensure that the records were of adequate 

quality, it was necessary to evaluate the resolving power of the filming system in 

several positions of the focusing field. This SRM, periodically renewed, provided test 

patterns for that purpose. The latest charts provided 26 patterns ranging from I to 18 

cycles per mm. The samples were prepared in the Institute for Basic Standards. 

Responsibilities of Other IMR Divisions 

Apart from the Office of Standard Reference Materials, the divisions of the IMR 

shared several responsibilities, including the following: 

• Conduct research on constants of chemistry and physics, on properties and structure 

of matter. 

• Develop methods for the preparation, purification, and analysis of materials. 

• Investigate fundamental phenomena of importance to science and industry, including the effects of extremes of temperature and pressure and of radiation. 

• Assist in the development of standard testing methods for materials. 

• Develop and produce standard reference materials. 

• Provide advice to government, science, and industry on basic materials problems. 

Analytical Chemistry Division (Wayne W. Meinke, Chief). 

The Analytic Chemistry Division housed a wide range of research and service work 

in nine sections—radiochemistry, James R. DeVoe, chief; spectrochemistry, Bourdon 

F. Scribner, chief; electrochemistry, Roger G. Bates, chief; analytical coordination 

chemistry, Oscar Menis, chief; microanalysis, John K. Taylor, chief; mass spectrometry, William R. Shields, chief; organic chemistry, Robert Schaffer, chief; activation 

analysis, Philip D. La Fleur, chief; and separation and purification, David H. Freeman, 

chief. 

Section Summaries 

An excellent summary of the activities of the Analytical Chemistry Division in the 

area of spectrochemical analysis was prepared as an NBS Technical Note. 213 Technical 

Spectrochemical Analysis Section: Summary of Activities, July 1967 to June 1968," Bourdon F. Scribner, editor, NBS Technical Note 452, January 1968. 

113 
areas covered in the summary included optical spectrometry, electron probe microanalysis, x-ray fluorescence spectrometry, spark-source mass spectrometry, and analysis 

of high-purity materials. 

A similar synopsis, this time in the areas of gravimetry, titrimetry, spectrophotometry, spectrofluorometry, and the analysis of gases in metals, was published in 

Technical Note 424.214 

Technical Note 429, edited by David H. Freeman, Chief of the Separation and 

Purification Section of the Analytical Chemistry Division, contained a discussion of the 

activities in that section in ion exchange, ultrapure reagents, purification techniques, 

and crystallization.215 

Roger 0. Bates, Chief of the Electrochemical Analysis Section, prepared a summary 

of work done in that area.216 Types of projects covered included acidity measurements, 

solvent effects on electrolyte processes, standardization of ion-selective electrodes, 

equilibrium ionic systems, conductance and transport by electrolytes, and preparation 

and properties of solvents. 

The activities of the Microchemical Analysis Section, headed by John K. Taylor, the 

"grand old man" of NBS who, on his retirement in 1986, had accumulated 57 years 

of continuous service with the Bureau, were summarized in NBS Technical Note 

455217 Topics covered included gas analysis, polarographic analysis, coulometric 

analysis, electroanalytical measurements, and microscopic and classical microchemical 

analysis. 

Progress in mass spectrometry and testing of a new mass spectrometer, the formation of a new chemistry group to perform precise analytical work, and results in that 

area were summarized by William R. Shields, Chief of the Analytical Mass Spectrometry Section.218 

Section chief Robert Schaffer reviewed progress in the Organic Chemistry Section in 

carbohydrate synthesis, structure, and characterization; clinical chemistry; polycyclic 

air-pollutant properties; and standard reference materials.219 

214 "Analytical Coordination Chemistry: Titrimetry, Gravimetry, Flame Photometry, Spectrophotometry, and 

Gas Evolution," Oscar Menis, editor, NBS Technical Note 424, January 1968. 215 "Separation and Purification Section: Summary of Initial Activities, February 1966 through June 1967," 

David H. Freeman, editor, NBS Technical Note 429, February 1968. The summary is continued in Technical 

Note 459, December 1968. 216 "Electrochemical Analysis Section: Summary of Activities, July 1967 to June 1968, Roger G. Bates, editor," NBS Technical Nose 453, July 1968. 217 "Microchemical Analysis Section: Summary of Activities, July 1967 to June 1968," John K. Taylor, editor, NBS Technical Note 455, October 1968. 218 "Analytical Mass Spectrometry Section: Summary of Activities, July 1967 to June 1968," William R. 

Shields, editor, NBS Technical Note 456, November 1968. 219 "Organic Chemistry Section: Summary of Activities, July 1967 to June 1968," Robert Schaffer, editor, 

NBS Technical Note 457, September 1968. 

114 
Isotopic Characterization 

In a series of investigations of absolute isotopic abundance ratios of high-purity 

elements important to science and industry, Edward J. Catanzaro, Thomas J. Murphy, 

William R. Shields, and Ernest L. Gamer reported mass-spectrometric evaluations of 

the isotopic abundance ratios for several types of carefully prepared elemental samples. 

One of these was magnesium; the natural abundance ratios 25Mg/24Mg and 26Mg/24Mg were found to be 0.12663 ± 0.00013 and 0.13932 ± 0.00026, respectively, at the level 

of 95 % confidence, yielding a new value of the atomic weight for Mg (based on 12) of 24.30497 ± 0.00044.220 Another study focused on common lead, "equalatom" lead, and "radiogenic" lead, important for geological Yet a third 

investigation, of terrestrial rubidium, established the abundance ratio = 2.59265±0.00170, indicating an atomic weight of 85.46776±0.00026, again at 95% 

confidence.222 The authors made particular efforts to calibrate the two mass spectrometers used in the study in order to provide absolute values. The isotopic lead 

mixtures were offered for sale through the Standard Reference Materials Program. 

Chemical Synthesis 

Alexander J. Fatiadi was clearly one of the more prolific writers among the chemists 

at the Bureau during this period. He published 10 papers by himself between 1966 and 

1968, and several others in collaboration with colleagues. His forte was the synthesis 

and analysis of polycyclic, aromatic hydrocarbons of importance to air-pollution 224. 225 Microanalysis 

Kurt F. J. Heinrich completed development of a new technique for microanalysis 

that utilized scans with an electron microprobe x-ray emission spectrometer.226 The new method was expected to be particularly useful where spatial relationships were important. Heinrich also wrote a description of the principles and techniques of 

220 E. J. Catanzaro, T. J. Murphy, E. L. Garner, and W. R. Shields, "Absolute isotopic abundance ratios and 

atomic weight of magnesium," J. Res. NBS 70A, No. 6, 453-458 (1966). 221 E. J. Catanzaro, T. J. Murphy, W. R. Shields, and E. L. Garner, "Absolute isotopic abundance ratios of 

common, equal-atom and radiogenic lead isotopic standards," J. Res. NBS 72A, No. 3, 261-267 (1968). 222 E. J. Catanzaro, 1. J. Murphy, E. L. Garner, and W. R. Shields, "Absolute isotopic abundance ratio and 

atomic weight of terrestrial rubidium," J. Res. NBS 73A, No. 5, 511-516 (1969). 223 A. J. Fatiadi, "Preparation and purification of some oxidation products of perylene," J. Res. NBS 72A, No. 

I, 39-47 (1968). 224 A. J. Fatiadi, "Periodic acid, a novel oxidant of polycyclic, aromatic hydrocarbons," J. Res. NBS 72A, No. 

4, 341-350 (1968). 225 A. J. Fatiadi, "Effects of temperature and of ultraviolet radiation on pyrene adsorbed on garden soil," 

Envir. Sci. Tech. 1, No. 7, 570-572 (1967). 226 K. F. J. Heinrich, "Scanning electron probe microanalysis," NBS Technical Note 278, February 1967. 

115 
electron-microprobe analysis for the book Advances in Materials Research. 227 The 

subject "Quantitative Electron Probe Microanalysis" was the topic of a two-day 

seminar featuring a baker's dozen of speakers. The papers given during the seminar were preserved in NBS Special Publication 298, edited by Heinrich and issued during 

October 1968. 

Automatic Data Acquisition 

To assist scientists interested in the use of computers in the acquisition of laboratory 

data, Stanley D. Rasberry, Marvin Margoshes, and Bourdon F. Scribner described the 

use of a time-sharing computer in optical emission and x-ray fluorescence measureTheir installation involved the use of a teletype terminal that could utilize the 

Dartmouth College time-sharing computer system. 

Chemical Constants 

Robert A. Robinson and Roger G. Bates, in collaboration with A. K. Covington, a colleague on leave from the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne in England, determined the ionization constant of deuterium oxide (heavy water) near room temperature.229 The measurements were accomplished in an electromotive cell without a liquid 

junction; in presenting their results, the authors illustrated the differences among values 

of pK—the negative of the logarithm to the base 10 of the ionization constant—as 

expressed on the scales of molality (14.955), molarity (14.869) and mole fraction 

(16.653). 

In August 1968 Marion Maclean Davis published Monograph 105, Acid-Base 

Behavior in Aprotic Organic Solvents. This 150-page work contained a unified picture 

of acid-base behavior in organic solvents of comparatively inert character. In such 

solvents as benzene, toluene, motor oils, and transformer oils, acids and bases behaved 

quite differently than they did in water; thus the solvents were often called "inert" or "aprotic." The study was based partly upon research done by the author and his 

colleagues, partly upon information obtained from literature in the field. Various 

erroneous ideas were corrected in the discussion, which contained a unifying explanation of acid-base concepts, hydrogen bonding, and types of acids, bases, and solvents. 

Activation Analysis 

Gilbert W. Smith, Donald A. Becker, George J. Lutz, Lloyd A. Currie, and James R. 

DeVoe illustrated the use of neutron activation analysis for the determination of the 

concentration of trace elements in high-purity substances such as Standard Reference 

227 K. F. J. Heinrich, "Electron probe microanalysis," in Experimental Methods of Materials Research: Advances in Materials Research (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1967), pp. 145-162. s• D. Rasberry, M. Margoshes, and B. F. Scribner, "Applications of a time-sharing computer in a spectrochemistry laboratory: optical emission and x-ray fluorescence," NBS Technical Note 407, February 1968. 229 A. K. Covington, R. A. Robinson, and R. G. Bates, "The ionization constant of deuterium oxide from 5 to 

50 Phys. Chem. 70, 3820-3824 (1966). 

116 
Materials.230 The authors discussed the care necessary to obtain accurate results when 

using neutron activation analysis of trace impurities in complex materials; they found 

bias due to radiation unintentionally induced in the matrix, geometric placement errors, 

nonconstant shielding effects, and gamma-ray attenuation corrections. 

In a related project, a four-person group from the division prepared a major compendium of references on activation analysis.23' Dating the beginning of the activation 

analysis technique from work by Hevesy, Levi, Seaborg, and Livingood during the 

late 1930s, the Analytical Chemistry Division group noted that the rate of literature 

entries had grown exponentially over a 20-year period, exceeding 500 papers per 

year during 1968. George J. Lutz, Robert J. Boreni, Rosemary S. Maddock, and 

W. Wayne Meinke made up the group. They provided references to more than 8000 

papers written throughout the world on activation analysis. 

Crystal Studies 

In a collaborative effort with Harvey Yakowitz of the Metallurgy Division, Donald 

L. Vieth developed a Kossel pattern generator to provide the means for obtaining 

crystal-lattice spacing with a precision of I ppm to 2 ppm and crystal orientation 

within an angle of 0.10.232 The instrument consisted of an electron beam column, a vacuum system, a light microscope, a film cassette, and a Kossel camera. 

Polymers Division (Robert R. Stromberg, Acting Chief). 

Work in the Polymers Division spanned the areas of dielectrics, under the leadership 

of Martin G. Broadhurst; the chemistry and physics of polymers, headed by Leo A. 

Wall and Ronald K. Eby, respectively; characterization, molecular and thermophysical 

properties, the first two areas in the charge of Cornelius A. J. Hoeve and the last under 

Alden B. Bestul; interfaces, led by Stromberg; and dental research, under George R. 

Dickson. 

230 G. W. Smith, D. A. Becker, G. J. Lutz, L. A. Currie, and J. R. DeVoe, "Determination of trace elements 

in standard reference materials by neutron activation analysis," Anal. Chin,. Acta 38, 333-340 (1967). 231 G. J. Lutz, R. J. Boreni, R. S. Maddock, and W. W. Meinke, editors, "Activation analysis: a bibliography, 

Part I," NBS Technical Note 467, Part I, September 1968; 

0. J. Lutz, R. J. Boreni, R. S. Maddock, and W. W. Meinke, editors, "Activation analysis: a bibliography, Part 2—Appendices," NBS Technical Note 467, Part 2, September 1968; 

0. J. Lutz, R. J. Boreni, R. S. Maddock, and W. W. Meinke, editors, "Activation analysis: a bibliography, Part I, Addendum I," NBS Technical Note 467, Part I, Addendum I, December 1969; 

J. Lutz, R. J. Boreni, R. S. Maddock, and W. W. Meinke, editors, "Activation analysis: a bibliography, Part 2—Appendices, Revision I," NBS Technical Note 467, Part 2, Revision 1, December 1969. 232 D. L. Vieth and H. Yakowitz, "Design of a new Kossel pattern generator," J. Res. NBS 70C, No. 4, 

313-318 (1967). 

117 
Martin 0. Broadhurst cut leaf wafers 

for a 968 study of the dielectric 

properties of foliage. The data were employed in the design of radio 

antennas for use in heavily wooded areas. 

John Lauritzen, Jr., an Institute Scientist, Elio Passaglia, newly appointed Chief of 

the Metallurgy Division, and Edmund A. DiMarzio discussed the kinetics of crystallization of binary mixtures of n-paraffins.233 No data existed for this type of system, so the authors were constrained to a theoretical treatment of the topic. They employed a theory for the rate of growth of chains, assuming them to be strips of crystalline 

material composed of both components growing on a uniform substrate. They proposed a number of conclusions that would be subject to experimental verification. 

Polymer Properties 

With the collaboration of Jeffrey T. Fong, an NRC-NBS Postdoctoral Resident Research 

Associate, Jack C. Smith studied the mathematical theory of the coupling of longitudinal 

and transverse waves in a linear, three-element viscoelastic string that was subjected to 

transverse impact.234 

233 j• Lauritzen. Jr. . E. Passaglia. and E. A. DiMarzio. "Kinetics of crystallization in multicomponent 

systems: 1. Binary mixtures of n-paraffins," J. Res. NBS 71A. No. 4, 245-259 (1967). 234 C. Smith and J. T. Fong. "On the coupling of longitudinal and transverse waves in a linear three-elemerit viscoelastic string subjected to transverse impact," J. Res. )VBS72B, No.3.201-214(1968). 

118 

Polymer Crystallization 
Theoretical models were developed for the dielectric and mechanical relaxation 

effects found in the polymers polyethylene and polychlorotrifluoroethylene. The new work, reported by John D. Hoffman, G. Williams, and Elio Passaglia, shed light on the processes of chain-folding in these polymers.235 

Frederick I. Mopsik reported on the temperature, pressure and density variations of 

the dielectric constant of n-hexane.236 He also described the apparatus used in the 

measurements, a cell that was both a bellows dilatometer and a three-terminal electrode 

set that could be used to measure the density and the dielectric properties of liquid 

samples vs temperature and pressure, from 120 K to over 300 K and from 100 kPa to 

2 X 108 Pa, with an overall uncertainty of 0.03 %. 

Shu-Sing Chang, J. A. Horman, and Alden B. Bestul studied the interesting thermal 

properties of diethyl phthalate both below and above its crystalline-glass transition.237 

The temperature range covered was 10 K to 360 K; the data appeared to be precise 

within about 0.1 %. 

Gerhard M. Brauer, George Durany, and Harold Argentar measured the ionization 

constants of substituted benzoic acids in an ethanol-water solution, part of a study 

of the reactivity of substituted phenols.238 They found that the pK values increased 

with ethanol content, but that the relative acid strength did not depend on solvent 

concentration. 

Robert E. Lowry, Daniel W. Brown, and Leo A. Wall discussed the radiationinduced polymerization of hexafluoropropylene at high temperature and pressure.239 

The experimental temperature range was 100 °C to 230 °C and the pressure range was 

4.5 X 108 Pa to 15 x 108 Pa. At the top of both ranges and under a radiation flux of 

1.5 kilorad/h, the polymerization rate was 15 %/h. 

Measurement Techniques 

A new low-frequency bridge for the measurement of dielectric constants was described by W.P. Harris.240 

235 j• D. Hoffman, G. Williams, and E. Passaglia, "Analysis of the a, and -y relaxations in polych1orotrifluoroethylene and polyethylene: dielectric and mechanical properties," J. Polymer Sci. Pt. C, No. 14, 

173-235 (1966). This paper was listed by the Science Citation Index as a "Citation Classic" with more than 

200 citations even during the period 1974-89, some 8-23 years after its publication. 236 F. 1. Mopsik, "Dielectric constant of n-hexane as a function of temperature. pressure, and density," J. Res. 

NBS 71A, No. 4, 287-292 (1967). 237 S. S. Chang, J. A. Horman, and A. B. Bestul, "Heat capacities and related thermal data for diethyl 

phthalate crystal, glass, arid liquid to 360 °K," J. Res. NBS 71A. No. 4, 293-305 (1967). 238 0. M. Brauer, G. Durany, and H. Argentar, "Ionization constants of substituted benzoic acids in ethanolwater," J. Res. NBS 71A, No. 5, 379-384 (1967). 239 R. E. Lowry, D. W. Brown, and L. A. Wall, "The radiation induced polymerization of hexafluoropropylene at high temperature and pressure," J. Polymer Sci. 4, Part A-I, No. 9, 2229-2240 (1966). 240 W. P. Harris, "A new ultra-low-frequency bridge for dielectric measurements," 1966 Annual Report Conf 

Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena, National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council. 

Mt. Pocono, PA, 1966, pp. 72-74. 

119 
William P. Hams of the National Bureau of Standards made dielectric measurements on a specimen with an NBS-constructed ultralow-frequency bridge. Such measurements were important for determining the 

suitability of materials for electrical insulation and for molecular behavior studies. 

James P. Colson and Edward S. Clark, a colleague from duPont, produced tables of 

solutions to Bragg's equation for the Ka radiation from copper, cobalt, iron, and 

chromium. 241 Dental Materials 

A group of scientists working in the area of dental research, Philip L. Oglesby. 

George R. Dickson, M. L. Rodriguez, Ruth M. Davenport, and W. T. Sweeney, treated 

dental amalgams as viscoelastic materials.242 They subjected the amalgams to tensile 

241 James P. Colson and Edward S. Clark. "Tables of solutions to Bragg's equation for copper. cobalt. iron, an chromium Ka radiation and small diffraction angles," NBS Technical Note 461, August 1968. 242 P. L. Oglesby, 0. Dickson. M. L. Rodriguez, R. M. Davenport. and W. T. Sweeney, "Viscoelastic behavio 

of dental amalgams." J. Res. NBS 72C. No. 3. 203-2 13 (1968). 

120 
stress and successfully analyzed the results in terms of the theory of viscoelasticity. 

Dickson, Oglesby, and Davenport further analyzed dental amalgam in terms of its 

steady-state creep behavior.243 

Metallurgy Division (Elio Passaglia, Chief). 

Research in the Metallurgy Division covered many areas. A section on engineering 

metallurgy was in the charge of Melvin R. Meyerson. Lawrence H. Bennett headed the 

alloy physics section. Work on lattice defects and microstructure was led by Arthur W. 

Ruff. Metallic corrosion was studied in a section headed by Jerome Kruger. John R. 

Manning headed the metal physics section. Abner Brenner was chief of the electrolysis 

and metal deposition section, and Robert L. Parker headed the metal crystallization 

section. 

Corrosion 

Fielding Ogburn and M. Schlissel completed a corrosion study of galvanic pitting 

in metallic In this project, they made use of an electrolytic cell which 

simulated a corrosion pit that extended through the metal coating. By the use of this 

technique they were able to measure the cell currents. Combinations studied included 

chromium, copper, and nickel on substrates of zinc, iron, nickel, and copper. 

In a related study, Jerome Kruger and Joan P. Calvert, using a fast-recording ellipsometer, observed the kinetics of film growth on samples of iron that had been passivated in various ways.245 Three stages of growth were differentiated: diffusion-limited, 

limitation by other processes, and logarithmic or inverse-logarithmic rates. 

Crystal Growth 

Sam R. Coriell, formerly a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Heat Division, 

and Robert L. Parker reported a theoretical investigation of the interface kinetics and 

the stability of the shape of a solid sphere growing from the 

With the assistance of Hans Oser of the Applied Mathematics Division, John A. 

Simmons and Sam Coriell developed an integral equation describing the rate of growth 

of "whiskers." 247 

243 G. Dickson, P. Oglesby, and R. Davenport, "The steady-state creep behavior of dental amalgam," J. Res. 

NBS 72C, No. 3, 215-218(1968). 

Ogburn and M. Schlissel, "Galvanic pitting in metal coatings," Plating 54, No. 1,54-62(1967). 245 J• Kruger and J. P. Calvert, "Ellipsometric-potentiostatic studies of iron passivity. I. Anodic film growth 

in slightly basic solutions," J. Electrochem. Soc. 114, No. 1, 43-49 (1967). 246 R. Coriell and R. L. Parker, "Interface kinetics and the stability of the shape of a solid sphere growing 

from the melt," Crystal Growth, a Supplement to J. Phys. Che,n. Solids J3, 703-708 (1967). 247 A. Simmons, H. Oser, and S. R. Coriell, "On the solution of the Stefan problem for whisker growth," 

Crystal Growth, a Supplement to J. Phys. Chem. Solids C8, 255-264 (1967). 

121 
Field-Emission Microscopy 

Allan J. Melmed was very productive during this period, even without considering 

work published jointly with other scientists. In 1967 he published a review of fieldemission miscroscopy, treating the field-electron-emission microscope and the field-ion 

microscope separately. Elements covered included the imaging process and the capabilities, limitations and applications of each type of 

In the same year Melmed wrote a paper about diffusion on the surfaces of nickel 

and platinum leading to rearrangement which appeared to be due to a combination of 

electric fields and surface tension.249 This process was studied by field-electronemission spectroscopy. He also described the epitaxial growth of iron crystals by vapor 

deposition on tungsten field-emission point probes.25° The crystals tended to nucleate in 

one particular crystallographic orientation. 

In another study, Melmed observed differences between hexagonal-close-packed 

(hcp) and body-centered-cubic (bcc) metals in field-ion microscopy.25' This work had 

been motivated in part by observations on field-ion micrographs of field-evaporated 

ruthenium compared with those of rhenium, both hcp.252 

Melmed constructed a microscope that produced an electron shadow "image" of 

small electrically conducting objects in ultra-high vacuum. The instrument used an electron field emitter as a pseudo point source of electrons that shadowed the object on a phosphor screen.253 In 1968 he wrote a chapter for a field-ion-microscopy text 

covering the topics of field-ion microscopy of whiskers, field-ion microscopy of thin 

films, field-ionization mass spectrometry, and biological-molecule imaging.254 

Working with Howard P. Layer and Jerome Kruger, Melmed developed an experimental approach that permitted the simultaneous application of three techniques— 

ellipsometry, low-energy electron diffraction, and field-electron-emission microscopy— 

to the study of surface phenomena.255 They demonstrated the technique by studying the 

adsorption of oxygen on the (001) plane of tungsten. 

2411 A. J. Melmed, "Field emission spectroscopy," chapter in Advances in Materials Research. Vol. 1, Experimental Methods. H. Herman, editor. (New York: lnterscience Publ. Inc.. 1968). pp. 103-143. 

249A. J. Melmed, "Surface self-diffusion of nickel and platinum,"J. App!. Phys. 38, No.4, 1885-1892 

(1967). 250 A. J. Melmed, "Epitaxial growth of iron on tungsten field emission points," Surface Sci. 7, No. 3, 478-81 

(1967). 251 A. J. Melmed, "Helium field-ion microscopy of hexagonal close-packed metals," Surface Sci. 8, No. 12, 

191-205 (1967). 252 A. J. Melmed, "The structure of field-evaporated hexagonal close-packed metal surfaces: rhenium and 

ruthenium," Surface Sci. 5, No. 3, 359-379 (1966). 253 A. J. Melmed, "Field emission shadow spectroscopy," App!. Phys. Let:. 12, No. 3, 100-102 (1968). 254 A. J. Melmed, "Whiskers, thin films, and applications (real and imagined) to mass spectrometry and biological molecule imaging." Chapter in Fie!d-Ion Microscopy, J. J. Hren and S. Ranganathan, editors, (New 

York: Plenum Press Inc. , 1968), pp. 183-212. 255 A. J. Melmed, H. P. Layer, and J. Kruger, "Ellipsometry, low energy electron diffraction and field emission microscopy combined," Surface Sci. 9, 476-483 (1968). 

122 
Mechanical Properties 

As part of a comprehensive program on the mechanical behavior of metals at 

elevated temperatures, William D. Jenkins and William A. Willard described creep 

tests on titanium-aluminum-molybdenum-vanadium alloys at temperatures as high as 650 °C.256 Relation of the results to creep theory and to previous thermo-mechanical 

treatment of the materials yielded guidance for the engineering use of this type of 

material. 

Mössbauer Effect 

Lydon J. Swartzendruber reported the results of graduate research performed at the 

Bureau on the use of the Fe57 Mössbauer effect to study magnetic ordering in copperrich copper-nickel-iron alloys.257 Swartzendruber discussed the possible origin of a doublet structure observed in certain high-temperature spectra. 

Properties of Nickel 

A 150-page NBS Monograph, No. 106 issued in May 1968, illustrates one of the 

roles played by research associates at NBS. Samuel J. Rosenberg, a Research Associate 

from the International Nickel Company, prepared an extensive review of the available 

information on the production, properties, and uses of both high-purity and commercial 

forms of nickel and its alloys. Superseding a 10-year-old NBS Circular on the same topic, the document offered guidance on chemical and physical properties and methods 

of analysis. 

Project Summaries 

A summary of eight high-temperature, materials-research projects at NBS that were supported by the Advanced Research Projects Agency was edited by Elio Passaglia, 

the Metallurgy Division chief. 258 The projects were performed in several different 

divisions of NBS. Each project was briefly described by the scientist involved: 

diffusion in refractory metals, by John B. Wachtman, Jr. , and Alan L. Dragoo; deformation and fracture of ionic crystals, by Sheldon M. Wiederhorn and Leonard H. Bolz; 

optical constants of titanium, by Allan J. Melmed and James J. Carroll; hightemperature creep in metals, by Armin A. 0. Rukwied, William A. Willard, and 

D. E. Dame; electronic structure of hard, refractory metals, by John R. Cuthill and 

256W. D. Jenkins and W. A. Willard, "Creep rupture properties of Ti-8A1-lMo-IV alloy," J. Res. NBS 

No. 2, 167-174 (1968). 257 L. J. Swartzendruber, "MOssbauer effect study of magnetic ordering in copper-rich Cu-Ni-Fe alloys," NBS 

Technical Note 463, August 1968. 256 "Research on high temperature materials at the National Bureau of Standards," Elio Passaglia, Editor, 

NBS Technical Note 447, July 1968. 

123 

vacuum, air, argon, and helium, with the samples contained in iridium or tungsten 

holders. The samples appeared to be least disturbed when contained in a vacuum 

environment. Induction heating was used to melt the specimens. The melting temperature of Al203 in vacuo was determined as (2051 ± 6) °C on the International Temperature Scale. The experimental imprecision level was ± 1.5 °C. 

Surface Effects 

Alan D. Franklin, Samuel Marzullo, and John B. Wachtman, Jr., studying the 

dielectric spectrum of CaF2, observed the effects of surface-layer relaxation.261 The 

surface-layer conductivity of samples doped with 0.1 % GdF3 appeared much higher 

than the bulk values; the authors attributed this effect to large numbers of anion 

vacancies produced by dissolved oxygen. 

Spin-Lattice Relaxation 

The process of energy exchange between the paramagnetic spin system of 

neodymium ethylsulfate and its matrix was studied by use of electron spin resonance 

(ESR) techniques by George A. Candela and Robert E. Mundy.262 This salt was particularly interesting because it was used in low-temperature paramagnetism studies 

following an early demonstration of its utility by Horst Meyer. 263 The dominant 

lattice-bath relaxation time was found to be inversely proportional to the square of the 

bath temperature, but independent of the crystal size or orientation. 

Optical Properties of SrTiO3 

Robert F. Blunt and Martin I. Cohen reported on the creation of color centers in 

MgF2 by the use of 50 kV x rays.2M They tentatively identified F centers as the source 

of an absorption band near 260 nm. Blunt and Cohen also determined the absorption 

coefficient, the reflectivity and the electroreflectance near the fundamental absorption 

edge in SrTiO3, a material which was interesting both as a semiconductor and as a superconductor. 265 

261 A. D. Franklin, S. Marzullo, and J. B. Wachtman, Jr., "Surface-layer relaxation in the dielectric spectrum 

of CaF2 doped with GdF3," J. Res. NBS 71A, No. 5, 355-362 (1967). 262 0. A. Candela and R. E. Mundy, "Influence of paramagnetic resonance on the static susceptibility. The 

lattice-bath relaxation time of neodymium ethylsulfate," J. Cheni. Phys. 46, No. I, 47-54 (1967). 263 H. Meyer, Phil. Mag. 2, 521 (1957). 264 R. F. Blunt and M. I. Cohen, "Irradiation-induced color centers in magnesium fluoride," Phys. Rev. 153, 

1031-1038 (1968). 265 M. I. Cohen and R. F. Blunt, "Optical properties of SrTiO3 in the region of the absorption edge," Phys. 

Rev. 168, No. 3, 929-933 (1968). 

125 
A theoretical study of the optical properties of SrTiO3 under mechanical stress and 

electric fields was reported by Russell C. SrTiO3, the only known oxide 

superconductor, had been the subject of experiments on the relation between superconducting transition temperature and uniaxial stress. Casella's calculations indicated that 

the position of the Fermi surface was very susceptible to uniaxial stress; experimental 

observation of the large influence of uniaxial stress on the superconducting transition 

temperature corroborated his ideas. Ludwig H. Grabner described experiments on photoconductivity and luminescence in the same material during a conference on the 

physics of the solid state.267 

X-Ray Powder Patterns 

Standard x-ray diffraction powder patterns for some 140 substances were presented 

by Howard E. Swanson, Howard F. McMurdie, Marlene C. Morris, and Eloise H. 

Evans. Miller indices for d-values, densities, and refractive indices were included 

wherever possible. Publication of the patterns took place as Sections 6 and 7 of NBS 

Monograph 25, a comprehensive document that, beginning in 1962, superseded 

NBS Circular 539 as a source of up-to-date information useful in identifying many 

materials. 

Ceramics 

Wachtman also served as editor for the 250-page proceedings of a symposium on Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Ceramics, sponsored by the American Ceramic 

Society, the American Society for Testing and Materials, and The symposium 

was held at the Gaithersburg site on April 1-2, 1968. Fourteen papers, half of them by 

Bureau scientists, were presented before some 210 participants of the symposium. 

Physical Chemistry Division (James R. McNesby). 

The activities of the Physical Chemistry Division took place in six sections. The 

leaders of these sections were George T. Armstrong, thermochemistry; Ralph Klein, 

surface chemistry; David Garvin, elementary processes; Henry M. Rosenstock, mass 

spectrometry; McNesby, photochemistry; and Pierre J. Ausloos, radiation chemistry. 

266 R. C. Casella, "Optical properties of SrTiO3 under applied stress and electric field," Phys. Rev. 154, 

No. 3, 743-749 (1967). 267 L. H. Grabner. "Oscillatory photoconductivity and luminescence in SrTiO3," Proc. Cairo So/id Stole ConJ 

American University, Cairo, Egypt, Sept. 3-8, 1966, (Book, Interaction of Radiation With Solids, A. Bishay, 

editor. (New York: Plenum Press Inc. , 1967), pp. 155-160. 266 B. Wachtman, Jr., editor, "Mechanical and thermal properties of ceramics," Proceedings of a Symposium Held at Gaithersburg, MD, April 1-2, 1968, NBS Special Publication 303, May 1969, 275 pages. 

126 
Thermodynamic Data 

A 260-page revision of Tables 23, 33, and 34 of Series I of NBS Circular 500, 

Selected Values of Chemical Thermodynamic Properties, was published in 1968 by 

Donald D. Wagman, William H. Evans, Vivian B. Parker, Iva Halow, Sylvia M. 

Bailey, and Richard H. Schumm.269 In the course of revising the massive circular, eight 

NBS Technical Notes (270-1 through 270-8) were published over a period of time. In 

1982 these were compiled into a single document by the scientists named above with 

the collaboration of Kenneth L. Churney and Ralph L. Nuttall.27° 

Calorimetry 

Eugene S. Domalski and George T. Armstrong completed several calorimetric 

projects during the period 1967-68. Much of this work was accomplished while they 

participated in a Heat Division program—a U.S. Air Force project on the use of 

refractory materials for rocket propellants. Using a bomb calorimeter, the authors 

determined the heat of formation of crystalline boron in gaseous fluorine.27' They also 

provided measurements of the heats of formation of two aluminum borides, A1B2 and 

AIB 12.272 And they were able to deduce the heat of formation of a boron carbide of 

composition B4222C by measuring the heats of combustion of polytetrafluoroethylene 

and of boron carbide-polytetrafluoroethylene mixtures.273 

Photolysis and Radiolysis 

An interesting series of papers on the topics of photolysis and radiolysis was written 

during this period by Pierre J. Ausloos in collaboration with several colleagues. With 

Sharon G. Lias, he investigated isobutane in the gas phase, obtaining information 

on the possible modes of decomposition;274 with Lias and Richard E. Rebbert, he 

discussed the structure of propyl ions formed in the radiolysis of alkanes;275 the same 

269 D. D. Wagman, W. H. Evans, V. B Parker, I. Halow, S. M. Bailey, and R. H. Schumm, "Selected values 

of chemical thermodynamic properties. Tables for the first thirty-four elements in the standard order of 

arrangement," NBS Technical Note 270-3, January 1968, 267 pages. 270 D. D. Wagman, W. H. Evans, V. B. Parker, R. H. Schumm, I. Halow, S. M. Bailey, K. L. Churney, and 

R. L. Nuttall, "The NBS tables of chemical thermodynamic properties. Selected values of inorganic and C1 and C2 organic substances in SI units," J. Phys. Chen,. Rej Data 11, Supplement No. 2, 392 pp. (1982). 271 E. S. Domalski and G. T. Armstrong, "The heat of formation of boron trifluoride by direct combination of 

the elements," J. Res. NBS 71A, No. 3, 195-202 (1967). 272 E. S. Domalski and 0. T. Armstrong, "Heats of formation of aluminum diboride and a-aluminum dodecaboride," J. Res. NBS 71A, No. 4, 307-3 15 (1967). 273 E. S. Domalski and G. T. Armstrong, "The heat of formation of boron carbide," J. Res. NBS 72A, No. 2. 

133-139 (1968). 274 0. Lias and P. Ausloos, "Gas-phase photolysis and radiolysis of isobutane," J. Chem. Phys. 48, No. I, 

392-400 (1968). 275 P. Ausloos, R. E. Rebbert, and S. 0. Lias, "Structure and reactivity of propyl ions in gas-phase radiolysis," J. Am. Chem. Soc. 90, No. 18, 5031-5033 (1968). 

127 
authors reported results of the photolysis of cyclohexane, observing the production of 

ions and superexcited molecules.276 Rebbert and Ausloos also performed photolysis at 

low temperatures, observing the production of free radicals from methyl iodide in 

various organic matrices.277 

Vernon H. Dibeler, James A. Walker, and Susan K. Liston completed the latest 

work in a comprehensive mass spectrometric study of photoionization, obtaining 

photoionization efficiency curves for molecular NO2, NO, and for fragments of these 

molecules.278 

Walter Braun, Karl H. Welge, and James R. McNesby reported flash photolysis 

results on methane, performed in the vacuum ultraviolet range.279 This was to be the 

first of a series of articles on this topic. 

Using photolysis to produce atomic fluorine at 14 K, Marilyn E. Jacox and Doiphus 

E. Milligan detected the presence of the free radicals H('4N)F, H('5N)F, and D('4N)F 

resulting from the reaction of the fluorine with NT-I in an argon matrix.280 This was 

the first observation of the species HNF. Using infrared and visible-ultraviolet 

spectroscopy, Jacox and Milligan were able to identify vibrational fundamental lines 

and electronic transitions involving molecular bending modes. 

Theory of Chemical Reactions 

A calculation of the energy surfaces for interaction of two atomic states of the 

element lithium with hydrogen molecules was reported by Morris Krauss.28' Krauss 

also prepared a 139-page compendium illustrating the successes and failures of 

variational ab initio calculations of molecular properties, especially electronic energies, as found in the scientific literature.282 

Frederick H. Mies and Morris Krauss reported the development of a quantummechanical theory describing the behavior of reacting molecular species and the effect on the reaction rate constant.283 

276 P. Ausloos, R. E. Rebbert, and S. 0. Lias, "Gas-phase photolysis of cyclohexane in the photoionization 

region." J. Phys. Chem. 72. No. II. 3904-3914 (1968). 277 R. E. Rebbert and P. Ausloos, "Photolysis of methyl iodide in matrices of organic compounds at 20 ° and 

77 °K. Reactions of hot methyl radicals," J. Chem. Phys. 48, No. I, 306-311(1968). 278 V. H. Dibeler, J. A. Walker, and S. K. Liston, "Mass spectrometric study of photoionization. VII. Nitrogen dioxide and nitrous oxide," J. Res. NBS 71A, No. 5, 37 1-378 (1967). 279 W. Braun. K. H. Welge, and J. R. McNesby, "Flash photolysis of methane in the vacuum ultraviolet. I. End-product analysis," J. Cheni. Phys. 45, No. 7, 2650-2656 (1967). 280 M. E. Jacox and D. E. Milligan, "Production and reaction of atomic fluorine in solids. Vibrational and 

electronic spectra of the free radical HNF," J. Chern. Phys. 46, No. I, 184-191 (1967). 281 M. Krauss, "Interaction energy surfaces for Li(22S) and Li(226) with H2," J. Res. NBS 72A, No. 6, 553- 

557 (1968). 282 Morris Krauss, "Compendium of ab initio calculations of molecular energies and properties," NBS 

Technical Note 438, December 1967. 283 F. H. Mies and M. Krauss, "Time-dependent behavior of activated molecules. High-pressure unimolecular 

rate constant and mass spectra," J. Chern. Phys. 45, No. 12, 4455-4468 (1966). 

128 
Surface Studies 

Adsorption of nitrogen on rhenium metal was studied with the use of the field-ion 

microscope, which permits atom-by-atom examination of samples, by Ralph Klein 

and James W. Little.2X4 Klein and Little undertook the study in order to extend the 

field-ion adsorption method from body-centered and face-centered cubic metals to the 

hexagonal-close-packed structure. 

The two scientists were successful in obtaining clear field-ion patterns from the 

nitrogen-covered rhenium surface, which closely mimicked those of a clean rheniun 

surface. Their results allowed them to discuss the modes and locations of the 

adsorption process, as well as some of the energetics involved. 

Institute for Applied Technology (Lawrence M. Kushner, an expert in metal physics, was newly appointed as director of IAT in 1968). 

The IAT provided a wide range of technical services to promote the use of available 

technology and to facilitate innovation in technology in industry and government. 

Manager, Engineering Standards (Malcolm W. Jensen, Manager). 

Jensen's duty was to plan and administer the programs of the Office of Weights and 

Measures and the Office of Engineering Standards Services and to help formulate 

policy with respect to engineering standards. Rudolph A. Vignone, an attorney, helped 

to avoid legal problems in this area. 

Office of Engineering Standards Services (Donald R. Mackay, Chief). 

The OESS assisted government at all levels, as well as industry, in developing 

product and safety standards. Sampling, testing, and dissemination of information on standards were part of the workload of this office. Herbert A. Philo directed the work 

in product standards. William J. Slattery was acting chief of the standards information 

section. Mackay filled the role of chief of mandatory standards. 

In collaboration with Malcolm Jensen and a committee of the U.S. National Confer- ence on Weights and Measures, Mackay prepared in 1965 the third edition of NBS 

Handbook 44 Specifications, tolerances, and other technical requirements for commercial weighing and measuring devices. This handbook, first issued in 1949, provided 

assistance to individual states in their efforts to achieve uniformity of weights and 

measures laws and methods of inspection. It incorporated sections on scales, weights, 

liquid measure, linear measure, fabrics, cordage, taximeters, odometers, dry measures, 

and tables of equivalents. 

2S4 Ralph Klein and James W. Little, "Nitrogen on rhenium observed with the field emission microscope," 

Surface Sci. 6, No. 2, 193-207 (1967). 

129 
Office of Weights and Measures (Malcolm W. Jensen, Chief). 

The OWM provided assistance to the states and to industry in the area of model 

laws and regulations and all the many features of maintaining the usefulness of 

standards of weights and measures. This assistance included training of weights and 

measures officials as well as consultation on legal requirements. 

In June 1968 the 53rd National Conference on Weights and Measures was held 

at a large Washington, DC, hotel. The week-long conference was an important tool in 

the effort of NBS and weights and measures officials from all levels of government, 

industry, and consumer organizations for coordinating their activities. Daily sessions 

permitted the airing of many issues relating to weights and measures. Allen Astin, 

Director of NBS, served as the Conference President, and Malcolm Jensen, OWM 

chief, was the Conference Secretary. Standing committees existed on liaison with the 

Federal government, on education, on specifications and tolerances, and on laws and 

regulations. 

Office of Invention and Innovation (Daniel V. De Simone, Chief). 

This office had the responsibility for analyzing the effect of Federal laws on invention and innovation throughout the United States. In addition, the office encouraged 

invention through specific programs and by collaboration with state governments. 

These activities were carried out in three program areas: the innovation studies 

program, Joseph D. Crumlish, chief; the invention programs, Leonard S. Hardland, 

chief; and the engineering education program, John M. Tascher, chief. 

Dc Simone described some of the principles of educating students in the concepts of 

innovation in an article published by the journal IEEE Spectrum •285 The discussion 

advocated an engineering curriculum, with emphasis on fostering creativity. 

Office of Vehicle Systems Research (Paul J. Brown, Chief). 

This office was the focus of a collaborative effort between NBS and the National 

Highway Safety Bureau to provide the technical basis for Federal safety standards for 

motor vehicles and other motorized equipment. Its staff also had responsibility for 

developing methods to determine the levels of compliance with these standards. 

Most of the work of the office was accomplished in three sections: tire systems 

under F. Cecil Brenner, occupant-restraint systems led by Richard W. Armstrong, and 

braking systems with Robert J. Forthofer as chief. 

Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information (Hubert E. Sauter, 

Director). 

The Clearinghouse provided a single point of contact within the Federal government 

through which the general public could obtain the results of government-sponsored 

research. Translation service also was available through this office. 

D. V. Dc Simonc. "Education for Innovation," IEEE Spectrum 5, No. I, 83-90 (1968). 

130 
As part of a 1968 research project, Glenn Ludwig of the NBS Office of Vehicle 

Systems Research (OVSR) adjusted an antenna for picking up a telemetry signal indicating tire temperature. The instrumentation was used to study tire performance under an automobile safety program conducted by OVSR for the Department of Transportation's National Highway Safety Bureau. 

Enormous numbers of publications were involved in the work of the Clearinghouse; a substantial organization was required to fulfill its work. The organization consisted 

of four branches in addition to a joint publications research service headed by Gustav 

Blackett. The branches were: • Document distribution and reproduction, Alvin W. Alexander, chief. • Automated systems and services, M. A. Krazny, chief. 

• Administrative operations, Joseph G. Coyne, chief. • Document processing, George K. Kudravetz, acting chief. 

Product Evaluation Division (Sanford B. Newman, Chief). 

This division developed measurement techniques and test methods for technical 

materials; maintained standard reference materials for rubber and paper; advised other 

government agencies on product standards; and performed developmental work on materials of interest to Federal agencies. 

131 
Five sections existed in the division: plastics and textiles, Karl F. Pliii, chief; fibrous 

systems, Donald G. Fletcher, chief; viscoelastic materials, George E. Decker, acting 

chief; paper evaluation, William K. Wilson, chief; and fabric flammability, James 

V. Ryan, chief. 

Among other responsibilities, this division was home to the work mandated by the 

Flammable Fabrics Act. 

NBS/GSA Test and Development Division (Phillip J. Franklin, Chief). 

To assist the General Services Administration in evaluating the myriad products 

purchased each year for the Federal government, the Bureau maintained a small 

division with the responsibility for testing certain of these products. Among the items 

routinely tested by the NBS/GSA Test and Development Division were batteries, 

lamps, security cabinets, chemicals, and concrete. The division also had the capability 

to perform mechanical testing and soil testing. 

The activities of this division were considered more relevant to GSA than to the 

Bureau. Just before his retirement, Allen Astin arranged the transfer of the division to 

GSA. 

Building Research Division (James R. Wright, Chief). 

Under the leadership of John P. Eberhard—trained as an architect and Director of 

the Institute for Applied Technology in 1966-67—and BRD chief James R. Wright, the 

Bureau's building research program underwent a complete reorientation with the move 

to the Gaithersburg site. The more spacious facilities permitted the group to study 

the behavior of entire buildings rather than to limit its research efforts to building components and materials. In addition, emphasis was placed on assisting governmental 

analysis of building problems and on participating in the new National Conference of 

States on Building Codes. 

As a result of the broadened scope, the Bureau's building research program was 

given a new focus: fleshing out the concept of performance standards. In an article for 

Scientific American, Wright explained the idea: 

The performance approach demands a statement of performance in terms of 

function. Since buildings serve people, function is defined by the attributes 

necessary to serve human requirements. The means of delivering an attribute 

is open. It is in this way that the builder or supplier of a building component 

is invited to innovate. Indeed, the encouragement of innovation is sometimes 

cited as the reason for the performance approach. In any event, the philosophy 

of performance begins and ends with—and puts its principal emphasis on—the 

satisfaction of human needs.286 

286 James R. Wright, "Performance criteria in building," Scientific American, March 1971, pp. 16-25. 

132 
As part of its responsibility for developing criteria for performance standards for 

building products, structures, and systems, the BRD collaborated with the building 

industry, with other government agencies, and with professional associations. A major 

project, Operation Breakthrough, was shared with the Department of Housing and 

Urban Development (see Sect. 2.8.15). 

Besides its other responsibilities, this division responded to the demands of the Fire 

Research and Safety Act. 

The sections of the division and their chiefs were the following: 

• Structures, Edward 0. Pfrang. 

• Fire research, Irwin A. Benjamin. 

• Environmental engineering, Henry E. Robinson. 

• Materials durability and analysis, William C. Cullen. 

• Codes and standards, Gene A. Rowland. 

• Building systems, R. W. Blake. 

• Scientific and professional liaison, W. W. Walton. 

Thermal Measurements 

Paul R. Achenbach, Clinton W. Phillips, and Ronald W. Penney offered a testing 

and rating method for the cooling loads of refrigerated trucks.287 This work was 

sponsored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture to assist the haulers of frozen foods 

or fresh produce. Achenbach also described new NBS test procedures for evaluating 

the performance criteria for building components and systems, including heating, air 

conditioning, and sanitary plumbing.288 

Materials Properties 

Charles M. Hunt reported to the Highway Research Board Symposium the results of 

nitrogen sorption measurements and surface areas of hardened cement pastes.289 

In an effort to create a basis for the use of commercial platinum as a thermal con- ductivity reference material, Daniel R. Flynn and M. E. O'Hagan, a doctoral candidate 

at the George Washington University, studied both its thermal conductivity and 

electrical resistivity in the range 100 °C to 900 °C.29° 

287 p• R. Achenbach, C. W. Phillips, and R. W. Penney, "A testing and rating method for refrigerated trucks 

with respect to cooling load," Annex to Proc. Intern. Inst. Refrigeration, Co,nni. VII, (London, England, Sept. 

1966), pp. 29-35. 288 P. R. Achenbach, "Performance criteria for building components and systems," Proc. Porcelain 

Institute Forum, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill., Sept. 28-30, 1966, 28, 176-195 (1966). 289 M. Hunt, "Nitrogen sorption measurements and surface areas of hardened cement pastes," (Highway 

Research Board Symp. Structure of Portland Cement Paste, Washington, DC, January 1965). Highway 

Research Board Special Report 90, 112-122 (1966). 

D. R. Flynn and M. E. O'Hagan, "Measurements of the thermal conductivity and electrical resistivity of 

platinum from 100 to 900 °C," J. Res. NBS 71C, No. 4, 255-284 (1967). 

133 
Along with his colleague Bradley A. Peavy, Jr., Flynn served as co-editor of the 

800-page proceedings of the Seventh Conference on Thermal Conductivity, held 

November 13-16, 1967 at the Gaithersburg site.29t This conference series was initiated 

in 1961 by participants in the Symposium on Temperature, Its Measurement and 

Control in Science and Industry, who wished to provide an extended forum for the 

discussion of high-temperature thermal conductivity measurements in solids. The 

eighth Thermal Conductivity Conference included more than 180 participants from 

11 countries. The 90 papers presented by these scientists appeared in sessions on theory, methods, metals at low and high temperatures, non-metallics, nuclear materials, 

construction materials, gases, liquids, two-phase systems, and conductivity across 

interfaces. The proceedings of previous thermal conductivity conferences had not been 

published, thus preventing much of the material from reaching the open literature. A 

ninth conference was held at Iowa State University during October 1969. 

Sub-freezing measurements of important properties—breaking load, elongation and 

thermal expansion—for nine types of built-up roofs were outlined by Thomas H. 

Boone, Leopold F. Skoda, and William C. Cullen.292 One purpose of the study was to 

elucidate the differences between roofing membranes prepared in the field by roofing 

contractors and those prepared in the laboratory by NBS laboratory technicians. The 

performance of the field-prepared roofing was found to be substantially the same as the 

laboratory samples, justifying the retention of existing standards of construction. 

Fire Studies 

A study of the effectiveness of dwelling-unit entrance doors as barriers to fire and 

smoke was described in the Building Science Series by Harry Shoub and Daniel 

Gross.293 Without raising their fire resistance or their smoke resistance to the level of 

commercial doors, an impractical goal, various suggestions were offered to improve the 

performance of the doors. For example, they found that smoke penetration into apartments from a smoke-filled corridor could be minimized by providing suitable openings 

in an exterior wall of the corridor; if the openings were above the top of the door, air 

would tend to flow from the room to the corridor and thence out of the openings. 

Instrumentation 

E. Carroll Creitz refined the ideas underlying the use of the Nerheim version of the 

Martin gas-density balance as a detector in gas chromotography.294 Creitz showed 

how to better define the significant balance variables for column effluents of differing 

densities. 

291 Daniel R. Flynn and Bradley A. Peavy, Jr. , Editors, "Thermal Conductivity; Proceedings of the Seventh 

Conference," NBS Special Publication 302, September 1968. 

T. H. Boone, L. F. Skoda, and W. C. Cullen, "Laboratory-field comparisons of built-up roofing mem- branes." NBS Technical Note 473, December 1968. 293 H. Shoub and D. Gross, "Doors as Barriers to Fire and Smoke," Building Science Series 3, March 1966, 10 pp. 294 E. C. Creitz, "Gas density balance design considerations," J. Res. NBS 72C, No. 3, 187-195 (1968). 

134 
Electronic Technology Division (Myron G. Domsitz, Chief). 

The ETD had responsibility for developing criteria for the evaluation of electronic 

instrumentation—including standards and codes—and for identifying needs for new technological instrumentation. Four sections accomplished these tasks: semiconductor 

characterization, under W. Murray Bullis; electron devices, Judson C. French, chief; 

instrumentation application, led by Joshua Stem; and semiconductor processing, under 

Joseph A. Coleman. 

Data Compilations 

A compilation of data on Soviet electronic devices was prepared by Charles P. 

Marsden.295 The compilation was prepared as part of the Bureau Electron Devices Data 

Service, established in 1948 for NBS staff guidance on nearly two dozen types of 

vacuum tubes, transistors, and other devices. 

Semiconductor Measurements 

A progress report on methods of measurement used in the areas of semiconductor 

materials, process control, and electronic devices, assembled by W. Murray Bullis, 

provided the reader with a wealth of information on this Bureau activity.296 The project was sponsored jointly by NBS, the Defense Atomic Support Agency, the U.S. Naval 

Ammunition Depot, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Some 

40 NBS staff members involved in the project were identified, related activities were briefly noted, and some 15 types of semiconductor measurements were outlined. 

Harry A. Schafft and a colleague, Susan Gayle Needham, prepared a bibliography 

on the methods for measuring inhomogeneities in semiconductors. 297 The types of 

inhomogeneities discussed related to resistivity, impurity concentration, diffusion 

length, lifetime, surface conditions, mobility, and p-n junctions. 

A more specialized survey—on minority carrier lifetimes—was prepared by W. 

Murray Bullis.298 Containing references to about 300 papers, the survey covered 

measurement methods, typical results, and theoretical models. 

295 C. P. Marsden, "Tabluation of published data on Soviet electron devices through October 1967," NBS 

Technical Note 44/, July 1968. 296 "Methods of measurement for semiconductor materials, process control, and devices. Quarterly report July 

I to September 30, 1968," W. Murray Bullis, Editor, NBS Technical Note 472, December 1968. 297 H. A. Schafft and S. G. Needham, "A bibliography on methods for the measurement of inhomogeneities 

in semiconductors (1953-1967)," NBS Technical Note 445, May 1968. 298 W. M. Bullis, "Measurement of carrier lifetime in semiconductors—an annotated bibliography covering 

the period 1949-1967," NBS Technical Note 465, November 1968. 

135 
The phenomenon of high-current transistor operation known as "second breakdown," an increasingly prevalent problem, was discussed in detail by Harry A. Schafft and 

Judson C. French in order to document the status of public understanding of the 

phenomenon. 299 Another contribution to the understanding of transistor electronics came from Joseph 

A. Coleman and Lydon J. Swartzendruber, who provided an analysis of the effective 

charge-carrier lifetime in positive-intrinsic-negative (p-i-n) junctions in silicon.300 

Measurement Methods 

Paul S. Lederer discussed the interagency Transducer Project, work done at the 

Bureau since 1951 and supported in 1968 by the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration and by the U.S. Department of Defense.30' The project was important 

to the supporting agencies because of the critical dependence of many telemetry 

techniques on the quality and performance of the transducer involved. The NBS participants provided performance data and developed standardized test procedures for a variety of sensors, including accelerometers, shock tubes, vibration sensors, and 

pressure sensors. Lederer also provided details of the performance testing of electromechanical pressure transducers, used in aerospace testing and a variety of other 

applications. 

Technical Analysis Division (Walter E. Cushen, Chief). 

In this division, cost-benefit analyses on other Institute programs were conducted. It was hoped that this approach to management systems would be useful throughout the 

government. Managers of the different program areas were: socio-economic studies, 

George Suzuki, acting chief; simulation and transportation studies, Louis C. Santone; 

operations research in behavioral sciences, June Cornog; Post Office studies, William 

F. Druckenbrod; and corridor model systems, Ralph E. Schofer. 

Center for Computer Sciences and Technology (Herbert R.J. Grosch, Director). 

This center had responsibility for research and technical support for the General 

Services Administration under provisions of Public Law 89-306, the "Brooks Act" 

which required NBS to provide guidance to the U.S. government on automatic data 

processing (ADP). 

299 H. A. Schafft and J. C. French, "A survey of second breakdown," IEEE Trans. Electron. Devices ED-13, 

No. 8-9, 613-618 (1966). More information on this topic appears in Ch. 6. J. A. Coleman and L. J. Swartzendruber, "Effective charge carrier lifetime in silicon p-i-n junction detectors," (Proc. 10th Scintillation and Semiconductor Counter Symp., Washington, DC, March 23-24, 1966), 

IEEE Trans. Nuci. Sci. NS-13, No. 3, 240-244 (1966). P. 5. Lederer, "Performance testing, pressure transducers," Insir. Control System 40, No. 9, pp 93-99, 

Sept. 1967. See also P. S. Lederer, "Life Cycling' test on several strain gage pressure transducers," NBS 

Technical Note 434, October 1967 and P. S. Lederer, "NBS interagency transducer project," NBS Technical 

Note 469, October 1968. 

136 
The Bureau developed a number of techniques and devices for calibrating and evaluating transducers within the Interagency Transducer Project. In this photograph, NBS 

engineer Paul Lederer prepared to trigger a pneumatic step-function calibrator. 

As Director, Grosch established policy on ADP and directed the work of two offices 

and three divisions: 

Office for information Processing Standards (Joseph 0. Harrison, Jr., Chief) 

This office coordinated programs and standards on computer-generated information 

processing throughout the government. 

Office for Technical information Exchange (Margaret R. Fox, Chief) 

The Technical Information Exchange office provided a referral service for programs on automatic data processing. 

137 
Computer Services Division (W.B. Ramsay, Acting Chief) 

The CSD staff provided computing and data-conversion services to NBS and other 

agencies. 

Systems Research and Development Division (Charles T. Meadow, Chief) 

The SRDD evaluated existing computer systems. 

Chemical Structures on Computers 

A useful project undertaken in this division provided guidance in the transposition of 

chemical structures for use with computers. George F. Fraction, Justin C. Walker, and 

Stephen J. Tauber wrote a brief account of this type of work in an NBS Technical 

Note. 302 Assembly Language 

Input-output software for use with the Assembly Language Processor of the Systems 

360 computer was described by Paul A. D. deMaine.303 

Character Recognition 

Mary Elizabeth Stevens reported on European progress in the recognition by 

computer of optical characters and other patterns, library automation, and linguistic 

data processing.304 

Computer Graphing 

A study of the theory of specialized graphs was completed by Arthur M. Hobbs and 

Jerrold W. Grossman.305 

Electronic Printing 

In February 1968, NBS issued Special Publication 295, edited by Richard W. Lee 

and Roy W. Worral. It contained the proceedings of a symposium on electronic com- position in printing that had been held at the Bureau the previous summer. The four 

sessions of the symposium covered the following topics: State of the Art, Government 

302 G. F. Fraction, J. C. Walker, and S. J. Tauber, "Connection tables from Wiswesser chemical structure 

notations—a partial algorithm," NBS Technical Note 432, September 1968. 303 P. A. D. deMaine, "lnpulloutput packages for the Systems 360 assembly language processor," NBS 

Technical Note 433, September 1968. 

M. E. Stevens, "Nonnumeric data processing in Europe: a field trip report," NBS Technical Note 462, 

November 1968. 305 A. M. Hobbs and J. W. Grossman, "A class of thickness-minimal graphs," J. Res, NBS 72B, No. 2, 

145-153 (1968). 

138 
Policy, Non-Government Applications and Research, and Government Applications. 

The Government Printing Office and the congressional Joint Committee on Printing 

figured strongly in the setting of policy on electronic composition.306 

Information Processing Technology Division (James P. Nigro, Chief) 

This division utilized computer methods for information processing. 

Fingerprint Identification 

In a particularly interesting project, Joseph H. Wegstein, his Bureau colleague John 

F. Rafferty, and Walter J. Pencak from the Federal Bureau of Investigation described a procedure for computing a set of numerical descriptors that identify a single 

fingerprint. 307 The work of Wegstein, Rafferty, and Pencak was continued nearly a decade later 

with even more powerful tools. Raymond T. Moore and James R. Park developed an economical, semiautomatic device that could record information from low-quality 

fingerprints such as those often found at the scene of a crime. They called the 

device a 'Graphic Pen'. In the hands of a trained operator, the computerized sensor 

provided digital information on the "minutiae" of the print—ridge endings and ridge 

bifurcations—for later comparison with FBI files.308 

Center for Radiation Research (Carl 0. Muehlhause, Acting Director). 

The Center for Radiation Research was newly created in 1968. It was formed by 

combining the Radiation Physics Division, formerly led by H. William Koch—who 

had recently departed to the American Institute of Physics—and the Reactor Radiation 

Division, headed by Muehlhause. The principal driving force in its formation was the 

desire to centralize the management of all the Bureau's major radiation-producing 

facilities—a newly commissioned 10 megawatt nuclear research reactor, a 100 MeV 

linear accelerator, various radioactive sources, a 4 MeV Van de Graaff accelerator and a synchrotron. This array of equipment could hardly have been assembled without the 

spacious environment provided by the new Gaithersburg site. 

Because of the relative expense and scarcity of the center's machines, most were regarded as national facilities, to be used as much by scientists outside NBS as by the 

Bureau staff itself. The synchrotron, a modification of a small betatron-type electron 

306 R. W. Lee and R. W. Worral, "Electronic composition in printing," (Proceedings of a symposium held at 

NBS, Gaithersburg, MD. June 15-16, 1967), NBS Special Publication 295, February 1968, 133 pp. 307 j• H. Wegstein, "A computer oriented single-fingerprint identification system," NBS Technical Note 443, 

March 1968. See also J. H. Wegstein, J. F. Rafferty, and Walter J. Pencak, "Matching fingerprints by com- puter," NBS Technical Note 466, July 1968. 

R. T. Moore and J. R. Park, "The Graphic Pen, an economical semiautomatic fingerprint reader," Proc. 

1977 Carnahan Conj on Crime Countermeasures, Carnahan House, Lexington, Kentucky, April 6-8, /977, 

pp. 59-62. 

139 
/ 

I 

'V 

In research sponsored by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, NBS Information 

Processing Technology Division scientists prepared a fingerprint (upper portion of 

photo) for classification and identification by marking its ridge endings and bifurcations on an overlay (lower portion of photo). The system provided descriptors for 

fingerprint details based on direction and location. The descriptors could be obtained, 

sorted, and matched with others by computer. 

140 

N 

\ \\ ,' 
In a refinement of the work shown in the previous illustration, the Graphic Pen, a semiautomated device for marking the fine details of a fingerprint on an overlay, was developed to record fingerprint details. 

accelerator, was moved from the Connecticut Avenue site.309 Its primary use was as a source of far-ultraviolet radiation; although operated by the Center for Radiation 

Research, its main user group was the Far Ultraviolet Physics Section of the Atomic 

Physics Division. 

Calibration Services 

The need for standards in the areas of neutron physics, radioactive samples, and 

beams of x rays, gamma rays and electrons was large and growing in 1968. Consequently, the Center offered calibration services in all these fields. NBS Special Publication 250, Calibration and Test Services of NBS, listed services in neutron physics 

(neutron-source emission rate, neutron dosimeters, and neutron irradiation of test foils), 

radioactivity (both liquid and solid of alpha, beta, and gamma emitters), and x rays and gamma rays (measuring instruments, sources, and dosimeters). 

Attached to the Center Office were a radiation theory group, whose research 

benefited the whole Center, and a health physics group, which had responsibility for 

"NBS Installs Synchrotron at Gaithersburg Laboratories," NBS Technical News Bulletin, Vol. 53, January 

1969. pp. 4-5. 

141 
the safe utilization of sources of ionizing radiation. Typical radiation-theory research 

projects included the following: 

Radiation Theory 

As part of the Center service to users of radiation sources, Charles M. Eisenhauer 

utilized scattering theory to derive expressions for the radiation flux of gamma rays 

originating from a point source and singly scattered in air.3t0 

Leonard C. Maximon developed analytic expressions for the production of an electron-positron pair in a Coulomb field, using the Born approximation to derive the cross section.3M 

Michael Danos and his colleagues Walter Greiner, of the Institut für Physik at the 

University of Frankfurt in Germany, and C. Byron Kohr, of the University of 

Maryland, described a static theory of the giant quadrupole resonance in deformed 

nuclei.312 The authors stated that, in view of the great success of the hydrodynamic 

model of the giant dipole resonance in predicting its details, it appeared useful to press 

the model even further. 

Irradiation of Foods 

The radiation processing of foods, a technique important for the purification and 

durability of comestibles, required careful regulation of sources and dosages. 

H. William Koch and Elmer H. Eisenhower discussed the various criteria used for this 

type of irradiation.313 Of special importance in their discussion was limiting any 

radioactivity induced in the target foods to negligible levels. The safety and efficacy 

of the radiation-processing technique was still debated publicly as this history was 

written. 

Reactor Radiation Division (Robert S. Carter, Acting Chief). 

The NBS nuclear reactor achieved criticality on December 7, 1967, following 

9 years of planning and 4 years of construction.314 It took another year for the reactor 

to achieve its full capabilities—a power level of 10MW, a flux of 1014 neutrons! 

(cm2 s), filtered neutron beams, intermediate-energy standard neutron field, neutron diffractometers, neutron radiography, time-of-flight neutron spectrometer, and neutron 

C. Eisenhauer, "Gamma radiation fluxes near a ground-air interface using an image source technique," 

Nucl. Sci. Engr. 32. 166-177 (1968). 311 L. C. Maximon, "Simple analytic expressions for the total Born approximation cross section for pair 

production in a coulomb field," J. Res. NBS 72B, No. I, 79-88 (1968). 

M. Danos, W. Greiner. and B. C. Kohr, "Static theory of the giant quadrupole resonance in deformed 

nuclei." Phys. Rev. 151, No. 3, 76 1-772 (1966). 

H. W. Koch and E. H. Eisenhower, "Radioactivity criteria for radiation processing of food," Chapter 7 in 

Radiation Preservation of Foods, pp. 87-108 (Advances in Chemistry Series 65, Am. Chem. Soc., 

Washington, DC, 1967.) 

"NBS Reactor Achieves Criticality." NBS Technical News Bulletin, Vol. 53, March 1968, p. 50. 

142 
In 1963 heavy machinery moved great quantities of earth to make way for construction of the NBS research 

reactor. The nearby farm buildings emphasize the change in character brought by NBS to Gaithersburg. 

Maryland. 

irradiation and separation facilities.3t5 Tawfik M. Raby was Acting Chief of Reactor 

Operations. 

The division offered calibration services for neutron sources and instrumentation, as well as neutron irradiation of foils. 

An Ethic of Collaboration 

An explicit aim of the division was to encourage collaborative reactor projects with 

users from outside NBS. To prepare for the time when the NBS reactor would 

become available, the division staff had collaborated with outside groups for some 

time. In one of these collaborative efforts, John J. Rush performed an experiment with 

H. E. Flotow, D. W. Connor, and D. L. Thaper, colleagues from Argonne National 

Laboratory in Illinois. The group used cold neutrons from the CP-5 research reactor at 

Argonne to study the vibrational spectra of yttrium and uranium hydrides.3t6 They 

observed inelastic (energy-gain) scattering of the neutrons, obtaining spectra that were split into two bands—a higher-energy optical band presumably arising from optical 

hydrogen vibrations, and a lower-energy band which they ascribed to metal-atom 

vibrations. 

H. L Mason and Iris M. Lloyd, editors, "Special Technical Facilities at the National Bureau of 

Standards," NBS Special Publication 4/3, March 1976, pp. 30-34. 

J. J. Rush. H. E. Flotow, D. W. Connor, and D. L. Thaper, "Vibration spectra of yttrium and uranium 

hydrides by the inelastic scattering of cold neutrons," J. Chem. Phys. 45. No. 10, 38 17-3825 (1966). 

143 
Vernon W. Myers had utilized the Brookhaven National Laboratory cold-neutron 

source in late 1966 to obtain information on inelastic scattering in gray tin.317 Later, he 

provided solutions of the time-dependent Klein-Gordon and Dirac equations for the 

motion of a charged particle in a classical, uniform electrostatic 

Neutron Cross Sections 

The Second Conference on Neutron Cross Sections and Technology was held at a Washington, DC, hotel in March 1968. The 123 papers given at the meeting filled the 

two-volume NBS Special Publication 299, edited by David T. Goldman.319 The conference was useful in promoting dialog between basic researchers and those performing 

applied radiation tasks. The eight sessions were intended to address the need for 

accurate measurements, theoretical and experimental methods, and applications. 

Linac Radiation Division (James E. Leiss, Acting Chief). 

The Linac Division operated a linear-accelerator facility which provided highintensity beams of electrons, photons, and neutrons. The beam energy was continuously variable over the range 10 MeV to 150 MeV, with a spread of 2 %. The pulse 

length could be varied from 1 ns to 5 p.s. with a repetition rate as high as 720 pulses/s. 

Four experimental rooms were available; users could occupy any room not under 

llTadiation.32° 

The division also offered programs on instrumentation, headed by Louis Costrell; 

photonuclear physics, under Everett G. Fuller; and electronuclear physics, under the 

leadership of Samuel Penner. 

Many applications were possible using the Linac—from neutron cross section studies 

to electron and photon dosimetry, biochemical radiolysis, and photonuclear physics 

experiments. In the following, we note some of these applications. 

Detector Development 

John W. Lightbody, Jr. and Samuel Penner described a 12-channel array of lithiumdrifted silicon detectors to be used for detecting high-energy electrons in the focal 

plane of a magnetic spectrometer.321 The system exhibited good momentum resolution 

and stable efficiency. 

V. W. Myers, "Inelastic scattering of cold neutrons in polycrystalline gray tin," J. Chern. Phys. Solids 28, 

2207-2210 (1967). 

V. W. Myers, "Solutions of the time-dependent Klein-Gordon and Dirac equations for a uniform electric 

field," J. Res. NI3S 72B, No. I, 37-42 (1968). 319 D. T. Goldman, editor, Neutron cross sections and technology, Proceedings of a conference held in 

Washington. DC, March 4-7, 1968, NBS Special Publication 299, September, 1968, Vol. 1, 660 pp., Vol. 2, 

2718 pp. 320 H. L Mason and Iris M. Lloyd, editors, "Special Technical Facilities at the National Bureau of Standards," NBS Special Publication 4/3, March 1976, pp. 2-3. 321 W. Lightbody, Jr. and S. Penner, "A 12-channel semiconductor counter system for the NBS electron 

scattering spectrometer," IEEE Trans. Nuci. Sci. NS-15, 419-425 (1968). 

144 
Photodisintegration 

Calculations of two- and three-body photodisintegration cross sections for 3H and 

3He were performed by James S. O'Connell and Francisco Prats.322 As the ground-state 

wave function, they used an exact solution of the three-body Schrodinger equation. 

Photonuclear Data Center 

Members of the staff of the Photonuclear Physics Section of the division had established a photonuclear data center, in which data on photonuclear reactions were 

collected. An index to more than 600 publications, organized by element and isotope, 

was published in 1966.323 

Nuclear Radiation Division (Harry H. Landon, Acting Chief). 

Neutron physics, headed by Landon; radioactivity, under Wilfred B. Mann; and 

nuclear spectroscopy, led by Raymond W. Hayward, were active areas of research 

within the Nuclear Radiation Division during 1968. 

Scattering 

The backscattering of alpha particles from metallic surfaces was the focus of a project by J.M. Robin Hutchinson, Carol R. Naas, Delores H. Walker, and Wilfred B. 

Mann. 324 Nucleon-Field Interactions 

Raymond W. Hayward prepared a discussion of the interactions of nuclei with 

electromagnetic fields for the Condon-Odishaw Handbook of Physics. 325 Applied Radiation Division (Joseph W. Motz, Acting Chief). 

The Applied Radiation Division calibrated equipment for the detection of alpha, 

beta, gamma and x-ray radiation. In addition, the staff worked in the area of dosimetry 

under the leadership of Robert Loevinger. 

322 j• S. O'Connell and F. Prats, "Photodisintegration of the trinucleon system in a separable potential 

model," Phys. Leti. 26B, No. 4, 197-200 (1968). 323 "Photonuclear Data Index," prepared by the NBS Photonuclear Data Group (N. V. Baggett, Theresa M. 

Collins, Everett G. Fuller, Julia C. Holland, John H. Hubbell, and James S. O'Connell). NBS Miscellaneous 

Publication 277, April 1966. 324 M. Robin Hutchinson, Carol R. Naas, Delores H. Walker. and Wilfred B. Mann, "Backscattering of 

alpha particles from thick metal backings as a function of atomic weight," Intern, J. Appl. Radiation Isotopes 

19, No. 6, 5 17-522 (1968). 325 R. W. Hayward, "Nuclear electromagnetic radiation," Chapter 6 in Handbook of Physics, Second Edition, 

Part 9, Nuclear Physics, E. U. Condon and H. Odishaw, eds. pp. 9-172 to 9-194 (1968). 

145 
Electron Interactions and Detection 

Samuel E. Chappell, Jimmy C. Humphreys, Joseph C. Motz, Martin J. Berger, and 

Stephen M. Seltzer evaluated the response of silicon detectors to monoenergetic 

electrons.326 

Measurement of the energy and the current of accelerated electron beams was simplified by a device that incorporated a thin aluminum foil placed in the beam. 

Developed by Motz and Julian H. Sparrow, the device was found to yield accurate 

energy measurements over the range 50 keV to 500 keV.327 

Stopping Power 

Additions to existing tabular data on stopping power relative to protons, mesons, and 

electrons were provided by Martin Berger and Stephen Seltzer. They also corrected 

earlier data on electrons in muscle and bone. 

Summary 

This chapter has provided a glance at only a tiny fraction of the numerous projects 

taking place in the technical divisions of NBS during the last years of Allen Astin's 

service as Director. Nevertheless the list illustrates the intense scientific nature of 

the Bureau at that time. It also provides a measure of the strength of the Bureau's 

technical staff, many of whom were world leaders in their specialties. 

As a look at Appendix K shows, changes in the formal structure of NBS occurred 

frequently. The main lines of research, however, changed less frequently and usually in an evolutionary way. Particular lines of study opened and matured over periods of time 

that were as likely to be measured in decades as in years. New programs or lines of 

inquiry were often undertaken through the hiring of new staff members rather than 

through shifts of interest on the part of long-time employees. 

In the following chapters, we trace the progress of some of the projects described in 

this section, although more frequently we introduce work that has not previously been 

discussed. 

326 S. E. Chappell, J. C. Humphreys, J. C. Motz, M. J. Berger, and S. M. Seltzer, "Response of silicon 

transmission detectors to monoenergetic electrons," IEEE Trans. Nuclear Sci. NS-15, No. 3, 359-362 (1968). 327 Motz and J. H. Sparrow, "A simple device for the energy and current measurement of an accelerator electron beam," Record of the. IEEE 9th Annual Symposium on Electron, Ion, and Laser Beam Technology, May 9-lI, 1967, Berkeley, California (San Francisco: San Francisco Press, 1967) pp. 34-41. 326 M. J. Berger and S. M. Seltzer, "Aditional stopping power and range tables for protons, mesons, and 

electrons," NASA-SP, 3036 (1966). 

146 
THE END OF AN ERA 

While the Bureau staff busied itself with its manifold duties during 1968, it awaited 

the coming change in its leadership. When Astin, with typical concern for order 

and planning, had made known his intention to resign after the coming presidential 

election, there was a strong sense among NBS employees that the agency was witnessing the end of an era. Allen Astin had been appointed Director by President Harry Truman; he had served 

with distinction under Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson as well. Under 

Astin, the Bureau had seen the passing of the remnants of the World War II projects 

from its organization, had heard the accusations of villainy in the AD-X2 affair and 

the vindication of its integrity that followed, and had enjoyed. the flowering of a re- invigorated staff utilizing the "new science and the new scientists" sought by Condon 

but brought to NBS mostly by Astin. 

Astin earned many laurels during his long career. His numerous awards for scientific 

and administrative service to the U.S. government included His Majesty's Medal for 

Service in the Cause of Freedom (1947), the Presidential Certificate of Merit (1948), 

the Department of Commerce Gold Medal (1952), the Eli Whitney Memorial Award of 

the American Society of Tool Engineers (1960), the Scott Gold Medal of the American 

Ordnance Association (1962), the Rockefeller Public Service Award (1963), the ASTM 

Award to Executives (1965), the Standards Medal of the American National Standards 

Institute (1969), and a Certificate of Commendation presented jointly by the Nation's 

50 Governors. 

Astin decided to remain as Director through the 1968 elections despite the possibility of the loss of his choice as successor—Lewis Branscomb—should the Republicans 

take over the Executive Branch of the government. There would be no "emeritus 

advisor" role for Astin to circumvent the legitimate process of succession. 

And there would be no machinations to pre-empt the normal course of events by 

Branscomb, either. He would take what came. Never mind that—married to an active 

worker for the Democratic Party—Branscomb might be passed over, should the White 

House be captured by a Republican. In any case, his creation, the Joint Institute for 

Laboratory Astrophysics, still attracted his restless interest. JILA, only four years old, was quickly maturing as a scientific organization. It was becoming a more potent force 

in its field with each passing year. There was plenty to do in Boulder. 

Director Astin gave no indication, during his last months in office in 1968 and 1969, 

that he was a man fatigued by a full career of service. He continued his long-term 

efforts to fine-tune NBS for smooth operation: 

• In February of 1968, he directed the Cryogenics Division to report to the Director 

of the Institute for Basic Standards.329 In June, he established the position of 

Deputy Director, lBS/Boulder, with Bascom W. Birmingham as the incumbent.330 

He also named Ernest Ambler to the post of Director, lBS. 

329NBS Admin. Bull. 68-22,21 Feb 68. 

"° NBS Admin. Bull. 68-118, 24 June 68. 

147 
• Also in February 1968, he directed the Physical Chemistry Division to report to the 

Director of the Institute for Materials Research.33' He named John D. Hoffman as Director, IMR. 

• In June of 1968, Astin appointed Lawrence M. Kushner to the post of Director of 

the Institute for Applied Technology.332 By the following January, Astin had named 

Kushner to the position of Acting Deputy Director of NBS to replace In C. 

Schoonover, who retired after 41 years of service to the Bureau To 

take Kushner's place, Astin appointed Howard E. Sorrows, previously Deputy 

Director of the Institute for Materials Research, to the position of Acting Director 

of the Institute for Applied Technology. 

• The NBS/General Services Administration Test and Evaluation Division, formed in 

1966 to test items purchased by the GSA and other government agencies, was transferred bodily by Astin to the GSA. This action brought to a close a milliondollar-a-year activity that the Bureau regarded as barely relevant to its mission. 

• In July 1968 Astin acted to create an Equal Employment Opportunity office for 

NBS. Donald G. Fletcher, Robert F. Bain, and Karl E. Bell were appointed to a committee to receive any staff complaints of discrimination on the basis of race, 

sex, creed, or national origin.334 

• The Center for Radiation Research was created by Astin during 1968 as well, with 

Carl 0. Muehlhause appointed as its first Director. 

• The Center for Computer Sciences and Technology, established in 1966 in response 

to the "Brooks Act" (PL 89-306, 1965), was made a separate organizational entity 

late in 1968. Astin asked Herbert R.J. Grosch to continue as its Director. 

• One of Astin's last major organizational moves occurred late in 1968 when he 

created the office of Associate Director for Information Programs. Edward L. 

Brady, former Chief of the Office of Standard Reference Data, was named 

Associate Director. Brady's responsibilities included the following: 

• Supervision of the OSRD—then headed on an Acting basis by David Lide, Jr. 

• The Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, located in 

• Springfield, Virginia and headed by Hubert E. Sauter. 

• The Office of Technical Information and Publications, under W. Reeves Tilley. 

• The Library Division headed by Elizabeth L. Tate. 

• The Office of Public Information, with A. Victor Gentilini as Chief. 

• The Office of International Relations under Ladislaus L. Marton. 

NBS Admin. Bull. 68-22, 21 Feb 68. 332 NBS Admin. Bull. 68-113, 17 June 68. " Kushner's initial responsibilities as Deputy Director included management of the Instrument Shops 

Division, the Measurement Engineering Division, and the Offices of Industrial Services and Engineering 

Standards Liaison. By mid-1969, Astin had transferred the Instrument Shops Division to the Institute for 

Applied Technology. 

Memo to all employees, 12 July 68. 

148 
Preparing to retire as Director on August 31, 1969, Allen Astin was still responsible 

for presenting the NBS budget before Congress one last time. This last appearance— 

May 13, 1969—might have become the occasion for a brief reference to Astin's long 

and faithful service.335 But as had been the case since 1963, the budget hearing was chaired by Congressman John Rooney. In contrast to the civil—even friendly—manner 

of predecessors such as Prince Preston of Georgia or George Andrews of Alabama, 

Mr. Rooney consistently presented a less conciliatory demeanor to all public servants 

who appeared before him. 

Allen Astin had suffered at Congressman Rooney's seances as much as any agency 

head but, characteristically, he suffered in silence. Even during his last appearance 

before the subcommittee Astin was calm, turning the other cheek when his tormentor 

attacked. He presented an austere budget of some $38.7 million, cut by the Department 

of Commerce and by the Bureau of the Budget from an initial request of $48.1 million. 

Over and over again, Congressman Rooney asked Astin to repeat the two numbers, as if to stress the enormity of Astin's sin in requesting more money than even the 

spendthrift Executive Branch could countenance. 

In connection with a proposed high-purity materials preparation facility, Astin 

mentioned that day the need for "clean rooms" where super-pure materials could be 

processed; Mr. Rooney saw this request as "... incongruous that you should be talking 

about cleanliness. I can remember when nobody washed the windows out there at 

Connecticut Avenue. Do you remember that, Doctor?" 

Perhaps as something of a farewell to Astin—certainly not because the topic was 

relevant to the day's discussion—Rooney called to mind that day another incident from 

the past. A year or two previously, a specialized painting job on one of the Bureau 

buildings had been performed inadequately and—at no cost to the government—had 

been repaired by the contractor when the fault had been discovered. "Can you 

approximate the amount of cost to the taxpayer as a result of this fiasco, regardless of 

who was to blame for it?," demanded the Congressman. Astin patiently provided the 

subcomittee with NBS records that showed no cost to the taxpayer. However, if the 

citizens of Brooklyn needed further proof of the concern felt by their elected representative for their pocketbooks and for their government's integrity, Mr. Rooney provided 

it one more time. 

Astin had begun his day's testimony by saying: 

This is probably the last time I shall have the privilege of appearing before this 

committee since I have announced plans to retire at the end of August. I would, 

therefore, like to express my thanks and appreciation for your thoughtful 

consideration of my budget requests over the past 17 years. 

If Congressman Rooney—or any of the other subcommittee members, for that 

matter—felt that Astin's nearly 40 years of public service merited thanks that day, the 

record fails to show it. Nor does the historical record anywhere indicate whether Allen 

Astin indulged himself with a small celebration late in the day on May 13, 1969. 

1970 House Subcommittee Hearings, May 13, 1969, p. 895. 

149 
Lewis Branscomb, the heir-apparent to the directorship of NBS, was busy during 

1968 and 1969, too. In addition to his duties as chairman of JILA and Chief of the 

Laboratory Astrophysics Division, he served as adjunct professor to the University of 

Colorado. He also made several contributions to the scientific literature: he edited a conference proceedings that included his own paper, a summary of atomic collision 

processes of importance to astronomy;336 he produced a historical review of the field of 

electron, atomic, and molecular physics;337 he wrote a critique of quality control in the 

publication of the results of scientific with Robert E. LeLevier, a colleague from Rand Corporation in Santa Monica, CA, he published a theoretical 

discussion of the ion chemistry involved in the concentration of mesospheric 

electrons;339 and with Gary C. Tisone, a Research Associate in the Joint Institute for 

Laboratory Astrophysics, he described the results of electron detachment experiments on H and 0. 

Branscomb's interests clearly reached beyond the laboratory to national topics, too, as evidenced by an article in Physics Today that asks the reader, "Please imagine that 

it is January 1980 and this talk is entitled 'Retrospective Look at How Physics has 

Changed in Relation to Society in the Past Twelve years."341 He also continued his 

service as a member of President Johnson's Science Advisory Committee. 

Outside NBS, the situation in national affairs was dismal. Many events conspired to 

touch the Nation with a sense of impending trouble—President Johnson's March 

1968 announcement that he would not be a candidate for the office of President, the 

political rise and untimely snuffing out of the life of Robert Kennedy, the nomination 

of Hubert Humphrey for President in a violent Democratic convention, the accession of 

Richard Milhous Nixon and Spiro Theodore Agnew as the Republican Party's 

presidential team, the public distress arising from the war in Vietnam, and the loss by 

assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. 

But the national unease contrasted in a curious way with the eager anticipation at 

NBS for a leader who was worthy to don the mantle being shed by Allen Astin. 

How strange the path ahead was to become, for the Nation and the Bureau, no one could possibly know in 1968. 

L. M. Branscomb, "The role of atomic collision processes in astrophysics," Chapter in The Physics of 

Electronic and Atomic Collisions: Invited papers from the Fifth International Conference, Leningrad, 

U.S.S.R., July 17-23, 1967, L. M. Branscomb, ed., (Boulder, CO: Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics, 

University of Colorado, 1968), pp. 12-31. 

L. M. Branscomb, "Twenty years of physics: atoms, molecules and electrons," Physics Today 21, No. 5, 

36-39 (1968). 

L. M. Branscomb, "The misinformation explosion: Is the literature worth reviewing?" Sci. Res. 3, No. II, 

49-52 (1968). 

R. E. LeLevier and L. M. Branscomb, "Ion chemistry governing mesospheric electron concentrations," J. 

Geophys. Res. 73, No. I, 27-41 (1968). 

0. C. Tisone and L. M. Branscomb, "Detachment of electrons from H and 0 negative ions by electron 

impact," Phys. Rev. 170 No. I, 169-183 (1968). 

L. M. Branscomb, "Physics and the nation in a crystal ball," Physics Today 21, No. 8, 23-28 (1968). 

150 
CHAPTER TWO 

BRIGHT PROSPECTS FOR NBS (August 1969—May 1972) 

It was a terrible year for America, 1968, but one of great expectations for the 

National Bureau of Standards. The paradoxical existence of an optimistic attitude 

among the staff of NBS—arising in the midst of a mordant pessimism for the future of 

their country among the American public—had its resolution in the anticipation of 

vigorous new leadership for the Bureau. True, the NBS budget was confining; it was necessary for many a manager to seek fundingfrom sources outside of Congress in 

order to reach for new programs or, sometimes, to support existing ones. Also true, the 

state of the scientific equipment was precarious in many a Bureau laboratory. But the 

staff was strong, the laboratories themselves were modern, and the reputation of NBS 

for integrity and scientific capability was secure. Allen Astin had left a fine legacy. 

The Bureau staff could not anticipate all the changes that were in store for their 

agency, although the signs were there to be seen. Public support of the scientific 

establishment was declining; the decrease was felt most keenly among those involved 

in fundamental studies. In response to that decline, there was a rising insistence on "relevance," the ability tO justify projects in terms of immediate public benefits. 

Continually growing was the number of large programs created to address the troubles 

of a beleaguered American industry. The one change that was obvious was that Allen 

Astin was stepping down from his post of 17 years. The prospect that a vigorous new leader could magnify the gains achieved under Astin was exciting. 

A NATION IN DISTRESS 

The Nation saw, in 1968, an avalanche of misery of the sort that it had felt in 1963 

when the vigorous life of John Kennedy was stopped in an instant by an assassin's 

bullet. Historian James Patterson called 1968 "the most turbulent year" in the period 

1945-1974.' 

The year began with the Tet offensive in Vietnam. President Lyndon Johnson had 

seen the number of U.S. military personnel in Vietnam mushroom from the 17,000 

"advisors" of Kennedy's truncated term to 500,000 troops.2 The stepped-up American 

presence was certain, said General Westmoreland, to give America a "light at the end 

of the tunnel." Surely, such a large military force would make short work of an unpopular conflict. Just in time, too, for war protesters already were tramping the streets of 

the Nation's capital.3 

'Of many chronicles of the post-WWII/Vietnam era, one by James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The 

United States, 1945-1974 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996) is among the most thorough. The 

quote is from the title of Chapter 22. 

2 Ibid.. p. 595. 

Ibid., see photos following p. 558. 

151 
The North Vietnamese chose the time of Tet, the holiday of the lunar new year in 

January, to show their determination to withstand the American escalation. In one 

of many simultaneous, bloody attacks, soldiers stormed the U.S. embassy in Saigon, 

breaching the heavy walls of the compound and leaving their dead and dead American 

defenders on the lawn. With that concerted, multi-pronged assault, the North 

Vietnamese quenched the light at the end of the tunnel—the Vietnam war was obviously far from over. 

On March 31, 1968, a downhearted Lyndon Johnson announced to the American 

people that he was halting the bombardment of North Vietnam. He also told a stunned 

radio audience, "I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for 

another term as your President."4 

The national disasters continued in April of 1968. Martin Luther King, who nearly 

single-handedly had kept heated racial tensions from exploding, was cut down in 

Memphis by an assassin. Before that day was out, fires were burning in a dozen 

American cities. Riots, arson, and mayhem killed or injured more than 20,000 people 

within a few days. The Nation's capital itself saw hundreds of fires and ten killings.5 

Robert Kennedy was a victim in 1968 as well. Mounting a vigorous campaign for 

President even before Johnson's withdrawal, Kennedy rallied the Nation to resist the 

forces of anarchy, racial discrimination and despair. In June, after he completed a speech at a Los Angeles hotel and was leaving the scene, Kennedy, too, was shot and 

killed.6 

There were still 6 months of 1968 for the Nation to endure. They were not happy 

months. 

The Democratic national convention of 1968, which took place in Chicago during 

August, was marred by Mayor Richard Daley's heavy-handed response to ever-present 

anti-war demonstrators. Along with bystanders, reporters, photographers—even medical 

personnel—the demonstrators were pursued, clubbed, tear-gassed, and arrested. The 

scene turned many in the watching American public away from the Democratic 

presidential ticket of Hubert Humphrey and Edmund Muskie and towards the 

Republican candidates, former Vice-President Richard Nixon and Maryland Governor 

Spiro Agnew. The stage was set for more nasty years still to come. 

RICHARD MILHous NIXON 

Richard Nixon, as a young lawyer in California, had no political plans. Certainly, he 

had no program that would carry him to the White House. An outstanding student at 

Whittier College, a small Quaker school, Nixon received a scholarship to the law 

school at Duke University, graduating third in his class of 25 with an LLB degree in 

1937. By 1940, he was settled in a law practice. In June of that year he married 

Thelma Patricia Ryan, whom he met during his membership in a little theater group. 

Ibid., p. 685. 

James MacGregor Burns, Crosswinds of Freedoni, (New York: Vintage Books, 1990) p. 413. 

6lbid.. p.414. 

152 
Nixon's low-key life changed with America's entry into World War II. He served in 

the U.S. Navy from 1942-46, returning to California just in time for the Republican 

party to recruit him as an opponent to Congressman Jerry Voorhis. Quickly finding a campaign technique that would serve him well in future races, he attacked Voorhis as a tool of the Communist Party. The accusation, loosely based but effective, combined 

with Nixon's youth, his wartime service, and his excellence at debate to elect him to 

the U.S. Congress, Class of 1946, where he joined a Republican majority. 

Nixon served vigorously in the House. He helped craft the Taft-Hartley labor bill as a member of the Committee on Education and Labor, and, as a member of the 

Committee on Un-American Activities, he helped convict suspected spy Alger Hiss of 

perjury. He found Congressional service much to his liking and eagerly took the 

opportunity to campaign against Helen Gahagan Douglas for the Senate in 1950. 

A scarcely modified "She's-A-Communist-Tool" campaign, coupled with an increasingly effective speaking ability, elected Nixon to the U.S. Senate, where he carried the 

party message nation-wide with perhaps 200 speeches to the faithful during 1951 and 

1952. The party, grateful and impressed, looked kindly upon the choice of Nixon as the vice-presidential candidate to accompany the 1952 presidential bid of Dwight 

David "Ike" Eisenhower, the intensely popular leader of America's military forces in 

Europe during World War II. 

Nixon's first brush with political disaster, a revelation of secret political funds 

donated by wealthy supporters, occurred during the 1952 campaign. Nixon overcame 

the potentially lethal problem by dint of a masterful speech; he remembered with 

rancor, however, certain "enemies"—particularly some aggressive members of the 

press who questioned his ethics. 

Eisenhower and Nixon defeated Illinois ex-Governor Adlai E. Stevenson and 

Alabama Senator John Sparkman by nearly 6 million votes of the 60 million cast. Ike, a political neophyte, proved to be a forceful though his health began to fail 

before his first term was complete. He was instrumental in bringing the Korean War to a cease-fire in July 1953, and he offered quiet support to those who eventually brought 

low his fellow Republican, Senator Joseph McCarthy. Ike willingly fought the 

Cold War, endorsing the development of thermonuclear weapons and an aggressive 

intelligence effort. Despite suffering a heart attack in 1955, he easily won re-election to 

the presidency in 1956. It was said that Eisenhower was not especially fond of Nixon. 

On two occasions the President offered Nixon a Cabinet post, but Nixon opted to 

remain as Vice President.7 The 1956 Eisenhower-Nixon margin of victory over 

Stevenson and Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver was larger than that enjoyed in 1952. 

During his two terms as Vice President, Nixon was increasingly called upon to assist 

Ike with his ceremonial functions. Besides his heart attack in 1955, the war hero suffered an ileitis attack in 1956 and a stroke in 1957. Nixon visited some 56 countries as Vice President, including notable visits to Venezuela and the U.S.S.R. In Venezuela, 

Nixon's cavalcade was disrupted by local insurgents, including members of the local 

Stephen Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier and President (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990), pp. 400-405. 

153 
Communist Party; Nixon displayed courage in the face of the attackers, and the world 

noticed. In Moscow, Nixon confronted Nikita Krushchev during a visit to a kitchenappliance booth at a trade fair, "jawing" with the old Communist fearlessly. Again, the 

world noticed. 

Nixon's string of electoral victories was interrupted, however, when he ran for 

President of the United States and, later, for Governor of California. The Nixon-Henry 

Cabot Lodge presidential ticket lost to John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson in the 

1960 presidential campaign; then Nixon lost again, to Edmund G. "Pat" Brown, in the 

1962 California gubernatorial race. Disappointed and "through with public office" 

Nixon moved to New York, then called one last press conference to chastise some of 

his enemies in the press, announcing, "You won't have Nixon to kick around anymore, 

because this is my last press conference." 

However, as noted above, 1968 was an unusual year. Perhaps longing for the bright 

light of politics, Nixon secured so many primary presidential votes in 1968 that his 

early opponent, George Romney, Governor of Michigan, withdrew from the race for 

the Republican nomination. Then Nixon outlasted Nelson Rockefeller and Ronald 

Reagan to win his party's nomination. He and Maryland Governor Spiro Agnew won the election over former Vice-President Hubert Humphrey and his running-mate, 

Senator Edmund Muskie, and over the surprisingly popular third-party candidates, 

Alabama Governor George Wallace and Air Force General Curtis LeMay. Nixon didn't 

realize at the time that his real trouble was just beginning. 

Facing Adversity 

President Nixon was beset by a host of problems as soon as he took office. The list 

could have served as a medical report for an ailing nation, beginning with the deep 

political turmoil described in the previous sections and including social inequities, 

growing inflation, increasing unemployment, a shaky stock market, and worsening 

international trade balances. 

Vietnam, the Soviet Union, and China 

International affairs interested Richard Nixon. He had seen the world as Vice 

President under Eisenhower, and he felt that—by relying on a mixture of toughness, 

understanding, and diplomacy—he could bring a new level of quiet to world disorder. 

His primary preoccupation, no doubt, was Vietnam, although he was confident that he 

could get results with the U.S.S.R. and China as well. 

Nixon chose Henry Kissinger as his security advisor. Kissinger, a former professor 

of government at Harvard, was anxious to practice his craft in the international arena; 

Nixon gave him his chance. 

Nixon and Kissinger—both secretive men, much given to manipulation and craving 

of public acclaim—made an odd couple, occasionally working at cross-purposes. Yet 

they gradually brought about a marked reduction of the American presence in Vietnam 

and improved relations with both the Soviet Union and China. 

154 
Nixon had a "secret plan" to end the war in Vietnam, he told audiences while 

campaigning for president in 1968. This, like other claims by other men, was not a statement that should be taken literally. However, Nixon confided to aides that 

he felt confident in his ability to bring the North Vietnamese to the bargaining table. 

He called his method the "madman theory"; known to be a rabid anti-communist, he 

would frighten the enemy with the specter of nuclear disaster. And in truth, he and 

Kissinger were always ready with bombs when persuasion was needed in Vietnam— 

and occasionally in Cambodia and Laos, too. 

As they stepped up the bombing war in Vietnam, Nixon and Kissinger reduced the 

number of American soldiers on the ground. In June 1969 Nixon announced the 

withdrawal of 25,000 troops. The South Vietnamese correctly surmised that support for 

their cause was diminishing within the U.S. government. Antipathy for the war within 

the American public became still more pronounced. 

In February 1972, Nixon traveled to China, seeking improved relations with the 

Communist giant. The trip was largely for show, as he gained no concessions from his 

hosts; in fact, he volunteered that America would reduce the size of its military force 

in Taiwan, thus weakening the position of the island country in the United Nations. 

In May 1972, as Lewis Branscomb was departing from the National Bureau of 

Standards, President Nixon paid a visit to Moscow to sign—with his counterpart, 

Leonid Brezhnev—a Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty and another document restricting the use of anti-ballistic missiles. The treaties offered an improvement in communications between the two Cold-War enemies, if little in terms of actual arms reduction. 

Again, an ancillary deal actually went against the interest of the United States: large 

quantities of American grain were offered at bargain prices to the Soviets, thus 

reducing U.S. supplies and mildly aggravating inflation in America. 

Domestic Issues 

Nixon was not interested in social programs, or especially taken with domestic 

politics. He had derided Johnson's Great Society during his presidential campaign. 

Nevertheless, social troubles—indeed, troubles of many varieties, both domestic and 

international—abounded, and their cure would require vigorous action. Prodded by a largely progressive Democratic Congress, Nixon collaborated in the enactment of a considerable amount of social legislation during his first term in office. Included in the 

list were: an extension of the Voting Rights Act of 1965; funding for the war on cancer, for enhanced medical training, and for the arts; a ban on gender bias in higher 

education; greater support for those in poverty; creation of the Environmental Protection Agency and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration; and the Clean Air 

Act, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, and the Consumer Product Safety 

This legislation affected the National Bureau of Standards both directly and indirectly, as we shall see. 

8 James 1. Patterson, Grand Expectations: Ch. 23. 

155 
Despite his participation in a program of social progress, the American public displayed decidedly mixed feelings towards President Nixon. The 1970 elections left the 

Congress securely in Democratic hands, and the public, finding it difficult to make 

ends meet and encouraged by a national press .that was increasingly critical of the President, gave him little credit for his part in the new social legislation. 

In August 1971, unable to ignore the Nation's economic ills, Nixon announced a New Economic Policy. He instituted a 90-day freeze on wages and prices, he ended the 

link between dollars and gold, and he placed a temporary 10 % surcharge on imports. 

These steps represented a radical departure from the Republican economic credo; 

they showed President Nixon to be, in fact, flexible in his economic thinking. The new policy included a promise to reduce Federal spending—a recurring Republican 

theme—and a proposal to eliminate 5 % of all Federal employment. The effects of 

these promises were quickly felt at NBS. 

For purposes of Nixon's re-election in 1972, his New Economic Policy worked well. 

The national economy made a notable, though transient, recovery that fitted nicely 

with the President's statesmanlike performances in China and the Soviet Union. 

However, the underlying problems remained, to surface again during Nixon's second 

term. 

The availability of energy for use in the United States became a visible problem 

during Nixon's presidency, too. The Arab oil-producing states, forced by a common war against Israel to cooperate, discovered that oil export prices and quotas could be 

powerful weapons in international affairs. Although the Arab countries occasionally 

returned to the self-defeating practice of unilateral action, by 1971 oil prices began a rise to levels never before seen. In the United States, oil consumption continued to 

increase despite presidential efforts to encourage conservation. 

By virtue of tape recordings of White House conversations made public later, we know that President Nixon was preoccupied right from the time of his election in 1968 

with plans for re-election to a second term in 1972. Nearly every move was scripted as much to improve the image of the Nixon administration as for its value to the Nation's 

welfare. During his second term, Nixon's determination to seek revenge for real and 

imagined political damage by those on his "enemies list" carried him well beyond the 

limits of ordinary political maneuvering. 

A NEW DIRECTOR FOR THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS 

In Gaithersburg, Maryland, and in Boulder, Colorado, the men and women of the 

National Bureau of Standards were well aware of the Nation's anguish. They were, 

after all, citizens, parents, husbands, and wives. Each was touched in various ways by 

the war, by the Nation's economic ills, and by racial conflict. 

The U.S. Civil Rights Commission, studying the results of moving several government agencies from city locations to the suburbs, noticed that the National Bureau of 

Standards had lost an aggregate 73 black employees—while the overall employment 

156 
rose by 125—when the Bureau headquarters was moved to "the sticks." The Commission suspected racial discrimination in housing, hiring, or both.9 And discrimination 

there was. The feeling in the air at NBS, however, was that good things were about to happen 

in 1968. 

Allen Astin had made known in 1967 his plans to retire during 1969, when he 

would be 65 years old. He had served the Bureau and the Nation well for over 35 

years—17 of them as NBS Director—at the time of his retirement. All of his years had 

been challenging and some of them were hard labor as well.'0 

Astin had seen—in many cases, had precipitated—the shift in Bureau work away 

from the military projects that had dominated NBS during World War II, leaving the 

agency more tranquil in spirit and more nearly supported by direct congressional 

appropriations than it had been for many years. About 80 % of Bureau funding came 

directly from Congress in 1968, twice the wartime percentages of 40 % or less. 

Burned into Astin's memory was the AD-X2 travail. He had not only survived that 

ordeal but—because of his own exemplary behavior and that of the NBS staff 

throughout the incident—it had served to elevate beyond question the Bureau's 

reputation for accuracy and integrity. 

Astin regarded as the capstone of his service to NBS his efforts to develop a mission 

statement for the Bureau and to advance a general recognition of its unique, triune 

role in American technological life: 

1. To provide a complete and consistent system of physical measurements in 

harmony with the international system. 

2. To provide essential services leading to accurate and uniform physical measurements throughout the United States. 

3. To provide needed data on the properties of matter and materials of technological 

importance. 

Astin communicated the ideas underlying the NBS mission repeatedly, often inserting them into his testimony before the House Appropriations Subcommittee that 

monitored the Bureau. 

As he entered his last year as director, Astin was happy that he could recommend a successor who showed such great promise. 

Leonard S. Rubinowitz, Low Income Housing: Suburban Strategies, (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Co, 1974) p. 179. 

'° Besides the brief references in this volume, there are more detailed discussions elsewhere of Astin's difficult years. See, for example, Elio Passaglia, A Unique Institution, and Science: Evidence, Truth and Integrity, NBS Special Publication 690, January 1985. 

See, for example, House Appropriations Subcommittee hearings, March 28, 1968, pp. 1191-1200. 

157 
MCADORY BRANSCOMB 

Astin's choice to be the sixth Director of the National Bureau of Standards was Lewis Branscomb. The potential in the man was grand, in Astin's view. Branscomb was barely 42 years old, a product of Asheville, North Carolina; Duke University (A. 

B. summa cum laude, 1945); the U.S. Naval Reserve; and Harvard University (M. A. 

1947 and Ph. D. in physics, 1949). He had been invited to join the staff of the Bureau 

by Director Edward Condon in 1951, and it had soon become clear that this man 

would make a mark. 

Lewis M. Branscomb. sixth director 

of the National Bureau of Standards. 

Branscomb badly wanted in 1951 to perform a particular experiment involving 

negative hydrogen ions. He felt that the experiment was important for several reasons, 

one of which related to astrophysics. The sun's light, it had been known for years, 

really did not satisfy Planck's theory of thermal radiation from a hot body in the way 

that radiation from a laboratory blackbody did. The spectral distribution of the sun's 

radiation was is, the radiant flux per unit wavelength measured over all 

158 

Branscomb 's Negative Jon Photodetachment Experiments 

The apparatus put together by Branscomb, Fite and Smith had yielded results in 

good agreement with the theoretical prediction for the sun's atmosphere. As a result of 

their work, a wholly new experimental area in ion photodetachment suddenly became 

available, allowing Branscomb and his colleagues at NBS to study ions that were 

significant in the earth's upper atmosphere as well as in the atmospheres of stars. They 

expanded on the hydrogen work to include the study of negative atomic and molecular 

oxyger1 ions, 0 and 02, the evaluation of electron affinities, and the relation of these 

reactions to the earth's ionosphere.'3 

For nearly two decades this area of physics was the domain of Branscomb and a growing atomic-physics research group at NBS. Eventually the series of projects would 

lead to the founding of the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics in conjunction 

with colleagues at the University of Colorado. 

Branscomb surely had a flair for physics. And he found the Bureau to be a very 

congenial place to practice science. He said: 

I very quickly appreciated that, first of a'l, the Bureau is the unique place in 

all the world to do very hard, very accurate, as well as very precise 

measurements... Therefore, if you wanted to push the fundamental standards 

by the most innovative means and make radical progress in basic standards of 

measurement, the way to do it was to hire outstanding scientists who wanted 

to do a piece of pure science that was so hard to do that they had to invent a new basic standard of measurement in order to do it. 

In 1954 Branscomb was named Acting Chief of the Bureau's Atomic Physics 

Section. Peter Bender joined the group in 1956, and Earl Beaty and theorist Sydney 

Geitman (hired from the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University in 

Silver Spring, Maryland) came in 1957. 

The Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics 

Besides his intense interest in physics, Branscomb had another flair, too—one which 

eventually would take him right out of the laboratory. This gift was ability in scientific 

administration. Branscomb was deeply perceptive about projects and programs in technical fields, and he had strong ideas about how to accomplish them. These qualities were combined in his nature with a very persuasive personality to make him the center 

of a whirlwind of activity. 

Branscomb's interest in scientific administration surfaced during 1957-58, while he 

fulfilled a Rockefeller Public Service Fellowship at the University College in London. 

He said: 

The Rockefeller Public Service Award was the most wonderful thing that ever 

happened to me, except for the (Harvard) Society of Fellows. It was a full-year 

sabbatical. It paid for you and your family to go wherever you were going 

Lewis M. Branscomb, "A Review of Photodetachment and Related Negative Ion Processes Relevant to Aeronomy." Annales de Geophysique 20, pp. 88-105 (1964). 

L. M. Branscomb, Oral History, July II, 1988. 

160 
overseas. It had provision for incidental expenses. I went off to University 

College in London, where Sir Harry Massey was, who had written the only 

book on negative ions that existed. I went for the purpose of greatly expanding 

and co-authoring the book with him. That never happened. The reason was that I divided all the problems of negative ions up into chapters and each 

chapter grew and grew as I discovered how little people knew. What was to 

be a book ended up as 10 research careers in all these areas. I met another 

Bureau employee whom I had known very briefly at Harvard as a graduate 

student and that was Dick (Richard N.) Thomas. Thomas was at the Boulder 

Lab, one of two astrophysicists hired by the NBS Boulder Labs, who had a connection with the High Altitude Observatory. .. We began to hatch out the 

idea that there really ought to be a proper group of atomic physicists interested 

in astrophysical applications, and astrophysicists who really wanted to do the 

astrophysics not in the classical way but in the quantum mechanical way... 

We cooked up the idea, the two of us, that if somehow we could take the 

atomic physics group in (NBS) Washington and these two astrophysicists— 

John Jeffries was the other one—in Boulder and marry them up, we would 

leave the Bureau and we would go somewhere, and we would do this great 

thing. 

This "great thing" became a project which was to occupy the attention of 

Branscomb for a decade. 

Director Astin, approached by Branscomb with the idea that one of the Bureau's 

most productive research groups wanted to leave in order to further its research goals, 

suggested that the work could be done as a part of NBS. Together, they explored the 

possibilities. 

Meanwhile, late in 1959, the NBS Atomic and Radiation Physics Division was separated into two divisions—the Radiation Physics Division, under the leadership of 

Lauriston S. Taylor, and the Atomic Physics Division, with Lewis Branscomb as its 

chief. 

The discussions involving Branscomb and Astin about a new research organization 

—the "great thing" of Branscomb's Rockefeller sabbatical—began to focus on the 

nature and purpose of such an entity. In its Annual Reports for the period 1960-1962 

the Bureau described plans for a new project to complement national programs in 

space science, plasma physics, and atmospheric research. 6 In 1960 the Space Sciences 

Board of the National Academy of Sciences heard the Bureau plans and recommended 

to the Department of Commerce that a coordinated program be undertaken for the 

study of the basic physics of atoms and molecules in terrestrial, planetary, and stellar 

atmospheres. 

Ibid. 6 Publication 237, December 1960, p. 10; Miscellaneous Publication 242, December 1961, 

p. 6; Miscellaneous Publication 246, December 1962, p. 7. In the last-named reference, NBS announced the 

establishment of the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics in collaboration with the University of 

Colorado. 

161 
The proposal for a program that would connect NBS with a university in the study 

of laboratory astrophysics attracted considerable attention in the scientific community, 

where the lack of trained astrophysicists was known to be a serious one; the reception 

accorded the concept was entirely favorable in that sector. In the Department of 

Commerce, however, many questions were raised—about the propriety of participation 

by NBS staff members in the everyday teaching activities of a university, for one 

thing, not to mention the difficulty of giving the government employees appropriate 

compensation for teaching. The department also was concerned about the suitability of 

sharing rented space between staff members of a university and Bureau employees. 

Nor did the department feel comfortable about the creation of a DoC entity expressly 

devoted to basic scientific research, ordinarily the province of the National Science 

Foundation. 

These administrative questions involved NBS Director Astin in detailed discussions 

with several officials in the Department of Commerce. Memoranda traveled the circuit, 

carrying ideas and concerns back and forth. Astin and his legal minds pointed out 

to the DoC and their legal minds the similarity of the proposed venture to the 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, where Civil Service employees held joint 

academic appointments at Harvard University, and to the NASA Institute for 

Space Sciences, where Robert Jastrow, chief of the NASA theoretical division, 

simultaneously held the position of Professor Adjoint in the Department of Geology at 

Columbia University. Also discussed was the idea that teaching would help mightily to 

provide a stimulating research atmosphere and to disseminate the latest information in a rapidly changing field that held intense interest for important portions of the U.S. 

government. 

Eventually the natural nervousness of the Commerce Department in contemplating a new approach to the way NBS wanted to do its work was overcome. A major part in 

calming the department's fears was played by the many proponents of the program in 

the upper circles of the federal science establishment—Branscomb and Astin had 

prepared their case carefully and could easily establish a need for the new undertaking. 

Desirous of placing the NBS astrophysical project in the fertile environment of a university with a strong graduate program in astronomy, the Bureau group held 

preliminary discussions with Harvard, the University of California at San Diego, the 

University of Arizona and the University of Colorado. The last-named school had 

several advantages—a High-Altitude Observatory and a Laboratory for Atmospheric 

and Space Physics within the University framework, plus the nearby National Center 

for Atmospheric Research.'7 

Many details of the new program had to be attended to, since the prospective entity 

was a most uncommon species for NBS. 

At last, a Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics (JILA) was created through a Memorandum of Understanding between the NBS and the University of Colorado. The 

Memorandum was announced on April 13, 1962, by the two organizations. 

' Lewis Branscomb, Oral History, July 12, 1988. 

162 
The general features of JILA as planned included the following components: 

I. Staff (intended eventually to number about 25). 

• NBS employees (initially, eight staff members from the NBS Atomic Physics 

Division and two—both theoretical astrophysicists—from the NBS/Boulder 

laboratories) who would be assigned to JILA to work and who would hold 

adjunct professorships at UC. 

• Faculty members in astrophysics and space physics from UC. 

• Faculty members in the aerodynamics department of UC. 

• Up to ten visiting members—usually on one-year appointments—working on problems of their choice while on leave from their own institutions. 

2. Scientific objectives. 

• Research in basic atomic physics. 

• Research on the cooperative behavior of gaseous species important to astrophysics. 

• Applications of stellar astrophysics. 

3. Academic objectives. 

• Teaching in the UC undergraduate and graduate programs. 

• Providing seminars and personal instruction for students. 

• Increasing the number of scientists trained in the astrophysics area. As of April 1962 Lewis Branscomb became the first JILA Chairman. He and a small band of carefully selected colleagues soon left Washington for a bright new 

future near the Rocky Mountains. The group included John L. Hall (Ph.D., Carnegie 

Institute of Technology, 1961, interested in laser research); Stephen J. Smith (Ph.D., 

Harvard University, 1954, specialist on photodetachment of negative ions); Gordon H. 

Dunn (Ph.D., University of Washington, 1961, whose interest focused on atomic 

collisions); George Chamberlain (Ph.D., Yale University, 1961, working on atomic 

beams); Earl C. Beaty (Ph.D., Washington University, 1956, whose fields were ionic 

mobilities and atomic clocks); Lee J. Kieffer (Ph.D., St. Louis University, 1958, studying spins and moments in radioactive nuclei and electron-atom scattering); Sydney 

Geitman (Ph.D., Yale University, 1952, expert on the theory of ionic mobilities, atomic 

scattering, ionization and photodetachment); and Peter Bender (Ph.D., Princeton 

University, 1956, interested in atomic clocks and atomic resonance phenomena). 

See p. 8 in The Bureau Drawer, Vol. 3, No. 9, May-June 1962. 

Gordon Dunn, Lee Kieffer, and Stephen Smith shared the Department of Commerce Gold Medal Award in 1970 for their studies of atomic collisions. 

163 
The first participants in the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics from NBS were, from left to right, 

Earl C. Beaty, Steven J. Smith, Gordon H. Dunn, Lewis Branscomb, Lee J. Kieffer. Peter Bender, 

John L. Hall. Sydney Geltman, George Chamberlain, and Carl Pelander. 

From the perspective of NBS the group became Division 95, Laboratory Astrophysics, with residence in the Boulder, Colorado Armory Building. The Atomic 

Physics Division, by this time comprising seven sections, was left in the capable hands 

of Karl Kessler, a career atomic spectroscopist. 

In the fall of 1966, the JILA building—a 10-story office tower, laboratory wing and 

auditorium shown in the accompanying photo—was completed and occupied, bringing 

to full fruition the plans laid a decade earlier by Branscomb and Thomas for this new thing." 

As this narrative continues, we shall frequently recognize important contributions 

from the staff of JILA. 

164 
The Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics Building on the campus of the University of Colorado in 

Boulder. 

Branscomb's Outside Activities 

By 1960, Branscomb had begun to play an increasingly active role in the scientific 

establishment beyond the confines of NBS. From 1960-65 he served on the Reaction 

Rate working group of the Defense Atomic Support Agency. In 1961, he also took on 

the chairmanship of the Division of Electron Physics of the American Physical Society 

and service on the Advisory Committee on Ballistic Missile Defense for the Advanced 

Research Projects Administration. Participation in such groups intensified as Branscomb's administrative talents became more widely known. 

While Branscomb was chief of the Atomic Physics Division in 1961, he was 

awarded the Department of Commerce Gold Medal for Exceptional Service. The 

award was based upon "contributions to basic knowledge of atomic processes of stellar 

atmospheres, terrestrial ionosphere and interplanetary space." The medal was given 

principally to recognize the importance of his work on photodetachment of electrons 

from hydrogen ions. 

In 1962, Branscomb was presented the Arthur S. Flemming Award, given to honor 

Federal employees under the age of 40 for unusually meritorious work. 

165 
From 1965-69, Branscomb served on the President's Science Advisory Committee 

(PSAC) as Chair of the Panel on Space and Technology. At that time, he was the only 

member of PSAC who was a working scientist at a Federal laboratory. 

In 1966 Branscomb was appointed to the Board of Editors of the American Physical 

Society. In 1968 he began service as Editor of the Review of Modem Physics, supporting with his own efforts his belief in the value of the review literature both for 

scientific data and for science generally. 

That same year he was given the Bureau's Samuel Wesley Stratton Award, which 

honors unusually significant research contributions to science or engineering in support 

of NBS objectives. 

BRANSCOMB BECOMES NBS DIRECTOR 

Allen Astin had made very clear his desire to be succeeded as NBS Director by 

Lewis Branscomb. A methodical man, Astin had planned ahead for his retirement in 

1969, when he would turn 65 years of age. John Kincaid, Assistant Secretary of 

Commerce for Science and Technology, wondered in a memorandum to his boss, 

Secretary Alexander Trowbridge, whether the best way to achieve an orderly transition 

at the Bureau might be for Astin to step aside prior to the 1968 national election so that Branscomb could be nominated and installed as Director without regard to whether 

the Republicans or the Democrats won the Presidential election.2° 

Two little problems stood in the way of this solution. Allen Astin was not interested 

in retiring from a position of "senior advisor," as Kincaid suggested in his memo; 

Astin would be the boss until the day he left government employment. Furthermore, 

Branscomb was not interested in being a party to an attempt to finesse the next 

national administration. He wrote: 

I think it is not useful to the Bureau of Standards for me to undertake a commitment at this time which might serve to tie the Secretary's hands should 

there be a change in administration or for any other reason.2' 

Branscomb was not even sure that he wanted to be NBS Director. In a conversation 

with Astin, Branscomb remarked that,22 in fact, he did not want the Directorship—he 

wanted to stay at JILA. He felt that accepting an NBS administrative job above the 

level of Division Chief would bring to an end his active participation in science. 

Yet, said Branscomb later, he could not dismiss Astin's request to consider the 

Directorship. Astin had been too helpful to him, in bringing JILA to life and in other 

ways. If Astin could make the nomination happen somehow, Branscomb would serve. 

20 Memo to Secretary Trowbridge from Assistant Secretary Kincaid, September 26, 1967. (DOC, Assistant 

Secretary for Science and Technology, Accession 40-72A-7 166, Box 8, Folder Chron File (August-September 1967) JFK). 

21 Letter from Branscomb to Kincaid, January 27, 1968. Same accession data as Kincaid-Trowbridge memo. 22 L. M. Branscomb, Oral History, July 12, 1988. 

166 
The issue of succession to the leadership of NBS became a very murky one indeed 

when the Presidential election votes were counted. 

Republican candidate Richard Nixon and his running mate, Spiro Agnew, former 

Governor of Maryland, captured the Presidency in 1968 by winning 31.8 million votes 

to 31.3 million for the Hubert Humphrey-Edmund Muskie Democratic ticket and 9.9 

million for the American Independent Party standard-bearers, George Wallace and 

Curtis LeMay. Despite their narrow popular plurality, Nixon and Agnew won 301 

electoral votes of the 538 votes available. 

Now there was a difficulty for the potential Branscomb nomination. Branscomb was a registered Democrat. More problematic was the fact that his wife Anne, a lawyer, 

had for some time been quite active in Colorado politics and in 1968 was a member of 

the Democratic National Committee. While the position of Director of NBS had never been a political job, the new administration might well go looking for a nominee who 

was less obviously a member of the defeated party. 

During the early months of 1969, friends of Astin in Congress and elsewhere tried 

to convince the incoming administration that Branscomb was the best choice for the 

next Bureau Director, despite any little political flaws. The Republican establishment 

in Colorado was particularly hard to convince of this idea, because they already had 

permitted one Colorado Democrat to be appointed over their objections.23 

It is rare in such cases that more than a trace of the pre-nominative process—telephone calls, memos, visits, cajoling, "horse trading"—would become available to 

historians. Branscomb certainly knew few of the details. He recalled that only later did 

he learn that one Peter Flanigan, friend of Richard Nixon and brother of the Colorado 

Republican State Committee Chairman, intervened on behalf of the Branscomb 

nomination. Whether that intervention tipped the scales in Branscomb's favor, whether 

Branscomb's brief service to the new administration as a scientific member of one of 

the new President's "transition teams" carried the day, or whether the newly appointed 

Secretary of Commerce, Maurice Stans, and other powerful members of the incoming 

administration simply agreed that Branscomb was a good choice for the job, the result was that Branscomb, one day in the early summer of 1969, was asked to meet with 

Secretary Stans at the Department of Commerce offices downtown. 

Branscomb recalled that meeting with some pleasure. Secretary Stans said something 

like, I am told that you are a very good scientist and show great promise as Director of 

the Bureau of Standards and that it would be a mistake for me not to appoint you to 

that job. I am prepared to make the appointment. I don't know what all you do at 

NBS, but if you do it well, stay out of trouble, and agree not to interfere with my 

primary job, which is to help raise the money to get President Nixon re-elected in 

1972, we'll get along just fine. Branscomb assured the Secretary that he could readily 

promise not to get involved at all in Republican fund-raising, and the nominating 

process was essentially complete.24 

23 L. M. Branscomb, Oral History, 12 July, 1988. 24 L. M. Branscomb, Oral History, 12 July, 1988. 

167 
According to a special edition of the NBS Standard issued on June 23 1969: 

Secretary of Commerce Maurice H. Stans today (June 17, 1969) announced 

that the President has nominated Dr. Lewis M. Branscomb, 42, of Boulder, 

Colorado, as Director of the National Bureau of Standards. 

Secretary Stans said that Dr. Branscomb, an internationally known atomic 

physicist and a career Federal scientist-administrator, would assume his new 

duties on the retirement on August 31 of Director Allen V. Astin. 

Astin was content. In the same edition of the NBS Standard, he wrote a note to the 

Bureau staff: 

I am sure that you will be as pleased as I am to know that Dr. Lewis M. 

Branscomb is being nominated.25 

Branscomb was given an early opportunity to show what grasp he might have of 

Bureau policies and programs. On July 31, 1969, he was interviewed by the Committee on Commerce of the U.S. Senate, Warren Magnuson presiding. Two aspects of the 

record of that nomination hearing are interesting. First, the hearing was short and 

therefore presumably non-controversial in the eyes of the Committee. Second, 

Branscomb was asked to defend the budget request for the Bureau's National Standard 

Reference Data program, as well as to explain why he—as an employee of NBS— 

should have been performing basic research in the field of astrophysics. His response 

to the first request showed considerable familiarity with the NSRD program and an intense support for its goals. His response to the second request sounded a theme that was to become Branscomb's guiding principle during his short tenure as Director of 

NBS: 

I believe the Bureau has an important job beyond commerce to insure that it 

provides, if you like, the infrastructure of the Nation's science and technology. 

Without a vital and high-quality, reliable measurement capability the country's 

science and technology cannot be effective in application. 

The Committee was quickly satisfied that Branscomb's nomination should be 

confirmed. The Senate ratified the nomination on August 7th, with three weeks to 

spare before Astin's retirement. 

The prospects for NBS looked bright indeed—one of its most exciting young 

scientists had been appointed its sixth director. With an eloquent spokesman—one 

well-connected to the Washington scientific establishment—to lead the way, could 

there be any but good times ahead for the Bureau? 

25 A. V. Astin, The NBS Standard Special Edition, June 23, 1969, p. 2. 168 
Taking Charge 

Once he became Bureau director, Branscomb had work to do. Although he was 

very familiar with the major policies and programs of the Bureau, there were many 

people—both technical and administrative—that he didn't know at all. One need only 

refer to the previous chapter of this book to realize that considerable effort would be 

needed even to approach a comprehensive acquaintance with the Bureau staff and its 

diverse activities. 

The senior management team that Allen Astin had left to Branscomb was composed 

in the main of "old hands." Lawrence Kushner, Ernest Ambler, John Hoffman, Carl 

Muehlhause, Howard Sorrows, Robert Walleigh, Bascom Birmingham, Edward Brady, 

and Robert Ferguson had served NBS in aggregate for more than a century. These 

men, Branscomb knew and they knew him; their immediate subordinates he did not 

know well. 

Branscomb recalled that he spent his first day on the job visiting the Institute and 

Center Directors—Ambler in Basic Standards, Hoffman in Materials Research, 

Sorrows in Applied Technology and Muehlhause in Radiation Research—and their 

principal managers.26 This was to be a series of get-acquainted meetings, an exercise in 

"team-building." Mostly, the day passed quickly, pleasantly and without incident. 

There was one exception, however. One of the managers noted that he hoped that 

Branscomb would "... stay out of my hair, and we'll get along fine." Branscomb, 

astounded at the man's unwillingness to meet the new director halfway, quickly 

reassigned him to a non-management position. 

From his new vantage point, Branscomb reviewed the scientific literature for the 

journal Measurements and Data. 27 He called for a clearer separation of scientific 

publications into categories such as news, conference proceedings, archives, and 

critical reviews, with emphasis on specifying the quality of particular measurements 

and thus their subsequent value as components of theoretical or engineering design. 

These ideas, long on Branscomb's mind, had come to sharper focus over the past two 

years during his service as Editor of the journal Reviews of Modern Physics. 

Some five weeks after taking office, the new director addressed the NBS staff for 

the first time. In his remarks, Branscomb showed his confidence that Allen Astin had 

left the Bureau healthy, and his own intention that the course should not waver. He 

urged Bureau employees to continue the dedication to accuracy and integrity fostered 

by Astin, to continually be conscious of the national welfare in their work, to look for 

ways to enhance the nation's economic and social progress through measurement 

science, and to observe their responsibilities as the Nation's measurement laboratory. 

He took note of the 1967 Flammable Fabrics Act, the Metric System Study, the bottleneck in national building codes, and the fundamental importance of the National 

Standard Reference Data System. In each of these applied-science projects, he ascribed a significant role for new achievements in measurement, the Bureau's strength. 

26L M. Branscomb, Oral History, 12 July, 1988. 27 L. M. Branscomb, Truth in packaging of scientific infirmation, Measurements & Data 3, No. 5, 104-105 

(1969). 

169 
In November of 1969, Lee A. DuBridge, the Science Advisor to the President, 

released for publication a report of the Space Science and Technology Panel of the 

President's Science Advisory Committee; the panel was chaired by Branscomb. 

Entitled The Biomedical Foundations of Manned Space Flight, the report was prepared 

by a working group on Space Medicine. It contained several recommendations 

intended to optimize the benefits of manned space flight, given the tension between 

the high cost of manned flight and the limited resources available for the project. 

Publication of that report marked the end of Branscomb's service on PSAC. 

The changes made by Branscomb in his 1972 budget request had more immediate 

impact upon Congress than they did on the Bureau staff, perhaps because he could 

take his time in creating the structures that would give life to his vision of NBS. Astin 

had left behind an organization managed mostly by experienced leaders who knew the 

Bureau and its clients from long personal association. They were themselves scientists 

with solid records of accomplishment, and they had faith in the quality of their service 

to America. Nearly a year would pass before Branscomb's views on organizing the 

Bureau around consumer issues would be assimilated within NBS. 

Establishment of NBS Executive Board 

One of Branscomb's first acts as director was to establish an Executive Board "to 

assist me in managing Bureau affairs." He envisioned a group that would meet 

with him in executive session for decision-making discussions, and in regular sessions 

for program planning. Initial assignments to the board included: 

• Lawrence Kushner, Deputy Director, NBS. 

• Edward Brady, Associate Director for Information Programs. 

• Robert Walleigh, Associate Director for Administration. 

• Ernest Ambler, Director, Institute for Basic Standards. 

• John Hoffman, Director, Institute for Materials Research. 

• Howard Sorrows, Acting Director, Institute for Applied Technology. 

• Carl Muehlhause, Director, Center for Radiation Research. 

• Herbert Grosch, Director, Center for Computer Sciences and Technology. 

Meeting with the board during regular sessions would be: 

• Robert Ferguson, Coordinator for Program Planning. 

• Robert Huntoon, Coordinator for Policy Planning. 

• Bascom Birmingham, Deputy Director for Boulder, 

Establishment of NBS Program Office 

One of Branscomb's first appointments changed NBS markedly. Branscomb created 

the position of Associate Director of NBS for Programs (ADP). He placed Howard E. 

Sorrows, Acting Director of the Institute for Applied Technology, in command and 

gave him the assignment of establishing "an office responsible for the analysis, 

28 NBS Admin, Bull. 69-59, September 2, 1969: "Executive Board Established." 

170 
planning, budgeting, documentation, and communication of programs at the Bureau 

level."29 Robert E. Ferguson, Special Assistant to the Director for Program Planning, 

was assigned to the office as well. Malcolm W. Jensen was assigned to the position of 

Acting Director of TAT to replace Sorrows. 

Sorrows was an excellent choice for program director. He had plenty of experience 

with scientific work and with the Bureau. NBS had provided his first scientific 

position—with the NBS Electricity Division in 1941. By 1950, he was head of the 

ultra-high-frequency standards group in the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory. He 

then left NBS to take sequential positions at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory, at the 

Office of Naval Research, and at the Navy Bureau of Ordnance. But perhaps his most 

useful preparation for organizing an NBS program office was his experience from 

1959-63 at Texas Instruments, Inc., where he initiated and managed a department for 

technical intelligence, long-range planning, and new product development. 

Sorrows knew well the need of technical groups to understand their products, their 

customers, and their organizational goals.3° This approach was just the one that 

Branscomb wanted—a unit to bundle disparate projects in disparate divisions of the 

Bureau into a coherent attack on "national needs" that could trigger a shower of dollars 

from Congress, and, at the same time, encourage the divisions to shed provincial 

perceptions regarding their own programs. 

Within 6 weeks, Sorrows had fleshed out the ADP role sufficiently that Branscomb 

was able to describe it for Larry A. Jobe, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for 

Administration: 

The Office of the Associate Director for Programs performs the functions of 

policy development and program analysis, program promotion, and financial 

interpretation: the Office sponsors and coordinates the performance of issue 

and impact studies; relates Bureau programs to national needs; generates 

planning formats and develops information on NBS program plans and status 

for internal and external audiences; administers advisory panels; defines 

alternatives for the allocation of resources and advises Bureau management on their implications; and directs the formulation of the budget.3' 

The Program Office quickly became a force at NBS. Young scientists—"program 

analysts"—soon found a tour of duty there to be physically exhausting, but ultimately 

rewarding in terms of advancement to managerial positions. Some of the old-line 

scientists soon found young gate-keepers (paid with money that could have been used 

for metrological or other technical projects!) standing in the way of needed funds 

and personnel slots and demanding justifications in terms of product marketability. 

Occasionally they seemed to discount or to disregard entirely scientific merit in making 

29NBS Admin. Bull. 70-21, April 16, 1970. 

Bio file, Howard Sorrows. 

Memo, LMB to Larry Jobe, Asst Sec for Admin: "Revision of Department Organization Order 30-2B," 

May 28, 1970. RHA, RG 167, Director's Office, Box 389, Folder Chrono May 1-31, 1970. 

171 
funding recommendations. Adversarial relationships, based on need for resources— 

funds, people, or equipment—developed between scientific groups that had been 

natural colleagues. On the other hand, ties to the Nation's technical life became closer 

and clearer than they ever had been before the creation of the Program Office. Times 

at NBS were changing. 

Gradually, the trend toward problem-oriented organizational units at NBS would 

become a flood. In time, the old-line metrological-standards units would wonder 

whether they still had a place at the Bureau. 

In July 1970, Branscomb assigned to James R. Wright, Chief of the Building 

Research Division, the additional responsibility of cooperating with the Program Office 

to coordinate NBS efforts with the Department of Housing and Urban Development. 

The relatively new department—formed in 1965—worked closely with the Bureau on many housing-related projects. Wright's new duty was to provide a continuing point of 

contact between the organizations, although no management function was involved.32 

Towards the end of 1970, Robert Ferguson, Sorrows' Scientific Assistant, was given 

the responsibility of coordinating all NBS work on the Water Pollution Control and 

Abatement Program.33 Ferguson also was directed to monitor all environmental 

programs other than the Measures for Air Quality, which was administered by James 

McNesby. 

By one or another of Sorrows' program analysts was assigned to each of the 

Bureau's new budgetary program areas: • Scientific and Technical Measurements. 

• Use of Science and Technology. 

• Equity in Trade. 

• Public Safety. 

• Technical Information. 

• Central Technical Support. 

• Experimental Technology Incentives Program, a new category. 

The analysts so involved in June 1974, included Martin J. Cooper, Thomas Dillon, 

Cary Gravatt, Sanford B. Newman, Stanley Rasberry, and Norman F. Somes. 

Measures for Air Quality 

Early in 1970, Branscomb became aware that a small group of chemists and physicists shared an interest in scientific work that could be used to evaluate or mitigate 

air-pollution problems. James R. McNesby, Chief of the Physical Chemistry Division, 

had created an informal study group to interact with like-minded scientists, mostly 

within the U.S. government. 

This effort struck Branscomb as just the kind of consumer-oriented project that 

he envisioned for NBS. Immediately, he asked McNesby to organize a programmanagement office for airpollution studies. The new office was called Measures for 

32 NBS Admin. Bull. 70-49, July 23, 1970. 

NBS Admin. Bull. 70-49, July 23, 1970. 

NBS Admin. Bull. 74-44. June 25, 1974. 

172 
Air Quality.35 McNesby would report to John Hoffman, Director of the Institute for 

Materials Research. Radford Byerly, Jr., one of Howard Sorrows' first Program 

Analysts, was designated deputy to McNesby. 

Milton Scheer was detailed to replace McNesby as chief of the Physical Chemistry 

Division. 

As an NBS entity, Measures for Air Quality (MAQ) bore considerable similarity to 

'the Office of Standard Reference Data (OSRD) and the Office of Standard Reference 

Materials (OSRM). There was no re-assignment of participants in the program; 

collaborating scientists would remain with their technical divisions, where they could 

maintain their usual mix of professional activities.36 At that time, these three programs—MAQ, OSRD, and OSRM—made up the entirety of the "matrix management" 

activities at the Bureau that were described in Chapter 1. 

A study of Bureau projects by the MAQ scientists turned up even more work, in 

several different divisions, that could be applied to air pollution measurements or abatement. One of these efforts followed a 1972 meeting sponsored by NBS and the 

Environmental Protection Agency; its purpose was to pinpoint standard gases needed to 

monitor pollution from automobile exhaust. As a result of the discussion, the Bureau 

began to prepare four gas mixtures—propane in air, carbon dioxide in nitrogen, carbon 

monoxide in nitrogen, and nitric oxide in nitrogen. Soon, these reference gases were part of the Standard Reference Materials program. 

As these projects developed, McNesby was given access to funds to stimulate work 

in each area. Gradually, other government agencies assisted with funding. McNesby 

and his tiny staff coordinated NBS efforts with those of other organizations interested 

in the problem of air pollution and facilitated attendance at conferences and publication 

of papers. Eventually the program produced nitric oxide and sulfur dioxide monitors 

for use in field stations. 

Change in the Center for Radiation Research 

Concerned that the component divisions of the Center for Radiation Research were not flourishing in their current structure,37'Branscomb revised that structure considerably in September 1970.38 In one move, the Reactor Radiation Division was taken out 

of the Center and placed in the Institute for Materials Research under John Hoffman; 

Branscomb opined that, in this move, the RRD would "benefit from the broad scientific and technical base and the considerable managerial strength of [the IMR]." 

James E. Leiss, former chief of the Linac Radiation Division, was named Acting 

Director of the Center. The Center itself was shifted to the Institute for Basic 

Standards, under Ernest Ambler. 

NBS Admin. Bull. 70-42, June 30, 1970. 

36"Measures For Air Quality," NBS Technical News Bulletin, Vol. 57, No. I, January 1973, pp. 10-13. 

Letter to members of the CRR Advisory Panel from LMB, September 1, 1970. RHA, RG 167, Director's 

Office, Box 389, Folder September 1-30, 1970. 38 NBS Admin. Bull. 70-57, September 1, 1970. 

173 
In 1972, during a meeting jointly sponsored by the Environmental Protection Agency 

and NBS, it was decided that Standard Reference Materials (SRMs) were needed to 

monitor compliance with auto emission laws. As a result. NBS developed four gasmixture SRMs. Ryna B. Marinenko prepared these primary reference standards. 

Carl Muehihause, Director of CRR, was re-assigned to serve on Branscomb's staff. 

These changes reduced by one the number of managers that reported directly to 

Branscomb and, he hoped, strengthened both the Reactor Research Division and the 

Center for Radiation Research. 

Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information Transferred 

to the National Technical Information Service 

A Department of Commerce Organization Order mandated the transfer of the 

Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information to the National 

174 
Technical Information Service on September 2, In early April of that year, 

Branscomb and Edward Brady, NBS Associate Director for Information Programs, 

responded to a request from Myron Tribus, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for 

Science and Technology, for information on the activities of the Clearinghouse. 

At issue was the variety of publications prepared and circulated by the Clearinghouse, as well as its methods of distribution. Department officials were disturbed that it was necessary to subsidize the operations of the clearinghouse despite the fact that its 

publications were sold, not given free of charge, to the public."0 

Management of the NBS Instrument Shop 

Administrative management of the instrument shop, the central NBS facility for the 

manufacture of specialized apparatus used in research projects in all the technical 

divisions, was changed in August 1970 from the control of the Director of the Institute 

for Applied Technology to that of the Associate Director for Administration.4' 

Branscomb hoped, by this move, to make the operation and financial support of the 

shops more equitable for the many divisions that made use of shops resources. 

Ruth M. Davis, A New Leader for the Center for Computer Science 

and Technology 

One of Lewis Branscomb's early priorities was to obtain new leadership for the 

Center For Computer Science and Technology to improve its effectiveness in cooperating with its many colleagues in government and industry. For this post, Branscomb was able to recruit Ruth M. Davis, an applied mathematician trained at the University 

of Maryland. Davis was the first woman to head a technical organization at the level of 

division or higher within the Bureau. 

Davis was by all accounts a "whiz kid," having accomplished many feats in computer science in the space of perhaps 15 years. She taught the first advanced computerprogramming and numerical-analysis courses ever given at the University of 

Maryland. She developed the first computer programs for nuclear reactor design while 

working with the U.S. Department of the Navy. And she improved the Navy's military 

command and control systems by preparing automated display-centered information 

systems. 

From 1967 until coming to NBS in October 1970, Davis worked for the National 

Library of Medicine, part of the National Institutes of Health, where she was Director 

of the Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications.42 

4° NBS Admin. Bull. 70-59, September 3, 1970. 4° Letter, LMB to Myron Tribus, April 8, 1970, RHA, RG 167, Director's Office, Box 389, Folder Chrono 

April 1-30, 1970. Letter, Edward Brady to Myron Tribus, April 17, 1970, RHA, RG 167, Director's Office, 

Box 389, Folder Chrono April 1-30, 1970. Letter, LMB to Myron Tribus, May 26, 1970, RHA, RG 167, 

Director's Office, Box 389, Folder Chrono May 1-3 I, 1970. 41 NBS Admin. Bull. 70-54, August 12, 1970. 42 NBS Admin. Bull. 70-69, "Dr. Ruth M. Davis Named Director, Center for Computer Science and Technology," November 4, 1970. See also NBS TNB December 1970, p. 282. 

175 
Davis continued her winning ways at the Bureau. In 1972, she was presented the 

Federal Woman of the Year Award,43 the Association for Systems Management 

Systems Professional of the Year award, and the Department of Commerce Gold 

Medal Award. In 1973, she received the Rockefeller Public Service Award, earned by 

Astin and Branscomb a decade or more earlier. In 1974, Davis was elected to membership in the National Academy of Public Administration. 

In 1977, Davis resigned her position at NBS to accept the post of Deputy Under 

Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering. She left behind a seven-year 

tenure as director of the CCST that was marked by creative leadership. 

Willenbrock Recruited to Head IAT 

When Howard Sorrows left the Institute for Applied Technology to create the NBS 

Program Office, Malcolm Jensen—former Manager of Engineering Standards—was appointed Acting Director of IAT. A nation-wide search for a permanent director ended 

with the appointment of F. Karl Willenbrock, a Harvard-trained physicist, in November 

Willenbrock was Provost and professor of engineering and applied science at the 

State University of New York prior to coming to NBS. He was especially active in the 

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), serving as its President in 

1969. He also was a member of several government panels, and he represented the 

United States during the Second World Congress of the World Federation of Engineering Organizations. Willenbrock was at that time a member of the Information Council 

of the National Science Foundation. In 1976, he would leave his post as Director, IAT, 

to accept an engineering professorship at Southern Methodist University. 

Although Willenbrock's tenure at NBS was not a long one, he left a lasting 

legacy—largely through his recruitment of John W. Lyons, Jack E. Snell, and Richard 

N. Wright, all future leaders at the Bureau. 

Equal Employment Opportunity for Minorities and Women 

We mentioned in Chapter 1 that Allen Astin helped stimulate passage of a Public 

Accommodations Ordinance in Montgomery County, Maryland, soon after NBS moved 

its main laboratory facility to Gaithersburg. Astin also established an Equal Employment Opportunity committee for the Bureau, to handle discrimination grievances and to 

combat discrimination in NBS recruiting and employment. Initially, those programs 

focused on the problems of African-Americans, who were victims of active racial 

segregation in the United States well after the Bureau passed its half-century mark. 

Housing, public facilities, and employment were still areas of concern for blacks in the 

l960s. 

"Dr. Davis Wins Federal Woman's Award," NJ3S Standard, Vol XVII, No. 3, April 1972, p. I. 

NBS Admin. Bull. 70-72, "Dr. F. Karl Willenbrock Named Director, IAT," December 2, 1970. See also 

NBS TNB December 1970, p. 282. 

176 
Karl F. Willenbrock was director of the NBS Institute for Applied Technology from 

1970 to 1976. 

In December 1969, President Nixon strengthened the Executive Branch position on equal employment by issuing a new Executive Order urging, among other actions: 

Special efforts must be made to assure that opportunities in the Federal 

Government at the professional levels are made known to men and women of 

all races, religions, and ethnic backgrounds.45 

By 1970 NBS had an active EEO effort. A nine-member EEO Committee with ac- cess to upper-level Bureau managers, an affirmative action plan, and grievance 

procedures combined to substantially improve the lot of black employees. Branscomb 

created the post of EEO Counselor to facilitate the grievance process; Wiley A. Hall, 

Jr. was the first to occupy that post. 

Esther Cassidy, a physicist in the Electricity Division, was appointed by Branscomb 

in March 1970 as NBS representative to the Department of Commerce Federal 

Women's Committee. Her responsibilities extended across NBS in regard to equal 

employment opportunity for women. 

As part of his program for employee development, Branscomb also created the post 

of Vocational Guidance Counselor. Roberta Hatwell, who filled the post, was 

charged with helping non-professional employees obtain vocational training in order to 

qualify for advancement at 

NBS Standard, Vol XIV. No. 12, December 1969, p. 5. 

"NBS Has New Vocational Guidance Counselor," NBS Standard, Vol XV, No. 2, February, 1970. p. 3. 177 
In May 1970, the "barbershop case" mentioned in Chapter 1 again made the news in 

Gaithersburg: 

Late in May a Howard County Circuit Court judge dismissed a $600,000 

suit filed by a Gaithersburg barber against Avery Horton and James Walker, 

both chemists in the Bureau's Institute for Materials Research, and Bertram 

L. Keys, Jr., Executive Secretary for the Montgomery County Human 

Relations Commission. (The barber) had charged that the defendants had 

conspired to hurt his barbershop business by processing complaints of racial 

discrimination against him. Judge 1. Hunt Mayfield ruled that (the barber) had 

failed to demonstrate anything but that the defendants were attempting to 

enforce Montgomery County's public accommodations ordinance, as they 

understood it.47 

In June 1970, Horton received the first EEO award ever given by the Bureau. The 

award was given by Director Lewis Branscomb during an NBS staff meeting held 

specifically to discuss EEO policy. In his remarks, Branscomb called attention to 

Horton's personal commitment to eliminating racial discrimination. 

Speaking in his role as master of ceremonies, Horton noted the painfully slow 

progress of the EEO movement at NBS and called for the development of standards 

against which progress could be measured. He also took note of the silence of the 

Bureau's EEO apparatus on the subject of discrimination against women: 

Before getting into this morning's discussion, I would like to relate to you a complaint that I received. No profile of a woman appeared in the (printed) 

program. Since by definition, Equal Employment Opportunity in government 

refers to minorities and women, I had no rebuttal. The committee is not 

insensitive to problems of women, but our determination of the problem of job 

inequities at the National Bureau of Standards concerns black employees, and our major corrective efforts have been in that direction. 

In a separate talk given at the same meeting, Karl Bell, another EEO committee 

member, urged that a "climate of credibility" be created at NBS by employing more 

blacks at professional levels. Forget the "Super Black," he said, and concentrate on hiring the best available black employees and training them to realize their full 

professional potential. He emphasized that the promotion of black employees to 

management positions was an important yardstick for progress in EEO. Bell drew 

attention to statistics to bear out his concerns. NBS employed 473 blacks in 1965, but 

only 410 in 1970, following the move of the main campus to Gaithersburg. Most of 

the 410 still occupied the lowest-paid jobs; blacks comprised only 6 % of the NBS 

workforce in the professional ranks, with 19 technical divisions employing no blacks at 

all; and at the Section Chief level or above, only two blacks were to be found at 

NBS Standard, Vol. XV, No. 5, May-June 1970, p. 5. "Special EEO Issue," NBS Standard, Vol XV, No. 6, July 1970. 

178 
Avery T. Horton, a physical chemist, 

studied crystal chemistry in the NBS 

Inorganic Materials Division. He also 

worked in the Bureau's Law Enforcement Standards Laboratory. 

NBS had a better record with respect to women as professional employees. It is 

difficult to say how good it was, because gender was not recorded in Bureau statistics. 

But with respect to the "glass ceiling," which historically kept women from positions 

of leadership, the NBS record could not be praised: until Ruth Davis was appointed 

director of the Center for Computer Sciences and Technology in 1970, no woman led a technical division, and only one occupied a position as high as section chief in a technical division. 

The paucity of women in scientific and technical management roles merits further 

comment. During this period, relatively few women were encouraged to seek careers in 

technical fields.49 Fewer still were able to pursue such careers on a full-time, long-term 

basis, mainly because family obligations still rested disproportionately on women. Since higher-level managers typically selected new managers from the pool of career 

scientists with long experience and long-term prospects, only careful consideration 

Although the outright prejudice against women ascribed to the Bureau's first director by Cochrane (Measures 

for Progress, p. 54) was long gone by mid-century, the decade of the 1970s still featured contests for "Miss 

NBS." 

179 
and special effort by the higher-level managers could introduce 'gender equality" to 

leadership positions at NBS. Nevertheless, the time for Bureau-wide action on behalf 

of women had come. 

During August of 1970, the 50th anniversary of the Women's Right to Vote amendment (the 19th amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified August 18, 1920) was 

reached. Both the Commerce Department and NBS took notice of the anniversary. 

Director Branscomb met with a group of senior women staff members to discuss their 

special problems. The talk quickly focused on the availability of day-care facilities 

and the significance of child care for working women. Branscomb, reporting on the 

meeting in a memo to the NBS staff, noted the existence of the Bowman house—left 

standing for experimentation by the Building Research Division when NBS occupied 

its new Gaithersburg site—and its possible adaptation to yet another worthwhile 

purpose.5° 

The Bowman House. purchased from its former owners when NBS obtained the surrounding property for the 

Gaithershurg site, was used by the Building Research Division until it was converted into a day care center 

in 1983. 

Memo. LMB to all employees, "Equal Employment Opportunity for Women," September 2. 1970; RHA; 

RG 167; Director's Office; Box 389; Chron file. 

180 
Subsequent to use of the Bowman House for a study of the effectiveness of insulating older homes (see Sect. Energy Conservation, p. 557), the Bureau's Plant Division 

adapted it for use in the child-care program in cooperation with the Standards Committee for Women.5' The first of children—sons and daughters of NBS staff 

members, ages 2 years to 5 years—was welcomed in September 1983. Besides providing a day-care option for working parents, the Bowman House staff offered learning 

activities for all the children under the guidance of a Board of Directors elected from 

the families making use of the facility.52 

During May 1988, an open house was held at the Bowman House to celebrate the 

addition of a new wing. The addition allowed further expansion of the day-care 

program. As this history was completed, the building still housed pre-school children at 

play. 

In 1988, Deputy Director Raymond Kammer joined young clients of the NIST Day Care Center in a 

ribbon-cutting ceremony for the center's new wing as Director Lori Allen and Board President Kathy Stang 

looked on. 

The appointment of Ruth Davis and planning an NBS center for child care were two 

steps in the direction of providing equal employment opportunities for women. 

The author is indebted to DeForest Z. Rathbone, Jr., former Plant Division employee in charge of special 

projects, for details on the Bowman house renovation. 52 Jennie Covahey, "NBS child care center opens in September," Commerce People, August 1983, p. 6. 

181 
The NBS Budget 

Branscomb's first order of business as Director was to understand the people and 

programs of the Bureau and to represent them effectively in budget hearings before the 

Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Departments of State, Justice, and Commerce, The Judiciary, and Related Agencies, John J. 

Rooney, New York, Chairman.53 

Branscomb was well aware that Congressman Rooney vigorously protected the 

public purse from attacks by profligate agency heads who sought government funds for 

purposes not authorized by law—indeed, Rooney was not overly fond of approving 

appropriations even for projects specifically authorized by the House Committee on Astronautics. Branscomb later recalled: 

When I was Director, John Rooney of Brooklyn chaired—maybe I should say 

owned—the Subcommittee on Appropriations for Commerce, State, and Justice. 

Preparing for testimony before John Rooney was an agonizing affair, though 

not quite so agonizing as the experience of testimony itself. He ate government 

officials for lunch.54 

Congressman Rooney expressed outrage frequently during his hearings, and he 

denounced in clear terms the efforts of those misguided or malicious public servants 

who offended his sense of fiscal integrity. The casual reader of the committee record 

might well wonder that any of Rooney's targets stayed out of jail, let alone survived in 

office to run—in perhaps most cases—quite effective organizations. 

Despite the lurking dangers, Branscomb may have smiled a tiny smile as he contemplated his inevitable encounters with the House Subcommittee on Appropriations for 

State, Justice and Commerce. He knew that the cards were stacked against him in 

several respects. The Department of Commerce was not the ideal home for a technical 

agency such as the Bureau. The Bureau's importance to the Nation had always been 

hard to express in common terms, let alone to quantify to hostile laymen. And, of 

course, the Subcommittee members had no particular need to be civil to the people 

whose budgets they could influence so drastically. 

However, Branscomb had a few cards to play, too—and the game interested him. 

With Astin having completed the defense of the 1970 budget on May 13, 1969, 

Branscomb had a little time to prepare for his first encounter with the Subcommittee. 

He used it well. 

The U. S. Senate Appropriations Committee had a similar subcommittee, chaired at that time by Sen. John 

L. McClellan. McClellan's subcommittee also had to approve the Bureau's appropriations. However, it was the House subcommittee that conducted hearings involving NBS testimony on its budget and initiated the 

appropriations process. 

Lewis M. Branscomb, "Historical Perspective: 1969-1973," in NBSIN/ST A Historical Perspective: A Symposium in Celebration of NISTs Ninetieth Anniversary, March 4, 1991, N/ST Special Publication 825, 

April 1992, p. 25. 

182 
"I / 

NBS was established in 1901, in the midst of what historians have termed the Progressive Era (1890-1917). During this period, the American public increasingly turned to experts to help them solve complex problems arising in the new industrial society. 

At the same time, the lay public often harbored suspicion of this regime of technical 

experts, a situation that occasionally proved troublesome for NBS. 

Fiscal 1971 Budget Hearings, March 1970 

Branscomb's first budget presentation before Congress occurred on March 24, 1970. 

The NBS budget that he presented—the Fiscal 1971 edition—followed the format and 

emphasis of previous Astin budgets. "No substantial change in mission or objectives," 

183 

tul-w 

/ 

41/ - L- 

..-l 
despite the change in directors, read the introductory statement.55 In his preparations, 

Branscomb had selected three programs—the metric study, flammable fabrics, and fire 

research and safety—for priority funding requests. These programs, he announced, 

were in great need of increased support. 

Branscomb's other preparatory work had been to study the budget document almost 

to the point of memorization.56 He was aware that Congressman Rooney often asked 

questions requiring precise knowledge of budget details and dollar figures; witnesses 

without ready responses could expect a rebuke. Thus, when Rooney asked for 

numbers, Branscomb—well prepared and well rehearsed—was able to supply many 

from memory and could find the others quickly. As usual, one of the numbers 

requested was the cost of the flagpole (in reality, the cost of the flagpole and its 

environs) in front of the Gaithersburg Administration building; without hesitation, 

Branscomb quoted the five-digit number. 

The Bureau was allowed to ask for a $5 million increase for Fiscal 1971. Its total 

appropriation for the year, $44.2 million, reflected an increase of $3.6 million. 

As Branscomb defended the Bureau's fiscal 1971 budget, he was already deep into 

plans for the following year's presentation. He felt that he needed to make much more 

clear the nature of the Bureau's contribution to the Nation's welfare.57 He hankered for 

the kind of strategy used by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Social 

Security Administration (SSA). The NIH named its institutes for medical problems 

(Cancer, Aging, Mental Health, etc), not for types of molecules that dominated the 

work in the various laboratories. The SSA, given its intensive use of computers for 

"number-crunching," could justifiably have named itself the "National Computer 

Center" but wisely chose to emphasize its area of public service. 

How could Branscomb redefine Bureau programs to show their impact on the 

public? In the Institute for Basic Standards and in the Institute for Materials Research, 

its technical divisions had been organized to attack individual areas of measurement 

science for decades—Applied Mathematics, Electricity, Metrology, Mechanics, Heat, 

Atomic Physics, Radio Standards, Time and Frequency, Cryogenics, Analytical 

Chemistry, Polymers, Metallurgy, Inorganic Materials, Physical Chemistry. Still, there 

were exceptions. lBS and IMR contained consumer-oriented offices in Standard 

Reference Data and Standard Reference Materials, for example, and the Institute for 

Applied Technology incorporated many consumer-focused units—Engineering 

Standards Services, Weights and Measures, Invention and Innovation, Vechicle 

Systems, Product Evaluation, and Building Research. 

Branscomb's solution to this challenge was to revise entirely the way in which NBS 

programs were presented to the House Appropriations subcommittee, and to introduce 

additional problem-oriented units to the NBS organization as the situation permitted. 

Hearings, House App. Subcommittee, March 24, 1970, P. 1021. 

Branscomb, Oral History, July 12, 1988. 

Branscomb, Oral History, July 12, 1988. 

184 
Working with his managers, with consultants, with the Department of Commerce, 

and with the Office of Management and Budget, Branscomb fleshed out a new budget-presentation scheme and prepared a "crosswalk" to correlate entries in previous 

budgets with items in the new one. After some months of effort, he sent his 

"homework" to Charles H. Alexander, Director of the Office of Budget and Program 

Analysis for the Department of Commerce, and requested permission to use it in the 

Fiscal 1972 budget.58 

Fiscal 1972 Budget Hearings, April 1971 

The new activity structure for the 1972 budget hearings was meant to convey a picture of NBS as a problem-solving, consumer-oriented institution: 

• Providing the basis for the Nation's physical measurement system. 

• Providing scientific and technological services for industry and government. 

• Providing the technical basis for equity in trade. 

• Providing technical services to promote public safety. 

• Providing technical information services. 

• Providing one-of-a-kind facilities for use by NBS and visiting scientists. 

In presenting the new structure to the Bureau staff, Branscomb had been typically 

candid: 

There is nothing sacred about this program structure. Some of the elements 

are frankly experiments; we will have to see how they work out.59 

It is interesting to notice that, by 1974, each of the operating units of the Bureau 

was assigned responsibility in one or another unit of Branscomb's program structure.6° 

Congressman Rooney, during the Fiscal 1972 hearings, appeared to surprise even 

himself by praising Branscomb's presentation of the new description: 

This is one of the better statements from the Department of Commerce. 

The statement is in language that represents the doctor's thoughts and he 

conveys those thoughts to the committee. I think this is very well written 

However, don't rest on your laurels on that one, Doctor.6' 

The repartee during the April 1971 budget hearings would not be confused with the 

soft banter of old friends, but Branscomb had made a good start on his task of 

creating a new image for NBS. And, it should be noted, NBS received all the funding 

Memo, LMB to C. H. Alexander, Dir. , Office of Budget and Program Analysis, DoC: "Request for 

change in budget activity structure," RHA, RG 167, Director's Office, Box 389, folder Chrono, September 

1-30 1970. Attachments, 12 pp. 

"From the Director's Office," NBS Standard, vol XV, No. 5 May-June 1970, p. 2. 

Admin. Bull. 74-44, June 25, 1974. 61 Hearings, House Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on Commerce, etc, 92nd Cong., 1st sess., April20, 1971, pp. 1117-1140. 

1 85 
requested in the fiscal 1972 budget, increasing the Bureau's Congressional support 

level by some $5 million, to $49 million.62 

Fiscal 1973 Budget Hearings, March 1972 

The fiscal 1973 budget appropriation hearings, held on March 28, 1972, were 

remarkable for several reasons. 

First of all, where was Congressman Rooney? Still the Chairman of the Subcommittee on Departments of State, Justice, and Commerce, the Judiciary, and Related 

Agencies of the House Committee on Appropriations of the 92nd Congress, Second 

Session, Congressman Rooney neither spoke nor sat during the hearings. 

Rooney had been in charge 8 days earlier, when Peter G. Peterson, named Secretary 

of Commerce on January 27, 1972, by President Richard M. Nixon and confirmed 

by the U.S. Senate on February 21st, made his first appearance before Rooney's 

subcommittee. As part of his testimony on budget requests by the Department of 

Commerce, Peterson had suggested that a $14 million Experimental Technical 

Incentives Program be lodged within NBS. Rooney had been in fine form that day, 

asking: 

Do you think this is the right place in which to put this kind of trust?63 

You know, these great scientists out there were so wrong in figuring the cost 

of the building at Gaithersburg that I think it is the No. I white elephant in 

Government. Is there anything worse than that? 

But on March 28, Mr. Rooney was missing, through illness or press of business 

elsewhere; no duel of words and numbers with the new Bureau Director would take 

place on that day. Rooney's position was filled by Congressman John M. Slack of 

West Virginia, a competent questioner and one not given to rancor. 

The second unusual feature of the 1972 hearings was the enormous increase in 

appropriations that NBS was allowed to request for fiscal 1973. The total came to $79 

million, an increase over the previous year's budget by a whopping $30 million. After 

Branscomb made his formal presentation, Mr. Slack felt a need to check the facts: 

Mr. Slack: We realize that you are requesting funds here for some very 

worthwhile programs. However, when I read the amounts requested this year 

and compare those with the appropriations made last year I find this is an increase of almost 60 %. Is that correct? 

Mr. Branscomb: That is correct, Mr. Chairman. 

Mr. Slack: That is a very sizable request. 

Mr. Branscomb: It is, Sir. 

62 1972 Funds-requested data from Hearings, House Approp. Subcomm, April 20, 1971, p. 1118, "1972 

Estimate; $47. 5 million." 1972 Funds-appropriated data from Hearings, House Approp. Subcomm., March 

28, 1972. p. 1076, "1972 Approp.; $49.8 million." 

Hearings, Subcommittee, Part 3, Commerce, March 20, 1972, p. 15. 186 
A third remarkable feature of the 1972 hearings only became known a week later, 

when Branscomb's resignation as NBS Director reached the White House. Having 

created momentum for recognition of the Bureau's present and potential role as a leader for technological progress in the U.S. government and having obtained 

executive-branch support for a notable increase in funding to help fulfill that role, 

Branscomb had set a stage that he would occupy no longer. 

The $79 million budget request for NBS, Branscomb's narrative stated, was an 

unusual expansion meant to attack national problems of unusual magnitude—the 

decline in growth of U.S. productivity, the first trade deficit of the century, 

environmental pollution, and public safety. 

Largest of the new program proposals originated with "the President's initiative to 

focus scientific research and technology more directly on solving national problems."64 

In fact, it was one proposal that had not been initiated by Branscomb—nor by anyone 

at NBS, for that matter. Lawrence Kushner, Deputy Director of NBS, remembered 

receiving a telephone call from the Office of Management and Budget while 

Branscomb was on foreign travel; the caller announced that $8 million would be 

added to the fiscal 1973 budget for a program that would help innovation in U.S. 

industry by eliminating barriers to technological progress. Kushner promised to begin 

immediately to design such a program, but the caller needed a program title at that 

moment. During that call, the Experimental Technology Incentives Program (ETIP) was born.65 

The nature of the ETIP program was developed principally by Edward J. Istvan, a newcomer to who was Associate Director for Teleprocessing in the Center for 

Computer Science and Technology. The main idea of the program became part of 

the NBS budget narrative for Fiscal 1973, with a price tag expanded to $14.4 million.67 

Besides the ETIP program, an increase of $3 million was requested in programs 

collected under the heading "productivity enhancement." These included a new neutron-standards capability ($407,000), extension of the standard reference data 

program ($534,000), expansion of the computer science and technology program 

($1.05 M), and a new cryogenics-based electric-power project ($1 M). 

$1.5 M was asked in the area of environmental-pollution abatement. The Measures 

for Air Quality program was to receive about one-third of that increase, another third 

was earmarked for water-pollution work, and the rest was intended for studies in noise 

pollution. 

Hearings transcript, p. 1077. 

Lawrence Kushner, Oral History, June 7, 1988. 66 Istvan joined NBS in 1971. He was an expert in the use of radar for meteorological work. He had experi- ence in the Air Weather Service, in the Guided Missile office of the U.S. Air Force, in the Department of 

Defense Office of Space Systems, and at the Communications Satellite Corporation. 

Hearings, House Subcommittee, March 28, 1972, p. 1085. 

187 
Programs in public health and safety were scheduled for increases totaling $6.4 M. 

Research projects in the areas of materials measurements ($725,000), failure avoidance 

($1 .2 M), fire research and safety ($3.8 M), and radiation safety ($400,000) were 

intended to share in this funding. 

Improvements in the NBS plant and equipment were scheduled to cost $5.3 M; of 

that amount, $4.2 M was intended to augment the NBS Working Capital Fund used to 

purchase general equipment. The rest was intended for a new volt standard, the time 

and frequency program, and reactor-facility plant 

The state of the Bureau's equipment had been found wanting in the extreme during a survey taken in preparation for the July 1970 meeting of the statutory Visiting 

Committee. Over the previous half-decade, the annual equipment expenditure for the 

Bureau's technical staff had dropped from roughly $1000 per scientist to $600. The 

Visiting Committee report stated: 

Although maintained with great care and devotion, the most that can be said 

of much of the equipment is that it has the beauty of a well-varnished buggy.69 

Noting that the Committee had recommended an increase of three to five times the 

amount usually spent by NBS to bring its spending level for equipment up to the rate 

routinely allocated by comparable private-sector laboratories, Secretary of Commerce 

Maurice Stans urged Congress to fund a five-year modernization program. 

NBS Staffing and Funding Levels under Branscomb 

It is fair to guess that it was the care with which Branscomb prepared his testimony 

before Congress, coupled with his vision of NBS as a greater force in the day-to-day 

technological life of the United States, that provided much of the impetus for the 

Bureau's Fiscal 1973 Congressional appropriations. Too, Branscomb's efforts coincided with a growing awareness in both the Executive Branch and Congress that NBS 

could be of considerable service to the Nation's economic health, as we shall see. 

Such are the thrills of government funding that, in March of 1972, NBS happily 

found itself allowed to seek $79 M (an increase of $30 M) in direct appropriations for 

Fiscal 1973. When the budget finally passed both houses of Congress, NBS had been 

granted over $69 M (including $10 M for the ETIP program). 

However, before the Bureau could spend the $20 M increase over its Fiscal 1972 

appropriation, President Nixon announced that $13 M of the increase would be 

required of NBS as part of a general economy drive in government spending.7° The 

ETIP program—suggested, as noted above, by the President's own productivityenhancement effort—gave up only $3.8 M. Entirely gone were the increases for 

House Subcommittee hearings, March 28, 1972, pp. 1078-1087. 

Letter to Stans from Robert L. Sproull, Chairman of the Visiting Committee, June 22, 1971. RHA 

Director's Files, Box 390, Folder July 1971. 

News accounts at the time referred to the cuts as "impoundments" or "rescissions." The transcript in the 

1974 House Subcommittee hearings recorded the cuts as "savings and deferrals." 

188 
neutron standards; for standard reference data; for computer sciences; for radiation 

safety; and for the volt standard, reactor, and time and frequency dissemination 

facilities. The environmental pollution standards program increase was cut back to 

$675,000. The cryogenic power program increase was reduced to $300,000. The 

appropriated increase to the fire program was cut by two-thirds.7' 

A worse problem than President Nixon's rescission of two-thirds of its Fiscal 1973 

budget increase was his imposition, late in 1971, of 5 % reductions in both total numbers of Bureau employees and their average grade level. Through no fault of Lewis 

Branscomb, the Bureau lost more than 100 staff members during 1971-72, the equivalent of one of its technical divisions. 

What to do about the budget, by the time the President's cuts in it were announced, 

was no longer the problem of Lewis Branscomb. 

NEW CONGRESSIONAL OVERSIGHT HEARINGS FOR NBS 

Even prior to his appointment as director, Lewis Branscomb held the view that 

NBS program support in Congress suffered because its work was so little known by 

individual Congressmen. In order to make ends meet, NBS managers were more and 

more often forced to accept funding from other government agencies as a means to 

pursue projects that could advance the Bureau's basic mission. Other-agency funds 

then constituted about 42 % of the total Bureau support—too high a figure by far, by 

Branscomb's reckoning. 

If only members of Congress were better informed about NBS, they would be more 

likely to provide the agency with adequate support through direct appropriations, 

thought Branscomb. As its new director, he already knew well the high quality of the 

NBS staff and the broad range of its programs, and he welcomed the visibility that 

public scrutiny would bring. 

Tickling the system in September of 1971, Branscomb inquired whether the House 

Committee on Science and Astronautics would be interested in celebrating the 

Bureau's 70th anniversary "by undertaking an in-depth review of the Bureau of 

Standards—the goals, structure, operations, strengths, problems, and opportunities."72 

Allen Astin also urged the Committee to act. 

Extensive familiarization hearings had been undertaken by the House Committee on Science and Astronautics in 1959, during the year following its establishment. These 

had been the last comprehensive Congressional reviews of the Bureau, although limited 

hearings had occurred numerous times since then. Perhaps most significant were those 

held in 1961 in connection with the provision of large-force calibrations for the space 

program, in 1964 to accompany the initiation of the Standard Reference Data program, 

and in 1967 as part of the development of the Metric Study legislation. 

House Subcommittee hearings, April 17, 1973, p. 772. 72 LMB, "Perspective" SP 825, p. 25. 

189 
Branscomb's inquiry was received with enthusiasm. The Congressional Research 

Service (CRS), the investigative arm of the Library of Congress, was directed by the 

House Committee on Science and Astronautics to prepare a study of the Bureau for its 

Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development. 

Lester S. Jayson, Director of the CRS, assigned analyst Dorothy M. Bates to conduct 

the study. She collaborated in the review with Warren H. Donnelly and with Charles 

S. Sheldon II, Chief of the Science Policy Research Division. Their report was submitted to John W. Davis, chairman of the subcommittee, on August 18, 197 

The CRS report, intended to provide background information for the use of the 

subcommittee in conducting its oversight hearings, was detailed and thorough. One 

topic treated early in the report summarized the previous reviews of NBS by the 

Science and Astronautics Committee; it is worthwhile to note the highlights of those 

reviews. 

Previous Reviews of NBS 

The Congressional Research Service briefly recounted the findings of the Science 

and Astronautics Committee in hearings from 1959. The esteem with which NBS 

was perceived by the committee during those earlier hearings was indicated by the 

relatively few criticisms of the Bureau in the CRS summaries. For the most part, the 

committee members simply reported that NBS needed funding, or that NBS would be 

required to develop a new capability. 

1959 Review 

The latest comprehensive Congressional reviews of the Bureau, as noted above, had 

been performed by the House Committee on Science and Astronautics. The 3-day 

review in May 1959 had elicited a 13-page report by the Committee.74 Committee 

members found no fault with NBS, only observing that: 

The Bureau's major problems related to the inadequacies of its physical plant 

and research and testing facilities at its old site on Connecticut Avenue 

in Washington. Major equipment critically needed in 1959 were larger 'deadweight' machines to calibrate force measurements for the missile and rocket 

program, and a nuclear research reactor.75 

Congressional Research Service, Science Policy Research Division, Library of Congress, National Bureau 

of Standards: Review of Its Organization and Operations: A Study Prepared for the Subcommittee on 

Science, Research, and Development of the Committee on Science and Astronautics, U.S. House of 

Representatives, 92nd Congress, First Session, September 8, 1971, 222 pp. 

Briefing by the National Bureau of Standards, 86th Cong. 1st sess. 1959 (May 7, 8, and 21), 78 pp. 

Briefing by National Bureau of Standards, 86th Cong. 1st sess., Aug. 21, 1959, 13 pp. 

190 
1961 Review 

A second Committee hearing—in May 1961—had focused on the responsibilities of 

NBS to help the space program, testifying to the urgency of a technical response to 

the Soviet launch of Sputnik. In its report on the review, the Committee had noted that 

NBS was hard-pressed to keep pace with demands for its services, for numerous 

reasons: 

• Lack of adequate funding. 

• Limited and inadequate laboratory facilities. 

• Necessity to perform work for other agencies to the detriment of its primary 

measurement-standards mission. 

• Difficulty in recruiting and retaining additional senior scientists because of a lack 

of high-level positions. 

• Inability to invest in backup research. 

In view of these problems, the 1961 Committee recommended doubling the 1959 

level ($15 M) of NBS appropriations in order to shift NBS staff from other-agency 

work to projects in the basic NBS mission areas.76 

Subsequent Congressional Reviews 

The CRS report noted that other Congressional hearings on NBS in subsequent years 

had been confined to specific aspects of its programs. These included the following: 

• Amendment of the Organic Act in 1963 to give NBS authority to carry funds 

past the end of the fiscal year, to allow visiting scientists to work at the Bureau, 

and to allow NBS to receive and spend gifts and bequests. 

• Hearings in 1966 that led to the establishment of the Standard Reference Data 

System. 

• Hearings in June, 1967, that led to an amendment of the Organic Act to authorize a Fire Research and Safety program. 

• Hearings that led to enactment of Public Law 90-472, the Metric Study Act, in 

1968. 

76 Direct Congressional support for NBS research and technical services during the three-year period 1959-6 I did rise dramatically, although it did not double: 

Year 1959a I96lc 

Res. & Tech. services $1 1.5 $17.3 $18.8 

Plant & Constr. $ 3.7 $ 2.1 $25.5 

Total Amount (millions) $15.2 $19.4 $44.3 

Notes: a Hearings, House Appropriations Subcommittee, 86th Cong.. 1st sess., May 1, 1959, pp. 250-251. b Hearings, House Appropriations Subcommittee, 86th Cong., 2nd sess., January 13, 1960, pp. 234-236. 

Across-the-board increases for all technical areas averaged 30 %. C Hearings, House Appropriations Subcommittee, 87th Cong., 1st sess., May 3, 1961, pp. 807-808. The 

"Plant and Construction" item includes new facilities—nuclear reactor, deadweight-testing building, and 

linac—at the Gaithersburg site. 

191 
Executive Branch Reviews 

The Executive Branch conducted its own reviews of NBS. The CRS report duly 

summarized these reviews: 

• Annual reviews by the statutory Visiting Committee, for the Secretary of 

Commerce. 

• Annual reviews of technical divisions by evaluation panels administered by the 

National Research Council. 

• Occasional reviews by the General Accounting Office. 

• Two major reviews made at the request of Secretary of Commerce Sinclair 

Weeks; an Ad Hoc Committee review following the AD-X2 battery-additive 

controversy (the first Kelly Committee review, in 1953), and a follow-up review 

(the second Kelly Committee review, in 

The CRS report identified the total paid staff at NBS in June 1970 as 4053 persons, 

including full-time permanent staff, Postdoctoral Research Associates, and part-time 

staff; 650 of these worked at the Boulder site. 

More than 40 % of the overall Bureau support came from funding provided by other 

government agencies and from testing fees. (Branscomb believed that outside support 

should be capped at about one-third of the total support 

NBS appropriations were authorized by the House and Senate Appropriations 

Committees, Subcommittees for the Departments of State, Justice, Commerce, the 

Judiciary and related agencies. The subcommittees were chaired by Sen. John L. 

McClellan and John J. Rooney. The fiscal 1972 appropriation for NBS totalled $48 

million, including $47 million for research and technical services; overall NBS support 

was in excess of $85 million. 

The report took notice of the new budgetary line items used by Branscomb during 

the House Appropriations Subcommittee hearings in April 1971. 

In the CRS overview of the quality of NBS as a federal agency, the authors stated 

that they found: 

no serious shortcomings or inadequacies for which the Bureau can be 

held responsible. But there are problems confronting the Bureau which, if left 

unattended, may iesult in difficulties not only for the Bureau, but for the 

Nation as a whole. 

" Extensive discussion of the two Kelly Committee reports on NBS programs and management can be found 

in Passaglia, A Unique Institution. See, for example, p. 173 and p. 304. 

LMB, Oral History, July 12, 1988. 

192 
The authors alluded to difficulty in "getting a grip" on the Bureau because, as Branscomb had surmised, outsiders knew relatively little about its work.79 In addition, 

it appeared that the Bureau's operations—already more technical and diverse than the 

average citizen could follow—changed quickly in response to requests from governmental or technical organizations. The result was the relative obscurity that Branscomb 

wished to overcome. 

The existing and foreseeable "Bureau problems" mentioned in the CRS report 

derived in the main from sources external to NBS. One such was uncertainty and, 

often, inadequacy in funding, arising in part from the fact that the NBS mission—while 

important to the Nation's technological well-being——often lacked the glamour of, say,, a space trip to the moon. Another lay in the diversity of its responsibilities to government and industry. A third reflected hesitancy on the part of Congress to increase 

support of civilian technology as the Nation's technological expenditures increased. 

Finally, the report mentioned the continuing demand that the Bureau should provide 

the measurement infrastructure to support these technological changes despite the 

difficulties of expanding or quickly adapting its staff to new projects. 

The authors found a few areas where NBS efforts had been criticized during the past 

decade. There had been Congressional or industry dissatisfaction with certain features 

of the Bureau's work on Operation Breakthrough and the Flammable Fabrics project. 

A panel of the National Academy of Science had determined that the NBS materialsresearch facilities were inadequate. Demographic data had indicated that minorities 

were under-represented on the Bureau staff. Progress in deriving standards for 

automatic data processing had been slow. Differences with the General Accounting 

Office on fiscal procedures had occurred. And in certain cases, inequitable calibrationfee charges had been levied by NBS. All of these were suggested as suitable subjects 

for discussion during oversight hearings. 

A number of additional avenues for Congressional inquiry were suggested in the 

report. These covered a multitude of thorny issues: adequate planning for the future of 

programs and standards; the continuing problem of the proper role of NBS in U.S. 

metric conversion; developing techniques for maintaining suitable levels of funding and 

laboratory facilities; questioning whether the Department of Commerce still provided 

the best "home" for NBS within the Executive Branch; and possible changes in Bureau 

authority and policy to help it to meet its responsibilities. 

Oversight Hearings Testimony 

The oversight hearings themselves took place September 16, 21, 22, 23, and 28, 

1971 before the House Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development. The 

record of the hearings ran to more than 380 pages.8° Besides Branscomb, a host of 

witnesses testified on one topic or another. The list included the following people: 

Branscomb was surprised that the authors of the CRS report did not consult with NBS managers in preparing it. The report would have been improved in several aspects, in Branscomb's opinion (see L. M. 

Branscomb, Oral History, July 13. 1988), had the authors buttressed information gleaned from external sources with amplifying material from NBS. 

House Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development of the Committee on Science and Astronautics, National Bureau of Standards Oversight Hearings, 92nd Congress, First Session. September 16, 21, 22, 

23, and 28, 1971, 387 pp. 

193 
• James H. Wakelin, Jr., Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Science and 

Technology. 

• Vico E. Henriques, Director of Standards, Business Equipment Manufacturers 

Association. 

• Nathan Cohn, Executive Vice President, Leeds & Northrup Company. 

• Robert S. Walleigh, NBS Director for Administration. 

• Ernest Ambler, NBS Director of the Institute for Basic Standards. 

• John D. Hoffman, NBS Director of the Institute for Materials Research. 

• F. Karl Willenbrock, NBS Director of the Institute for Applied Technology. 

• Edward L. Brady, NBS Associate Director for Information Programs. 

• Former NBS Director Allen Astin. 

• Ruth M. Davis, NBS Director of the Center for Computer Sciences and 

Technology. 

• Lawrence M. Kushner, NBS Deputy Director. 

All witnesses gave written and/or oral testimony. In addition, written statements 

were inserted into the hearings record by 11 other 

in James Wakelin, the Assistant Secretary of 

Commerce for Science and Technology. Wakelin, formerly a manager at the Office of 

Naval Research and the Naval Research Laboratory, was well aware of the close 

cooperation between NBS and the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric 

Administration in the area of data acquisition and analysis. In his testimony, he gave 

glowing praise to the work of NBS, stressing its importance to the technical aspects 

of U.S. industry and commerce. 

By the time of the oversight hearings, Branscomb was 2 years into his term as Director. He had quickly become familiar with most of the Bureau's programs, and he 

spoke with equal eloquence regarding his own view of the significance of NBS work 

to the Nation's technical enterprise. On this subject, he had well-developed views that 

greatly interested the members of the Subcommittee. 

These individuals included Bernard M. Oliver, vice president of research and development, HewlettPackard Co.; C. Sutton Mullen, Jr., chief fire marshal. Bureau of Insurance. Virginia State Corporation Commission; N. Bruce Hannay. executive director of research, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.; Michael M. 

Schoor, legislative assistant, American Dental Association; Harold B. Finger, Assistant Secretary for 

Research and Technology, Department of Housing and Urban Development; John E. Mock, Georgia Science 

and Technology Commission; Arthur M. Bueche, vice president for research and development, General 

Electric Co.; W. 0. Baker, vice president for research, Bell Telephone Laboratories; W. T. Cavanaugh, 

managing director, American Society for Testing and Materials; Sava I. Sherr, manager, standards 

operations, Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers; and Roy P. Trowbridge, president, American 

National Standards Institute. 

194 
Branscomb's testimony in the oversight hearings was important principally because 

it placed before the Congressmen a multitude of ideas on how the Bureau perceived 

its mission and its relation to other government entities. Following are a few of his 

comments: 

Mission of NBS 

Our cornerstone responsibility is to provide for the United States the single 

authoritative source of accurate, compatible, and useful physical measurements 

and further to ensure their international compatibility. 

No nation in the modern world, much less the world's leading scientific and 

technological society, can prosper and function effectively if the national 

system of measurement is in a state of anarchy. 

The commercial life of this country depends upon the Bureau's help with 

such measurement problems, not alone because the Bureau's staff bring to 

bear scientific talents not usually found in industry, but more importantly 

because both buyer and seller need an unbiased, honest third party with the 

technical capability to say 'This measurement is a fair and accurate one; that 

one may not be.'82 

NBS Operating Goals and Objectives 

• Measurement Services for Science and Technology. 

• Science and Technology for Industry and Government. 

• Technical Services for Equity in Trade. 

• Technical Services for Public Safety. 

• Technical Information Services. 

• Central Technical Support. 

NBS Budgeting Methods. 

The National Bureau of Standards was established and has operated much like a central corporate laboratory in the Federal Establishment. 

The National Bureau of Standards does not have a line appropriation for 

administrative operations and research in addition to its program budget. Nor 

does the Public Building Service budget for the maintenance of our facilities, 

which we operate out of project funds. Every dollar spent at the National 

Bureau of Standards is accounted for as a program cost. 

In addition, we provide a variety of reimbursable services for which we must incur no profit and no loss. For these programs, we require access to 

working capital to invest in inventory of both materials for sale and labor for 

services in progress.83 

82 Hearings Committee print, pp. 20, 22. 

Hearings Committee print, p. 38. 

195 
NBS Staffing Levels 

During a time of rapid priority change and laboratory reorganization, our staff 

has been admirably adaptable. An annual reduction-in-force averaging about 

1.5 % of our total personnel each of the last two fiscal years has been regrettable, but unavoidable. 

Here is a chart that shows the rapidly growing Institute for Applied 

Technology, where, of course, a number of programs with pressing social 

priorities are located. If you will consider the tremendous efforts we have made 

to focus our talents on priority technical problems, not only to respond to 

changing social needs, but the changing requirements of science itself within 

the Institute for Basic Standards and the Institute for Materials Research, whose 

staffs have been declining slowly, you will appreciate that our staff has been 

called upon for adaptability. 

We have also seen severe attrition in discretionary operating funds over and 

above our basic technical and support payroll. This, in part, has forced the 

reductions-in-force as managers reduce staff to keep operational efficiency.84 

Between 1965 and 1971, the Bureau staff grew slightly, from 1369 to 1384. 

But the Institute for Applied Technology in that interval grew from 139 to 349, 

the Institute for Materials Research held almost exactly constant, and the 

Institute for Basic Standards—concerned with the provision for the central basis 

for measurement in this country—dropped from 687 to 562. 

This trend in itself is simply descriptive of the narrowing of our base of 

measuring services for science and technology, and it does give me pause. The 

static nature of the total professional staff simply spells a picture of a talented, 

experienced staff slowly growing older and failing to replenish itself adequately 

with recently educated younger graduates. We are attempting to do whatever we can within the constraints of a more or less constant staff to insure our 

vitality.85 

NBS Equipment 

At the same time, we have permitted the state of the Bureau's equipment to fall 

far below the standard to which industrial laboratories maintain themselves, 

notwithstanding the fact that it is our responsibility to be the measurement 

laboratory for them.86 

In our Metallurgy Division, for example, we feel that a very high priority 

should be given to fracture mechanics, fatigue, and related problems. We are now trying to strengthen our capabilities in this area under the general heading 

of failure avoidance services. 

84 Hearings, Committee print, p. 40. From Branscomb's answers to questions by the Committee, it is clear 

that "social" projects at NBS refer to relatively short-term programs such as flammable fabrics, fire research 

and safety, and building codes. Most of this work was mandated by Congressional legislation. 85 Hearings, Committee print, p. 317. 

Hearings, Committee print, p. 40. 

196 
I have looked at the age of equipment used in this program. We have all 

of our equipment on a computer roster and can query this roster for the 

acquisition date. My staff provided me with a page and a half of equipment 

items, starting with the first one acquired, and the list ends in 1909. Several 

items on that list are fatigue testers and tensile testers still in use. My staff 

informs me that although we do have the personnel in metallurgy, we are not 

in a position to undertake work in fracture mechanics because of the lack of, or the total obsolescence of, appropriate test equipment. 

If I may show the committee one figure, 1 would like to indicate that our 

National Academy of Sciences' evaluation panels have been very helpful in 

calling this problem to our attention. They also have helped to provide us with some base of overall judgment by which we can calibrate our impression. based on the individual requirements of the laboratories, that we are underfunded in 

equipment. We obtained information from a number of industrial laboratories 

with similar types of research programs. 

Examples would be Bell Telephone, General Electric, or Westinghouse. They 

invest 10 % in general equipment for the laboratories. That is indicated by the 

horizontal line. The vertical bars give the percentage that NBS has invested 

in equipment over recent years. The number has risen and fallen (in the range 

2 % to 8 %)•57 

NBS EQUIPMENT EXPENDITURE 

121 AS A PERCENT OF OPERATING COST 

10 iniH ii r ru 

Chart shown by Lewis Branscomb to the House Subcommittee on Science. Research, 

and Development during 1971 Oversight Hearings. It demonstrated the relatively low 

investment in NBS laboratory equipment from 1954 to 1971 compared with expenditures by major private-sector laboratories. 

Hearings, Committee print, p. 3 19-320. 

197 

Fiscal Year 
Prospects for NBS 

I am a strong advocate of a businesslike mode of operation in which all costs 

are charged to projects. I would only like to make it clear to the committee that 

the fiscal pressure under which we have operated in the last several years—and 

will probably continue to operate—will require continued cancellation of both. 

programs and competences in many significant areas, areas where sections of 

our scientific and engineering community have depended upon us for continued 

assistance. Your oversight of these choices is appropriate too. 

Despite these difficulties I believe the National Bureau of Standards faces the 

most challenging opportunity of any large research laboratory in this Nation. 

We have the right competence in the right organization at a right time. We are in a way that I think is unique in bringing science and 

technology to bear on national social and economic problems as well as on our 

scientific achievement. 

Our scientists understand the complexities of the social context within which 

their research must find application. We enjoy a generally excellent reputation 

among those who know our work, even though we have not been very active in 

making ourselves known to the general public. 

The public's expectations from science and technology multiply every day. 

But I am deeply concerned that disillusionment may follow if government fails 

to promote innovation and the productivity of our technology, and fails to guide 

the regulation of technology on the basis of objective evidence and fair and 

accurate measurements. 

We see the national measurement system and a system of industrial and 

engineering standards as dynamic systems calling not for more stewardship, but 

for leadership. The National Bureau of Standards welcomes the guidance of 

this committee in how it can better provide that leadership.88 

Branscomb's comments made it clear that NBS was doing more with fewer 

resources. His words were cogent testimony that the Bureau was running out of 

flexibility in the face of dwindling professional staff and insufficient or outdated 

equipment. The Committee questions indicated that they agreed with his assessment. 

Ambler, Hoffman, Willenbrock, and Davis took turns explaining to the committee 

the nature of NBS programs under their care. The committee members expressed 

interest in the details of the Bureau's technical work and complimented the managers on the clarity of their presentations. 

Edward Brady, NBS Associate Director for Information Programs, gave an overview 

of NBS activities, lodging them within the framework of national needs. Brady noted 

the benefits to society from the Bureau's work—enhanced productivity, improved 

health and safety, and better-made consumer products. He closed with a brief exposition of NBS technical communications—publications, conferences, and seminars. 

Hearings, Committee print, p. 40. 

198 
On the third day of the hearings, Allen Astin testified. In his written remarks, the 

former Director addressed a recurring question: Should NBS be moved from the 

Department of Commerce? His view was that, while the Bureau's scientific 

cooperation with organizations such as the National Science Foundation and the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration could not reach their full potential 

while NBS was lodged within DoC, Bureau programs were vital to the success of so many DoC activities that only an Executive-branch reorganization could improve the 

present situation. 

Astin reminded the committee members that the Bureau had served as a veritable 

hothouse of innovative technology during his 17-year term as director, creating new technical organizations and then spinning them off to other agencies. These included 

the guided-missile laboratory, sent complete with equipment and staff to the U.S. 

Navy; the Diamond Ordnance Fuze Laboratory, similarly given to the U.S. Army; the 

Institute for Numerical Analysis, which became part of the University of California 

at Los Angeles; an integrated-circuit electronics laboratory that became an industrial 

activity; the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory, which helped to create NOAA; and a product-testing laboratory that became part of the General Services Administration. 

He noted that, under new Director Branscomb, another spin-off had already taken 

place—the Bureau's vehicle-safety laboratory had been transferred to the Department 

of Transportation. All of these creations and divestitures, Astin stated, showed the 

determination of NBS to avoid accretion of staff and functions beyond its own view of 

its rightful mission. 

Astin identified as a serious problem the tendency of Congress to assign programs to 

NBS with inadequate support. He noted that Congress had funded only 10 % of the 

amounts deemed essential to the success of six programs recently assigned to the 

Bureau, with the result that the programs had fizzled or the core competence of NBS 

had been eroded as its managers had struggled to implement them.89 He also reminded 

the Committee that the Bureau's lack of adequate equipment had been noted by the 

Kelly Report in 1953, but that the revolving fund for equipment had hardly been 

augmented during the intervening decade. Certainly, he said, NBS was well below 

the average for a modern U.S. laboratory in terms of its per-scientist equipment 

allocations. 

Significant in the light of the eventual change in the name of NBS was a comment 

by Astin that: 

Part of the difficulty in some of the lack of appreciation of the range of the 

Bureau programs and services is the name—The National Bureau of Standards. 

Some Secretaries of Commerce, on learning of the scope and importance of the 

Bureau activities, have suggested that we devise a new and more descriptive 

89 Charles A. Mosher, member of both the Subcommittee and the parent Committee, expressed disappointment later in the hearings (p. 227 of the official transcript) that there existed "a serious lack of coordination 

between the authorizing committees and the appropriating committees . . . that is at the very core of failure 

of congressional effectiveness in this field." 

199 
name. I have viewed such suggestions with mixed thoughts. I can definitely see 

several advantages to a broader name. On the other hand, the present name is 

held in high regard by the Bureau's specialized clients and there is danger of 

losing some of this with a new name. 

I would want to retain the word "Standards" in any new title. However, our 

counterpart laboratories in England and Germany have the names National 

Physical Laboratory and Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, respectively, 

and the word "standards" does not appear. 

Perhaps, nearly two decades later, Astin's remark played a role in Congress' 

decision to rename the Bureau. 

NBS Deputy Director Lawrence Kushner spoke on the fourth day of the oversight 

hearings. He responded to the committee's desire for more specific information on 

the NBS role in the development of engineering standards. He carefully drew the 

distinction between standards of physical measurement—the lifeblood of the 

metrological sciences and the benchmarks of the laboratory sciences—and engineering 

standards, which undergird industrial practices regarding product manufacture and 

performance, safety, pollution-generation, and dozens of other commercial areas. He 

noted that, in the United States, most engineering standards were voluntary—their 

major influence being found in the agreements among companies and nations that their 

work should conform to the standards. 

Members of the committee heard about the American Society for Testing and 

Materials, the American National Standards Institute, the Society of Automotive 

Engineers, the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc., and a host of other 

organizations created to advance the cause of standard practices. 

Kushner described the types of service given to engineering standards by some 350 

NBS staff members, working with more than 900 committees in one or more of 

400 standards-writing organizations. Mostly, he stated, Bureau participants provided 

technical expertise, lending their knowledge of measurement limits and instrumentation. Committee members expressed satisfaction with his clear discussion.9° 

After five days of detailed testimony, the Subcommittee on Science, Research, and 

Development of the House Committee on Science and Astronautics, 92nd Congress, 

had received an enormous amount of information about NBS. The picture painted for 

them by the speakers described an agency with a strong sense of its own mission and a willingness to fulfill that mission by dint of careful and diligent work.9' NBS, both in 

Gaithersburg and in Boulder, was described as possessing a talented group of scientists 

and engineers housed in excellent facilities. 

The Committee also heard much about the needs of the Bureau for more and better 

equipment and for amplified funding for its staff. Whether the oversight hearings 

would help the Bureau shed the cloak of invisibility that kept from it a more productive level of support, only time would tell. 

9° Hearings, Committee print, pp. 28 1-294. 

Synopses of the testimony presented by NBS speakers were recorded in the 1971 Annual Report, published as NBS Special Publication 360, June 1972, 90 pp. 

200 
AN UNEXPECTED DEPARTURE 

The news, reported in Science magazine, came with stunning swiftness: 

The President's technology opportunities program, which was unveiled early 

this year, assigned a lead role to NBS, marking what was probably the first 

time the bureau has starred in any program of national prominence. Lewis M. 

Branscomb, the man who aroused the low-profile and somewhat sleepy agency 

to such eminence after only 2 1/2 years as its director, announced last week he 

is leaving to become vice-president and chief scientist of IBM. This decision, 

which Branscomb explains as "a personal opportunity for me that is not likely 

to come again," will deprive the Washington science scene of one of its rising 

and brighter stars. IBM did not have to scour the length and breadth of the 

nation for its new executive. Emanuel R. Piore, present chief scientist at IBM 

and a doyen of American statesmen of science, is a member of the NBS 

visiting committee. An atomic physicist, not a computer technologist by trade, 

Branscomb will direct IBM's research on a strategic rather than a tactical basis. 

IBM spends roughly $500 million a year on research and development, compared with a total budget of less than $50 million enjoyed by the NBS. 

Branscomb thus steps into a job that is ten times larger and, it is said, will 

roughly double his present salary of $36,000. Since becoming director of the 

NBS in June 1969, he has turned down at least two university presidencies 

and has been in the running for the presidency of the Massachusetts Institute of 

Technology and the directorship of the National Science Foundation.92 

One week later, the NBS Standard published a special edition containing copies of 

Branscomb's letter to President Nixon, resigning his position: 

It is with regret, even with misgiving, that at such a time of opportunity for 

further public service I ask you to accept my resignation at a date of your 

convenience. But my feelings of obligation to Government service are matched 

by my conviction that the private sector also offers significant opportunities to 

contribute to the national welfare. 

The knowledge that through your leadership the great capabilities of the 

National Bureau of Standards' scientific staff will be fully utilized in the public 

interest makes this difficult decision possible for me.93 

The same issue continued with President Nixon's acceptance: 

Dear Dr. Branscomb: Your letter of April 4 has come to my attention, and it is 

with special regret that I accept your resignation effective upon a date to be 

determined. Few men in government have contributed so much to the Nation's 

well-being as you have done with such brilliance and dedication for the past 

twenty years.94 

92 Nicholas Wade, "NBS Loses Branscomb to IBM," Science 176, April 14. 1972, p. 147. 

Letter, April 4, 1972, LMB to the President. Reprinted in NBS Technical News Bulletin Vol XVII, No. 4, 

April 20, 1972. 

Letter, April 5, 1972, President Nixon to LMB. Reprinted in NBS Technical News Bulletin Vol XVII, No. 

4, April 20, 1972. 

201 
In a farewell to his division chiefs, Branscomb stated, "I leave only because of a unique opportunity for me and my family." 

He expressed great confidence that NBS was on the brink of a new role in U.S. 

technology: a large budget increase pending; the absolute confidence of Peter G. 

Peterson, newly appointed as Secretary of Commerce, and of President Nixon; and a solid, competent management. He warned the chiefs that "If the Bureau's function is to 

assist in this [national technological, social, and economic] change, it is unthinkable 

that the laboratory itself would not change with the circumstances."95 

By the end of May 1972, Branscomb was gone. 

Assessing Branscomb's Directorship 

Nearly every staff member at the Bureau was both surprised and disappointed by 

the news of Branscomb's sudden resignation. His personality and his ability to 

represent NBS effectively to congressmen and to other outsiders had created a vision 

of unprecedented stature for the agency. Many Bureau employees felt that Branscomb 

was justified to leave NBS, in view of the significance of his new position and the 

promise of financial well-being indicated by its title. Others, most definitely including 

former director Allen Astin,96 were well aware that many senior Bureau scientists 

routinely received offers of prestigious and well-paying jobs elsewhere and felt that 

leaving NBS for such an offer was in some way a desertion. in time of battle by 

Branscomb. 

Old-timers on the NBS staff had been concerned immediately after Branscomb's 

appointment by his statements describing the Bureau in terms of solving short-range 

national problems, rather than stressing the purely scientific nature of the institution. 

Branscomb had addressed the paradox implicit in these criticisms directly, during his 

first address to the staff: 

I have been aware of the widespread view that the new activities in technology 

introduce an alien, and some would say incompatible, dimension into NBS—a 

set of programs essentially different in character from those that have gone 

before. But the more I look into the problem of fostering innovation—or, if 

you prefer, encouraging engineering creativity in the solution of practical 

problems—the more I find that the cure calls for the science of measurement 

once again, and often at a high level of sophistication. 

Branscomb illustrated this idea with an example chosen from building technology's 

efforts on behalf of performance-based standards: 

"Excerpts from Dr. Branscomb's announcement to division chiefs," Reprinted in NBS Technical News 

Bulletin Vol XVII, No. 4, April 20, 1972. 

Recollection of Elio Passaglia from a personal interview with Astin. 

202 
A performance standard is meaningless without a reliable, quantitative measurement to be used in certifying the performance. To develop such test methods is a demanding task, requiring original research and imaginative thinking.97 

Thus, Branscomb refused to divide Bureau work into "basic" (i.e., good) and 

"applied" (i.e., less good) projects, preferring to look for creativity and challenge in 

any assigned or self-generated project. 

Opinion of observers outside NBS on Branscomb's departure was typified by Daniel 

Greenberg, editor of Science and Government Report, a science-news periodical: 

Branscomb, much sought after by recruiters for university presidencies, was widely regarded as one of the most capable and innovative of government 

administrators, and at NBS there is no little annoyance about his leaving in 

the midst of the efforts he inspired to shake some life into that venerable 

establishment.98 

Branscomb was an active, hands-on administrator during his brief tenure as NBS 

Director, though not spectacularly more involved in the Bureau's management than 

his predecessor. His genius was to devise new procedures to make the Bureau more 

effective in managing and presenting itself: an Executive Board explicitly charged to 

participate in total oversight of the Bureau; a Programs Office explicitly charged with 

measuring Bureau projects against a standard of effectiveness created by its own 

efforts; and a results-oriented set of NBS goals chosen to relate Bureau work to public 

problems that Congress could more easily support. 

Beyond his innovations in management, his involvement in many national scientific 

committees—coupled with an unusual verbal facility—allowed him to present his ideas 

with great force. His circle of acquaintances extended far beyond NBS; when he 

spoke, they listened with interest. It is to his credit that Branscomb continued to pursue 

vigorously a more effective use of technology and better technical education throughout the U.S. technical establishment, both in his position at IBM and later, while a Professor of Public Policy and Corporate Management at Harvard University. 

The Next Step 

After swallowing their amazement and disappointment at the loss of a leader in 

whom great hopes had been placed, the realists who made up the great majority of 

scientists at NBS considered the logical next step. Not necessarily who should become 

the next Bureau director—the President's prerogative, after all—but what course the 

Bureau should take, and what strategy could succeed for it. 

Lewis M. Branscomb, "Dr. Branscomb: The Future of NBS—Excerpts." The NBS Standard, Vol XIV, 

No. 10, October 1969, pp. 1, 3, 4. 

Daniel S. Greenberg, "Branscomb Leaves NBS For IBM Post," Science and Government Report, April 15. 

1972, p. 3. 

203 
Leaders there were at NBS, and good ones. Perhaps most visible was Lawrence 

Kushner, Deputy Director under both Astin and Branscomb. Kushner's credentials 

were impressive. Armed with a doctorate in physical chemistry from Princeton 

University, he had practiced his science at the Bureau since 1948. Within a few years, 

he had created an innovative surface-chemistry group within the Physical Chemistry 

Division. He was similarly productive in establishing a metal-physics group shortly 

thereafter in the Metallurgy Division. He served as chief of the Metallurgy Division 

from 1961 to 1966; while so serving, he assisted the Organization for Economic 

Cooperation and Development in assessing the quality of graduate education in metal 

physics throughout the world. During 1964-65 he worked as Special Assistant for 

legislative activity under J. Herbert Hollomon, the Department of Commerce Assistant 

Secretary for Science and Technology. Prior to becoming NBS Deputy Director under 

Allen Astin in 1969 he served as Deputy Director and Director of the Bureau's 

Institute for Applied Technology for three years. 

Also a veteran of service with the Federal Council for Science and Technology, with 

the National Research Council, and various interagency panels, Kushner was clearly a potential replacement for Branscomb. 

The Bureau had other logical choices, too, for Director—Ernest Ambler, John 

Hoffman, Edward Brady, and Howard Sorrows perhaps first among them. 

Even more important was the overall quality of NBS management. Chosen by Astin 

or Branscomb, all knew their jobs and were resourceful leaders. The Bureau would 

survive the loss of Branscomb. 

It is instructive to hear Branscomb's later comments on the circumstances of his 

sudden departure: 

I was offered [in December 1971 or January 1972] the job as Chief Scientist of 

IBM—which is sort of a non-turn-downable job. It is the best technical job in 

America. I told Vensen Learsen, the Chairman of IBM, that if I came, I would 

have to postpone coming until after I had seen this budget because I 

owed that to my colleagues, indeed to the President, who had put my 36 % 

increase in his budget.'°° 

Branscomb was easily able to rationalize his decision to leave. Two factors came 

to his mind in later years: one was that, as a Democrat in an increasingly partisan 

Republican administration, he might well have been removed from his position as a routine election-year measure, as was the director of the National Institutes of Health; a second was that he had always felt that wise use of technology was crucial to human 

progress, and that his new position at IBM gave him the best chance to help in this 

process. °' 

Recall that the House Appropriations Subcommittee hearings on the fiscal 1973 budget were conducted on March 28. 1972, with Branscomb as the principal NBS witness. oo Branscomb, Oral History, July 12, 1988. 

Branscomb. Oral History, July 12, 1988 and July 13, 1988. 

204 
TECHNICAL WORK OF THE BUREAU, 1969-1972 

The work done by NBS scientists and engineers during the period when Lewis 

Branscomb was director reflected only dimly his struggle to achieve greater notice for 

the Bureau's efforts on behalf of the American public. There was no lack of successful 

projects that directly benefitted U.S. citizens, but NBS was not yet accustomed to the 

idea of publicizing its work with that viewpoint in mind. 

Perhaps the NBS project that represented most broadly the national interest was undertaken to satisfy the demand from Congress to ascertain the Nation's posture on the desirability of the metric system for its everyday life. As we note in the next 

section, more than 50 members of the Bureau staff contributed in one way or another 

to the success of that information-gathering task. As part of a three-year program, they 

queried citizens in nearly every occupation about their personal measurement habits 

and desires. 

But the major activities in the NBS laboratories in the period 1969-1972 lay in 

traditional Bureau areas of science and engineering—many of them, to be sure, of 

immediate benefit to consumers. Fire studies, conspicuous at the Bureau since its 

beginning, continued under the special impetus of a new congressional mandate. 

Research on buildings and other man-made structures continued to play a highly 

visible role at NBS. Law enforcement and automotive standards addressed specific 

needs of Americans. Reflecting the personal interest of its new director, the technologies involved in space and astronautics received concerted attention. More arcane 

studies such as the properties of matter dominated the work of whole divisions of 

scientists, as did measurement standards and fundamental probing into the laws of 

nature. 

As was always the case at NBS, its output reflected in part the expressed needs of 

the public, voiced through congressional, industrial, and standards organizations. In 

part, too, Bureau output represented the sum total of the individual priorities and 

capabilities of its staff; their views of the technical world, highly personal and often 

deeply detailed, inevitably influenced their choices of project and emphasis. 

The willingness of scientists to delve into scientific puzzles is illustrated in the coming discussion by a note on polywater, a bright but brief shooting star in the firmament 

of science. This material turned out to be not a new state of an old substance, but a collection of unexpected results brought forth by the unusual properties of water. As 

often happens, the resolution of the puzzle lay in improved measurements. 

In the brief notes that follow, we present merely a taste from the whole technical 

menu offered by NBS during this period. It is our hope that some indication of the 

breadth and depth of the scientific enterprise that the Bureau embodied at this time 

is conveyed by these notes. 

205 
NBS Completes a " Metric System Study" for Congress 

"Metrify, (transitive verb); 2. To convert to or adopt the metric system."°2 

As it had periodically since President Thomas Jefferson's first recommendation in 

1795,103 the U.S. Congress began to consider in the early 1960s the question of 

making the metric system mandatory for all Americans. 

Congressional interest in metrification (also known by the names "metrication," 

"going metric" and "metric conversion") was piqued once again when the International 

System of Units (SI) was adopted in 1960 by the 11th General Conference on Weights 

and Measures, a diplomatic organization established in 1875 by the Meter Convention. 104 Chauvinistic hesitation to discard the "American" half-inch wrench in favor of a "foreign" twelve-millimeter model warred with the fear that American businessmen 

would be at a disadvantage in selling their products to "metric" countries abroad. And no doubt about it, America was becoming isolated in the use of "customary" units of 

measure (inches, miles, gallons, bushels, ounces and degrees Fahrenheit). All other 

industrial nations either had adopted the metric system (now consisting of seven base 

units—meter, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela—and an unending 

list of units derived from the base units) or had set a timetable for adoption. Only the 

United States and a baker's dozen of third-world countries retained non-decimal 

measurement systems. 

The Problem 

Congress was in a difficult position. America's mechanics and engineers had 

enormous inventories of inch-based tools and btu-based industrial practices; America's 

home-makers had a similar trove of teaspoons, Fahrenheit thermometers, and ounceand-pint measures. America's homes, offices and factories were full of people who did 

not want to hear that their lifelong measurement practices were obsolete and that they 

needed to begin again in measurement kindergarten. Yet the message conveyed by the 

trend in international trade was clear: and Asia wanted metric-based products 

and metric-based commercial discourse. What to do? 

Claiborne Pell of Rhode Island led a discussion on this topic in the U.S. Senate for 

several years. George P. Miller of California expended similar effort in the House of 

Representatives. 

Allen Astin, Director of NBS, called to testify during the Congressional deliberations, declined to advocate adoption of the metric system for the United States or 

to lobby against it. The Bureau, he testified, could best serve the debate by providing 

objective factual information on the system itself and its advantages and disadvantages.'05 

102 Webster's II New Riverside University Dictionary, 1984. 103 MFP, p. 532. 04 Comptes Rendus des Seances de Ia Onzieme Conference Generale des Folds et Mesures, Paris 14-20 

Octobre, 1960, PP. 65-88. 

Letter from AVA to John M. Cabot, Ambassador to Poland, January 27, 1964; Records Holding, RG167; 

Dir Off, Box 381; Chrono 1/64-4/64, Drawer 10. 206 
In April 1975, Deputy Director Ernest Ambler (left) testified on metric conversion in 

the United States before the Subcommittee on Science, Research and Technology of 

the House Committee on Science and Technology. Commerce Department Counsel 

Robert Ellert joined Ambler at the witness table. 

Seeing the rising interest in metrication in the Congress, however, Astin decided to 

be prepared for eventual NBS involvement. On June 9, 1965, he assigned Robert D. 

Huntoon, then Director of the Institute for Basic Standards, to develop a Bureau 

position and a plan for action.'°6 He detailed Alvin G. McNish, Clarence N. Coates, 

Robert L. Stern and Malcolm W. Jensen to assist Huntoon in this task, and directed 

James E. Skillington, Chief of the Budget and Management Division, to help prepare 

budget estimates for any Bureau work that the task group might recommend. 

The Solution 

By 1968, a useful course of action for Congress—time-worn but effective—had 

become clear: it would commission a study. This one would be accomplished by NBS 

to determine the consequences of the various possible Congressional metric-system 

actions. 

By June of 1968, Alvin McNish held the position of Assistant to the Director, NBS, 

for Metric Study. Astin assigned McNish and two assistants to refine the action plan 

for NBS should the pending Congressional efforts come to fruition.'07 

Memo, AVA to R. D. Huntoon, June 9, 1965. NIST Records Holding RG 167; Director's Office; Box 

381; Folder 5/1/65—7/30/65; Drawer 10. 

'°' McNish, known internationally for his work on metrology and measurement science, retired in July 1970 

after 34 years' service to NBS. Among his awards were the Presidential Certificate of Merit (1948), the 

Department of Commerce Gold Medal (1960), and recognition by the U.S. Office of Scientific Research and 

the U.S. Bureau of Ordnance. See "Alvin 0. McNish Retires," NBS Standard, Vol XV, No. 10, October 

1970, p. 7. 

207 
On the 9th of August 1968, the Congress passed the Metric System Study Act, (82 

Stat. 693; Public Law 90-472, 9 August /968). The one-page text contained a mountain of work for the Bureau. It authorized".., the Secretary of. Commerce to make a study to determine advantages and disadvantages of increased use of the metric 

system in the United States." Calling for a program of "investigation, research, and 

survey," the act directed the Secretary to accomplish a number of tasks: 

• Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of the metric system for international 

trade, for the military, and for other international activities, and also within the 

United States. 

• Compare the efficacy of the present system with the metric system for educational, engineering, manufacturing, commercial, public, and scientific uses. • Assess the difficulty of switching to metric in the United States. 

• Bring into the process representatives of U.S. industry, science, engineering, 

labor and government at all levels, as well as foreign governments and international organizations. 

The act further required the Secretary to assess the consequences of metrification on the design of various U.S. products, to determine the extent to which the metric system 

already was used in America, and to recommend means to minimize costs and problems involved in switching to the metric system. 

The act set a date of 9 August 1971 for a final report to the Congress, along with "... such recommendations as [the Secretary of Commerce] considers to be appropriate and in the best interests of the United States." 

Up to $500,000 could be spent during the first year of the study; more Congressional funds might be forthcoming to support the second and third years of the study, 

depending on the disposition of Congress when the subsequent appropriations would be 

considered. The projected cost to NBS of participation in the Metric Study was estimated to be $2.5 M. Ultimately, however, expenditures at NBS for the Metric Study 

totaled just over $1.2 

The "Metric" Team 

Doing an honest job of satisfying the exhaustive requirements of the Metric System 

Study Act within the stated 3-year life of the project was clearly going to demand lots 

of work. Commerce Secretary Cyrus R. Smith was happy to delegate the task to the 

National Bureau of Standards, where this strange metric language was spoken daily 

and with great fluency. The Bureau, with its many connections to technical America, 

would provide a good focus for the project. 

NBS took a full year to plan the Metric Study. Then, in just one year, the Metric 

team obtained the requested information, utilizing a multitude of conferences and meetings devoted to the different constituencies that had to be consulted. The final year was 

given to preparing and consolidating the lengthy set of reports that Congress wanted. 

'°' See House Hearings FY71, pp. 1022-1023; and House Hearings FY72, p. 1146; House Hearings FY73, 

p. 1118. 

208 
On the day of the act's passage, Allen Astin had only a year to serve as Director. 

He could "get the ball rolling" before he retired. 

Secretary Smith did his part by appointing a Metric System Study Panel of 45 

iriembers from across the spectrum of U.S. measurement activities. The panel was 

chaired by Louis F. Polk, a Director of the Bendix Corporation. Francis L. LaQue, 

former Vice-President of International Nickel Company, served as Vice-Chair, and 

Leonard S. Hardland of the NBS Office of Invention and Innovation was the panel 

Executive Secretary. 

Astin's small advance-planning group was succeeded by an Advisory Task Force 

comprised of Walter E. Cushen, Daniel De Simone, Alan J. Goldman, Robert Huntoon, 

and Howard E. Morgan. Its report was delivered to Astin on March 21, 1969.109 

New Director Lewis Branscomb substantially augmented the NBS Metric Study 

Group late in 1969. Soon the group included many experienced Bureau hands detailed 

from other projects. It is illuminating to see whence came the Bureau participants in 

the various Metric Study sections. The previous work assignment for each person is 

included parenthetically: 

• Director of the Study: 

Daniel V. De Simone (Chief of the Office of Invention and Innovation). 

• Consultants: 

Robert D. Huntoon (Assistant to the Director of the Bureau). 

With his NBS colleagues Robert D. Stiehier (Product Evaluation Division), 

A. Allan Bates (Chief, Office of Engineering Standards Liaison) and Myron 

G. Domsitz (Chief, Electronic Instrumentation Division), Huntoon prepared an interim report on developments in international standards. 

Alvin G. McNish (Chief of the Metrology Division). 

Chester H. Page (Chief of the Electricity Division). 

• Special Assistants: 

George A. W. Boehm. 

Florence M. Essers (Research Assistant to De Simone). 

• Program Managers and their staffs: 

Louis E. Barbrow (Consultant in photometry, Metrology Division) and Alvin McNish 

were co-leaders of the Manufacturing Industry section. Other Bureau staff assisting Barbrow and McNish included George C. Lovell (Office of Invention and 

Innovation), Robert R. Rohrs (Technical Analysis Division), Carolyn L. Flood 

(Office of Invention and Innovation), Alice B. Margeson (Office of the Director, 

NBS) and Judy M. Melvin (Electricity Division). 

Roy E. Clark was leader of the section on Federal Civilian Agencies. Other Bureau 

staff assigned to this section included John M. Tascher (Chief of the Engineering 

Education Program, Office of Invention and Innovation), Joseph D. Crumlish 

(Chief of the Innovation Studies Program, Office of Invention and Innovation), 

Joseph P. Alexa (Office of Invention and Innovation), Jeanine Murphy, and 

Sandra Wean. 

AVA to Metric Advisory Task Force, April 16, 1969. NIST Records Holding; RO 167; Director's Office; 

Box 388; Folder March-April 1969; Drawer 10. 209 
June R. Cornog (Behavioral Sciences Section, Technical Analysis Division) directed 

Elaine D. Bunten (Technical Analysis Division) in carrying out the Nonmanufacturing Business section of the Study. Other Bureau staff assisting them 

included Howard E. Morgan (Technical Analysis Division), William L. O'Neal 

(Analytical Chemistry Division), Lorraine S. Freeman (Supply Division) and 

Diane Beall. 

Stephen L. Hatos (Office of Weights and Measures) carried out the Commercial 

Weights and Measures section of the Study. 

Jeffrey V. Odom (Office of the Director, NBS) coordinated a series of conferences on the Metric Study. His NBS assistants included Bruce D. Rothrock, who headed 

the Labor and Consumers section of the Study; Robert W. Carson; Roy E. 

Clark: Joseph D. Crumlish (Chief of the Innovation Studies Program, Office of 

Invention and Innovation); Linda J. Luhn (Office of the Director, NBS); Jean 

M. Simon (Personnel Division); Debora L. Gilbert (Personnel Division); and 

Evelyn B. Tallerico. 

Bruce D. Rothrock (Office of the Director, NBS; formerly in Length Section, Metrology Division) coordinated the section on Consumers. He was assisted by NBS 

employees Jeffrey V. Odom (Office of the Director, NBS); Robert W. Carson; 

Linda J. Luhn (Office of the Director, NBS); Jean M. Simon (Personnel Division); Debora L. Gilbert (Personnel Division); and Evelyn B. Tallerico. 

Robert D. Stiehler (Consultant to the Chief, Product Evaluation Division) was responsible for the section on Engineering Standards. He was assisted by Bureau staff 

members Gustave Shapiro (Assistant to the Chief, Electronic Technology 

Division); Robert J. Klein (Electronic Technology Division); Harry Stoub; Arthur 

G. Strang (Chief of the Engineering Metrology Section, Metrology Division); 

and Theodore R. Young (Manager, Measurement Services Program, Metrology 

Division). 

Charles F. Treat (Office of the Director, NBS) prepared a history of the metric system 

in America. 

For many of the Bureau participants in the Metric Study, the assignment represented a full-time commitment for its duration. Others simply provided part-time advice or 

guidance on certain aspects of the study. 

Not all the Study groups were composed of NBS staff members. A study on 

metrication in the Department of Defense was prepared by Leighton S. Lomas of the 

DoD and staffed from that department. Another study, on Metric Education, was 

prepared by the Education Development Center of Newton, Massachusetts; Berol 

L. Robinson of the EDC organization led the effort, assisted by professional educators 

and by Bruce Rothrock of NBS. A third, on Consumers, was prepared by the Survey 

Research Center of the University of Michigan under the direction of Professor George 

Katona. A fourth, on International Trade, was conducted by the Commerce Department 

Bureau of Domestic Commerce under the supervision of Thomas E. Murphy. 

210 
The Program 

Details of the Metric Study plan, worked out by the original NBS group in concert 

with the Advisory Panel assembled by Commerce Secretary Smith, were completed in 

December 1969. It is interesting to note that, by then, the Secretary of Commerce was Maurice H. Stans and the new Director of NBS was Lewis Branscomb, both choices of new President Nixon. Despite this change in personnel at the top, the Metric Study 

continued on schedule. 

The plan called for the Study to be carried out with the aid of questionnaires, personal interviews, and organized hearings in order to give every sector of U.S. society an opportunity to provide its information and to express its views on the questions 

raised by the Act. Some seven sets of hearings—called National Metric Study 

ences—and eleven special investigations were undertaken. Then the whole study project was digested and a massive report was submitted to Congress. 

To properly carry out the wishes of Congress, each study group was required to 

probe deeply into its assigned area of the U.S.—or indeed the international—technical 

establishment. The various interest groups spanned the whole technical fabric of 

America: 

• Labor. 

• Consumers. 

• Education. 

• Construction. 

• Engineering. 

• Consumer Products Industry. 

• Small Business. 

• State & Local Government. 

• Natural Resources. 

• Health. 

• Transportation. 

• Other smaller groups. 

Because of the tight schedule stipulated in the Act by Congress, barely one year was available in which the mass of factual data and opinion could be obtained. The third 

year was reserved for the actual preparation of the report and the recommendations of 

the Secretary of Commerce. 

More than 700 organizations—labor groups, trade associations, professional societies, educational institutions, and consumer groups—were invited to participate in 

widely publicized hearings. The hearings occupied 20 full days during 1970; all but one were held in Washington, DC. Among some 200 individual presentations was one by Gordon Bowen, Director of the British Metrication Board, on the experiences in the 

United Kingdom with respect to "going metric." 

Supplementing the hearings were special investigations in eleven areas. These investigations were conducted primarily through detailed questionnaires designed to elicit 

information about the use and attitudes of the queried organization, as well as more 

problematic estimates of the costs, benefits and disadvantages, and timing associated 

211 
with the increased use of metric measures. Thousands of questionnaires were mailed to as many carefully selected representatives of the eleven sectors; follow-up questionnaires and personal contacts extended and verified the written results. Approximate 

numbers of responses are given in parentheses for each sector in which questionnaires were used: 

• Manufacturing Industry (more than 3500 questionnaires). 

• Non-manufacturing Businesses (more than 2000 questionnaires). 

• Education (primarily based upon the results of a two-day conference held at 

NBS, augmented by detailed reports issued by the National Education Association and by the National Science Teachers Association). 

• Consumers (about 1400 questionnaires). 

• International Trade (over 400 questionnaires). 

• Engineering Standards (based upon a comparison of International Standards 

Organization and International Electrotechnical Commission recommendations 

with the national standards of several countries, including the United States). 

• International Standards. 

• Department of Defense. 

• Federal Civilian Agencies. 

• Commercial Weights and Measures. 

• History of the Metric System controversy in the United States. 

As the various groups assessed the results of the thousands of individual and group 

queries undertaken during the Metric Study Act project, they found that most American manufacturers and nearly all scientists strongly favored a phased introduction of 

the metric system for America; these groups were using the system more and more 

each year. On the other hand, many small businesses and individuals expressed the fear 

that the changeover would be expensive for them. During 1971 these findings were 

documented in an exhaustive series of reports that were published as NBS Special 

Publications. It is instructive to briefly note the contents of these reports. 

The first of the reports preceded the others by some months. It was a treatment of 

the impact of international standards on international trade and technology 

The report was prepared by Huntoon and his NBS colleagues Stiehler, Bates and 

Domsitz with the collaboration of Allen Astin—by then the Director-Emeritus of NBS; 

Richard 0. Simpson, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Product Standards; 

"°"U.S. Metric Study Report: International Standards" U.S. Metric Study, Daniel V. De Simone, Director 

[Editor's Note: Although the title page does not so state, the text of the report was written by Robert D. 

Huntoon, Robert D. Stiehier, A. Allan Bates, and Myron G. Domsitz with the assistance of Richard 0. 

Simpson. Allen V. Astin, and Donald L. Peyton], NBS Special Publication 345-1, December 1970, 145 pp. 

212 
and Donald L. Peyton, Managing Director of the American National Standards 

Institute. The report contained the conclusion that metric standards played an important, but not dominating, role in international trade. The process of product certification, they felt, would ultimately determine the significance of metrification for 

trade. Given the designation Special Publication 345-1, this report was issued in 

December 1970. 

The views of the civilian agencies of the Federal government on metrification were described in a report written by Roy E. Clark, John M. Tascher, Joseph D. Crumlish, 

Joseph P. Alexa, Jeanine Murphy, and Sandra Wean. The report highlighted the 

effects of metrification on some 15 areas of national responsibility of the civilian 

agencies, gleaned from questionnaires andlor from discussion with 55 such agencies. 

Many of the agencies queried already used the metric system to some extent. The 

general conclusion was that the metric system was the measurement scheme of the 

future, and that planned conversion to metric would be a preferred course of action 

over the policy of ignoring the measurement units problem altogether. 

Stephen L. Hatos of the Office of Weights and Measures prepared a report on the 

effects of metrification on commercial weights and measures activities."2 Hatos' study 

group received 15 detailed responses from manufacturers of devices used in weights 

and measures activities. Ten of those favored metrification, and they suggested that a mandatory program would probably be necessary in order to accomplish the task. Of 

63 jurisdictions responding to the group's queries, forty favored increased use of 

metric measures. The National Conference on Weights and Measures, the professional 

organization that represented both sectors, was heavily involved in the study. The 

Commercial Weights and Measures Report, NBS Special Publication 345-3, recorded 

three recommendations: 1) If the United States should "go metric," a coordinated 

program, with target dates, should be established through the National Conference on Weights and Measures; 2) in the event of metric conversion, states should be encouraged to require metric packaging for various commodities; and 3) to achieve uniformity in packaging and labeling, Congress should first require dual labeling—metric 

and customary—and later require metric labeling with customary units optional. It was noted that some items—meats and cheeses, for example—are ordinarily packaged in 

random quantities, and that this practice should continue to be allowed. 

The manufacturing sector was discussed in a report prepared by Louis Barbrow and 

Alvin McNish under the direction of Morris H. Hansen of Westat Research, Inc."3 

Hansen, a former Associate Director of the U.S. Bureau of the Census, was considered an expert on the use of statistical surveys. In a prefatory "Critique on Metrication 

Cost Estimates in Manufacturing," McNish stated that the results of the group's cost 

"U.S. Metric Study Interim Report: Federal Government: Civilian Agencies," U.S. Metric Study, Daniel 

V. De Simone, Director, NBS Special Publication 345-2, July 1971, 317 pp. 12 "U.S. Metric Study Interim Report: Commercial Weights and Measures," U.S. Metric Study, Daniel V. 

De Simone Director, NBS Special Publication 345-3, July 1971, 102 pp. 

"U.S. Metric Study Interim Report: The Manufacturing Industry," U.S. Metric Study, Daniel V. 

De Simone, Director, NBS Special Publication 345-4, July 1971, 141 pp. 

213 
In 1969, NBS Director Branscomb appointed Louis E. Barbrow (pictured here) and Alvin G. McNish to 

co-manage an especially critical component of the Metric Study which focused on the manufacturing sector. 

questionnaires presented a "phantasmagoria" to the analysts. Estimated metrification 

costs ranged over a factor of 900, even excluding the pharmaceutical industry, which 

already made considerable use of metric measures. The report summary included the 

statement that larger manufacturers tended to use metric measures more intensively and 

to prefer it, whereas smaller ones were less likely to use the metric system and less 

likely to prefer it. Significantly, most manufacturers both large and small (70 % of all 

respondents) agreed with the statement that increased use of the metric system would 

be in the best interest of the United States. 

The Non-manufacturing Business study was carried out by Elaine Bunten under the 

direction of June R. Cornog."4 Information was obtained by telephone interviews 

with 2563 business firms chosen from Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries, Mining, 

Construction, Transportation, Communication, Utilities, Wholesale and Retail Trade, 

Finance, Insurance, Real Estate, and Business and Personal Services. This group 

represented about 65 % of all U.S. employment. Remarkably, 90 % of the interviews 

"4 Metric Study Interim Report: Non-manufacturing Businesses," U.S. Metric Study, Daniel V. 

Dc Simone, Director. NBS Special Publication 345-5, by June R. Comog and Elaine D. Bunten. July 1971. 

184 pp. 

214 
yielded usable results. The interviews probed a number of areas: knowledge of the 

metric system; attitudes towards it; company "products"; company equipment and 

procedures; and hypothetical future use of metric measures and the problems and 

benefits thereof. About 75 % of the respondents had an "adequate" knowledge of the 

metric system. While a majority of respondents foresaw no particular difficulty in 

"going metric," about one in four expressed antipathy towards metric measure for their 

firm. Most firms saw employee retraining as the primary obstacle. Over 60 % of those 

queried expressed the view that increased use of metric measure was in the best 

interest of the U.S. and favored a mandatory (Congressionally legislated) change to 

metric measures. 

The report on Education was prepared by the Education Development Center of 

Newton, Massachusetts under the direction of Berol L. Robinson."5 In his Foreword, 

De Simone stated: "No other sector is so nearly unanimous in its endorsement of the 

metric system as is education." In fact, the text—written by a large group of distinguished educators—contained more discussion of the lack of effective instruction on measurement skills in the Nation's schools than it did on the desirability or problems 

of "going metric." The last two chapters of the Education report were entitled "A 

Program for Metric Conversion in Education" and "Education and a THINK METRIC 

Campaign." 

Professor George Katona of the Survey Research Center at the University of 

Michigan was responsible for the preparation of the report on attitudes of the American 

consumer."6 Katona and his staff addressed the questions: How much does the 

American consumer know about the metric system? What are their attitudes towards it? 

What are their opinions about metrification? Do they have preferences as to the 

methods that could be used to improve public knowledge of the system? 

Many years of consumer research on a variety of topics had given Katona's group an advantage over other Study groups: he could simply append a questionnaire on metrification to a quarterly survey intended for about 1400 representative U.S. families. 

Knowledge of and experience with the system were probed, along with attitudes 

towards metrification for themselves and for the United States. He found that few 

consumers were familiar with metric measure and that most were loath to learn, 

although about half guessed that the metric system would be easier for students to 

master than the customary units. Only those respondents who were familiar with metric 

measures favored American conversion to the system. 

A report prepared in the Bureau of Domestic Commerce of the Department of 

Commerce treated the impact of metrification on America's foreign trade. The report was drafted by Gerald F. Gordon under the supervision of Thomas E. Murphy."7 Of 

the billions of dollars' worth of U.S. goods for export, only about 1 % were designed 

"U.S. Metric Study Interim Report: Education," U.S. Metric Study, Daniel V. De Simone, Director, NBS 

Special Publication 345-6, July 1971, 201 pp. 116 "U.S. Metric Study Interim Report: The Consumer," U.S. Metric Study, Daniel V. Dc Simone, Director, 

NBS Special Publication 345-7, July 1971, 139 pp. 

"7 "U.S. Metric Study Interim Report: International Trade," U.S. Metric Study, Daniel V. Dc Simone, 

Director, NBS Special Publication 345-8, July 1971, 173 pp. 

215 
and manufactured using metric measures, according to the survey of approximately 

510 firms involved in international trade. On the other hand, about 19 % of imports 

were designed and built using customary units. The impact of the type of units used to 

make the goods was thought by the export/import firms to have little bearing on 

international trade in comparison with such factors as reputation of the trading firm for 

reliability, the level of technology built into the products, and their quality. 

The report on metrification in the U.S. Defense Department was prepared under the 

leadership of the Air Force. Leighton Lomas, Chairman of the Department of Defense 

Metric Study, acknowledged the assistance of Vincent S. Roddy, his predecessor, and 

of two groups of DoD personnel in preparing the study: the DoD Steering Committee, 

composed of R. F. Dunbar, Jack L. Vogt, Winton E. Allen, Joseph L. Krieger, and 

James Brownell; and staff members H. J. Dickinson, H. G. Tinsley, A. P. Babbitt, and 

F. L. Ellison. More than 125 groups from the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Army, 

Navy, Air Force, Defense Supply Agency, National Security Agency, and other DoD 

agencies helped prepare the study under the supervision of the DoD Steering Committee. The report steadfastly refused to recommend either for or against metrification, but 

stated that the DoD could go metric only at considerable expense ($18 billion) and 

over a period of time. The DoD recommended that any program of metrification be a national one with a definite schedule, and that certain customary units with wide 

international acceptance be retained. Detailed discussions were presented of the 

advantages, disadvantages, and special problems—mostly connected with supply— 

during all phases of a metrification program. 

An especially interesting report was written by Charles F. Treat of the NBS Director's Office. 9 Entitled "A History of the Metric System Controversy in the United 

States," the report provided a well-written account of the origins and development 

of both the customary and the metric system of measurement. The "battle of the 

standards" that flared periodically within the debates Congress and through 

dedicated organizations—those favoring metrification for the United States as well as those opposed—was well documented; an extensive bibliography on the metric system 

and the controversy surrounding it was included. Treat closed with a synopsis of the 

arguments—some of them a century old—for and against the adoption of the metric 

system for America. We paraphrase the arguments here, since they retain their validity 

even today: 

• The arguments "for": 

I. Metric is a scientifically based decimal system. 

2. Virtually the entire world excepting the United States uses metric measures. 

3. Metrification is practical for the United States. 

"U.S. Metric Study Interim Report: Department of Defense," U.S. Metric Study, Daniel V. De Simone, 

Director, NBS Special Publication 345-9, June 1971, 118 pp. 

"9 "U.S. Metric Study Interim Report: A History of the Metric System Controversy in the United States," 

U.S. Metric Study, Daniel V. De Simone, Director, Charles F. Treat, Historian, NBS Special Publication 

345-JO, August 1971, 298 pp. 

216 
4. Metrification for the United States is inevitable; planning for it is only sensible. 

5. The U.S. Constitution gives the Congress the power—never used—of fixing the 

standards of weights and measures. 

The arguments "against": 

I. There is no particular need for America to change from customary units. 

2. The disadvantages of metrification outweigh the advantages. 

3. Few countries use the metric system exclusively. 

4. Metrification would be impractical and costly. 

5. Compulsory metrification in the United States would be repugnant to American 

ideals. 

A Metric Study task force on Engineering Standards, headed by Robert Stiehler and 

including Gustave Shapiro, Robert Klein, Harry Stoub, Arthur Strang and Theodore 

Young, prepared its report as NBS Special Publication 345-11. 120 The authors drew 

attention to the importance of the measurement system for engineering standards to be 

used in manufacturing products whose sizes were based upon simple progressions of 

units, such as is the case for screw manufacture. They also pointed out the irrelevance 

of the measurement system for items—such as the manufacture of electrical plugs—in 

which the problem is simply to replicate a pattern. They also noted that the great 

multitude of engineering standards in existence prompted them to limit the scope of 

their study to nine areas; steel and non-ferrous metals, plastics, rubber, pipe and tubing, 

anti-friction bearings, threaded fasteners, electrical and electronic components and 

equipment, and building construction and materials. In surveying the standards in these 

areas—less than 1 % of the 60,000 or more engineering standards issued as national 

standards by private and government organizations in the United States—they found 

that engineering standards could be harmonized internationally without the United 

States changing to the metric system. On the other hand, full standardization of 

manufacture would require most countries to modify their engineering practices. They 

foresaw the eventual use of metric units in all international standards. 

As noted earlier, Jeffrey V. Odom coordinated a series of seven National Metric 

Study Conferences. A report was prepared which summarized the views given by the 

various participating groups.'2' Of the 700-odd groups invited to participate, about 

230—representing 674,000 firms and more than 19 million individuals—did so. Of the 

groups expressing a preference for or against metrification, a strong majority found 

metrification to be inevitable and/or desirable. Most preferred a program of metrification on a national, coordinated basis over a 5-15-year span of time. Many industrial 

groups testified that the costs would be heaviest in inventory, new tools, re-training, 

and re-design. Consumers mostly agreed that metric conversion would be beneficial in 

the long run because of the simpler nature of the metric system, but that a long-term 

educational program would be required to make the transition successful. 

120 "U.S. Metric Study Interim Report: Engineering Standards," U.S. Metric Study, Daniel V. Dc Simone, 

Director, NBS Special Publication 345-11, July 1971, 250 pp. 2! "U.S. Metric Study Interim Report: Testimony of Nationally Representative Groups," U.S. Metric Study, 

Daniel V. De Simone, Director, NBS Special Publication 345-12, July 1971, 165 pp. 

217 
Results of the Bureau's Metric Study 

The viewpoint on metrification of the majority of participating individuals—both 

from within and outside NBS—came clear in the title of the Metric Study concluding 

report: "A Metric America: A decision whose time has come. "122 Written by Metric 

Study Director De Simone, the summary contained a review of the metric debate, the 

implications of metrification for America, and a synopsis of the experience of Japan 

and the United Kingdom as they entered the metric world. De Simone stated the majority view forcefully: 

The U.S. Metric Study concludes that eventually the United States will join the 

rest of the world in the use of the metric system as the predominant common 

language of measurement. Rather than drifting to metric with no national plan 

to help the sectors of our society and guide our relationships abroad, a carefully 

planned transition in which all sectors participate voluntarily is preferable. The 

change will not come quickly, nor will it be without difficulty; but Americans 

working cooperatively can resolve this question once and for all. 

In a one-page transmittal preface, Secretary Maurice I-I. Stans similarly urged the 

Congress to act. As requested by Congress, he offered his own recommendations. 

There were nine: 

• That the United States adopt the metric system. 

• That this step be accomplished through a coordinated national program. 

• That Congress assign responsibility for guidance in metrification to a central 

body. 

• That all sectors of the United States work out guidelines and timetables for metrification. 

• That metric education of students be given high priority. 

• That Congress immediately take steps to foster participation in international 

standards activities. 

• That costs of metrification should "lie where they fall," to minimize costs of the 

program. 

• That Congress should set a ten-year target date for effective completion of the 

metrification program. 

• That there be a firm government commitment to this goal. 

Because of the enthusiasm for metrification displayed by so many American organizations during the Metric Study, the Bureau staff was convinced that Congress would 

act quickly on Secretary Stans' recommendations. The NBS Technical News Bulletin 

122 "A Metric America: A decision whose time has come," Daniel V. Dc Simone, Director, U.S. Metric Study, 

NBS Special Publication 345, July 1971, 170 pp. 

218 
of September 1971 featured an eight-page summary of the reports in the Special 

Publication 345 series. 123 A similarly extensive article appeared in the employee 

bulletin The NBS Standard. 124 Director Branscomb weighed in with supportive statements and articles. 125 Curiously, Secretary Stans' report was not buttressed by 

publicity from the White House—perhaps because the study revealed vocal, though 

minority, opposition to metrification among Americans who expressed themselves on the topic. 

Controversy and Inaction 

The ball was now clearly in Congress' court. It had to digest the thousands of pages 

of testimony contained in the reports and to make its own evaluation of the mood of 

its constituents with respect to metrification. Quickly the legislators learned that, as usual, those citizens who opposed the change were as vocal as those who favored 

it—sometimes more so. To the surprise of many at NBS, some four years would pass before anything 

resembling a Congressional consensus would emerge. In the meantime, the Bureau 

opened a Metric Information Office to answer questions and to provide metric 

instruction to all comers. The office functioned for several years, distributing some 

100,000 metric conversion kits by the end of 1975 and answering more than 20,000 

letter requests for information during 1975 alone. 

Despite all the evidence of public interest in metrification, the larger portion of the 

body politic held decidedly mixed views on the topic. Indeed, antipathy towards metric 

highway signs and metric weather reports was widespread. 126 And the efforts of labor 

and small businesses were mostly confined to assuring that any conversion costs for 

their constituents would be compensated by any metric legislation. Because of the 

divided opinion among its constituents, the 94th Congress passed a Metric Conversion 

Act of 1975 (PL 94-168) that contained encouraging words, but no substantial progress 

towards a metric America. 

Following their fast-paced efforts, the Bureau members of the Metric Study team 

mostly returned to projects left undone. De Simone, the Study Director, could be found 

in January 1972 back at the Office of Invention and Innovation; the Metric Study 

section that had formerly been part of his office was disbanded. 

23 "A Metric America," NBS Technical News Bulletin, September 1971, PP. 222-230. 24 "Secretary Stans recommends metric conversion over 10-year period", NBS Standard Vol XVI, No. 8, 

August 197l,pp. 1, 12-15. 125 One such, addressed to educators, a key sector in the anticipated program, was presented at the 1971 

convention of the National Science Teachers Association. It was reprinted later as a handout: "The U.S. 

Metric Study," Lewis M. Branscomb, The Science Teacher, Vol. 38, No. 8, November 1971, 5 pp. 26 A well-written survey of post-metric-study responses was published by Edith F. Cooper, "The Metric 

Conversion Act of 1975; Legislative History and Implementation 1970-1980," Report 10-203 SPR, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, October 24, 1980. 

219 
As part of its continued effort to promote the use of the metric system in the United 

States, the National Bureau of Standards placed an interactive "Think Metric" exhibit 

in the lobby of its Administration Building in 1975. Groups of school children from 

Gaithersburg, Maryland, attended the exhibit. 

Metrification—An Epilogue 

Sent forth by Congress to gather data on the usefulness of the metric system to 

America and on the willingness of U.S. citizens to accept measurement units 

unfamiliar to them, the Bureau labored fiercely and delivered the requested information. The many conferences, interviews, and statements showed the rationality and 

value of the system, as well as the vocal feelings that existed on both sides of the 

question of the adoption of the metric system as a national policy. Little remained to 

be said. Daniel De Simone was honored as one of 10 top Federal employees by the 

National Civil Service League later during 1972. The National Conference of 

Standards Laboratories presented him with its Career Service Award. Soon, he was 

asked to join the office of the President's Science Advisor; he left NBS to do so. 127 

127 NBS Technical News Bulletin May 1972, p. 116. 

220 
During the 1975 NBS "Think Metric" program, a student learned how much he 

weighed in kilograms. 

Uncontrolled Fire, a Continuing Problem 

As Lewis Branscomb assumed command of NBS, he, like his predecessors, was compelled to address the problem of loss of American life and property by the ravages 

of fire. Accidental fires in homes, offices, hotels, stores, factories, forests, and 

grasslands still claimed a disproportionate share of lives and goods. Fire had become a 

221 
weapon of choice for rioters—the Watts area of Los Angeles had burned in 1965 and, 

two years later, rioters burned parts of Newark, New Jersey, and Detroit, Michigan, 

then attacked firemen who responded to the emergency calls. A Department of Labor 

occupational survey that year found fire-fighting to be the most hazardous of U.S. occupations. And one of the most visible fire tragedies ever seen had taken place on January 27, 1967, when a flash fire aboard the spacecraft Apollo killed astronauts 

Virgil I. Grissom, Edward H. White, II, and Roger B. Chaffee. The men were participating in routine testing prior to their anticipated first Apollo mission. Their 

deaths shocked the nation. 

President Johnson addressed the growing menace of fire by requesting in 1967 that 

Congress consider fire safety legislation; bicameral responses took the form of 

extending the coverage of the Flammable Fabrics Act and hearings on a Fire Research 

and Safety Act. Both pieces of legislation assigned responsibilities to the National 

Bureau of Standards. 

Flammable Fabrics, a Perennial Issue 

NBS showed concern for flammable fabrics almost from its founding, no doubt in 

direct response to publicized fire disasters. 28 Fabric industry representatives, as might 

be expected, were of two minds on the topic: on the one hand, the magic of chemistry 

could produce cloth with wonderful properties such as colorfastness, strength, and 

warmth—though with an alarming tendency to flare at the touch of a match. On the 

other hand, it was clearly in their long-term interest to reduce the flammability of 

cloth. After World War II, the growing importation of foreign textiles without 

regard to flammability tipped the scales towards development of standards for burnresistance. 

Congress passed a Flammable Fabrics Act in 1953, in response to a growing number 

of tragic deaths of children and adults from burns incurred while wearing cowboy 

outfits, nightwear, scarves, and other items of clothing that easily caught fire. 129 This 

act gave particular responsibilities to NBS, including the development of a standard 

flammability test: any fabric that burned faster than a specified rate in the test could 

not be marketed in interstate commerce. 

The 1953 act provided needed publicity to convince the clothing industry that 

flammability must be taken seriously. As such, it was a good start on the problem. But 

the one test method prescribed in the act was flawed. Further action was necessary if 

non-clothing types of fabrics were to be tested for fire safety. 

2$ G. M. Kline, "Fire-resistant doped fabric for aircraft," J. Res. NBS 14, 575 (1935). See also Anonymous, 

"Flameproofing of textiles," NBS Letter Circular LC467, May 5, 1936, 9 pp. See also Marjorie W. 

Sandholzer, "Flameproofing of textiles," NBS Circular C455, August, 1946. The author notes loss of life in a Boston nightclub fire and a Hartford circus tent fire as reasons to pursue her study. 129 Daniel Gross, "Fire research at NBS; the first 75 years," Invited lecture at the Third International Symposiu,n; Fire Safety Science, pp. 119-133, 1989. 

222 
Flammable Fabrics Act, Amendment of 1967, (Public Law 90-189, 81 Stat. 

568-5 74, December 1967) 

In 1967, Congress extended the provisions of the 1953 Flammable Fabrics Act, 

directing the Secretary of Commerce, among other duties, to: 

• Conduct research into the flammability of products, fabrics, and materials. 

• Conduct feasibility studies on reduction of flammability of products, fabrics, and 

materials. 

• Develop flammability test methods and testing devices. 

• Offer appropriate training in the use of flammability test methods and testing 

devices. 

223 

In the early 1970s, the fire research staff of the National Bureau of Standards developed test methods for the evaluation of flammability in children's sleepwear. 
Secretary Smith, as expected,'3° delegated these responsibilities to NBS. 131 However, Congressional funding for the program was not forthcoming until Fiscal 1969 

(during October 1968), delaying implementation of the work for a full year. Even then, 

the funds amounted only to $304,000, barely enough to begin the new program. 32 By the end of 1969, NBS had 17 staff members working full-time on the 

flammable-fabrics problems and several others working part-time. Three contracts 

had been let to outside research organizations to perform complementary tasks. The 

Bureau program was established in the Product Evaluation Division. James V. Ryan was named chief of the Flammable Fabrics Section, but soon he left NBS. Ryan was 

succeeded on a temporary basis by Sanford B. Newman. In 1969, new NBS Director 

Branscomb created within the Institute for Applied Technology an Office of 

Flammable Fabrics, temporarily headed by Elio Passaglia. In 1970, Joseph E. Clark 

was appointed permanent head of that Office. 

Initial flammable-fabrics projects at NBS included determination of the products of 

fabric combustion, calorimetry of fabric combustion, laboratory burning of fabrics, 

analysis of burn cases, study of flame retardants, instrumented burning of full-scale 

household furnishings, and study of heat transfer from burning fabrics. Outside 

contractors studied the burning of carpets and rugs, and the preparation of sampling 

questionnaires. A symposium on the measurement of flammability was held in 

Washington, DC on June 5-6, 1969; more than 600 people attended the meeting to 

learn details of the new program. Further publicity came from notices placed in the 

Federal Register. 

During 1970, flammability standards were established for two types of carpets and 

rugs, and another was proposed for children's sleep-wear. Conflicting test methods and 

the uncertainty that was necessarily involved in developing sampling techniques 

complicated the NBS efforts. In the same year, testing was begun on mattresses and 

blankets, building on work accomplished during earlier years. 'i" 

Besides effort expended specifically on developing test methods to evaluate the 

flammability of carpets and rugs, children's sleep-wear, and blankets and mattresses, 

the Office of Flammable Fabrics sponsored a number of research projects. Some of 

31) Allen Astin had held preparatory meetings with the Public Health Service. See Memo, AV Astin to Secretary, "Implementation of Amended Flammable Fabrics Act," May 27, 1968; RHA; Dir. Off. ; Box 386; 

Chron Folder May 1968. 

Department Organization Order 30-2A, October 1, 1968. 132 AV Astin. "Chronology of Activities and Implementation of Revised Flammable Fabrics Act," February 

8, 1969; RHA; Dir. Off.; Box 388; Chron. Folder February 1969. 

Material from NBS Technical Note 525, "The Flammable Fabrics Program, 1968-1969," April 1970, 

76 pp. 

Material from NBS Technical Note 596, "The Flammable Fabrics Program, 1970," September 1971, 

56 pp. 

224 
these were accomplished within NBS and others were performed by outside groups 

under contract to the Bureau. Projects included: 

• Identification of fabric combustion products.'35 

• Calorimetry—measurement of the heat produced by burning fabrics. 

• Full-scale burn experiments, intended to identify all the hazards that accompanied fires involving carpets or upholstered furniture. 

• Heat transfer between burning fabrics and the human body (performed at the 

Cornell University Aeronautical Laboratory). 

NBS work on flammable fabrics decreased dramatically with passage of the 

Consumer Product Safety Commission Act (Public Law 92-573, October 27, 1972). 

Congress transferred to the CPSC all responsibility for continuing to implement the 

Flammable Fabrics Act. The Bureau role changed to providing technical support to 

CPSC within the context of its regular fire program. 

Viewed in retrospect, participation in a program so near to regulatory responsibility was somewhat removed from the Bureau's most comfortable role. In fact, the responsibilities of the Secretary of Commerce were not entirely clear; the language of the 

Flammable Fabrics Act caused the Secretary to suggest that standards "might be 

needed," leaving any decision open to criticism. Nevertheless, the publicity attending 

the creation of the Act and the establishment of the CPSC—not to mention the 

standards that actually came to fruition—provided powerful incentives to the fabric 

industry to reduce the chances of death or economic loss from use of their products. 

Fire Research and Safety Act of 1968 PL9O-259 

Responding to the call by President Johnson in 1967 for renewed legislative attack 

on the problem of uncontrolled fire, the 90th Congress amended the NBS Organic Act 

and authorized a new program in fire research through the Fire Research and Safety 

Act of 1968. 

Governmental efforts to shore up the Nation's beleaguered fire-prevention and firefighting units had been mostly scattered and ineffectual up to that time. In 1961, a panel formed by the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences 

had recommended that a Federal center be created to focus on the problem of uncontrolled fire. NBS subsequently was designated a central agency for fire research, in 

recognition of its long-standing and effective work in the field, by the Federal Council 

for Science and Technology. 

One of these was undertaken by Robert J. McCarter, who developed an apparatus to be used in measuring 

the rate at which vapors were evolved during thermal degradation. See R. J. McCarter, "Apparatus for 

rate studies of vapor-producing reactions," Proc. Synip. on Current Status on Thermal Analysis, NBS 

Gaithersburg, April 20-2/, 1970, SP 338, October 1970, pp. 137-150. 

225 
Seeking substantial funding to establish a new fire program in fiscal year 1964, the 

Bureau had found itself in the center of a controversy which never seemed to die 

out. 136 The NBS fire plan was threefold: to begin an educational effort to better inform the 

American public about the dangers of fire and ways to reduce its likelihood; to assist 

in university-level training in fire studies; and to bolster and focus its own fire-research 

program. The International Association of Fire Chiefs was enthusiastic about the 

Bureau's plan, but the National Fire Protection Association, fire insurers, and other 

industrial representatives were critical. Predictably, no funds were forthcoming that 

year. 

By 1965, accidental fires cost more than 12,000 lives each year in the United States, 

and more than $1.5 billion in property loss. Publicity surrounding the very visible fire 

losses in the period 1965-67 finally prompted both the President and the Congress to 

action. 

PL9O-259, enacted into law on March 3, 1968, assigned to the Secretary of 

Commerce in its Title I many features of the earlier NBS plan—"provide a national 

fire research and safety program, including the gathering of comprehensive fire data; a comprehensive fire research program; fire-safety education and training programs; 

and demonstrations of new approaches and improvements in fire prevention and 

control, and reduction of death, personal injury, and property damage." The secretary 

was directed to establish a fire center to focus these many activities. 

Title II of the new act established a National Commission on Fire Prevention and 

Control. Its 20 members were to furnish in two years a report to Congress with 

recommendations on methods for the abatement of fire losses. 

Given the extensive publicity surrounding the Nation's fire problems and the care with which assignments were given under its provisions, it is astounding that no funding was immediately provided by the Congress to implement the Fire Research 

and Safety Act of 1968. To understand its lack of support for its own creation, one 

must remember the dichotomy that is Congress; one committee authorizes work, 

another committee appropriates funds to implement it. The affected agency—in this 

case, the National Bureau of Standards—can be left holding the bag. 

Lacking essential funding, Bureau management did what it could to satisfy the intent 

of the 1968 act; it created an Office of Fire Research and Safety in the Institute for 

Applied Technology, and assigned John A. Rockett as its head. This office was 

deliberately placed outside the Building Research Division, home to the Fire Research 

Section. The section was headed at that time by Irwin A. Benjamin. An example of 

useful work done during that time was a pilot study by James 0. Bryson and Daniel 

Gross; they surveyed two large office buildings, evaluating live floor loads and fire 

loads. The results were utilized by the American Iron and Steel Institute as the basis 

for statistical sampling in other buildings. 

Appropriation hearings, FY 1964, pp. 978-980. J. 0. Bryson and D. Gross, "Techniques for the survey and evaluation of live floor loads and fire loads in 

modern office buildings," Building Science Series, No. 16, 312 pp. (1969). 

226 
With the collaboration of Alexander F. Robertson, Rockett planned the future of the 

NBS fire program, which now could include the investigation of accidental fires, the 

accumulation of fire statistics on a national basis, the development of fire-prevention 

and fire-control measures, and training and education activities to complement 

Benjamin's program. 

And in 1972, the Bureau created an Office of Fire Programs under the leadership of 

0. King Walters; the Office of Flammable Fabrics, established in 1970, was placed 

under Walters as well. When Walters left NBS later that year, an NBS Fire Technology Division was created with Joseph E. Clark as Chief. 

The 1968 act did not accomplish its major objectives, but it set a new and expanded 

course for the Bureau's fire program. 

An Experiment in Technology Incentives Is Proposed 

In August 1971 (see The NBS Budget, p. 182), President Richard Nixon responded 

to an increasingly sick U.S. economy by unveiling a New Economic Policy. Some of 

the provisions of the new policy—calling for reduced Federal expenditures and reduced 

Federal employment levels—were costly to the Bureau both in personnel and in funds. 

However, one feature that evolved early in 1972 from the plan was intended to establish at NBS a new multi-million-dollar project designed to boost the use of modern 

technology in American industry. 

Because of the timing of the New Economic Policy, nearly a year would pass before 

Congressional funding would be requested for its execution.'38 By the time funds 

became available for the Bureau's part in the new proposal, NBS had a new director. 

We note here the birth of the new program because it foretells so clearly the movement towards direct NBS involvement in the problems of American industrial productivity, a movement that eventually would rename NBS. 

The unusual circumstances under which the program originated were outlined earlier 

in this chapter. In essence, NBS was asked to explore various ways in which incentives 

could be placed before industry to encourage the use of newer technology, with the 

expected result that American industry would become more competitive in both domestic and international trade.'39 The name for the project, the Experimental Technology 

incentives Program (ETIP), was selected more or less on the spur of the moment, '4° in 

order to meet a deadline for completion of a budget document early in 1972. 

Although the ETIP name was chosen somewhat arbitrarily, the concept behind it 

rested solidly on work performed late in 1971 for the Office of the Assistant Secretary 

of Commerce for Science and Technology by a study team from the Bureau's 

Technical Analysis Division. 

The first presentation on the president's experimental technology plan was made to the House Appropriations subcommittee by Lewis Branscomb at the Fiscal 1973 budget hearing, March 1972. 

Memo, L. Kushner to L. Branscomb, January 26, 1972; RHA; RO 167; Director's Office; Box 424; 

Folder January 1972. 

Lawrence Kushner, Oral History, June 7, 1988. 

227 
Under the guidance of John A. Birch, Advisor for International Affairs for the 

Department of Commerce, the NBS team reviewed efforts in five countries to stimulate 

invention and innovation and the development, transfer, and application of new 

technologies within their own industries. Behind the review was the hope that it could 

lead the U.S. government to policies that would reverse the decline in its balance of 

trade and enhance the development and export of high-technology products. 

The study was directed by George C. Nichols, Senior Economist of NBS, who 

examined the principal technology enhancement programs, mechanisms, and incentives 

used in the civilian sector of Japan. The same pattern was followed by Suellen Halpin 

for Canada, Donald W. Corrigan for France, John C. Schieter for Germany, and 

Stephen S. Karp for the United Kingdom. 

The Bureau team learned that the countries with well defined science and technology 

goals appeared to be more successful in stimulating technological advances within 

their industrial sectors. They also found: 

• The most effective technology enhancement programs came from Science and 

Technology agencies placed at the highest levels of government. 

• An atmosphere of trust and open communication between government and the 

private sector was essential. 

• Successful technology enhancement involved continual modernization of equipment and facilities, spurred by government policies and incentives. 

• Special attention to the needs of small- and medium-sized firms was beneficial. 

• Extra funding accompanied by extra government interference and "red tape" was not especially helpful in technology enhancement. 

Not until December 1972 was a report describing the results of the study made 

available to the public, and even then the release took theform of an internal Department of Commerce document rather than an NBS publication. 141 Nevertheless, the clarity of the study results moved the department to initiate multi-million-dollar 

funding for an NBS technology enhancement program in March 1972 so that work 

could begin in Fiscal 1973. 

The Bureau scrambled to flesh out the basis for what would become—Congress 

willing—a substantial NBS undertaking.'42 Quickly, Director Branscomb assigned to 

Edwin J. Istvan, newly employed by the Center for Computer Science and Technology, 

leadership of a Bureau "ETIP team."43 In preparing the ETIP concept, Istvan and his 

41 "Technology enhancement programs in five foreign countries", Walter G. Leight, editor, DoC Report 

COM-72-l 1412, December 1972, 328 pp. Section authors: Suellen Halpin, Donald W. Corrigan, John C. 

Schleter, George C. Nichols, Stephen S. Karp. Project Director: George C. Nichols. General Advisor: John 

A. Birch. 42 Memo, L Branscomb to Larry Jobe, Asst. Sec. of Comm. for Administration, January 28, 1972; RHA; RG 

167; Director's Office; Box 424; Folder January 1972. 43 Memo, L Branscomb to NBS Executive Board, February 4, 1972; RHA; RG 167; Director's Office; Box 

424; Folder February 1972. 

228 
team made a serious effort to involve private industry. Acting quickly and using 

methods reminiscent of the Metric Study, they contacted a large number of individuals 

and corporations: 

• All of the members of NBS Evaluation Panels (300 individuals). 

• The 20-member Inventors' Council. 

• Thirty trade associations. 

• Senior officials at more than. 100 corporations, 8 universities, 7 professional 

societies, and 18 research institutes. 

• Government officials in two states, 7 local government associations, and 

11 departments. 

The persons contacted were queried about their response to the ETIP idea, whether 

their organizations might by willing to participate, and the types of activities that 

seemed most attractive. The responses were uniformly positive. 

The results of lstvan's efforts quickly appeared in the March 1972 House hearings 

on the fiscal 1973 Bureau budget, where Branscomb described a $14.4 million 

program: 145 

In partnership with the private sector, NBS will test the usefulness of various 

mechanisms and incentives to stimulate the generation and application of 

private research and development in ways that permit the private sector to 

further the Nation's productive capacity, industrial competitiveness, and our national well being. The end product of this program is a better understanding 

of these mechanisms and incentives. 

In the final NBS budget for fiscal 1973, the ETIP program was allocated $10 million. This handsome sum was immediately reduced to $6.2 million as an economy 

measure by President Nixon. However, the task of choosing a leader who would spend 

the money and produce results fell not to Lewis Branscomb, but to his successor. 

More about ETIP later. 

A New Building for Fluid Mechanics Studies 

During 1969 the twentieth major building for the Gaithersburg site was completed 

and occupied. It was dedicated to the study of fluid mechanics; several special 

facilities were included in the design to make the new laboratory one of the finest 

anywhere. 

Memo from LMB to the Under Secretary of Commerce, March 10, 1972: "Activities Related to the 

Proposed NBS Experimental Technology Incentives Program." RHA; RG 167; Director's Office Box 424; 

Folder-Chrono, March 1-31, 1972. 

'° House Hearings for Fiscal 1973 (March 28, 1972), pp. 1085-86. 

229 
One large laboratory featured facilities for calibration and research in large air 

meters and water meters. It was designed to aid NBS in developing and applying 

improved flow-rate measurements, transfer standards and flow theory. Dried, filtered 

air was available at flow rates from 45 grams to 2 kilograms per second. Treated water 

could be pumped from a quarter-million-liter reservoir at a rate of 40,000 liters per 

minute. Low-level flows could be metered within a temperature-controlled environment, and special facilities were available for monitoring flow of hydrocarbons, 

including jet fuel. 

Also included was an aerodynamics laboratory which permitted study of both 

laminar and turbulent air flow at speeds that ranged into the supersonic area. Windspeed instruments could be calibrated in the range 2-150 mph. Boundary-layer studies 

were contemplated, as well as wakes and jets. A subsonic and a supersonic wind 

tunnel were both made part of this facility. A portion of the subsonic tunnel walls 

could be moved in order to vary the internal pressure distribution. 

A water tunnel was built as part of the hydraulics section of the new building, as was a 1-meter square, 13-meter long wave tank. 

The new building took NBS to the forefront of yet another technical field. 

Science in Outer Space 

Bureau scientists contributed in many ways to the successes of America's space 

program and to astronomy. In projects as varied as providing calibration of the mighty 

rockets used to lift spacecraft from their earthly bonds, measurement of the distance 

from earth to the moon, and the study of the sun's radiation, information and 

instruments from NBS lifted man a step closer to the stars. 

In this section we summarize a few projects that illustrate Bureau contributions to 

space science during the directorship of Lewis Branscomb. 

Lunar Ranging 

On July 21, 1969, astronauts Neil A. Armstrong and Edwin W. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr. 

carefully placed an aluminum panel the size of a generous birthday cake—46 cm square—on the surface of the moon, tilting it a bit so that it pointed towards the earth. 

In doing so, the astronauts initiated an experiment in lunar ranging, one in which NBS 

scientists played a pivotal role. 

The aluminum panel, said the report, describing the experiment, contained an array 

of 100 "corner-cube" retro-reflectors: 

made by cutting a nearly perfect cube of fused silica in half across a body 

diagonal, then polishing the resulting new face flat. Light entering the new face 

has the interesting and useful property that it is reflected from the three 

mutually perpendicular faces of the rear corner, returning along the same direction from which it came. Slightly paraphrased quote from P. L. Bender, D. 0. Currie, R. I-I. Dicke, D. H. Eckhardt, J. E. Faller, W. 

M. Kaula, J. D. Mulholland, H. H. Plotkin, S. K. Poultney, E. C. Silverberg, D. T. Wilkinson, J. 0. 

Williams, and C. 0. Alley, "The lunar ranging experiment," Science 182, No. 4109, pp. 239-238, October 19. 1973. 

230 
Q-switched ruby lasers, installed at two earth-bound observatories, soon began 

sending pulses of light in the direction of the retro-reflectors in the hope of measuring 

several quantities, among them the distance between earth and the moon. If the 

experiment worked, it could substantially reduce the uncertainty in the earth-moon 

separation below previous estimates of ± 500 m. The lunar-ranging project was the brainchild of a group of physicists from several 

institutions, allied with scientists working on the NASA Apollo missions. The project 

leader was C. 0. Alley of the University of Maryland. Co-investigators included Peter 

L. Bender of the Bureau's Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics (JILA); R. H. 

Dicke and D. T. Wilkinson of Princeton University; James E. Faller, then of Wesleyan 

University but by 1972 a JILA staff member; W. M. Kaula of the University of 

California at Los Angeles; G. J. F. MacDonald of the University of California at Santa 

Barbara; J. D. Mulholland of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory at the California Institute 

of Technology; and H. H. Plotkin of the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. W. 

Carrion of NASA Goddard and R. F. Chang, D. G. Currie, and S. K. Poultney of the 

University of Maryland also participated in the work.'47 

The idea behind lunar ranging was simple: shine light on the moon for a moment 

and measure the time taken for the pulse of light to But it took a decade of 

work for the idea, once undertaken by the group, to reach fruition. A key ingredient 

was the use of retro-reflectors. Attempts to perform the measurement using laser-light 

reflections from the lunar surface itself suffered from uncertainties created by the 

moon's curvature and its poor reflectivity, but use of the corner-cube array sharpened 

the return pulse and increased its intensity by 10 to 100 times. 

Another major problem was placing the reflector unit on the moon. The unit as designed could be deployed automatically; by 1968, however, the NASA unmanned 

Surveyor program was complete. Furthermore, the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments 

Packages for each of the manned lunar landings were already committed to other 

experiments. The ranging team got lucky, however, when the Apollo 11 managers 

decided to replace a heavier, more complex experiment with the lightweight, easily 

deployed, rugged, and scientifically important Lunar Ranging Experiment (LRE). 

Telescopes at two astronomical observatories, the 3. 0 m (120 in) instrument at the 

Lick Observatory on Mount Hamilton in California and the 2. 7 m (107 in) telescope 

at the McDonald Observatory at Fort Davis in Texas, were equipped with ruby lasers, 

C. 0. Alley, R. F. Chang, D. 0. Currie, S. K. Poultney, P. L. Bender, R. H. Dicke, D. 1. Wilkinson, 

James E. Faller, W. M. Kaula, G. J. F. MacDonald, J. D. Mulholland, H. H. Plotkin, W. Carrion, and E. J. 

Wampler, "Laser ranging retro-reflector: Continuing measurements and expected results," Science 167, 

January 30, 1970, 458-460 (1970). 48 Galileo had tried to perform the converse of this experiment centuries earlier—determining the speed of 

light by measuring the time that elapsed between his uncovering a lantern and his observation of light from 

the lantern of an assistant who was standing a measured distance away and who was instructed to uncover his lantern at the first glimpse of light from Galileo's lantern. The delay time involved in human response, of 

course, proved far longer than the travel time of light between the earth-bound lantern stations. 

231 
which could deliver pulses of light of about 3 ns half-width at a wavelength of 694 nm and an intensity of 7 joules per pulse. Since the round-trip travel time from earth to the 

moon was approximately 2.5 s, the laser firing rate could be set at 3 s, allowing for 

many pulses—and therefore good statistical averaging—in a relatively short time 

interval. The LRE team expected that measurements could be accomplished during the 

lunar day as well as the night, providing only that the moon was sufficiently high in 

earth's sky to permit good viewing. 

The lunar ranging experiment had to be fitted into a full schedule of astronomical 

work in both observatories. Therefore a schedule was set of 50-200 pulses per attempt, 

with three attempts per day, permitting considerable improvement in results through 

signal-averaging without monopolizing the telescopes. 

Despite considerable effort to collimate the laser beam as it passed through the 

observing telescope, it was expected that the laser light would diverge to cover an area 

on the moon 4-6 km in diameter, reducing the return signal to about 1 photon per laser 

pulse. However, careful screening of spurious light and electronic time-sorting of the 

return signals could make even such sparse results meaningful. 

Excruciating delays—due to moon position in the sky, bad weather, and earthly 

equipment problems—followed the July 21st deployment of the reflectors by astronauts 

Aldrin and Armstrong. On the first of August, though, return signals were obtained by 

the Lick observatory telescope, then by the McDonald instrument as well. 

Early results indicated a ranging uncertainty below 10 m, a substantial improvement 

over previous determinations. The imprecision of the measurements quickly dropped to 

±0.3 m, with further improvement expected. The Lunar Ranging Experiment was a success. 

Encouraged by the quality of the Apollo 11 experiment, NASA happily scheduled 

the deployment of a similar retro-reflector array by Apollo 14. It was placed on the moon on February 5, 1971; return signals were obtained the same day. A larger 

package containing 300 reflectors was carried on the Apollo 15 flight and deployed on July 31, 1971. Besides the NASA units, retro-reflectors built in France were carried to 

the moon by the Soviet spacecraft Luna 17 in November 1970, and Luna 21 in January 

1973; the McDonald Observatory obtained signals from the latter within days of its 

deployment. 

By mid-1971, enough ranging data had been obtained to permit an evaluation and 

possible correction of the moon's orbit. It was expected that observations from more 

than one earth site would also permit the detection of tectonic motion on the earth's 

surface. 

In 1976, James Faller completed construction of a telescope that was designed 

specifically for the lunar-ranging studies. "v Composed of 80 lenses, each with its own system of mirrors to focus light on a single point on the telescope axis, the 

instrument—with its large aperture and tiny field of view—made optimum use of.the 

tenuous beam returned from the moon's retro-reflectors. 

part of the lunar-ranging story was summarized well by Bragaw and Snyder, op. cit., pp. 638-670. 

The telescope was described in clear terms in articles by Frederick P. McGehan, "The fly's eye telescope," 

NBS Dimensions 62, pp. 3-6 (1978), and David Ocr, "A technical look at the telescope," NBS Dimensions 

62, pp. 6-7 (1978). 

232 
The telescope was built with a light but extremely rigid body, so that it could be 

pointed automatically in any celestial direction, using computed lunar ephemeris data. 

Its output signal was handled in a manner similar to that of its larger astronomical 

cousins at the Lick and McDonald observatories. During August.1976, the telescope 

was placed on Mount Haleakala in Hawaii, which rides on the Pacific tectonic plate. 

From this installation arose the possibility of utilizing lunar ranging to directly detect 

movement between the Pacific plate and the continental United States plate. 

In a later paper written for the journal Science, Faller, Bender, and their colleagues 

summarized the many contributions to man's knowledge of the earth-moon system 

brought by the Lunar Ranging 

Lunar laser ranging turns the earth-moon system into a laboratory for a broad 

range of investigations, including astronomy, lunar science, gravitational 

physics, geodesy, and geodynamics. 

Contributions from lunar laser ranging include a three-orders-of-magnitude 

improvement in accuracy [to ±3 cm] in the lunar ephemeris, a several-ordersof-magnitude improvement in the measurement of the variations in the moon's 

rotation, and the verification of the principle of equivalence for massive bodies 

with unprecedented accuracy. Lunar laser ranging analysis has provided 

measurements of the earth's precession, the moon's tidal acceleration, and lunar 

rotational dissipation. 

Coupled with other studies such as Very Long Baseline Interferometry, lunar 

ranging helped to refine the picture of the earth and the moon as liquid-filled, undulating plastic spheroids, eternally coupled by gravitational forces as they whirl in their 

orbits about the sun. The sets of retro-reflectors installed on the surface of the moon by 

the Apollo astronauts still operated normally after 25 years. Returning to earth only 

10_21 of the light sent their way from 385,000 kilometers distance, the simple devices 

greatly enriched man's understanding of his nearby universe. 

Stellar Atmospheres 

Bureau scientists at the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics, in collaboration 

with colleagues at several universities, made substantial contributions to the understanding of stellar atmospheres during this period: 

• J. P. Cassinelli and David G. Hummer discussed stellar radiative transfer in 

terms applicable especially to spherically symmetric systems.15' 

'50J. 0. Dickey, P. L. Bender, J. E. Faller, X. X. Newhall, R. L. Ricklefs, J. G. Ries, P. J. Shelus, C. Veillet, 

A. L. Whipple, J. R. Wiant, J. G. Williams, and C. F. Yoder, "Lunar laser ranging: A continuing legacy of 

the Apollo program," Science 265, pp. 482-490 July 22, 1994. P. Cassinelli and D. 0. Hummer, "Radiative transfer in spherically symmetric systems: 11. The nonconservative case and linearly polarized radiation," Monthly Notices of the Royal Astron. Soc. 154, No. I, 

9-21 (1971). 

233 
• A discussion of spectrum formation in stars with extended atmospheres, held 

during a colloquium of the International Astronomical Union, featured a paper by 

Richard N. Thomas that focused attention on the significance of the ideas behind 

the "extended stellar atmosphere."152 

• Katharine B. Gebbie edited the proceedings of a symposium, held to honor the 

70th birthday of astronomer Donald H. Menzel, on the topics of solar physics, 

atomic spectra, and gaseous nebulae. Professor Menzel contributed much to the succes.s of the astrophysics program at the Bureau.'53 

• A strong disagreement between theory and experiment was resolved in favor of 

experiment at the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics. New experimental 

cross-sections for the photodissociation of the positive ions of hydrogen and 

deuterium, species important to astrophysics, were determined at wavelengths 

from 247 nm to 1.3 by Friedrich von Busch and Gordon H. Dunn of JILA.'54 

Marked disagreement with earlier theoretical calculations, including some by 

Dunn himself, stimulated the project. The theory involved normalized FranckCondon factors for the vibrational populations of the ions. Finding persistent 

disagreement between the theory and results obtained with the use of improved 

experimental conditions, the authors were led to the conclusion that the FranckCondon approximation was not valid for the conditions they were studying. 

Cryogenics in Space 

Projects undertaken by the Cryogenics Division in Boulder had a significant impact on the U.S. space program. Division scientists and engineers provided data on the 

properties of cryogenic materials, they performed engineering calculations, and they 

served as consultants both to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and 

to its contractors. 

Among these projects were: • Thermodynamic properties—equation-of-state, specific heat, sonic velocity, 

thermal conductivity, and viscosity—of hydrogen and oxygen used for 

propulsion, fuel cells, and breathing-oxygen systems. 

• Measurements, engineering, and consultation for CENTAUR, the first hydrogen! 

oxygen-propelled vehicle, and for subsequent programs. 

152 R. N. Thomas, "Definition of the physical problems connected with extended atmospheres." NBS Special 

Publication 332, pp. 38-54 August 1970. 

"The Menzel symposium on solar physics, atomic spectra, and gaseous nebulae in honor of the contributions made by Donald H. Menzel," K. B. Gebbie, Editor, NBS Special Publication 353, 213 pp., August 

1971. 

F. von Busch and 0. H. Dunn, "Photodissociation of and Experiment," Phys Rev. A 5, No. 4, 

1726-1743 (1972). 

234 
Another project involved study of partially frozen "slush" samples of hydrogen, 

methane and natural gas, and mixtures of the latter two substances. These materials 

possessed very high heats of combustion—higher than either gasoline or kerosene— 

and they burned "clean," making them prime candidates for fuels for high-performance 

aircraft, rockets, and other vehicles. Use of the cryogens in partially frozen form was certain to reduce evaporative losses during storage and transfer, provided that suitable 

techniques could be developed for handling and utilizing the mixed-phase materials. 

D. H. Weitzel, Jose E. Cruz, L. T. Lowe, R. J. Richards, and Douglas B. Mann 

developed instrumentation to store and transfer hydrogen in both liquid and slush form. 

They also measured the densities of the materials and developed devices to measure 

flow of the cryogens. Charles F. Sindt and Paul R. Ludtke performed similar work 

with respect to liquid and slush methane, natural gas, and various mixtures of the 

two. 156 Aerospace Calibrations 

The U.S. space program utilized many instruments at the limits of their capabilities. 

Communications, optical systems, thermometry, and mechanical measurements were 

examples of areas requiring careful calibration to ensure adequate performance. 

The projects were accomplished mostly by "unsung heroes"—Bureau staff members 

whose work did not result in publications, but whose services were recognized by 

their customers as vital to reaching national goals. Evaluation and calibration services 

involved antenna standards; the quality of shielding for electromagnetic radiation; 

microwave and radar performance and noise measurements; load cells to measure the 

thrust of the huge rocket engines (see the discussion in the next section); aircraft 

fatigue measurements; mechanical properties of composites; high-temperature 

thermocouple thermometers; radiometers; vacuum ultraviolet radiation standards; and 

x-ray standards.'57 

Mentioned in Chapter 1 was the Interagency Transducer Project, which contributed 

heavily to the space program. During the period covered by this chapter, Electronic 

Technology Division personnel were asked to adapt the calibration of static 

pressure transducers to the measurement of pressure under non-static conditions. In some cases—particularly those involving large rocket engines—telemetry 

55 D. H. Weitzel, J. E. Cruz, L. T. Lowe, R. J. Richards, and D. B. Mann, "Instrumentation for storage and 

transfer of hydrogen slush," Advances in Cryogenic Engineering 16, pp. 230-240 (1971). The work of these 

scientists and a colleague, Robert Arnett, was credited with materially assisting in the design of the Pratt and 

Whitney RL-I0 "Centaur" spacecraft engine; see NBS Standard, Vol XV, No. 2, February. 1970, p. 7. 

C. F. Sindt and P. R. Ludtke, "Characteristics of slush and boiling methane and methane mixtures," Proc. 

XIllth In!. Congress of the International Institute of Refrigeration, Washington, DC, Aug. 27 - Sept. 3, 1971, 

pp. 1-6. 

Much of the material in this section was suggested in a letter from Robert S. Walleigh to Donald C. 

Winner, NOAA, dated November 16, 1971; RHA; RG 167; Director's Office; Box 391; chron folder 

November 1971. 

235 
repeatedly showed pronounced spikes in the pressure signals during ignition of the 

enormous engines. Careful study by the Bureau group, including Paul S. Lederer, 

John S. Hilten, and Leon Horn, showed that the apparent pressure spikes were 

spurious. They arose as a result of severe temperature gradients across the transducer as the igniting fuel rapidly heated only one end of it.'58 

Force Testing on a Large Scale 

The need for calibration of the large forces encountered in rocketry increased 

dramatically as America entered the space race. Knowledge of the weight of "big 

birds" and measurement of the thrust of huge rocket engines were vital to the success 

of NASA's extraterrestrial missions. 

As late as 1961, the Bureau capability for such services, maintained within the 

Mechanics Division, was far behind NASA's needs. During the previous two decades, 

the demand for large-force calibrations from NBS had increased by more than a factor 

of twenty, and many of these requests could not be met at all by the Bureau's outmoded equipment. NASA needed to determine the actual forces exerted by rocket 

engines designed to deliver more than one million pounds of thrust. The Bureau's 

biggest dead-weight tester, with a capacity of but 0.5 meganewtons (SI symbol MN; 

about 1 12,500 pounds of force), was no help for such a task. 

To comprehend the concept of the forces involved in aerospace projects, it was 

important for the layman to understand the distinction between mass measurement and 

force measurement and the relation of these mechanical terms to the common noun 

"weight." Mass, one of the base units of measure in the International System of Units, 

was defined in terms of an artifact—a physical object. The unit of mass, one kilogram, 

was defined by a cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy retained by the International 

Bureau of Weights and Measures as the international prototype. In the study of 

elementary mechanics one found that force was equal to the product of mass times 

acceleration. "Weight," as the term was commonly used in America, actually referred 

to a force, not to a mass. Space travel, with its essentially zero-gravity environment, 

provided a vivid reminder of this difference. For example, the weight of a one-kilogram mass on the moon, where the magnitude of gravitational attraction was about 

one-sixth of its value on earth, would be only one-sixth of its weight on earth. And 

measured in the near-zero gravity of outer space, the same one-kilogram mass would 

become weightless (as the first astronauts quickly discovered), even though the mass of 

the object clearly would remain equal to one kilogram. 

Another useful distinction relative to force measurement was the difference between 

calibration using sets of weights of various sizes to provide the reference force and 

calibration in which the magnitude of an unknown force was evaluated by the use of a force transducer—a proving ring or a load cell. The uncertainty of the former (more 

basic) calibration typically was smaller by a factor of ten than the latter. 

John Franklin Mayo-Wells kindly supplied this information. 

Testimony of Allen Astin, House hearings May 3, 1961, p. 821. 

236 
The reason for the smaller uncertainty in calibrations involving weights sets lay in 

the tighter uncertainty budget. Uncertainties of only about 106 each were contributed 

for calibration of the masses used, for the correction for air buoyancy, and for the 

acceleration due to gravity at the site of the calibration. 

Calibration by the use of weight sets was restricted to vertical tension or compression, whereas the force axis of hydraulic or other force-generating machines—often 

called Universal Testing Machines—could be placed in any direction. 

In 1965, six new "deadweight" calibration installations were put in operation at 

NBS. Their capacity ratings in newtons (or pounds of force) were 2.2 X (495), 

2.7 X I (6,078), 1.13 X I (25,438), 5 X I (112, 559), 1.33 X 106 (300,000) and 

4.45 X 106 (1,000,000). The largest of these provided a calibration uncertainty limited 

to 0.002 %—80 newtons or 20 pounds—in either tension or compression. More efficient design shortened by half the time required for testing, an important advance considering that some 1000 devices per year—including direct measurements for certain 

NASA space flights—were calibrated at that time. Temperature was controlled in the 

facility to minimize uncertainties from this source. Arnold J. Mallinger and Raymond 

Russell were among the staff members involved in the force calibrations.'60 

In 1970, the Bureau provided calibration services for three types of devices used to 

measure force: 

• "Load cells"—devices for converting a force to a magnetic, frequency or 

electrical-resistance output. 

• "Proving rings"—actual ring-shaped devices invented at NBS in 1926 by S. N. 

Petrenko, in which the deformation of the ring could be evaluated in terms of the 

applied force. 

• "Elastic force measuring devices"—similar in principle to proving rings. 

These devices could be calibrated in terms of compression, tension or both for 

forces ranging as high as 4.5 MN.'6' 

In 1971, a new Universal Testing Machine was installed in the Engineering Mechanics building, replacing an older ten-million-pound-force compression tester. The new machine, using hydraulic force-generation, was capable of applying compression forces as large as 54 MN (about 12 million pounds). Three firms participated in its realization. It was designed by the Wiedemann Machine Company of Grove City, Pennsylvania; the E. W. Bliss Company of Salem, Ohio, manufactured the components; and 

assembly was accomplished by the McDowell-Wellman Company of Cleveland. The 

tester immediately became the largest such apparatus in the world.'62 Simply installing 

the machine was a challenge—it topped 33 meters in height including a 7-meter length 

underground. Tension tests up to 27 MN could be applied to specimens as long as 18 m, and 30 m long structural members could be tested for flexure using forces up to 

16 MN. w "New NBS Force-Calibration Facilities," NBS Technical News Bulletin, November 1965, p. 186-188. 161 "Calibration and Test Services of the National Bureau of Standards," NBS Special Publication 250, 

December 1970, pp. 4.5—4.8. 62 "World's Largest Testing Machine Goes Into Operation," NBS Technical News Bulletin, November 1971, 

p. 274. See also "A gentle giant is dedicated," NBS Standard Vol XVI, No. 10, November 1971, p. 3. 

237 
Seen from above, the 12-million-pound-force Universal Testing Machine, installed in the Engineering 

Mechanics Building in 1971, dwarfed its operators. 

238 
Technicians examined a concrete column which was flexed to destruction by the 

Bureau's 12-million-pound-force Universal Testing Machine. 

239 
Mechanical Engineer Samuel R. Low stood on the platform of the NIST 12-millionpound-force Universal Testing Machine circa 1988. Behind him was the then-record 

fracture test specimen, a 35 ft long test specimen with a 6 in thick, 40 in wide insert, It took 5.94 million pounds of force in tension to fracture the insert. 

240 
Estimates of the force applied by the UTM were provided by several transducers.. 

The load applied to the specimen was evaluated within about 0. 5 % by pressure 

transducers yielding an electrical signal. Special protective devices guarded against 

damage caused by catastrophic specimen failure. 

The new universal tester found extensive use not only for calibrating NASA's 

rocket engines and other aerospace components but also for calibrating commercial and 

manufacturing weighing equipment. 

Pieces of the Moon 

Three Apollo missions brought back to earth samples taken from the moon. The 

samples were obtained by astronauts Neil A. Armstrong and Edwin W. Aldrin, Jr. 

(Apollo 11); Charles Conrad, Jr. and Alan L. Bean (Apollo 12); and Alan B. Shepard, 

Jr. and Edgar D. Mitchell (Apollo 14). Portions of the "moon rocks" were brought to 

NBS for examination. At the Bureau, the samples were analyzed and compared with 

terrestrial materials of similar composition. Materials from a meteorite crater in 

Arizona were included in the comparisons as well, yielding interesting and useful 

information on the age and sources of materials on the lunar surface. 

Several groups of scientists, both from NBS and collaborating laboratories, participated in the studies. Kurt F. J. Heinrich and his colleagues used an electron 

microprobe in their work. They found and analyzed minerals in the lunar samples that 

were common on the earth's surface. The form of some of the Apollo 11 samples 

indicated the occurrence of meteorite impacts on the moon.'63 

Harvey Yakowitz and his collaborators found a great variety of minerals in an Apollo II sample, using three types of microanalysis. They concentrated their efforts on metallic particles that contained iron and nickel. Like Heinrich's group, they found 

evidence of meteor impact on the moon—certain of the samples resembled minerals 

found in meteor craters in the American west. Similar results were obtained by 

David B. Ballard, Yakowitz and J. I. Goldstein in a study of Apollo 11 and 12 soils.'65 

Apollo 12 soil samples were examined by Yakowitz and Goldstein, who found 

nickel and cobalt in igneous rock. Some 80 % of the metallic regions studied showed 

compositions different from those expected even for meteorites; they appeared to have 

undergone "cooking" for a year or more at temperatures in the range 500 °C to 

600 

163 Adler, L. S. Walter, P. D. Lowman, B. P. Glass, B. M. French, J. A. Philpotts, K. F. J. Heinrich, and J. I. Goldstein, "Electron microprobe analysis of Apollo II lunar samples," Geochim. Cosmochirn. 34, Suppl. I, 

pp. 87-92, January 30, 1970. J. I. Goldstein, E. P. Henderson, and H. Yakowitz, "Investigation of lunar metal particles," Geochim. 

Cosniochirn. Ada 1, pp. 499-512 (1970). 65 D. B. Ballard, H. Yakowitz and J. I. Goldstein, "Study of metals in the lunar soil," Proc. 4th Annual 

Scanning Electron Microscope Symposium, 117 Research Institute, Chicago, April 29, 1971, Part 1, pp. 169- 

176 (1971). J. I. Goldstein and H. Yakowitz, "Metallic inclusions and metal particles in the Apollo 12 lunar soil," 

Chapter in Proc. 2nd Lunar Science ConJ, Houston, January, /97/, 1, pp. 177-191 (1971). 

241 
Heinrich also collaborated in a study of five Apollo 12 rocks. Again, the investigators found ready comparisons with earthly minerals.167 

Isotopic abundance ratios on Apollo 14 samples were obtained by a group that 

included I. Lynus Barnes, B. Stephen Carpenter, Ernest L. Garner, John W. Gramlich, 

Edwin C. Kuehner, Lawrence A. Machlan, E. June Maienthal, John R. Moody, Larry J. 

Moore, Thomas J. Murphy, Paul J. Paulsen, Keith M. Sappenfield, and William R. 

Shields. Probing for the elements U, Pb, Rb, Sr, Ca, and Cu, they found little variation 

from terrestrial minerals. Dating by isotopic lead ratios indicated ages for the samples 

of more than 

Other Bureau activities impinging on space and astronomy during this time period are mentioned under different headings. 

Precision Measurement Grants 

During August 3-7, 1970, the International Conference On Precision Measurements 

and Fundamental Constants was held at NBS.'69 The General Chairman of the 

conference was Bureau Director Lewis Branscomb. In his remarks, he announced the 

establishment of a new program to encourage work in all specialties of precision 

measurement. The new program would be known as Precision Measurement Grants 

(PMG), said Branscomb. Each grantee would receive from NBS the sum of $15,000. 

Recipients of the first three grants were Prof. James E. Faller of Wesleyan 

University, Prof. Daniel A. Kleppner of MIT, and Prof. Hugh G. Robinson of Duke 

University. Initial grant applications were judged by a committee composed of 

members of the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics with the assistance of an advisory board of distinguished metrologists. 

This program of grants to facilitate and encourage work at U.S. colleges and universities in precision measurement—though not a large enterprise—led to significant 

advances over the years in many different areas of physics and metrology. In some 

cases—such as that of James Faller, whose work we saw in the section on lunar 

ranging—the grants helped bring to NBS scientists already familiar with the nature of 

research in precise measurement. 

By the summer of the year 2000, the program was in its 30th year. Awards had 

been made to 66 scientists, two of whom—Steven Chu of Stanford University and 

Daniel C. Tsui of Princeton University—had won Nobel prizes in physics for work 

167 B. M. French, L. S. Walter, K. F. J. Heinrich, P. D. Loman, Jr. , A. S. Doan, Jr. , and I. Adler, 

"Compositions of major and minor minerals in five Apollo 12 crystalline rocks," NASA Special Publication 

306, 142 pp., 1972. 

I. L. Barnes, B. S. Carpenter, E. L. Garner, J. W. Gramlich, E. C. Kuehner, L. A. Machlan, E. J. Maienthal, J. R. Moody, L. J. Moore, T. J. Murphy, P. J. Paulsen, K. M. Sappenfield, and W. R. Shields, 

"Isotopic abundance ratios and concentrations of selected elements in Apollo 14 samples," Geochini. Cosnzochi,n. Ada 2, pp. 1465-1472 (1972). 169 NBS Technical News Bulletin 54, pp. 268-270, November 1970. 

242 
accomplished subsequent to their participation in the PMG program. The amounts of 

the grants had increased by then to $50,000 annually, and they were renewable for two 

additional years. 

From 1975 to the present year, the PMG program was administered by Barry N. 

Taylor of NBS. 

NBS Nuclear Reactor Completes Its First Year At Full Power 

The Bureau's nuclear reactor, which first critical" in December of 1967, 

completed its first year at full power during October 1970. Taking stock of the year's 

progress, Reactor Radiation Division Chief Robert S. Carter expressed satisfaction both 

with the flawless operation of the reactor and with the quality and number of the 

technical projects accomplished there.17° 

The reactor was first licensed to operate at 10 MW. Its nuclear fuel, uranium 

enriched in the isotope 235U, was contained in a set of 30 cylindrical rods arranged in 

three hexagonal rings. During reactor operation, the 235U content in replacement fuel 

elements was gradually increased, allowing longer operation between refueling events. 

As operating experience grew, an ever larger 235U content—as much as 250 g—was 

incorporated into replacement fuel elements, in the hope of achieving 9-10 days of 

operating life. 

NBS scientists and administrators clasped hands in anticipation of the moment when its new nuclear reactor would go critical. Standing from left to right were Allen Astin. 

Harry H. Landon, Carl Muehlhause, Robert S. Carter, and Irl C. Schoonover. Seated 

behind them on the right was Ivy M. Collier. ho Robert S. Carter, "Reactor Radiation Division: Annual Progress Report for the Period Ending October 31, 

1970," NBS Technical Note 567, March 1971, 58 pp. 

243 
An optimal fuel-rotation scheme was studied, along with careful monitoring of the 

shape of the nuclear flux pattern within the reactor. Generally speaking, best results 

seemed to involve removal of elements from the inner ring and the moving of partially 

consumed elements from the outer rings toward the center. Efficient replacement was 

important from a cost point of view; the percentage burnup of the fuel increased 

from 19 % at startup to nearly 40 % with the use of higher-density fuel elements and 

improved replacement pattern. 

The reactor was built to serve a large variety of users from within NBS and from 

other government agencies, universities and industry. This pattern of use was followed 

from the start. 

The Reactor Radiation Division consisted of three sections—Reactor Operations, 

Engineering Services, and Neutron Physics. Knowledgeable reactor physicists from 

outside the division planned and conducted their own irradiation sequences. The 

division staff assisted other scientists and technical workers in planning and carrying 

out irradiations so as to provide needed information or samples. 

Four neutron diffractometers were available for crystal-structure analysis. A time-offlight instrument permitted the study of inelastic neutron scattering. Thermalized 

neutrons were available for experiments in yet another facility. Further facilities were still in the developmental stage in 1970. 

During the fueling process prior to criticality tests, Harry H. Landon, Chief of the NBS 

Neutron Nuclear Physics Section, checked the nuclear reactor core configuration 

through a periscope while Robert S. Carter, Chief of the Neutron Solid State Physics 

Section. observed. 

244 
Change in the neutron flux in the NBS Reactor was monitored in the control room by (from left to right) 

Larry Smith, Arthur Chapman, and Albert W. Crebs as control rods were withdrawn to achieve criticality. 

A time-shared computer was used to control all the experimental devices, with 

stations available for all users. Use of the time-shared computer permitted coordination 

of the various irradiation experiments and quick evaluation of results.'7' 

During the first full year of operation, more than 1,500 in-core irradiations were 

undertaken on a total of nearly 10,000 samples for purposes as diverse as biology, 

medicine, activation analysis, isotope production, and study of radiation effects. Some 

of the agencies involved in these irradiations included the U.S. Geological Survey 

(identification of trace constituents in geological materials); Food and Drug Administration (halogen and mercury concentrations in various commercial products, 

including foods); U.S. Post Office, Internal Revenue Service, and Federal Bureau of 

Investigation (activation analysis in crime-detection studies); Army Institute of Dental 

Research (role of trace metals—for example, zinc—in bone healing); Teledyne 

Isotopes, Inc. (study of fission products from transuranium isotopes); and the 

University of Maryland (mercury levels in oysters from the Chesapeake Bay). 

H. A. Alperin and E. Prince, "A time-shared computer system for diffractometer control," J. Res. NBS 74C. 

pp. 89-95 (1970). 

245 
Among other technical projects performed at the reactor, many involved NBS 

scientists both within the Reactor Radiation Division and from other divisions. 

Although it is not possible to mention all of these first-year projects, their variety gave a strong indication of the enormous power of the nuclear reactor as a research tool. 

Antonio Santoro joined NBS as a member of the Reactor Radiation Division in 

November of 1964, while the reactor was still under construction. He and his Bureau 

colleagues Marcello Ziocchi, Curt W. Reimann and Alan D. Mighell utilized singlecrystal x-ray diffraction techniques elsewhere to analyze the crystal structures of 

several transition-metal complexes with particular emphasis on understanding the 

interactions between metal ions and ligand molecules.'72 However, once the neutrondiffraction facilities at the reactor became available, the team could utilize that 

capability to obtain unambiguous assignment of atoms such as the carbon and nitrogen 

in the pyrazole group and to obtain more reliable information regarding the presence 

or absence of hydrogen-bonding in these molecules.'73 

Other crystal-structure analysis work done using the reactor's neutron-diffractometer 

facilities included the following: 

• Observations on potassium silicotungstate, undertaken by Edward Prince and his 

colleagues from Georgetown University, P. M. Smith and J. V. Silverton, to 

determine the configuration of the silicotungstate ion and to elucidate the role of 

water of hydration in the crystal. 

• Dimethyl sulfone diimine, a relative of synthetic detergents, studied by Prince 

and J. Bevan of the Proctor & Gamble Co. to ascertain the positions of the 

hydrogen bonds. 

• Apophyllite, examined by Prince, A. A. Colville of California State College, and 

G. Donnay of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in order to work out the 

unusual sheet structure of this crystal. 

• Durene, a tetramethylbenzene, studied by Prince, John J. Rush and Leroy W. 

Schroeder, a Postdoctoral Research Associate, to obtain insight into the conformation of the methyl groups in this crystal as well as the origin of their 

hindered rotation. 

172 A. Santoro, A. D. Mighell, M. Ziocchi and C. W. Reimann, "The crystal and molecular structure of 

hexakis (imidazole) nickel(ll) nitrate. (C3H4N2)6Ni(N03)2." Ada Cryst. B25, pp. 842-847 (1969). See also A. 

D. Mighell, C. W. Reimann and A. Santoro, "The crystal structure of dibromotetrapyrazolenickel(IJ), 

Ni(C3H4N2)4Br2," Ada Cryst. B25. pp. 595-599 (1969). 

A. Mighell, A. Santoro, E. Prince and C. Reimann, "Neutron diffraction structure determination of 

dichlorotetrapyrazolecopper(ll), Cu(C3H4N2)4C12," Ada Cryst. B31, pp. 2479-2482 (1975). " E. Prince, L. W. Schroeder and J. J. Rush, "A constrained refinement of the structure of durene," Acta 

Crys:. B29, pp. 184-191 (1973). 

246 
• Potassium cyanide and sodium cyanide, examined by John J. Rush and his 

colleagues from Argonne National Laboratory, J. Michael Rowe, D. G. Hinks, 

D. L. Price, and S. Susman, in order to understand how the linear cyanide groups 

were ab'e to display cubic symmetry at temperatures near the melting point of 

the crystal.'75 Soon after this work was accomplished, Rowe joined the NBS 

staff. 

Rush, Schroeder, and their colleague A. J. Melveger of the Allied Chemical Corp. 

performed a detailed study of the crystal and molecular dynamics of sodium bifluoride, 

using the techniques of infrared and Raman spectroscopy as well as inelastic neutron 

scattering. In this way they were able to gain information on the acoustic and optical 

translational lattice modes of vibration and to assign approximate values to the 

vibrational frequency distribution. 

Bert Mozer and his collaborator L. A. de Graaf of Argonne National Laboratory 

utilized the neutron diffraction method to measure the structure factors of liquid neon 

at 35 K as functions of liquid density. Radial distribution functions, direct correlation 

functions, and effective interatomic potentials were calculated from the data.'76 Mozer 

also participated in preparing for use a two-axis spectrometer with a neutron-energy 

analyzer facility. The equipment could be used as a time-of-flight spectrometer or for 

three-axis crystal spectrometry. In the time-of-flight mode, the system utilized a 4 m evacuated flight tube with a group of eight detectors, producing an energy resolution as fine as 2 %. 

In its schedule of projects focusing on collaboration with other government agencies, 

the division staff worked with members of the Naval Ordnance Laboratory on crystal structures, magnetic structures, the time-shared computer system, and a superconducting magnet for high-magnetic-field studies. With members of the Naval 

Research Laboratory (including Jerome Kale, awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry 

in 1985 for his work with Herbert A. Hauptmann on the development of direct 

methods for the determination of crystal structures), they studied the properties of 

amorphous solids. With C. S. Schneider of the U.S. Naval Academy, they performed 

precise measurements of thermal-neutron scattering amplitudes. And with the staff of 

the Picatinny Arsenal, they characterized metastable materials; the Picatinny Arsenal 

group was pleased to find a replacement for the experimental facilities denied them 

when the Army nuclear reactor at Watertown, Massachusetts was decommissioned. 

Beginning in its first year, the nuclear reactor also provided experimental facilities 

for Bureau employees from other divisions, often in collaboration with colleagues from 

other organizations. Philip D. LaFleur of the Analytical Chemistry Division, for example, collaborated with W. F. Marlow and Donald A. Becker of the Reactor Research 

D. L. Price, J. M. Rowe, J. J. Rush, E. Prince, D. 0. Hinks and S. Susman, "Single crystal neutron 

diffraction study of potassium cyanide," J. Chem. Phys. 56, pp. 3697-3702 (1972). See also J. M. Rowe, D. 

0. Hinks, D. L. Price, S. Susman and J. J. Rush, "Single crystal neutron diffraction study of sodium 

cyanide," J. Chern. Phys. 58, pp. 2039-2042 (1973). 

L. A. de Graaf and B. Mozer, "Structure study of liquid neon by neutron diffraction," J. Che,n. Phys. 55, 

pp. 4967-4973 (1971). 

247 
Division in a long-term program of neutron-activation analysis.'77 Another group, from 

the Optical Physics Division—Richard D. Deslattes, William C. Sauder, James A. 

Hammond and Albert Henins—initiated a program of measurement of atomic constants. 

Several groups from the Nuclear Radiation Division commenced experimental 

programs: 

• James A. Grundl, in collaboration with colleagues at the Los Scientific 

Laboratory, began preparing an intense 235U fast neutron source, using the 

thermal neutron column. 

• Ivan G. Schroder and his colleagues from Harvard University (J. L. Alberi and 

R. Wilson) and from Brookhaven National Laboratory (G. Scharff Goldhaber) set 

up a Cd target for the study of parity-conservation in strong interactions.'78 

• Frank J. Schima began a study of the decay characteristics of krypton isotopes. 

• Alan T. Hirshfeld, Dale D. Hoppes, Wilfrid B. Mann and Frank Schima prepared 

samples of the isotope t2Br for use in nuclear orientation studies.'79 

Water and Polywater 

Water is thought by the layman to be the most ordinary of substances. "H-2-O," he 

will say if asked, proud that he knows a chemical formula, "two protons stuck to an oxygen atom. So what?" But water is so common and its properties so well-known that 

one often forgets that its properties are not what one would expect from its atomic 

makeup. Its unusual properties include the following: 180 • A surprisingly high boiling point (100°C or 212 °F) considering its small 

molecular size. 

• A peculiar density-vs -temperature pattern. Most—though not all—substances 

become progressively denser as their temperature is reduced, with the frozen 

solid more dense than the liquid. It is very important to life on earth that ice is 

less dense than water. Ice forms on the surface of lakes and rivers, insulating 

177 F. Marlow and P. D. LaFleur, "Standard reference materials for the analysis of environmental 

samples," in Proc. Symp. Nuclear Techniques in Measurement and Control of Environmental Pollution, 

Salzburg, Austria, Oct 26-30, 1970, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna Austria, March 1971, pp. 

91-94. 

L. Alberi, R. Wilson and 1. G. Schroder, "Parity violation in neutron-capture gamma rays," Phys. Rev. 

Leti. 29, No. 8, 518-521 (1972). 179 A. T. Hirshfeld, D. D. Hoppes, W. B. Mann and F. J. Schima, "Nuclear orientation of '2Br in iron," Proc. 

Intl. Conf on Hyperfine Interactions in Excited Nuclei, Rehovot, Israel, Sept 6-11, 1970, Chapter in Hyperfine Interactions in Excited Nuclei 1, 335-338 (Gordon & Breach Sc PubI., New York, NY, 1971). 80 Felix Franks, "Polywater," (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1981) 208 pp. 

248 
living plants and animals in those waters from freezing weather above and—in 

temperate climates—melting completely during the summer season. The 

mechanism by which water at 0°C becomes more dense as it is heated is not 

entirely clear, but it is a fortunate fact that water reaches a maximum density 

above 0 °C (actually at 4°C). 

• An unusually large heat capacity. For a small molecule, water exhibits an anomalously large heat capacity, allowing it to serve nature as an enormous 

energy-storage reservoir. 

• An increase in the vapor pressure when dispersed in small droplets. Lord Kelvin 

noticed nearly a century ago that the vapor pressure of water is unusually large 

in micrometer-sized droplets. He composed an equation to relate the vapor 

pressure to the droplet curvature. Is it unusual to find water in such small spaces 

in nature? Not at all, it turns out: many minerals and many biological materials 

contain confined spaces of magnitudes that are small enough to warrant use of 

the Kelvin relations. Among these substances are the human blood system, water 

droplets in clouds, and interstices in certain rocks. 

It is such unusual properties of water as these, as well as the absolute importance of 

water to biological life, that has always impelled scientists to experiment with water. 

Any new understanding of the humble liquid that they could achieve would potentially 

affect all humanity. 

In the case that follows, hard-working scientists thought they had found an unusual 

new property of water—until the use of newly developed, sharper tools showed them 

otherwise. 

"Anomalous Water" 

Given the importance of water to mankind, it was not surprising that a Russian 

scientist—one Nikolai N. Fedyakin, working in relative obscurity in the Technological 

Institute in Kostroma a few hundred kilometers northeast of Moscow—devoted himself 

to a study of water sealed in fine capillaries of diameter 2-4 Careful and methodical, Fedyakin purified his water samples, encapsulated them and watched them. When 

he found in 1962 that certain of the samples seemed very slowly (over periods of 

many days) to separate into two fractions, one above the other in the capillary, his 

interest picked up considerably. Why should the water separate? Were there two 

components in his purified water samples? What properties would the new fraction 

exhibit? 

Although further experiments were difficult—only a few micrograms of material was 

available for test—he nevertheless found that the new fraction showed a density that 

was clearly larger than that of ordinary water. When he was confident of his results, 

he published a paper describing them. In this first paper, Fedyakin expressed no knowledge of the composition of the separated fraction in his capillaries; he only noted 

that he had seen "anomalous water."8' 

N. N. Fedyakin, "Change in the structure of water during condensation in capillaries," Kolloid Zhurnal 

24, 497 (1962); (translation: Colloid Journal USSR 24, 425 (1962). 

249 
Fedyakin's report—available for some time only in Russian—attracted no immediate 

attention outside Russia. It was considered very interesting, however, by the group 

headed by Boris V. Deryagin at the Institute of Physical Chemistry in Moscow. 

Recognizing potential importance in Fedyakin's work, they immediately formed a collaborative project with him. Subsequent publication and discussion of new separation experiments with "anomalous water" came from Deryagin's laboratory. The first 

such paper, containing startling information on the properties of the condensed fraction, was published (again in Russian) in 1967. 82 Gradually the news reached Western scientists that ordinary water, when allowed to 

re-condense in fine capillaries, might be exhibiting strange long-range-order properties. 

The new fraction showed anomalously high viscosity, large thermal expansion, 

increased boiling-point temperature and reduced freezing-point temperature, as well as the higher density found by Fedyakin. In talks at scientific meetings, Deryagin began 

to speculate that ordinary tap water might really be a metastable state, changing to a stabler form in contact with certain solid surfaces. Heady stuff for such a prosaic 

liquid! 

The Russian results were corroborated by a group from the Unilever Research 

Laboratories in Cheshire, England.'83 They mentioned Deryagin's interesting 

speculation as their primary motivation. Placing numerous Pyrex capillaries of 

10-100 diameter in a desiccator at room temperature and reduced pressure, they 

found condensed columns in "about 5 %" of the capillaries after a few days. They 

sealed the capillaries containing the condensate and found some of them to contain a gel-like residue. Mass-spectrometric analysis showed only mass 17 and 18, typical of 

water. 

NBS Experiments On "Polywater" 

One of the first American groups to follow up on the Russian "anomalous water" 

results was formed by Robert Stromberg, Deputy Chief of the NBS Polymers Division, 

and Ellis Lippincott, professor of chemistry at the University of Maryland and Director 

of the Center for Materials Research there. Together with Warren H. Grant of the 

Polymers Division and Gerald L. Cessac, a predoctoral student at Maryland, they 

prepared many samples of "anomalous water" by condensing purified water in Pyrex 

and quartz capillaries of 5-20 interior diameter, either at reduced pressure or full 

saturation pressure. They noted that the sample yield was very small, causing severe 

problems in analysis of the material. Nevertheless, they analyzed their "anomalous 

water" using laser-probe excitation, finding only "small" quantities of sodium and 

silicate impurities. Their analytical method was only slightly sensitive to the light 

hydrogen and oxygen atoms that make up the water molecule. 

$2 B. V. Deryagin, N. V. Churaev, N. N. Fedyakin, M. V. Talayev, and 1. 0. Yershova, "The modified state of water and other liquids," Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. 

Khi,n.), No. 10, PP. 2178-2187, 1967. 

E. Willis, G. K. Rennie. C. Smart, and B. A. Pethica, "Anomalous Water," Letter to the Editor, Nature 

222, 159, April 12, 1969. 

250 
Quartz capillaries containing anomalous water samples were studied by microscopy as well as by spectroscopic techniques. 

An exciting find by the NBS-Maryland group came when they analyzed infrared 

spectra of the samples. The spectra looked nothing like those of ordinary water! 

Instead, the results indicated the presence of a polymer. In publishing their results, they 

portrayed two polymeric forms of water that appeared possible, and they coined the 

term "polywater" to describe the sample material. 84 Stromberg and Lippincott were not in a position to know that they had fallen into a trap. The analytical methods they used were not sensitive enough to give them a full 

picture of the microgram-sized contents of their capillaries. Hints there were in the 

identification of sodium ions and silicates in the condensate, but they had no way of 

knowing that such impurities in reality dominated the spectra given by their samples. 

E. R. Lippincoit. R. R. Stromberg, W. H. Grant, and G. L. Cessac, "Polywater," Science 164, 1482-1487, June 

1969. 

251 
Polymers Division scientists Robert R. Stromberg and Warren H. Grant discussed 

possible polymeric structures of water. 

The name "polywater" captivated both the group's scientific colleagues and the 

public at large. Considerable experimentation and more speculation emerged from 

many sources over the following three-year period. All together, about 450 references 

to "anomalous water" or "polywater" appeared over the next forty-odd 

despite unsettling results that began to appear early in 1970. 

Bruce C. Bennion and Laurence A. Neuton. "The epidemiology of research on Water." 

J. Amer. So. for Information Science 27, No. 1, pp. 53-56 (1976). 

252 
Questions About Impurities 

In March 1970, the journal Science carried back-to-back articles that raised the 

question of impurities as the source of the unusual properties of the "anomalous 

water." The first, written by D.L. Rousseau of the Bell Telephone Laboratories at 

Murray Hill, NJ and S.P.S. Porto of the University of Southern California, discussed a special effort to prepare "pure polywater" and then to analyze it.'86 The two scientists 

boiled ordinary quartz tubing in aqua regia, a powerful cleaner composed of nitric and 

hydrochloric acids, and rinsed the tubing in distilled water prior to drawing the tubing 

into hundreds of capillaries. They washed all glassware sequentially in acetone, in 

water distilled several times, in chromic acid, and again in distilled water. They 

mounted the capillaries in two different ways in their desiccator—by leaving them in 

contact with the desiccator walls, and by suspending them from fine wires above a pool of distilled water. The suspended group of capillaries was included in order to 

minimize "creep" of stopcock grease or other impurities contained within the assembly. 

"Anomalous water" condensed in 1 % to 5 % (more with higher chamber pressure) 

of the capillaries that Rousseau and Porto placed on the bottom of the desiccator, but no condensate formed in any of the suspended capillaries (an obvious clue to the possible role of impurities). The authors allowed the condensate to. dry for about a week to 

evaporate all normal water prior to analyzing the residue. 

Infrared and Raman spectroscopic analysis of the residue in the capillaries containing the dried condensate showed a substantial amount of sodium impurity—20 % to 

60 % by weight. Also appearing were chloride and sulfate ions (each about 15 %) and 

smaller amounts of potassium and calcium. 

The other March 1970 Science article was written by S. L. Kurtin and C. A. Mead 

of the California Institute of Technology in collaboration with W. A. Mueller and B. 

C. Kurtin of the Stanford Research Institute in South Pasadena, California and with E. 

D. Wolf of the Hughes Research Laboratories in Malibu, California.'87 This group 

prepared anomalous water samples in the "standard" manner, then centrifuged the 

condensate to obtain about 2 of material for examination. Mechanical and infrared 

studies showed the expected results, but further testing by dielectric methods indicated 

the presence of sols of particulates in ordinary water. Examining the samples with a scanning electron microscope showed "fluffy" particles, unlike control samples of 

ordinary distilled water. 

Sharper Tools and a Discarded Idea 

A January 1971 number of Science contained an extensive report discouraging the 

notion that there existed a high-polymer form of water. Written by collaborators 

R. E. Davis from Purdue University, D. L. Rousseau from the Bell Telephone 

86 D. L. Rousseau and S. P. S. Porto, "Polywater: polymer or artifact?" Science 167, March 27, 1970, p. 

1715. 

S. L. Kurtin, C. A. Mead, W. A. Mueller, B. C. Kurtin, and E. D. Wolf, "Polywater: a hydrosol?" 

Science 167, March 27, 1970, p. 1720. 

253 
Laboratories, and R. D. Board from the Hewlett-Packard Corporation laboratory, the 

report offered spectroscopic results on samples prepared at the Bell Laboratories and at 

The ESCA (electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis) technique turned 

up a veritable soup of impurities; sodium and potassium salts of the sulfate, chloride, 

nitrate, borate and silicate ions, as well as compounds containing the C-O bond. 

Davis and his group had used the usual techniques to prepare their samples, drying 

or sealing them. before analysis. They emphasized that all their samples showed 

impurities and that all ESCA and infrared spectral lines were accounted for without 

need to invoke polymerization of water. 

By the end of 1970, the NBS/University of Maryland group had come to question 

their own earlier speculations regarding anomalous water. Further experimentation 

had turned up evidence indicating the presence of impurities in their preparation 

techniques. They described this work in the Journal of Colloid and interface 

Science. 59 The debate over anomalous water and polywater continued for some time, but 

evidence that water vapor developed a remarkable reactivity with glass or quartz— 

especially when the silicate was subjected to the type of strain induced by drawing, as it was in the process of forming capillaries—continued to mount. Water, it seemed, 

was indeed an unusual substance—but it did not polymerize. 

An epitaph of sorts for the polywater episode was written by Theodor Benfey of 

Guilford College, who wrote an editorial for the journal Chemistry. He noted that 

remarks made during a 1971 symposium by the Russian scientist Deryagin had been 

revised by him prior to later publication of the symposium proceedings. The revised 

comments included the statement that "anomalous water" contained significant 

amounts of silicon, probably in the form of silicic acid gel or silica gel, and that 

quartz definitely dissolved more readily on exposure to water vapor than it did in 

liquid water. Even in Russia, water continued to be an unusual substance, but not a polymeric one. The case of "polywater" served to remind scientists in the Soviet Union, at NBS, 

and elsewhere to move with caution into unknown areas. Unexpected results of 

experiments on the humblest of earthly substances—water—had been interpreted too 

quickly as indicators of an exciting possibility. Such things happen in science. 

Advances in Microscopy 

The Electron Microprobe in Color 

The scanning electron microprobe was developed as an analytical tool during the 

1950s. It was added to the NBS chemical-analysis arsenal chiefly by Kurt F. J. 

Heinrich when he joined the Bureau in 1964 as chief of the Microanalysis Section of 

R. E. Davis, D. L. Rousseau, and R. D. Board, "Polywater: Evidence from electron spectroscopy for 

chemical analysis (ESCA) of a complex salt mixture," Science 171, 167 (1971). 

Ellis R. Lippincott, Gerald L. Cessac, Robert R. Stromberg, and Wan-en H. Grant, "Polywater—a search 

for alternative explanations," J. Co/laid and Interface Sci. 36, No. 4, 443-460 (1971). 

90T. Benfey, "Last word on polywater?" Chemistry 46, No. 8, p. 4 (Editorial), September 1973. 

254 
the Analytical Chemistry Division.'9' Some of the capabilities of the device were evident in the note on "moon rock" analysis (in a previous section). 

In principle, the technique was simple enough; a beam of energetic electrons was 

directed at a target, generating x rays whose energy depended upon the atomic number 

of the target constituents. By analyzing the energy and intensity of the x-ray spectrum as functions of the electron-beam location on the target, the operator could construct a map of the target that showed the identity and concentration of its constituent elements 

at each position. The map usually was rendered as one or more black-and-white 

microphotographs of the target area, with one picture for each impurity scan. 

There were plenty of complications to the technique. The analytical methods were 

not especially simple and, typically, specimens were necessarily prepared with 

microscopically smooth surfaces to avoid distortion of the x-ray spectrum. Nevertheless, the electron microprobe developed into a powerful tool for chemical analysis. 

The principal applications of electron microprobe analysis included metallurgy, 

mineralogy, ceramics, polymers and biology, with the last generally limited by the 

unresponsiveness of biological constituents (hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen), owing to 

their low atomic numbers. 

Early in 1969, Heinrich and his colleague Harvey Yakowitz of the Metallurgy 

Division published a treatise on the conversion of the multiple black-and-white 

microprobe scans to single photographs in color, greatly simplifying the interpretation 

of the electron microprobe data.'92 Their technique, one of three methods initially 

proposed to introduce color into the analytic process, was to use the black-and-white 

scanning images as color-separation positives with different color filters for each 

scanned element. 

In their paper, Yakowitz and Heinrich discussed the procedures required to prepare 

the composite color prints, including the use of fast color film, such as Polaroid, to 

quickly and inexpensively produce color images. By careful choice of the color filters, 

the operator could identify regions containing single elements as well as multipleelement areas of a particular sample. 

New Scanning Electron Microscope Facility 

During 1969 a new scanning electron microscope was installed in the laboratories 

of the Lattice Defects and Microstructures Section of the Metallurgy Division. A 

complement to the electron microprobe, it quickly became a favorite tool for an For an introduction to this topic, see, for example, S. J. B. Reed, "Electron microprobe analysis," Second 

edition, Cambridge University Press, 1993, 326 pp. See also "The Electron Microprobe: Proceedings of the 

Symposium Sponsored by the Electrochemical Society, Washington, DC, October, 1964," T. D. McKinley, 

K. F. J. Heinrich, and D. B. Wittry, Editors, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1966. The latter includes an extensive, indexed bibliography through 1964. 

Use of the electron microprobe for quantitative analysis was the topic of "Quantitative electron probe 

microanalysis, Proceedings of a seminar held at NBS, Gaithersburg, MD, June 12-13, 1967," K. F. J. 

Heinrich. editor, NBS Special Publication 298, October 1968, 305 pp. 92 Harvey Yakowitz and Kurt F. J. Heinrich, "Color Representation of Electron Microprobe Area-Scan 

Images by a Color Separation Process," J. Res. NBS 73A, No. 2, 113-124, 1969. 

255 
interesting variety of studies, including lunar-rock samples, strained and fractured 

metals, dental surfaces, and tiny electronic devices. Its electron-beam probe produced 

images of 25 nm resolution that exhibited substantial depth of field. Unlike the earlier 

transmission electron microscope, thick samples with irregular surfaces could be 

observed with the SEM. 

The first principal operator of the new device was David B. Ballard, an Indiana-bred 

metallurgist trained at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. He found the microscope 

useful for his own work on the study of metallic fracture, and he also assisted 

colleagues in its use. Some thirty NBS scientists employed the new instrument within 

the first two years of its installation. 

Chemistry Research 

This section conveys some of the broad range of NBS studies during the early 1970s 

in the field of chemistry. 

Chemical Impurities at Parts Per Billion 

Combining the techniques of isotope dilution and spark-source mass spectrometry, an Analytical Chemistry Division group including Paul J. Paulsen, Robert Alvarez, and 

Daniel E. Kelleher found that they could detect impurity elements at concentrations as 

David B. Ballard readied for operation the NBS scanning electron microscope and its 

associated electronics. 

256 
low as about i09. In certain applications, for example in nuclear physics and electronics, the presence of impurities at that level could render a material useless for its 

intended purpose. 

The methOd used by the group relied upon the use of enriched isotopes provided by 

external producers such as the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Adding isotopes of a suspected impurity to a sample of the test material, then performing spark-source mass 

spectrometry, the group could evaluate the original concentration of the impurity at 

the extremely low levels desired. Initial tests of the method were successful in both 

platinum and zinc samples.'93 

Chemical Analysis With Flame Spectroscopy 

The limit of detection for trace impurities receded noticeably as a result of a new method introduced by Analytical Chemistry Division researchers Oscar Menis, 

Theodore C. Rains, Kenneth W; Yee, and Herbert D. Cook, and W. Snelleman, their 

colleague from the Rijksuniversiteit in Utrecht, Netherlands. The group developed a flame-emission spectrometer which performed a rapid repetitive scan of a narrow 

wavelength region, minimizing spectral interference from the matrix in which the trace 

elements were held. 

Key to the small, new device was a quartz plate vibrating at 145 Hz, and an amplifier tuned to twice that frequency. By providing a second-derivative signal, the new instrument gained substantially in sensitivity, eliminating the need for a monochromator of high resolving power. A second benefit was the ability of the device to identify 

trace elements in only 50 microliters (roughly a cube 3.6 mm on each side) of solution, 

extending the method to biochemical studies and monitoring of air pollution where 

sample sizes were necessarily tiny.'94 

Using Liquid Sodium Safely 

During the late l960s and early l970s, liquid sodium was used as a heat-exchange 

fluid in certain nuclear power reactors. The application took advantage of the favorable 

thermodynamic and nuclear properties possessed by the liquid metal. However, sodium 

was inherently dangerous because of its extreme chemical reactivity. Some thought that 

the most corrosive properties of sodium arose from the presence of trace quantities of 

carbon or oxygen. 

Detecting carbon and oxygen impurities in sodium and quantifying their amounts 

was not an easy problem, but it was one that George J. Lutz and Larry W. Masters 

could do. They used a combination of photon-activation analysis and rapid chemistry 

193 R. Alvarez, P. J. Paulsen, and D. E. Kelleher, "Simultaneous determination of trace elements in platinum 

by isotope dilution and spark source mass spectrometry," Anal. Chern. 41, No. 7, 955-958 (1969). See also 

P. J. Paulsen, R. Alvarez, and D. E. Kelleher, "Determination of trace elements in zinc by isotope dilution 

spark source mass spectrometry," Spectrochim. Ada 24B, 535-544 (1969). 

W. Snelleman, 0. Menis, 1. C. Rains, K. W. Yee, and H. D. Cook, "Flame emission spectroscopy with 

repetitive optical scanning in the derivative mode," Anal. Chein. 42, No. 3, 394-398 (1970). 

257 
to accomplish the job. They irradiated sodium samples with bremsstrahlung from the 

NBS electron linear accelerator, converting 160, the common isotope of oxygen, to 

'SO; similarly, 2C, the common isotope of carbon, was converted to "C. Rapid 

chemical separations were needed because the two light isotopes had half-lives of 

2 mm and 20 mm, respectively. 

For oxygen, Lutz found yields of about 50 % and a detection limit of about 

2 ppm.195 Lutz and Masters, using similar methods, could detect carbon as an impurity 

at levels below 1 ppm.196 

Research on Reactive Molecules 

In all probability, the parent of excitation chemistry at the Bureau was a 1954 

discovery by Herbert P. Broida and John R. Pellam of strange glows and bright flashes 

from a dewar wall held at 4.2 K. Curious about the possibility of creating energetic new fuels for rocketry, they had diverted gases such as nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen 

through an electrical discharge, thus creating molecular fragments with unpaired 

electrons—free radicals. 197 It seemed possible that the highly energetic fragments could 

be stored at low temperatures for later use. In 1956, the Department of Defense initiated a broad program of free-radicals 

research at NBS. It helped to support the work of more than 30 scientists, including 

Broida—head of the Bureau effort, Arnold M. Bass—his deputy and frequent 

collaborator, and many visitors from industry and academia. Among NBS employees 

associated with the program were James R. McNesby, Milton D. Scheer, Ralph Klein, 

Louis J. Schoen, Jerome Kruger, and Robert W. Zwanzig. 

For three years, the group engaged in free-ranging studies of energetic materials and 

reactions. Although no "superfuel" for rockets materialized as a result of the program, 

nearly 100 scientific papers documented advances in materials and techniques brought 

forth during its existence. 

The Free Radicals program was formally discontinued in July 1959 and its remaining staff members were integrated into a new Physical Chemistry Division in 1960, 

under the leadership of Merrill B. Wallenstein. 

After the formal demise of the Free Radicals program, two Bureau scientists who 

continued studies of the chemistry of excited molecules were Doiphus E. Milligan and 

Marilyn E. Jacox. The two had met and collaborated on free-radicals research at the 

Mellon Institute of Industrial Research in Pittsburgh in 1958. Separately and more or less coincidentally, both joined the NBS staff. 

195 0. J. Lutz, "Determination of oxygen in sodium by photon activation analysis," Anal. Chem. 42, No. 4, 

53 1-532 (1970). 

0. J. Lutz and L. W. Masters, "Determination of carbon in high purity metals by photon activation analysis," Anal. Chern. 42, No. 8, (1970). 97 H. P. Broida and J. R. Pellam, "Phosphorescence of Atoms and Molecules of Solid Nitrogen at 4.2 K," 

Phys. Rev. 95, 845-84.6 (1954). 

258 
Milligan had learned of matrix-isolation spectroscopy as a student of George 

Pimentel at the University of California at Berkeley. Much of this work involved 

holding marginally stable, metastable, or unstable chemical species in a low-temperature matrix to stop the chemical reactions that ordinarily would prevent their 

observation.198 

Jacox joined the Bureau staff in November 1962. When Milligan joined NBS in 

1963, they renewed their collaboration on free radicals made from various small 

molecules, eventually using a Beckman 1R9 spectrometert99 to study the infrared 

spectra of a large variety of substances. Among these were: CF2, CN2, HNC, HCO, 

FCO, CF3, CICO, NCN, CH3, SiF3, SiCl2, and SiCl3.20° 

Vacuum-ultraviolet photolysis techniques used in the Photochemistry Section (see 

Ch. 4) made possible the study of the last four species in the list given in the previous 

paragraph. The same techniques permitted the study of molecular cations and anions. 

The first of these was C2-, 201 which was also the first molecular anion to yield a gas-phase electronic spectrum. Another important anion identified in this program was 

O;.202 

Jacox and Milligan also learned to make and identify other anions and cations 

produced by their matrix-isolation techniques. 

In 1966, Milligan was awarded the prestigious Arturo Miolati Prize from the 

University of Padua, Italy. In 1970, Milligan and Jacox jointly received the Department 

of Commerce Gold Medal award for their work. In 1973, Jacox received the Federal 

Women's Award. In the same year, she and Milligan shared the NBS Stratton award 

for "their determination of the spectroscopic properties of charged radical ions in inert 

matrices at low temperatures, and the elucidation of their structures and chemical 

reactivities." 

Radiation sources in the vacuum-ultraviolet range were the specialty of other groups 

that also were interested in chemically reactive species. One group was led by Pierre 

Ausloos. Hideo Okabe and James McNesby had similar interests. Their work is 

described in some detail in Ch. 4. 

Oral History, Marilyn Jacox, II February, 1998. 

According to Jacox (Oral History, February II, 1998) a great advantage of this instrument was that its 

range extended from 4000 to 400 200 D. E. Milligan and M. E. Jacox, "Infrared and ultraviolet spectroscopic studies of a number of small free 

radicals and molecular ions in a matrix environment," Advances in High Temperature Chemistry 4 (New 

York: Academic Press, 1971) Chapter I, pp. 1-24. See also D. E. Milligan and M. E. Jacox, "Infrared and 

ultraviolet spectroscopic studies of free radicals and molecular ions isolated in inert solid matrices," Mo!ecular Spectroscopy; Modem Research (New York: Academic Press, 1972) pp. 259-286. 201 D. E. Milligan and M. E. Jacox, "Studies of the photoproduction of electrons in inert solid matrices. The 

electronic spectrum of the species Ci," J. Chem. Phys. 51, No. 5, 1952-1955 (1969). 202 M. E. Jacox and D. E. Milligan, "Vibrational and electronic spectra of the anion isolated in an argon 

matrix," J. Mo!. Spectrosc. 43, No. 1, 148-167 (1972). 

259 
During the same period, Henry M. Rosenstock, Vernon H. Dibeler, James A. 

Walker, and Kenneth E. McCulloh utilized photoionization and mass analysis to derive 

dissociation energies of excited species.203 

Olefin Reactions at Low Temperatures 

An olefin—also called an alkene—is an unsaturated hydrocarbon, i.e., it has one 

or more doubly-bonded carbon atom pairs. The simplest examples of this type of 

molecule are ethylene, whose formula can be written semi-graphically as H2C = CH2; propene, H3C—CH = CH2; l-butene, H3C—CH2-CH = CH2; 2-butene, 

H3C—CH — CH—CH3; and 1 ,3-butadiene, H2C = CH—CH = CH2. The olefins became 

interesting to chemists before World War II as the nature of free radicals became 

known.204 It was hoped that, by studying the reactions of olefins, insight could be 

gathered into the mechanisms of chemical reactions and into the kinetic properties of 

the reactions. 

203 V. H. Dibeler, J. A. Walker, K. E. McCulloh. and Henry M. Rosenstock, "Effect of hot bands on the 

ionization threshold of some diatomic halogen molecules," Intern. J. Mass Spectrom. Ion Phys. 7. 209-219 

(1971). See also V. H. Dibeler, J. A. Walker, and K. E. McCulloh, "Dissociation energy of fluorine." Letter 

to the Editor, J. Chem. Phys. 50, No. 10. 4592-4593 (1969). 204 See, for example, Walter J. Moore, Jr. and Hugh S. Taylor, "The mercury photosensitized hydrogenation 

of ethylene, propylene, and n-butylene," J. Chem. Phys. 8, 504 (1940). 

260 

Marilyn Jacox adjusted the high-vacuum gas-handling system used in matrix isolation 

studies of reactive molecules. 
In March 1966, Dolphus Milligan was presented the Arturo Miolati award by the Italian Ambassador to the 

United States at the Italian Embassy in Washington, while his children, his wife (left), Marilyn Jacox 

(second adult from left), Allen Astin (center), and others looked on. 

Ralph Klein, Milton D. Scheer, and Richard D. Kelley of the Physical Chemistry 

Division, as part of the Bureau's Free Radical Program, began study of the hydrogenation of olefins at low temperatures during the early 1 960s.205 The use of low temperatures was commenced in order to slow or eliminate some of the many reactions which 

could so complicate the experiments as to defy analysis. Another tool used by Klein, 

Scheer and Kelley was a matrix of inert molecules (typically propane) to dilute the 

active olefin radicals. 

205 Ralph Klein and Milton D. Scheer, "Matrix effects in the gaseous hydrogen atom—olefin diffusion 

model," J. Phys. Chem. 66, 2677 (1962). See also R. Klein, M. D. Scheer, and R. D. Kelley, 

"Disproportionation-combination reactions of alkyl radicals and hydrogen atoms at low temperatures," J. 

Phys. Chem. 68, 598 (1964). 

261 
By 1970 the group began to understand some of the elementary reaction steps that 

occurred in this type of system and experimented with atomic oxygen and with 

deuterium as alternative reactants.206 By analyzing the products that resulted from the 

various reactions, they could speculate on the reactive pathways followed by the olefin 

radicals. Mainly, these took the form of disproportionation reactions—such as the 

formation of normal butane and 2-butene from the hydrogenation of l-butene----or of 

dimerization. Differences arising from the use of atomic deuterium as a reactant 

instead of atomic hydrogen occasionally were spectacular—changes in product concentrations by factors of as much as three, indicating the existence of a tunneling mode in 

these reactions. The oxygenation reactions showed direct relevance to air-pollution 

problems, such as the production of aldehydes and ketones, well-known as eye irritants 

in smog. 

During this time period, Klein also studied chemisorption and decomposition of 

reactive species on metals. Ruthenium was a favorite target, field emission microscopy a favorite tool. Over the next decade, Klein teamed with John T. Yates, Jr., Allan J. 

Melmed, James W. Little, Theodore Madey,,and Arnold Shih, a collaborator from the 

U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, to elucidate the activity of such molecules as nitric 

oxide. The scientists obtained information on physisorption vs chemisorption, chemical 

binding states, and work functions.207 

Awards For Prominent Chemists 

Two prominent Bureau chemists were recognized by outside organizations for the 

excellence of their work during Branscomb's tenure as director. 

Robert S. Tipson, a member of the NBS staff since 1957, received the 1971 Hudson 

Award from the American Chemical Society's Division of Carbohydrate Chemistry. 

Tipson, a research chemist in the Analytical Chemistry Division, was recognized 

internationally for his studies in carbohydrate chemistry. 

Then 65 years of age, the English-born Tipson was in the midst of collaborations 

with colleagues Barbara F. West, Robert F. Brady, Jr., and Alex Cohen on the 

reactions of sulfonic esters, on acid hydrolysis of acetals, on synthesis of pentuloses, 

and on the preparation of D-psicose.206 

206 R. Klein and M. D. Scheer, "Reaction of O(3P) with 2-methyl-2-pentene at low temperatures and its 

implication for the transition state," J. Phys. Chern. 73, 1598 (1969). See also R. Klein and M. D. Scheer, 

"Addition of oxygen atoms to olefins at low temperatures. IV. Rearrangements." J. Phys. Chern. 74, 613 

(1970). For a brief summary of this work, see the NBS Technical News Bulletin 54, No. 6, 119-120, June 

1970. 207 See, for example, Ralph Klein and Arnold Shih, "Chemisorption and decomposition of nitric oxide on ruthenium," Surface Science 69, pp. 403-427 (1977). 206 R. S. Tipson and A. Cohen, "Reaction of some sulfonic esters of D-mannitol with methoxide: synthesis 

of 2,3:4,5-dianhydro-D-iditol," Carbohydrate Res. 7, 232-243 (1968). See also R. S. Tipson, B. F. West, and 

R. F. Brady, Jr., "Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of isopropylidene acetals of some 2-pentuloses and 

2-hexuloses," Carbohydrate Res. 10, 181-183 (1969). See also R. S. Tipson and R. F. Brady, Jr., "Synthesis 

of the two D-2-pentuloses. New derivatives of D-erythro-pentulose," Carbohydrate Res. 10, 549-563 (1969). 

See also R. S. Tipson, R. F. Brady, Jr., and B. F. West, "Cyclic acetals of ketoses, Part IV. Re-investigation 

of the oxidation of with methyl sulfoxide-acetic anhydride," 

Carbohydrate Res. 16, 383-393 (1971). 

262 
John K. Taylor, a member of the Analytical Chemistry Division, continued to 

receive the plaudits of his professional peers. He was presented the 1972 Professional 

Service Award of Alpha Chi Sigma for his long, continuous service to chemistry. 

Taylor was a Washington, DC, native who had joined NBS as a laboratory assistant 

upon graduation from high school in 1929. While a Bureau employee, Taylor earned a B.S. degree in chemistry from George Washington University and M.S. and Ph.D. 

degrees in chemistry from the University of Maryland. In the meantime, he undertook 

ever more ambitious and meaningful laboratory investigations in the fields of analytical 

and electrochemistry. He wrote more than 200 scientific articles and wrote or edited 

seven books on chemistry or quality assurance—a field of work that felt his impact 

during his later years. 

By the time he retired in 1986, Taylor's excellent work and longevity had been 

recognized by President Ronald Reagan. Taylor received many awards. Among them were the DC Education Association Award in 1965; the Joint Board of Science 

Education Award in 1966; the Department of Commerce Gold Medal in 1967: the 

Honor Scroll of the American Institute of Chemists in 1968; and the Service Award of 

the Chemical Society of Washington in 1969. 

263 

Ralph Klein (seated) and Arnold Shih made observations on the desorption and decomposition of nitric oxide on a ruthenium surface. 
Cryogenic Liquids, Then and Now 

We noted in Chapter 1 that the Cryogenics Laboratory at NBS/Boulder came into 

being to supply liquid hydrogen and liquid deuterium for testing and production of 

thermonuclear weapons. With the successful tests of the thermonuclear-explosion 

concept in 1951 and 1952, the value of the Cryogenics Laboratory was clear. In 1953, 

the Department of Commerce Gold Medal award for "The design, construction, and 

operation of large and unique hydrogen and nitrogen liquefiers" was given jointly to 

Paul G. Baird, Bascom W. Birmingham, Ferdinand G. Brickwedde, Dudley B. Chelton, 

George A. Freeman, William F. Goddard, Victor J. Johnson, Richard Kropschot, 

Robert L. Powell, Russell B. Scott, and Peter C. Van der Arend. 

The special-weapons work did not spell the end of the laboratory's work with large 

quantities of liquid cryogens, however—far from it. During the 1950s the staff also 

was asked to assist scientists at the University of California Radiation Laboratory 

(UCRL) in the design and construction of an unusually large hydrogen bubble chamber 

for use in tracking sub-atomic particles emanating from experiments in the accelerators 

there. In the process, the Boulder group—Bascom W. Birmingham, Dudley B. Chelton, 

and Douglas B. Mann—spent considerable time in teaching the UC scientists how to 

handle the explosive liquid. 

The effort spent at UCRL paid off in a big way during the winter of 1968—1969, 

when Luis W. Alvarez was awarded the 1968 Nobel Prize in physics in recognition of 

his discoveries in the field of elementary particles. His work depended heavily upon 

the use of the hydrogen bubble chamber that Birmingham, Chelton, and Mann had 

helped bring to reality. Alvarez gave full credit to the Bureau scientists for their 

contributions to his work. 

One of the outstanding problems in the cryogenics industry was that of accurately 

metering the transfer of cryogenic liquids. Cryogens constituted a valuable component 

of U.S. industrial production—about $500 million in 1970, expected to triple by 1975. 

So it was with great enthusiasm that the Compressed Gas Association and officials 

of the California Weights and Measures Department teamed with members of the 

Boulder Cryogenic Engineering Division to establish a flowmetering and flow research 

facility at the Boulder laboratory of NBS. 

It might have seemed a simple problem to meter the flow of, say, liquid nitrogen. 

After all, one could readily ascertain the amount of gasoline pumped into an automobile tank to two decimal places, using pumps certified by the weights and measures 

officials of any of the United States. However, the extreme cold generated in the 

metering equipment and the significant changes in density of the cryogens with 

substantial changes in temperature or pressure interfered considerably with the 

accuracy of cryogen deliveries. 

The state of California sought in 1967 to create a code for cryogenic flowmetering, 

with an accuracy goal no worse than ±3 %. NBS efforts to participate in the technical 

aspects of the project foundered on the shoals of insufficient funding at that time, 

but the vocal support of the industry gradually raised the priority of the task for the 

Bureau. Careful plans were prepared for the eventual creation of an NBS cryogenic 

flowmetering facility. Douglas B. Mann was placed in charge of the project. 

264 
James Brennan assembled a liquid nitrogen heat exchanger at the NBS cryogenic flowmetering and flow 

research facility in Boulder. Colorado. 

In 1970 the facility completed its first year of operation.209 A closed flow loop 

permitted the continuous operation of under test, to monitor both accuracy 

and wear. The system could be operated isothermally at any temperature from 63 K to 

115 K, at any pressure from 7 kPa to 2000 kPa, and at flow rates from 76 L/min to 

760 Llmin. 

One of the unique features of the loop was a flow diverter valve. It proved necessary 

for the NBS staff to design and manufacture a suitable valve, since none available 

commercially could promise the leak-proof service needed to ensure accuracy. Another 

component unique to the project was a weigh tank used to monitor the amount of 

cryogen delivered within a given time through the test meter. 

As the facility began its service, Mann contemplated needed improvements, including the ability to directly measure quantities of liquid oxygen and the development 

of a transfer standard for use in the field. But the basic capability, a cryogenic flowmetering facility, was a reality. 

"Cryogenic fiowmetering at NBS," NBS Technical News Bulletin 54, No. 8, pp. 167-169, August 1970. 

265 
Protecting the Consumer 

Among the many consumer-oriented programs at NBS, two of the most visible ones were in law enforcement and vehicle safety. We note in this section the progress in 

each of these during the Branscomb years. 

Standards For Law Enforcement 

In 1967, the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of 

Justice took notice of the growing trend towards lawlessness and disorder on American 

streets in a report entitled The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society. The Commission 

urged that a Federal agency be assigned to "coordinate the establishment of standards 

for equipment to be used by criminal-justice agencies, and to provide those agencies 

with technical assistance." Perhaps remembering the work of Wilmer Souder, an NBS 

physicist who long ago had served as an expert analyst of ransom notes, inks, bullet 

fragments, and other forensic evidence, the writers named the Bureau as a suitable 

place for the job. Their faith was justified. 

On June 19, 1968, the 90" Congress passed the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe 

Streets Act of 1968 (Public Law 90-351). Its preamble stated: 

Congress finds that the high incidence of crime in the United States threatens 

the peace, security, and general welfare of the Nation and its citizens. To 

prevent crime and to ensure the greater safety of the people, law enforcement 

efforts must be better coordinated, intensified, and made more effective at all 

levels of government. 

The text of the Act made clear its aim to strengthen state and local law-enforcement 

capabilities. This goal would be accomplished by a team centered in the Department 

of Justice, where a Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) would be 

created. As part of the LEAA, there would be a National Institute for Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice (NILECJ); its job would be to activate a program of 

research and development to give state and local police the tools they needed to fight 

crime more effectively. 

During its first year of existence, NILECJ—at the suggestion of the Law Enforcement Commission—turned to NBS for help. Once ground rules for funding, personnel, 

and relationships were worked out, a memorandum of understanding was signed by 

the two organizations. Irving Slott, Acting Director of the LEAA, transferred $400,000 

to the Bureau to fund a new entity for NBS, the Law Enforcement Standards 

20 

Paul J. Brown, experienced in the creation of interdepartmental entities,2" was 

named the first Director of LESL. Within a year, Richard B. Morrison succeeded him 

at that position. 

210 Letter from Irving Slott to Lewis Branscomb, December 22, 1970; RHA; Director's Office; Box 390; 

Folder January 1-31, 1971. 211 Brown had earlier helped organize the Office of Vehicle Systems Research to work with the Department 

of Transportation. 

266 
LESL quickly found flaws in the way that state and local police armed and equipped 

themselves. In the absence of national standards for equipment, police groups tended 

to copy equipment specifications from other departments or to make use of sales 

literature in their purchases. Accordingly, LESL assigned its staff to develop standards 

programs in several areas: 

• Vehicle standards, led by Richard Morrison, to consider type of terrain, climate, 

type of use, steering, brakes, suspension, tires, engines, equipment-carrying 

capability, stability, durability, safety, and comfort. 

• Communications equipment, led by Marshall J. Treado, to consider portable 

radios and power supplies, voice scramblers, digital systems, and automatic 

vehicle locators. 

• Security systems, led by Marshall Isler, to consider false-alarm rates (estimated 

by some departments to be as high as 90 %), alarm sensors (sound, vibration, 

heat, motion), surveillance, locks, protective room equipment, safes, and nightvision devices. 

• Concealed-object detectors, led by Robert Mills, to consider detection methods 

for metallic weapons, narcotics, and explosives. 

• Protective equipment and clothing, led by Jacob J. Diamond, to consider guarding against injury from bullets, bombs, fire, thrown missiles, tear gas, carbon 

monoxide, vehicles, rain, and snow. Items specific to certain conditions were 

investigated, including body armor, helmets, face shields, breathing masks, 

ear-muffs, seat belts, and apparel to resist damage from radiation, heat, flame, 

chemicals, rain, and cold, while permitting needed range of motion. 

• Emergency equipment, led by Avery T. Horton, to consider first aid equipment, 

emergency procedures, and the standardization of emergency-identifying flashing 

lights. 

• Police weapons, led by Jacob Diamond, with virtually all preliminary developments—for both lethal and non-lethal weapons—to be performed by outside 

contractors. 

• Building systems, led by Avery T. Horton, to consider the design and evaluation 

of all law-enforcement buildings, construction materials, furnishings, and other 

building equipment and supplies.212 

The new-born LESL did not build its own laboratory at the Bureau, but purchased 

research and development from existing NBS groups or from outside contractors. Thus 

the LESL staff became "matrix"-type program managers. NBS divisions involved in 

the work included electromagnetics, analytic chemistry, applied radiation, mechanics, 

heat, building research, technical analysis, measurement engineering, and electronic 

technology. 

212 "NBS Works with Justice Department on Modern Law Enforcement Standards," NBS Technical News Bulletin 

56, June 1972, PP. 139-141, 149. 267 

To augment the meager store of data on human response to automobile crashes, the 

Bureau scientists initiated a "crash" program with colleagues operating the Daisy 

Decelerator at Holloman Air Force Base. The testing included 32 trials in which 

human subjects participated in simulated crash decelerations while sitting in production-model auto seats and wearing restraints of various types. By repeating the tests 

with dummies, they were able to relate the more extensive data obtained with the use 

of dummies to actual human responses. 

A critical part of automobile-crash safety was the effectiveness of seat belts. 

Personnel of the OVSR used a variety of test equipment to evaluate the breaking 

strength of manufacturer-installed belts, as well as their resistance to abrasive wear 

in use. 

269 

Dorian Sanders of the NBS Office of Vehicle Systems Research positioned seatbelt webbing in a tensile test machine. The resulting data was 

used to update Federal automotive standards in the early 1970s. 
Pushing on the Brakes 

The then-current Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard for braking force by a 

driver called for the exertion of 200 pounds on the automobile brake pedal. Curious 

about the difference in strength between men and women, Richard W. Radlinski and 

James I. Price tested 105 women, using actual automobiles as the test stations. They 

found that fewer than half of the women could actually meet the force standard, clearly 

demonstrating a need for re-evaluation of the Federal code.214 

Richard Radlinski of the NBS Office of Vehicle Systems Research checked the leads to a temperature sensor placed on automobile disc brakes. 

With Robert J. Forthofer and Jack L. Harvey, Radlinski evaluated the effect of water 

on the performance of brake fluids.215 They found that most brake systems took on road water through connecting hoses, causing a reduction in the temperature at which 

vapor lock took place and increasing the fluid density at temperatures near the water 

freezing point. They obtained data on water-contaminated brake fluids under various 

conditions. 

Radlinski and J. I. Price. "The brake pedal force capability of adult females," NBS Tech. Note 557, 

25 pp.. October 1970. See also 'Panic stops: are women strong enough?" NBS Technical News Bulletin, 

January 1971, pp. 15-16. 215 R. W. Radlinski, R. J. and J. L. Harvey, "Operating performance of motor vehicle braking 

systems as affected by fluid water content," Proc. Society of Automotive Engineering Conf. pp. 1-11, Jan. 

11-15, 1971. 

270 
John Preston adjusted weights on the NBS dual-end inertia dynamometer, 

used to study automotive braking systems in the laboratory. The machine 

could be set to simulate vehicles weighing from 900 to 14,000 pounds. Data 

obtained with the device compared well with actual road-test results. 

Slippery when Wet! 

Disturbed by reports of numerous wet-weather accidents occurring along the interstate highway closest to NBS,216 the Office of Vehicle Systems Research developed a test for pavement skid resistance. Under the direction of F. Cecil Brenner, chief of the 

OVSR tire systems section, OVSR staff members fitted a truck to tow a test rig that 

was mounted on a two-wheeled trailer. Tires with known braking properties could be 

individually locked as the rig was driven along the Interstate" while water was 

sprayed on the roadway. Recording equipment provided data on the frictional force 

exerted on the axle of the skidding wheel. 

216 More than 100 wet-weather crashes took place on Interstate 70S (later designated 1-270) during 1968-69. 

Details of the Bureau skid program are given in "Warning—Slippery when Wet." NBS Standard, Vol XV, 

No. I, January 1970, pp. 1, 4. 

271 
The road tests showed that the interstate road surface became unsafe in wet weather. 

At seven of eight test locations, the wet-highway skid resistance was below the norm 

even for low-speed, rural roads; at one location, the wet surface reacted as if it had 

been coated with ice! 

Brcnner ascribed the dangerous condition to the tendency of the surface—initially 

prepared froni rough aggregates—to become smoother with use because of the 

effect of traffic. In addition to its official reports on the testing, OVSR 

provided Bureau employees with appropriate hints to avoid commuting accidents in 

wet weather. 

A Grading System for Tires 

Systematic research on tire wear was performed by OVSR staff in order to develop a uniform and reliable grading guide. F. Cecil Brenner and Akira Kondo participated in 

testing tires on two road courses built in Texas. Results were obtained for some 18 

different brands of commercially available passenger-car tires.217 

Tire endurance and heat sensitivity were tested on the "NBS Wheel," a large wheel 

1/300 of a mile in circumference. Dallas Rhodes positioned weights to simulate the 

weight of a vehicle. A similar wheel was used at the Bureau as early as 1920. 

F. C. Brenner and A. Kondo, "Research for a uniform quality grading system for tires. IV. Tread wear," 

Rubber Chem. Technol. 44. No. 1, pp. 106-121, March 1971. 

272 
In a separate series of tests, Brenner and Kondo compared the mileage expectancy 

for front-wheel-drive automobiles and those using rear-wheel drive. They found that 

tires wore twice as fast if they were on the front wheels of a front-wheel-drive car as they did on the rear wheels of the same vehicle, whereas tire wear was nearly the same on both axles of rear-wheel drives. However, frequent rotation of the tires on the 

front-wheel-drive vehicles made them last nearly as long as tires on rear-wheel-drive 

cars.2 S Teaching Computers to Serve 

The first fully operational, automatic, electronic computer in the United States was 

the Standards Electronic Automatic Computer (SEAC), built at NBS.29 The useful life 

of SEAC began in May 1950 and extended into 1964, despite its designation as an "interim" development. Because of this early experience, NBS staff members who 

worked on the SEAC were asked by the Bureau of the Census, the U.S. Army, and the 

U.S. Air Force to monitor progress on a fully automatic computer—the UNIVAC 

machine.220 

As a result of assignments given to NBS by the Brooks Act (Public Law 89-306, 

1965), the Bureau provided a broad range of services on the use of computers—from 

guidance on hardware and software standards to performing research involving 

computers in all sorts of projects.22' 

The work was focused in the Center for Computer Science and Technology. As we noted earlier, Director Branscomb placed Ruth M. Davis in charge of the CCST 

program and its staff of about 150 people. The program, already strong, continued its 

tradition of service under Davis until her departure from the Bureau in 1977. 

Managing the UNIVAC 1108 

The NBS main-frame computer, a UNIVAC 1108/418, provided workhorse ser- vice—three shifts of operators a day—to Bureau employees and to outsiders who were connected to it by telephone hookups. A typical remote-site customer, the 

Economic Development Administration, utilized the UNIVAC to develop a data base 

and data-handling procedures for several years before its own computer system became 

available. 

2111 A. Kondo and F. C. Brenner, "Research for a uniform quality grading system for tires. VI. Comparison of 

the effect of front and rear wheel drive vehicles on projected tread wear of a tire," Rubber Che,n. Technol. 

No. 4. pp. 960-961, September 1971. 219 Russell A. Kirsch kindly furnished the references for this paragraph. 

221) "Computer development (SEAC and DYSEAC) at the National Bureau of Standards," NBS Circular 55/, 

1955. 22! A useful discussion of the work of the Center for Computer Sciences and Technology during this period 

appears in "NBS Technical Highlights, 1970," NBS Special Publication 340, February 1971. pp. 174-185. 

273 
An Office of Computer Information was set up within the Center to provide a magnetic-tape-based information-retrieval service, along with a database involving 

NBS reports, useful computer programs, and guidelines for Automatic Data Processing 

systems. 

FIPS Publications 

Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) were created for the benefit of the 

user community. These standards provided official information on computer use. They were published by the Bureau as a non-periodical series. The titles of the first ten FIPS 

publications give an idea of the topics treated by the standards: 

• FIPS PUB 0: General Description of the Federal Information Processing 

Standards Register; 

• FIPS PUB I: Code for Information Exchange. 

• FIPS PUB 2: Perforated Tape Code for Information Exchange. 

• FIPS PUB 3: Recorded Magnetic Tape for Information Exchange. 

• FIPS PUB 4: Calendar Date. 

• FIPS PUB 5: States of the United States. 

• FIPS PUB 6: Counties of the States of the United States. 

• FIPS PUB 7: Implementation of the Code for Information Interchange and 

Related Media Standards. 

• FIPS PUB 8: Metropolitan Statistical Areas. 

• FIPS PUB 9: Congressional Districts of the United States. 

As of early 1971, another half-dozen standards—on bit sequencing, character 

structure, and other details of computing practice—were awaiting approval at the 

Office of Management and Budget. Most of these were written by Harry S. White, Jr. 

Computer Hardware and Software 

A new Standard Reference Material, SRM 3200, provided magnetic tape for use in 

evaluating the performance of magnetic tape produced by various industrial organizations. The standard was developed by Sidney B. Geller of the CCST along with a tape-evaluation system that could be used in calibration.222 An updated version of the 

system was presented by NBS to the Magnetic Surfaces Laboratory of the General 

Services Administration to be used in governmental acceptance testing. 

222 S. B. Getter, "Calibration of NBS secondary standard magnetic tape (computer amplitude reference) SRM 

3200 using the reference tape amplitude measurement 'Process A' Model 11," NBS Special Publication 260- 

29, 57 pp., June 1971. 

274 
Consultations 

Several CCST staff members were involved essentially full-time in providing consulting services to NBS and to other government agencies. Some of the assistance 

took the form of responses to telephoned requests for help; much of it, however, 

involved long-range projects intended to develop specialized computer systems. 

Automation of data acquisition in Bureau scientific laboratories was a prime need, both 

to save valuable time for the scientists and their assistants and to make possible the 

acquisition of data beyond the capability of manual dexterity. As smaller, more powerful individual computers became available to Bureau staff members, automatic data 

acquisition became both spectacular in its sophistication and routine in its ubiquity. 

An example of the marriage of computers to laboratory equipment was given in 

1969 by Philip G. Stein of the Information Processing Division. Collaborating with 

Lewis Lipkin and Howard Shapiro, both staff members of the National Institutes of 

Health, Stein linked an optical microscope with an image-plane scanner, a motordriven stage and a general-purpose computer. Stein "taught" the computer to move the 

microscope stage in such a way as to scan an image in the x-y plane, then repetitively 

at successive values in the vertical, or z, direction. This process produced a threedimensional image of the subject material, allowing a whole variety of computercontrolled operations.223 

Phillip Stein of the NBS Center for Computer Science and Technology viewed a slide 

through a computer-controlled microscope that he developed in collaboration with the 

National Institutes of Health in 1969. 

223 P. 0. Stein. L. E. Lipkin, and H. M. Shapiro, "Spectre II: General-purpose microscope input for a com- puter." Science 166, pp. 328-333 (1969). 

275 
In exploratory efforts to expand the capabilities of computers in the laboratory, the 

CCST initiated measurements of the performance of remote-access systems, first in a time-sharing mode with a large central unit, then with smaller, personal systems. 

Center employees also designed data-acquisition and filing systems, interactive 

programs, and graphics displays for the use of computer-illiterate personnel. 

Superconductivity, a Versatile Property 

Superconductivity, a state of matter that was unknown at the time of the Bureau's 

founding (the property was discovered in the laboratory of H. Kamerlingh Onnes in 

Leiden, The Netherlands, in 1911), began to enter into the language of NBS standards 

and instrumentation during this period. A few examples illustrate the usefulness of this 

phenomenon in Bureau projects. 

Superconductors, Josephson Junctions, and the Volt Standard 

Two-layer junctions formed of two superconducting films separated by a thin insulating layer behave according to equations put forward by Brian Josephson in 1962.224 

Shortly after Josephson's predictions, "Josephson effects" were found experimentally; 

in the course of studying the sometimes complicated current-voltage characteristics of 

Josephson junctions, properties of distinct utility to NBS goals appeared.225 

One of the properties of Josephson junctions that interested the Bureau's Electricity 

Division was their ability to provide voltage references that appeared to be extremely 

stable. In 1967, Barry N. Taylor, then at the RCA Laboratories, and his colleagues 

W. H. Parker, D. N. Langenberg, and A. Denenstein of the University of Pennsylvania 

called attention to the limited accuracy of the chemical cell used to maintain the 

standard of electromagnetic force, and postulated a new voltage standard based upon 

the ac Josephson effect.226 A tendency of the cell voltage to change slowly with time 

made the maintenance of a standard of emf into a challenging task indeed—it required 

careful storage and handling and frequent intercomparisons among a group of cells. 

The authors tested the idea of a new voltage standard with Josephson junctions 

composed of crossed strips of tin, separated by a thin tin oxide layer; crossed strips of 

lead, separated by a thin lead oxide layer; combinations of lead and tin strips, again 

separated by oxide layers; and various types of "point contacts," similar in configuration to a pencil-point pressed against a solid block. All of the junctions obeyed one Josephson relation involving microwave radiation and voltage—the ratio of the 

microwave frequency to the voltage was always equal to the constant quantity 2e/h, 

where e is the elementary charge (the absolute value of the charge on the electron) 

224 B. Josephson, Phys Left. 1, 251 (1962). 225 See, for example, Vladimir Z. Kresin and Stuart A. Wolf, Fundamentals of Superconductivity, (New 

York: Plenum Press, 1990), Ch. 12. 22(' B. N. Taylor, W. H. Parker, D. N. Langenberg, and A. Denenstein, "On the use of the ac Josephson effect to maintain standards of electromotive force," Metrologia 3, No. 4, 89-98 (1967). 

276 
and h is Planck's constant. They found results that were consistent within the 4 ppm 

uncertainty limitation imposed by the reference voltage cells. Better accuracy was not 

possible at that time because of the uncertainty (about 30 ppm) with which the ratio 

eth was known. 

By 1970, Taylor was an NBS employee—Chief of the Absolute Electrical Measurements Section of the Bureau's Electricity Division. He was beginning a robust 

Bureau career in the study of precision measurement and fundamental constants. In 

the same year, Forest K. Harris, the former section chief, Howland A. Fowler, and 

P. Thomas Olsen unveiled a new type of potentiometer built especially to compare 

voltages obtained from standard chemical cells (about I V) with voltage signals 

generated by Josephson junctions (a few millivolts).227 The new instrument was capable of comparing dc voltage signals in the range 2 mV to 10 mV against standardcell voltages with uncertainties of only 0.1 

Comparatively ordinary superconducting tunnel junctions, prepared in a manner 

similar to Josephson junctions, were shown to provide reproducible voltage signals 

when maintained at a fixed temperature, although the magnitude of the voltage signals 

could not be calculated by the Josephson relations. Thomas F. Finnegan, a Bureau 

postdoctoral research associate, and A. Denenstein suggested that the inconveniently 

small voltages (about 2 Mv) generated by Josephson junctions could be overcome by 

the use of multiple, series-connected junctions.229 Their ideas were later improved at 

NBS by the use of multiple Josephson junctions. 

By the end of 1972, the uncertainty in values of 2 e/h, measured in terms of the 

laboratory unit of voltage at NBS, at the National Standards Laboratory in Australia, at 

the National Physical Laboratory in England, and at other national laboratories, reached a low of 0.1 ppm.23° 

Thermometry with Superconductors 

Random noise in electrical circuits, known as Johnson noise, arose because the 

electrons in the circuit were thermally excited in a random way. For this reason, many 

scientists used measurements of Johnson noise to determine temperature. In principle, 

the noise voltage depended directly upon the resistance of a circuit element and upon 

its temperature. Success in such experiments usually depended upon the expenditure of 

great effort to exclude from the measurements all sources of electrical noise of the 

non-Johnson variety; these were many and pervasive. 

227 F. K. Harris, H. A. Fowler, and P. T. Olsen, "Accurate Hamon-pair potentiometer for Josephson 

frequency-to-voltage measurements," Metrologia 6, No. 4, 134-142 (1970). 228 "Accurate measurements of Josephson junction voltage," NBS Tech. News Bull., January 197 I, p. 3. 229 T. F. Finnegan and A. Denenstein, "A new transfer and maintenance voltage standard using superconducting tunnel junctions," Metrologia 7, No. 4, p. 167 (1971). 230 K. Harvey, J. C. Macfarlane, and R. B. Frenkel, "Monitoring the NSL standard of cmf using the ac Josephson effect," Metrologia 8, No. 3, 114-124 (1972). See also J. C. Gallop and B. W. Petley, "A new 

NPL determination of 2e/h," Metrologia 8, 129-132 (1972). 

277 
It occurred to Robert A. Kamper of the NBS/Boulder Cryogenics Division that 

Josephson junctions might be employed as voltage-to-frequency converters to detect 

the Johnson noise in a resistor held at temperatures within a few thousandths of a kelvin of absolute zero.23' The determination of temperatures in that range was a chancy undertaking. Thermal equilibrium among the various parts of an experiment 

could not be guaranteed, and few indeed were thermometers that could be classified as reliable in that range. Thus Kamper's idea was welcomed in the special world of 

ultra-low-temperature thermometry. 

The Johnson noise voltage in a cold resistor could be made to appear as "jitter" in 

the voltage observed across the resistor when a particular current was passed through 

it. If a Josephson junction were to be connected across the resistor, reasoned Kamper, 

the voltage jitter could appear as a linewidth of the radiation emanating from the 

junction. Determinations of thermal-noise voltage could then be made in terms of the 

scatter of frequency observations, measurements capable of relatively high precision. 

Recruiting his Bureau colleagues James D. Siegwarth, Raymond Radebaugh, and 

James E. Zimmerman, Kamper formed a group that quickly demonstrated the 

usefulness of the idea. They assembled an experiment involving the use of a special 

refrigerator that could reach temperatures below 0.02 K, a Josephson junction formed 

by an adjustable niobium point contact and protected from non-Johnson noise by a superconducting niobium shield, a fl resistor, and a signal-amplifying circuit that 

was carefully shielded against non-Johnson noise. 

The group evaluated its success by comparing the temperature values determined 

from their Johnson noise thermometer against temperature values derived from 

measurements of the susceptibility of a paramagnetic salt. As the experiment was 

refined, the values came more nearly into agreement, eventually differing by 0.003 K 

at 0.020 K.232 It was a formidable achievement. 

The noise thermometry experiments of Kamper and his colleagues in Boulder were extended and perfected over a 20-year period by Robert J. Soulen, Jr. and his 

colleagues in Gaithersburg. This part of the story is summarized in Ch. 6. 

A quite different approach to the use of superconductors for thermometry was taken 

by James F. Schooley, Robert J. Soulen, Jr., and George Evans. Realizing the difficulty 

of performing temperature measurements below 10 K—a regime in which new 

cryogenic technology was increasing vastly the pace of research—these Heat Division 

staff members prepared wire samples of purified elemental superconductors to test the 

sharpness and reproducibility of the transitions between the normal and the superconductive states. They found that groups of carefully prepared and annealed lead, 

231 R. A. Kamper, "Millidegree noise thermometry," Symp. on the Physics of Superconducting Devices, 

Charlottesville, Virginia, 1967. 232 R. A. Kamper and J. E. Zimmerman, "Noise thermometry with the Josephson effect," J. App!. Phys. 42. 

pp. 132-136 January 1971. See also R. A. Kamper, J. D. Siegwarth, R. Radebaugh, and J. E. Zimmerman, 

"Observation of noise temperature in the millikelvin range," Proc. IEEE 59, 1368-1369 (1971). 

278 
indium, aluminum, zinc, and cadmium samples exhibited transitions that were both 

sharp and reproducible at the one-millikelvin level. Furthermore, the transitions were easy to detect using readily available mutual inductance measurement techniques.233 

Many low-temperature-laboratory scientists expressed interest in making use of the 

superconductors as reference points at temperatures of 7.2 K (Pb), 3.4 K (In), 1.2 K 

(Al), 0.85 K (Zn), and 0.5 K (Cd). The authors were thus encouraged to prepare 

devices that incorporated all of the elements tested.234 When the devices proved 

reliable, they were incorporated into the Standard Reference Materials program as SRM 767.235 Later on, the element niobium (superconducting transition temperature 

about 9.3 K) was added to the SRM 767 group. 

A second device of the same type was prepared by Soulen and R. Bruce Dove to 

provide reference points below 0.5 K.236 Incorporated into the devices—designated 

SRM 768—were the following materials: AuAI2, AuIn2, Be, Ir, and W. Their superconducting transitions occurred in the range 0.21 K to 0.015 K. 

During the lifetime of the program, more than 100 laboratories made use of the 

reference devices. An interim low-temperature scale, designated by the international 

Consultative Committee for Thermometry as the 1976 Provisional 0.5 K to 30 K 

Temperature Scale, incorporated the NBS SRM 767 devices to define five of the 

eleven scale reference temperatures. 

Fishing for Low-Level Electromagnetic Measurements with SQUID 

The idea of using Josephson junctions to detect and measure very small electrical 

currents and magnetic fields was an attractive one. Development of such new instruments was inevitable once it was discovered that the critical current in a 

superconducting ring closed by a Josephson junction behaved in a periodic way as a magnetic field threading the ring was increased or decreased. 

While he was still working at the Ford Motor Company Scientific Laboratory with 

A. H. Silver, James E. Zimmerman participated in experiments which demonstrated some of the features of such devices.237 With colleagues David Cohen of MIT and 

233 J. F. Schooley and R. J. Soulen, Jr., "Superconductive transitions suitable as thermometric fixed points," 

Proc. XII Conf. on Low Temperature Physics, Kyoto, Japan, September 3-10, 1970, E. Kanda, Editor, 

(Tokyo: Keigaku Publishing Co., 1971) pp. 833-834. See also "Superconductive transitions suitable for 

thermometric fixed points," NBS Technical News Bulletin, February 1971, pp. 39, 58. 234 J. F. Schooley and R. J. Soulen, Jr., "Thermometric fixed points using superconductivity," Advan. in 

Cryog. Eng. 17, 192-198 (1972). 235 J. F. Schooley, R. J. Soulen, Jr., and G. A. Evans, Jr., "Standard reference materials: preparation and use of superconductive fixed point devices, SRM 767," NBS Special Publication 260-44, 35 pp., December 1972. 236 R. J. Soulen, Jr. and R. B. Dove, "Standard reference materials: SRM 768: Temperature reference 

standard for use below 0.5 K," NBS Special Publication 260-62, 47 pp., April 1979. 237 A. H. Silver and J. E. Zimmerman, "Quantum states and transitions in weakly connected superconducting 

rings," Phys. Rev. 157, No. 2, pp. 3 17-341 (1967). 

279 
Edgar Edelsack of the Office of Naval Research, Zimmerman developed a magnetocardiographic instrument using these principles. 238 Recorded heartbeats (in one case, 

Zimmerman's own) were obtained in a shielded room by placing the subject's torso 

near the tip of the cryostat containing the detector circuitry. The recordings were clear 

and readily interpretable. The device portended a wholly new medical application for 

superconducting detectors. 239 By mid-1970, Zimmerman was constructing weakly connected superconducting rings 

and investigating their properties as an employee of the Bureau's Cryogenics Division 

in Boulder. In these experiments he participated with a group that included Robert 

Kamper, L.O. Mullen, Donald B. Sullivan, Nolan V. Frederick, and Michael B. 

Simmonds.24° 

Detecting High-Frequency Radiation with the Josephson Effect 

How high in frequency could a Josephson junction respond to radiation? This was more than an academic exercise for a group of scientists in the Time and Frequency 

Division in Boulder. The group included Donald G. McDonald, Kenneth M. Evenson, 

Joseph S. Wells and J. D. Cupp. They were interested in the possibility of measuring 

the output of lasers. They found that a point-contact Josephson junction would respond 

to radiation of frequency 2.5 THz, a factor of three higher than previously observed by 

direct irradiation. By using harmonic generation, the upper limit could be extended at 

least to 8 THz.241 

Building Research 

The Bureau's building research program addressed a diverse range of problems, 

many of them involving travel to the scenes of disasters. The following accounts 

provide a sampling of these projects. 

Buildings Versus Mother Nature 

On February 9, 1971, a medium-strength earthquake struck the San Fernando valley 

in California. At 6.6 on the Richter scale, it was strong, though nowhere near the 

record. Yet there was severe damage: 64 people killed, buildings and highway 

D. Cohen, E. A. Edelsack, and J. E. Zimmerman, App!. Phys. Len. 16, 278 (1970). 239 E. Zimmerman, "Recent developments in superconducting devices," J. App!. Phys. 42, No. I, pp. 30-37 

(1971). This paper was part of the 1970 App!ied Superconductivity Conference, June /5-17, 1970, Boulder; 

Richard H. Kropschot of NBS Boulder was Conference Chair. See also "Superconducting device measures 

heartbeat magnetically," NBS Technical News Bulletin, April 1971, pp. 100-lOt. The author is grateful to Harold Weinstock of the Air Force Office of Scientific Research for pointing out that SQUID arrays in 

helmet-shaped Dewar systems were (in 1999) used to monitor brain activity, both in cognitive studies and in 

pathology. 

241) See D. B. Sullivan, "Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices: An operational guide for rf-biased 

systems," NBS Tech. Note 629, 40 pp.. November 1972, and R. A. Kamper and D. B. Sullivan, 

"Developments in cryoelectronics," NBS Tech. Note 630, 68 pp., November 1972. 241 D. G. McDonald, K. M. Evenson, J. S. Wells and J. D. Cupp, "High-frequency limit of the Josephson 

effect," J. App!. Phys. 42, No. 1, pp. 179-181, January 1971. 

280 
structures destroyed, and property loss estimated at $500 million. The White House 

Office of Emergency Preparedness requested that NBS send a team to evaluate the 

damage from the point of view of improving building codes so as to minimize losses 

from future quakes. 

Four members of the Bureau's Building Research division, including Hai S. Lew, 

Edgar V. Leyendecker, and Robert D. Dikkers, reached the scene within 24 hours. 

They made photographic recordings of damaged homes, schools, hospitals, roadways, 

bridges, and other public facilities. 

In some cases, the team found that local buildings had been constructed according to 

outdated codes, with the result that they failed under stresses that newer codes would 

probably have accommodated. Other buildings, such as the Veterans Hospital, had 

been built prior to the existence of earthquake codes. Its collapse might have been 

prevented had there been a mechanism to utilize existing information to reinforce it in 

critical areas. The team noted that important public facilities such as hospitals—four 

in the area were damaged so severely that they could no longer function—could be 

given special strengthening to reduce the chance that they would fail in future quakes. 

Water, sewage, gas and electric lines could similarly receive special attention.242 

The Building Research Division was asked by the Environmental Sciences Services 

Administration to inspect an area near Lubbock, Texas, that was devastated by a 

tornado on May II, 1970. Twenty-six people were killed by the twister; 1500 were 

injured and 3500 became homeless in moments. Total property damage was estimated 

at $200 million. 

A Bureau team led by Norman F. Somes and including Robert D. Dikkers and 

Thomas H. Boone spent three days at the site. In June they issued a report on their 

findings. The highlights of the report243 included the following: 

• Most damage to the interiors of homes resulted from initial loss of the roof 

structures. 

• Much of the damage and personal injury resulted from flying glass, wood, and 

masonry. 

• Many mobile homes without over-the-top tiedowns were rolled, producing 

near-total destruction of their contents. 

• Structures that stiffened building walls generally helped to preserve them in spite 

of the wind. 

The Bureau work contributed to improved design of buildings against the forces 

exerted by the high winds accompanying tornadoes and hurricanes. 

242 H. S. Lew, E. V. Leyendecker, and R. D. Dikkers, "Engineering aspects of the 1971 San Fernando earthquake," NBS Building Science Series 40, 419 pp., December, 1971. 243 "Tornado Havoc Linked to Building Elements," NBS Standard, Vol XV, No. 7, July 1970, pp. 4-5. See 

also N. F. Somes, R. D. Dikkers, and T. H, Boone, "Lubbock tornado; a survey of building damage in an urban area," NBS Tech. Note 558, March 1971. 

281 
A new organization concerned with wind damage was created by the U.S.-Japan 

Cooperative Program in Natural Resources in 1969. Edward 0. Pfrang, chief of the 

BRD Structures Section, helped to form the U.S.-Japan Panel on Wind and Seismic 

Effects and served as the United States chair of the panel until 1984. Over the years, 

more than 1000 scientific papers were published as a result of panel meetings, data 

was shared on earthquakes, storm surges, and tsunamis in both countries, and cooperative testing was performed to advance the development of building-design 

criteria.248 

Applying Performance Standards 

The Bureau's efforts on behalf of Project Breakthrough took on a more substantial 

form early in 1971, as the first of 22 housing systems was delivered to the Building 

Research Division for testing and evaluation. 245 Project Breakthrough was a major 

Housing and Urban Development operation intended to create and demonstrate 

efficient methods using performance standards for the construction and erection of 

manufactured housing to alleviate a nationwide shortage of modestly priced homes. 

The first module, a 20 m by 4 m by 5 m prototype built by Levitt Technology, Inc. 

of Kalamazoo, Michigan, was shipped by rail to the NBS Gaithersburg site. Initial tests 

were designed to verify that the units could be shipped by rail without damage. 

The Building Research Division staff emphasized that performance criteria—a 

departure from the material specifications previously used in the housing industry— 

would be employed to decide the suitability for service of the housing units. Tests 

applied by the BRD group included rail-car-coupling bumps at speeds up to 8 mph and 

monitoring responses to various wind forces, floor loadings, impacts to walls and 

floors, and earthquake-type tremors. 

The division staff assisted the Public Building Service of the General Services 

Administration (GSA) by applying the performance concept to new government office 

buildings. Procurement by the GSA of Social Security Administration payment centers 

in San Francisco, Philadelphia, and Chicago followed evaluation by David B. Hattis 

and Thomas E. 

Whether designing by the performance approach or by traditional methods, the 

designer needed reliable estimates of the loads to be expected during the service life of 

any building. To update estimates of live loadings—weights of occupants, stored 

materials, and furnishings—and fire loadings in office buildings from values developed 

during the 1920s, James 0. Bryson and Daniel Gross created new techniques for 

surveying and evaluating these parameters in 1968.247 Based on their work, a national 

survey of loadings was conducted. The results formed the basis for national and 

international standards that are still in use for building design. 248 

244 Richard N. Wright kindly furnished the information on which much of this section was based. 245 "Breakthrough' module here for testing by BRD," NBS Standard, Vol XVI, No. 3, March 1971, pp. I, 16. 246 David B. Hattis and Thomas E. Ware, "The Public Building Service performance specifications for office 

buildings," NBS Report 10527, January 1971. 247 James Bryson and Daniel Gross, "Techniques for the survey and evaluation of live floor loads and fire 

loads in modem office buildings," NBS BSS 16, 1968. 248 Charles G. Culver and Jill S. Kushner, "A program for survey of fire loads and live loads in office 

buildings," NBS Tech. Note 858, 1975. 

282 
In 1967, NBS was asked to help improve efficiency and consistency in the writing 

and administration of building regulations. A group of concerned state governors 

collaborated with the Bureau Building Research Division (BRD) staff to create in 1969 

the National Conference of States on Building Codes as a non-profit corporation. The 

Bureau provided the secretariat for the new organization under the guidance of Gene 

A. Rowland, former leader of the Wisconsin Building Code Section and in 1967 chief 

of the BRD Codes and Standards Section.249 

Shortly after the new corporation was established, its member-delegates began to 

develop new, more uniform building regulations for states. These were later adopted by 

the Council of State Governments as model legislation. 

Blest Be the Ties that Bind 

A humble but essential service to the construction industry was provided by a Building Research Division team of Thomas W. Reichard, E. F. Carpenter, and Edgar 

V. Leyendecker when they completed an evaluation of the holding strength of inserts 

embedded in concrete. The information generated during the project was expected to 

materially aid the design of systems for the suspension of structural members or 

equipment from ceilings. 

The team studied three different types of inserts, all intended to secure 3 inch bolts 

to a concrete ceiling. Commercially available concrete mixes were used with reinforcement in the test, with the inserts cast in place. In one test, a tensile load applied to 

each insert was increased until the insert was pulled from the concrete. Several other 

flexural and fatigue tests were also performed on the assemblies. The team found that 

the pull-out load could be approximated from material parameters, leading to the 

possibility for improved design recommendations.25° 

And the Walls Came Tumbling Down 

Hollow walls, solid walls, brick walls, block walls, cavity walls. They all came 

tumbling down, in tests performed by Felix Y. Yokel, Robert G. Mathey, and Robert 

D. Dikkers. The object of the testing to destruction of more than 100 masonry walls 

was to establish their strength under axial, transverse, and "raking" (diagonal) loads in 

order to derive analytical procedures for the prediction of strength in service, and to 

aid in the design of masonry structures. Special assemblies for the application of 

directed, measured forces provided the basis for the experiments. 

The project was successful in deriving predictive methods for the strength of 

masonry construction. It was expected that the results would lead to improved 

construction practices.25' 

249 Gene A. Rowland, "The increasing role of states in building codes and standards," Proc. 26th Annual 

Conf. on Reinforced Plastics, Co,nposites Division, Section 5B, February 10, 1971, Washington, DC, pp. 1-3. 

250T. W. Reichard, E. F. Carpenter, and E. V. Leyendecker, "Design loads for inserts embedded in con- crete," NBS Building Science Series 42, 28 pp., May 1972. 251 "Transverse strength of masonry walls," NBS Technical News Bulletin, November 1970, p. 259. 

283 
The section of mansonry wall shown in the 

previous illustration, after testing to destruction under raking loads, exhibited the 

damage typically caused by such forces. 

284 

A section of masonry wall, readied for 

strength testing under raking (diagonal) loads 

by personnel of the NBS Building Research 

Division. 
Applied Mathematics 

100,000 "Handbooks" 

We have seen in previous sections the fruits of the NBS applied mathematics effort 

mostly in terms of the program that gave statistical support to the Bureau's datagathering scientists. A prime example of this support appeared in August 1969, when 

the Handbook of Mathematical Functions was reprinted for the seventh time. First 

published in 1964 under the careful editing of Irene A. Stegun, who finished the task 

begun years earlier in collaboration with the late Milton Abramowitz, the handbook was a best-seller.252 In one of his final acts as retiring director of NBS, Allen V. Astin 

presented the 100,000th copy of the handbook to W. Reeves Tilley in recognition of 

his role in printing and publicizing the volume. An additional copy was presented to 

Lee A. DuBridge, Science Advisor to President Nixon. 

Besides its data-analysis support of Bureau scientists, many other projects were 

undertaken by the Applied Mathematics Division staff. In the following, we present a small sampling of these projects. 

252 "Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables," Milton 

Abramowitz and Irene Stegun, editors, NBS Applied Math. Series 55, June, 1964. 

285 

NBS Deputy Director Lawrence M. Kushner (far right, above) served as a witness at the July 1, 1970 draft 

lottery. 
Making the Draft Fair 

The Selective Service System (SSS) needed a dose of impartiality in 1970, so it paid a call on the NBS Applied Mathematics Division. The SSS called potential draftees 

for military service according to the date on which they turned 19 in a given year; 

the fateful birthdates were chosen in a random fashion. NBS was asked to provide 

25 calendars with 25 random permutations of the numbers from 1 to 365 for use in 

selecting the order of drafting 1970's nineteen-year-olds for service in 1971. 

Joan Rosenblatt, chief of the Statistical Engineering Laboratory (SEL), and James 

Filliben consulted with Churchill Eisenhart and Joseph Cameron, both former heads of 

the SEL, then selected the requested lists and checked them for randomness. The NBS 

work was examined by a panel of well-known statisticians outside the Bureau, then the 

lists were placed in 50 envelopes and carried to the SSS draft proceedings by NBS 

Deputy Director Lawrence Kushner and Rosenblatt.253 

For this work and for other tasks performed in the course of her leadership of the 

SEL, Rosenblatt was selected to receive the 1971 Federal Woman's Award.254 

Modeling the Flow of Truck Traffic 

Judith Gilsinn of the Applied Mathematics Division and Richard Ku of the Technical Analysis Division collaborated to develop a mathematical model for truck traffic 

in the more congested parts of New York City. The work was performed on behalf of 

the Department of Housing and Urban Development. Utilizing traffic counts of four 

different types of trucks, the two researchers derived a model that answered questions 

about the usefulness of banning automobile traffic in certain areas and the principal 

reasons for congestion in the affected area. 

More important than the immediate results of the study—that too few commercial 

establishments offered off-street loading and unloading—was the realization by HUD 

officials that mathematical modeling could substantially improve decisions reached by 

urban planners.255 

253 "NBS helps insure fairness of draft lottery," NBS Standard, Vol XV, no. 7, July 1970, p. 8. 254 "Dr. Joan Rosenblatt to receive 1971 Federal Woman's Award," NBS Standard, Vol XVI, No. 2, February 

1971, pp. 1.4. 255 "Computer roams downtown," NBS Technical News Bulletin, June 1971, pp. 139, 152. 

286 
Modeling Air Traffic 

Robert Elbourn of the Center for Computer Sciences and Judith Gilsinn undertook a project with the objective of optimizing the assignment of transponder codes to aircraft as they entered an Air Traffic Control Center. Expecting a tripling of the number of 

aircraft operating under instrument flight rules by 1990, the Federal Aviation Administration asked NBS to help in the design of future identification systems. 

Gilsinn and Elbourn considered a variety of options available to the Nation's nearly 

two dozen Control Centers, some of which would entail assigning a code number to 

each flight and others that would assign codes to each center. Evaluations were based 

upon comparisons of the efficiency of the models on the basis of actual air-control 

experience with nearly 28,000 flights connecting more than 1000 U.S. airports. Results 

of the modeling compelled FAA officials to consider trade-offs in the planning of 

future control systems.256 

Research in Solid State Physics 

In the following accounts, we highlight some of the varied projects undertaken at 

NBS in the area of solid state physics. 

Crystal Structures at High Pressures 

Study of crystal structures at high pressures fascinated certain members of the 

Crystallography Section of the Inorganic Materials Division. Charles E. Weir, Gasper 

J. Piermarmni, and Stanley Block became especially adept at squeezing various 

materials between diamonds that had been shaped so as to exert pressures as high as 

4 GPa (about 40,000 times atmospheric pressure) while still allowing an x-ray beam to 

pass through the sample. 

In 1969 the trio published an account of their work, with details of construction of a high-pressure cell composed entirely of beryllium and diamond, both materials nearly 

transparent to x rays. The apparatus also incorporated a goniometer head and a modified Buergers-type camera. A flood of data followed, with structures of many 

high-pressure phases.257 

The one problem most difficult to solve with the diamond-anvil cell was the determination of the actual pressure encountered by the squeezed sample. Only approximate 

methods, sometimes with uncertainties as high as 30 %, had been successful. John B. 

Wachtman, Jr., chief of the Inorganic Materials Division, brought forward a new idea—why not use as a standard the pressure shift in the luminescence spectrum of 

256 R. D. Elbourn and Judith F. Gilsinn, "Simulation of air traffic control radar beacon code assignment 

plans," NBS Technical Note 568, March 1971. 257 c• E. Weir, 0. J. Piermarini, and S. Block, "Instrumentation for single-crystal x-ray diffraction at high 

pressures," Rev, of Sci. Instruni. 40, 1133 (1969). See also C. E. Weir, 0. J. Piermarini, and S. Block, 

"Crystallography of some high-pressure forms of C6H6, CS2, CCI4, and KNO3," J. Chem. Phys. 50, 2089- 

2093 (1969). See also 0. J. Piermarini, A. D. Mighell, C. E. Weir, and S. Block, "Crystal structure of 

benzene 11 at 25 kilobars," Science 165, 1250-1255 (1969). See also S. Block, C. E. Weir, and 0. J. Piermarini, "Polymorphism in benzene, naphthalene, and anthracene at high pressure," Science 169, 586 

(1970). 

287 
ruby? Well, why not? thought Piermarini, Richard A. Forman, a young physicist in the 

neighboring Solid State Physics Section, and J. Dean Barnett, a colleague on sabbatical 

leave from Brigham Young University. So they tried Wachtman's suggestion. 

A small fragment of pink ruby containing less than 0.1 % ions, placed into the 

diamond anvil with the sample under study, provided an excellent pressure gage. 

Nearly linear with pressure up to 2000 MPa or so, the shifts in the R1 and R2 lines 

were easily observed.255 The technique quickly became standard procedure for that type 

of experiment. 

In 1974 Block and Piermarini were honored with the Department of Commerce Gold 

Medal for their work. The citation emphasized that the two had been able to make the new technology available to other laboratories where it had been applied to a wide 

variety of materials. 

Forman. Gasper J. Piermarini, and J. Dean Bamett, "Pressure measurement made by the utilization 

of ruby sharp-line luminescence," Science 176, 284 (1972). 

288 

Using an activating rod, Gasper J. Piermarini raised the pressure in a diamond-anvil cell containing a zinc 

sulfide sample. which at about 7 GPa became metallic. The change to the metallic structure was recorded in 

photo sequence and displayed on the video monitor (right). 
Solid state physicist Stanley Block 

of the NBS Crystallography Section. 

With his colleagues Gasper 

Piermarini and Charles E. Weir. 

Block developed the diamond-anvil 

pressure cell. 

Just as Lewis Branscomb was taking office as the Bureau's sixth director, several 

Bureau scientists were polishing the draft of a fairly long (27-page) paper describing a new technique in thermophysical-properties research on conductive refractory 

materials. The principles of the method were described by Charles W. Beckeit and 

Ared Cezairliyan in Vol. I of the archival series, Experimental Thermodynamics. 259 In essence, they used very rapid measurements to obtain heat-capacity and radiativeproperty data at temperatures so high as to be out of reach by normal techniques. 

Acknowledging support from the U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific Research 

program in high-temperature materials, Cezairliyan, Malcolm S. Morse, Horace A. 

Berman, and Beckett soon presented the first results obtained by the use of the new technique.26° The scientists pointed out that they could obtain thermodynamic data on certain samples without the lengthy exposure to high temperatures required by earlier 

techniques. That long exposure frequently led to unwanted chemical reactions, 

259 C. W. Beckett and A. Cezairliyan, Thermodynamic Measurements and Related Techniques," 

in Experimental Thermodynamics, Vol 1 Calorimetry of Non-Reacting Systems. J. P. McCullough and D. W. 

Scott, Editors. Butterworths, London, 1968, p. 551. 

A. Cezairliyan, M. S. Morse, I-I. A. Berman, and C. W. Beckett, "High-Speed (Subsecond) Measurement 

of Heat Capacity. Electrical Resistivity, and Thermal Radiation Properties of Molybdenum in the Range 

1900 to 2800 K," J. Res. NBS 74A. No. I, 1970, pp. 65-92. 

289 

High-Speed Measurements for High-Temperature Materials 
Physicist Ared Cezaiiiiyan operated this apparatus to obtain high-temperature thermodynamic data in sub-second time intervals. 

excessive heat transfer, evaporation, diffusion, or loss of mechanical strength. Various 

workers throughout the world had attempted to obtain such information, but they had 

lacked the experimental resources needed to obtain useful and accurate values. 

In the first detailed publication on the new technique, the group reported studies of 

the element molybdenum, a transition metal with a high melting temperature 

(—2610 °C). The new technique required that a subsecond pulse of resistive heating 

be applied to the sample, which was shaped in the form of a tube 10 cm long, 

0.6 cm outside diameter, and 0.05 cm wall thickness. A tiny rectangular hole 

(0.1 cm X 0.05 cm) in the sample wall permitted the observation—by a newly-acquired, 

high-speed photoelectric radiometer—of thermal radiation from inside the sample. 

Potential probes in the form of Mo knife-edges defined the limits of an isothermal 

section of the sample and were used to obtain time-dependent voltage data. 

Thermocouple thermometers connected to the ends of the sample yielded pre-pulse 

sample temperatures. The sample environment could be regulated to approximate a vacuum or a selected gaseous environment. 

A 28 V heavy-duty battery bank supplied the pulse power to the sample through a variable series resistor and a standard 0.001 current-measuring resistor. From the 

standard resistor the current through the sample could be determined; combining this 

information with the time-dependent voltage data allowed evaluation of the timedependent resistivity of the sample. 

290 
Cezairliyan and his co-workers obtained results on the heat capacity of molybdenum 

that agreed within 1 % to 8 % with values obtained by other experiments over the 

range 2000 K to 2800 K. Electrical-resistivity results agreed somewhat better, within 

2 % over the same range of temperature. The largest source of error in the sample 

thermometry was caused by non-uniformity of the sample temperature—from approximately 3 K at 2000 K to about 4 K at 2800 K. At the higher temperatures, the 

uncertainty of calibration of the standard lamp used as a reference source contributed 

significantly to the overall uncertainty of the measurement. 

In assessing the quality of their work, the authors pondered the question of internal 

thermodynamic equilibrium in the sample during such rapid experiments: they 

concluded that the electron-phonon interaction rate was sufficiently fast that no disequilibrium need be expected from this source. The relaxation rate for lattice vacancies was slower; along with changes in impurity content and grain growth, this source 

of variation in heat capacity was thought to account for the 1.3 % to 2.2 % variation in 

heat-capacity determinations found among the several series of measurements in the 

experiment. The authors were encouraged by the level of agreement of their results 

with those expected for molybdenum in the temperature range studied. Although they 

would spend some years in evaluating and reducing the uncertainties of the new method, they expected it to produce useful high-temperature results that could be 

obtained in no other way. Subsequent experience would prove them correct. 

Getting in Touch with Semiconductors 

Defective bonding of wire leads to metallized semiconductor surfaces caused many 

failures in the early days of microcircuit manufacture. An effort to pinpoint causes of 

the defects occupied scientists from the Electronic Technology Division for several 

years. Early in the project, George G. Harman and Herbert K. Kessler adapted various 

types of capacitive and magnetic pickup devices to detect motion of the bonded 

elements. 261 William R. Hosler developed an improved method of preparing low-resistance 

contacts on semiconductors during this period, providing assistance to researchers 

using devices such as thermistors, diodes, and photodetectors. In making certain 

measurements—for example magnetoresistance, piezoresistance, or Hall effect—highresistance contacts prevented the acquisition of accurate data; not infrequently, such 

contacts failed during testing. 

For materials such as potassium tantalate, strontium or barium titanate, and titanium 

dioxide, the secret, according to Hosler, was the use of a special flux, TiH2. Hosler 

pressed the solid flux and the metal button used to make the contact into a slight 

depression on the surface of the sample and heated the assembly in a furnace with an 

inert atmosphere. Whereas conventional methods might yield a contact resistance 

of several tenths of an ohm at 4.2 K, Hosler's technique provided contacts with 

resistances in the milliohm range.262 

261 0. 0. Harman and H. K. Kessler, "Application of capacitor microphones and magnetic pickups to the 

tuning and trouble shooting of microelectronic ultrasonic bonding equipment," NBS Tech. Note 573, April 

1971. 262 W. R. Hosler, "Low resistance contacts on semiconducting oxides," Solid-State Electron. 13, 517-519 

(1970). 

291 
In research to determine the cause of failures in microelectronic wire bonds, Herbert 

Kessler positioned a magnetic pickup beside the end of an ultrasonic tool used to bond 

aluminum wire leads to metallized pads on semiconductor wafers. Using an oscilloscopic display of the pickup signal, he could adjust the transducer driver to the desired 

frequency and amplitude at the tool tip. 

Tuning a Radiation Detector 

Lithium-compensated germanium gamma ray detectors had been in use for some 

time when a developed: certain of the devices were found to be defective for no apparent reason. Because of the usefulness of the detectors in measuring the energy 

of nuclear radiation, any problem was considered serious by the Atomic Energy 

Commission. The AEC contacted Alvin H. Sher of the Electronic Technology Division 

to see what could be done. 

At NBS, William Croll and Howard Dyson were able to duplicate the vacuum 

deposition of lithium on the surface of p-type germanium and heat-diffuse the lithium 

to create the detector material. William Keery and Sher determined the energy-resolving characteristics of the completed detectors, while J. Robert Thurber measured the 

oxygen content in the germanium base material. The Bureau work was of great benefit 

in reducing the number of defective detectors. The results of the NBS work appeared 

in new preparation standards issued by the American Society for Testing and 

Materials.263 

26' "Evaluating nuclear radiation detectors," NBS Tech. News Bull., April 1972, pp. 85-86. 

292 
The scanning electron microscope was used in NBS semiconductor technology research to evaluate the bond between wire leads and semiconductor surfaces. This scan showed an area of good adhesion surrounding an unbonded area. Applications of Paramagnetism 

During 1972, Ralph P. Hudson, Chief of the Heat Division, completed a monograph on the use of paramagnetic materials in low-temperature physics research. Using 

paramagnetic salts with the technique of adiabatic demagnetization, scientists could 

cool samples of many types to temperatures as low as 0.00 1 K. Using carefully 

prepared paramagnetic thermometers, they could measure temperatures in the range 

0.001 K to perhaps 90 K. 

One of the most notable uses of paramagnetic materials at NBS, the demonstration 

in 1956 of parity non-conservation in weak nuclear interactions, involved both these 

methods. Along with Ernest Ambler, Raymond W. Hayward, and Dale D. Hoppes, 

Hudson had received the Department of Commerce Gold Medal award for that work.264 

After the 3He-4He dilution refrigerator (see Ch. 1) was introduced in the late 1960s, 

paramagnetic thermometry was used for many years to provide reliable system 

temperatures. 

In his monograph, Hudson discussed the thermodynamic principles involved in 

paramagnetic cooling and in paramagnetic thermometry. He also reviewed current 

experimental techniques, similar to those mentioned earlier in this chapter. 

2M See, for example, Elio Passaglia, AU!, pp. 207-2 13. 265 R. P. Hudson, "Principles and application of magnetic cooling," Series in Low Temperature Physics 2. 1-230 (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Co., 1972). 

293 
Ralph P. Hudson was chief of the 

NBS Heat Division from 1960 to 

1978. He maintained an active 

interest in the fields of low-tempera- ture thermometry and magnetism 

throughout that time. 

In order to improve the constancy of resolution of the soft x-ray spectrometer during 

changes in wavelength, John R. Cuthill developed a new detector drive for the 

instrument. There were many applications for soft x-ray spectrometry at that time— 

spectrographic analysis for light elements and evaluating the density of electronic states 

in the valence bands of conductors, to name two. Often home-made, the instruments were consistently under improvement. 

Cuthill's modification involved the use of a lead screw that moved the detector 

along a curved track. In his arrangement, it also aimed the detector at the grating, 

holding the effective slit width constant throughout the wavelength range. The device 

thus controlled the spectrometer resolution at a fixed value. An added benefit was an improvement in rigidity of the 

Prize-Winning Research in Solid State Science 

Recognition came to several other Bureau staff members in recognition of the high 

quality of their work in the solid state sciences during Branscomb's tenure as Director: 

266 j• R. Cuthill. "A soft x-ray spectrometer with improved drive," Rev. Sd. Instrum. 41, pp. 422-423 (1970). 

294 

New Drive for Soft X-Ray Spectrometers 
A digital printout of an emission spectrum from a soft-x-ray spectrometer was exam- ined by its designer, John Cuthill. All optical and some mechanical components of the 

spectrometer were housed in the large cylinder (center). Data were recorded on a stripchart (left), on paper (foreground), and on magnetic tape (right) for input into a computer. 

• Alan D. Franklin received the 1970 Department of Commerce Gold Medal for 

his work on point defects in solids.267 During this period, Franklin calculated 

the energies required to form point defects in ionic crystals, using a general 

formulation of the Born model; he also calculated specific values for CaF2. He 

found that the calculations of the energy to form anion Frenkel pairs (2.7 eV per 

pair), to form cation Frenkel pairs (7.5 eV per pair), and to form Schottky trios 

(5.1 eV per trio), agreed reasonably well with recent experimental results, 

justifying the use of the Born 

• Herbert S. Bennett was named the Outstanding Young Scientist of 1970 by the 

Maryland Academy of Sciences, for: 

Extensive theoretical work on ferromagnetism near the Curie temperature; 

analysis of temperatures and stresses induced in laser glasses in high 

radiation fields; and especially for his development of the calculation of 

F centers in oxides.269 

"22nd annual Commerce honor awards presented," NBS Standard, Vol XV, No. I I, November 1970, 

pp. 1, 13. 

A. D. Franklin, "Born model calculation of defect energies in CaF2." J. Phys. C/tern. Solids 29, 823-841 

(1968). 269 "Dr. Bennett honored by Md. Academy of Sciences," NBS Standard, Vol XVI, No. 2, February, 1971. 

pp. 6, 8. 

295 
During the same period, Bennett continued two series of theoretical investigations. 

One, attempting to elucidate the nature of F centers in ionic crystals, considered 

models that invoked a self-consistent treatment of the movement of the nearest 

neighbors to the F center. A second contribution treated the propagation of sound 

waves in ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic insulators. In both cases, Bennett 

evaluated his efforts by comparing calculated results with those obtained 

experimentally. 270 Bennett and Franklin, both members of the Inorganic Materials Division, shared the 

editorial tasks involved in summarizing the Bureau program of research, accomplished 

with the sponsorship of the Advanced Research Projects Agency, on materials for use 

in high-temperature work and in lasers.27' 

• Lawrence H. Bennett, a physicist in the Metallurgy Division (no relation to 

Herbert), was honored with the award of the Department of Commerce Gold 

Medal in 1971 for his work in metal physics.272 Bennett was a prolific 

experimenter, the author or co-author of a dozen papers from 1966 to 1970. 

Either alone or with one or more of his colleagues Lyden J. Swartzendruber, 

Russell W. Mebs, Gesina C. Carter, Irwin D. Weisman, and J. C. Swartz of NBS 

and the team of Richard E. Watson and A. J. Freeman—both employed by 

Brookhaven National Laboratory—Bennett investigated a variety of solid state 

physics topics. These included nuclear resonance, ferromagnetic materials, the 

Mössbauer effect, the Knight shift, and magnetic clusters. Bennett also wrote a review of nuclear magnetism.273 

270 H. S. Bennett, "F center in ionic crystals II. Polarizable-ion models," Phys. Rev. 184, No. 3, 918-935 

(1969). H. S. Bennett. "Frequency shifts of acoustic phonons in Heisenberg Paramagnets 111," Phys. Rev. 

185, No. 2. 801-804 (1970). 271 "ARPA.NBS program of research on high temperature materials and laser materials, January I-June 30, 

1969," NBS Technical Note 514, A. D. Franklin and H. S. Bennett, editors. January 1970, 98 pp. See also 

"ARPA-NBS program of research on high temperature materials and laser materials, July I -December 31, 

1969." NBS Technical Note 531, A. D. Franklin and H. S. Bennett, editors, June 1970, 75 pp. 272 Seep. I, NBS Standard Vol XVI, No. 10, November 1971. 273 L. H. Bennett, "Influence of an external magnetic field on nuclear resonance in ferromagnetic materials," 

J. AppI. Phys. 37. No. 3, 1242-1243 (1966). See also L. H. Bennett and L. J. Swartzendruber. 

"Ferromagnetic iron alloys lacking a hyperfine field at the iron site," Phys. Len'. 24A, No. 7, 359-360 (1967). 

See also R. E. Watson, L. H. Bennett, and A. J. Freeman, "Origin of solvent Knight shift in alloys," Phys. 

Rev. Lett. 20, No. 13, 653-656 (1968). See also L. H. Bennett, L. J. Swartzendruber, and R. E. Watson, 

"Magnetic clusters associated with isolated Fe atoms in paramagnetic Cu-Ni alloys," Phys. Rev. Len'. 23, 

No. 20, 1171-1174 (1969). See also Swartzendruber and Bennett, "Clustering, cold work, and the MOssbauer 

effect doublet structure in Cu-Ni-Fe alloys," Phys. Len'. 31A, No. 10, 581-582 (1970). See also L. H. 

Bennett, "Nuclear Magnetism," chapter 14 in Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, 1968 Digest, H. Chang 

and 1. R. McGuire, editors (New York: Academic Press, 1968) pp. 201-221. 

296 
• Judson C. French was presented the 1971 NBS Edward B. Rosa award for: 

Leadership in the standardization of the methods of measurement used to 

specify the properties of electron devices, the materials from which they are made, and the processes used in their fabrication. 274 The scientific work done by French contributed substantially to an understanding of 

the electronic phenomenon of "second breakdown" and to the development of a new 

basis for specifying safe operating conditions for transistors. French was responsible 

for a major improvement in the use of four-probe resistivity measurements on germanium and silicon samples. 

Center for Radiation Research 

Projects undertaken by the staff of the Center for Radiation Research included 

theoretical studies, dosage standards, and hot-laboratory cleanup methods, described in 

the following accounts. Already noted in this chapter was the achievement of criticality 

in the NBS nuclear reactor. 

Handling Hot Accelerators 

When a particle-accelerator run was finished, the investigators usually went away 

happy. The accelerator operators, however, faced the problem of replacing samples 

and preparing the machine for further use. Often, this process was complicated by 

radioactivity induced in the materials from which the accelerator itself was made. 

James M. Wyckoff of the Linac Radiation Division provided the Health Physics group 

with information on the types and intensities of radiation to be expected as a result of 

induced radioactivity. 

Wyckoff obtained data on the spallation products to be expected from the use of 

several materials commonly used to build accelerators, including aluminum, iron, 

nickel, and copper.275 He calculated the energy emitted as photons over the time range 

of 1 hour to 4 years after irradiation took place, allowing operators to cope with 

"hot" accelerators, and designers to minimize especially unfavorable materials in 

accelerator construction. 

Measuring Radioactivity Doses 

During this period, physicists in the Applied Radiation Division developed a radiation-measurement procedure that used films and gels to measure dosages of radiation. Radiation monitors were a necessity for those involved in industrial radiation 

processing of foods, medical supplies, and other materials. William L. McLaughlin, 

Eckhart K. Hussmann—a guest worker from the Max Planck Institute in Frankfurt, 

274 "Stratton and Rosa awards presented," NBS Standard, Vol XVI, No. 6, June 1971, pp. I, II, 12. 275 M. Wyckoff, "Photon energy emission from spallation products produced by 3-13 GeV electrons," 

Health Phys. 18, 693-704 (1970). 

297 
Germany—H. H. Eisenlohr of the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, and 

Lyman Chalkley of LaJolla, California prepared solutions that were initially colorless 

but assumed a stable blue-violet color when irradiated with doses from 1 krad to 

100 krad. The color change provided an easy-to-read visual indication, and more 

precise dosage information could be obtained by measuring the optical density of the 

dosimeter. 276 Hussmann and McLaughlin provided a dosimetric method for a more technical 

purpose as well. They developed a holographic interferometer technique that relied 

upon the change of refractive index of a transparent liquid. The spatial distribution of 

absorbed dose could be determined by observation of the liquid, taking advantage of 

the fact that small changes in local temperature, arising from the irradiation, were 

accompanied by changes in refractive index. They found the method to be especially 

useful for high-intensity pulsed radiation.277 

In the area of neutron dosimetry, Valentine Spiegel, Jr. and his associates studied the 

geometry of neutron penetration in a variety of substances, including liquid baths. 

These studies often involved foils which became radioactive upon exposure to 

neutrons. The degree of activation allowed evaluation of the dosage at various 

positions from sources configured in specific geometric forms. With his colleague 

William M. Murphey, Spiegel prepared a computer code for the calculation of 

thermal neutron self-absorption for cylindrical and spherical sources, using dosage 

measurements in a manganous sulfate bath to confirm the results.278 

Verifying a Nuclear Theory 

Robert B. Schwartz, Roald A. Schrack, and Henry T. Heaton of the Bureau's 

Nuclear Radiation Division puzzled over a scientific bulletin sent from a laboratory in 

Hungary. Two Hungarian scientists had measured the energy dependence of the 

scattering cross-section for neutrons and protons.279 They found regular deviations of 

about 5 % from smoothness in the cross-section curve that called into question the 

accepted theory of n-p scattering, which dictated a smooth, monotonic decrease in the 

cross-section with energy. The three NBS physicists realized that they could quickly 

measure the cross-sections to verify or refute the new data. 

Immediately the Bureau team prepared a polyethylene target for irradiation by the 

NBS electron linear accelerator. The hydrogen atoms contained in the polyethylene 

furnished target protons, and the linac electron beam was directed to another target to 

produce neutrons of varying energy. Plotting the resulting data showing cross section 

276 W. L. McLaughlin, E. K. Hussmann, H. H. Eisenlohr and L. Chalkley, "A chemical dosimeter for 

monitoring gamma-radiation doses of 1-100 krad," Intern. J. App!. Radiation Isotopes 22, 135-140 (1971). 277 E. K. Hussmann and W. L. McLaughlin, "Dose-distribution measurement of high-intensity pulsed 

radiation by means of holographic interferometry," Radiation Res. 47, No. 1, 1-14 (1971). 278 V. Spiegel, Jr. and W. M. Murphey, "Calculation of thermal neutron adsorption in cylindrical and 

spherical neutron sources," Metrologia 7, No. 1, pp. 34-38 (1971). 279 Gy. Hrehuss and T. Czibók, "Oscillations in the energy dependence of the n-p scattering cross section," Phys. Len'. 28B, No. 9, 585-587 (1969). 

298 
Valentine Spiegel, Jr. and his assistant Linda Cline determined neutron penetration 

depths in a water bath, using foil detectors positioned at precise distances from the 

source. After neutron activation, the foils were placed in a radioactivity counter to measure neutron fluence. vs energy, Schwartz, Schrack, and Heaton found a curve that was smooth within 

0.5 %, verifying the original theoretical prediction.28° Similar experiments elsewhere 

corroborated the NBS work. 

Recognition for CRR Scientists 

Martin J. Berger, Chief of the Radiation Theory Section, CRR, was awarded the 

Department of Commerce Gold Medal for his work in radiation-transport theory and its 

application to radiation-engineering problems. An example of that type of research was produced by Berger and Stephen M. Seltzer, who used a Monte Carlo technique to 

calculate the penetration of fast electrons through water. They were able to account for 

multiple atom-electron scattering (both elastic and inelastic) as well as the influence of 

bremsstrahlung effects, producing information on the spatial distribution of energy 

deposition, charge deposition, and electron flux.28' A similar set of calculations, 

performed for the case of aluminum targets, aided the cause of protection against space 

radiation. 

R. B. Schwartz, R. A. Schrack, and H. T. Heaton. "A search for structure in the n-p scattering cross section," Phys. Left. 30B, No. I, 36-38 (1969). 281 M. J. Berger and S. M. Seltzer, "Calculation of energy and charge deposition and of the electron flux in a 

water medium bombarded with 20-eV electrons," Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sd. 161. Art 1, 8-23 (1969). 

299 
Berger also utilized point kernel theory to evaluate the effects of beta irradiation 

dosimetry for medical purposes.282 

Everett G. Fuller and Evans V. Hayward shared the Department of Commerce Gold 

Medal in 1971 for: 

Pioneering work in experimental photonuclear physics that provided the 

scientific basis for various practical applications of high energy x- and gamma 

rays. 

An example of Hayward's work was a monograph on photonuclear reactions in 

which she reviewed progress in the energy range from 10 MeV to 30 MeV. Hayward 

compared the predictions of several theories against existing experimental data, noting 

where discrepancies provided incentives for further work.283 Similarly, Fuller prepared a discourse on photoneutron reactions.284 

Progress in Polymer Physics 

Lauritzen and Hoffman Share High Polymer Physics Prize 

The American Physical Society awarded its High Polymer Physics Prize jointly to 

two NBS scientists in March 1970. The prize, sponsored by the Ford Motor Company, 

was given to John I. Lauritzen, Jr. and John D. Hoffman for: 

Their theoretical contributions to the understanding of molecular motions in 

solids, and, in particular, for their kinetic theory of polymer crystallization.285 

Lauritzen held the title of Institute Scientist in the Institute for Materials Research 

at that time; Hoffman was Director of the institute. Both had served NBS since the 

mid-1950s. An example of recent work by the pair, accomplished in collaboration with 

Elio Passaglia, Gaylon S. Ross, Lois J. Frolen, and James J. Weeks, was a detailed 

study of theories treating the kinetics of polymer crystallization.286 In that work, the 

scientists reviewed nucleation theories for chain-folded polymers; special attention was given to prior work on fluctuations by Passaglia and Lauritzen. The study contributed new understanding to the developing theory of large polymers. 

Receiving awards for their scientific work was not unusual for the two scientists. 

Hoffman received the Department of Commerce Gold Medal in 1965 and the NBS 

Samuel Wesley Stratton award in 1967 for his polymer investigations, and Lauritzen 

shared the Stratton award in 1971 with Passaglia and Edmund DiMarzio. 

282 M. J. Berger, "Beta-ray dosimetry calculations with the use of point kernels," Atomic Energy Commission 

Report CONF-691212, June 1970, pp. 63-86. 283 E. Hayward, "Photonuclear Reactions," NBS Monograph 1/8 August 1970, 46 pp. 284 E. G. Fuller, "Photoneutron reactions," pp. 359-375 in Nuclear Structure Study with Neutrons (Amsterdam: North-Holland PubI. Co, 1966). 285 "Dr. Hoffman and Dr. Lauritzen share APS physics prize," NBS Standard, Vol XVI, No. 5, May 1971, p. I. 286 j• D. Hoffman. J. I. Lauritzen. Jr., E. Passaglia, G. S. Ross, L. J. Frolen, and J. J. Weeks, "Kinetics of 

polymer crystallization from solution and the melt," Kolloid-Z. Polymere 231, Nos. I & 2, 564-592 (1969). 

300 
John I. Lauritzen, Jr. joined the NBS Dielectrics Section in 1956 and worked there until 

his death in 1976. His special interest was 

the theory of polymer crystallization. 

The long-standing collaboration between NBS and the world of dentistry produced 

many advances for the public. George Dickson, Assistant Chief of the Dental Research 

Section of the Polymers Division, was recognized for his contributions to these 

advances in March 1972, when the International Association for Dental Research 

presented him with the Wilmer Souder Award, the highest honor in the field of dental 

materials. 

It is worthwhile to recall the contributions made by Wilmer S. Souder to the 

Nation's dental health. Souder, a Bureau physicist, responded to a request made during 

World War I by the Surgeon General that the Bureau of Standards investigate the 

science underlying dentistry to improve the woeful state of soldiers' teeth. Souder was 

appalled at the lack of scientific information at the base of dental practice at the time. 

His review of the situation prompted a commercial laboratory to initiate support of a program of dental studies at the Bureau. Because his administrative efforts were 

matched by outstanding scientific work on behalf of the Nation's dentists, Souder 

became known as Father of Dental Materials 

210 0. C. Paffenbarger and N. W. Rupp, "History of the International Association for Dental Research 

Wilmer Souder Award in Dental Materials, with a short biography of Wilmer Souder," Dental Materials 2. pp. 49-52 (1986). 

301 

Biting into Dental Problems 
John D. Hoffman retained an active interest 

in polymer theory even as he served as 

director of the NBS Institute for Materials 

Research from 1967-1978 and the director of 

the National Measurement Laboratory from 

1978-1982. 

Dickson, a Bureau staff member for two decades, was one of a large group of 

productive researchers. Work during that period included studies of the properties of 

dental amalgams and of instrumentation used in dental 

George C. Paffenbarger and Guest Worker J.B. Woelfel provided some basic data to 

benefit wearers of dentures as a result of a long-term study. Two sets of upper and 

lower dentures, one made of vulcanite and one of epoxy, were evaluated periodically 

for serviceability and shrinkage over a 7-year test in which the dentures were worn on a continuing basis. Paffenbarger and Woelfel reported finding deterioration of the dentures, and they described tests that identified the probable 

Paffenbarger, former director of the American Dental Association research unit at 

NBS, was awarded the Miller International Prize at the 15th World Dental Congress in 

Mexico City during October 1972, "for the most eminent services to science."29° 

P. L. Ogleshy. G. Dickson, M. L. Rodriguez, R. M. Davenport. and W. T. Sweeney. "Viscoelastic 

behavior of dental amalgams," J. Res. NBS 72C, No. 3, 203-2 13 (1968). See also 0. Dickson, P. Oglesby, 

and R. Davenport, "The steady-state creep behavior of dental amalgams," J. Res. NBS 72C. No. 3. 2 15-218 

(1968). See also J. D. Eick, H. J. Caul, T. l-legdahl. and G. Dickson, "Chemical composition of dental gold 

casting alloy and dental wrought gold alloys," J. Dental Res. 48. No. 6. 1284-1289 (1969). See also T. V. 

Gardner. Jr. , G. Dickson, and J. W. Kumpala, "Application of diffraction gratings to measurement of strain 

of dental mterials," J. Dental Res. 47. No. 6. Part 2. 1104-1110 (1968). 2$9 B. Woelfel and G. C. Paffenbarger, "Expanding and shrinking 7-year-old dentures: report of cases," 

J. Am. Dental Assoc. 81. No. 6, 1342-1348 (1970). 

See NBS Standard, March 1973, p. 3. 

302 
Elio Passaglia had a diverse career at NBS, at various times serving as chief of the 

Polymer Physics Section and the Metallurgy 

Division. Deputy Director of the Center for 

Materials Research. and chief of the Office 

of Flammable Fabrics. He also wrote a history of NBS covering the period 195 1-1969. 

Paffenbarger, the first professional dentist to engage in research at NBS, retired in 

1968 after 38 years as an ADA research associate. In April 1985, NBS established 

the Paffenbarger Research Center within the Polymers Division in honor of his 

contributions to the field of dentistry. 

Optical Physics Research 

Optical physics research covered a wide range of activities indeed. Many projects 

that could have been included in this section can be found elsewhere in this chapter. 

Here we present just a sampling of such projects. 

Far Ultraviolet Spectrum of Lithium 

A difficult experiment was successfully completed during 1970 through the cooperation of a large group of people, both from NBS and elsewhere. The experiment 

involved the observation and analysis of the spectrum of atomic lithium in the range 

22 nm to 17 nm (56 eV to 70 eV). Lithium is extremely reactive; this property 

provided a non-trivial complication in any such experiment. In addition, the spectral 

range of the study, chosen for its significance to astronomical work, was far from the 

easiest to observe. Finally, interpretation of the results of the experiment presented its 

own challenge. 

David L. Ederer, Thomas B. Lucatorto, and Robert P. Madden of the Optical 

Physics Division (OPD) built an experimental chamber modeled after a heat-pipe oven developed by C. R. Vidal and J. Cooper of the Radio Standards Physics Division in 

303 
Edmund A. DiMarzio, a theoretical physicist, 

joined the NBS Polymer Physics Section in 

1963. He shared the High Polymer Physics 

prize of the American Physical Society in 

1967. 

Boulder.291 In the oven, lithium vapor was isolated within the center portion of a stainless-steel cylinder contained in a quartz vacuum tube. The technique utilized an external rf coil and an internal stainless-steel wick to regulate the temperature of the 

lithium vapor within I °C of 725 °C. The NBS 180 MeV electron synchrotron provided 

high-intensity radiation, which was directed through thin aluminum windows at the 

ends of the heat pipe and collected in a grazing-incidence spectrograph.292 The 

hot-lithium line spectra were analyzed in terms of the states of excited lithium by 

Andrew W. Weiss and John W. Cooper of the OPD and colleagues M. J. Conneely, 

Kenneth Smith, and Stephan Ormonde from the University of Nebraska and Quantum 

Systems, Inc.293 

Using the results obtained in this experiment, the investigators were the first to 

elucidate the autoionizing states of lithium, which were thought to involve K-shell 

and/or valence electron excitation. Astronomers utilized the new results to refine 

estimates of the concentration of lithium in the solar atmosphere. 

291 c• R. Vidal and J. Cooper, "Heat pipe oven: a new, well-defined metal vapor device for spectroscopic 

measurements," J. App!. Phys. 40. No. 8, 3370-3374 (1969). 292 D. L. Ederer, T. Lucatorto, and R. P. Madden, "Autoionization spectra of lithium," Phys. Rev. Leti. 25, 

No. 22, 1537-1540 (1970). J. W. Cooper, M. J. Conneely, Kenneth Smith. and Stephan Ormonde, "Resonant structure of lithium 

between the and 2'P thresholds," Phys. Rev. Leti. 25, No. 22, 1540-1543 (1970). 

304 
The absorption spectrum of lithium was investigated from 56 eV to 70 eV using the NBS synchrotron and 

the lithium heat pipe oven shown here. Lithium was vaporized in the stainless steel, horizontal pipe oven 

(center), which was enclosed within a quartz vacuum tube and heated by an exterior rf coil. Viewing 

windows were enclosed within the solid cooling sections at each end of the quartz tube. 

Transition Probabilities in the Vacuum Ultraviolet 

I-lard on the heels of the lithium work described above came the first NBS mea- surements of transition probabilities in the vacuum-ultraviolet spectral region. 

William R. Ott of the Optical Physics Division used a wall-stabilized arc, operating 

in a mixture of argon and oxygen, and a new 3-meter high-resolution scanning monochromator to measure the transition probabilities for neutral oxygen.294 Ott chose 

R. Ott, "Measurement of transition probabilities for 0 I in the vacuum ultraviolet," Phys. Rev. A4. No. I. 

pp. 245-251 (1971). 

305 
oxygen for the first measurements in an attempt to resolve outstanding discrepancies 

found in other experiments, and because of the importance of the transition 

probabilities in determining stellar oxygen densities. 

New Test for Quality Optics 

Many procedures used in optical physics depended on the quality of optical 

components. In 1970, James B. Saunders developed a new method to test the quality 

of optical parts; it was sufficiently simple to be used in the workshop. The technique 

used a wavefront-shearing interferometer—basically a composite prism of cubical 

shape—plus a light source. The prism could be prepared so as to yield various 

amounts of shear; Saunders recommended the range 3 milliradians to 12 milliradians. 

In use, the operator viewed an interference pattern produced by the interferometer as light was reflected from the optical component under test. The pattern could be interpreted either visually or quantitatively to evaluate the quality of the component, typically a lens or a mirror.295 

Optical Properties of Laser Materials 

Heat and pressure both caused changes in the index of refraction of the materials 

from which glass and crystal lasers were constructed. Uneven or unsteady application 

of heat or pressure caused the index of refraction to vary with position or time. In 

turn, the changing index of refraction caused distortion of the wavefront of the light 

emitted by the laser. Roy M. Waxier, Given W. Cleek, Edward Farabaugh, and Albert 

Feldman found that the piezo-optic and thermo-optic properties of laser materials 

including ruby and five different compositions of neodymium-doped glass were only 

poorly known, so they set about to measure them. 

Measurements of the thermo-optic constants of the materials involved use of a Fizeau interferometer to observe the change of refractive index with temperature over 

the range 0°C to 300 °C for the neodymium glasses and 0 °C to 600 °C for the ruby 

samples. Both hydrostatic and uniaxial stresses were applied to the specimens in the 

piezo-optic experiments.296 

295 B. Saunders. "Production of near-perfect interferograms of variable visibility," J. Res. NBS 74C, Nos. I and 2, 1-2 (1970). 296 "Piezo-optic and thermo-optic properties of solid laser materials," NBS Technical News Bulletin August 

1970. p. 177. 

306 
Measuring Laser Energy 

Casting about in the mid-1960s for the most accurate method to measure the output 

energy of pulsed lasers, Donald A. Jennings developed the most confidence in 

calorimeters. He designed and built a calorimeter that incorporated an absorption cell 

containing an aqueous solution of copper sulfate, whose temperature was continually 

monitored by a thermocouple thermometer. He also developed two calibration schemes, 

one based on the known heat capacity of the absorption cell and the other on the 

substitution of known amounts of electrical heating to reproduce the final measured 

cell temperature. The two methods agreed within about 0.3 %. 

Jennings employed the new apparatus to measure the output energy of a pulsed ruby 

laser operating at 694 nm. He found the calorimeter useful at laser energies as high as 30 J and peak power to 200 MW/cm2.297 

Before long, calorimetry was the standard method for laser-energy measurements. In 

1969, Jennings teamed with E. Dale West, Kenneth M. Evenson, A. L. Rasmussen, and 

W. R. Simmons to summarize laser power and energy measurements in NBS 

Technical Note 382. 

The pursuit of high-accuracy laser calorimetry was maintained by West and his 

colleague Kenneth L. Chumey, who analyzed the theory of isoperibol calorimetry in 

1970. The two scientists treated the measurements in terms of the first law of 

thermodynamics and the boundary value problem describing heat flow in the calorimeter. Their study pointed the way to design principles, minimization of experimental 

uncertainty, and methods for testing the validity of specific experiments.298 Based upon 

the guidelines developed by West and Churney, a Boulder group—West, W. E. Case, 

A. L. Rasmussen, and L. B. Schmidt—designed, built, and evaluated a small reference 

isoperibol calorimeter for the measurement of laser energy. They outlined procedures 

to relate all measurements to NBS standards of voltage, resistance, and frequency, offering the careful user maximum systematic error levels not to exceed I A handy, on-the-spot measurement of the output energy of solid-state lasers, 

accurate within about 3 % for output energy levels as high as 100 J, was made possible 

by Arthur H. Neill and John A. Mitchell of the Electronic Technology Division. Neill 

designed and developed the device and Mitchell fabricated it into a manageable box 

weighing less than 25 kg. 

The calorimeter was composed of an absorber, a light-dispersing reflective cone of 

aluminum enclosed within a blackened cylinder designed to retain nearly all of the 

laser energy, and a heat sink which provided reference cold junctions for a ring of 

series-connected thermocouple thermometers arranged on the absorber. In operation, a 

297 D. A. Jennings, "Calorimetric measurement of pulsed laser output energy," IEEE Trans. Instr. Meas. 

IM.15, No. 4, pp. 161-164 (1966). 298 E. D. West and K. L. Churney, "Theory of isoperibol calorimetry for laser power and energy measurements," J. App!. Phys. 41, pp. 2705-27 12 (1970). 299 E. D. West, W. E. Case, A. L. Rasmussen, and L. B. Schmidt, "A reference calorimeter for laser energy 

measurements," J. Res. NBS 76A, No. 1, 13-26 (1972). 

307 
Arthur H. Neill, Jr. of the NBS Electronic Technology Division mea- sured the output energy of a solid state laser, using a portable calorimeter that he developed in 1970. 

single laser pulse was intercepted by the calorimeter and the thermocouple output 

provided an energy value for the pulse. Calibration of the device showed it to be 

accurate within about 2.8 

Oscillator Strengths and Transition Probabilities 

Accurate determinations of the abundance of iron in the sun were significant to the 

development of models of the solar atmosphere. Previous determinations indicated, 

surprisingly, that the fraction of iron present in the sun's photosphere was much 

smaller than in the corona. The oscillator strength, or f-value, of iron was a key 

component to resolving the unexpected difference. Studying the question, J. Mervyn 

Bridges and Wolfgang Wiese found substantial discrepancies between recent f-values 

for neutral iron and those listed in older tables. 

The two atomic physicists remeasured the iron f-values, using a plasma-arc source 

which they modified to stabilize the light intensity. Careful introduction of iron 

vapor and comparison and calibration of the resulting line intensities yielded greatly 

improved determinations of the f-values for iron. In some cases, earlier values were 

found to be erroneous by factors of 20! Using the new NBS values, astronomers 

quickly were able to correct estimates of the iron abundance in the solar photosphere 

by a factor of about 10, resolving the puzzling discrepancy.30' 

A. H. NeiII, Jr., "High-energy light detector for use with pulsed ruby and glass lasers." App!. opt. 9. 

No. 10. 2392-2393 (1970). 301 M. Bridges and W. L. Wiese, "Transition probabilities for the prominent red lines of Ne 1.', Phys. Rev. A2. No. 2. 285-293 (1970). 

308 
The work with Bridges was only one of many for Wiese. He was awarded the 

Department of Commerce Gold Medal in 1971 for his contributions to atomic and 

plasma physics. Like many Bureau scientists, Wiese showed leadership in two ways; 

by personal research and by collaborating with others on larger projects. During this 

period, his individual publications included two significant papers: one describing the 

relation between atomic oscillator strength and especially nuclear charge, and a second 

reviewing the field of transition probabilities.302 With A. W. Weiss and Mervyn 

Bridges, he presented two papers on atomic oscillator strengths.303 With Bridges, 

Richard L. Kornblith, Daniel E. Kelleher, and Jeffrey R. Fuhr, he wrote one paper and an NBS Special Publication on transition probabilities.304 And with Kelleher, he 

discussed the possible role of slight systematic shifts in certain stellar spectra in 

accounting for the redshift in white dwarf stars.305 

Physical Standards Research 

In this section, we present accounts of standards in the areas of time and frequency, 

viscosity, millimeter-wavelength radiation, microwave power, voltage, and mass. 

Telling Time by Television and by Satellite 

A new wrinkle in convenience for time-synchronization signals from NBS was 

described by personnel of the Time and Frequency Division during 1970-71. The 

innovation involved the use of live network-television broadcasts. Short discussions of 

the principles of the technique were given by Dicky D. Davis, James L. Jesperson, 

and George Kamas306 in a letter to the IEEE Proceedings, and, in fuller detail, by 

Davis and Byron E. Blair in collaboration with James F. Bamaba, a colleague from 

the Newark Air Force Station.307 The new method promised 10 accuracy in timesynchronization of certain clocks without the necessity of carrying a portable clock to 

each participating site. 

302 W. L. Wiese, "Dependence of atomic f-values on nuclear charge," chapter in Beam Foil Spectroscopy II 

(New York: Gordon and Breach, 1968) pp. 386-406. Also see "Systematic trends of atomic oscillator 

strengths in isoelectronic sequences," AppI. Opt. 7, No. 12, 2361-2366 (1968). See also W. L. Wiese, 

"Atomic transition probabilities—a survey of our present knowledge and future needs," Nucl. Instr. Methods 

90, 25-33 (1970). 

303W. L. Wiese and A. W. Weiss, "Regularities in atomic oscillator strengths," Phys. Rev. 175, No. I, 50-65 

(1968). See also J. M. Bridges and W. L. Wiese, "The oscillator-strength scale for Fe I," Astrophys. J. 161, 

L71-L75 (1970). 

304W. L. Wiese, J. M. Bridges, R. L. Kornblith, and D. E. Kelleher, "Transition probabilities for prominent 

Ar I lines in the near infrared," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 59, No. 9, 1206-1212 (1969). See also J. R. Fuhr and W. L. 

Wiese, "Bibliography on atomic transition probabilities, July 1969 through June 1971," NBS SP 320, Suppl. 1, September 1971, 67 pp. 305 W. L. Wiese and D. E. Kelleher, "On the cause of the redshifts in white-dwarf spectra," Astrophys. J. 

166, L59-L63 (1971). 306 "The use of television signals for time and frequency dissemination," D. D. Davis, James L. Jesperson, 

and G. Kamas, Proceedings of the IEEE, June 1970, pp. 931-933. 307 D. D. Davis, Byron E. Blair, and James F. Barnaba, "Long-term continental U.S. timing system via 

television networks," IEEE Spectrum 8, August 1971, pp. 41-52. 

309 
Originating from a technique developed in Europe, the synchronization method 

involved the insertion of a time code into the live broadcast emanating from the New 

York transmitter of station ABC, CBS or NBC. The time signal was generated by a highly precise clock maintained by each of the stations in conjunction with their 

broadcast needs; it was inserted into a particular horizontal line of the broadcast 

display. As the broadcast was transmitted directly to local receivers or through 

microwave links to receivers across the United States, the coded time signal went 

along with it.308 

Users of similarly precise clocks (those already known to be accurate within one 

television frame—about 30 ms) could build a decoder circuit as described by Davis, 

Blair and Barnaba for under $200. Using the decoder, they could read the network 

time signal and compare it with their own clock, just as NBS employees could 

compare the network time signal with their master atomic clock. NBS scientists had 

explored the method as a means of comparing the atomic clocks maintained at WWV 

in Washington, WWVB in Boulder, and WWVL in Fort Collins, Colorado, as well as comparing these clocks with those maintained at the Naval Observatory in Washington 

and at Newark Air Force Station in Ohio. 

Having measured the difference in reading between any particular clock and the 

network clock, it was still necessary to interpret the difference so as to evaluate the 

actual discrepancy between the clocks and, more importantly, to determine the 

deviation of each of the clocks from the NBS master time clock. This step required a detailed accounting of the time delay resulting from the particular path taken by the 

network broadcast. Use of the microwave television link involved a delay of about 

3 ps per km; the Bureau staff assisted the owners of clocks in remote areas in 

determining the time-delay corrections needed to relate the television synchronization 

signals to time differences from the NBS atomic clock. 

Many users of the Bureau's time service had no need of the 10 accuracy level 

that the new system could provide. However, those users who did need the service 

could utilize it without the expense and delay of transporting an atomic clock to their 

location. 

Another breakthrough in time and frequency dissemination occurred on the heels of 

time-by-television: time-by-satellite. 

Beginning in 1971, the NBS time and frequency signals—ordinarily available only 

through the Bureau's high-frequency radio broadcast—were transmitted also by signals 

relayed from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's ATS-3 satellite. The 

signals were based upon the NBS Frequency Standard and the NBS Coordinated 

Universal Time Scale that were maintained at the Boulder laboratories of the Time and 

Frequency Division. The broadcasts were part of an experiment in dissemination of 

the Bureau's WWV T&F information. First results of the experiment were reported by 

D. Wayne Hanson and Wallace F. Hamilton.309 

A brief discussion of the use of commercial television for broadcasting time and frequency information can be found in "Boulder experimental TV time and frequency system," NBS Standard, Vol XVI, No. 5, 

May 1971, P.7. 

D. W. Hanson and W. F. Hamilton, "Satellite broadcasting of WWV signals," IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, AES-lO, No. 5, pp. 562-573, September 1974. 

310 
The ATS-3 was not the first satellite to be involved in time and frequency broadcasts; that honor belonged to the Telstar satellite, used in 1962 to compare the clocks 

at the U.S. Naval Observatory with those at the Royal Greenwich Observatory in 

England. The satellite technique proved accurate within I sometimes better, on an experimental basis. 

There was one obvious advantage to the use of the ATS-3 satellite to broadcast time 

and frequency information: the signals could be received over nearly 40 % of the 

earth's surface—in North America, South America, much of the Atlantic and Pacific 

Oceans, and in parts of Europe and Africa. Questions to be answered about satellite 

transmission included the cost of the system to the users and the accuracy with which 

the information could be delivered. 

The ATS-3 satellite was placed in a geostationary orbit at approximately 700 west 

longitude. The signals were sent to the satellite at a frequency of 149.245 MHz; its 

transponder converted the frequency to 135.625 MHz, amplified it, and retransmitted 

it to all who cared to listen. The timing format consisted of tones, ticks, a time code, 

and voice announcements, familiar to those users who received the information over 

WWV and WWVH. Two 15-minute broadcasts were sent each day, beginning at 1700 

hours and 2330 hours, Greenwich Mean Time. 

Periodical adjustments were made in the broadcasts to improve their usefulness as a dissemination service of NBS. 

The Bureau staff calibrated receivers for use with the broadcast experiment, two for 

sites in North America (Boulder and the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory) 

and two for South America (Smithsonian Astrophysical Laboratories in Arequipa, Peru 

and in Natal, Brazil). Calibrated cesium atomic clocks, synchronized to Boulder time 

by portable calibration clocks, were used to evaluate the time-delay involved in the 

satellite signals (typically about 0.25 s) as well as the effectiveness of the system. 

Delays occurred because of the length of the broadcast path, transit time in the 

electronic equipment, and atmospheric conditions. Uncertainties in these delay 

components placed limits on the accuracy of the dissemination method, as did 

"wandering" from its nominal position by the satellite itself. Changes in the satellite 

position resulted in time differences of approximately I for each 300 m of motion. 

During 1972 the experimental broadcasts were received and the delays compared to 

predicted values. The discrepancies reached magnitudes no larger than 30 a distinct improvement over typical uncertainties of I ms found by use of the earthbound 

radio signals. In addition, the satellite signals presented a "cleaner" electromagnetic 

pattern than did the earthbound broadcasts. The best news of all was that the cost 

of satellite reception appeared to be very comparable with the $l00-$500 cost of 

WWV/WWVH receiving equipment. 

On the basis of this experiment, time-by-satellite seemed poised to join the panoply 

of time-dissemination methods—the wristwatch, the telephone, high-frequency (eg., 

WWV) radio broadcasts, low-frequency (eg., Loran-C) broadcasts—but with improved 

accuracy available over a large portion of the globe. James L. Jesperson and Lowell 

Fey neatly summarized these and other techniques for transferring knowledge of time 

311 
and frequency during this period,310 as did Jesperson, Byron E. Blair, and Lawrence 

E. Gatterer in a more technical article.31' 

Before departing from the subject of time and frequency for the moment, we must 

mention the publication, in 1972, of Special Publication 300, volume 5. It contained 

reprints of more than 80 papers published during the period 1960-1969, separated into 

sections on standards, time scales, dissemination, statistics, and selected references.312 

How Well Can We Measure Viscosity? 

Viscosity measurements had been around a long time, but there was something 

wrong with them—they relied on an assumed value for the viscosity of water as a reference. If there were biases (systematic errors) in the water-viscosity measurement, 

all measurements would be erroneous. 

What to do to evaluate the absolute uncertainty of viscosity measurements? Of 

course—devise two significantly different techniques for absolute viscosity measurement and compare the results. Accordingly, Robert W. Penn, Hobart S. White, and 

Elliot A. Kearsley replaced the traditional capillary method with two new methods 

that would, at least, exhibit different biases. 

Penn and Kearsley assembled a three-cornered flow channel by clamping two I m long stainless-steel rods together, then clamping a glass flat across the two rods. An 

equation was derived for kinematic viscosity in the resulting geometry. Pressure 

taps, a standpipe at the entrance to provide calculable entry pressure, a sampling 

system at the exit, and careful temperature control completed the apparatus. Viscosity 

measurements were made on a light oil. Using a well-established relation between 

the viscosity of the light oil and the viscosity of water, the authors derived a value of 

(1.001 ± 0.001) cP at 20 °C for water.3'3 

Meanwhile, White and Kearsley built a 10 cm diameter hollow nickel sphere with a smooth interior surface. The sphere was designed to be filled with the test fluid, hung 

from a wire, and set into oscillation by applying a small torque. The two derived an equation relating the period of oscillation to the viscosity of the fluid. Timing of the 

oscillation was accomplished electronically. Again, the system was placed under 

careful temperature control. Their measurements, performed on a different light oil, 

could be corrected to yield a value for the viscosity of water. The value so deduced was (1.006 + 0.001) cP. This value was about 0.5 % higher than the one obtained by 

the channel-flow technique.3t4 

James L. Jesperson and Lowell Fey, "'Time-telling' techniques," IEEE Spectrum 9, pp. 5 1-58, May 1972. 311 James L. Jesperson, Byron E. Blair, and Lawrence E. Gatterer, "Characterization and concepts of timefrequency dissemination," Proc. IEEE 60, No. 5, pp. 502-521, May 1972. 312 B. E. Blair and A. H. Morgan, Editors, "Precision Measurement and Calibration: Selected papers on Frequency and Time," NBS Special Publication 300, Vol. 5, 565 pp., June 1972. 

R. W. Penn and E. A. Kearsley, "An absolute determination of viscosity using channel flow," J. Res. NBS 

75A, No. 6, 553-560 (1971). 

H. S. White and E. A. Kearsley, "An absolute determination of viscosity using a torsional pendulum," 

J. Res. NBS 75A, No. 6, 541-551 (1971). 

312 
Elliot Kearsley inspected the height of the liquid inside a hollow sphere that, when 

excited, became a rotational pendulum, turning first in one direction and then in the 

other. It could be used to make absolute viscosity measurements, the viscosity of the 

sample liquid being calculated from observed parameters, including the period of 

oscillation. 

313 
Robert S. Marvin, comparing the two experiments with previous determinations, 

suggested that systematic errors remaining in viscosity measurements limited their 

accuracy to about ±0.25 %, a much larger figure than ±0.1 %, the irreproducibility of 

carefully performed measurements.3t5 

New Calibration Service for Millimeter Waves 

The Boulder Radio Standards Engineering Division announced in February 1972 the 

initiation of a calibration service to extend their microwave calibrations into the 

55 GHz to 65 GHz range. Types of measurements provided included the following: 

•Power, measured using a microcalorimeter, accurate at the ± 3 % level. 

•Attenuation at the level of ± 0.05 dB per 10 dB, from 0 dB to 50 dB. 

•Impedance (measured as the reflection coefficient) over the range 0.001 F to 1.0 F. 

•Antenna gain, measured both indoors and out. 

•Noise, to an accuracy of 2.3 %, depending on the equipment involved. 

The new service was operated by Frances X. Ries. 

Changing Time by Leap Seconds 

All early efforts towards more accurate timekeeping were driven by the desire for 

better navigation. Therefore, the most useful clocks were those that most closely 

represented the earth's rotation rate. Greenwich Mean Time became the official source 

of earth-based timekeeping in the I 840s, and it held its position as the world standard 

of time until January 1, 1972. Ingenious pendulum clocks offered timekeeping 

accuracy at the level of about one part in ten million. Quartz oscillator clocks 

performed even better. 

When Harold Lyons, Chief of the NBS Microwave Standards Section, began to use an absorption line of ammonia as an "atomic clock" in 1948, he opened the door to a new level of accuracy in timekeeping. Also lurking behind that door was an inevitable 

collision with Greenwich Mean Time. 

The idea of basing time and frequency measurements on atomic transitions was 

revolutionary. Unlike pendulum clocks or quartz crystals, all ammonia atoms were 

alike; the frequency of the chosen transition was invariant. "Atomic clocks" made 

anywhere would, in principle, keep exactly the same time. More advanced clocks 

based on the measurement of a 9192 MHz transition in atomic beams of cesium agreed 

within 2 parts in IOu by 1960.36 

R. S. Marvin, "Accuracy of measurements of viscosity of liquids," J. Res. NBS 75A, No. 6, 535-540 

(1971). 316 R. E. Beehler, R. C. Mockler, and C. S. Snider, "A comparison of atomic beam frequency standards," 

Nature 187, August 20, 1960, PP. 68 1-682. According to Bragaw and Snyder, Achievements in Radio, P. 301, other Bureau staff members who participated in the early work on atomic clocks included Jesse E. 

Sherwood, Robert N. McCracken, Richard C. Mockler, David W. Allan, James A. Barnes, R. Lowell Fey, 

David J. Glaze, Donald W. Halford, F. Russell Petersen, Jack B. Snider, Richard L. Strombotne, Henry F. 

Salazar, and Arthur E. Wainwright. 

314 
The very high accuracy reached by the atomic clocks made painfully obvious the 

fact that the earth's rotation was not uniform, but instead varied by a few thousandths 

of a second a day (about one part in 108). The question became one of how to take 

advantage of the accuracy of modern atomic clocks while still keeping tenestrial 

clocks in time with the earth's movements. Various techniques involving Ephemeris 

Time, Universal Time, and "rubber seconds" were not successful. 

The eventual resolution of the earth-clock vs atom-clock problem involved a com- promise. On January 1, 1972, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures 

began to administer a new time scale, Coordinated Universal Time, or UTC. The 

accumulation of time on the UTC followed the atomic clocks. However, a one-second 

adjustment to the UTC would be made whenever earth time deviated as much as one second from atomic time. Because of the similarity to the "leap year" concept, the 

one-second adjustments were called "leap seconds."317 

High-Level and Wide-Range Power Measurements 

New techniques for the measurement of continuous-wave microwave power at high 

levels and for the measurement of power over wide ranges of power and frequency were developed by members of the Radio Standards Engineering Division in Boulder. 

W. E. Little, K. E. Bramall, and E. Andrusko, collaborating with R. Gray of the 

Rome [New York] Air Development Center of the U.S. Air Force, demonstrated the 

feasibility of measuring with unprecedented accuracy the output of a 60,000 W, 

8 GHz klystron amplifier. Using standard NBS microwave power calibration equipment 

with a new type of power divider, the group visited the Air Force installation and 

measured the large radar source with an estimated uncertainty less than 4 %•318 It was 

considered important to refine the measurement of microwave power—commonly only 

accurate to 10 % at that time—to avoid the "overdesign" of equipment as well as to 

minimize hazards from radar installations, microwave ovens, and communications gear. 

In a separate project, R. A. Lawton, C. M. AlIred, and P. A. Hudson developed a new technique useful for the measurement of power levels as low as W over the 

entire radio-frequency range.319 A standard power meter was employed in the 

process to determine a reference level, then a set of precision attenuators and a null 

detector were used to obtain power values with uncertainty levels of about 0.5 % to 

1.5 %. These results represented an improvement over previous accuracy figures by 

factors of 2 to 6. It was expected that the new method could be used to measure power 

levels as high as 100 kW, and to be useful in the calibration of detectors, receivers, 

radiometers, and other instruments. 

317 James Jespersen and Jane Fitz-Randolph, "From sundials to atomic clocks: understanding time and 

frequency," NBS Monograph 155, December 1977, 175 pp. 

"High-level microwave power measurements," NBS Technical News Bulletin, July 1970, pp. 146-147. 

R. A. Lawton, C. M. AlIred, and P. A. Hudson, "A wide-range cw power measurement technique," IEEE 

Trans. Insir. Meas. IM-19, No. 1. 28-34 (1970). 

315 
Analyzing High-Intensity Electric Fields 

In studies of liquid dielectrics, where distortions of the electric fields by space 

charge made analytical determinations of the field distributions difficult or impossible, a new technique devised by Esther C. Cassidy and Harold N. Cones of the Electricity 

Division permitted accurate mapping of field intensity between electrodes immersed in 

liquid dielectrics. 

The new method was based on the observation of the Kerr effect in nitrobenzenefilled cells. An expanded beam from a helium-neon laser was passed through a polarizer prior to entering the Kerr cell, then detected after passing through a second 

polarizer. The effect of high voltages on the refractive index of the nitrobenzene 

rendered the field profile visible in cases where the fields were non-uniform. Mapping 

of the fringe patterns allowed space-resolved measurements of relative field strength, 

actual field strength, and electrical potential. Visual examination could immediately 

detect regions of high electrical stress, where arcing and breakdown were likely. 

The new technique was expected to lead to a better understanding of the behavior of 

dielectrics exposed to high-intensity electric fields.32° 

New Mass Standards from Ion Exchange Beads 

David H. Freeman came to the Bureau's Analytical Chemistry Division in 1965, 

young but highly trained in the science of ion exchange. By 1968 Freeman was chief 

of the Separation and Purification Section of the division. 

In March of that year, he spoke on ion exchange during an NBS Symposium on Future Standards For Analysis, staged by the Institute for Materials Research as part 

of the Pittsburgh Conference on Analytical Chemistry and Applied Specrroscopy (held, 

strange as it may seem, in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1968). Freeman predicted that ion 

exchange resins in the form of small, spherical particles would soon be perfected as mass standards at the Bureau. The advantage of the spherical beads lay in their 

chemical uniformity and the fact that they could be implanted with electrically charged 

counterions, either singly or in combination. Each bead's counterion content was 

directly related to the bead diameter, said Freeman, so that careful measurement of the 

bead diameter could produce a chemical microstandard. 

Freeman quoted the results of a recent National Academy of Sciences-National 

Research Council survey of 78 analytical laboratories to indicate the types of activities 

in which such standards were expected to become useful. These included the 

convenient setting of analytical detection limits, microscale calibration of chemical 

measurements, flux standards for neutron irradiation, microspectrophotometric 

absorption standards, electron probe microanalysis, and mass spectrometry. 

E. C. Cassidy and H. N. Cones, "A Kerr electro-optical technique for observation and analysis of high-intensity electric fields," J. Res. NBS 73C, Nos. I and 2, 5-13 (1969). 

316 
By 1970 the first of the new standards was ready. Freeman, Lloyd A. Currie, Edwin 

C. Kuehner, Herbert D. Dixon, and Roif A. Paulson described their development and 

characterization in a detailed article in the journal Analytical Chemistry. 321 Beads were 

available with diameters in the range 1 mm to I urn, as measured by photomicroscopy 

and electron microscopy. These diameters corresponded to masses in the range I g 

to g. Encapsulation of both sodium and calcium particles had been accomplished. 

Samples of well-characterized beads were immediately made available through the 

Office of Standard Reference Materials. 

Clearly, work to take full advantage of the new microstandards was still in the early 

stages, but ground had been broken in yet another standards area. Director Lewis Branscomb gave the work on new mass standards high praise: 

This advance in measurement science illustrates the way sophisticated scientific 

work helps solve major problems affecting our Nation. Inability to measure 

accurately the minute quantities of pollutants in air and water is a tremendous 

obstacle in all anti-pollution efforts. This significant step along this road will 

help make both research and regulation easier and more effective.322 

A New Standard for Voltage Ratios 

In 1970 Ronald F. Dziuba and Bernadine L. Dunfee developed a new electrical 

standard. Built especially for dc and low-frequency ac calibrations, the new standard was capable of evaluating voltage ratios involving voltages as high as 1000 V with 

uncertainty levels as low as 0.2 ppm. 

The standard was a stable, guarded unit enclosed in a sealed, thermostated container. 

The two scientists provided discrete ratios from 1: 1 to 1000: 1. Each successive ratio was measured by a substitution method and by satisfying the conditions of the 

series-parallel principle. A measuring network and the techniques to be followed in the use of the standard were important parts of the measuring system.323 

Forest K. Harris Retires 

Forest K. Harris "retired" from the Electricity Division, where he had served as chief of the Absolute Electrical Measurements Section, in April 1971. In retirement, 

however, he continued to assist the Division as a consultant. In June 1972, the Institute 

of Electrical and Electronic Engineers honored Harris with the award of the Morris E. 

Leeds prize for: 

David H. Freeman, Lloyd A. Currie, Edwin C. Kuehner, Herbert D. Dixon, and RoIf A. Paulson, 

"Development and characterization of ion-exchange bead microstandards," Anal. Chem. 42, No. 2, 203-209 

(1970). 322 "Ion exchange beads: the "micromini" calibrators," NBS Tech. Newa Bull., April 1970, p 82. 323 R. F. Dziuba and B. L. Dunfee, "Resistive voltage-ratio standard and measuring circuit," IEEE Trans. 

lnstr. Meas. IM-19, No. 4, pp. 266-277 (1970). 

317 
A lifetime of making outstanding advances in the science of high accuracy 

electrical measurements, and of stimulating further advances through his 

teaching, authorship, and committee activity.324 

A Bureau staff member since 1925, Harris was no stranger to awards for excellent 

scientific work. In 1955, he received the DoC Meritorious Service Award for his book 

Electrical Measurements, a classic in its field. In 1967, he received the NBS Edward 

B. Rosa award for his contributions to the development of standards for electrical 

measuring instruments. 

Problems with an Unseasoned Temperature Scale 

We mentioned in Chapter 1 the Treaty of the Meter, signed in 1875 in Paris by the 

United States and some 16 other nations. Agreements on new international measurement standards involved national laboratory staffs throughout the world, as well as the 

International Bureau of Weights and Measures and other Treaty organizations. Usually, new standards were suggested to the International Committee for Weights and 

Measures (CIPM) by the appropriate Consultative Committee, composed of working 

scientists. But this was not always the case. In 1968, the international Consultative Committee for Temperature (CCT) could no longer resist the call of the CIPM to amend—if not replace entirely—the International 

Practical Temperature Scale of 1948. The result was a new temperature scale that was unready for service. 

The CCT had been loath to call for a new scale, because its members felt that many 

of the projects on fundamental thermometry that were needed for such an amendment were not yet complete. Although international bodies tend to accept progress in 

deliberate, measured doses, the CIPM—as recorded by Hugh Preston-Thomas later, 

when he was President of the CCT—had, for over a decade, dropped more and more pointed hints that the time for renovation or replacement of the IPTS-48 was at 

hand. 325 Replacement of the 1948 temperature scale was considered an urgent matter 

primarily because of international programs involving temperatures beyond its lower 

limit. The most obvious of these concerned liquid hydrogen, used in the development 

of thermonuclear weapons and in NASA's rocketry. NASA also made extensive use of liquid helium as a coolant. At ordinary pressures, hydrogen is a liquid only below 

20 K, and helium liquefies below 4.2 K; the lower limit of the 1948 scale was 90 K— 

above even the normal boiling point of nitrogen. 

Thus it happened in 1968 that the CCT transmitted to the CIPM a tentative outline 

for a new temperature scale extending down to 14 K, a scale that one of its subcommittees had prepared during the previous year. The CIPM wasted no time in 

"Dr. Forest K. Harris to receive IEEE award," NBS Standard Vol. XVII, No. 3, April 1972, pp. 9, 15. 

'25 H. Preston-Thomas, "The origin and present status of the IPTS-68" in Temperature, Its measurement and 

Control in Science and Industry, Vol. 4,1-1. H. Plumb, Editor-in-Chief, Instrument Society of America, 1972, 

pp. 3-14. 

318 
notifying members of the General Conference on Weights and Measures that a new scale was at hand. During the fall of the year, the 13th General Conference passed a resolution permitting the CIPM to promulgate the new scale, and delegates to the 

CIPM meeting separately but essentially simultaneously designated the tentative outline 

as the international Practical Temperature Scale of 1968. All that was wanting were a few details: a text that would prescribe the means by which temperatur'es on the new 

scale could be determined; some knowledge of the relation of the new scale to the 

1948 version; and estimates of the uncertainties of the new scale with respect to 

thermo-dynamic temperatures in the various parts of its range. 

It is a testament to the resourcefulness of the thermometrists involved that a complete text for the 1968 temperature scale was published early in 1969.326 Rapid 

correspondence among laboratories that had developed provisional scales ranging from 

14 K upwards produced the required extension to lower temperatures. New values, 

more in accord with the then-current perception of the thermodynamic scale, were assigned to fixed points throughout the new scale. Adjustments were made to 

calibration procedures for standard platinum resistance thermometers in the range 14 K 

to 904 K (—259 °C to 631 °C), for standard platinum vs platinum-rhodium-alloy 

thermocouple thermometers in the range 904 K to 1337 K (631 °C to 1064 °C), and for 

spectral radiance thermometers in the range above 1337 K. 

But given the hurried nature of its production, it was no surprise that thermometrists 

quickly found inconsistencies in the 1968 temperature scale. Two of the earliest 

protests came from NBS. 

John P. Evans and Sharrill D. Wood, convinced that platinum resistance thermometry might provide a better scale in the range 904 K to 1337 K than could be realized 

using standard thermocouple thermometers, carefully compared nine specially prepared 

platinum resistance thermometers with eight standard thermocouple thermometers.327 

They found the resistance thermometers considerably more reproducible than the 

thermocouple thermometers: uncertainties of about 0.004 K for the former, 0.025 K to 

0.030 K for the latter. But of equal interest was a curious discrepancy—reaching 0.4 K 

in mid-range—between temperatures determined using simple quadratic interpolation 

schemes for the two types of thermometers from 904 K to 1137 K. These results would 

be mirrored in a major renovation to the 1968 scale, promulgated in 1990, when it was decided that a quadratic equation did not accurately portray the relationship between 

the electromotive force of a standard thermocouple thermometer and thermodynamic 

temperatures. 

A more direct attack on the accuracy with which the 1968 temperature scale 

represented thermodynamic temperatures came from Leslie A. Guildner, Richard L. 

Anderson, and Robert E. Edsinger. These scientists, continuing an NBS gas thermometry program started decades previously, found a surprisingly large discrepancy at 

326 "International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968," Metrologia 5, 35 (1969). 327 J. P. Evans and S. D. Wood. "An intercomparison of high temperature platinum resistance thermometers 

and standard thermocouples," Metrologia 7, No. 3, pp. 108-130 (1971). 

319 
ShanlI Wood welded platinum wires to fabricate a platinum resistance thermometer intended for use at temperatures as high as 1100 °C. 

373 K, only 100 K above the major defining temperature of the 1968 scale 

provided by the triple point of water.328 Instead of differing by 100 K exactly, as assumed in constructing the IPTS-68, the three Bureau authors found that the steam 

point was only 99.973 K above the ice point. The discrepancy, 0.027 K, was five 

times larger than the estimated thermodynamic uncertainty of the 1968 scale at that 

temperature. 

L. A. Guildner, R. L. Anderson, and R. E. Edsinger, of sorption on the realization of the thermodynamic scale," pp. 313-322 in Temperature, Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, 4, 

Harmon H. Plumb, editor-in-chief, Part I (Pittsburgh: Instrument Society of America. 1972). 

320 
Leslie A. Guildner adjusted the extremely accurate mercury manometer that he developed with colleagues 

Richard L. Anderson and Robert E. Edsinger for use with the NBS gas thermometer. 

The usefulness of the IPTS-68 reference temperatures was challenged by George 

Furukawa, John Riddle, and William Bigge of the Heat Division's Platinum Resistance 

Thermometer Calibration laboratory. They had employed the freezing point of tin 

(232 °C) as a reference temperature for the calibration of platinum resistance 

thermometers for many years. They found it substantially more reliable than the 

boiling point of water (100 °C), specified as a calibration temperature in the 

IPTS-68.329 

09 George T. Furukawa, John L. Riddle, and William R. Bigge, "Investigation of freezing temperatures of 

National Bureau of Standards tin standards," pp. 247-263 in Temperature, It s Measurement and Control 

in Science and Industry 4. 1972, H. H. Plumb, Editor. 

321 
The authors collaborated with the NBS Standard Reference Materials program in 

evaluating tin freezing-point temperature as part of the issuance of two grades of tin as SRM-42G (10 ppm maximum impurities) and SRM-741 (1 ppm maximum 

impurities).330 They carefully filled several freezing-point cells with samples of each 

purity. The results showed consistency of samples of a given purity within °C; the 

less-pure tin was found to exhibit a slightly lower freezing temperature (5 X °C) 

than the purer samples. On balance, tin appeared to be a good candidate for a reference 

temperature for an eventual replacement temperature scale. In fact, their work was 

adopted as part of the new scale that was promulgated in 1990. 

Although the 1968 temperature scale would survive for 22 years, its eventual 

replacement was almost a certainty from the date of its birth. 

"° Robert L. Powell of the NBS/Boulder Cryogenics Division also participated in the certification of the tin 

samples by determining the ratio of the electrical resistivity at 0 °C to that at 4.2 K. 

322 

The Watergate burglary, as crimes go, was no big deal. The fact that the burglars 

could be connected with the White House, however, interested the Federal Bureau of 

Investigation. The President, worried about the effect on the coming elections of any 

unsavory revelations by the burglars, ordered H. R. Haldeman, one of his top aides, 

to instruct the Central Intelligence Agency to intervene in the case and to demand 

that the FBI drop its investigation. 

This action, constituting obstruction of justice, transformed the small problem into a large one. As time went on, new illegal actions and the accidental revelation of 

unrelated misdeeds made the problem larger and larger.3 

SEEKING A NEW NBS DIRECTOR 

The resignation of Lewis Branscomb as Director of NBS after less than three years 

in that office surprised and puzzled the technical community both inside the Bureau 

and beyond. The bright future envisioned by the NBS staff suddenly became cloudy 

and uncertain. The eloquent voice and restless personality, so promising in terms of 

leadership within the Bureau and so visible in the Nation's scientific establishment 

and in Congress, passed like a shadow with Branscomb's letter of resignation to 

President Nixon on April 4, 

An editorial in Science magazine summarized Branscomb's role for NBS with the 

comments that he had ". . . aroused the low-profile and somewhat sleepy agency to 

eminence . . ." Branscomb, Nicholas Wade wrote, had brought ". . . recognition of its 

potential as the government's instrument for stimulating industrial technology. . . Branscomb's departure was a great disappointment to Allen Astin. Astin had persevered as Director through trying and occasionally unpleasant times. He had accepted 

his problems as they came, always placing the welfare of NBS above any personal 

desire or need. It was galling to think that his carefully nurtured choice as successor 

might have been undone by the mere offer of more money—the type of temptation 

that confronted first-rank Bureau scientists continually. 

The matter was not as simple as wages to be earned for a day's work, although the 

salary increase offered to Branscomb by International Business Machines, Inc. was indeed substantial. There was the job itself—technical direction of a $500 million 

research laboratory and the opportunity to serve as technical spokesman for one of the 

greatest of the high-tech corporations. At IBM, Branscomb could influence the 

course of technology at the highest level; certainly this was a challenge to his desire to 

make a mark on the technical life of the United States. 

Stephen E. Ambrose, Nixon, Volume Three: Ruin and Recovery, 1973-1990 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 

1991),Ch. 1. 4NBS Standard, Special Edition April 20, 1972. The four-page issue contains a note on Branscomb's 

departure and his temporary replacement by Lawrence M. Kushner, Branscomb's letter to President Nixon, 

Nixon's letter of acceptance, and excerpts from Branscomb's announcement to Bureau division chiefs. 

N. Wade, "NBS Loses Branscomb to IBM," Science 176, p. 147 (April 10, 1972). 

324 
Besides the pull of an influential, well-paid position, there was also the push of 

Branscomb's political mismatch with a Republican administration, which could have 

created problems at any moment. Branscomb knew that another promising Bureau 

leader, Edward Condon, had chosen earlier to resign the NBS directorship when his 

effectiveness was compromised by bad relations with Congress.6 But whatever the why or wherefore, the end of Branscomb's short tenure left NBS without a director in May 

of 1972. NBS Administrative Bulletin 72-25, dated May 3, 1972, contains the single 

statement: 

Effective May 7, 1972, Dr. Lawrence M. Kushner, Deputy Director of the 

Bureau, will serve as Acting Director until a new Director is named. 

"Until" turned out to be nearly one year, a delay that was occasioned in part by the 

coming Presidential elections, in part by the extraordinary distractions experienced 

during this period by the Nixon Administration. 

No one would have been surprised had Kushner been named to succeed Branscomb as Director of NBS. A Princeton-trained physical chemist, Kushner had come to the 

Bureau in December of He had been invited by James I. Hoffman to join the 

newly created Surface Chemistry Section of the Chemistry Division. Kushner soon 

had organized a small group, including Hoffman himself, Blanton C. Duncan, Willard 

D. Hubbard, Rebecca A. Parker, and A. S. Doan, that successfully investigated the 

fundamental properties of surface-active agents, primarily wetting agents and 

detergents. 

Several years later, Kushner created a Metal Physics Section in the Metallurgy 

Division. In that effort and later as Chief of the Metallurgy Division, Kushner took 

steps to modernize the Bureau's scientific work in the area of metallurgy. He brought 

to NBS a group of scientists interested in the newer theories of alloying and dislocation, nuclear magnetic resonance in metals, and the use of the electron microscope. 

Some of the people initiating the new projects were Robert L. Parker (crystal growth), 

John R. Manning (diffusion), Arthur W. Ruff (x-ray and electron microscopy), 

Lawrence H. Bennett (nuclear magnetic resonance), and Roland DeWitt (imperfections 

in crystals). 

In September 1964, Kushner was selected as one of the first 17 participants in a new 

Department of Commerce scientific exchange program. Dubbed the Commerce Science 

and Technology Fellowship, the program enabled budding technical leaders to view the 

department from new angles by working outside their own agencies.8 During his fellowship, Kushner worked as a special assistant for legislation to J. Herbert 

Hollomon in the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology. This 

experience gave Kushner an excellent perspective on the need for technological 

upgrading of U.S. industry. 

6 Launston S. Taylor, Oral History, April 10, 1990. 

Lawrence M. Kushner, "An NBSer's Odyssey," SAA Newsletter, Vol. 98-2, June 1998, pp. 16-18. 8 Press release, Office of the Secretary (Luther H. Hodges), U.S. Department of Commerce, September 9, 

1964, issuance #G 64-140. 

325 
In 1969 Kushner became Deputy Director of NBS under Allen Astin. He remained 

in that post under Director Lewis Branscomb, accumulating more than three years 

experience in the position.9 

Only one feature of Kushner's résumé could not particularly help him with the 

Nixon administration: although politically neutral, he was a registered Democrat. 

Other reasonable choices as Branscomb's successor could be found among the senior 

managers at NBS, too. One was Ernest Ambler, Director of the Institute for Basic 

Standards, a scientist with two decades of service as a physicist in the field of cryogenics and in several management positions. Another was John D. Hoffman, Director 

of the Institute for Materials Research, who was a second-generation Bureau man 

(coincidentally, John's father, James I. Hoffman, had hired Lawrence Kushner). 

Hoffman had been a participant in the wartime Manhattan Project and, like Ambler, a staff member at NBS for 20 years. Hoffman was still active as a theorist in the field 

of polymer science. A third reasonable candidate for Director was Edward Brady, 

Associate Director for Information Programs. Brady, a physical chemist, had been 

recruited to NBS in 1963 expressly to become head of its then-new Office of Standard 

Reference Data. Prior to his Bureau tenure, Brady had served in the Manhattan Project 

and had spent 10 years devising nuclear programs for the General Electric Company. 

Yet another possibility was Howard Sorrows, Associate Director for Programs. 

Sorrows had been employed as an electronics scientist at NBS from 1941-52. Subsequently he had worked for the Office of Naval Research and the Naval Ordnance 

Laboratory and for Texas Instruments Corporation. In 1965 he had returned to NBS as Assistant to Gordon Teal, Director of the Institute for Materials Research. 

In these scientists and in others not named here, there was breadth of scientific 

understanding, experience in management at NBS and elsewhere, and more than 

passing acquaintance with the national technical establishment. Leadership of the 

Bureau in the uncertain days ahead could logically have been placed in the hands of 

any of a whole group of senior NBS scientists. 

Despite the ready availability of suitable leaders at NBS, the loss of Branscomb as Director was utilized by the Nixon administration as an opportunity to look elsewhere 

for a replacement.. As an alternative to NBS career scientists, Arthur A. Bueche, a member of the Bureau's statutory Visiting Committee, suggested that NBS could 

benefit from a director who was an expert on technical communication—not necessarily an outstanding scientist, but someone who could "sell" the Bureau's programs 

to the Congress and to the technical public as well. Such a quality, which had been 

strong in Lewis Branscomb, was relatively rare among scientists. 

Bueche had someone very specific in mind: Richard W. Roberts, Manager of 

Material Science and Engineering at the General Electric Research and Development 

Center in Schenectady, New York. Though he was a scientist (a physical chemist) 

by training, Roberts was known more as a good salesman. He was interested in 

technical management as a career. In 1973 Roberts was but 38 years of age. He had 

worked at NBS as a National Research Council post-doctoral associate during 1959-60, 

Lawrence M. Kushner, Oral History, June 7, 1988. 

326 
studying surface chemistry with Heat Division scientists Kurt Shuler, John McKinley, 

and Robert Ferguson. In 1960 he joined the General Electric Corporation. There he 

pursued studies of high vacuum and lubricants, publishing furiously for several years; 

then he turned to technical management with equal vigor. It was said by some that he 

had his eye on the position held by Arthur Bueche! 

Bueche's efforts on behalf of Roberts were well-received at the Department of 

Commerce and at the White House. President Nixon apparently discussed the directorship of NBS with Roberts prior to the national elections in November 1972, although 

the formal nomination announcement was not made until December 20, 1972, after 

Nixon's re-election to the Presidency. The Senate Committee on Commerce held 

nomination hearings on January 29, 1973, and Roberts was confirmed on February 1.10 

He was sworn in on February 5, 1973. 

Ernest Ambler later amplified the circumstances surrounding the selection of Roberts as NBS Director: 

Dick Roberts came to NBS because of Art Bueche. Bueche was head of the 

General Electric Company's Central Research Laboratory in Schenectady, and 

Roberts was one of his senior people. Bueche was also a member and 

ultimately Chairman of the NBS Statutory Visiting Committee. 

Bueche prided himself on his ability to communicate to top management the 

nature of the work of his laboratory and its importance and ultimate utility to 

the company. Roberts was a 'whiz' at the kind of 'show and tell' that Bueche's 

method demanded. By comparison Beuche thought we at NBS did an absolutely lousy job in marketing our wares to our bosses in the Government 

and thought Roberts was just the man to come down and show us how to fix 

this deficiency." 

A SECOND TERM FOR RICHARD NIXON 

One feature of 1972 went well for President Nixon; he and Spiro Agnew were easily 

re-elected, besting by a heavy margin their opponents, Senator George McGovern and 

Sargent Shriver. Shriver was a former head of the Peace Corps; he replaced Senator 

Thomas Eagleton as the Democratic vice-presidential candidate when revelations of the 

latter's history of mental illness caused McGovern to drop him from the ticket. 

The Democratic Party, however, retained control of both houses of Congress. When 

the time came to question the legality of certain actions by President Nixon, the 

Democrats in Congress possessed the necessary power to pursue all the ramifications 

of the Watergate affair. 

0 Nomination hearings for Roberts were held by the Committee on Commerce, 93rd Cong., First Sess., 

January 29, 1973, Richard W. Roberts, to be Director of the National Bureau of Standards. See also 

Congressional Record—Daily Digest, February 1, 1973, p. D-36. 

"Ernest Ambler, "Historical Perspective: 1973-1989," in NBSINJST a Historical Perspective: A Symposium 

in Celebration of NISTs Ninetieth Anniversary, March 4, 1991, Karma A. Beal, Editor, N157' Special 

Publication 825, April 1992, p. 31. 

327 
Thanks to Nixon's practice of tape-recording White House conversations, we know a great deal about how he was able to perform his presidential duties while at the 

same time pursuing his enemies with no regard for the law. It is instructive—nay, 

necessary—to take note of both facets of this interesting President. 

"Watergate" and the Loss of a President 

By the time that a replacement for Lewis Branscomb was nominated, the Nixon 

presidency had already been damaged seriously by the Watergate affair. Always 

suspicious, always determined to be decisive and tough, President Nixon had ensured 

himself at least a small problem by creating the "Plumbers," whose original charter was expanded as necessary to further the Administration's political goals. As noted 

above, Nixon also installed eavesdropping equipment to tape conversations and 

meetings in the White House. 

Unfortunately, Nixon fell into the trap of denying all while failing to destroy 

tape-recorded evidence, which he presumed he could keep with impunity for later 

"historical" use. On February 7, 1973, a seven-member select committee of the 

U.S. Senate was established to investigate political espionage, including the Watergate 

break-in. 

In a painfully slow process which lasted until August of 1974, the unfortunate 

details of Nixon's schemes were gradually uncovered by the Senate committee. The 

results showed a President so consumed with distrust that he not only countenanced 

lawlessness within his administration but demanded it of his personal staff. 

In October of 1973, Vice President Agnew resigned his office rather than face trial on charges of bribery, extortion, and income-tax evasion that dated back to his days as Governor of Maryland but also extended into his term as Vice President. Agnew's 

resignation was forced by Elliot Richardson, only months earlier named Attorney 

General by Nixon after the resignation of Richard Kleindienst. Richardson had acted 

quickly upon seeing the evidence against Agnew, in order to eliminate the possibility 

that Nixon might be succeeded by a man soon to be prosecuted on felony charges.'2 

Required by the 25th amendment to the U.S. Constitution to quickly nominate a replacement Vice President for confirmation by a simple majority of both houses of 

Congress, Nixon nominated Gerald R. Ford of Michigan, Minority Leader of the 

House of Representatives, a man whom the Congress could happily confirm. 

On the same day that Ford was nominated, October 12, 1973, the U.S. Court of 

Appeals ruled that the tape recordings made by Nixon—which contained direct 

evidence of criminality and obstruction of justice by dozens of Administration officials 

including Nixon himself—must be surrendered to the Senate investigating committee. 

Given the deep troubles of the President, it was considered a real possibility by the 

members of Congress that Nixon might resign his office to avoid prosecution, as Agnew had done. That possibility made it urgent that Ford—or someone with his 

2 See, for example, James Cannon, Time and Chance: Gerald Ford's Appointment With History (New York: 

Harper Collins Publishers, 1994), pp. 186-199. 

328 
capabilities—be confirmed as Vice-President: in the absence of a sitting VicePresident, the Speaker of the House would succeed to the White House. 

Only the most partisan of the Congressional Democrats wanted Carl Albert, then 

the Speaker, to bear the burden of the Presidency; it was widely supposed that Albert's 

best years were well behind him. Nevertheless, nearly two months passed before 

Congress considered the nomination of Ford as Vice-President, so involved was that 

body over the question of Presidential misdeeds and with the consequences of Nixon's 

firing of Archibald Cox, the Special Prosecutor who demanded that the President 

surrender his collection of incriminating White House tape recordings. 

On December 6, 1973, however, both houses of Congress confirmed the choice of 

Gerald Ford as Vice President by overwhelming margins. Quickly Ford was sworn into 

office. 

Despite desperate efforts by the administration over the following months to slow or stop the prosecution of the Watergate affair, the Senate Select Committee inexorably 

demonstrated that Nixon himself was involved in a large-scale program that broke a variety of laws and had attempted to conceal the facts by misuse of the Internal 

Revenue Service, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Central Intelligence Agency, 

and the Department of Justice.'3 

At 9 am on August 8, 1974, President Nixon addressed the Nation via television to 

state his intention to resign his office during the next day. He became the first U.S. 

President to do so. He thus avoided protracted impeachment proceedings on criminal 

charges and abuse of his office. He also preserved his pension, his lifetime Secret 

Service protection, and other perquisites of the Presidency. 

The next day, August 9th, Alexander Haig delivered Nixon's letter of resignation to 

Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, "I hereby resign the Office of President of the 

United States." At 12:03 pm, as Nixon and members of his family flew to California, 

Gerald Ford became President. Ford had some work to do. 

Searching for an End to the Vietnam War 

President Nixon had a little more luck in extricating the United States from the 

Vietnam War than had Lyndon Johnson. There was no way to "win" any more, only 

the possibility of withdrawing from the war-torn country without the stigma of losing. 

With Henry Kissinger, his foreign-policy guru, continually at his side, Nixon sought to 

capitalize on the gains in popularity that followed his visits to Russia and to Peking 

during the election year of 1972.. 

Once the elections were over, President Nixon ordered the heaviest bombardment 

ever—more than 36,000 tons of bombs dropped over a 12-day period in December—of 

the populous Hanoi-to-Haiphong corridor. The North Vietnamese asked for a return to 

peace negotiations.'4 

" Ambrose, Nixon, Volume Three, p. 386. 

MacGregor Bums, The Crosswinds of Freedom (New York: Random House, 1990), pp. 479-489. 

329 
Cease-fire talks early in 1973 gave the President the opportunity to promise "peace 

with honor," although the United States—despite pledges to its allies in South 

Vietnam—already had given in to the demand that North Vietnamese troops would 

remain in South Vietnam. Despite the talks, it proved necessary for the United States 

to continue routine bombing, not only in Vietnam but in Cambodia. 

The Congress expressed its distaste for Nixon's style of governing with the War 

Powers Act, passed in August of 1973. This Act demanded that U.S. troops be brought 

home within sixty days unless Congress was consulted on military policy and agreed 

with the President's decisions. 

The Vietnam War was winding down, not as a result of victory or defeat but of 

simple fatigue—the Nation was tired of sending its sons and daughters to participate in an expensive and unwinnable conflict on the other side of the world.'5 

In April 1975, under the anguished supervision of President Ford, the last U.S. 

civilians were evacuated from Saigon as the North Vietnamese took command of the 

beleaguered city. 

Returning Vietnam veterans, frustrated and scarred in mind and body in battles that 

made no sense, added to the disaffection that ran through the country during this era. 

Stagflation 

As a believing Republican, President Nixon had a natural aversion to government 

economic controls. Nevertheless, in August 1971, he issued a 90-day freeze on wages, 

prices, and rents. Nixon took this distasteful step because of high (5 %) inflation, 

the Nation's first balance-of-payments deficit, and rising unemployment. He urged 

corporations to hold the line on stockholder dividends. For his part, he promised to 

reduce government expenditures and to reduce Federal employment by 5 %. As we mentioned at the beginning of this chapter and shall again later, NBS felt the full 

impact of these economies. 

Nixon's efforts were sufficiently successful by the time of the 1972 elections that he 

could cite a rebounding economy as evidence that he should be re-elected. However, 

the rebound was brief, for the Nation's economic troubles were deep-seated. 

The economic controls were continued, but gradually eased, during 1972 and 1973. 

They were abandoned in 1974, when the U.S. economic downturn became more 

pronounced. A condition of stagnant consumer demand accompanying relatively severe 

inflation became the definition of a new word—"stagflation." 

The so-called New Economic Policy, announced by President Nixon during his first 

term, failed to curb the spending—in both the public and private sectors—that led to 

pronounced price inflation during 1973. In the meantime, U.S. industry, hard-hit by 

low-priced imported goods, languished. During 1973, U.S. automobile sales fell 

11 million behind the 1972 figures. During 1974, unemployment reached 7.2 %, a 

15-year high.'6 

James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), Ch. 24. 6 Patterson, Grand Expectations, Ch. 25. 

330 
The House Committee on Science and Astronautics, inspired by Lewis Branscomb's 

vision of the Bureau of Standards, was seeking an expanded role and increased funding 

for NBS as one means to reverse the decline in U.S. technical productivity. At the 

;ame time, the House Committee on Appropriations, inspired by fears of profligacy, was seeking to reduce government expenditures. Could the Bureau staff not be nervous 

in this situation? 

A Crisis in Energy 

Shortages of energy, problematic for the United States since the mid-1960s, came 

into sharper focus during the presidency of Richard Nixon. Unhappily, energy woes 

had to share the attention of the Nixon administration with the Vietnam War and with 

the Watergate affair, which ripened and rotted during the same time interval. 

For the most part, the energy crisis originated with the discovery of the "oil 

weapon" in the mid-East and in Libya. 

In October of 1973, the Egyptians and the Israelis renewed their war, with the 

Egyptians gaining the early advantage via the time-honored technique of a surprise 

attack. The United States supplied Israel with enough ordnance to partially offset the 

early losses and create a stalemate. While the short Egypt-Israel war transpired, an oil 

cartel formed by the oil-exporting nations (the Oil Producing and Exporting Countries, or OPEC) decided unilaterally on an increase in the price of their product from $3 per 

barrel to $5, then to nearly $12. Overall, OPEC production was cut by 5 % per month; 

oil shipments to the United States from Libya were cut off entirely. Eventually the 

other OPEC nations joined the embargo to punish America for its assistance to Israel. 

Almost immediately, gasoline and fuel-oil shortages and skyrocketing petroleum 

prices became a feature of the U.S. economic landscape. 

The American standard of living had risen to a comfortable level in large measure 

because energy was available in abundance and at a low cost. The United States, with 

one-twentieth of the world's population, became responsible for a third of the 

world's energy consumption. And 30 % of U.S. oil use was made possible by foreign 

supplies in 1972. During the oil embargo, the American standard of living retreated 

somewhat. Energy costs contributed substantially to economic stagflation.'7 

The winter of 1973-1974 saw long lines of U.S. automobiles waiting for scarce 

gasoline from filling-station pumps. Many Americans wondered aloud why gasoline 

prices rose as strongly as they did, and whether price-gouging, rather than OPEC, 

was the real culprit. President Nixon, ordinarily opposed to controls by "big government," addressed the Nation with a call for conservation of Nixon asked his 

countrymen to respond to the shortage of oil by reducing consumption by 10-20 %. 

He suggested that occupants of homes, factories, offices, and stores lower the settings on their thermostats by several degrees. He advocated staggered working hours to take 

advantage of natural light and to avoid gasoline-wasting delays in traffic. And he urged 

Patterson, Ch. 25. 

'New York Times, November 8, 1973, pp. 1. 33. 

331 
managers of utility companies to consider designing new power plants to burn U.S. 

coal rather than foreign oil. During his speech, the President also put forward "Project 

Independence," a program intended to permanently reduce the Nation's reliance on foreign oil. For a time, this initiative would involve several projects at the National 

Bureau of Standards. 

By the end of 1973, the price of a barrel of oil rose to $11.65 by edict of OPEC. In 

only three months, this most common of energy sources had quadrupled in price; by 

the end of the decade, even this new price would triple. 

NBS responded quickly to the president's request to conserve energy in homes. 

Working through the office of Virginia Knauer, the President's Special Assistant for 

Consumer Affairs, the Center for Building Technology produced two pamphlets as guides for saving energy in household heating (Seven Ways to Save Energy in Household Heating) and cooling (Eleven Ways to Save Energy in Household Cooling). 

Thousands of copies of the pamphlets were distributed nationwide by Knauer's office, 

and many of those were reproduced by private industry. 

Science Loses Its 

In President Nixon's administration, admiration for the power of science warred with 

concern regarding scientists' never-ending demand for freedom and their continual 

need for money. Nixon demonstrated this ambiguity as he basked in the warm afterglow of achievements in the space program—culminating in the landing of Americans on the moon in 1969, 1971, and 1972— while gradually reducing support for the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration as his need for economy in government spending became more acute. 

The President's Science Advisory Council, the Office of Science and Technology, 

and the Presidential Science Advisor, monitoring the scientific and technological needs 

of the Nation since the days of Eisenhower, were consistently undercut by the Nixon 

administration. Ultimately they were discarded. Nixon's view was that the governmental science establishment should serve the constantly changing political needs of 

the administration. This view continually brought clashes with the scientists, whose 

logic was inevitably rooted in facts. A conscious program of eliminating positions 

altogether or replacing Kennedy-Johnson appointees with Republican loyalists went far 

towards producing the desired unanimity on science and technology issues. 

The President periodically embraced crash programs in science that he thought could 

quickly solve technological problems—a view that perhaps had its origin in the success 

of the Manhattan project, which produced the atomic bomb and thereby quickly and 

decisively ended World War II. For example, in his first term, Nixon urged that large 

amounts of money be spent on the gasification of coal, on the fast breeder reactor, and 

in the pursuit of controlled nuclear fusion. Members of the scientific establishment, 

Much of the material in this section is derived from information given by James E. Katz, Presidential 

Politics and Science Policy (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1978) Ch. 9. 

332 
who had suggested no such list, were more than a little surprised at the presidential 

statement. 

Toward the end of his first term, Nixon delivered to Congress a Presidential 

Message on Science and Technology. It contained a glowing endorsement of the 

scientific enterprise and an explicit reference to NBS as a key agency in the use of 

science for mankind. But it contained a caveat that advancements in science must be 

put to the service of civilian needs—the environment, health, energy, and transportation.2° The President promised: 

To use the capabilities of our high technology agencies—the Atomic Energy 

Commission, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the 

National Bureau of Standards—in applying research and development to 

domestic problems. 

Nixon adopted a National Technology Opportunities program as one part of his 

announced plan. It ultimately involved NBS in an Experimental Technological 

Incentives Program. Remarkably, NBS suffered while it was being praised for its 

effectiveness. During Nixon's last years, the agency was asked to surrender 5 % of its 

full-time personnel, along with the funding to support them. The Bureau was also 

required to reduce the average grade level of its staff. 

As the Watergate affair grew to dominate White House activities, Nixon's personal 

staff—particularly H. R. Haldeman and John Erlichman—took over more and more 

control of Nixon's appointment schedule. As one consequence of this change, even 

agency representatives charged with producing technical breakthroughs no longer could 

meet with the President to put forth their ideas. 

PRESIDENT GERALD RUDOLPH FORD, JR. 

President Gerald Ford, biological product of a failed marriage,2' was the political 

product of a failed presidency. Born in Omaha, Nebraska, to an abusive father, Ford 

took Grand Rapids, Michigan for his hometown and he took the name of Gerald R. 

Ford, his kindly stepfather, as his own name. From his mother and his stepfather, 

Ford learned well the virtues of honesty and hard work. From his high-school and 

college experience, both in academics and in athletics, Ford learned the value of 

scholarship and competition. A child of the Great Depression, Ford also knew the 

value of a dollar. 

By the time he was 32 years of age—at the end of World War Il—Ford had 

graduated from the Yale school of law and had practiced his profession in Grand 

Rapids. He also, had held positions as assistant football coach at Yale, professor of 

business law at Grand Rapids University, and lieutenant in the U.S. Navy with four 

years' service—two of those years as a deck officer on an aircraft carrier in the thick 

20 The Public Papers of the President: Richard Nixon, 1972, U.S.G.P.O., 1974, pp. 416-425. 

21 James Cannon, op. cit., Ch 1. 333 
of some eleven Pacific battles of World War II. A standout among his colleagues for 

his honesty, judgment, and hard work, and for his capability to excel at any assigned 

duty, Ford was ready to become a front-line player in post-war America. 

Ford won the first political campaign he ever entered: Congressman, Fifth District, 

Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1948. During his first term, he became friends with 

Representative Richard Nixon and won a spot on the House Appropriations 

Committee—one of the three most coveted assignments in the House. By the time that 

John F. Kennedy had defeated Richard Nixon in the Presidential campaign of 1960, 

Ford had been elected tO his sixth term in Congress and was the ranking Republican 

on the Defense Subcommittee of the House Appropriations Committee. Ford, his wife, 

and their four children were citizens of Alexandria, Virginia, as well as of Grand 

Rapids. 

When Richard Nixon won re-election as President in 1972, Ford was elected 

Minority Leader of the House of Representatives for the fifth time, capping a 12-term 

Congressional career. To his regret, Ford's career stopped short of his ultimate political 

goal: to become Speaker of the House. As luck would have it, the Republicans never 

gained control of the House after Ford reached the top of his party's Congressional 

delegation, so that the position of Speaker would forever elude him. 

For a long time, Ford could not understand why the Watergate affair presented such a problem for his friend Richard Nixon. If the burglary was the work of Republican 

zealots, thought Ford, simply disavow them. If White House operatives were involved, 

seek them out, fire them, apologize for the unwarranted affront to civility, and go back 

to work. He could not believe that Nixon was personally involved—until the fact was 

obvious. Even in October 1973, when Nixon nominated Ford to replace Agnew as Vice President, Nixon gave no indication to his old friend that his career as President 

was even in jeopardy, let alone doomed. 

Faced with a full field investigation (by 350 agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation!) as a preliminary to Congressional confirmation as Vice President, Gerald 

Ford reacted characteristically. "Hold nothing back," he said to his staff. "Anything 

that they want, if we have it, give it to them. I don't want any papers from the files 

destroyed, or hidden, or doctored up. We are not going to cover up anything, and we are not going to stonewall."22 

A Short Acquaintance 

Gerald Ford became President in August 1974. With no executive experience in his 

background, he was thrust immediately into the most demanding of circumstances— 

completing the term of a resigned Chief Executive. 

Ford saw his first responsibility to be the restoration of America's faith in its 

leader—in his case not an elected leader, but one chosen by the very man whose 

presidency he sought to redeem. A step in this direction was his nomination of Nelson 

Rockefeller, the experienced governor of the Nation's largest State, as Vice President. 

Much of America viewed Ford's pardon of Richard Nixon as a step in the opposite 

22 Cannon, op. cii, p. 229. 

334 
direction. Other steps— against inflation and underemployment, trade deficits, and the 

war in Asia—occupied his full attention for the balance of his term as President. 

Barely 10 months after his inauguration, President Ford received a letter of resignation from Richard Roberts, Director of NBS. Given Ford's necessary preoccupation 

with more massive problems, it seems likely that he left the selection of a replacement 

for Roberts in the hands of Rogers C. B. Morton, appointed in May 1975 as his new 

Commerce Secretary, and Betsy Ancker-Johnson, who continued to hold the office of 

Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Science and Technology. Richard Roberts and 

Gerald Ford were destined for only a brief acquaintance. 

RICHARD WILLIAM ROBERTS 

Richard Roberts was born in Buffalo in 1935. He was educated as a physical 

chemist, receiving the undergraduate degree from the University of Rochester in 1956 

and the doctorate from Brown University in 1959. 

Although Roberts had spent the year following receipt of his doctorate as a National 

Research Council Postdoctoral Research Associate at NBS, he was not well-known to 

the Bureau staff in the way that Branscomb had been—instead, his career had been 

built at the General Electric Company (GE). 

Roberts was less interested in laboratory science per se than he was in the management of science. Within 5 years of his arrival at GE, was appointed 

Manager of the Physical Chemistry Laboratory. In 1968, he was made Research and 

Development Manager of Materials Science and Engineering, a four-laboratory group 

of more than 250 technical people. At 33 years of age, he was directing GE work in 

artificial diamonds, in machining tools for special alloys, in new composite materials— 

including new types of magnets—and in coal gasification. 

Not particularly active in politics but a registered Republican, Roberts' nomination 

as the seventh Bureau director could be perceived as trouble-free for the intensely partisan Nixon administration. 

An interview with the new director was featured in a special edition of the NBS 

Standard.23 In it, Roberts was asked about his immediate plans for the Bureau: 

In terms of detailed plans, the first thing I've got to do is really learn what's 

going on. I asked Larry Kushner to set up with the Institutes program reviews 

during the first week so I could get, in that time framework, an outline of 

everything that's going on. Program reviews would become a way of life at NBS during the 30-odd months of 

Roberts' tenure. 

Roberts quickly showed a lively interest in the public appearance of all aspects of 

the Bureau. Within 10 days of taking office, he had made suggestions for improving 

the appearance and readability of NBS publications such as the Technical News 

23 "Roberts Takes NBS Reins," NBS Standard, Special Edition, February 1973, 4 pp. 

335 
Richard W. Roberts was the seventh director of NBS. Trained as a chemist, his chief 

interest was in technical management. 

On November 27. 1973, First Lady Patricia Nixon came to Gaithersburg to view a townhouse equipped with solar panels under an agreement between NBS and the 

Department of Housing and Urban Development. Mrs. Nixon and NBS Director 

Richard W. Roberts were photographed while fielding questions from reporters. 

336 
Bulletin, he had requested that a presentation package be prepared for his own use with 

perhaps 80 color slides, he had requested that Kushner prepare a set of management 

seminars, and he had requested that his speeches be printed in "an attractive format" 

for distribution to the public.24 

Old Bureau hands who worked closely with Roberts agree on several of his personality traits.25 He was personally ambitious. He was driven to seek perfection, especially 

in the area of presenting descriptions of technical work, an area closely related to 

public relations. He came to work early and left late, and he expected those around 

him to do the same. He was demanding in his judgments of the quality of presentations, often finding flaws that no one else noticed. He was extremely sensitive to the 

impact on its "customers" of work done at NBS; he probed quickly and with vigor to 

determine the extent to which Bureau managers were familiar with their "client base." 

And he was preoccupied with making management "cost effective," a term that had a less precise meaning in government agencies than it did in the private sector. 

Richard Roberts' leadership at NBS was recognized by the Downtown Jaycees of 

the District of Columbia when they presented the Arthur S. Flemming Award to him on February 27, 1975. The award, given to outstanding young Federal employees, had 

been given to 13 Bureau scientists since its establishment in 1948. Roberts was the 

first NBS staff member to win the award strictly for administrative work.26 

A New Management Style 

Roberts' predilection for communication with his constituency found ample room for 

exercise at NBS. Despite the fact that his predecessor, Lewis Branscomb, had pushed 

mightily in the same direction, there had not been time enough during Branscomb's 

short tenure to move the Bureau very far from its accustomed posture as a quiet 

purveyor of facts. 

The new director took up his task with a will. His efforts to impose a new, highervisibility management style on NBS appeared in the form of new and modified 

organizational entities, new leaders, intense reviews of Bureau programs, and a public 

face for NBS intended to convey a fuller appreciation of a capable agency. 

24 Note to W. Reeves Tilley, February 7, 1953, RHA; RG 167; Director's Office; Box 430; Folder Chron; 

Feb. 1-15, 1973. See also Memo, RWR to W. E. Small, February 12, 1953, RHA; RO 167; Director's 

Office; Box 430; Folder Chron; Feb. 1-15, 1973. See also Memo, RWR to L. M. Kushner, February 12, 

1953, RHA; RO 167; Director's Office; Box 430; Folder Chron; Feb. 1-15, 1973. See also Memo, RWR to W. E. Small, February 12, 1953, "NBS Publication Covers"; RHA; RG 167; Director's Office; Box 430; 

Folder Chron; Feb. 1-15, 1973. See also Memo, RWR to W. E. Small, February 15, 1953; RHA; RO 167; 

Director's Office; Box 430; Folder Chron; Feb. 1-15, 1973. 

Howard E. Sorrows, Oral History, December 10, 1986. See also Ernest Ambler, Oral History, 

November 7, 1986. See also Arthur 0. McCoubrey, Oral History, November 3, 1986. 

26NBS Standard, Vol 20, No. 6, March 12, 1975, p. 3. 

337 
On December 5, 1973, noted anthropologist Margaret Mead gave a talk entitled 

"Women—Oppressed and Unoppressed" in the NBS/Gaithersburg Red Auditorium. 

Mead was invited by the Standards Committee for Women to be the keynote speaker 

for the NBS observance of the Department of Commerce Federal Women's Program 

Week. In this photograph, Mead chatted with NBS Director Richard W. Roberts. 

NBS Holds an Open House 

Consistent with his desire for greater publicity and public awareness of the Bureau 

and its activities, Roberts scheduled an open house for October 26-27, 1973. 

It was scarcely the norm for NBS to open its doors to the general public on the spur 

of the moment. Even during the 50th anniversary of the Bureau's founding in March 

1951, visits to its laboratories were limited mainly to attendees of a large variety of 

celebratory scientific and technical symposia.27 

The Roberts open house had a simpler objective than the "golden anniversary" in 

1951: to advertise a major scientific laboratory to those who might not have been aware of its existence. A front-page article in the employee newsletter outlined plans 

for the event, which included some 118 tour stops at which Bureau staff members 

would explain their work.28 

More than 20,000 students and other visitors crowded the grounds on Friday, 

October 26, many escorted by young tour guides who were the children of staff 

members. On Saturday, October 27, another 15,000 interested visitors came to NBS 

to see the types of projects that the Bureau supported.29 

27 Annual Report, 1951, p. 100. See also Technical News Bulletin, 1951 and 1952. 

"NBS Open House," NBS Standard, Vol. XVIII, No. 15, October 24, 1973, pp. 1-5, 8. See also NBS 

Admin. Bull. 73-67, October 18, 1973. 

"Dick Roberts Reviews the Open House," NBS Standard, Vol. XVIII, No. 16, pp. 2, 3. 7. 8. 

338 
The open house was judged to have been successful both in getting more publicity 

for NBS and in communicating to the public a better idea of the highly technical, yet 

often down-to-earth projects accomplished on a daily basis by Bureau staff members. 

It also served as a warm-up session for a larger celebration planned for 1976—the 

Nation's bicentennial and the Bureau's 75th anniversary. 

Programmatic Center for Consumer Product Safety 

Director Roberts continued Lewis Branscomb's efforts to create program management in consumer-related areas—both for better Bureau visibility and for better 

coordination with industry groups. During his first month on the job, Roberts formed a Programmatic Center for Consumer Product Safety.3° This step consolidated in the 

Institute for Applied Technology oversight of all work in the Consumer Product 

Systems Section of the Measurement Engineering Division, the Product Flammability 

Section of the Fire Technology Division, and the Consumer Product Activities group 

of the Technical Analysis Division.3' 

Jacob Rabinow and Melvin R. Meyerson were appointed Director of the new Center 

and Associate Director for Consumer Activities, respectively. Their duties lay in 

coordinating NBS work in the participating sections with the new Consumer Product 

Safety Commission, headed by Lawrence M. Kushner, former NBS Deputy Director. 

As with most NBS programmatic centers, responsibility for funds, personnel actions, 

space, and equipment remained with the parent divisions of the participating sections. 

On December 8, 1974, the name of the unit became "Center for Consumer Product 

Technology" and it became a line organization of NBS. Assigned to the new center as staff members were the Office of Consumer Product Safety under Walter G. Leight, 

the Law Enforcement Standards Laboratory headed by Jacob J. Diamond, the Product 

Systems Analysis Division led by Melvin R. Meyerson, and the Product Engineering 

Division, managed by G. Franklin Montgomery. No Center Director was chosen 

immediately; Marshall Isler was designated Acting Deputy Director.32 Stanley I. 

Warshaw was later recruited from the American Standard Company as director of the 

Center. 

More Change for NBS Programs 

During his short tenure, Director Roberts continually modified the Bureau program 

structure. Among the changes were the following: 

• Executive Board re-structured, March 1973. Roberts assembled a new membership roster and set up a new meeting format and schedule. 

30NBS Admin. Bull. 73-11, February 15, 1973, "Programmatic Center for Consumer Product Safety 

Established." 

" A subsequent NBS Admin. Bull. 73-40, June 20, 1973, assigned to the Center the coordination of all NIIS 

work undertaken on behalf of the Consumer Product Safety Commission. 32 NBS Admin. Bull. 74-81, December 30, 1974. 

339 
• Oversight of interagency collaboration, May 1973. A new NBS-Other Agency 

Board of Coordinators was established. Roberts charged the board with promoting and monitoring interagency programs. 

• Oversight of energy programs, July 1973. David A. Didion, program analyst for 

the Institute for Applied Technology, was given the additional responsibility 

of generating and monitoring programs in the area of energy utilization and 

conservation. 

• Office of Air and Water Measurement, December 1974. This office supplanted 

the former Measures for Air Quality and expanded its horizon. James R. 

McNesby continued to lead the newly expanded office. 

• Office of Energy-Related Inventions (OERI), March 1975. In order to augment 

the Bureau's energy-conservation effort, Roberts established the OERI within 

the Institute for Applied Technology. It was formed to seek and screen energyrelated inventions. George P. Lewett, formerly a staff member in the Technical 

Analysis Division, was designated Acting Chief of the office. 

One of the first evaluators of energy-related inventions for OERI was, surprisingly, 

Jacob Rabinow. Rabinow retired from the Bureau just as OERI was created, but was enticed to return as a "rehired annuitant" to lead the evaluation team. 

A New Management Team 

Director Roberts made several changes in the senior management of the Bureau, 

including some that were mentioned in the preceding section. In most cases, new 

appointments came from within NBS ranks; in others, new managers were introduced 

to the Bureau: 

• Ernest Ambler named NBS Deputy Director, June 1973. One of Roberts' first 

duties—though not one that he had expected—was to replace Lawrence M. 

Kushner as his deputy. Roberts had expected Kushner to stay on.33 The latter's 

long experience with the Bureau and with external organizations such as the U.S. 

Congress could have eased the transition from industrial manager to Federal 

manager for the new director. 

As senior members in the Nixon administration realized that Roberts would become 

NBS Director, Kushner was offered the position of Commissioner in the brand-new 

Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), mandated by Congress in October 

Richard 0. Simpson, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Product 

Standards, was appointed Chair of CPSC. The nascent organization especially wanted 

to name a Commissioner who was familiar with the evolution of product standards. 

"Roberts Takes NBS Reins," Special Edition, NBS Standard, February 1973, p. 1. Consumer Product Safety Act, Public Law 92-573, October 27, 1972. 

340 
Kushner had considerable experience in that area, and he accepted the offer of the 

new position.35 Other commissioners included Constance B. Newman, Director of 

Volunteers In Service to America; Barbara Franklin, an expert on legislative politics; 

and David Pittle, a safety-minded engineer from Carnegie-Mellon University. 

By May 1973, Kushner had left the Bureau. When Kushner departed, Roberts spent 

less than one month studying his subordinates in a search for a new deputy. He 

quickly chose Ernest Ambler, then Director of the Institute for Basic Standards (IBS). 

The appointment was made effective on June 11, 1973.36 Roberts appointed David T. 

Goldman, Ambler's deputy, as Acting Director of lBS. 

• Jordan Lewis to head the Experimental Technology Incentives Program (ETIP). 

By mid-1973, the funding level for ETIP was settled and a search was under 

way for a suitable manager for the new program. Roberts chose Jordan D. Lewis, 

former Director of Applied Technology Programs at the Battelle Memorial 

Institute in Columbus, Ohio.37 Lewis had considerable experience in developing 

technologies in the areas of new products and processes. 

• John Lyons to head the NBS Fire Program. At the behest of Karl Willenbrock, 

Director of the Institute for Applied Technology, John Lyons, an expert on certain features of fire research at the Monsanto Chemical Company, was brought to NBS in October 1973 to head the Bureau's fire program.38 Lyons 

had been somewhat critical of the fragmented NBS program in fire research and 

safety, and it was hoped that he could bring a better focus to the work.39 

In May 1974, a Programmatic Center for Fire Research (PCFR) was established to 

perform planning, coordination, and review of all Bureau work on destructive fires. 

Reporting to Lyons, the new Director of the PCFR, were an Associate Director for 

Fire Science and Information and an Associate Director for Fire Technology. Robert S. 

Levine was brought from NASA to fill the former position; Irwin A. Benjamin, chief 

of the Bureau's Fire Technology Division, was named to the latter post. 

To facilitate the changes, the Fire Technology Division was reorganized into two 

branches, the Fire Science and Information Branch and the Fire Technology Branch. 

The former division administration retained responsibility for funds, personnel, 

equipment, and other resources.4° 

In 1974, the Department of Commerce, following the dictate of the Federal Fire 

Prevention and Control Act, mandated the creation at NBS of a Center for Fire 

Research.4' The Bureau soon complied with the act, establishing the center with Lyons 

L. M. Kushner, Oral History, June 7, 1988. 36 NBS Admin. Bull. 73-37, June 11, 1973. 

NBS Admin. Bull. 73-62, September 27, 1973. 38 NBS Admin. Bull. 73-70, October 29, 1973. 

39John W. Lyons, Oral History, June 1, 1993. 

NBS Admin. Bull. 74-39, May 17, 1974. 

° The originating directive was DOO 30-2B dated April 28, 1975. 

341 
as Director, Levine as Chief of the Fire Science Division, and Benjamin as Chief of 

the Fire Safety Engineering Division.42 

• Arthur 0. McCoubrey to head the Institute for Basic Standards (IBS). Roberts 

selected Arthur 0. McCoubrey, former Vice-President and Director of Frequency 

and Time Systems, Inc., as Director of lBS effective March 18, 1974. He 

succeeded David T. Goldman, Acting Director. 

As with other appointments from outside NBS, McCoubrey brought a wealth 

of understanding of the private sector to the Bureau's senior management. 

McCoubrey also had considerable experience in research in atomic time and 

frequency standards, both at Frequency and Time Systems and at Varian 

Associates.43 

• Retirements. Several members of Roberts' management team retired during his 

tenure. Among these was Robert S. Walleigh, Associate Director for Administration under Astin, Branscomb, and Roberts; he had joined NBS in 1943. Roberts 

recruited Richard P. Bartlett, Jr., a former administrator in the Department of 

Agriculture, to succeed Walleigh. 

Another senior retiree was George R. Porter, chief of the Personnel Division 

for nearly a quarter-century. Mati Tammaru was named as his successor. 

Clarence N. Coates, Assistant to the Director for Congressional Relations and 

an NBS employee for twenty years, also retired. He was succeeded by Esther C. 

Cassidy, formerly a physicist in both the Heat Division and the Electricity 

Division and an expert in high-voltage measurements. 

A New Secretary of Commerce 

In February 1975, President Ford asked Frederick B. Dent to become his Special 

Representative for Trade Negotiations, a post that would bring Dent into the General 

Agreement on Tariffs and Dent thus completed two years as Secretary of 

Commerce, during which he served and defended President Nixon with great vigor. 

Dent also was credited with inducing U.S. industry to pursue a policy of energy 

conservation. 

Ford acted quickly to replace Dent, nominating Rogers C. B. Morton—Secretary of 

the Interior since 1971—for the Commerce post on March 27, 1975. Morton had 

served the State of Maryland in the House of Representatives from 1962-71, where 

42 NBS Admin. Bull. 75-26, June 11, 1975. 

A. 0. McCoubrey, Oral History, November 3, l986. 

Edwin L. Dale, Jr., "President Names Dent Top Trade Negotiator," New York Times, February 28, 1975, p. 43. 

342 
343 

NBS Congressional Liaison Esther Cassidy and NBS Director Richard W. Roberts 

spoke with Senator Claibome Pell of Rhode Island (right) and a member of his staff, 

Bill Young (left), on the steps of the Gaithersburg Administration Building. Pell spoke at a Metric Education Conference held at the Bureau in May 1975. 
In November 1974, members of the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) Executive 

Board posed for a photograph on the spiral staircase in the NBS/Gaithersburg library. 

From right to left were Arthur 0. McCoubrey, Robert S. Walleigh, Ruth M. Davis, F. Karl Willenbrock, Richard W. Roberts, Ernest Ambler, Howard E. Sorrows, John 

D. Hoffman, and Edward L. Brady. 

he had become a close friend of then-Congressman Ford. In an article describing the 

appointment, New York Times reporter B. A. Franklin stated: 

The move will also place Mr. Morton in a position where he could begin 

organizing the financial base for Mr. Ford's announced 1976 election campaign, a function for which the top Commerce post has long served.45 

° Ben A. Franklin, "Morton, in a Cabinet Shift, Picked for Commerce Job," New York Times, March 28, 

1975, p. I. 

344 
Sure enough, Morton left his Commerce post in January 1976 to become White House 

counselor on economic and domestic policy matters, in close liaison with the chairman 

of Ford's Re-Election Campaign 

Betsy Ancker-Johnson, who had replaced Richard 0. Simpson as Assistant Secretary 

of Commerce for Science and Technology (to whom the Director of the Bureau 

reported) in mid-1973, continued to occupy that position until the beginning of the 

Carter Administration in 1977. 

Roberts Departs for the Energy Research and Development Administration 

Despite his considerable abilities in the management of technical work and in the 

persuasive presentation of its results, several of his senior Bureau aides recall that 

Roberts never felt quite at home at NBS.47 The preoccupation of many of its staff with 

extreme detail and meticulous care did not resemble the type of work that fitted his 

experience in an industrial laboratory. He also lacked experience with federal research 

and development and contact with public policy in science and technology. He found, 

he said, that NBS was not "his cup of tea." After a couple of years as director, Roberts 

developed the view that he could better realize his personal goals by becoming 

involved in the Nation's nuclear energy program. 

On June 10, 1975, Director Roberts sent a letter to President Gerald Ford resigning 

from his office. In his letter of resignation, Roberts alluded to the many contributions 

of NBS to America's scientific and technical life, as well as to the increasingly central 

role that energy seemed destined to play in the country's progress. Roberts emphasized 

the importance of energy as "the major technical problem facing the nation in the 

years ahead." He further specified nuclear energy as offering "great potential," and 

"a great individual challenge in helping fulfill that potential." 

As his principal reason for leaving NBS, Roberts stated his intention to accept a pending nomination to the post of Assistant Administrator for Nuclear Energy in the 

newly formed Energy Research and Development Administration. Roberts asked that 

his resignation become effective upon his confirmation in his new 

The Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) was created to 

focus the administration's energy-conservation efforts. Prior to the formation of ERDA, 

responsibility for energy programs was fragmented among several Executive-branch 

agencies, including the Atomic Energy Commission, the Federal Power Commission, 

and the National Science Foundation. Public Law 93-438, signed by President Ford on 

New York Times, January 14, 1976. 

See Oral Histories conducted by Karma Beal to compare the management styles of Branscomb, Roberts, 

and Ambler: Arthur 0. McCoubrey, November 3, 1986; Robert S. Walleigh, November 5, 1986; F. Karl 

Willenbrock, November 7, 1986; Ernest Ambler, November 7, 1986; Edward L. Brady, November 10, 1986; 

and Howard E. Sorrows, December 10, 1986. 

" Letter, RWR to President Gerald Ford, June 10, 1975, RHA; RG 167; Director's Office; Box 283; Folder 

RWR Chron; June 1- June 30, 1975. 

345 
October 11, 1974, dissolved the AEC, replacing it with the Nuclear Regulatory Agency 

and ERDA. Robert C. Seamans, Jr., former Secretary of the Air Force, was the first 

and only Administrator of ERDA—the agency was replaced by the Cabinet-level 

Department of Energy on October 1, 1977. President Jimmy Carter named James R. 

Schlesinger to the post of Secretary of Energy. 

A week after receiving Roberts' letter of resignation, President Ford responded with 

abundant praise for his leadership in organizational development and program 

planning at NBS. Ford accepted the resignation on Roberts' terms. Roberts left his 

Bureau post on June 28, 1975. 

Coincidentally, June 10, 1975 was not only the date of Roberts' resignation from 

the Bureau directorship; it also marked the beginning of the two-day formal Visiting 

Committee meeting at NBS. Although no inkling of his departure had been given to 

the committee, Richard Roberts greeted them with the announcement that on that very 

day he had tendered to President Ford his resignation as NBS Director.49 

After Roberts' departure, a message from him to the NBS staff was published in the 

Bureau's employee bulletin issued July 16, 

On June 30, 1975, I was sworn in as Assistant Administrator for Nuclear 

Energy in the Energy Research and Development Administration. This new assignment involves one of the most challenging technical problems facing the 

Nation—that of providing abundant energy for the years ahead. 

NBS is unique in mission, reputation, and quality of staff. The work done 

here is important to science, commerce, industry, government, in fact to all 

Americans. My leaving the Bureau does not mean an end to my interactions 

with you. ERDA, like all technical institutions, relies heavily on NBS output. 

Like Seamans, Roberts remained at ERDA until its demise in 1977. Then he 

returned to the General Electric Corporation as a member of the Corporate Technology 

staff. 

For the second time in succession, a newly appointed director of the Bureau had 

failed to reach his third anniversary. Five men had led NBS through its first 68 years; 

now two were gone in the space of another six years, leaving the staff to wonder 

whether change at the top was to become the new norm. 

On June 30, 1975, Betsy Ancker-Johnson, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for 

Science and Technology, designated Ernest Ambler as Acting Director of NBS on 

behalf of President Ford and Secretary of Commerce Morton. Robert Walleigh, only a few months retired from his long-time position as Associate Director for Administration, was coaxed by Ambler to return to NBS as Acting Deputy Director.5' 

Transmittal letter of Visiting Committee verbal report to the Secretary of Commerce, RWR to Arthur 

M. Bueche, Committee Chair, June 18, 1975, RHA; RG 167; Director's Office; Box 283; Folder RWR 

Chron; June I- June 30, 1975. 

50NBS Standard, Vol 20, No. 15, July 16, 1975, P.2. 

Oral History, Robert S. Walleigh, November 5, 1986. 

346 
Roberts' Impact on NBS 

Ernest Ambler, Roberts' successor as Director of NBS, recalled three features of his 

predecessor's leadership as having been especially useful to NBS in the increasingly 

political environment in which it operated.52 

First, Roberts demanded from the Bureau staff a high level of "readability" for all 

management-level presentations—use of many colorful slides, persuasive references to 

user communities and minimization of arcane or tedious technical details. Adoption of a showy style to present topics that were really technical in nature engendered time, 

effort and—in the case of many old-time Bureau hands—grumbling, but Ambler was 

convinced that technical presentations became more effective as a result of the change. 

A second Roberts initiative was to combine the NBS Program Office, the Budget 

Office, and the Accounting Division into a new unit known as the Office of Programs, 

Budget and Finance. Ambler himself was responsible for carrying out this change, 

which he felt provided much-needed streamlining of the Bureau's project administration. 

The third significant feature of Roberts' leadership in Ambler's view was the 

elevation in importance of close liaison between NBS and Congress. Early in 1975 

Roberts brought Esther Cassidy, an experienced scientist in the area of high-voltage 

measurements, to his staff as Assistant to the Director for Congressional Liaison. 

Among other activities, her responsibility was to ensure that Bureau programs were 

well understood by members of Congress and their staffs. Ambler stated: 

This last activity contributed to Congress holding 1977 Authorization 

Hearings,53 the first held since 1971. This ended their reliance on a 'continuing 

authorization' and began regular annual authorization hearings starting in 

1979 with a so-called 'field hearing' in the Red Auditorium at NBS with 

(Congressmen) George Brown and Don Fuqua attending. 

An early consequence of Roberts' desire for improved presentation skills by NBS 

managers was the initiation of regular reviews of Division programs. These took on 

the appearance of "screen tests," with as much emphasis on style as on content. They 

were held in the Bureau's Green Auditorium with the Program Office staff and all 

NBS line managers down to section chiefs in attendance. As the ground rules became 

clearer, the presentations became more polished, occasionally with two projectors of 

color slides in operation at once. As was true in any organization, better performance 

in the reviews meant a happier life for managers at NBS. 

52 Ernest Ambler, "Historical Perspective: 1973-1988" in NBS/NJST A Historical Perspective, A Symposium 

in celebration of NIST's Ninetieth Anniversary, March 4, 1991, NIST Special Publication 825, April 1992, 

pp. 31-42. 

The reader should recall that Authorization Hearings led to permission or to a mandate for Bureau activities, whereas Appropriation Hearings (see A Program in Technology Incentives later in this chapter) led to funding (or lack of funding) for them. 

347 
There is no doubt that Roberts wholeheartedly endorsed the energy-conservation, 

environmental-protection, and other consumer-oriented goals of the Nixon administration. One of his first actions as director was to change its scientifically oriented 

Technical News Bulletin into a popular-science format. Whereas the Technical News 

Bulletin was of interest mainly to scientific and technical workers in industry, 

government, and academia, its replacement, entitled Dimensions/NBS, was slanted 

towards the "man-in-the-street." In a leadoff announcement of the change, Roberts 

wrote: 

Since its founding at the turn of the century, the National Bureau of Standards 

has communicated the results of its work to the public. Initially, that public was 

largely the academic, scientific, engineering, and technical communities, and 

they are still in the forefront. 

In the last decades, however, a new pattern emerged. As the Bureau became 

more directly involved in immediate national problems and goals, its work also 

began to interest additional, broader audiences. 

At present our audience includes not only practitioners of the professional 

disciplines but also—very literally—the people who live down the block: the 

consumer, the student, the housewife, the homeowner.54 

Roberts' view of the NBS constituency colored his whole approach to the Bureau's 

work. His efforts accelerated changes in the composition of its workforce and its 

mission that eventually would remake the National Bureau of Standards. 

TECHNICAL WORK OF THE BUREAU, 1972-75 

Despite the growing trend that eventually would take many of the Bureau's re- sources away from basic studies in physics and chemistry—and from fundamental 

standards work, too—most of the NBS technical work followed well-worn paths during 

the directorship of Richard Roberts. Projects attacking the energy crisis, environmental 

concerns, and public safety perhaps were better identified and more publicized than 

they might have been in earlier years, but a major swing in the Bureau's direction 

would have been hard to document. 

As was the case in previous chapters, we offer in the following pages a few 

examples—chosen from a multitude of projects in dozens of laboratories—that provide 

glimpses into the minds of NBS scientists and evidence of the status quo in a unique 

institution. 

A Program in Technology Incentives 

The Experimental Technology Incentives Program (ETIP), created in concept during 

the directorship of Lewis Branscomb, began to produce results under Richard Roberts. 

The charter for the project was recorded in the House Appropriation hearings for Fiscal 

R. W. Roberts, "to our readers," Dirnensions/NBS, p. 179, August 1973. 

" House Hearings for Fiscal 1973 (March 28, 1972) pp. 1085-1086. 

348 
In partnership with the private sector, NBS will test the usefulness of various 

mechanisms and incentives to stimulate the generation and application of 

private research and development in ways that permit the private sector to 

further the Nation's productive capacity, industrial competitiveness, and our 

national well-being. The end product of this program is a better understanding 

of these mechanisms and incentives. 

In creating ETIP, the Administration—mimicking successful foreign competitors— was seeking ways to make U.S. industry more effective in an effort to improve a dismal economy. It was not the usual type of request made of the Bureau, but a worthy 

goal nonetheless. 

As noted earlier, Jordan D. Lewis, late of the Battelle Memorial Institute in Columbus, Ohio, where he headed applied technology programs, was selected by Richard 

Roberts to lead ETIP.56 Lewis named Richard T. Penn, on the staff of the Institute for 

Applied Technology since coming to the Bureau in 1970, as his deputy 

for operations. 

In concept, ETIP was similar to a project lodged in the National Science Foundation, 

called the Experimental Research and Development Incentives Program. Although a merging of the two efforts was considered during the planning stages, they remained 

separate because of the differing types of activity involved. 

The ETIP experiments initially involved four program areas: procurement, regulation, civilian research and development, and small business. 

In the procurement area, headed by Ralph Bara and Joseph G. Berke, a variety of 

ideas were tested by which the Federal Government, a mammoth customer for technical products, could pull U.S. industry towards innovation. Among the ideas were the use of performance specifications rather than design specifications as a means to spur 

innovative solutions to problems such as unwanted noise in appliances. As an example 

of this idea, the General Services Administration in 1974 advertised for bids on 10,000 

lawn mowers with the proviso that they radiate 50 % less acoustic noise than the 

then-current average for that type of tool.57 Later, NBS cooperated with the Consumer 

Product Safety Commission by measuring sound levels endured by operators of small, 

motorized lawnmowers. 

The GSA bid also illustrated the principle of prototype purchasing, in which the 

government could acquire promising new products not yet on the market. Other 

procurement features included the use of multi-year procurement, value incentives, and 

cost contracting. 

In the regulation area, four state public-utility commissions were selected for experiments applying computerized data and analysis techniques to improve utility ratesetting processes and regulatory practices. Philip J. Harter, chief of the ETIP regulatory 

programs, provided details of the experiments in an article in It 

56"New ETIP Director at NBS," Dimensions/NBS, Vol 57, October 1973, p. 249. 

"ETIP on the move," NBS Standard, April 24, 1974, pp. 4-5. 

"ETIP, Utility Commissions and Policy Experiments," Diniensions/NBS, Vol. 59, May 1975, p. 112. 

349 
In a project undertaken with the Consumer Product Safety Commission, Jonathan 

Adler of the NBS Sound Section measured the sound level and thus the hearingdamage potential of a power lawnmower. The sound of the mower was picked up by 

microphone just below his right ear. 

was hoped that elimination of delay and uncertainty among regulators would remove 

barriers to technological innovation. 

In a third area, headed by James Kottenstette and Gregory C. Tassey, Federally 

sponsored research and development was used in an attempt to create new products for 

sale to the general public. In one experiment, the government issued a request that 

industry provide non-flammable cotton-polyester fabric. In response to the request, a group of yarn and textile manufacturers, university scientists, chemical companies, and 

other technical organizations formed a consortium to bring such a fabric to market. 

In a fourth area, the impacts of regulatory compliance and the dearth of venture 

capital on innovation by small business were examined. 

The ETIP experiments continued until Evaluating the success of the program 

was not an easy task, inasmuch as the efficiency of whole industries was involved. 

But it was gratifying to NBS management to see the trust in the ingenuity of the 

Bureau that was implied by the request that NBS undertake the project. ETIP did not 

involve physical or chemical measurements or standards, or any of the other usual 

activities of NBS—only its capability for problem-solving. 

See "Evaluative Reports on the Experimental Technology Incentives Program for 1975, 1976. and 1977," 

National Academy of Sciences. 

350 
The Bureau Gets a New Fire Law and a New Fire Center6° 

America Burning 

On May 14, 1973, the National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control issued a report entitled America Burning. The report had been mandated in the Fire Research 

and Safety Act of 1968. 

America Burning was a powerful indictment of America's fire safety record. Among 

the major industrial nations of the world, the United States had the highest per capita 

death and property-loss rate caused by fire. In 1973, fires killed 12,000 people and 

injured 300,000. Of these, 50,000 were hospitalized for extended periods. The total 

economic cost of fire was estimated at $11 billion for that year. 

Ninety recommendations intended to reduce by 50 % the level of American fire 

losses were included in the report: among these were suggestions that NBS and the 

National Science Foundation collaborate in sponsoring research on fire prevention, 

fire-fighting, and fire-service needs; that NBS and the National Institutes of Health collaborate in developing standards for combustion toxicology; and that NBS develop 

guidelines for a systems approach to fire safety. 

The awful numbers in the Commission report immediately triggered new action in 

the Congress. Among some 173 pieces of legislation introduced in the Congress was a bill entitled Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1973. It was introduced jointly 

by Senator Warren Magnuson and Representative Wright Patman.6' Utilizing many 

of the suggestions made by John Rockett and Alex Robertson of the NBS Fire 

Research and Safety Office, the committees crafted a new law, the Federal Fire 

Prevention and Control Act of 1974, Public Law PL93-498, 88 Stat. 1535-1549, 

enacted on October 29, 1974. 

Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 

The new act called for the creation within the Department of Commerce of a National Fire Prevention and Control Administration (NFPCA) with the primary 

responsibility for public education on fire and for developing the "technology" of 

fire-fighting—equipment and equipment standards for compatibility. The NFPCA was 

to be directed by an Administrator whose duties would include supervising a National 

Academy of Fire Prevention and Control and a National Fire Data Center, as well as providing assistance to state and local fire programs. 

The Academy was created to develop and offer training to state fire officials and to 

assist in developing training-certification criteria. The Data Center was to "gather, 

analyze, publish, and disseminate information related to the prevention, occurrence, 

control, and results of fires of all types." 

Much of this material came from an excellent summary written by Daniel Gross; "Fire Research at NBS: 

The First 75 Years," an invited lecture at the Third International Symposium on Fire Safety Science, 1989, 

pp. 119-133. 

House hearings, FY 1975, p. 843, PP. 838 ff, April 9, 1974. 

351 
A,nerica Burning: The Report of The National Commission on Fire Prevention and 

Control (1973). The report contained fire statistics that showed the United States had one of the highest per-capita fire-loss rates in the world. 

Center for Fire Research 

One of the provisions of the Fire Prevention Act of 1974 established at NBS a Center for Fire Research (CFR), "To conduct basic and applied fire research, research 

into the factors influencing human victims of fire, and operation tests, demonstration 

projects, and fire investigations." The CFR would act independently of the NFPCA, 

352 

rhe Report of The National Commission on Fire Preiention and 

Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, which created the Law Enforcement Assistance 

Administration (LEAA). The LEAA quickly turned to NBS for help in formulating 

standards that would be useful to state and local police organizations across the 

United States. Staff members of the Technical Analysis Division responded with new 

projects on computer-aided courtroom reporting and on the use of television in 

courtrooms to "get the ball rolling." Then in January 1971 the Bureau's Law 

Enforcement Standards Laboratory (LESL) became a reality. 

Within four years of its founding, LESL had completed more than 45 projects and 

was pursuing twice that many for three outside sponsors. LESL performed three 

main types of activities: laboratory testing of equipment; development of equipment 

performance standards and user guidelines; and rapid-response advice to requesting 

organizations. LESL provided its many services without laboratories of its own—its 

managers issued contracts for the necessary laboratory work to capable groups 

elsewhere within the Bureau or outside. Administratively, LESL formed a part of the 

Center for Consumer Product Technology, Institute for Applied Technology. 

The seven major project areas and their chiefs were: communications systems, 

Marshall Treado; security systems, Lawrence K. Eliason; investigative aids, Robert C. 

Mills; protective equipment, Ronald C. Dobbyn; courtroom equipment, Raymond L. 

Falge; vehicles, Jared J. Collard; and specialized systems, Avery T. Horton. 

The lion's share of LESL support—more than 90 q'o—came from the National 

Institute for Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice. Smaller amounts came from the 

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and the Defense Nuclear Agency. By 

1975 LESL had produced on behalf of these sponsors more than two dozen reports, 

18 performance standards, two Standard Reference Materials, and a user 

Communications Equipment 

Laboratory work to improve police communications equipment or to develop more 

effective new units was centered in the Electromagnetics Division in Boulder. The 

effort, directed by Marshall Treado, focused on mobile and hand-held radios, basestation electronics, personal transceivers, transmitters for undercover use, vehiclelocating devices, and sensitive voice and broadcast receivers. In each case, field testing 

was used to prepare performance standards, thus allowing police units to write 

specifications addressing their particular needs rather than simply requesting items of 

existing equipment that might or might not satisfy their requirements.67 

Public Law PL 90-35 1, 82 Stat. 197, June 19, 1968. 

66"NBS lab marshals Bureau know-how to help fight crime," NBS Standard, July, 1972, pp. 1, 10. See also 

Jacob J. Diamond, "The Law Enforcement Standards Laboratory," DimensionsiNfiS 59, March 1975, pp. 5 1-53. 67 Marshall Treado, "Safer Streets Through Improved Communication," Dimensions/NBS 59 p. 54, March 

1975. 

354 
In research for the National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, NBS 

scientist Joseph C. Richmond adjusted a passive night vision camera in order to photograph an optical chart and a dummy in the Law Enforcement Standards 

Laboratory. 

Legal Record-Keeping 

Scientists in the Boulder Electromagnetics Division, under the direction of 

Raymond L. Falge, studied courtroom use of tape recorders employing both audio and 

video signals, playback systems, and storage techniques. Much of this equipment was not in common use in U.S. courtrooms, which frequently relied on the older 

stenographic methods of recording and storage despite their unavoidable uncertainties 

and 

A user guide to recording, replaying, and storage by electronic methods provided a means by which courtroom personnel could design systems to meet their individual 

needs. Performance standards describing the critical features of recording equipment were developed as well, providing specifications in terms that would satisfy local 

needs. 

The objective of the record-keeping program was to provide the means for any 

courtroom to record testimony and other needed information in a durable format and 

to enable courtroom personnel to retrieve the information quickly and to store it 

efficiently without the danger of loss. In many cases, video recording equipment was found to satisfy courtroom needs far better than previously used methods, allowing 

Raymond L. Falge, "Guidelines For Keeping Better Court Records," Dimensions/NBS 59 pp. 56-57, March 

355 

1975. 
quicker and more accurate acquisition of testimony and preserving lifelike images of 

witnesses for use long after their departure or demise. Qualities of video images judged 

most significant were visual resolution, contrast, spectral sensitivity, and freedom from 

distortion. 

Protective Gear 

Developing improvements in protective gear for police use was the responsibility of a group operating under the leadership of Ronald C. Dobbyn. Its work encompassed a wide range of equipment. Body armor was one of the first items studied; it was 

followed by work on helmets, hearing protection, gas masks, face shields, handgun 

ammunition, and firing-range safety. As with other features of LESL work, the focus 

was on laboratory evaluation of existing equipment, the development of more 

satisfactory devices where needed, and the formulation of performance specifications 

to permit state and local police groups to buy the protection they needed. LESL 

examined 11 types of riot helmets; only two gave protection to the user that was 

considered adequate. In preparing typical examples of situations where such gear 

would be used, NBS scientists devised tests that would determine the forces exerted on 

helmets by particular objects likely to impact them. This information was then used to 

develop performance standards useful to many police 

Forensic Standards 

The increasing dependence of police upon physical evidence to amplify or replace 

statements of witnesses in turn increased the need for better physical standards for 

forensic use. Areas studied under the LESL Investigative Aids program, directed by 

Robert M. Mills, included composition and color of paint for automobiles, glass 

refractive index and composition, and gunpowder analysis, as well as alcohol detection 

and quantification.7° A new Standard Reference Material for glass was developed and 

produced; a set of 140 automotive paint samples was collected, chemically analyzed, 

and cataloged;7' and equipment was developed for use in gunpowder and alcohol 

detection, parcel screening, and bomb and narcotics detection. 

Security Systems 

Security systems, as applied to crime work, included an enormous variety of 

devices. Such mundane objects as doors resided in that group along with burglar 

alarms, handcuffs, window locks, night-vision viewers, and surveillance cameras. 

Lawrence K. Eliason led the Bureau effort in this area. One of the first investigations 

Ronald C. Dobbyn, "Helping improve police protection," Dimensions/NBS 59, p. 58, 67, March 1975. 

Robert M. Mills, "Toward more objective evidence," Dimensions/NBS 59, p. 59, March 1975. 

Charles 0. Leete, "Collection of auto paint colors prepared for forensic use," Dimensions INBS 58, 

pp. 200-201, September 1974. 

356 
Charles 0. Leete, Research Associate from the Manufacturers Council on Color and 

Appearance and co-developer of the NBS Law Enforcement Standards Laboratory 

automotive paint reference collection, demonstrated the ease of visually matching a paint sample to a vehicle. 

LESL performed in the security area involved the evaluation of the effectiveness of 

handcuffs. The staff found that as little as 27 newtons of force—barely 6 pounds— 

sufficed to open handcuffs in one shipment received by a state police force. Needless 

to say, the manufacturer was anxious to replace the entire shipment. LESL produced a draft standard for metal handcuffs based upon testing of actual sample devices. 

Examining "thumbcuffs," under consideration as replacements for ordinary handcuffs, the staff found that, to be effective, the cuffs had to be applied so tightly that the 

prisoner was in danger of losing his thumbs because of severe restriction to the blood 

supply. A quickly drawn recommendation pointed out the danger in thumbcuffs and 

suggested that they not be used. 

Burglary was estimated to cost the public $750 million per year. The LESL staff 

found, however, that typical burglar-alarm systems gave up to 99 % false-alarm rates, 

mostly as a result of improper operator procedures. Examining the detailed functioning 

of the alarms led quickly to a better understanding of the devices and the preparation 

of guidelines for their purchase and use. 

Other security items under study included door and window locks, an analysis of the 

abilities of likely forced-entry burglars, and the selection and operation of surveillance 

cameras. 72 

72 Lawrence K. Eliason, "Investigating the performance of security systems," Dimensions/NBS 59, pp. 60-62, 

March 1975. 

357 
Vehicles 

Jared J. Collard was charged with management of the LESL police vehicle program. 

He noted some of the many problems encountered in the use of vehicles by typical 

departments.73 In compiling an experiential database, NBS surveyed nearly 1400 police 

agencies; patrol cars were identified as one of the two major equipment problems, not a happy circumstance considering that only police station operating costs and personnel 

expenses exceeded expenditures for vehicles. Robert G. Massey of NBS initiated a study of the details of police vehicles, including equipment normally carried therein. 

He found many instances in which departments purchased vehicles simply because of 

budget restrictions, even though they did not fit the anticipated mode of use. 

Rosalie T. Ruegg, a Technical Analysis Division economist, collaborated with the 

LESL project. She prepared a report reviewing the costs and benefits of repairing or 

replacing police vehicles as functions of their age and service, basing her work on actual records of police departments. She addressed the advantages and disadvantages 

of fleet ownership by police units, as well as leasing methods. Ruegg's analysis offered 

helpful guidelines for hard-pressed police departments.74 

Properties of Materials 

Microbes and the Corrosion of Metals 

In 1922, NBS set up a Corrosion Laboratory to augment even-earlier studies of 

underground corrosion of metallic equipment by stray electrical currents. The new 

laboratory staff began investigations of the corrosive action of soil itself on buried 

metal construction components. Utilities, especially gas line companies, were plagued 

at that time by economic losses arising from corrosion damage to their equipment.75 

Study of underground and underwater corrosion of metals continued apace, both at the 

Bureau and elsewhere, since that time.76 Occasional discoveries of new corrosion 

mechanisms expanded man's understanding of this surprisingly complex phenomenon. 

One of the more interesting new mechanisms involved microbes, which were found to 

foster corrosion in as unusual a location as airplane fuel tanks, and, probably, to have 

hastened or caused the cracking of America's famous Liberty Bell.77 

Jared J. Collard, "Patrol car performance and safety studied," Dirnensions/NBS 59, p. 63, March 1975. 

R. T. Ruegg, "The police patrol car: economic efficiency in acquisition, operation, and disposition," NBSIR 

75-961, June 1976, 225 pp. 

Cochrane, Measures for Progress, p. 121. 76 Warren P. Iverson, "Possible source of a phosphorus compound produced by sulfate-reducing bacteria that cause anaerobic corrosion of iron," Materials Performance, May 1998, pp. 46-49. 

Warren P. lverson, private communication to the author. 

358 
In 1974, Warren P. Iverson, who was employed as a bacteriologist and microbiologist prior to joining the NBS Metallurgy Division in 1969, received both the 

Department of Commerce Silver Medal Award and the Charles Thom Award of the 

Society of Industrial Microbiology78 for his studies of the role of microbes in 

underground and underwater metal corrosion. The awards followed a series of publications and talks by Iverson and his colleagues on certain mechanisms by which 

microbes greatly hastened the rate of corrosion of metallic materials in contact with the 

earth. 

Other members of the Corrosion Section of the Metallurgy Division, led at that time 

by Jerome Kruger, included Melvin Romanoff (just about to retire after nearly thirty 

years of corrosion work at the Bureau), William F. Gerhold, W. J. Schwertfeger, 

Benjamin T. Sanderson and Edward Escalante. Collaborators from the U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory included L. L. 

Watkins and R. L. Alumbaugh. 

A microbe-free theory of metallic corrosion in marine environments that related 

chemisorption and passivity to alloy compositions with particular d-electron 

configurations was presented at the same time by Lawrence H. Bennett, Lydon J. 

Swartzendruber and Michael B. McNeil of the Alloy Physics Section of the Metallurgy 

Division.80 

In a related microbe-vs-metal investigation, Iverson joined William R. Blair and 

Frederick E. Brinckman—colleagues from the NBS Inorganic Materials Division—in a collaboration with Rita R. Colwell of the University of Maryland to study the 

interactions between mercury and microorganisms found in the Chesapeake Bay.8' 

78 W. P. Iverson, "Anaerobic corrosion: Metals and microbes in two worlds," Dev. md. Microbiol. 16, 1-10 

(1975). 

W. P. Iverson, Biological Corrosion, Chapter in Advances in Corrosion Science and Technology, M. 0. 

Fontana and R. W. Staehle, Editors, 2, pp. 1-42 (Plenum Press, New York, 1972). See also W. P. Iverson, 

"Tests in Soils," (Proc., Symposium on State-of-the-Art in Corrosion Testing, ASTM Annual Meeting, June 2 1-26, 1970, Toronto, Canada). Chapter 21 in Handbook on Corrosion Testing and Evaluation, W. H. Ailor, 

Ed., (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1971) pp. 575-597. See also W. P. Iverson, "The corrosion of 

mild steel by a marine strain of Desulfovibrio," Proc. 3d mt. Congress on Marine Corrosion and Fouling, 

Gaithersburg, Md, Oct 2-6, 1972, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, III., Oct 1973, pp. 6 1-82. See 

also W. P. Iverson, "Microbial corrosion of iron," Chapter 19 in Microbial Iron Metabolism, Neilands, Ed., 

(New York: Academic Press, 1974) pp. 475-513. 

L. H. Bennett, L. J. Swartzendruber and M. B. McNeil, "On the electron-configuration theory of marine 

corrosion," Proc. 3d ml. Congress on Marine Corrosion and Fouling, Gaithersburg, Md, Oct 2-6, 1972, 

Northwestern University Press, Evanston, III., Oct 1973, pp. 410-426. 

" W. R. Blair, W. P. Iverson and F. E. Brinckman, "Application of a gas chromatograph—atomic absorption 

detection system to a survey of mercury transformations by Chesapeake Bay microorganisms," Chron,osphere III, No. 4, 167-174 (1974). 

359 
In 1949, Melvin Romanoff of the NBS Corrosion Section removed and inspected test specimens at a corrosion test site at Loch Raven, Maryland. Romanoff, an internationally known expert on underground 

corrosion, joined NBS in 1937; except for a year's military service during World War II. he worked at the 

Bureau until his death in 1970. 

360 
Map showing concentrations of mercury in top sediment of the Chesapeake Bay 

between January 1972 and May 1973. The element was most prevalent near population 

centers and industrial sites. 

Cavitation in Mechanical Failure 

The Mechanical Failures Prevention Group, formed during the l960s under the 

sponsorship of the Bureau's Metallurgy Division to study ways of mitigating various 

types of failure in mechanical systems, met on Halloween in 1973 at NBS in Boulder. 

361 
It was the 19th meeting of the organization, sponsored by the Office of Naval 

Research, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the NBS Institute 

for Materials Research. 

The topic of the meeting was cavitation and mechanical failure. Sixteen papers were 

presented during the three-day meeting. They covered such topics as the physics of 

cavitation damage to materials, practical examples of cavitation erosion, cavitation in 

particular fluids, and coatings and other means to prevent cavitation damage.82 

Fracture in Ceramics 

A detailed analysis of slow crack growth in ceramics at temperatures up to 1400 °C was published by A. G. Evans. He discussed both cyclic and static loading conditions, 

using available data to account for and to predict failures. He discovered that purity 

of the ceramic was a key element in preventing failure, and that plasticity—leading 

either to motion of dislocations or to grain-boundary sliding—was a primary factor in 

the growth.83 

Sheldon M. Wiederhom performed a similar study of fracture in glass. Reviewing 

factors affecting the strength of glass—brittleness, surface flaws, and stress corrosion 

cracking—Wiederhorn applied the ideas of fracture mechanics to the physics and 

chemistry of glass strength. He expected that approach to aid in the design of glass 

structures.84 The study relied heavily upon an earlier investigation by Wiederhorn 

and Leonard H. Bolz which employed the methods of fracture mechanics to stress 

corrosion cracking of glass.85 

In the earlier work, Wiederhorn and Bolz measured crack velocities as a function of 

applied stress and temperature. They were able to determine activation energies for 

crack motion, which they found to be consistent with a universal static-fatigue curve 

for glass. 

Ultra-Pure Materials 

Recognizing that contamination of ultra-pure refractory materials by containers was a major problem in the preparation of ultra-pure materials, Alan L. Dragoo and Robert 

C. Paule considered the advantages of purification in a space environment. As an 

52 "MFPG. The role of cavitation in mechanical failures," NBS Special Publication 394, 183 pp., April, 1974, 

T. R. Shives and W. A. Willard, editors. 

A. 0. Evans, "High temperature slow crack growth in ceramic materials," NBSIR 74-442, 48 pp., 

February, 1974. 

S. M. Wiederhom, "Strength of glass—a fracture mechanics approach," NBSJR 74-485, 24 pp., May 1974. 

S. M. Wiederhom and L. H. Bolz, "Stress corrosion and static fatigue of glass," J. Amer. Ceram. Soc. 53, 

No. 10, 543-548 (1970). 

362 
illustrative example they studied the advantages for the evaporative purification of 

molten alumina in zero gravity. They concluded that many thermodynamic 

criteria would still apply, but with modifications needed to account for weightlessness 

and reduced pressure.86 

Stable Lasers, Frequency Standards, the Speed of Light, and New Laser Physics 

The Elusive Speed of Light 

How fast does light travel? This question fascinated mankind for centuries. Early 

attempts to measure the elusive quantity, such as the famous timing experiment 

proposed by Galileo in which lanterns on adjacent mountain tops would be unmasked 

in sequence, could only prove that light did indeed travel quickly. 

Physicists found the speed of light to be an especially compelling constant of nature. 

Apart from its intrinsic interest, knowledge of the quantity was useful in many 

physical laws as, for example, when electromagnetic radiation was employed in 

"ranging" problems—determining distances, either between distant places on the earth 

or between celestial bodies such as the earth and the moon. An example of this use of 

the speed of light was presented in Chapter 2 (Lunar Ranging). 

As of 1970, the speed of light was known with an uncertainty of a few parts in ten 

million. For example, a determination of the speed of light was performed in 1958 

by K. D. Froome, a physicist at the National Physical Laboratory in England, using a radio interferometer. In his report, he gave as the uncertainty three parts in I at best. 

In a monograph summarizing the experiment, Froome and a colleague, L. Essen, 

stated the nub of the measurement problem succinctly:87 

The merits of the optical interferometer for the precision measurement of length 

or, conversely, the radiation wavelength, are well-known and require no elaboration here. But an interferometer operating with a radiation whose 

frequency can be measured offers an extremely accurate method for the 

determination of the velocity of this radiation. 

To experiment with a form of radiation whose frequency and wavelength could 

readily be measured, Froome chose to use microwaves of 72 GHz frequency. 

Given the difficulty of their measurements, it startled the scientific community when an announcement was made during a press conference in Denver, Colorado, on January 28, 1972 that Richard L. Barger, Bruce L. Danielson, Gordon W. Day, 

Kenneth M. Evenson, John Hall, F. Russell Petersen, and Joseph S. Wells, using a methane-stabilized laser of known frequency and wavelength, had derived a new value 

for the speed of light—one with an uncertainty of about three parts in i09. The new 

value was given as (299,792,456. 2 ± 1.1) meters per second. 

86 A. L. Dragoo, and R. C. Paule, "Ultrapure materials; containerless evaporation and the roles of diffusion 

and Marangoni convection," Proc. 12th Aerospace Sciences Meeting, Washington DC, Jan 30-Feb 1, 1974, 

paper No. 74-209, pp. 1-8. 87 K. D. Froome and L. Essen, The Velocity of Light and Radio Waves, (New York: Academic Press, 1969) 

pp. 136-137. 

363 
In 1972, Kenneth M. Evenson was photographed with the apparatus used to measure the frequency of an infrared helium-neon laser, the highest frequency measurement 

made to that time. Since the wavelength had already been determined in terms of the 

86Kr standard, knowledge of the frequency permitted calculation of the speed of light 

with greatly improved accuracy. 

A news report of the Denver announcement was carried in the New York Times on January 31, 1972.88 The German periodical Der Spiegel carried a similar report on February 14, 1972. 

A brief publication of the new, high-frequency, speed-of-light measurement first 

appeared in the scientific literature late in 1972.89 

The seven Boulder physicists shared the 1974 Department of Commerce Gold Medal 

Award for their work. 

Key to the tour de force of the "Boulder seven" clearly was to devise an accurate 

measurement of both the wavelength and frequency of the radiation from the methanestabilized laser.9° Their success was an interesting example of the power of cohesive 

effort by a group of dedicated physicists. In a few short years they accomplished 

scientific work that could easily have taken more than a decade. 

88 Collier N. Smith, "NBS scores measurement breakthrough," NBS Standard Vol XVII, No. 3. April 1972, 

p. I. 89 K. M. Evenson, J. S. Wells, F. R. Petersen, B. L. Danielson, G. W. Day, R. L. Barger. and J. L. Hall, 

"Speed of light from direct frequency and wavelength measurements of the methane-stabilized laser," Phys. 

Rev. Left. 29, No. 19, 1346-1349 (1972). 

A short but informative account of this work is given by Wilbert F. Snyder and Charles L. Bragaw, 

Achievement in Radio, pp. 634-637. 

364 
In 1974, seven physicists from the NBS Boulder laboratories received the Department of Commerce Gold 

Medal Award for their work on frequency and wavelength standards and for a re-determination of the speed 

of light. Standing, from the left, are Richard L. Barger, John L. Hall, F. Russell Petersen. and Joseph S. 

Wells. Seated, from the left, are Kenneth M. Evenson, Bruce L. Danielson, and Gordon W. Day. 

Laser Stabilization 

One of the first problems to be faced was to stabilize a short-wavelength laser at a totally new level of reproducibility. Early in the project, John L. Hall, one of Lewis 

Branscomb's first colleagues in the Joint Institute of Laboratory Astrophysics, outlined 

the problem of deriving wavelength standards from lasers that periodically experienced 

frequency shifts as large as ten thousand times the theoretical bandwidth. Since the 

instability affected both the wavelength and the frequency, one could discuss the 

problem from either point of view. Hall also proposed a solution to the problem.9' 

In his paper, Hall noted that, while the intrinsic spectral bandwidth predicted for gas 

lasers might be as small as of its wavelength or even less, the "resettability" of 

such lasers was typically one part in The solution, he stated, was to incorporate 

J. L. Hall, "The laser absolute wavelength standard problem," Paper P-I at the 1968 International Quantum Electronics Conference, May 14-17, Miami, Florida. Published in IEEE J. Quantum Elec. QE.4. No. 10, 

pp. 638-641 (1968). 

365 
in the laser a servomechanism that would continually reset the oscillating cavity to some precise feature in the radiant spectrum of the system. 

Hall mentioned several possibilities for stabilizing existing lasers: the Lamb dip 

associated with the 632 nm He-Ne laser, stable within perhaps one part in except 

for pressure effects; dispersion stabilizers based on gain-modulation frequency shifts; 

and atomic or molecular lines in tag gases included in the laser. He mentioned work 

done with Harold S. Boyne on Lamb-dip stabilization on the I neon line, as well as work done elsewhere on an iodine line at 514 nm, which would appear later in a 

stabilizing scheme. Finally, he referred to work under way with Richard Barger on a 3.39 line in methane, which would figure directly in the redefinition of wavelength 

and frequency standards as well as help provide a greatly improved value for the 

speed of light. 

Barger and Hall attacked the stabilization problem head-on. They showed in 1969 

how to obtain a methane line with half-width-at-half-maximum-intensity of approximately and how to stabilize to the center of the line within about one part in loll. 

This level of irreproducibility, the best found up to that time, was less than 1 % of the 

uncertainty of the then-primary length standard, the 605.7 nm line of 86Kr.92 The 

methane line showed exceptionally small shifts arising from changes in pressure or 

temperature. Furthermore, Barger and Hall found that only modest power densities and 

moderate laser-line pressure shifts were needed to make use of the line for stabilization 

of the helium-neon laser. Such a stabilized laser would provide a reproducible radiation source at 88 THz and 3.39 p.m. very useful values if they could be measured 

accurately. 

In 1971, Barger and Hall shared the NBS Stratton award for "extraordinary creativity in the application of lasers to the science of measurement."93 Barger and Hall 

had utilized the methane-stabilized helium-neon laser for new length measurements. 

Their work was only part of the flood of laser-based physics that came from the 

Boulder laboratories in that period. 

Frequency Measurement 

Obtaining an accurate value for the frequency of the methane line presented a difficult hurdle. There was a large difference in frequency between the methane line and 

the existing cesium-beam standard. The high optical frequencies of laser lines seemed 

out of reach. 

Evenson and his colleagues overcame the calibration problem by constructing a "chain" of overlapping frequency measurements. In February 1970, Evenson, Wells, 

Lawrence M. Matarrese, and Lyman B. ElwelI reported measurements of the absolute 

frequencies of two water-vapor laser lines, at 3.8 THz and 10.7 THz.94 They used a n R. L. Barger arid J. L. Hall, "Pressure shift and broadening of methane line at 3. 39 p. studied by lasersaturated molecular absorption," Phys. Rev. Leti. 22, No. 1, 4-8 (1969). 

"Stratton and Rosa awards presented," NBS Standard, Vol XVI, No. 6, June 1971, p. 1. " K. M. Evenson, J. S. Wells, L. M. Matarrese, and L. B. Elwell, "Absolute frequency measurements of the 

28- and 78-p.m cw water vapor laser lines," App!. Phys. Left. 16, No. 4, 159-161 (1970). The correct interpretation of the water vapor laser lines—and the HCN laser lines as well—was provided by David R. Lide, 

Jr. and Arthur 0. Maki, "On the explanation of the so-called CN laser," App!. Phys. Leti. 11, p. 62 (1967). 

366 
"catwhisker diode" comprised of tungsten on nickel to achieve harmonic generation 

and mixing of the water-vapor laser lines with radiation from an HCN laser and from 

phase-locked klystron tubes. They found proper adjustment of the diode to be 

"onerous." However, the two frequency measurements made thereby were evaluated 

in comparison to the NBS cesium-beam frequency standard, with an estimated 

uncertainty of 1 ppm and 0.2 ppm, respectively. These were the highest frequency 

calibrations yet reported. 

The new high-frequency record lasted only a few weeks. Using the same pointcontact diode technique to detect beat frequencies, Evenson, Wells and Matarrese 

reported in March 1970 yet higher frequency measurements, this time of lines in the 

28 THz branch of the CO2 cw (continuous-wave) laser.95 The measurement was made 

possible by use of the 3.8 THz and 10.7 THz lines of the water-vapor laser, and a 

klystron operating from 26 GHz to 28 GHz. The balky diode was even less stable at 

the higher frequency, but two lines were measured at 28.3 THz with an uncertainty of 

1 ppm. 

The next step in this frequency-measurement Odyssey was completed in late 1971 by 

Evenson, Day, Wells, and L. 0. Mullen, with measurements of the frequency of the 

88 THz methane stabilization line in the helium-neon laser.96 Once again, the Boulder 

team broke the record for the highest absolute frequency measurement. Radiation 

from a CO2 laser and a 50 GHz klystron were used along with the He-Ne radiation to 

make the measurement, with harmonic generation and mixing again occurring in a 

tungsten-on-nickel diode. The resulting uncertainty was quoted as 0.6 ppm. 

The accuracy of the frequency measurements reported thus far had been limited by 

the way in which the lasers were tuned. Evenson, Wells, Petersen, Danielson, and 

Day97 were able to improve the accuracy of the measurements substantially—as much 

as 100 times—by tuning them to molecular transitions in CO2 and CH4. In the paper 

cited in the previous paragraph, the authors described the entire calibration chain, 

from the cesium-beam frequency standard as maintained by NBS to the 88 THz 

methane line. The frequency chain, a three-step process, had required the manipulation 

and careful measurement of five different lasers and five klystron sources. In step 1, an HCN laser was frequency-locked to a quartz crystal oscillator, using two klystrons; 

the H20 laser was frequency-locked to the stabilized CO2 laser and the beat frequency 

between the H2O and HCN lasers was measured. In step 2, the difference between 

the two CO2 lines was measured. In step 3, the frequency of the 3.39 line in 

methane was measured relative to one of the lines of the CO2 laser. Values for each 

of the three measured molecular transitions were given, with uncertainties ranging from 

1 to 1.5 parts in 

K. M. Evenson, J. S. Wells, and L. M. Matarrese, "Absolute frequency measurements of the CO2 cw laser 

at 28 THz (10.6 tim)," App!. Phys. Lett. 16, No. 6, 251-253 (1970). 

K. M. Evenson, G. W. Day, J. S. Wells, and L. 0. Mullen, "Extension of absolute frequency measurements to the cw He-Ne laser at 88 THz (3.39 p.)," App!. Phys. Letr. 20, No. 3, 133-134 (1972). 

K. M. Evenson, J. S. Wells, F. R. Petersen, B. L. Danielson, and 0. W. Day, "Accurate frequencies of 

molecular transitions used in laser stabilization: The 3.39 p.m transition in CH4 and the 9.33- and 10.18 p.m 

transitions in C02," App!. Phys. Len. 22, No. 4, 192-195 (1973). 

367 
Wavelength Measurement 

The measurement of the wavelength of the stabilized methane line at 3.39 was 

the final piece of the speed-of-light accomplishment. Barger and Hall, who had 

demonstrated the stability of the line, also measured its wavelength.98 They used a frequency-controlled Fabry-Perot interferometer for the purpose. It was necessary to 

compare the methane-line wavelength to the length standard, the line of 86Kr defined 

to be 605.7802105 nm. The uncertainty of the Kr standard was limited by an asymmetry in the standard 

line. This asymmetry was discovered only after the frequency of the line had 

been defined by international agreement. Because of the standard line asymmetry, 

the methane wavelength was given by Barger and Hall as 3.392231404 and 

3.39223 1376 The two values represented the wavelength of maximum intensity of 

the Kr line and the center of gravity of the line, respectively. The uncertainty of the 

measurement was estimated as ±3.5 in 

A New Value for the Speed of Light 

The assumption underlying the entire project was that the product of the frequency 

and wavelength of an electromagnetic wave truly represented the speed of propagation 

of that wave. With absolute values available for both the wavelength and the frequency 

of the methane line used in the experiments, all that remained to provide a new value 

for the speed of light, in principle, was a simple multiplication. Evenson, Wells, 

Petersen, Danielson, Day, Barger, and Hall provided that final step in the letter to the 

Physical Review that was mentioned 

In their paper, the Boulder group referred to the utility of stable, reproducible lasers as references for both frequency and wavelength. They also noted that the methanestabilized helium-neon laser operating at 3.39 and 88 THz could provide these 

references in the range where precision could be optimized, and they reviewed the 

methods used for calibration of both wavelength and frequency of the methane line. 

They called attention once again to the characteristics of the length standard that 

limited its accuracy. In order to minimize the uncertainty of the speed of light resulting 

from their measurements, the group selected one feature of the 86Kr line—its center of 

gravity—which they found that they could identify within ±3.5 parts in That 

uncertainty then dominated the overall determination of the speed of light, given as c= (299 792 456.2± 1.1) m/s. 

The new determination of the speed of light agreed with the previous value, but 

carried a lower uncertainty by nearly a factor 100. Their result also agreed with a new value simultaneously presented by an NBS Gaithersburg group (see below). In order to 

R. L. Barger, and J. L. Hall, "Wavelength of the 3.39-ii.m laser-saturated absorption line of methane," 

App!. Phys. Leit. 22, No. 4, 196-199 (1973). 

K. M. Evenson, J. S. Wells, F. R. Petersen, B. L. Danielson, G. W. Day, R. L. Barger, and J. L. Hall, 

"Speed of light from direct frequency and wavelength measurements of the methane-stabilized laser," Phys. 

Rev. Leti. 29, No. 19, 1346-1349 (1972). 

368 
make best use of the new results, the group recommended that consideration be given 

to revising the length standard by assigning a particular value to the wavelength of one of the optically stabilized lasers. As an alternative, they noted that the speed of light 

could be set by international agreement and the wavelength of the lasers set by 

experiment. Their paper provided a fitting and well-stated conclusion to a group 

project that was brilliantly conceived and carefully carried out. 

A "Gaithersburg" Value for the Speed of Light 

As happens frequently in science, while the NBS Boulder group was in the midst of 

its re-determination of the speed of light, a second re-determination---quite independent 

of the first—was in progress in the Bureau's Gaithersburg laboratory. 

Zoltan Bay and Gabriel G. Luther of the Quantum Metrology Section of the Optical 

Physics Division, in collaboration with John A. White, a colleague from The American 

University, published a new value for the speed of light a few months before the 

Boulder group.'°° The Gaithersburg group used an ingenious scheme for modulating 

the light from the 633 nm line of a helium-neon laser by the use of microwaves. The 

technique produced the frequency difference between sidebands generated by the 

modulation process, as well as the ratio of the frequencies of the sidebands. The 

frequency of the laser line was thus calculated in terms of the microwave frequency, 

which could be measured directly in terms of the primary standard of frequency at 

100 kHz. 

The value given for the red-line frequency was v = (473 612 166±29) MHz or 

slightly in excess of 473 THz. Using a value for the wavelength of the He-Ne red line 

given earlier by Christopher Sidener of the Bureau's Optical Physics Division, X = (632.991 47±0.00001) nm, Bay, Luther, and White obtained for the speed of light 

the value c = (299 792 462±18) mIs. This value, while not determined with the 

low uncertainty level claimed a few months later by the Boulder group, was entirely 

consistent with their result. 

Thus it happened that, within the short space of a few months in 1972, two independent determinations of the speed of light shone forth from NBS, each providing an unprecedented level of uncertainty for one of the most prized of the fundamental 

constants. 

The Task Group on Fundamental Constants, Committee on Data for Science and 

Technology (CODATA) of the International Council of Scientific Unions included in 

its report of August 10, 1973, the speed of light as evaluated by the Boulder group. 

Meeting in October of the same year, the Consultative Committee for the Definition of 

the Meter (the operative arm of the International Committee for Weights and Measures 

(CIPM) in the area of length) recommended that the CIPM consider adoption of the 

3.39 methane transition studied by the Boulder group as a length standard. 

°° Z. Bay, G. G. Luther, and J. A. White, "Measurement of an optical frequency and the speed of light," 

Phys. Rev. Leti. 29, 189 (1972). 

369 
Fine optical adjustments were made by Gabriel 0. Luther of the NBS Optical Physics Division during 

measurements of the optical frequency of the 633 nm red line of a helium-neon laser. 

As might have been expected, development of new, more precise measures for 

length and frequency led to many new measurements and discoveries not directly 

related to the speed of light. It is interesting to highlight some of these to indicate the 

type of scientific results that nearly always accompanied advances in 

metrology. 

Lasers and Magnetic Resonance 

One of the first of these was the use of lasers in magnetic resonance. Evenson and 

Wells collaborated with Herbert P. Broida and Robert J. Mahler of NBS and with 

Masataka Mizushima of the University of Colorado in using an HCN laser to observe 

paramagnetic resonance absorption in molecular oxygen.'°' Mizushima had noted 

the coincidence between certain oxygen energy-level separations and the HCN laser 

frequency at 890 GHz, given the application of a magnetic field of the proper strength. 

'°' K. M. Evenson, H. P. Broida, J. S. Wells, R. J. Mahier. and M. Mizushima, "Electron paramagnetic resonance absorption in oxygen with the I-ICN laser," Phys. Rev. Leti. 21, No. 15. pp. 1038-1040 (1968). 

370 
The successful experiment provided the first observation of absorption between the 

oxygen levels. It opened a new window into molecular spectroscopy. 

Acting on the results of their experiment, Wells and Evenson constructed an improved electron paramagnetic resonance spectrometer based on the use of the HCN 

laser)°2 The new spectrometer featured a sample cavity that was integral with the 

HCN laser, separated only by a polyethylene membrane. Its signal-to-noise ratio was 

higher than the earlier version by a factor of ten or more. Many investigators were 

attracted to the Boulder laboratory by the prospect of using it. 

The new tool was soon put to use by Evenson and Wells in collaboration with 

Harrison E. Radford, a staff member of the NBS Heat Division until 1970 when he 

joined the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Evenson, Wells and Radford 

investigated the 79 electric dipole spectrum of OH, a free radical which they 

suspected might participate in stellar maser action)°3 Use of the technique enabled the 

authors to identify an energy coincidence between the OH lines and a line in water, 

confirming the possibility of maser pumping involving OH. 

02 j• S. Wells and K. M. Evenson, "A new LEPR spectrometer," Rev. &i. Instrum. 41, No. 2, p. 226 (1970). 03 K. M. Evenson, J. S. Wells and H. E. Radford, "Infrared resonance of OH with the H20 laser: a galactic 

maser pump?" Phys. Rev. Leu. 25, No. 4, 199-202 (1970). 

371 

Zolton Bay studied the apparatus used to measure the frequency of a helium-neon laser 

line. 
Evenson, Radford and M. M. Moran, Jr., another colleague at the Smithsonian 

Astrophysical Observatory, quickly investigated yet another interesting case. They 

identified the fundamental hydrocarbon radical CH, long since known to astronomers 

by its optical interstellar absorption lines. The radical was expected to appear in the 

microwave spectrum in the form of a 10 cm A-type doubling spectrum, but it had 

proved singularly elusive in the laboratory. The group was successful immediately with 

the technique of laser magnetic resonance, using an oxyacetylene flame burning 

within a water laser. They took advantage of the coincidence between the separation 

of rotational levels in the CH radical and the 118.6 line of the water laser, using a 2 T magnetic field to Zeeman-split the levels and permit the observation of some 

14 lines in the CH spectrum.'°4 

The lines appeared at the expected positions and with excellent signal-to-noise 

characteristics (250:1). 

The HCN laser spectrometer was used again by R. F. Curl, Jr. of Rice University in 

collaboration with Evenson and Wells for study of the spectrum of NO2. The NO2 

molecule, a paramagnetic asymmetric rotor, had Zeeman components at 337 

and at 311 four lines were quickly identified because their energies could be 

accurately predicted from previous work.'°5 By the time that work was complete, the new technique of laser magnetic resonance was well established. 

An interesting feature of the laser magnetic spectrometry was the initial difficulty 

encountered in interpreting the signals arising from spectrometry of polyatomic 

molecules. No general formalism existed for the treatment of such data. 

Jon T. Hougen, theoretician in the Optical Physics Division, undertook to solve the 

problem. Using the methods of mathematical physics, he developed equations involving both Zeeman line positions and Zeeman line intensities for the molecular 

infrared spectra obtained by laser magnetic spectrometry.'°6 On the basis of Hougen's 

work, experimenters could assign quantum numbers and determine spin-rotation 

interaction constants for the states involved in a given spectral line, without prior 

knowledge of the molecular structure or the energy levels. 

Harmonic Generation 

In another "first," harmonic generation up to frequencies of 8200 GHz and submillimeter wave laser detection and radiation mixing in superconducting Josephson 

junctions were demonstrated by Donald G. McDonald, Evenson, Wells, and J. D. Cupp 

of NBS, experimenting in collaboration with their colleague from the Physikalisch 

Technische Bundesanstalt in West Germany, Volkmar Kose)°7 

04 K. M. Evenson, H. E. Radford and M. M. Moran, Jr., "CH free radicals detected by infrared laser 

magnetic resonance," App!. Phys. Leti. 18, No. 10, P. 426 (1971). 05 R. F. Curl, Jr., K. M. Evenson, and J. S. Wells, "Laser magnetic resonance spectrum of NO2 at 337 p.m 

and 311 p.m," J. Chern. Phys. 56, No. 10, pp. 5143-5151 (1972). 06 Jon T. Hougen, "The assignment of molecular infrared spectra from a laser magnetic resonance spectrometer," J. Molec. Spectros. 54, 447-471 (1975). 107 D. 0. McDonald, V. E. Kose, K. M. Evenson, J. S. Wells, and J. D. Cupp, "Harmonic generation and 

submillimeter wave mixing with the Josephson effect," App!. Phys. Let:. 15, No. 4, pp. 121-122 (1969). 

372 
It was known at that time that a Josephson junction could function as a local 

oscillator and a harmonic generator. The magnitude of the maximum frequency achievable by harmonic generation could be determined by finding the maximum voltage 

at which a constant-voltage step occurred in the dc voltage-current curve.'08 The 

NBS/PTB group used a Josephson junction connecting two niobium point contacts to 

generate constant-voltage steps up to 17 mY (more than 100 steps) in response to an 

applied radiation at 70 GHz. They also noted that the technique could be used for the 

direct frequency measurement of infrared laser lines. 

Harmonic mixing of klystron and laser radiation, using a Josephson junction, at 

orders as high as 100—at that time, an unprecedented level—was achieved in 1971 by 

McDonald, Cupp, Evenson, and their colleague Allan S. Risley.'°9 In performing the 

experiment, they simultaneously irradiated a Nb-Nb Josephson junction with 10 GHz 

microwaves from a klystron and with 891 GHz laser radiation; a 60 MHz beat note was produced between the fundamental laser frequency and high harmonics of the 

klystron. 

That type of experiment, coupling the properties of the supercOnducting Josephson 

junction with applied irradiation, quickly became a standard avenue of investigation. 

Detecting Earth-Tides and Nuclear Explosions 

Judah Levine, a member of the Quantum Electronics Division in Boulder, and John 

L. Hall of the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics constructed a long (30 m) 

laser strain-meter in an evaluation of the precision of long-path Fabry-Perot interferometry. They built the device underground, in a shaft of an unused gold mine in 

Boulder County, Colorado. Mounting long-focal-length mirrors on rock piers within a 30 m vacuum tube, they directed the light of a helium-neon laser oscillating at 3.39 

into the interferometer. A second, similar laser, locked to a particular absorption 

frequency in methane, served as a reference. 

The two scientists found, as expected, that the sensitivity of the system depended in 

part on the stability of the reference laser, about 1 part in 1011. In part, the sensitivity 

depended also on the signal-to-noise ratio of the long-path interferometer, which turned 

out to be about 500 to 1 for a 1 ms integration time. They also had to consider the 

possibility that the geological response of the rock comprising the area in which the 

mine was located might exhibit unexpected behavior. They examined this possibility 

by creating artificial "seismic disturbances" with a sledge hammer. The response of 

the detector showed no resultant hysteresis or permanent offset, but it did display a directional sensitivity. 

See, for example, W. H. Parker, D. N. Langenburg, A. Denenstein, and B. N. Taylor, "Determination of 

elh, using macroscopic quantum phase coherence in superconductors. I. Experiment," Phys. Rev. 177, 639 

(1969). 

D. G. McDonald, A. S. Risley, J. D. Cupp, and K. M. Evenson, "Harmonic mixing of microwave and 

far-infrared laser radiation using a Josephson junction," App!. Phys. Len. 18, No. 4, pp. 162-164 (1971). 

373 
The authors used their new, wide-bandwidth, stable, highly sensitive strain-meter to 

study long-term changes in the local earth strain field, the earth tides, and actual 

seismic events. They found the fact that the strain-meter output was a frequency rather 

than a voltage to be an advantage, as was its digital nature. The earth tide showed a strain of about 3 parts in easily detected with their device. 

Fortuitously, they also were able to detect a nuclear explosion. "Project Boxcar," one of a series of nuclear tests, took place in Nevada during their studies. Its transient 

disturbance of the local geology was readily detected by the Levine-Hall 

Progress in Physical Standards 

Standards, as we have seen, take a variety of forms. Quantities that serve as benchmarks are standards, as are procedures adopted to produce specific results. Some of 

these we see in this section. 

Fundamental Constants 

Published in the second volume of the Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference 

Data was the 1973 version of the fundamental constants of physics. It contained the 

latest recommended values for the dozens of constants that defined the scientific world 

at that time. Prepared by Barry N. Taylor—a member of the staff of the director of 

NBS and soon to become chief of the Electricity Division—and E. Richard Cohen of 

Rockwell International, the summary represented critical reviews and analyses of all 

the available experimental and theoretical data. The project was carried out under the 

auspices of a panel of measurement experts operating under the aegis of the Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA), an arm of the International Council 

of Scientific Unions. 

One of the constants upgraded in the summary was the speed of light, determined 

with greatly improved accuracy by a group of NBS researchers as described earlier 

in this chapter. All older determinations were discarded in favor of the new value, 

which featured an uncertainty smaller by a factor of about 75. 

In assessing the most probable values for the various constants, Taylor and Cohen 

used the method of "least squares," involving a comparison of different experimental 

determinations of the constants to minimize the overall 

Values of the 1973 Least-Squares Adjustment of the Fundamental Physical 

Constants were made available to the general public in a number of different forms, 

including a wallet card for handy reference."2 

"°J. Levine and J. L. Hall, "Design and operation of a methane absorption stabilized laser strainmeter," 

J. Geophys. Res. 77, No. 14, 2595-2609 (1972). 

E. R. Cohen and B. N. Taylor, J. Phys. Chem Ref. Data 2, No. 4, pp. 663-734 (1973). 112 B. N. Taylor, "Fundamental physical constants," NBS Special Publication 398, card, August, 1974. 

374 
The National Measurement System 

How important are measurements to America? Attempting to answer this question 

involved many Bureau scientists in a multi-year assessment project that covered nearly 

two dozen measurement areas. 

The elements of a national measurement system were described in 1965-1966 by 

Robert D. although his discussion dwelled mainly on the degree of 

sophistication of the various measurement standards in relation to use of atomic and 

molecular properties as compared to dependence upon artifacts such as the kilogram 

standard for mass. 

During the tenure of Richard Roberts, the concept itself was sufficiently advanced 

that economists as well as scientists could contribute to answering the question that 

opened this section. The measurement tools and their accuracies were only one 

component of the question for specialists in measurement. Of equal interest were the 

numbers of Americans who themselves made measurements as part of their jobs, the 

value of the measurement. tools employed by those workers, the amount of money 

spent in making measurements, and the portion of the gross national product resulting 

from the measurement activity. 

Many measurement areas were involved in the study, including the following: 114 dimension; volume & density; temperature; pressure & vacuum; time & frequency; 

acoustics; vibration & shock; force; humidity; flow; optics; electricity; surface finish; 

vacuum ultraviolet radiation; spectrophotometry; radiometry & photometry; quantum 

electronics; x & nuclear radiation; dosimetry; cryogenic material properties; and 

electromagnetic radiation. The individual reports were published separately as they 

were completed. 

The Bureau technical experts who performed the evaluations of their measurement 

disciplines and wrote the reports were assisted by several people and organizations. 

Directing the study was a Presidential Exchange Executive from the Dow Chemical 

Corp, James Seed, who was assigned to the NBS Director's office for the duration 

of his tour at the Bureau. H5 Economists from the NBS Programs Office participated, as did the U.S. Labor Department and member firms of the National Conference of 

Standards Laboratories (NCSL). 

Officials of the Labor Department provided a wealth of statistics mainly valuable to 

the study in an overall way but also dealing in detail with certain of the study areas. 

Their figures indicated an economic impact of American measurement activities in 

1973 in excess of $70 billion, all but about $7 billion reflecting labor costs. Measurement costs thus represented about 6 % of the Gross National Product. Annual sales 

of companies comprising the NCSL exceeded $300 billion; of that amount, it was 

estimated that NCSL company laboratories invested about $0.23 billion to produce 

about $20 billion of added value to America's goods and services. 

R. D. Huntoon, "Status of the national standards for physical measurement," Science 159, No. 3693, 169- 

178 (1965). See also R. D. Huntoon, "The basis of our measurement system," Phys. Teacher 4, No. 3, 

113-120(1966). 

" "Measuring the National Measurement System," NBS Tech. News Bull., February, 1974, pp. 38.39. 

"NBS has presidential interchange executive," NBS Standard, March 1973, p. 13. 375 
A fairly typical study, on flow measurements, involved some 200 contacts with trade 

associations, companies, universities, measurement laboratories, or agencies of the 

government. The contacts yielded estimates of the various types of flowmeters in use, 

their adequacy for the intended use, and the economic significance of flow uncertainties in various applications. 

Publication of the individual studies generally appeared in NBS Interagency Reports, 

beginning in 1974. In all cases, the Bureau's measurement groups came to know their 

clients better. Generally, they also learned useful facts and clients' views about their 

own services. 

A New Optical Radiation Calibration Service 

Beginning July 1, 1972, the Heat Division's Optical Radiation Section, headed by 

Henry J. Kostkowski, offered a revised schedule of radiometric and photometric 

calibrations. 

The new services were listed under "basic," "gage," and "special." NBS had found it 

necessary to augment its calibration service in the optical-radiation area to satisfy users 

who needed special arrangements or better calibration accuracy than they could obtain 

elsewhere. The "basic" calibrations were those considered of fundamental importance 

to measurements in the two fields—calibrations of spectral radiance, spectral 

irradiance, irradiance, luminous intensity, and luminOus flux. The "gage" calibrations 

were provided for measurements in which official uncertainty levels had not been 

assigned, but for which NBS maintained reference standards. In certain "special" cases, 

the Bureau could offer calibrations of particular instruments or at especially low 

uncertainties by extra effort; these calibrations would be undertaken only when the 

results would benefit many users. 

A Century of International Metrology 

In 1975 the "Convention du Metre" (Convention of the Meter, the oldest treaty of 

which the United States was still a signatory) reached the venerable age of 100 years. 

The original 1875 Convention was accepted by 17 signatory nations: 

Argentina Austria-Hungary Belgium Brazil 

Denmark France Germany Italy 

Peru Portugal Russia Spain 

Sweden and Norway Switzerland Turkey 

United States Venezuela 

The treaty consisted of only 14 Articles. These articles created an International 

Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in Paris, to be maintained at the common 

expense of the signatories; an International Committee for Weights and Measures 

(CIPM) with authority over the BIPM; and a General Conference on Weights and 

Measures (CGPM) with authority over the CIPM. The Articles also delineated briefly 

376 
the responsibilities of the three organizations and placed a few conditions on the 

"contracting states." Regulations regarding financing, personnel, and operation of the 

standards apparatus were provided in an appendix to the convention. 

The Convention proved to be surprisingly durable. Only minor modifications to it were adopted by a second Convention in 1921. As might be expected, the growing 

need for measurement standards throughout the world brought a multitude of new 

classes of standards under the purview of the Convention. These were included by 

simply expanding the activities of the participating organizations. 

By 1975, the number of "member states" that had accepted the Convention had risen 

to 43—those listed above plus the following group: 

Australia Bulgaria Cameroon Canada 

Chile Czechoslovakia Dominican Republic 

Egypt Finland German Democratic Republic 

Hungary (now separate from Austria) India 

Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea 

Mexico The Netherlands Norway (now separate from Sweden) 

Pakistan Poland Romania South Africa 

Thailand Soviet Union (replacing Russia) 

United Kingdom Uruguay Yugoslavia 

The most recent arrival had been Pakistan in 1973. The Treaty roster by then included nearly all of the industrially mature nations. 

At NBS, the centennial was celebrated by exhibits on the Convention of the Meter 

and on the Metric System, which preceded the Convention and helped to give it 

life. The Bureau also hosted a conference of educators on the teaching of metric units 

in schools. 

A lasting memento of the centennial was a translation into English of the official 

centennial volume, edited by Chester H. Page—at that time the Coordinator for 

International Standardization Activities for the Institute for Basic Standards—and Paul 

Vigoureux of the National Physical Laboratory in England."6 Following a history of 

metrology, 10 chapters of the volume described progress in particular standards 

(mass, length, gray imetry, manobarometry, thermometry, electricity, photometry, 

radioactivity, x and gamma rays, and neutrons). Appendices contained the text of the 

Convention, a list of its member states, the membership and officers of the CIPM, 

the directors of the BIPM, the international system of units, a short history of the metric system, and a list of the publications originating in Convention activities. 

116 "The International Bureau of Weights and Measures 1875-1975," edited by Chester H. Page and Paul 

Vigoureux, NBS Special Publication 420, May 1975, 248 pp. 

377 
In recognition of the 1975 centennial, the 15th General Conference on Weights 

and Measures, held on the BIPM grounds just outside Paris from May 27 to June 3, 

became a celebration. Separate activities were held in several countries that participated in the work of the treaty, including the NBS festivities mentioned earlier."7 

Delegates from 43 nations attended the 15th General Conference; they were treated 

to several commemorative activities. Valery Giscard d'Estaing, President of France, 

welcomed the delegates. Jean Terrien, head of the International Bureau of Weights and 

Measures, presided over the conference. The U.S. delegation to the General Conference 

consisted of Richard Roberts, Director of NBS, and Ernest Ambler, Deputy Director. 

Ambler, with long experience in metrology, was the official U.S. delegate. He also 

served on the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) and was head of the Consultative Committee for Ionizing Radiation. 

Besides the Centennial memorial volume mentioned earlier, a second commemorative, a medal, was struck in honor of the occasion. It portrayed on one face the 

Pavilion de Breteuil, home of the BIPM, and on the other face the base units of the 

Systeme Internationale (SI, the international system of metric units). 

In its regular proceedings, the 15th General Conference passed several resolutions 

noting progress in the areas of length, mass, time, electricity, and temperature. One 

such resolution suggested adopting the value 299 792 458 mIs for the speed of light in a vacuum, symbol c; that value was provided by NBS scientists in the landmark 

investigations described earlier in this chapter. Several delegates suggested that the 

value for the speed of light—perhaps the most important of the physical constants— 

might be fixed by definition, allowing the meter and the second to assume values 

consistent with a defined value of c. Another resolution noted recent progress in laser science, advances that could be 

expected to lead to still more precise definitions of both time and length. 

Time was the subject of yet another resolution. In that case, the General Conference 

recognized the many contributions to time standards made by the International Bureau 

of Time (BIH). Located at the Observatory of Paris during 1919, the BIH had 

coordinated international time signals ever since. After the adoption of the atomic 

clock, the BIF1 had initiated the International Atomic Time (TAI) scale and had begun 

the use of the "leap second" to synchronize the new scale with the Universal 

Coordinated Time scale, which was based upon astronomical observations. The 

resolution also suggested the abandonment of the Greenwich Mean Time Scale, which 

was no longer needed. 

In a fourth resolution, the Conference praised then-current measurements of the 

gyromagnetic ratio of the proton, which connected electrical standards to atomic 

constants, and work on the development of a new volt standard based upon the 

superconducting Josephson effect. 

"7 These events and the history that preceded them were discussed briefly in articles in Dimensions NBS, successor to The Technical News Bulletin of NBS: "The Treaty of the Metre, 1875-1975," pp. 104, 105, 117, 

Vol. 59, May, 1975; "An International Meeting, A Century Celebration," p. 224, Vol. 59, October, 1975; and 

"World Conference Updates Vocabulary," pp. 225-227, Vol. 59, October, 1975. 

378 
A final resolution expressed approval of on-going studies of the relation between the 

International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 and thermodynamic temperatures, 

and it adopted slight changes in the IPTS-68, which were embodied in a scale revision 

entitled "IPTS-68 (1975 version)." 

During other deliberations of the 15th General Conference, a number of changes in 

the SI were adopted. These included: 

• Two new prefixes as multipliers for units—peta (symbol P) for and exa 

(symbol E) for 1018. 118 • A name for the unit of activity of a weakly radioactive source, the becquerel, 

symbol Bq, with 1 Bq = 1 disintegration or other nuclear transformation 

per second."9 

• A name for the unit of absorbed radioactive dose, the gray, symbol Gy, with 

1 Gy = 1 joule per kilogram.'20 

Nearly all of the metrologicál activities discussed during the 15th General Conference on Weights and Measures involved work done at NBS. 

Thermometry With Thermocouples 

Specialized industries such as food processing, medicine, and steel-making required 

accurate thermometry at cryogenic temperatures. Thermocouple thermometers constituted a popular type of thermometer for use at low temperatures. To assist the users 

of cryogenic thermocouples, Larry L. Sparks, Robert L. Powell, W. J. Hall, and J. G. 

Hust provided reference tables for use with the International Practical Temperature 

Scale of 1968 for a variety of low-temperature thermocouples, as well as carefully 

evaluated uncertainty limits.'2' 

Several types of thermocouple wires used to manufacture low-temperature 

thermometers received shorthand designations from the ASTM. These included 

copper-nickel alloys (type TN), nickel-chromium alloys (type KP), and nickelaluminum alloys (type KN). Other popular types involved precious-metal alloys. 

118 An example of the use of these prefixes was to express the large amount of energy used in the United 

States each day; the amount could be expressed as 1017 joules, or alternatively as 100 petajoules (100 PJ), or as 0.1 exajoules (0.1 U). 

119 The previous unit, the curie (equal to 3.7X lOb Bq) would remain the unit of choice for highly radioactive sources such as those used to sterilize food. 

'20This unit was meant for use with quantities substantially larger than the rad (100 rad 1 Gy). 

121 L. L. Sparks, R. L. Powell, and J. 0. Hust, "Reference tables for low temperature thermocouples," NBS 

Monograph 124, June 1972. 

379 
The Cryogenics Division physicists tested samples of the various commercially 

available wires for homogeneity, both chemical and physical, and published reference 

tables for their use.'22 

Powell, Hall, Sparks, and C. H. Hyink assisted George W. Burns, Margaret G. 

Scroger, and Harmon H. Plumb of the Heat Division in constructing reference tables 

for thermocouple thermometers used in promulgating the International Practical 

Temperature Scale of 1968.123 Their publication contained tables, analytic expressions, 

approximations, and explanations for the use of seven types of thermocouples 

recommended for use in thermometry by the American Society for Testing and 

Materials. Three noble-metal types, designated 5, R, and B, were included, as were 

four base-metal types, designated E, J, K, and T. 

The new reference data reflected changes resulting from the replacement of the 1948 

temperature scale, changes in the properties of the thermocouple materials, and 

improvements in the methods used to fit the data. 

Gaithersburg Heat Division scientists Burns, Scroger, and Wilbur S. Hurst used 

specially built high-temperature, high-vacuum furnaces for testing thermocouple 

thermometers capable of measurements at temperatures above 2000 °C. The thermocouples, made of refractory metals such as tungsten and rhenium, required special 

insulating and protective materials, and special care in assembly to avoid rapid 

degradation in use.'24 

Assigning Values to Mass 

Changes in the methods used to assign values to mass standards resulted in a given 

weight being credited with several different values of mass over a period of time. In 

order to provide guidance to metrologists on mass assignment, Paul E. Pontius, chief 

of the Mass, Length, and Volume Section of the Optical Physics Division, prepared a historical summary of weighing methods and periodic changes in the mass system. 

Pontius also provided instructions for converting a value assigned on one basis to the 

corresponding value assigned on another.'25 

122 L. L. Sparks and J. G. Hust, "Thermoelectric voltage of silver-28 at % gold thermocouple wire SRM 733, versus common thermocouple materials (between liquid helium and ice fixed points)," NBS Special Publication 260-34 (1972); L. L. Sparks and R. L. Powell, "Low temperature thermocouples; KP, 'normal' silver, 

and copper versus Au-0.02 at % Fe and Au-0.07 at % Fe," J. Res. NBS 76A, No. 3, pp. 263-284 (1972). 23 R. L. Powell, W. J. Hall, C. H. Hyink, Jr., L. L. Sparks, 0. W. Burns, M. G. Scroger, and H. H. Plumb, 

"Thermocouple reference tables based on the IPTS-68," NBS Monograph 125, 410 pp., March 1974. 

240 W. Burns, W. S. Hurst, and M. 0. Scroger, "High reliability, sheathed, beryllia insulated, tungstenrhenium alloy thermocouple assemblies—their fabrication and EMF stability," NASA CR-134549, pp. 1-36, 

June 1974. 125 E. Pontius, "Mass and mass values," NBS Monograph 133, 39 pp., January 1974. 

380 
Margaret G. Scroger connected an absorption roughing-pump system to a high- vacuum oven used in refractory-metal thermocouple research. 

New Density Scale 

Horace A. Bowman, Randall M. Schoonover, and C. Leon Carroll, members of the 

Mass, Length, and Volume Section, created a new scale of density for use in calibration.'26 The new scale originated with four samples of single-crystal silicon, for which 

the scientists determined the density in terms of international standrds of mass and 

length. 

The group had spent several years in planning the experiment on which the new scale would be based. They chose single crystals of silicon as their "working 

standards" because of the chemical and physical stability of silicon and the relative 

ease with which it could be handled in density comparisons. An interferometer, 

26 H. A. Bowman, R. M. Schoonover, and C. L. Carroll, "A density scale based on solid objects," J. Res. 

NBS 78A, No. 1, 13-40 (1974). 

381 
developed at the Bureau by James B. Saunders, was used to measure the diameters of a set of steel balls, commercially manufactured as nearly perfect (within 1 ppm) 

spheres. From the measured diameters, the volumes of the spheres were readily 

calculated. Measurement of the masses of the balls immediately allowed the group to 

calculate their densities. 

In a newly designed hydrostatic weighing apparatus, the volumes of the silicon 

crystals were evaluated in terms of the volumes of the steel balls. Once the masses of 

the crystals were measured, their densities could readily be calculated. 

The authors estimated the uncertainty of their density determinations to be about 

1 ppm. This figure represented a significant decrease (about a factor ten) below the 

variation found in recent international density intercomparisons. Equally valuable 

was the new volumetric-comparison apparatus and the measurement techniques 

developed by the three metrologists. 

Electromagnetic Units 

Chester H. Page, chief of the Electricity Division and soon to complete a distinguished scientific career (35 years at NBS when he retired in 1977), took notice of the 

general lack of understanding of the quantities defining electromagnetic fields in 1974. 

Observing the paucity of a logically consistent set of definitions of electromagnetic 

field quantities in textbooks and other educational materials, Page wrote a short but 

useful treatise on the subject for the American Journal of Physics. His contribution 

included a brief philosophical discussion of the topic and a consistent system of 

definitions. 127 Primary Time and Frequency Standards 

James A. Barnes, chief of the Time and Frequency Division, and Gerhard M. R. 

Winkler of the U.S. Naval Observatory collaborated to produce a publication describing the U.S. system of time and frequency standards. Their two organizations had chief 

responsibility for keeping and disseminating the standards. Barnes and Winkler 

discussed the methods used to assure consistent values and to provide useful 

information to all who needed it.'28 

Helmut Hellwig, chief of the Time and Frequency Standards Section, prepared a status report on operating frequency standards, as well as those that were currently 

under study. He described the levels of accuracy associated with various standards.'29 

127 H. Page, "Definitions of electromagnetic field equations," Amer. J. Phys. 42, 490-496 (1974). 128 A. Barnes and 0. M. R. Winkler, "The standards of time and frequency," NBS Technical Note 649, 91 pp., February 1974. 129 H. Hellwig, "Status report on primary frequency standards," NBS Technical Note 646, 15 pp., September 

1973. 

382 
Using the Superconducting Voltage Standard 

Procedures and measurements used to establish a new definition of the U.S. legal 

volt via the ac Josephson effect were described by Bruce F. Field, Thomas F. 

Finnegan, and Jan Toots for the metrological community in the journal Metrologia. 130 Thin-film tunnel junctions capable of producing a 10 mV output, augmented by 

high-accuracy voltage comparators, were the primary tools for the new definition. 

As noted elsewhere in this volume, the Josephson junction functioned as a frequency-to-voltage converter with the conversion factor equal to 2eIh, a constant 

whose value was determined as 483 593.420 GHZ/VNBS. 

Evaluating X-Ray Wavelengths 

Richard D. Deslattes and Albert Henins evaluated the wavelengths of x-ray reference 

lines (the lines of copper and molybdenum) through the use of a nearly perfect 

single crystal of silicon. 

A two-step experiment was used by the two physicists to achieve their goal. In the 

first step they determined the lattice repeat distance of the silicon crystal in terms of 

the visible wavelength of a stabilized He-Ne laser. In the second, they used the same 

crystal to diffract the reference x-ray lines, thus calibrating those wavelengths in terms 

of the laser wavelength.'3' 

In 1974, Deslattes was presented the Samuel Wesley Stratton award for his work on length standards. 

Progress in Chemistry Research 

Chemistry research at NBS included many specialized topics. The following examples touch only a few of these; more are discussed in other sections throughout this 

chapter. 

A New Calorimeter 

Late in 1972, Edward Prosen and Marthada Kilday published the details of a solution calorimeter that had been a decade in development.'32 The instrument had 

been in use for most of that period, including measurements that led to the certification 

of two Standard Reference Materials for solution calorimetry. However, no archival 

discussion of its design, construction, and use had been presented. In their 1972 paper, 

Prosen and Kilday included measurements on the enthalpies of reaction of sulfuric 

acid with two different hydrates of sodium hydroxide, along with sufficient detail to 

allow the reader to appreciate the precision of the device. 

B. F. Field, T. F. Finnegan, and J. Toots, "Volt maintenance at NBS via 2efh; A new definition of the 

NBS volt," Metrologia 9, No. 4, 155-166 (1973). 

R. D. Deslattes and A. Henins, "X-Ray to visible wavelength ratios," Phys. Rev. Let,'. 31, No. 16, 972-975 

(1973). 132 Edward J. Prosen and Marthada V. Kilday, "An adiabatic solution calorimeter and measurements of a standard reaction for solution calorimetry," J. Res. NBS 77A, No. 2, pp. 179-204, (1973). 

383 
The calorimeter was designed to operate in the temperature range 293 K to 363 K 

(room temperature to near the normal boiling temperature of water) and to accommodate about 300 mL of solution in a platinum-lined, silver reaction chamber, along 

with some 3 mL of solid reactant in a platinum sample holder. Variable-speed stirring 

(200-850 rpm) of the reactants was accomplished by a platinum stirrer. All other 

parts in contact with the reactants or their vapor were made of platinum as well. A 

calibrated platinum resistance thermometer, measured using a sensitive Mueller-type 

resistance bridge, was used to monitor the temperature of the reaction. 

An important feature of the calorimeter was an adiabatic shield surrounding the 

reaction vessel; it was equipped with a heater energized by signals from a six-junction 

thermocouple thermometer connected so as to respond to slight temperature differences 

(typically less than 0.1 mK) between the shield and the reaction chamber. 

Phase Diagrams For Ceramists 

On October 30, 1974, Ernest M. Levin was awarded the Department of Commerce 

Gold Medal posthumously for his exceptional contributions to the science of ceramics. 

A Bureau employee for 30 years, Levin had made the study of ceramics his life work. 

The citation for his award noted Levin's efforts in the field of phase equilibria and 

immiscibility in glasses, but most especially his contribution to "Phase Diagrams For 

Ceramists, a standard reference and text book in many university courses."33 

Recognizing the enormous value of dependable information on phase equilibria in 

ceramic materials, the American Ceramic Society had published a half-dozen compilations of phase diagrams beginning in 1933 with a contribution from NBS prepared by 

F. P. Hall and Herbert Insley.'34 Levin and Howard F. McMurdie, both staff members 

in the NBS Mineral Products Division, had participated in the publication of some of 

these compilations. 

In 1964, the Society published a 600-page book that regularized the presentation of 

the phase-diagram information. The diagrams themselves—2066 in number—were 

preceded by a note on temperature scales, a discussion on interpretation of phase 

diagrams, information on experimental methods, and a bibliography. The book was 

written by Ernest Levin, Carl R. Robbins, and Howard McMurdie with the editorial 

assistance of Margie Reser of the Society. A standard format was adopted for 

presentation of the phase diagrams. 

The same authors produced a supplement to "Phase Diagrams For Ceramists" in 

1969, with an additional 2000 entries. 

"26th Annual Honor Awards Program, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1974. "NIST Historical 

Collection. 

F. P. Hall and Herbert Insley, "A compilation of phase-rule diagrams of interest to the ceramist and 

silicate technologist," J. Amer. Ceram. Soc., 16, pp. 455-567 (1933). 

384 
Ernest M. Levin, a physical chemist 

in the Inorganic Materials Division. 

joined NBS in 1937. His primary 

scientific interest was high-temperature phase equilibria in refractory 

oxides. He received both the Silver 

Medal (1960) and the Gold Medal 

(1974) from the Department of 

Commerce in recognition of the high 

quality of his work. 

Another supplement to the text, containing yet another 850 phase diagrams, was in 

progress in 1974 under the authorship of Levin and McMurdie when both Levin and 

Ms. Reser, the editor from the American Ceramic Society, became unable to continue 

the work. Levin died in August of 1974 and Reser in January of 1975. With the 

assistance of a group of colleagues, including several from NBS, the volume was 

completed and dedicated to Levin and Reser. Levin had personally been involved in 

preparing 42 of the diagrams contained in the three volumes.'35 

Prior to publication of the fourth and fifth volumes in the phase diagram series in 

1981 and 1983 respectively, a Phase Diagrams for Ceramists Data Center was 

established at the Bureau under the auspices of the Office of Standard Reference Data. 

Robert S. Roth and Lawrence P. Cook of the Ceramics, Glass, and Solid State 

Science Division teamed with Taki Negas of the Chemical Stability and Corrosion 

Division to write the new volumes, which contained 838 and 663 phase diagrams, 

respectively.'36 Commentaries on the diagrams were provided by a group of 32 experts. 

35 Robert S. Roth, Mary A. Clevinger, and Deirdre McKenna, Phase Diagrams for Ceramists: Cumulative 

index for Volumes i-V, (Columbus, Ohio: The American Ceramic Society, 1984). 

Robert S. Roth, Taki Negas, and Lawrence P. Cook, Phase Diagrams for Ceramists Volume IV, Geraldine 

Smith, Editor. (Columbus. Ohio: The American Ceramic Society, 1981). See also Robert S. Roth, Taki 

Negas, and Lawrence P. Cook, Phase Diagrams for Ceramists Volume IV, Geraldine Smith, Editor/ACerS, 

Mary A. Clevinger, Editorial AssistantlNBS, (Columbus, Ohio: The American Ceramic Society, 1983). 

385 
Howard F. McMurdie, trained as a chemist, joined NBS in 1928. He 

officially retired in 1966 after a robust career in x-ray diffraction, but 

continued work at the Bureau for more than a decade under the 

auspices of the International Center 

for Diffraction Data. As this history 

was written, McMurdie—more than 

90 years old—still contributed to NIST projects. 

Further volumes in the series were written in 1987, 1989, 1990, 1992, and 1994. 

Together, they constitute a remarkable contribution from NBS/NIST to the study of 

ceramics. 

Critical Behavior in Gases 

Work in the area of statistical physics began in the Heat Division with the formation 

in 1960 of a section devoted to that topic. Melville S. Green, winner of both a Guggenheim Fellowship and a Fulbright Award for the excellence of his work in the field, 

was the first chief of the section. Green quickly built a group of considerable stature in 

the field, including Marjorie Boyd, Martin J. Cooper, Julius L. Jackson, Sigurd Y. 

Larsen, Raymond D. Mountain, Robert A. Piccirelli, Harold J. Raveche, Baldwin 

Robertson, and Jan V. Sengers. In 1968, Green left NBS to join the faculty at Temple 

University; he was succeeded by Raymond Mountain, himself a Department of Commerce Gold Medal winner in 1983. 

In one of his last publications at the Bureau, Green collaborated with Maria 

Vicentini-Missoni, a guest researcher from the University of Rome, Italy, and Johanna 

M. Levelt Sengers in a detailed study of thermodynamic properties of fluids near their 

386 
critical points. The three scientists found that they could apply a scaled equation of 

state to carbon dioxide, xenon, and 4He in the critical region, and that the results were 

consistent with several types of thermodynamic data.'37 In a placement that was perhaps not coincidental, the following paper in the same issue of the Journal of 

Research, written by Raymond Mountain, discussed a related topic—a dynamical 

model for the Brillouin-scattering spectrum of critical opalescence in carbon dioxide. 

Several systems were investigated in the critical-point region by Sandra C. Greer 

in collaboration with Johanna Sengers, George T. Furukawa, and Robert Hocken during the early 1970s. These included thermodynamic anomalies in steam, heat capacity 

of argon-methane mixtures, and concentration gradients and thermal expansion in 

nitromethane-methylpentane mixtures. 

In 1975, efforts to understand the behavior of gases near their critical points 

received a further boost from the work of Jan V. and Johanna M. H. L. Sengers. These 

scientists analyzed six fluids, using statistical methods: 3He, 4He, Xe, 02, C02, and 

H20. They employed two scaled equations of state and confined their analysis to the 

critical region. They found that, within the limits of experimental accuracy, the two 

equations agreed with the data, lending credence to the idea that there existed a universality in critical behavior of gases. 

Based upon their success, they offered parameters for 14 fluids in terms of a universal equation of state for the critical region.'38 

In a related study, Johanna Sengers provided historical insight on the development 

of the Van der Waals equation into a tool useful for modern scaling laws. Sengers 

described the features of Van der Waals' work that concerned critical phenomena, 

then traced the progress to the modern concepts of scaling and the universality of 

critical behavior in fluids.'39 

Johanna Sengers received the NBS Condon Award in 1975 and the Department of 

Commerce Gold Medal Award in 1978 for the quality of her work in thermodynamics. 

Reaction Rate Constants 

A study of the rates of reaction of methylene with carbon monoxide, oxygen, nitric 

oxide, and acetylene was completed by A. H. Laufer and Arnold M. Bass. '4° The 

experiments were accomplished by the use of flash photolysis of ketene in helium gas, 

with analysis of the reaction products performed in a gas chromatograph. 

Both singlet and triplet methylene reactions were identified in the experiments. 

The rate constants ranged in magnitude from 10-" cm3 molecule' sec' to 

cm3 molecule' sec'. 

M. Vicentini-Missoni, J. M. H. Levelt Sengers, and M. S. Green, "Analysis of thermodynamic properties 

in the critical region of fluids," J. Res. NBS 73A, No. 6, pp. 563-591 (1969). 38 M. H. L. Sengers and J. V. Sengers, "Universality of critical behavior in gases," Phys. Rev. A12, No. 6, 

2622-2627 (1975). J. M. H. L. Sengers, "From Van der Waals' equation to the scaling laws," Physica 73, 73-106 (1974). 

A. H. Laufer and A. M. Bass, "Rate constants for reactions of methylene with carbon monoxide, oxygen, 

nitric oxide, and acetylene," J. Phys. Chem. 78, No. 14, 1344-1348 (1974). 

387 
Johanna M. H. L. Sengers adjusted the load on a piston gage which was used for accu- rate measurement of the pressure of gases used in her studies of critical phenomena. 

Clinical Chemistry Standards 

The development of a cholesterol Standard Reference Material (SRM 911) in 

1967 marked the Bureau's entry into the field of clinical chemistry standards. The 

cholesterol SRM was followed quickly by others for urea (SRM 912), uric acid (SRM 

913), creatinine (SRM 914), and calcium carbonate (SRM 915). These first contributions were made under the technical direction of Robert Schaffer, then chief of the 

Organic Chemistry Section of the Analytical Chemistry Division (ACD). 

388 
Sandra C. Greer mixed nitroethane and 3-methylpentane in a dry box as part of her 

research on critical phenomena in binary liquid mixtures. 

In 1969, the Bureau signed an interagency agreement with the National Institutes of 

Health, Institute for General Medical Science. Under terms of the agreement, NIH 

would support ACD personnel in the development of additional clinical standards. 

More than two dozen standard chemicals, thermometers, and other apparatus were developed over a period of years under that program. Besides Schaffer, NBS scientists 

contributing to the project included William R. Shields, Bruce Coxon, Richard A. 

Durst, I. Lynus Barnes, Oscar Menis, John A. Simpson, Billy W. Mangum, Robert W. 

Burke, Radu Mavrodineanu, Rance A. Velapoldi, and Klaus D. Mielenz. 

389 
In 1971, International Federation of Clinical Chemistry officials asked NBS to assist 

in the development of clinical reference methods (RM). J. Paul Cali led the way to 

realization of this goal with an RM for measuring calcium levels in serum. 

In 1974, Food and Drug Administration Bureau of Medical Devices managers 

initiated an interagency agreement for development of more RMs and for refinement 

of the isotope dilution mass spectrometry technique (IDMS) as a clinical tool to 

verify the accuracy of organic RMs. The IDMS method was used subsequently for 

cholesterol, glucose, urea, uric acid, creatinine, and triglycerides. 

Robert Schaffer received the NBS Rosa Award in 1985 along with citations from 

the American Association for Clinical Chemistry for his contributions to the Bureau's 

clinical chemistry standards program. 

The program remained as a fixture of NBS/NIST assistance to U.S. medical needs 

through the mid-1990s.'4' 

Mathematics in Analytical Chemistry 

An extensive bibliography containing nearly 600 references was compiled by Lloyd 

A. Currie, James J. Filliben, and James R. DeVoe on the use of mathematical and 

statistical methods used in analytical chemistry during the period 1967 to 1972.142 

Currie had a deep interest in the topic—he had written a definitive paper on the 

extraction of information from analytical chemistry experiments, proposing exact 

defining equations and formulas both for the general case and with specific application 

to radiochemistry investigations.'43 

The bibliography was the result of a collaboration between the Analytical Chemistry 

Division and the Statistical Engineering Section of the Applied Mathematics Division. 

It covered several categories of publication: 

• Reviews, conferences, journals, and books. 

• Method characterization. 

• Planning and optimization of experiments. 

• Curve fitting. 

• On-line computers. 

• Specialized methods. 

141 Robert Schaffer, George N. Bowers, Jr. (Clinical Chemistry Laboratory, Hartford, Connecticut Hospital), 

and Robert S. Melville, (National Institutes of Health), "History of NIST's contributions to the development 

of Standard Reference Materials and Reference and Definitive Methods for clinical chemistry," Clin. Chem. 

41, No. 9, pp. 1306-1312 (1995). 142 L. A. Currie, J. J. Filliben, and J. R. DeVoe, "Statistical and mathematical methods in analytical chemistry," Anal. Chem. Ann. Rev. 44, 497R-512R (1972). 43 Lloyd A. Currie, "Limits for qualitative detection and quantitative determination," Analytical Chemistry 

40, No. 3, March 1968, pp. 586-593. 

390 
Building Science 

It is fair to say that the Bureau of Standards has been studying problems connected 

with buildings and other structures since its founding in 1901. The acquisition of a 100,000 pound dead-weight tester in 1904 might be judged an official beginning, as might the formation of a Structural Materials Division around 1914, the creation of a Division of Building and Housing in 1921, or the first publication of Building 

Materials and Structures Reports in No matter. Both the Congress and the 

Department of Commerce long understood that independent scientists and engineers 

could evaluate structures from informed and objective points of view, providing 

insights that could greatly improve America's construction industry. 

Herbert Hoover, Secretary of Commerce from 192 1-1928, established a Building 

Code Committee and a Division of Building and Housing within his department with 

the aim of stimulating the building industry. At the same time, a Research Associate 

program was initiated at NBS to encourage cooperation between the construction 

industry and Bureau scientists; the industry-sponsored associates took back to their 

companies a first-hand appreciation for the importance of laboratory-tested ideas for 

building, exerting a positive influence on the quality of building construction.'45 

Measures for Progress, pp. 79, l31, 334. 45 Paul R. Achenbach, "Building research at the National Bureau of Standards," NBS Building Science Series 

0, October 1970, p. 6. 

391 

Investigations for the building and construction industry began at the Bureau of Standards in the 1920s. In 

this 1920 photograph, brick piers and concrete columns were stress tested at the Bureau's Pittsburgh facility. 
Initially fragmentary, contributions of NBS to the building industry became more 

cohesive in 1947 with the formation of the Building Technology Division under 

Douglas E. Parsons; sections included Structural Engineering, Fire Protection, Heating 

and Air Conditioning, Exterior and Interior Coverings, and Codes and Specifications. 

A. Allan Bates, James R. Wright, and Richard N. Wright (no relation to James) 

followed Parsons in leading the building science group as the organizational title 

changed over the years, but the group continued to focus on its central mission: to 

provide a sound base of data and analysis to undergird the U.S. construction industry. 

A Center for Building Technology 

With the beginning of Fiscal Year 1973 on July 1, 1972, Secretary of Commerce 

Peter G. Peterson directed that NBS should establish a Center for Building Technology 

(CBT). James R. Wright was chosen as the first Director of CBT. An advisory 

committee was formed to monitor its work. Three divisions were incorporated into the 

new center: Building Environment, Paul R. Achenbach, chief; Structures, Materials, 

and Life Safety, under William C. Cullen; and Technical Evaluation and Applications, 

headed by Harry E. Thompson. In addition, there were three offices: Building 

Standards and Codes Services, headed by Gene A. Rowland; Housing Technology, under Edward 0. Pfrang; and Federal Building Technology, Sam Kramer, chief. 

From 1966 to 1972, the full-time building research staff grew from 100 to 250. The 

growth was in part a response to the 1967 formation of the National Conference of 

States on Building Codes and Standards, and in part to the 1968 creation of an Office 

of Research and Technology in the Department of Housing and Urban Development, 

which in turn initiated Project Breakthrough. 

In 1974, James Wright was chosen by director Richard Roberts as deputy director of 

the Institute for Applied Technology. Richard N. Wright was selected to succeed his 

namesake James as the second director of CBT. Richard Wright came to NBS from the 

University of Illinois in 1971. He served as chief of the Structures Section until he 

became center director. In that position, he led an NBS team to investigate earthquake 

damage to Managua, Nicaragua in 1972. 

The Building Science Series 

As noted in Chapter 1, a new series of NBS publications was begun in 1965 to take 

the place of the earlier Building Materials and Structures Reports as a convenient 

outlet for archival publications on the technology of building and as a means of 

centralizing the dissemination of information from the center. The new communication, 

with no fixed publishing schedule, was entitled the Building Science Series. The basic 

document in the series, written by Paul R. Achenbach and issued late in 1970, 

described the history of building research at NBS, the Bureau's contemporary program, 

and forecasts for the future. 

392 
Work of the New CBT 

In part, changes in the scope of the Bureau's building-research program were 

brought about by the acquisition of new facilities on the Gaithersburg site. For 

example, the new structures laboratory allowed the group to supplement the usual 

testing machines with a reinforced, two-meter-thick tie-down floor and hydraulic 

actuators as a loading system that extended over an area 17 m on each side. Both fixed 

and cyclic loading could be applied, with forces varying in amplitude and frequency. 

Thirteen special-purpose environmental chambers—one large enough to accommodate an entire house—permitted tests ranging from air conditioning to thermal conductivity. 

The range of activities undertaken by the building science group at NBS over the 

years was a broad one, as we shall demonstrate in the following paragraphs. Activities 

in fire research, long a part of the building research program, are discussed in a separate section. 

• Computer models for the dynamic thermal performance of buildings were developed by Tamami With the use of the large environmental chamber, 

predictions of the models could be compared with tests on full-scale houses 

under winter and summer weather cycles. As the models matured and confidence 

grew in their use, they became the basis for both commercial and Department of 

Energy designs for energy-efficient buildings.'47 

• Investigations at NBS into the inadequate performance and excessive failure of 

electric heat pumps, introduced in the early 1960s for family housing in the 

United States, revealed specific areas of failure and pointed the way to improved 

designs. As a result of the earlier work, reliable heat pumps were quickly made 

available when the energy crisis of 1973 prompted American builders to seek 

alternatives to electrical resistance heaters. 

• An apparatus developed by Mahn H. Hahn, an Industrial Research Associate, 

was built to measure the dew point in sealed glass envelopes and thus to evaluate 

the moisture content in double-pane glass. The apparatus and its use became 

valuable assets to the construction industry. 

• Thermal resistance of building insulation of various thickness could be measured 

with improved accuracy as a result of the development of a new line-source 

guarded hot-plate device. Henry E. Robinson, Mahn Hee Hahn, and Daniel R. 

Flynn designed the new 

"s T. Kusuda, "Thermal response factors for multi-layer structures of various heat conduction systems," 

ASHRAE Transactions 75, Part 1, pp. 246-271 (1969). 

T. Kusuda, "NBSLD, the computer program for heating and cooling loads in buildings," NBS BSS 69, 398 

pp. July 1976. 

" M. H. Hahn, H. E. Robinson, and D. R. Flynn, "Robinson line-heat-source guarded hot plate apparatus," 

Amer. Soc. for Test, and Mat. Special Technical Publication STP 544 1974, pp. 167-192. 

393 
Mahn Hee Hahn, Research Associate from the American Society for Testing and 

Materials, with the dew/frost point apparatus he developed to measure the moisture 

content of the air space in sealed insulating glass. The device received the IR-lO0 

award from Industrial Research magazine as one of the most significant new technical 

products of 1975. 

• In 1974 mobile homes accounted for 20 % of all new U.S. housing. To obtain 

uniform construction standards for safety, durability, and economy, the 

Department of Housing and Urban Development engaged NBS to define the 

problems to be addressed on these factors. William G. Street, William E. Greene, 

Jr., James H. Pielert, and Leopold F. Skoda undertook the study and prepared an NBS Interagency Report, number 75-690, in 1975. 

• Collapse of the Skyline Plaza apartment complex on Mar 2, 1973, at Bailey's 

Crossroads in Fairfax, Virginia, caused the Occupational Safety and Health 

Administration to ask NBS to ascertain the nature of the failure and to address 

the general question of the adequacy of construction codes in multi-story buildings. The Bureau investigation, headed by Edgar V. Leyendecker and S. George 

Fattal, led to significant changes in construction codes pertaining to that incident. 

In addition, the work led to a long-term NBS program in non-destructive testing 

methods for ongoing construction. 

394 
• A flood in Fairbanks, Alaska in 1967 caused extensive damage to hundreds of 

homes. A visiting team of NBS engineers was able to recommend recovery 

procedures that minimized loss of property. The event triggered ideas for disaster 

mitigation at NBS and elsewhere. A 1972 workshop on building practices for 

disaster mitigation, held at NBS with the cooperation of the National Science 

Foundation, touched on problems caused by earthquake, wind, flood, and other 

dynamic hazards. Studies initiated as a result of the 149 created the 

policy basis for the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977 and a national 

program for earthquake hazard reduction in 1978. The Federal Emergency 

Management Agency, the U.S. Geological Survey, and the National Science 

Foundation joined NBS as lead agencies in the program. 

• A new industry was established as a result of a 1975 NBS study of the premature failure of decking on highway bridges. Failure of the decks appeared to 

result from corrosion from deicing salts, which limited the useful life of the 

reinforcing bars to 5-10 years. A Bureau project conducted by James R. Clifton,. 

Hugh F. Beeghly, and Robert G. Mathey identified several spray-applied 

powdered epoxy resins that gave promise of extending the service life of bridge 

decks to about 40 years. 

• Lawrence W. Masters and his colleagues developed a systematic method in 1974 

for predicting the service lives of building materials and other construction items 

that was used by the American Society for Testing and Materials as the basis for a new standard practice for accelerated testing. 

• In 1973, NBS was asked to develop a technical basis for energy conservation in 

building construction. NBSIR 74-452, issued in 1974, contained an approach to 

the problem that was both technically and economically sound. Edited by James 

L. Heldenbrand, the document became the basis for a national consensus 

standard. Arthur D. Little Corporation estimated that use of the new approach 

would save nearly 50 % of the annual energy consumption for the average 

building. 

Energy From Sunlight 

One of the methods for energy conservation most often cited by environmentalists 

during the 1970s was solar power. The sun, they reasoned, offered free and reliable 

energy to Planet Earth every day; why not use it? Research projects to use sunlight for 

power blossomed immediately, their managers seeking methods and locations where 

solar power could provide a realistic source of energy to conserve increasingly 

expensive and polluting supplies of oil and coal. 

NBS embarked on a program of developing standard test methods for solar energy 

collectors and thermal storage systems in the early 1 970s under the leadership of 

James E. Hill. The work was initiated following a request from the National Science 

One of these was R. N. Wright, S. Kramer, and C. 0. Culver, "Building practices for disaster mitigation," 

NBS Building Science Series 46, 1973. 

395 
Foundation. Center for Building Technology staff purchased a factory-built fourbedroom house in 1972 and installed it in the center's large environmental chamber. 

There it was subjected to simulated summer and winter weather conditions while 

data were obtained on the interior response of the house to the heating and cooling 

loads. Then the house was moved to an outdoor site on the Gaithersburg grounds and 

tested under actual weather conditions. 

During the latter part of 1974, a solar heating and cooling system was added to the 

house under the sponsorship of the Federal Energy Administration. Criteria for the 

new installation included the use of the forced-air distribution system that was already 

part of the house and installing only commercially available solar units that would 

satisfy at least 75 % of its energy needs. Installation and testing were supervised by 

James Hill and Thomas E. Richtmyer. Their report, published as NBS Technical Note 

892, provided a complete discussion of the project, its successful results, and lessons 

learned. 

The Federal Housing Administration of the Department of Housing and Urban 

Development led the way in many solar power projects. NBS was asked to participate 

in these projects as a result of the Solar Heating and Cooling Demonstration Act of 

1974. The Bureau role was to develop guidelines for the evaluation of the economic 

performance of solar-energy heating and cooling systems, based on measurement data 

created or verified by NBS. In response to its new mandate, the Bureau asked its 

Center for Building Technology to formulate a plan to guide the development and 

implementation of standards for solar heating and cooling applications. The CBT plan 

was adopted by a committee of the American National Standards Institute, helping to 

coordinate industry and government efforts to utilize solar power. In the meantime, 

CBT engineers began to accumulate data to undergird the formulation of solar-power 

standards. With colleagues George E. Kelly and Tamami Kusuda, James Hill created 

protocols that led to national standards for solar-system evaluation.'50 

Rosalie T. Ruegg, an economist in the Center for Building Technology, led the way 

to the application of life-cycle cost analysis for solar systems. 

By 1978, there were some 7 documents describing standards, codes, and performance criteria for solar energy systems. 

Building Systems—A Performance Concept 

The keynote for a new approach to building was struck during a 1968 Gaithersburg 

conference on Performance of Buildings—Concept and Measurement. 151 James R. 

Wright, then chief of the Building Research Division, stated: 

We have developed a definition for the performance concept and a set of five 

terms leading to a performance-type building code. 

See 0. E. Kelly and J. E. Hill, "Method of testing for rating thermal storage devices based on thermal 

performance," NBSIR 74-634 May, 1975, 45 pp. See also J. E. Hill and T. Kusuda, "Method of testing for 

rating solar collectors based on thermal performance," NBSJR 74-635 December 1974, 63 pp. 

"Performance of Buildings—Concept and Measurement," NBS Building Science Series 1, W. W. Walton 

and B. C. Cadoff, editors, January 1970, 132 pp. 

396 
Solar collectors were installed in the National Bureau of Standards solar townhouse, a laboratory for a number of energy-conservation studies. 

Wright drew upon the writing of John P. Eberhard to define the concept. The performance concept, wrote Eberhard, should begin with a statement of desired attributes of a material, component, or system in order to fulfill the requirements of the intended 

user. No instruction should be given as to the specific means to be employed in 

achieving the results.'52 Leading to the performance-based building code, he suggested, are performance requirements, performance criteria, evaluation techniques, performance 

specifications, and performance standards. Each of those terms could help to judge the 

adequacy of a given building technique to meet the actual needs of its occupants. This 

idea stood in sharp contrast to traditional building standards that prescribed materials 

and construction techniques. 

In May 1972, the International Union of Testing and Research Laboratories for 

Materials and Structures teamed with the American Society for Testing and Materials 

and the International Council for Building Research Studies and Documentation to 

stage a symposium in Philadelphia devoted wholly to criteria for performance of 

152 P. Eberhard, "The performance concept: a study of its application to housing," NBS Report No. 9849, 1 47 (1968). 

397 
At left, NBS Institute for Applied Technology Director F. Karl Willenbrock and NBS 

Director Richard W. Roberts listened as Jim Hill of the Center for Building Technology (front right) described research at the NBS solar townhouse to Representatives 

George Brown of California and Don Fuqua of Florida. Behind them from the right were NBS Congressional Liaison Esther C. Cassidy, NBS Deputy Director Ernest 

Ambler, and Bill Wells of the House Science and Technology Committee staff. 

buildings and their sub-systems. The editor of the proceedings, Bruce E. Foster, was on the staff of the Building Research Division. Many contributions to the symposium 

were offered by division staff members.'53 We note some of these here: 

• Richard N. Wright, at that time still chief of the Structures Section, pointed out 

in a discussion presented jointly with A. H.-S. Ang from the University of 

Illinois the necessity of deciding how to prescribe performance criteria that were 

essential to human use of a building—for example, safety—without ignoring 

such problems as cost minimization. 

• A general discussion of Project Breakthrough, initiated by the Department of 

Housing and Urban Development to solve the problem of creating 26 million new homes during the decade of the 1970s, was presented by Edgar V. 

Leyendecker. The project consisted of eight operational objectives: 

"Performance concept in buildings," Proceedings of a symposium, May 2-5. 1972, Philadelphia. Pennsylvania, NBS Special Publication 361, B. E. Foster, editor, 819 pp., February 1972. 

398 
1) Develop the means to increase housing production. 

2) Modernize land-zoning regulations. 

3) Develop performance criteria for building codes. 

4) Upgrade the quality of professionals involved in the building industry. 

5) Attract more skilled labor to the housing industry. 

6) Encourage the development of new techniques and materials. 

7) Encourage participation in housing modernization among state governments. 

8) Encourage innovation in home financing. 

• Norman F. Somes and Felix Y. Yokel discussed how testing procedures could 

be adapted to the performance concept in order to obtain realistic simulation of an actual structure without specifying the actual materials used in its construction. They suggested several useful criteria, including the selection of critical 

assemblies, critical loading conditions, critical environmental factors, and 

variability in performance. 

• One problem associated with the new testing procedures was the paucity of 

performance data on conventionally constructed buildings. This topic was 

discussed by Somes and Yokel in collaboration with George C. Hsi and Hai 

S. Lew. 

• An NBS computer program designed to augment standard industry procedures 

for calculating heating and cooling loads for buildings was described by Tamami 

Kusuda and Frank J. Powell. The program allowed the prediction of indoor 

temperatures from given values of air-conditioning and thermal insulation. 

• Evaluation of the performance of structural building elements and interior-finish 

materials under fire conditions could be obtained from responses to low-intensity 

fires, according to Dan Gross and Jin Bao Fang. They recommended the use 

of burning wastebaskets or upholstered chairs to provide reproducible fire 

conditions. 

• Another construction feature that needed attention in terms of performance 

evaluation was the response of structural adhesives to the effects of aging and 

environmental stresses. Thomas W. Reichard, Lawrence W. Masters, and J. H. 

Pielert classified the thousands of adhesives available to the industry into only 

three classes—those intended for use only during transport to the job site; those 

intended for long-term use, but not intended to carry structural loads; and those 

whose long-term strength was critical to the integrity of the building. The 

scientists prepared small test specimens of particular types of adhesives and 

subjected them, for example, to flexure tests after water submersion for one 

week. Such testing helped substantially in industry efforts to improve the 

performance of construction adhesives. 

• Winthrop C. Wolfe made a similar contribution with regard to flooring finish, 

where the performance criteria included sanitation capability, solvent resistance, 

and wear characteristics. 

399 
Space Science 

Bureau activities in space science during this period included astronomical studies, 

rocket technology, and scientific experiments in space. As is the case in many areas, 

NBS contributions in space science are mentioned in other sections as well. 

Interstellar Species 

Encouragement from David R. Lide, Jr., chief of the NBS Office of Standard 

Reference Data, helped to launch the Bureau into the identification of certain interesting interstellar species. 

Lide assumed the leadership of the Office of Standard Reference Data early in 1969. 

He urged two staff members of his old section in the Optical Physics Division, Donald 

R. Johnson, a National Research Council-National Academy of Sciences postdoctoral 

research associate in 1967, and William H. Kirchhoff, a postdoctoral research associate 

in 1964, to evaluate the molecular spectroscopy literature for the benefit of scientists 

in the new field of radio astronomy. Since both scientists already had experience in 

that field, they happily pursued dual careers—critically examining data for the 

division's Molecular Spectroscopy Data Center part of the time, studying short-lived 

species in the laboratory and in outer space part of the time. Both activities were successful, soon involving, among others, Francis X. Powell and Frank J. Lovas, also 

of the Optical Physics Division.'54 

The group made many spectroscopic observations of short-lived reaction intermediates and other species of importance to radio astronomy and astrophysics, 

including the free radical OH, deuterated formyl ions, ethanol, sulfur dioxide, and 

dimethyl ether.'55 

Lovas and Johnson also were credited with helping Lewis Snyder of the Joint 

Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics and David BuhI of the Goddard Space Flight 

Center of NASA to identify maser emissions from red giant stars. Snyder and Buhi 

detected the signals late in 1973 in the Orion Nebula, using the 12 m radio telescope 

of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory. The nature of the radiation indicated 

the presence of maser action, but its complexity defied identification. Lovas and 

Johnson, however, were able to identify the signals as originating from vibrational 

excitation in SiO. Their identification was later confirmed by other astronomers.'56 

F. X. Powell and D. R. Johnson, "Microwave detection of H2 Phys. Rev. Lett. 24, No. 12, 637 

(1970). See also D. R. Johnson, F. J. Lovas, and W. H. Kirchhoff, "Microwave spectra of molecules of 

astrophysical interest. 1. Formaldehyde, formamide, and thioformaldehyde," J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 1, No. 

4,1011-1046(1972). 

0. R. Johnson and F. J. Lovas, "A new look at the laboratory microwave spectrum of cyanoacetylene," 

Astrophys. J. 169, 617-619 (1971). See also D. R. Johnson and F. J. Lovas, "Microwave detection of the 

molecular transient methyleneamine (CH2 = NH)," Chem. Phys. Len. 15, No. t., 65-68 (1972). See also L. E. 

Snyder, J. M. Hollis, B. L. Ulich, F. J. Lovas, and D. R. Johnson, "Radio detection of interstellar sulfur 

dioxide," Asrrophys. J. 198, No. 2, L81-L84 (1975). 

Barbara G. Levi, "Silicon-monoxide masers show up in infrared stars," Physics Today pp. 17, 20, November 1974. 

400 
Their work was significant for scientists in fields as disparate as astrophysics and air 

pollution. Johnson and Lovas were jointly awarded the Department of Commerce Gold 

Medal in 1977. 

Stellar Modeling 

T. R. Ayres and Jesse L. Linsky constructed models for the star Arcturus, based 

upon spectral observations of ionized calcium and magnesium. The models separately 

considered the upper photosphere and chromosphere. They also studied the formation 

of a particular member of the Balmer series, H€, in the sun and in Arcturus as part of 

their continuing work on stellar chromospheres.'57 

In collaboration with G. H. Mount, Linsky also suggested that the sun may contain a significantly lower carbon abundance than previously thought. The two physicists 

reached this conclusion on the basis of a detailed study of the spectra of solar CN, in 

which they assumed an absence of local thermodynamic equilibrium. The new estimate 

affected other astrophysical calculations.'58 

David G. Hummer and P. B. Kunasz offered two contributions to the study of 

radiative transfer in stellar matter during this period. In papers published in the 

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, they considered the fundamentals 

of line formation in extended spherical atmospheres whose constitutive properties 

depended on radius in an arbitrary way. Their study prompted them to propose a numerical solution to the line-transfer problem in spherically symmetric atmospheres.'59 

Hummer and D. Mihalas analyzed the spectrum of nitrogen III in celestial bodies 

known as 0 stars on the basis of a detailed solution to the coupled statisticalequilibrium and transfer equations for a multi-line, multilevel, multi-ion ensemble. 

Their results, indicating that N III lines could be produced in static, non-extended 

atmospheres in radiative equilibrium, provided evidence that the presence of 

emission lines in a spectrum was not in itself proof for the existence of a stellar 

chromosphere.'6° 

Along with G. B. Rybicki, Hummer provided an extended discussion of the 

formation of spectral lines in optically thick systems for the journal Annual Reviews of 

Astronomy and Astrophysics. 161 

57 T. R. Ayres and J. L. Linsky, "Stellar model chromospheres. Ill. Arcturus (K2 111)," Astrophys. J. 200, 

No. 3, pp. 660-674 (1975); same authors, "Stellar model chromospheres. IV. The formation of the HE feature 

in the sun (G2 V) and Arcturus (K2 III)," Astrophys. J. 201, No. 1, pp. 212-221 (1975). 158 G. H. Mount and J. L. Linsky, "A new solar carbon abundance based on non-LTE CN molecular spectra," 

Astrophys. J. 202, No. I, L51-L54 (1975). P. B. Kunasz and D. 0. Hummer, "Radiative transfer in spherically symmetric systems. III. Fundamentals 

of line formation," Mon. Notic. Roy. Astron. Soc. 166, No. 1, 19-55 (1974). Also, same authors, "Radiative 

transfer in spherically symmetric systems. IV. Solution of the line transfer problem with radial velocity 

fields," Mon. Notic. Roy. Astron. Soc. 166, No. 1, 57-78 (1974). 60 D. Mihalas and D. 0. Hummer, "Analysis of light-ion spectra in stellar atmospheres. Ill. Nitrogen III in 

the 0 stars," Astrophys. J. 179, No. 3, 827-845 (1973). 6) D. 0. Hummer and 0. B. Rybicki, "The formation of spectral lines," Chapter in Annual Reviews of 

Astronomy and Astrophysics, 9, 237-270, 1971. 

401 
In recognition of the quality of his scientific leadership in stellar radiative transfer, 

Hummer became the 13th NBS staff member to win the Arthur S. Flemming award. 

Rocket Technology 

Certain thermodynamic properties of molybdenum, graphite, MoF5, and niobium 

were measured, others were calculated from models by Thomas B. Douglas and 

Charles W. Beckett to complete data sets on materials important to rocket technology. 

For Mo, accurate enthalpy measurements in the temperature range 273 K to 1170 K were coupled with data obtained earlier at NBS to complete a set of thermodynamic 

functions for that element from 273 K to 2100 K. Fast-pulse heat-capacity data, 

believed accurate within 3 %, were obtained on graphite over the range 1500 K to 

3000 K. Change in the normal spectral emittance and sample radiance near the melting 

temperature of niobium were observed using the pulsed technique as well.162 

The sub-second pulse method, employed with great effectiveness by Cezairliyan in 

work described in Ch. 2, was used also to obtain information on the specific heat, 

electrical resistivity, and hemispherical total emittance for iron and a niobiumtantalum-tungsten alloy in the range 1500 K to 2800 K. A solid-solid transformation 

(gamma iron to delta iron) was detected in each of the different types of measurement, 

demonstrating the feasibility of fast phase-transition observations.'63 

Consumer Protection 

In a sense, all NBS work protected the consumer—his person, his pocketbook, or 

the quality of his technical information and products. In this section, however, we highlight studies applicable directly to medicine, environmental protection, and equity 

in trade. 

Materials for Prosthetic Devices 

The successful use of metals for prosthetic devices depended upon three properties— 

"biocompatibil ity," adequate mechanical properties, and high corrosion resistance. 164 Anna Fraker, newly arrived at NBS in 1967 as a young postdoctoral research associate, 

joined J. R. Parsons, a Presidential Intern, and NBS scientists M. P. Yeager, J. A. S. 

Green, Cletus J. Bechtold, and Arthur W. Ruff, former chief of the Metallurgy 

Division, in a long-term study of prosthetic metals. In their investigations, they 

collaborated with many groups outside NBS to evaluate candidate metals. 

62 T. B. Douglas and C. W. Beckett, "Thermodynamics of chemical species important to rocket technology," 

NBSIR 73 -2 80, 109 pp., January 1973. 163 T. B. Douglas and C. W. Beckett, "Thermodynamics of chemical species important to rocket technology," 

NBSIR 73-28], 122 pp., July 1973. 

'i" See, for example, Anna C. Fraker and A. W. Ruff, "Metallic surgical implants: state of the art," J. Metals 

29, No. 5, pp. 22-28 (1977). 

402 
Among the most promising metals tested were stainless steel, cobalt alloys, and 

titanium.'65 Utilized by the aerospace industry for its strength and moderate density, 

titanium won a high place among prosthetic metals for its resistance to corrosion 

by bodily tissues and fluids. The Bureau metallurgists expanded the store of knowledge 

on the suitability of titanium and other prospective implant materials through studies 

of microstructures, surface properties, and reactions with physiological solutions such as salines, uric acids, and amino acids. 

They found that titanium typically formed a tough oxide surface film that resisted 

attack by biological materials. They also investigated a variety of titanium alloys 

involving aluminum, vanadium, and palladium. An interesting feature of the study was 

the indication that certain crystalline orientations showed reduced susceptibility to 

chemical attack. 

Tumor Detection—the Birth of a New Medical Technique 

Non-invasive detection of malignancies in patients was a long-time goal of the 

medical community. NBS scientists, no less eager than physicians to ease human 

suffering, glimpsed a possibility that led to the medical specialty that came to be 

known as Magnetic Resonance Imaging. 

Irwin D. Weisman and Lawrence H. Bennett of NBS, Louis R. Maxwell, Sr., a retired government scientist, and Mark W. Woods and Dean Burk of the National 

Cancer Institute knew that differences between normal tissue and tumorous tissue had 

been detected in laboratory samples by measuring their proton nuclear spin-lattice 

relaxation times. Why not, they thought, use their specialty, pulsed nuclear magnetic 

resonance, on living subjects? That technique would give a measure of tissue 

relaxation times. If the experiment worked, it would open the possibility of quick, 

non-invasive cancer detection. 

To test their idea, the group enlisted several mice whose tails became test samples. 

The scientists transplanted malignant melanoma tumors onto the mouse tails, splinted 

them to reduce movement, and placed them within a resonance probe coil anchored 

between the poles of a powerful electromagnet. Success! The mice appeared to be 

unharmed by the test procedure, and the researchers found an easily detectable difference in spin-lattice relaxation time (0.7 s vs 0.3 s for normal tissue). 

Plenty of details remained to be worked out before the new technique would become a routine—though expensive—medical diagnostic procedure for the detection of many 

types of abnormal tissue in patients throughout the world. But the authors saw the 

future clearly in their first report on the experiments: 

165 R. Parsons and A. W. Ruff, "Survey on metallic implant materials," NBSIR 73-420, December 1973, 

55 pp. 

A. W. Ruff and A. C. Fraker, "Investigation of the anisotropic anodic polarization behavior of titanium," 

Corrosion 30, No. 7, pp. 259-264 (1974). 

403 
NBS metallurgist Anna C. Fraker showed school children an x ray of a surgically implanted artificial hip 

joint. 

We have been able to detect and monitor the growth of a cancer (a transplanted 

S91 melanoma) in a live animal, using pulsed NMR. Our results suggest that it 

would be worthwhile to attempt to develop this technique for the detection and 

monitoring of tumors in humans. Perhaps NMR could take its place beside 

thermography or radiography as a nonsurgical technique for cancer detection 

and analysis of cancer growth rate. 167 The concept embodied in the discovery by the five-man group generated considerable excitement. About 600 requests were received for reprints of their report. The idea was quickly seized for use in non-invasive medical diagnostics. Renamed Magnetic 

Resonance Imaging (MRI) to avoid the frightening word "nuclear,' the technique 

blossomed into a medical specialty. A technical display created by the American 

Museum of American History bears a caption that reads, in part, "The clarity of the 

images produced by magnetic resonance imaging far surpasses that of conventional x rays and rivals those of CAT scans. In addition, this technology allows investigators 

to monitor and study chemical changes in live tissue on a molecular level without 

intruding into the body." The display gave credit to the Bureau scientists for their 

seminal role in MRI development. 

lrwiu I). Weisman, Lawrence H. Bennett, Louis R. Maxwell, Sr., Mark W. Woods. and Dean Burk, or cancer in vivo by nuclear magnetic resonance," Science 178, pp. 1288-90 (Dec 22, 1972). 

404 
NBS chemist John R. Ambrose developed tests to predict how surgically implanted 

materials would react to bodily tissues and fluids. In this photograph, Ambrose worked on a laboratory method that simulated crevice-corrosion in the body. 

405 
Lawrence H. Bennett joined NBS 

after receiving the Ph. D. degree in 

physics from Rutgers, the State 

University of New Jersey, in 1958. 

Among his research interests was the 

electronic properties of metals and 

alloys, for which he received the 

Department of Commerce Gold 

Medal Award in 1971. 

A small group of scientists in the Optical Physics Division—Arthur G. Maki, W. 

Bruce Olson, and A. Kaldor—and their colleagues A. J. Dorney and I. M. Mills from 

the university at Reading, England made a study of the detection of pollutants by 

optical means. They developed a technique for the detection of nitric oxide emanations 

from sources such as internal combustion engines and smokestacks, based upon the use of a relatively inexpensive system involving lasers and magnets. 

Using the Zeeman effect, which enabled the resonant frequency of an optical transition to be magnetically shifted to a different value, they could detect airborne NO 

at the level of 3 parts per A major air pollutant, NO produced smog and 

human discomfort, including eye irritation. 

The group also resolved an uncertainty affecting the detectability of sulfur trioxide, a pollutant found in acid rain. Performing two different optical experiments and a band calculation, they were able to remove an ambiguity in the assignment of the 

frequencies of two of the Raman-active infrared lines of the SO3 molecule.'69 

A. Kaldor, W. B. Olson. and A. 0. Maki, "Pollution monitor for nitric oxide: a laser device based on the 

Zeeman modulation of absorption," Science 176, No. 4034, p. 508 (May 5, 1972). 

A. Kaldor, A. G. Maki, A. J. Dorney, and I. M. Mills, "The assignment of v2 and v4 of SO3," J. Mo!. 

Spectrosc. 45. No. 2, 247-252 (1973). 

406 

Sniffing Out Pollutants 
Sizing Aerosols With Lasers 

Cary Gravatt, a Polymers Division physicist, developed a method for the determination of the size distribution of particulate matter in air. 

In the technique, air carrying the particles was blown through a continuous-wave 

laser beam. Light scattered from the particles was collected by separate annular 

fiber-optic rings set at slight angles to the laser axis. The fiber optics carried the 

scattering signals to photomultiplier tube detectors. Analysis of the signals from two 

rings yielded estimates of the diameter of each particle, irrespective of the index of 

refraction of the particle. By varying the angles of the observing rings, Gravatt could 

preferentially search for particles of various sizes. 

Besides the particle sizes, the apparatus also yielded information on the chemical 

natures of the particles and on their concentrations. 

The new instrument found application in monitoring all types of aerosols, from dust 

in homes, factories, and coal mines to clouds, fuels, paint sprays, and smokestack 

emissions. 170 Honest Measure for Natural Gas 

Increased use of liquefaction to facilitate trade in natural gas involved the Cryogenics Division in an investigation of the density of that valuable energy source. 

Shipping large quantities of natural gas from the remote sites where it was often 

found was prohibitively expensive until techniques were developed to transport the 

product—mostly methane, but with variable fractions of nitrogen, ethane, propane, and 

butane—in liquid form. Monster tanker ships were built to carry the product to user 

markets, keeping the liquefied gas below its boiling temperature near 120 K 

(about —250 °F). 

Trouble came when the buyers and sellers realized that during the long trek to the 

user, part of the liquefied gas evaporated, so that the assay performed prior to loading was no longer valid. 

A consortium of 10 energy companies came to NBS, asking the Bureau to measure 

the densities of various mixtures of the components of natural gas to help buyer and 

seller agree on a reasonable value for a given shipment.'7' 

By mid-1974, B. A. Younglove, physicist in the Cryogenics Division, was able to 

report the results of a whole series of measurements on methane. He measured the 

specific heat of saturated liquid methane at 66 temperatures over the range 95 K to 

187 K and calculated the specific heat at constant volume at 20 densities ranging from 

0.8 of the critical density to 2.8 times the critical density, for the temperature range 

170 C. C. Gravatt, Jr., "Real time measurement of the size distribution of particulate matter by a light scattering method," J. Air Poll. Control Assn. 23, No. 12, 1035-1038 (1973). See also NBS Technical News Bulletin, December 1972 PP. 276-277. 

"Research grant for LNG study," Tech. News Bull., November 1972, p. 259. 

407 
Cary Gravatt of the NBS Polymers Division positioned a device that blew a jet of 

dust-laden air across a laser beam. The particle size distribution was determined in real 

time by measuring the ratio of the amount of light scattered at two angles. Gravatt 

developed the apparatus as part of the NBS Measures for Air Quality Program which 

provided technical support for the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. 

from 91 K to 300 K.'72 These were the most comprehensive measurements made until 

that time on compressed liquid methane. The uncertainty level, below 0.5 %, was 

sufficiently small to permit use of the data for thermodynamic calculations needed by 

producers and shippers of liquefied natural gas. 

72 B. A. Younglove. "The specific heats, and of compressed and liquefied methane," J. Res. NBS 

78A, No. 3. 401-410 (1974). 

408 
R. D. Goodwin assisted in the work by calculating a comprehensive set of thermophysical properties for methane over the temperature range from 90 K to 500 K and for 

pressures up to 700 times atmospheric pressure. In computing his results, Goodwin 

used a new equation of state. He based his calculations mostly on ideal-gas specific 

heats and on experimental pressure-density-temperature relations. 

Emphasizing the importance of accurate information on the properties of methane 

for the design engineer, Goodwin made use of a great deal of existing experimental 

data, including that provided by Younglove, to evaluate his results. He found substantial variation in existing heat-of-vaporization data, but found agreement with one 

set of data within about 2 %. His heat capacity calculations agreed with the measured 

values of Younglove within about 2 % over the region of overlap, as well.'73 

What a Noise! 

Everyone knew that big trucks could be extremely loud. The interesting question was: how loud? In cooperation with the U.S. Department of Transportation and the 

American Trucking Association, NBS scientists measured the noise levels of trucks. 

They used a research runway operated by the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration at Wallops Island, Virginia. Thirteen diesel tractor-trailer combinations 

and a gasoline-powered delivery van were tested by William A. Leasure, Jr., Thomas 

L. Quindry, Denzil E. Mathews, and James M. Heinen.'74 

Measurements were taken using microphones located 15 cm from each ear of the 

truck driver. At the same time, exterior measurements were made by a series of 

microphones that heard pretty much what other drivers or residents along the road 

would have heard. Both stationary and moving measurements were performed. The 

results indicated that, indeed, trucks can be loud (75 dB to 95 dB). The Occupational 

Safety and Health Administration recommended an eight-hour-per-day noise limit of 

90 dB to avoid permanent hearing loss. 

Other loud sounds were evaluated as well, including the firing of pistols and rifles. 

It was only a small paradox that the anechoic chamber in the Sound Building— 

without doubt the quietest place at the Bureau— was a focal point for laboratory 

experiments on other types of noise. One of several experimental rooms in the 

building, the anechoic chamber achieved its quiet because it was lined with large 

fiberglass wedges paired in a pattern that absorbed more than 99 % of the sound 

originating within it. 

One of the studies conducted in the anechoic room during Roberts' tenure was a series of hearing aid investigations, conducted for such sponsors as the Veterans 

Administration. The quality of microphones, loudspeakers, and other audio equipment was evaluated as well. 

R. D. Goodwin, "The thermophysical properties of methane, from 90 to 500 K at pressures to 700 bar," 

NBS Technical Note 653, 274 pp., April 1974. 

'v" W. A. Leasure, Jr., T. L. Quindry, D. E. Mathews, and J. M. Heinen, "Interior/exterior noise levels of 

over-the-road trucks," NBS Tech. Note 737, 314 pp., September 1972. See also NBS Tech. News Bull., 

February 1973, pp. 32-33. 

409 
is 

t 

An anthropomorphic mannequin used for acoustic research at NBS "listened" through an over-the-ear 

hearing aid in an anechoic chamber as part of a testing program conducted for the Veterans Administration. 

Martin Bassin positioned the sound source. 

410 

Physicist Michael T. Kobal of the NBS Sound Section developed a test to evaluate the 

effectiveness of hearing protectors used on firing ranges. 
In March 1976, the Juifliard String Quartet tested the acoustical properties of their rare 17th and 18th century 

instruments in the NBS anechoic chamber against those of a matched set of new instruments made by 

Massachusetts instrument maker Marten Comelissen. During the same visit, the quartet treated the Gaithersburg staff to an open rehearsal in the Green Auditorium. 

In striking contrast to the anechoic chamber, the walls of a reverberation chamber, 

made of concrete, reflected about 95 % of sound striking them. The acoustic absorption 

of architectural materials was evaluated there, as was the intensity of sound emitted by 

machinery. 

A third Sound-Building facility, containing small, insulated listening booths, was used for noise-annoyance studies by—among others—John A. Molino. In one such 

study, student-age subjects could reduce the intensity of sound they heard through 

earphones by tapping more frequently on a telegraph key. The attention of the subjects was focused on a reading task, the announced goal of their participation in the 

experiments. Molino sought in the experiments to develop an "aversion" method for 

evaluating human distaste for a variety of sounds, from pure tones to "white noise."75 

J. A. Molino, "Measuring human aversion to sound without verbal descriptors," Percept. Psychophys. 16. 

No. 2, 303-308 (1974). 

411 
The NBS Sound Section conducted experiments to rate sounds according to their 

"loudness," "annoyance," and "unpleasantness" in an effort to find an objective basis 

for product standards and rational urban planning. In this photograph, a subject heard 

varying types and intensities of sound. She could diminish uncomfortable sound levels 

by pressing the response key. 

Building Better Incinerators 

How could NBS help municipalities to better dispose of their combustible waste? 

That was the question asked by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers 

(ASME).'76 It was not a trivial question, since the "typical" municipal waste stream 

was anything but uniform. The incinerator engineer needed to know what materials 

might be found in the waste stream, and what might be the consequences of burning 

"NBS helps with problems of waste incineration," NBS Tech. News Bull., February 1973, p. 42. 

412 
the stuff. He did not want to produce poisonous effluent. He needed to monitor and, if 

possible, to regulate the combustion temperature to obtain optimal results. 

The Bureau, it seemed, could help in two ways. One way was to actually burn statistically selected samples of trash to evaluate the range of combustion temperatures and 

products, and this type of combustion experiment was performed at NBS by a group 

that included Martin L. Reilly and Kenneth Churney. Another method was to provide 

data on heats of formation for the most common waste materials in a form that 

combustion engineers would find usable. This task was accomplished by NBS chemists 

George T. Armstrong and Eugene S. Domaiski in collaboration with colleagues from 

the ASME. 

Armstrong, Domalski, and their co-workers compiled thermodynamic data needed by 

waste-incinerator engineers for more than 1300 substances. Included in the compilation 

were the following: 

• Heats of combustion and formation for 719 organic compounds containing the 

elements C, H, N, 0, P, or S. 

• Thermodynamic property values for organic halogen compounds, organometallics, and metal salts of organic acids, tabulated in the NBS Technical Note 270 

series by Donald D. Wagman, William H. Evans, and Vivian B. Parker. 

• Data on certain hydrocarbons, treated by Frederick D. Rossini. The needed 

information was published in book form by the ASME.'77 

Meeting the Energy Crisis 

As observed earlier in this chapter (see A Crisis in Energy), energy based on the 

consumption of oil reached premium prices during this period as most of the world's 

major oil-producing countries discovered the political and economic leverage inherent 

in restricting oil sales. Efforts at NBS to mitigate the energy crisis took several 

forms—turning down the office thermostats in winter, measuring thermal conductivity 

of insulation materials, studying alternative energy sources, and evaluating the rate of 

energy consumption of popular appliances, to name a few. Some of these types of 

projects are noted in this section. 

Meeting the Energy Crisis in Housing, Travel, and Business 

The Building Research Division staff was busy with energy-conservation projects 

during the Nixon administration, although the division continued to work on a great 

variety of other problems as well. The rapidly rising cost of oil—source of much of 

America's power—gave new impetus to efforts to maximize the efficiency with which 

energy was used. 

Combustion Fundamentals for Waste Incineration, S. R. Beitler, 0. T. Armstrong, E. S. Domalski, and T. 

R. Keane, editors (New York, NY: The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1974) 217 pp. 

413 
In 1975, NBS invited a group of consumers from Montgomery County, Maryland to provide their reactions to three proposed energy guide labels for home laundry equipment. 

As early as 1970, Jersey City, New Jersey, had been selected as a demonstration site 

for improved housing construction as part of Project Breakthrough, an initiative of 

the Department of Housing and Urban Development. One of the first Bureau contributions to the program, involving Jack E. Snell and Paul R. Achenbach, was the 

identification of operating and performance data on the total consumption and 

distribution of energy on the site as a precursor to utilizing energy in an effective 

manner. Such features as the design and use of appliances, heating and ventilating 

equipment, and power distribution equipment were considered in the study. Later, in 

1974, Snell was selected to head the newly created Office of Energy Conservation, 

located in the Center for Building Technology. 

A detailed examination of one portion of the energy-conservation program— 

maximizing dollar savings over the life of residential heating and cooling equipment— 

was treated by Stephen R. Petersen. He discussed the economics of modifying 

insulation and installing storm windows and doors in terms of the climate, fuel costs, 

and materials costs at the location of the residence under study. 79 

J. E. Snefl and P. R. Achenbach, "Total energy systems: A review of recent NBS activities," Proc. 

Effective Energy Utilization Symp., Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pa., June 8-9, 1972, pp. 201-233. 

S. R. Petersen, "Retrofitting existing housing for energy conservation," NBS Building Science Series 64, 

December 1974, 76 pp. 

414 
Making the Most of Your Energy Dollars was published in 1975 by the National Bureau of Standards and 

the Federal Energy Administration. It provided guidelines to homeowners in determining the most costeffective energy improvements for their homes. 

In another energy-conservation study, David M. Levinsohn and James T. McQueen 

estimated the fuel consumption of automobiles in terms of the types of vehicles and 

the characteristics of the roadways involved. They considered the use of expressways, 

arterial roads, and local streets, with the fuel consumption varying according to 

operating conditions. The authors expressed the belief that such basic data could be 

used by urban planners to design transportation grids for maximum energy 

Yet another contribution from the Bureau took the form of a handbook, Energy 

Conservation Program Guide for Industry and Commerce (EPIC). It was written by 

Robert R. Gatts, Robert G. Massey, and John C. Robertson to suggest specific 

techniques by which businesses could economize on their use of energy while still 

meeting their organizational goals.'8' 

The result of a collaboration between NBS and the Federal Energy Administration, 

EPIC was a guide to energy conservation that became a university text. It offered 

details of methods that could be used to inaugurate programs in energy conservation, as well as more than 200 suggestions for saving energy. Each of the one-sentence 

180 D. M. Levinsohn and J. T. McQueen, "A procedure for estimating automobile fuel consumption on con- gested urban roads," NBSIR 74-595, August 1974, 20 pp. 

R. R. Gatts, R. G. Massey, and J. C. Robertson, "Energy Conservation Program Guide for Industry and 

Commerce," NBS Handbook 115, September 1974, 212 pp. 

415 
suggestions was labeled an Energy Conservation Opportunity. Actual case histories 

illustrated the ideas, which encompassed—among others—minimizing the expenditure 

of electrical power, processing energy, and energy use in the handling of materials. 

The guide also provided useful methods for calculating the energy savings realized 

in particular cases. Organizations were listed from which information could be 

obtained on conservation projects, too. The original cost of the guide was less 

than $3. 

One of the first college courses to make use of the new guide was offered by the 

School of Continuing Education of the University of Pittsburgh. It was known as the 

Energy Management for Industry and Commerce course. Instructors in the course often 

obtained advice on presenting the material from the NBS Office of Energy 

Conservation. 182 Supplements to update the EPIC guide were issued over a period of several years. 

An Office of Housing Technology (OHT) was established at NBS in 1972 under 

the leadership of Edward 0. Pfrang, James G. Gross, and Joseph Greenberg. By 

August of that year, the office was involved in several projects. These included 

In 1975 NBS published the Energy Conservation Program Guide for Industry and Commerce. The guide 

gave specific practical hints and case studies on energy-saving for small and medium-sized companies as well as for corporate giants. 

"An EPIC undertaking: out of the classroom, into the plant," NBS Dimensions, January 1976, pp. 6-9. 

416 
Project Feedback, an attempt to evaluate consumer reaction to housing innovations 

developed in Operation Breakthrough; an energy-conservation program associated with 

the Jersey City, New Jersey, Breakthrough site; and a project assessing the dangers to 

children from lead-based paint.'83 

In Project Feedback, consumer reactions were obtained directly by interviews with 

citizen residents of the modernized housing. The energy-conservation project produced 

data on the efficiency of utilization of waste heat—generated as a by-product of 

electric power production—for residential heating, cooling, and hot-water production. 

The lead-paint project involved detection methods for the offending paint and the 

development of methods for the removal of the paint or otherwise eliminating the 

danger to children from the paint. 

Preventing Electrical Blackouts 

The transmission of large quantities of electrical power could be adversely affected 

by transient currents on the lines, in worst cases causing power blackouts. Shunt 

reactors, large devices similar to transformers, could "tune out" such transients, thus 

stabilizing power transmission. Accurate measurement of power losses arising from the use of shunt reactors, however, was a problem for electric utilities. It was solved by 

Oskars Peterson, chief of the High Voltage Measurements Section of the Electricity 

Division, along with his colleagues Walter J. Mangan, Ronald Stanley, and William 

E. Anderson—a Presidential Intern from the University of Missouri. These scientists 

developed a self-balancing high voltage capacitance bridge which was a key 

component of the solution.'84 

Used with appropriate auxiliary equipment, the new bridge provided accurate 

measurements of the power losses accompanying the installation of high-voltage shunt 

reactors, even though the losses engendered by the highly efficient reactors were so small that they were difficult or impossible to measure by conventional means. 

The new bridge also permitted the initiation of a new NBS calibration service for 

large capacitors and shunt reactors. 

Looking for Cleaner Power from Coal 

During the tenures of President Nixon and Director Roberts, the Nation searched 

earnestly for new sources of energy. Especially desired were new, cleaner uses for 

America's large domestic supply of coal. 

183 Other studies in the OHT included the spread of smoke and flame in fires; building foundations; piping 

materials; the thermal performance of entire buildings; design criteria for air conditioning; accelerated aging 

of building components; and the economics of housing. See NBS Technical News Bulletin, August 1972, 

p. 193. 184 0. Petersons and W. E. Anderson. "A wide-range high-voltage capacitance bridge with one PPM 

accuracy," IEEE Trans. Instru,n. Meas. IM-24, No. 4, pp. 336-344 (1975). See also "Shunt reactor power 

loss," NBS Tech. Ne;vs Bull., April 1973, p. 91. 

417 
Philip A. Cramp, a chemist with the NBS Center for Building Technology, operated a portable X-ray-fluorescence instrument to measure lead levels on the exterior wall of a house. 

418 
John B. Wachtman and Samuel J. Schneider wrote a brief summary of U.S. needs 

for more efficient and cleaner power generation from coal, followed by a description 

of the hostile environments existing in high-temperature gas turbines, magnetohydrodynamic power generators, and coal gasifiers. The need for data and test methods was 

reviewed, and known material properties were summarized)85 

Some progress was made during the period in the arcane study of magnetohydrodynamics (MHD), wherein a conducting stream of hot, ionized gas was passed through a transverse magnetic field, producing electric current in electrodes placed in the gas 

stream. Since it was expected that the power extracted by the MHD apparatus would 

be nearly free of the polluting products commonly found with coal or oil combustion, 

the option seemed well worth pursuing. However, the technique had its own drawbacks; high temperatures (typically above 2000 °C), a corrosive atmosphere produced 

by alkali-salt seed materials, and large temperature gradients. 

With support from the Department of the Interior Office of Coal Research, Bureau 

scientists studied the resistance of known MHD materials to the corrosive MHD 

environment. They also investigated the properties of materials that might be used in 

MHD systems. 

185 B. Wachtman and S. J. Schneider, "Measurements and standards for high temperature materials in en- ergy conversion and clean fuel production," Stand. News 1, No. 8, 16-23 August 1973. 

419 

Chief of the NBS High Voltage Measurements Section Walter J. Mangan (standing) and Presidential Intern 

William E. Anderson used the self-balancing high voltage capacitance bridge to perform a power loss 

measurement. 
One form of MHD used as a fuel a type of coal, either natural or synthetic. Bureau 

scientists studied the composition, electrical conductivity, and viscosity of natural 

coal slags and the resulting fly ash, using chemical techniques, x-ray analysis, and 

thermal analysis. The natural variability of coal from different sources lent extra 

interest to the study. The composition and chemical reactions to be found in the 

gasified slag also were examined, along with the chemical and physical properties of 

known and potential seed materials that would be introduced into the system to 

increase gas-phase conductivity. 

Technical results obtained during the period July 1972 to July 1974 were reviewed 

for a program initiated to generate properties data on materials for MHD. The program, 

sponsored jointly by NBS and the Office of Coal Research, involved a sizable group 

from the Bureau: Samuel J. Schneider, Webster Capps, Hans P. R. Frederikse, William 

R. Hosler, Dale A. Kauffman, Ernest M. Levin, Clyde L. McDaniel, Taki Negas, 

and Ernest R. Plante. Data were obtained in the reporting period for phase equilibria, 

electrical characteristics, and vaporization. Information was also obtained on the 

viscosity of several MHD components: coal slag materials, alkali seed materials, 

electrodes, and insulators)86 

One of the projects involved measurements by Frederikse and Hosler of the 

electrical conductivity of coal slag—some natural and some synthetic—in the range 

1200 K to 1700 K, at very low (106 of atmospheric) 02 pressure. The authors 

expressed surprise that the measured conductivity was as high as 102 cm' at 

1700 K, and they speculated on the cause, which they thought might be a ferrousferric electron transfer)87 

Modeling the Fusion Plasma 

The tantalizing concept of controlled nuclear fusion as an inexhaustible energy 

source coaxed large sums of money from supporting agencies and enormous amounts 

of effort from scientists in those days. The Bureau participated in the search in several 

of its laboratories. 

One such effort, in its initial stage at that time, sought to provide a model of the 

fusion plasma to be used in developing instruments and analytical techniques for 

the evaluation of temperatures and electron densities. The project involved the use 

of a wall-stabilized electric arc burning in a hydrogen atmosphere, operated by a cosmopolitan team that included William R. Ott and Wolfgang L. Wiese of the 

Bureau's Optical Physics Division; Kurt Behringer, a guest worker from the Technical 

University in Munich, Germany; G. Gieres of the University of Dusseldorf in 

Germany, and Patrick Fieffe-Prevost, a visiting scientist from the National Bureau of 

Metrology in Paris. 

S. J. Schneider, W. Capps, H. P. R. Frederikse, W. R. Hosler, D. A. Kauffman, E. M. Levin, C. L. 

McDaniel, T. Negas, and E. R. Plante, "High temperature MHD materials," NBS!R 74-543 129 pp., August 

1974. 

H. P. R. Frederikse and W. R. Hosler, "Electrical conductivity of coal slag," Proc J3Ih Symp on engineering aspects of niagnetohydrodynarnics, Stanford U, March 26-28, 1973 paper IV. 4. l-IV. 4. 3. 

420 
The team built the electric arc to produce temperatures as high as 24000 K, hotter 

than the surface of the sun. Eight electrodes created the arc discharge, and 24 watercooled copper discs restricted it to a volume 2 mm in diameter. Along its center, the arc temperature reached its maximum values; therefore, its properties were viewed 

"end-on." 

The arc produced enormous amounts of radiation in the vacuum ultraviolet (vuv) 

region, just as a fusion plasma would. The continuum emission from the arc was employed as a radiometric standard. Its range, 165 nm to 360 nm in 1973, was 

expected to reach deeper into the vuv region upon further refinement.'88 

By 1975, the behavior of the arc was better understood, and its wavelength range 

extended down to 124 nm.'89 

Saving Energy at NBS 

John D. Hoffman, Director of the Institute for Materials Research, summarized the 

activities of an NBS Energy Task Force that was created to develop contingency plans 

to keep the laboratories functioning in the event that energy conservation became 

mandatory. 

Hoffman noted that NBS used about 115 million kWh of electrical energy and some 

780 billion btu of heating fuel annually. About 85 % of the energy was used for 

climate control. Viable conservation measures were identified and implemented as parts of the program, including reduction in lighting, zone shut-downs of air handling, 

and thermostat adjustments. These steps saved about 12 % in electrical power usage 

and abut 18 % in heating fuel annually. Further conservation measures were considered 

feasible if conditions warranted. '9° 

Alternative Fuels for Vehicles 

Another contribution from the Bureau on behalf of energy technology was initiated 

by David A. Didion and James E. Hill of the Thermal Engineering Systems Section, 

Center for Building Technology. They adapted two NBS vehicles—a half-ton and a one-ton truck—to operate on gaseous fuels. The goal of the project was to compare 

engine performance with those fuels—compressed natural gas and liquefied petroleum 

gas (propane)—to that achieved with gasoline. 

The testing group monitored emissions of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and 

nitrogen oxides. They found that the gaseous fuels burned much cleaner (factors of 

three to ten) than gasoline in each category. 

188 W. R. Ott, P. Fieffe-Prevost, and W. L. Wiese, "VUV radiometry with hydrogen arcs, 1: Principle of the 

method and comparisons with blackbody calibrations from 1650 A to 3600 A," Applied Optics 12, No. 7, 

1618-1629 (1973). 89 R. Ott, K. Behnnger, and 0. Gieres, "Vacuum ultraviolet radiometry with hydrogen arcs, 2: The high 

power arc as an absolute standard of spectral radiance from 124 nm to 360 nm," App!. Opt. 14, No. 9, 

2121-2128 (1975). 

'90"Energy conservation at the NBS laboratories," NBSIR 74-539, 81 pp., July 1974. 

421 
NBS scientists compared the performance and exhaust emission characteristics of motor vehicles run on gasoline, compressed natural gas, and liquefied petroleum gas for the U. S. Postal Service. In this 

photograph, David K. Ward made engine adjustments during a test on a half-ton truck. 

Whether the U.S. government, with its 300,000 to 400,000 vehicles, would switch a significant number of them to the cleaner-burning fuels was problematic. The change 

would involve refitting the carburetion system of each vehicle for use with the new 

fuel, as well as enaction of a scheme for supplying the gases in the quantities and at 

the locations needed for convenient use. But at least government vehicle managers now had factual information on which to base decisions.19' 

New Ideas in Physics 

In this section we highlight Bureau advances in instrumentation that markedly 

improved the ability of scientists to make physical measurements. 

91 "Comparative performance of motor vehicles operated on gasoline, compressed natural gas, and propane," 

NBS Tech. News Bull., August 1973, pp. 188-190. 

422 
High-Precision Spectrophotometer 

A new spectrophotometer built by Klaus D. Mielenz and Kenneth L. Eckerle was expected to noticeably improve the quality of measurements in its field. The reliability 

of the basic unit of luminous intensity—or brightness—depended on the quality of the 

instruments used in its realization, so that improvements such as the one made by the 

two optical physicists was important progress in defining the standard. 

Mielenz and Eckerle achieved new spectrophotometric accuracy by incorporating 

off-axis mirror optics rather than traditional lenses, and by placement of the sample in a collimated and linearly polarized beam. They also were able to compensate more 

effectively for detector non-linearity in the new instrument. 

The new spectrophotometer employed a grating-type monochromator with circular 

entrance and exit apertures; it also incorporated a stabilized tungsten-ribbon lamp. A 

low-power laser was built into the system for alignment of the device. The detector was a photomultiplier tube with a stabilized power supply. 

Early tests with the spectrophotometer indicated an instrumental uncertainty of 

approximately transmittance units and an imprecision about half that large)92 

A "Topografiner" Looks At Metal Surfaces 

A closer look at metal surfaces became possible through the development of a new type of instrument by Bureau physicists Russell D. Young, John F. Ward, and 

Frederic E. Scire. Given the name "Topografiner," the prototype device permitted the 

topographic mapping of metal surfaces with a vertical resolution of 3 nm.'93 Clearly 

this was an instrument with a bright future. 

Young, the team leader, came to NBS from Pennsylvania State University, where he 

mastered the science of field-emission microscopy under Erwin W. Muller. In a 

detailed 1971 article in the journal Physics Today, Young pointed out the value to 

surface science of an instrument that would allow surface measurements at the atomic 

level.'94 He mentioned several instruments, including one of his own, that could 

possibly reach atomic resolution. 

The elements of the topografiner were few: a metal field-emission point, sharpened 

to a radius of about 10 nm; two orthogonal piezoelectric drive units arranged so as to 

move the point assembly in a plane parallel to a test surface; a third, finer piezoelectric 

drive operated by a servo system so as to maintain a fixed distance between the point 

and the test surface; and a mechanical stabilizing technique to restrict vibration to the 

lowest level then possible in their laboratory. 

92 K. D. Mielenz and K. L. Eckerle, "Design, construction, and testing of a new high accuracy spectrophotometer," NBS Tech Note 729, 60 pp., June 1972. See also K. D. Mielenz, "Physical parameters in high 

accuracy spectrophotometry," J. Res. NBS 76A, No. 5, 455-467 (1972). 193 R. Young, J. Ward, and F. Scire, "The topografiner; an instrument for measuring surface microtopography," Rev. Sci. Instrurn. 43, No. 7, 999-1011(1972). 

'94R. D. Young, "Surface microtopography," Physics Today 24, No. 11, 42-49 (1971). 

423 
In using the topografiner, Young, Ward, and Scire prepared three-dimensional plots 

of the test surface from the voltages driving the three piezoelectric crystals. The plots 

rendered accurately the surface of an infrared diffraction grating, thus demonstrating 

the capability of the instrument to record the profile of a well-characterized surface. 

The unusual mechanical stability of the topografiner, which was essential to its 

success, was demonstrated by the three physicists in a study of electron tunneling. 

Disconnecting the in-plane piezoelectric drives and putting aside the servomechanism 

for the point, the team could use the vertical drive to move the point closer and closer 

to a metal surface. Recording the current-voltage characteristic of the point-surface 

system, they were able to demonstrate for the first time metal-vacuum-metal tunneling 

at separations estimated to be less than 2 nm. At larger separations, they observed a gradual transition to the region governed by the Fowler-Nordheim equation.'95 

One might have expected scientific studies with the topografiner to produce elegant 

experiments in surface physics at NBS for years to come but, surprisingly, that was 

not to be. In 1972 work on the instrument was stopped by Young's supervisors so that 

his ideas could advance the study of industrial surface finish in another part of the 

Bureau. The topografiner was perhaps the first major victim of the Bureau trend 

towards "relevance." 

Young's work with the topografiner was continued by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich 

Rohrer, employees of the IBM laboratories in Zurich, Switzerland. In 1986, they 

shared half of the Nobel Prize in physics for their design of the scanning tunneling 

microscope. The other half of the prize went to Ernst Ruska, who invented the electron 

microscope in 1931. The seminal work by Young, Ward, and Scire was noted in the 

Nobel documentation. 

Young received the 1974 Edward Uhler Condon award for his 1971 article in 

Physics Today. He received the Department of Commerce Silver Medal Award in 

1979. In 1986, he received a Presidential Citation from Ronald Reagan. In 1992, he 

received the Gaede Langmuir Award from the American Vacuum Society. 

Young's impact on the Bureau reached even further than his personal efforts. During 

Young's development of the topografiner, J. William Gadzuk, E. Ward Plummer, and 

E. Clayton Teague, each of whose work is noted elsewhere in this volume, joined NBS 

specifically to collaborate with him. Each made substantial contributions to science 

while working at the Bureau. 

Making Free Radicals Inside Lasers 

Free radicals play important roles in air-pollution studies, in research on flames, in 

high-temperature chemistry, and in aerospace phenomena. 

George H. Atkinson, Allan H. Laufer, and Michael J. Kurylo, III, found a way to 

overcome problems generated by the short lifetimes of many free radicals—they 

simply moved the radical-producing equipment into the cavity of a dye laser.'96 

Russell Young, John Ward, and Fred Scire, "Observation of metal-vacuum-metal tunneling, field emission, and the transition region," Phys. Rev. Leir. 27, No. 14, 922-924 (1971). 

G. H. Atkinson, A. H. Laufer, and M. J. Kurylo, "Detection of free radicals by an intracavity dye laser 

technique," J. Chern. Phys. 59, No. I, 350-354 (1973). 

424 
Russell D. Young received the Ph. D. 

degree in physics from Pennsylvania 

State University in 1959. He worked at NBS from 1961 to 1981. His 

principal research interest was the 

characterization of surfaces. While a group leader in the Atomic Physics 

Division, he led the development of 

the Topografiner, forerunner of the 

scanning tunneling microscope. 

Much of the information about free radicals was obtained by observing the way in 

which they absorbed radiation. The NBS optical physicists found a way to incorporate 

the free-radical-production apparatus, a vacuum flash photolysis unit, into the cavity 

of a dye laser. The flash unit, consisting of a 75 cm long, fused-silica, evacuable 

reaction cell, utilized a 1000 J discharge to create free radicals in nitrogen gas. The dye 

laser, employing rhodamine 6G in ethanol, could produce about 300 mJ of output 

energy for analysis by a 2 meter grating spectrograph. 

Early results were obtained on the species NH2 and HCO; their spectra were more 

easily detected and analyzed by the new apparatus than had been the case with other 

techniques. 

Progress in Optical Raduition Measurements 

Jon C. Geist, physicist in the Optical Radiation Section of the Heat Division, 

initiated a new series of publications on optical radiation measurements with a 60-page 

treatise on the Bureau's intention to create a scale of total irradiance, using electrically 

calibrated, absolute detectors. His discussion included a theoretical analysis of known 

error sources in that type of realization, based upon detector development that occurred 

during the period 

197 Geist, "Optical radiation measurements: Fundamental principles of absolute radiometry and the philosophy of this NBS program," NBS Technical Note 594-1, 59 pp, June 1972. 

425 
George H. Atkinson used a dye laser to detect free radicals, a technique that he 

developed at the National Bureau of Standards with Allan H. Laufer and Michael J. 

Kurylo. 

The series was published over a several-year period as supplements to NBS Technical Note 594. 

The second note in the series was written by Edward F. Zalewski, A. Robert 

Schaefer, Kshiti Mohan, and Donald A. McSparron. It described some of the basic 

instrumentation developed for use in photometry, including photodetector amplifiers, 

426 
lamp-power circuitry, and mechanical components. Also presented were results of 

experiments on stability and directional-intensity tests of two types of lamps.'98 

McSparron and Velma I. Burns reviewed then-current procedures, equipment, and 

techniques used in photometry calibrations, including luminous intensity, luminous 

flux, and color temperature. Details of the uncertainty calculations associated with the 

program were discussed, as The next contribution to the series was written by Bruce Steiner, who described the 

National Measurement System for Radiometry and Photometry, emphasizing the role 

played by NBS in improving the system. Steiner noted the impact of optical-radiation 

measurements on the electro-optics industry—an industry that itself affected U.S. 

public health and safety, energy, meteorology, agriculture, and environmental activities. 

He also pointed out the many areas where improved capabilities for measurement 

were needed.20° Steiner continued his discussion in a second note that emphasized the 

roles played in the measurement system by the Council for Optical Radiation 

Measurements and other professional groups.20' 

Details of the stability and temperature characteristics of certain photodetectors were 

described in a 1973 contribution to the optical-radiation-measurements series. Mohan, 

Schaefer, and Zalewski compared selenium-barrier-layer photocells and silicon PIN and 

PN type photodiodes operated in the photovoltaic or non-biased mode. The physicists 

studied detector-output stability over one-day periods and they investigated fatigue and 

hysteresis effects, as well as the temperature dependence of the detector output, all 

with an eye to using the devices for goniometric flux measurements or in other 

radiometric or photometric applications.202 

William B. Fussell used the series to describe a new theory of the photometric 

integrating sphere.203 The theory involved certain approximations to the geometry of 

the sphere, its baffle and lamp, and the absorptive and reflective characteristics of the 

sphere interior. Fussell then offered a method for evaluation of the measurement errors 

associated with use of the sphere. He also tabulated the diffraction losses for a range 

E. F. Zalewski, A. R. Schaefer, K. Mohan, and D. A. McSparron, "Optical radiation measurements: 

Photometric instrumentation and research (1970 to 1971)," NBS Technical Note 594-2, 44 pp., September 

1972. 199 I. Burns and D. A. McSparron, "Optical radiation measurements: Photometric calibration procedures," 

NBS Technical Note 594-3, 35 pp., November 1972. 200 B. Steiner, "Optical radiation measurements: The impact of radiometry and photometry and the role of 

NBS," NBS Technical Note 594-4, 56 pp., March 1973. 201 B. Steiner, "Optical radiation measurements: The present state of radiometry and photometry," NBS 

Technical Note 594.6, 56 pp., March 1974. 202 K. Mohan, A. R. Schaefer, and E. F. Zalewski, "Optical radiation measurements: Stability and temperature characteristics of some silicon and selenium photodetectors," NBS Technical Note 594-5, 16 pp., June 

1973. 203 W. B. Fussell, "Optical radiation measurements: Approximate theory of the photometric integrating 

sphere," NBS Technical Note 594-7, 39 pp., March 1974. 

427 
of experimental geometries, for wavelengths from 0.2 jim to 100 jim. He included in 

his discussion general formulas for the losses—derived from the Kirchhoff scalar 

paraxial diffraction theory—as well as estimates of the uncertainties of the tabular 

values. 204 Ninth in the optical radiation measurements series was a contribution prepared by 

William H. Venable, Jr. and Jack J. Hsia. In it, the authors developed a mathematical 

description of spectrophotometric measurements.205 

Crystalline Response to Shock Waves 

Donald H. Tsai, trained at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in aeronautical 

engineering, had a natural interest in shock waves. He indulged the interest by 

initiating a long-term study of the response of crystal lattices to shock waves. By 1974, 

Rosemary MacDonald—a theoretical physicist and colleague of Tsai's in the Heat 

Division's Equation of State Section—was collaborating with him on the problem. 

The two scientists developed a molecular dynamics mathematical model to account 

for the propagation of shock waves in three-dimensional crystals. Their 1974 theoretical "experiments" were performed with a computer on perfect base-centered-cubic 

crystals equipped with an interatomic potential originally created for a-iron. 

They made the crystals as large as could be accommodated by the available computers—125 unit cells. To study thermal relaxation with their model, they followed the 

propagation of high-temperature heat pulses into the crystals, observing the 

phenomenon of second sound, which they concluded was a quite general property of 

excitation in the solid state.206 

Tsai and MacDonald refined their model and their computations, using ever larger 

crystals and more detailed analysis as computational capability—obtained from large 

computers outside NBS—increased. In 1976, they were able to comment on first 

sound, which they found to be a high-velocity sound wave that left behind it changes 

in both kinetic and potential energy in the crystal. These changes did not quickly come 

into equilibrium. They also found that second sound was a slower thermal wave, 

which did reach equilibrium. In their work, they had extended the concept of second 

sound to high temperatures and high pressures.20' In a summary written later for the 

journal Reviews of Modern Physics, D. D. Joseph and Luigi Preziosi commented: 

204 W. B. Fussell, "Optical radiation measurements: Tables of diffraction losses," NBS Technical Note 594-8, 

39 pp., June 1974. 205 W. H. Venable, Jr., and J. J. Hsia, "Optical radiation measurements: Describing spectrophotometric 

measurements," NBS Technical Note 594-9, 49 pp., November 1974. 206 Donald H. Tsai and Rosemary A. MacDonald, "Heat pulse propagation in a crystal: a molecular dynamical calculation," Solid State Communic. 14, 1269-1273 (1974). 207 D. H. Tsai and R. A. MacDonald, "Molecular-dynamical study of second sound in a solid excited by a strong heat pulse," Phys. Rev. B14, No. 10, 4714-4723 (1976). 

428 
The correspondence between the theory and calculations of this paper for high 

temperatures and short times and, to some degree, the experiments on second 

sound in helium II and dielectric crystals at very low temperatures and longer 

times, is astonishing.208 

Tsai continued to work on shock dynamics even after retirement from NBS, gradually considering the effects of crystal imperfections such as vacancies, dislocations, and 

impurities. These, he found, led to structural relaxation under shock loading and to the 

generation of "hot spots" in the crystal. 

Advice for Inventors 

During a conference on The Public Need and the Role of the Inventor, held during 

June 11-14, 1973, at Monterey, California, Jacob Rabinow, the Bureau's dean of 

inventors, had sobering words for the day's image of the "wealthy" inventor: 

If that's your notion of the typical modern-day Edison, forget it. Nowadays, 

when an inventor is on the way to the bank, he's probably crying all the way 

because he has to borrow money to finance his latest quixotic gamble. 

NBS physical theorist Rosemary A. MacDonald held a model intended to show the 

distortions in a crystal that resulted from an incoming shock wave. 

208 D. D. Joseph and Luigi Preziosi, "Heat waves," Revs. Mod. Phys. 61, No. 1, 41-73 (1989). 

429 
Donald H. Tsai joined the Engines 

and Lubrication Section of the NBS 

Heat and Power Division in 1952. He was one of the first members of the 

Equation of State Section of the Heat 

Division when it was formed in 

1961; his principal research interest 

there was the dynamical response of 

crystals to shock waves. 

Rabinow was a reliable source.209 He had a lifetime of invention behind him, 

including such important devices as a magnetic automobile clutch, an automatic lettersorting system for the U.S. Post Office, and an optical character reader. 

The conference mentioned above was co-sponsored by NBS, the Department of 

Commerce, and the National Inventors Council (NIC). Rabinow and F. Essers edited 

the proceedings, which were published as an NBS Special Publication. 210 There were 

18 featured speakers, including Betsy Ancker-Johnson, Assistant Secretary of 

Commerce for Science and Technology; Richard W. Roberts, the new Director of 

NBS; Charles Stark Draper, Chairman of the NIC; Robert D. Tollison, senior 

economist on the President's Council of Economic Advisors; and Daniel V. 

Dc Simone, executive director of the Federal Council for Science and Technology, 

formerly head of the Bureau's Metric Study program. 

The outspoken Rabinow offered advice to inventors in several ways—often by individual counseling, as sometime director of the NBS Office of Innovation and Invention, and through his writing. Author of many 

articles on invention and the problems encountered by inventors, Rabinow late in his career wrote a book, 

Inventing For Fun and Profit, (San Francisco, California: San Francisco Press, 1989). 210 "The public need and the role of the inventor," NBS Special Publication 388, F. Essers and J. Rabinow. 

editors, 215 pp., May l974. 

430 
The "invention conference" was held to make more clear the climate in which 

America's inventors labored and to seek changes that might encourage invention for 

the benefit of the Nation. Topics included the patent system, technology trends, 

possible incentives for inventors, and the relationships among inventors, corporations, 

and academia. 

A few months earlier, Director Roberts attended a National Inventor's Day celebration staged by the. American Patent Law Association.21' Rabinow, chief research 

engineer in the Institute for Applied Technology, received recognition: 

For his many significant contributions as an inventor, for his unique ability to 

stimulate others to create and innovate, and for his continuing dedication to the 

highest principles of the patent system. 

By that time, Rabinow already held 200 American patents and about 70 foreign 

ones. Equipped with an M. S. degree in electrical engineering from the City College of 

New York in 1938, he tackled the invention process fearlessly. As a result of his 

efforts, he received numerous awards, including the Naval Ordnance Department 

Award (1945), a National Defense Research Committee certificate of commendation 

(1945), the Presidential Certificate of Merit (1948), the Department of Commerce 

Gold Medal (1949), a War Department certificate of appreciation (1949), Fellow of the 

IEEE (1956), the Franklin Institute Edward Longstreth Medal (1959), the 50th 

Anniversary medal of the City College of New York School of Engineering (1969), the 

Jefferson Medal of the New Jersey Patent Law Association (1973), the Harry Diamond 

Memorial Award (1977), Scientist of the Year award, Industrial Research and 

Development magazine (1980), Doctor of Humane Letters, Towson State University 

(1983), and the Lemelson Award of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1998). 

During the year of his death, 1999, Rabinow was honored by the Cosmos Club of 

Washington, DC, as Man of the Year. 

Progress in Computer Science 

Networking With Minicomputers and Microcomputers 

As the trend began of supplementing the use of mainframe computers with smaller 

computers, each dedicated to specific jobs, the question of networking—interconnecting—the so-called "mini" or "micro" computers became an area of interest for the 

Bureau's computer experts. 

Thomas N. Pyke, Jr., provided a discussion of the applications in which the smaller 

computers might be suitable, and the configurations which the interconnections could 

take. Pyke pointed out that, if the trend continued, as seemed likely, new standards 

written especially for those systems would become necessary.2t2 

211 "Rabinow Honored by Patent Law Association," NBS Standard, March 1973, p. I. 212 N. Pyke, Jr., "Networked minis and micros—configurations, applications, and standards," Proc. Symp. on Mini Micro Computers, U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis Maryland, April 15, 1975 pp. 44-46. 

431 
Jacob Rabinow, an electrical engineer, was a successful inventor. He worked at NBS 

from 1934 to 1953 and from 1972 until his retirement in 1989. He provided 

technical leadership to the Bureau in ordnance development and in the evaluation of 

inventions. He received many honors for the quality of his work. 

432 
First model of a letter-coding station for an automatic mail sorting machine built by 

Rabinow Engineering Company under contract to NBS. Letters, one at a time, were 

presented to the operator who read the addresses, abbreviated their important parts, and 

typed the abbreviations onto the backs of the envelopes by means of a special printer. 

The printing code was in a binary form, and appeared in the form of "dot" or "no dot" 

on the envelope. The operator was John McDonald. 

More About Networking 

Dennis W. Fife, chief of the Software Analysis Section of the Institute for Computer 

Science and Technology, addressed the issue of "networking" computers for typical 

user organizations. He noted that networking allowed sharing of resources and 

rapid communication among the network users. He identified five stages of 

433 
networking, ranging from the simplest—merely interconnecting the machines—to more 

advanced tôchniques involving several participating institutions. 

Fife also provided guidance for management in the form of an evolutionary framework against which institutional goals could be measured.213 

Ira W. Cotton addressed the same topic, but from the point of view of a study 

summarizing the practices of managers employing different types of computer 

networks. Several examples of successful networks were reviewed: the Advanced 

Research Projects Agency network; the MERIT network; the Triangle Universities 

Computation Center network; the Oregon State Regional network; and TYMNET, a commercial version.214 

Data Encryption 

Sending proprietary information via telephone lines or electromagnetic broadcast 

signals became a risky business as methods matured for intercepting such communications. One alternative to abandoning the techniques altogether involved data encryption. 

Dennis K. Branstad, commenting on the problem, noted that various levels of 

encryption were available. By employing user identification, access authorization, and 

access control machinery, the user could reduce considerably the likelihood of 

compromised data.2'5 

FORTRAN Test Programs 

One of the first computer programming languages was called FORTRAN. A draft 

American National Standard document, X.3.9-1966, described the language in 

standard form. In order to provide a mechanism by which a FORTRAN user could 

determine whether a particular compiler would accept the forms and interpretations 

specified in the standard, Frances E. Holberton and Elizabeth G. Parker prepared a test program which they described in a series of informative publications. 

The series was named the NBS FORTRAN Test Programs. They were made 

available in NBS Special Publication 399. Three volumes were published in October 

1974. Volume 1, Documentation for versions 1 and 3; Volume 2, Listings for 

version 1; and Volume 3, Listings for version 3. 

Nuclear Physics 

An indication of the range of the Bureau's program in nuclear physics, including 

theory, instrument development, measurements, and standards, is given in this section. 

213 D. W. Fife, "Network management for expanded resource sharing," Chapter 7 in Facts and Figures pp. 

55-61 (Princeton, NJ: The Interuniversity Communications Council, 1974). 214 W. Cotton, "Network management survey," Proc. Hawaii mt. Conf. on Systems Sciences, Univ. of 

Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii Jan. 8-10, 1974. 215 D. K. Branstad, "Encryption protection in computer data communications," Proc Fourth Data Communi- canons Quebec City, Canada, October 7-9, 1975 pp. 8-1 to 8-7. 

434 
Defining Ionizing Radiation 

As a first step in portraying the use of radiation for the sterilization of medical and 

biological materials for the International Atomic Energy Agency, William L. 

McLaughlin and N. W. HoIm composed a brief discussion of the physical characteristics of ionizing radiation.216 

In a few pages they reviewed the physics and chemistry involved in the interactions 

of ionizing radiation with matter. They noted the quantities used in monitoring 

energy deposition by radiation as well. The objective of the project was to show how 

radiation could be used to inactivate fungi, bacteria, and viruses without significant 

damage to the host material. 

Half-Lives of Radioactive Species 

A determination of the half-life for decay of 252Cf was recounted by Valentine 

Spiegel, Jr. He obtained the value (2.638 ± 0.007) years as the half-life for the rare 

isotope. The accuracy of the value derived from careful measurements over nearly five 

years, coupled with corrections for the contribution of activity from radium in the 

sample and for competing neutron-production from 250Cf atoms.2t7 

Radiation Exposure Standards 

New exposure-rate standards were set for 60Co and '37Cs by the Bureau as a result of 

measurements made using a new spherical type of ionization chamber. The measurement corrections involved with the new chambers were evaluated more accurately 

than had been the case with the cylindrical chambers used previously, according to 

Thomas P. Loftus and James T. Weaver, Jr.2t8 

Measurements were obtained using six replicas of the spherical chamber; agreement 

among the results was described as "excellent." The experiments led to reductions in 

the standards for safe exposure to radiation from the two nuclides. As of July 1974, 

the exposure standard for 6°Co was reduced by 0.7 % and that for '37Cs was reduced 

by 0.8 %. 

L. McLaughlin and N. W. Hoim, "Physical characteristics of ionizing radiation," chapter 1 in Manual on Radiation Sterilization of Medical and Biological Materials Technical Report No. 149, International 

Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria, 1973. 217 V. Spiegel, "The effective half-life of californium-252," NucI. Sci. Eng. Tech. Note 53, No. 3, 326 (1974). 21S T. P. Loftus and J. T. Weaver, "Standardization of and 37Cs gamma-ray beams in terms of 

exposure," J. Res. NBS 78A, No. 4, pp. 465-476 (1974). 

435 
Sum Rules for Photon-Proton Scattering 

A new sum rule relating to elastic photon scattering was derived by Leonard C. 

Maximon and James S. O'Connell. The rule described forward Compton scattering 

between photons and protons. The two scientists obtained the new rule by deriving the 

relations between integrals over forward elastic-photon scattering amplitudes, forward 

elastic cross-sections, and total cross-sections, using the applicable dispersion 

relations.219 

Radionuclide Metrology 

A new international summer school on radionuclide metrology provided several 

Bureau scientists with opportunities to lecture on their specialties in 1972. The school 

was held in Yugoslavia during late August 1972. Among the talks were the following:220 

The work of J. M. Robin Hutchinson, Wilfrid B. Mann, and Patricia A. Mullen on sum coincidence counting at NBS was described. The use of two thallium-activated 

sodium iodide crystal detectors resulted in order-of-magnitude improvement in the 

accuracy of the sum-peak technique of coincidence counting. The method became 

comparable in accuracy to the conventional beta-gamma and gamma-gamma 

coincidence counting methods. The new technique was applied to 26A1, 

and 207Bi. 

A review of low-level radioactivity measurements was offered by Hutchinson, Mann, 

and R. W. Perkins. They described the sensitivities of a variety of detectors used 

for alpha, beta, and gamma rays. They also presented examples of low-level 

measurements—a standard reference material incorporating bovine liver, and radioactive contaminants in industrial samples of aluminum, copper and steel. 

The development by Samuel B. Garfinkel, Mann, and John L. Pararas of automatic 

sample changers for the NBS 4ir beta-gamma coincidence counter and the gamma-ray 

intercomparator was discussed. The new devices permitted the automatic measurement 

of as many as 30 sources for up to ten counting periods each. Good control of 

source-detector distances was an additional advantage of the instruments. 

Wilfrid Mann presented a review of NBS work on radioactive calorimetry, with 

particular emphasis on the standardization of 63Ni. Mann discussed the results of 

intercomparisons involving two Canadian laboratories, the National Research Council 

and Atomic Energy of Canada Limited. 

2t9 L. C. Maximon and J. S. O'Connell, "Sum rules for forward elastic photon scattering," Phys. Lett. 48B, 

No. 5, 399-402 (1974). 220 PrOC First Intl. Summer School on Radionuclide Merrology, 1-lerceg Novi, Yugoslavia, August 21-September 1, 1972, printed in Nuci. Instrum. Methods 112, Nos. I and 2 (1973). 

436 
A survey was presented by Lucy M. Cavallo, Bert M. Coursey, Garfinkel, 

Hutchinson, and Mann on the growing need for higher skills and improved facilities 

in radioactive-assay work. They noted that the value of commercial use of 

radio-isotopes had already reached $80 million annually. In the face of such a demand, 

the Bureau had to develop new strategies to satisfy it; these were discussed, with 

special emphasis on the use of radiopharmaceuticals and environmental measurements. 

Welcome to CAMAC 

CAMAC, a modular instrumentation system used to transmit digital data between 

instruments, between instruments and computers and between instruments and 

computer peripherals, was described in a series of publications by Louis Costrell. The 

CAMAC system was developed by a committee of European laboratories. Its use was 

endorsed by the Nuclear Instrument Module Committee of the U.S. Atomic Energy 

Commission.22' 

Costrell, at that time chief of the Radiation Physics Instrumentation Section, was a much-decorated veteran of nearly 30 years of service to NBS. In 1967, he was 

awarded a Department of Commerce Gold Medal for his work in nuclear instrumentation. In recognition of his contributions to many developments, including the 

CAMAC project, he was presented with the Harry Diamond Award in March, 1975. 

The citation recognized a career "that exemplified the highest type of scientific 

effort in Government service." 

Electronic Technology 

Semiconductor Measurement Technology 

NBS Special Publication 400 provided an extensive reference literature in electronic 

technology of that time. Fourteen publications were offered in 1974 and 1975 in the 

series. 

• Volumes 1, 4, 8, 12, and 17 were edited by W. Murray Bullis. They described 

NBS methods of measurement for semiconductor materials, process control, and 

device development during the third quarter of 1973 (Volume 1, issued March 

1974, 68 pp.), the first quarter of 1974 (Volume 2, issued November 1974, 101 

pp.), the second quarter of 1974 (Volume 8, issued February 1975, 70 pp.), the 

third quarter of 1974 (Volume 12, issued May 1975, 59 pp.), and the fourth 

quarter of 1974 (Volume 17, issued November 1975, 79 pp.). Accomplishments 

included measurement of current and capacitance on metal-oxide-semiconductor 

(MOS) capacitors, evaluation of transistor die attachments, analysis of interlaboratory comparisons of electron scattering in transistors, and a variety of other 

activities. 

221 L. Costrell, "CAMAC instrumentation system—introduction and general description," IEEE Trans. Nuci. 

Sci. NS-20, No. 2, 3-8 (1973). 

437 
• Volume 2, edited by George G. Harman, was 109 pages long. It was issued in 

January 1974. Entitled Microelectronic ultrasonic bonding, it contained excerpts 

of work in that area over the previous 4 years, arranged so as to provide a useful and coherent reference to NBS efforts in ultrasonic bonding. Specific 

topics included measurement equipment; setup and reliability of bonding 

machinery; bonding examples; and bond properties. 

• Volumes 3 and 9, edited by Harry A. Schafft, summarized presentations at two 

workshops co-sponsored by NBS and the Advanced Research Projects Agency. 

The first workshop was entitled Measurement problems in integrated circuit 

processing and assembly; the second, Hermicity testing for integrated circuits. 

• Volume 5, edited by George J. Rogers, David E. Sawyer, and R. L. Jesch, was entitled Measurement of transistor scattering parameters. It contained 53 pages 

and was issued in January 1975. In it, the authors discussed the results of an interlaboratory comparison of electron-scattering parameters for three types of 

transistors. The results indicated a need for more careful control of measurement 

methods if the participating laboratory personnel wished to obtain data with 

minimum variation from measurement to measurement. 

• Volume 6, edited by Martin G. Buehler, contained an overview of microelectronic test patterns. It contained 24 pages and was issued in August 1974. The 

test patterns considered were designed to evaluate fabrication processes, allowing 

the operator to determine, for example, whether a given process was under 

control and produced reliable microcircuits. 

• Volume 10 contained a report of a symposium on spreading-resistance measurements, held at NBS Gaithersburg during June 1974. The editor was James 

R. Ehrstein. The text of 293 pages included both contributed papers and the 

transcripts of discussions. 

• Volume 11, edited by Richard L. Mattis and Martin G. Buehler, described a computer program for calculating dopant density profiles from capacitancevoltage data. The program was written in the BASIC language. 

• Volume 13, edited by Alvin H. Sher, was entitled Improved infrared response 

technique for detecting defects and impurities in germanium and silicon p-i-n 

diodes. Sher enumerated the many advantages of the method and warned of its 

few limitations. 

• Volume 20, edited by John M. Jerke, was titled Optical and dimensionalmeasurement problems with photomasking in microelectronics. Jerke described 

the purpose of photomasks and the processes by which they were utilized in 

integrated circuit production, as well as the problems in their use. The series furnished a comprehensive, up-to-date set of references on semiconductor 

measurement methods. 

438 
Electronic Devices in the U.S.S.R. 

Charles P. Marsden collected data on active devices, ranging from receivers to 

microwave devices, semiconductors, phototubes, and thermistors, in the Soviet Union. 

The information was obtained from a variety of published sources.222 

Resistivity Of Silicon 

Round-robin measurements suggested by the Resistivity Task Force of the American 

Society for Testing and Materials Committee F-I indicated that an improved standard 

procedure for measurement of circular silicon slices with four in-line probes could be 

accomplished with a resulting imprecision near 2 %. 

The experimental procedures followed in the study were detailed by W. Murray 

Bullis. Non-uniformity of wafer resistivity appeared to limit the precision of most 

measurements, but corrections for temperature, wafer thickness and diameter, and 

improper probe position also were noted as important variables.223 

In another study, Bullis and W. Robert Thurber reviewed the status of resistivity 

and carrier-lifetime studies in gold-doped silicon, particularly dwelling on remaining 

inconsistencies in experimental results on three topics: an apparent discrepancy 

between total and electrically active gold; a discrepancy—observed in specimens with 

large gold concentrations—between calculated and measured resistivity in both 

n-type and p-type materials; and the unexpected diversity in data on capture cross 

sections. 224 Thermal Impedance of Power Transistors 

Discrepancies appearing in measurements of the thermal impedance of power 

transistors using two different methods were discussed by David L. Blackburn and 

Frank F. Oettinger. It seemed that the pulsed-heating-curve method gave values 

different from those obtained with the cooling-curve technique. The two scientists 

discovered that the discrepancies arose because the power density distributions changed as the devices were heated, leading to different results depending upon the direction 

of heat flow. They provided an analytical method for obtaining reproducible values.225 

222 C. P. Marsden, "Tabulation of published data on electron devices of the U.S.S.R. through December 

1973," NBS Technical Note 835, 130 pp., November 1974. 223 W. M. Bullis, "Standard measurements of the resistivity of silicon by the four-probe method," NB SIR 

74-496, 75 pp., August 1974. 

224w R. Thurber and W. M. Bullis, "Resistivity and carrier lifetime in gold-doped silicon," Air Force 

Cambridge Research Laboratories Report AFCRL-72-0076, 37 pp., January 1972. 225 D. L. Blackburn and F. F. Oettinger, "Transient thermal response measurements of power transistors," 

Proc. IEEE Power electronics Specialists Conf, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ, June 10-12, 

1974, pp. 140-148. 

439 
CHAPTER FOUR 

A DURABLE DIRECTOR (July 1975-March 1989) 

The NBS Standard, official employee bulletin of the Bureau, printed on July 16, 

1975, the letter of resignation written to President Gerald Ford at the end of June by 

Director Roberts.' On the same page was printed Ford's letter of acceptance and a message from Roberts to the staff explaining his reason for leaving NBS. 

The front page of that issue was given to an account of the designation of Ernest 

Ambler to the post of Acting Director of NBS: 

On June 30, 1975, Betsy Ancker-Johnson, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for 

Science and Technology, designated Ernest Ambler Acting Director of the 

National Bureau of Standards. Ambler fills the vacancy left by Richard W. 

Roberts, who has joined the Energy Research and Development Administration as Assistant Administrator for Nuclear Energy. 

The account continued with the news that Robert S. Walleigh, former NBS Associate Director Emeritus, would serve as Acting Deputy Director. After Walleigh, the 

succession in case of Ambler's absence was given as John D. Hoffman, Director of the 

Institute for Materials Research; Ruth M. Davis, Director of the Institute for Computer 

Science and Technology; F. Karl Willenbrock, Director of the Institute for Applied 

Technology; and Arthur 0. McCoubrey, Director, Institute for Basic Standards. 

Ambler was reluctant to accept the directorship of the Bureau, but he proved to be one of its most durable directors. Nothing shows this durability more than the 

surprising fact that Ambler served as the leader of NBS under four U.S. presidents: he 

was named Acting Director in 1975 by Gerald Ford; he was nominated and installed as director in 1978 by Jimmy Carter; he served through the two terms of Ronald 

Reagan's presidency; and his retirement notice was received in 1989 by George Bush. 

For nearly 14 years, Ambler provided the continuity of leadership that had been 

lacking at NBS under his two predecessors. 

In view of his background as a renowned physicist, Ambler might well have resisted 

the trend towards applied technical work that had begun for NBS during the tenure of 

Lewis Branscomb. But in fact Ambler embraced the trend even as it threatened the 

agency's traditional roles in physical and chemical standards and fundamental scientific 

research. Clearly, he endorsed the notion that change was as important for the future of 

the Bureau as it was for the future of American industry. 

In the record of Ambler's lengthy tenure, we note the growth in NBS programs intended 

to improve the lot of American industry. By the end of his tour as director, substantial 

modification of the Bureau's charter was not at all surprising. 

'NBS Standard, Vol. 20, No. 15, July 16, 1975, p. 2. 441 
A PRESIDENCY IN TRANSITION 

If the departure of Richard Roberts was barely noticed by the Executive Branch of 

the United States Government, it was because the President and his staff had a lot on 

their minds. 

Along with the Presidency, Gerald Ford had inherited "stagflation" in August of 

1974. Stagflation was the name given to an economically unhealthy combination of 

rising inflation and falling consumer demand for goods. Other problems—a difficult, 

ignoble disengagement from Vietnam; a substantial and growing foreign-trade deficit; a falling stock market; and increasing unemployment—added to his woes. He was "the 

man who pardoned Nixon," the nominal head of a political party that could not gain 

control of Congress and might lose the White House as well in the 1976 elections. 

At the time he received the resignation of NBS Director Richard Roberts, Ford had 

just completed a difficult quarter-year. April 1975 had seen the evacuation of all 

Americans and many South Vietnamese from Saigon while the capital was under 

fire from North Vietnamese troops. On May 12, the S. S. Mayaguez, an American 

merchant ship, had been seized off the Coast of Cambodia and its crew kidnapped by 

Cambodian forces. In an angry but controversial reaction, Ford had ordered the 

Marines to retake the ship and free the crew. The recovery was completed successfully, 

but with the sobering loss of nearly 40 U.S. fighting men. At home, Ford had to face a request from New York City for $1 billion to stave off bankruptcy; Ford refused, 

demanding that the city first reform its spendthrift policies before expecting U.S. help. 

As if all these problems were not enough, Ford found that he had to veto many 

Congressional spending bills that were pushing the national debt to unprecedented 

heights. Only a sturdy self-confidence and the discipline born of years of dealing with 

today's problems—never mind yesterday's or tomorrow's—enabled the embattled 

President to maintain a steady grip on the office left him by the first Presidential 

resignation in U.S. history. 

Ford had promised his wife after the 1972 elections that the 1974 Congressional 

campaign would be his last. Still young enough to practice law privately and earn the 

"big money" which had not been his lot as a Congressman,2 yet a veteran politician 

with no real hope of realizing his personal ambition to become Speaker of the House, 

Ford had been prepared to leave government service. Completing Agnew's term as Vice President, he had opined, "would be a nice cap to my career."3 But now he was 

President of the United States, a whole new ballgame for the former Michigan 

linebacker. 

Within 10 days after his inauguration as the 38th President of the United States, 

Ford had nominated Nelson A. Rockefeller to be Vice President. This action was 

dictated by the 25th Amendment, just as his own nomination by Nixon had been 

ordained by the necessity to maintain the Constitutional line of succession to the 

2 In 1968, Congressional pay was $30,000 per year—an amount easily spent by a family of six. 

James Cannon, Time and Chance: Gerald Ford's Appointment With History (New York: Harper Collins, 

Publishers, 1994) p. 206. 

442 
Presidency. Rockefeller, the second non-elected Vice President of the United States, was subjected to the same detailed scrutiny of his patriotism and integrity that Ford 

himself had endured. Found satisfactorily blameless, Rockefeller was easily confirmed 

by both houses of Congress and sworn to the office on December 19, 1974. 

Somewhat to his own surprise, Ford found that he liked being President. He shared 

with Harry Truman more than the fact that each had suddenly been thrust into the Oval 

Office; like Truman, he faced each day's multitude of crises with vigor. He was used 

to hard work, he knew the Congress well from long years as a powerful insider, and he was on good terms with nearly all of his colleagues. Although Ford was a friendly 

man by nature, he could say "No" to friend and foe alike without second thoughts 

where he saw the country's welfare at stake; he vetoed 66 bills—mostly spending bills 

that he regarded as profligate—during his truncated tenure (fewer than 900 days) as President. " Despite his early statements that he would not seek further public office after 

serving out the balance of Agnew's term as Vice President, Ford decided to run for the 

presidency in 1976. 

A possible tipoff to the date of Ford's decision can be found in his appointment of 

Rogers C. B. Morton as Secretary of Commerce. Ford left in place Nixon's Secretary 

of Commerce, Frederick B. Dent, until February, 1975; then Ford asked Dent to serve as chief U.S. trade negotiator. After Dent's departure from Commerce, Ford 

nominated Morton on March 27, 1975. It was supposed that Morton would be heavily 

involved in any race for the presidency, and indeed that proved to be the case. Much of the day-to-day interaction between the Director of the Bureau and the 

Department of Commerce during this period involved the office of Assistant Secretary 

of Commerce for Science and Technology. Betsy Ancker-Johnson, appointed by 

President Nixon, held that post from 1973 until the end of Ford's term as President in 

1977. 

Late in 1975, the post of Under Secretary of Commerce, with supervision over 

technical matters, was created in the department. Its first incumbent was James 

A. Baker, III, a Texas lawyer. He became the immediate supervisor of Betsy AnckerJohnson. After only a few months as Under Secretary, however, he moved on to work on Ford's re-election campaign. 

In January 1976, President Ford asked Rogers Morton to leave his post as Secretary 

of Commerce to take a position as White House counselor on economic and domestic 

policy, as well as "incidental duties of liaison with the President's re-election committee and the Republican National Committee."5 To replace Morton and Baker, Ford 

nominated Elliot Richardson and Edward 0. Vetter. Richardson was an unusually 

capable leader who had previously served as Secretary of Health, Education, and 

Welfare; Secretary of Defense; Attorney General; and, most recently, Ambassador to 

Britain. Vetter, a graduate of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was a veteran 

Ibid., p. 404. "1 know of no friend I lost in Congress because I told them they were wrong," he said. "The 

truth is that usually after a veto, Congress came back with more realistic legislation that I could sign." 

Only 12 of his vetoes were overturned. 

James M. Naughton, New York Times, January 14, 1976, p. 16. 443 
of a decade of work in oil engineering and two decades as an executive in the Texas 

Instruments Company. Ancker-Johnson, as noted, remained at her post until replaced 

by President Carter. 

Fallout from the Watergate disaster continued throughout the presidency of Gerald 

Ford. Controversy over his quick pardon of Richard Nixon, with its consequent 

frustration of the investigative and prosecutorial work of the Select Senate Committee, 

dogged the President. To counter the unfavorable publicity, Ford ordered investigations 

of the Central Intelligence Agency and the Federal Bureau of Investigation in order to 

restore their public images, which had been tarnished by his predecessor. He cut taxes 

by some $16 billion and reduced Federal spending in a determined effort to decrease 

the unusually high (more than 9 %) level of unemployment that he confronted in 1975. 

But nothing Ford was able to do could erase the image of government gone bad. 

Although Ford entrusted Vice President Rockefeller with important domestic 

responsibilities, including leadership of his Domestic Council and of the Presidential 

Commission on the CIA, Rockefeller decided in November, 1975, that he would leave 

the political scene at the end of Ford's term in 1977. 

Ford's bid for re-election in 1976 was vigorously contested by Ronald Reagan, 

former Governor of California. Ford won the Republican nomination, but he and his 

running mate, Senator Robert Dole of Kansas, were narrowly defeated by the slate of 

Jimmy Carter, former Governor of Georgia, and Walter Mondale, former Senator from 

Minnesota. After Ford relinquished the presidency to Carter, he made good on his 

promise to his wife; they retired to private life in California, to be seen thereafter only 

rarely in the news. 

JAMES EARL CARTER, JR. 

"Jimmy" Carter came to Washington as an outsider. In the 1976 elections, the 

Republican leadership expected serious trouble because the American public was deeply offended by the spectacle of Watergate and the distressing view it offered of a lawless and mendacious President. 

Carter identified himself as independent of the machinations of Washington and he 

promised honesty in government. He delivered on both claims, but only at the expense 

of an often-discouraging unfamiliarity with the reins of Federal management that 

helped make him a one-term President. 

Carter graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1946. He finished in 

the top 10 % of his class, and was rewarded with a choice assignment in Admiral 

Rickover's nuclear navy. He was appointed an officer on the submarine Sea Wolf and 

served in that capacity for several years. Eventually he decided not to make a career 

of service in the Navy. He resigned his commission in 1953 to return to farming in 

Georgia. 

After a successful decade as a farmer, Carter took an interest in politics. He sought 

and won two terms as a Georgia State Senator in 1962 and 1964, and he won the 

Georgia governorship in 1970. As Governor, Carter undertook a vigorous reformation 

of the Georgia government: he issued a public call for an end to racial discrimination 

444 
in the state; and he reorganized the government, calling for zero-based budgeting and 

so-called "sunshine" legislation. Zero-base budgeting, in Carter's view, was the answer 

to outmoded government bodies and commissions. Under this principle, each agency 

would be required to begin each year with a defense of its entire budget, in effect 

annually justifying its own existence. The National Bureau of Standards management was to find this process burdensome when Carter attained the office of President. 

"Sunshine" laws were similarly simple in concept; with few exceptions—such as discussions of personnel—all agency meetings were to be announced in advance and 

open to the public. Logical enough to the public that it lives on throughout government 

today, the idea was radical and unwelcome to many a bureaucrat. 

Having succeeded in his forays into state government, Carter set his sights on the 

national scene. He recognized the antipathy of the American people to the wretched 

record of the Nixon administration, so he undertook a campaign for President in 1976 

that promised, as an "outsider," to return honesty and good government to Washington. 

A quiet, sincere, yet forceful speaker, Carter entered some 30 state primary elections 

and accumulated sufficient electoral backing to win the Democratic nomination on the first ballot. He defeated such Democratic competitors—all "insiders"—as Senator 

Henry M. Jackson, former Director of the Peace Corps Sargent Shriver, and 

Representative Morris Udall. With Senator Walter F. Mondale helping cement support 

in the mid-West and East, and buttressed by his own popularity in the South, Carter 

narrowly defeated Ford in the 1976 presidential race. Carter immediately emphasized his desire to break with the past by walking, rather 

than riding in a limousine as was customary, from the U.S. Capitol to the White House 

during his inaugural proceedings. He also quickly sold the presidential yacht. 

Juanita M. Kreps, a Professor of Economics, was selected by Carter as his Secretary 

of Commerce. She was the first woman to occupy that post. She was confirmed by 

the Senate on January 20, 1977, and sworn in on January 23rd. Sidney Harman was named Under Secretary, and Jordan J. Baruch—like Vetter, an MIT graduate— was appointed Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology. 

As president, Jimmy Carter continued to practice the economy and openness in 

government that had served him well in Georgia. He promised to place a ceiling on the 

number of Federal workers, and he proposed a comprehensive reform of the Civil 

Service system. He met the crisis in energy with a plan he called "the moral equivalent 

of war." He established a Department of Energy in October of 1977 and obtained a large increase in funding for energy research. In 1979, he separated the Department of 

Health, Education, and Welfare into two—a Department of Education and a Department of Health and Human Services. 

In mid-1979, Carter replaced Under Secretary Harman with Luther H. Hodges, Jr., a professor of business at Duke University. A year later, Kreps left her post, to be 

succeeded by Philip M. Klutznick. At the same time, the title of Baruch's position was changed to reflect a new emphasis on industrial competitiveness: Baruch became the 

Assistant Secretary for Productivity, Technology, and Innovation. 

445 
Carter's efforts as President often seemed tinged with naiveté. His attempts to 

improve respect for human rights—especially in the Soviet Union—were seen by the 

Soviets as interference by a nation that still had plenty of human rights violations of its 

own. His efforts to heal the economic ravages brought by inflation and imported 

oil left the country in 1980 with worse inflation—from 4.8 % in 1976 to 12 % in 

1980—and high unemployment—at 7.7 %, only a slight improvement over the Ford 

presidency. 

When Iranian "students" entered the U.S. embassy in Teheran and took some 63 

U.S. citizens as hostages in November 1979, Carter's effectiveness as a national leader 

was questioned. For more than a year the United States was unab'e, by force or by 

diplomacy, to liberate the hostages. 

During a speech carried on national television, Carter graded his administration 

harshly; C+ to B on foreign policy, C on domestic policy, A on energy, C on the 

economy, and B on leadership.6 Little wonder that the ticket of Carter and Mondale 

received only 42 % of the popular vote in the 1980 presidential race against Ronald 

Reagan and George Bush.7 

RONALD WILSON REAGAN 

Without doubt, Ronald Reagan was a man of his times. Sportscaster, movie star, 

television-show host, video-advertising icon, Governor of California—Reagan 

embodied the full gamut of the era of communications. He also covered the political 

spectrum, changing his philosophy from liberal Democrat to conservative Republican 

as he shed his acting career for a new life in government. 

Reagan was as self-assured as Jimmy Carter had been self-questioning. Trained from 

his youth in mass communication, he projected confidence even when discussing 

issues that were much in doubt. Joining with George H. W. Bush to campaign for a conservative America, Reagan easily defeated incumbent President Jimmy Carter and 

his running mate, Vice President Walter F. Mondale. 

Nearly 70 years of age when he took office, Reagan's stamina and outlook were the 

envy of men decades younger. He rejoiced in the opportunities that the presidency 

offered—glittering parties, banquets with heads of state, speeches on the greatness of 

America and the evils of Communism, thoughtful discussions with captains of industry, 

horseback-riding vacations at Camp David and at his beloved ranch in California, 

political debates with Democrats. No one, seemingly, could find a fault in Reagan— 

especially Democrats, who always seemed tongue-tied by comparison with the 

"Great Communicator." 

In fact, from all points of view save one—that of fiscal responsibility—Reagan's 

two terms as President were successful. 

6 James M. Burns, The Crosswinds of Freedo,n, (New York: Vintage Books, 1990) p. 530. 

Hedrick Smith, The Power Ga,ne: How Washington Works (New York: Random House, 1988), p. 674. 

446 
Reagan's presidency suffered a rocky start. Only 3 months into his presidency, 

Reagan was shot by John W. Hinckley, Jr., not a political assassin but a dangerous 

psychopath. Reagan proved to have been very lucky to have survived the attack 

(Hinckley's bullet lodged very near his heart, and he lost nearly half his blood before 

emergency physicians could stop the flow). His doctors reported amazement at 

Reagan's strong physical condition and the speed of his recovery from the attack. 

Reagan's second year as president, 1982, was marred by a recession which slowed 

his progress in implementing his campaign promise of a strongly conservative, strongly 

nationalistic government. 

Reagan's presidential policy was made to order for counteracting an economic 

slump. Confront the "evil empire" at every opportunity, increase defense spending, 

decrease non-defense spending, reduce taxes—these were the simple tenets by which 

the Reagan administration prospered. America's defense industry quickly led the way 

to economic well-being. 

On December 11, 1980, Reagan named Malcolm Baidrige, Jr., as his choice for 

Secretary of Commerce. Six other Department heads were revealed on that day. 

Baldrige, 58, was a successful businessman, most recently as Chairman of the Board 

of Scoville Manufacturing Company of Waterbury, Connecticut. Long active in 

Connecticut and national politics, Baldrige had the distinction among Reagan's 

nominees of being the only member of the Rodeo Cowboys Association. 

Reagan abandoned the posts of Under Secretary for Science and Assistant Secretary 

for Science and Technology. NBS Director Ernest Ambler thus found himself more closely involved with the office of the Secretary of Commerce, a situation that pleased 

Ambler.8 

In the 1984 presidential campaign, the Reagan-Bush team defeated the challenge 

presented by Walter Mondale and his running mate, Geraldine Ferraro, with only 

modest effort. Questions regarding his advanced age, as always, were dismissed by 

Reagan with a jaunty smile and a ready quip.9 

Secretary of Commerce Baidrige remained at his post until his untimely death on July 25, 1987, while riding in a rodeo. He was succeeded in August 1987 by Acting 

Secretary Clarence J. Brown. In turn, Brown was replaced in October 1987 by 

C. William Verity, Jr., retired chairman of Armco Steel Company. 

Reagan demonstrated his self-confidence and his devotion to conservative government early in his presidency. During his first year in office, 1981, he ordered a freeze 

on the hiring of Federal employees and fired the nation's air-traffic controllers when 

they struck for better working conditions. 

With Vice President Bush as point man and a Republican majority in the Senate, 

Reagan pushed a tax-reduction program to reduce the maximum Federal income tax 

rate from 70 % to 50 % and the maximum capital-gains rate from 28 % to 20 %. 

8 Ernest Ambler, Oral History, September 22, 1988. 

During a televised presidential debate, Reagan pre-empted the age question. He stated that he knew that age was considered a factor in the election but, although he was well aware that Mr. Mondale was "young and 

inexperienced" by comparison to himself, he promised that he would not dwell on that fact during the 

campaign. 

447 
These tax cuts were to be funded at the expense of social programs, but not defense 

expenditures; among the first cuts was the synthetic fuels program. America would 

increasingly be strong in the face of Communism, and Americans at the top of the 

economic heap would be happy. 

A Strategic Defense Initiative—called "Star Wars" by skeptical critics—was begun 

in 1983. The SDI program was intended to prevent attack on the United States 

mainland by mid- or long-range missiles. It was to feature defensive weapons that 

incorporated the latest in technology, including high-powered lasers. All government 

agencies, including the National Bureau of Standards, worked feverishly to configure 

technical projects as helping to create, to detect, or to shoot down space-based 

weapons. 

In the same year, the United States invaded the tiny island of Grenada in response to a request by the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States. It took only a few days for 

U.S. Marines and Rangers, aided by troops from six Caribbean nations, to eliminate 

the Marxist threat from that source. 

President Reagan generally showed little interest in the mechanics of Executive 

Branch agencies, many of which he regarded as unnecessary. An exception occurred 

in 1987 when he paid a surprise visit to a federal meeting on high-temperature superconductors and proposed a new project (see A Presidential Initiative later in this chapter). 

The U.S. economy, buoyed by what was essentially a war effort against Communism, 

boomed as it always has during a war. The principle involved in war-economy boom 

times is simple, though slightly flawed: American industry is heavily employed in the 

manufacture of goods that are bought by the American government and disposed of in 

the process of conducting foreign policy; wages are reliable, employment stays low, 

and the standard of living is good. 

The flaws in Reagan's policies, skyrocketing national debt and trade deficits—the 

budget deficit alone reached $180 billion during 1984—were unfortunate but virtually 

unavoidable companions to the defense-based economic boom. 

Let this important truth be stated clearly, however: not only did Reagan's militaristic foreign policy send the U.S. government deeply into debt, but it also sent the 

"evil empire" into bankruptcy. The Soviet Union, out-spent and eventually kopeck-less, was forced to call off the Cold War. The Union itself was dissolved by vote of its 

people and, on November 9, 1989, the Berlin Wall began to be dismantled. This was 

Reagan's greatest legacy, in the view of many historians. 

By 1988, Reagan was 77 years old but still vigorous. Had he not been limited to 

two terms by law, he might have run again. However, under the circumstances he 

'happily supported his Vice President's campaign to succeed him. George Bush chose 

Senator Danforth Quayle of Indiana as his running mate. The two easily defeated 

Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis and Texas Senator Lloyd Bentsen, although 

the Democratic Party retained control of both houses of Congress. 

° Mark S. Hoffman, editor, The World Almanac and Book of Facts, (New York: Pharos Books, 1988) p. 454. 

448 
ERNEST AMBLER, TEMPORARILY AN ACTING DIRECTOR 

Ernest Ambler became the first naturalized citizen to head NBS. Born in Bradford, 

Yorkshire, England in 1923, he was educated at Oxford University, receiving the 

D. Phil. degree in 1953. Immediately upon graduation, he was recruited by NBS to 

assist in physics research at extremely low temperatures, using the method of adiabatic 

demagnetization of paramagnetic samples. Ambler became a U.S. citizen in 1958. 

The ability of NBS to undertake experiments at temperatures below one kelvin 

eventually won world-wide recognition for Ambler and for his Bureau colleagues; their 

work proved vital to the success of an experiment demonstrating the failure of the 

physical principle of conservation of parity in weak interactions. The "parity 

experiment," suggested by physicists Tsung-dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang of Columbia 

University, won for them the 1957 Nobel Prize in physics. 

Ralph P. Hudson shared with Ambler the responsibility for the cryogenic aspects of 

the parity experiment. Hudson, instrumental in bringing Ambler to NBS," was Chief 

of the Cryogenic Physics Section of the Heat and Power Division when the parity 

experiment got under way. Raymond W. Hayward and Dale D. Hoppes, both members 

of the Radioactivity Section of the Atomic and Radiation Physics Division, were 

responsible for the radiation physics portion of the experiment. 

In 1961, Director Allen Astin appointed Hudson Chief of the Heat Division and 

Ambler Chief of the division's Cryogenic Physics Section. In 1965, Ambler became 

Chief of the Inorganic Materials Division. In 1968, Astin made Ambler Director of the 

Institute for Basic Standards. When Lawrence Kushner left NBS in May 1973 for 

the post of Commissioner of the Consumer Products Safety Commission, Director 

Richard Roberts appointed Ambler Deputy Director of NBS. 

By nature, Ambler was inclined to speak plainly, not always a recipe for successful 

management. He later recalled his years as a working scientist as among his happiest 

and most exciting times, but noted that, as his management responsibilities continued 

to grow, he came to enjoy as well his administrative role.'2 

Even as he was named Acting Director of NBS following the abrupt resignation 

of Richard Roberts in June 1975, Ambler questioned his own suitability to deal 

successfully with the Congress. Asked if he would be interested in the position of 

Director on a permanent basis, his surprising answer was, "No." His logic was simply 

put in a later memoir: 

The prospects facing any new Director were not very attractive, especially with 

the justification of Federal budgets getting ever more difficult. Besides, one had 

the feeling that the scientific and technical community thought that if a real 

"Ernest Ambler, Oral History, July 7, 1988. 

2 Ernest Ambler, Oral History, July 27, 1988. See also Ernest Ambler, "Historical Perspective: 1973-1989," 

in NBS/NIST, a Historical Perspective: A Symposium in Celebration of N/ST's Ninetieth Anniversary, March 

4, 1991, Karma A. Beal, Editor, NIST Special Publication 825, April 1992, p. 38. 

Ibid., p. 32. 

449 
Ernest Ambler was the eighth director 

of NBS. Only Samuel Stratton and 

Allen Astin exceeded his tenure as head of the agency. 

"mover and shaker" were appointed, the forces arrayed against agencies like the 

Bureau could be overcome. Well, I was not convinced that the "great man" 

theory was correct, and in any case I knew I was not such a person. 

Despite his personal ambivalence towards the job, Ambler agreed in 1975 to serve as the acting Director of NBS, a post he held from July 1975 to February 1978. 

A New Administrative Structure for NBS 

During an ad hoc meeting with NBS managers on September 12, 1977, Ernest 

Ambler proposed the first major reorganization of NBS since 1964, and only the 

second top-to-bottom change in agency history. In creating the "institute" structure in 

1964, Allen Astin recognized the difficulty of managing many division chiefs—their 

number having grown substantially by the creation of various "applied" units. Ambler 

stated that his principal motivation was to focus the engineering units of the Bureau on the traditional engineering disciplines and to help them meet the demands of modern 

technology.'4 But Ambler's proposal was not limited to the NBS engineering units— 

virtually every employee was affected by the change. 

'' Ambler, SP 825, p. 34. 

450 
On its face, it seems remarkable that an Acting Director—one who was uncertain 

whether he wanted the job on a permanent basis—would propose to remake his 

agency. Such a sweeping reorganization might be expected from a director with con- siderable experience in the position. It is instructive to probe a bit to seek an explanation for Ambler's move. A Director-In-Waiting 

An important first step in understanding Ambler's 1977 proposal for reorganization 

is to notice a substantial change in his own status during 1976. 

When Elliot Richardson became Secretary of Commerce on February 2, 1976, he 

took an immediate interest in the leadership of NBS. Ernest Ambler later recalled a visit from Richardson at the Bureau on March 1, 1976, only a month after Richardson 

had been confirmed as Secretary. 

As mentioned earlier, Ambler had hesitated to seek permanent status as Director 

because of the increasing budget difficulties facing NBS, feeling that only a "hero" 

could bring home sufficient funding to properly support the Bureau. He stated his 

concerns to Richardson. Richardson urged Ambler to reconsider, pointing out that 

integrity and a high level of understanding of NBS were of paramount importance to 

success as head of a technical agency. 

Ambler found Richardson's argument convincing, and he agreed to accept permanent status as director.15 President Ford submitted the nomination of Ambler for 

director of the Bureau in June of 1976. 

Once the nomination process had begun, Ernest Ambler no longer was a temporary 

leader of NBS with only temporary thoughts about its management. By 1977, Ambler was an appointee, awaiting formal proceedings that most likely would make him 

permanent director of the Bureau. 

As it happened, nearly two years—until February 3, 1978— passed before Ambler's 

appointment was completed. The delay implied no lack of confidence by the President 

or the Congress in Ambler's ability to perform as director, but only a coincidental 

hiatus occasioned by the national election of 1976. 

Upon receiving Ford's nomination of Ambler, the leadership of the responsible 

Senate committee initially scheduled hearings for July, 1976. The unavoidable activity 

accompanying an election year, however, pushed the hearings into the background. 

The election of Jimmy Carter, very much an outsider in Washington, resulted in yet 

further delay as the new president struggled to grasp the reins of government. On 

November 10, 1977, Carter announced his intention to nominate Ambler to the post of 

NBS director. Ambler's nomination hearing took place at last on December 14, 1977. 

As expected, confirmation came smoothly on February 1, 1978. President Carter gave 

Ernest Ambler his "Commission of Office" on February 3, 1978; NBS had its eighth 

director. 16 

5 Ambler, NIST Special Publication 825, p. 32. 6 "Senate confirms Ambler as NBS Director," NBS Standard 23, No. 3, February 8, 1978, p. 1. 451 
A Push For Change 

The second step in understanding Ambler's reorganization of NBS in 1977-78 

involves an appreciation of his determination to perform his duties as he saw them. 

As director of the Institute of Basic Standards a decade earlier, Ambler had made 

substantial organizational changes in order to modernize the scientific bases for certain 

of the divisions. This had been his first experience with the interpersonal problems 

that accompany management decisions everywhere. In 1977, perceiving a need to 

revise the Bureau's response to current problems in technology—particularly those in 

engineering—Ambler did not hesitate to act. 

Reorganizing to Deliver Technology 

In an article in the NBS Standard of September 21, 1977, Ambler stated: 

I have been thinking about reorganization for some time, because of difficulties 

I have experienced working with the present organization. Also, I have been 

studying the proposal made by Dr. Baruch in July that the Bureau undertake 

programs to foster the delivery of technology to the industrial, intergovernmental and international sectors. What I shall propose will allow for the 

strengthening of the scientific and technical competences at NBS as well as responding more quickly and effectively to the expectations of those who use 

our services. 

In Ambler's proposal, the four NBS institutes would be eliminated, to be replaced 

by "more streamlined" units. Ambler reassured the anxious staff that, although 

nearly all employees would be affected by the coming changes, every effort would be 

made to avoid loss of jobs. 

A steering committee and five task forces were created by Ambler to accomplish the 

transition. Leading the task forces were: 

• National Engineering Laboratory: John W. Lyons. 

• National Measurement Laboratory: John D. Hoffman. 

• Technology Programs: Howard E. Sorrows. 

• Associate Directorate for Administration / Associate Directorate for Information 

Programs: Richard P. Bartlett, Jr. 

• Financial Management, Budget, and Programs: Raymond G. Kammer. 

The target date for completion of the reorganization was set as mid-October 1977. 

Ambler urged all employees to submit ideas and comments on the reorganization 

directly to the task forces. 

" Ernest Ambler, Oral History, September 22, 1988. 

'8NBS Standard, Vol. 22. No. 19, Sept 2!, 1977, p. 1. 452 
Over the following 9 months, some 20 bulletins were issued to the Bureau staff 

describing progress toward the new organization.'9 

As approved by Assistant Secretary of Commerce Baruch in November 1977, major 

elements of the new organization 20 • National Engineering Laboratory. 

• National Measurement Laboratory. 

• Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology. 

• NBS/Boulder Laboratories. 

• Two National Centers for Cooperative Technology. 

• Administrative and Information Systems. 

In separating the portions of NBS that primarily supplied engineering work from 

those primarily devoted to measurement, Ambler's task groups generally left standards 

and calibration activities untouched in their respective divisions. As a result, standards 

and calibration efforts were divided nearly equally between NEL and NML. 

Creating a National Engineering Laboratory 

Assembling a strong engineering activity at NBS was one of Ambler's principal 

objectives for the 1978 reorganization. Several components that could become useful 

parts of the National Engineering Laboratory, to be headed by John W. Lyons, already 

existed within the Bureau; others, in Ambler's opinion, had to be coaxed into being. 

Certain programs within the former Institute for Applied Technology had been quite 

successful, but were not suitable for the new structure simply because their functions 

had been taken over by private firms. Others, not based on traditional engineering 

disciplines, did not fit Ambler's view of NBS. 

One of the most successful of all the TAT programs was the Fire Research program 

(see A Hectic Decade for Fire Science later in this chapter). As directed in the Federal 

Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974,21 the Bureau had created a Center for Fire 

Research, placing in it all NBS resources devoted to fire research and fire safety. John 

Lyons had been brought to the Bureau to head the new Center. When he was selected 

in 1978 to head the National Engineering Laboratory, Frederick B. Clarke was named 

Acting Director of CFR. The center included but two divisions, Fire Science, -headed 

by Robert L. Levine, and Fire Safety Engineering, headed by Irwin A. Benjamin. 

NBS Admin. Bull. 77-46, September 23, 1977; 77-49, October 6, 1977; 77-55, October 12, 1977; 77-62, 

November 2, 1977; 77-64, November 7, 1977; 77-66, November 22, 1977; 77-68, November 29, 1977; 

77-69, December 6, 1977; 77-72, December 15, 1977; 77-73, December 16, 1977; 78-2, January 16, 1978; 

78-3, January 24, 1978; 78-5, February 6, 1978; 78-7, February 13, 1978; 78-10, March 9, 1978; 78-13. 

March 22, 1978; 78-14, March 28, 1978; 78-15, April 6, 1978; 78-20, May 1978; and 78-21, May 18, 1978. 

20NBS Admin. Bull. 78-21, May 18, 1978. 21 Public Law PL93-498, 88 Stat. 1535-1549, enacted October 29, 1974. 

453 
A Center for Electronics and Electrical Engineering, to be headed by Judson C. 

French, was readily formed from existing divisions and sections: 

• A new Electron Devices Division, placed under the management of W. Murray 

Bullis, was created by renaming the former Electronic Technology Division. 

• A new Electrosystems Division was formed by reassigning part of the staff of 

the former Electricity Division. Oskars Peterson was chosen to lead the new division. 

• A new Electromagnetic Fields Division, located in Boulder under the direction of 

Harold S. Boyne, was created by reassigning part of the staff of the former 

Electromagnetics Division. 

• A new Electromagnetic Technology Division, a Boulder unit under Robert A. 

Kamper, was formed from the remaining personnel of the former Electromagnetics Division. 

A Center for Mechanical Engineering and Process Technology (CMEPT) was 

created from personnel from several former lBS divisions and placed under the leadership of John A. Simpson. The new units were the Mechanical Processes Division, 

under Russell D. Young; the Fluid Engineering Division, under George E. Mattingly; 

the Thermal Processes Division, under Kenneth G. Kreider; the Acoustical Engineering 

Division, under David S. Pallett; and the Boulder-based Thermophysical Properties 

Division, under Richard H. Kropschot. 

Realizing later the value of separate centers for mechanical engineering and chemical engineering, Ambler in 1981 divided CMEPT into a Center for Manufacturing 

Engineering and a Center for Chemical Engineering. 

The IAT Center for Building Technology, headed by Richard N. Wright, was 

essentially transferred in tow to the new NEL, although the new center structure was modified to include these four divisions: a Structure and Materials Division, under 

Edward 0. Pfrang; a Building Thermal and Service Systems Division, under Preston 

E. McNall; an Environmental Design Research Division, under Francis T. Ventre; and a Building Economics and Regulatory Technology Division, under James G. Gross. 

The IAT Center for Consumer Product Technology, headed by Stanley I. Warshaw, was transferred into the new NEL with the divisions of Consumer Sciences, under 

Harold P. Van Cott; Product Performance Engineering, under Andrew J. Fowell; and 

Product Safety Technology, under Walter G. Leight. 

The lBS Applied Mathematics Division became NEL's Center for Applied 

Mathematics, Burton H. Colvin, Director, with divisions for Mathematical Analysis, 

under Frederick C. Johnson; Operations Research, under Alan J. Goldman; Statistical 

Engineering, under Harry I-I. Ku; and Scientific Computing, temporarily under Colvin. 

454 
Creating a National Measurement Laboratory 

Formation of a National Measurement Laboratory, to be directed by John D. 

Hoffman, was considerably easier. It was to contain all of the portions of the former 

Institute for Basic Standards and the Institute for Materials Research that had not been 

commandeered to form the NEL, providing the heart of the Bureau's traditional 

measurement standards, physics, and chemistry activities. 

A Center for Absolute Physical Quantities, to be directed by Karl G. Kessler, 

included divisions for Electrical Measurements and Standards, under Barry N. Taylor; 

Temperature Measurements and Standards, under James F. Schooley; Length and Mass 

Measurements and Standards, under Ralph P. Hudson; and Boulder's Time and 

Frequency, under James A. Barnes, and Quantum Physics (JILA), under Gordon H. 

Dunn. 

A Center for Radiation Research, under James E. Leiss, incorporated the following 

divisions: Atomic and Plasma Radiation, under Wolfgang L. Wiese; Nuclear 

Radiation, under Randall S. Caswell; Radiation Physics, under Christopher E. Kuyatt; 

Radiometric Physics, under Jack L. Tech; and Radiation Source and Instrumentation, 

under Samuel Penner. 

A Center for Thermodynamics and Molecular Science, headed by Milton D. Scheer, 

included five divisions. These were Surface Science, under Cedric J. Powell; Chemical 

Kinetics, under Wing Tsang; Chemical Thermodynamics, under David Garvin; 

Thermophysics, under Harold J. Raveche; and Molecular Spectroscopy, under Merrill 

M. Hessel. During 1981, CTMS was re-named the Center for Chemical Physics. 

A Center for Analytical Chemistry, Philip D. LaFleur, Director, incorporated divisions for Inorganic Analytical Research, under I. Lynus Barnes; Organic Analytical Research, under Harry S. Hertz; and Gas and Particulate Science, under John K. Taylor. 

A Center for Materials Science was formed, to be directed by John B. Wachtman, 

Jr. Its component divisions were Chemical Stability and Corrosion, under Thomas 

D. Coyle; Fracture and Deformation, under Sheldon M. Wiederhorn; Polymer Science 

and Standards, under Ronald K. Eby; Metal Science and Standards, under Arthur 

W. Ruff; Ceramics, Glass, and Solid State, under Hans P. R. Frederikse; and Reactor 

Radiation, under Robert S. Carter. 

The Institute for Computer Science and Technology, directed by M. Zane Thornton 

after the departure of Ruth M. Davis, was transferred into the new organization without 

change. 

Fine Tuning the New Organization 

As might be expected, the sweeping changes wrought during the 1978 reorganization 

received additional modification as the new units began to fulfill their intended 

purposes. Notable among these was the loss of Ambler's choice as his deputy director, 

Thomas A. Dillon. Dillon, completing his doctoral work as a chemical physicist in 

1969, quickly became an itinerant manager; he joined the NBS Program Office in 

1974, the Department of Energy in 1976, NBS again (as Ambler's deputy) in 1978, 

and the Department of Energy again in 1980. Ambler chose Raymond G. Kammer to 

replace Dillon as Deputy Director. 

455 
Most changes wrought by the original reorganization plan were mentioned in the 

descriptions given above. Later changes included the following: 

• Incorporation of the Gaithersburg instrument shop into NEL as part of the Center 

for Manufacturing Engineering, taking advantage of progress in computer-based 

machine tools. Other changes in this center left it with—besides the new Fabrication Technology Division—a Mechanical Production Technology division, under 

Daniel Flynn; an Automated Production Technology Division, under Robert 

Hocken; and an Industrial Systems Division, under James Albus. 

• Re-orienting and renaming of the Center for Thermodynamics and Molecular 

Science as the Center for Chemical Physics, Peter L. M. Heydemann, Director. 

• Appointment of James H. Burrows, a mathematician who formerly supervised 

data processing for the U.S. Air Force, as permanent Director of the Institute for 

Computer Sciences and Technology. 

• Incorporation of the Computer Services Division, Martin R. Shaver, Chief, into 

NEL as part of the Center for Applied Mathematics. 

• Addition of a Building Equipment Division to the NEL Center for Building 

Technology. 

• Addition of a Fire Performance Evaluation Division to the NEL Center for Fire 

Research. 

• Creation of a Center for Chemical Engineering within the NEL. This new center, 

filling a much-needed void in the NEL roster of engineering disciplines, was 

headed by Jesse L. Hord. It encompassed the Fluid Mechanics, Thermal 

Processes, and Thermophysical Properties divisions, earlier included in the 

Center for Mechanical Engineering and Process Technology. 

An Expanded Role for the Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology 

The Center for Computer Sciences and Technology, established in NBS in 1966 

in response to the "Brooks Act" (PL 89-306, 1965), was made a separate organizational entity late in 1968 and given institute status in 1973. Its purpose was to prepare 

standards and guidelines for the purchase and effective utilization of computers by 

government agencies. Ruth Davis had seen the advantage of adding to that duty a substantial dose of computer science. 

Unfortunately, when the "lead agency" concept took hold in the Federal government 

in the early 1 980s, the Office of Management and Budget suggested that ICST should 

be transferred bodily to the General Services Administration, the agency in charge of 

government procurement. 

Fate intervened, however; nearly intractable problems arose in the business and 

industrial sectors as they tried connecting computer components obtained from 

different sources. Inundated by the magnitude of the interfacing problem, they turned 

to NBS and to ICST for help. ICST scientists and engineers were ready with assistance 

456 
based upon the creation of voluntary standards, much of it through research done at the 

Bureau. The Institute initiated the use of testbeds such as the Network Protocol Testing 

Facility, materially shortening the time and effort needed by the private sector to 

utilize computers as versatile business tools. 

No longer did Bureau management hear suggestions that ICST was not a legitimate 

component of NBS. 

The new organization lasted a decade. Under John Lyons, the National Engineering 

Laboratory sought to establish for the Department of Commerce a leadership position 

in industrial technology. The effort fit very well into the growing mood of Congress 

that there should be more that the Federal Government could do to foster competitive- ness in the international arena for American firms. The consumer movement characteristic of earlier days was dying; it was being replaced by an emphasis on technology. 

As noted above, Ernest Ambler's appointment as permanent director of NBS took 

place during the time that the last details of the 1977-78 Bureau reorganization were 

being decided.22 

Reorganization Brings Stress 

The first major reorganization in 13 years brought peace to some NBS staff members, but upset and uncertainty to many more. 

Responding to frequent calls from distraught employees, David Lesage, an employee 

development specialist in the Personnel Division, collaborated with psychologist 

Craig Wasserman of the University of Maryland to cope with employee uncertainty 

and stress that was connected to the re-arrangement of most operating divisions. The 

result was a lecture entitled "Organizational Change—Dilemma or Opportunity."23 

The approach taken by Lesage and Wasserman was rooted in the notion that crisis 

embodied both danger and opportunity. Employees who enrolled in the course were reminded of the ways in which major change could be faced while minimizing 

destructive thoughts brought on by disturbances in their daily routine. Three major 

problems surfaced; loss of contact with accustomed co-workers; loss of "hard" information; and fear of re-assignment to less desirable projects. 

Employees re-located into new situations—and there were many of these—were 

encouraged to discuss problems—both in new duties and in personal fears—with their new supervisors. 

The 1977-78 reorganization was a nerve-wracking experience for many Bureau 

employees. Its real significance, however, was as a harbinger of change to come. With 

the reorganization, Ernest Ambler created a structure that he felt could more readily 

serve as a resource for the engines of America's technology. 

22 NBS Standard, Vol. 23, No. 3, February 8, 1978, p. 1. 23 "Exploiting opportunities of change," NBS Standard, Vol 23, No. 5, p. 2. 

457 
Other Administrative Activities During Ambler's Directorship 

More Work for the Congressional Liaison 

Esther Cassidy continued in her position of Assistant to the Director for Congressional Affairs throughout Ambler's tenure as director. In 1973, she had left the 

laboratory for a Commerce Science Fellowship in Congress;24 at the end of 1974, 

Director Richard Roberts had appointed her to the position of Assistant to the Director 

for Congressional Affairs. Ambler declared that appointment of such an assistant had 

been one of Director Roberts' most useful steps, providing NBS with a constant and 

informed contact for the ever-increasing communications with Congress. He noted that 

in one year alone—l984---—some 120 Congressional staff members came to NBS for 

briefings. 25 NBS/ERDA Energy Agreement 

Throughout the period when Ernest Ambler was director, the nation endured 

shortages of energy or rising energy costs. Frequently, both maladies were in evidence. 

As a result, energy conservation and alternative sources of energy to augment U.S. oil 

and coal supplies were continuing items in the Bureau's technical menu. 

In November 1975, officials of NBS and the Energy Research and Development 

Administration—new home to former director Richard Roberts—signed a memorandum of understanding relating to ways that the Bureau could assist ERDA with its 

assigned duties. The memo provided for the transfer of funds to NBS for work in the areas of energy research and technology, including such alternative sources of energy as solar power. The agreement also embodied Bureau efforts in standards, measurement methods, and data acquisition, as well as technical consultations by NBS staff 

members. Considerable work was accomplished under the aegis of the agreement. 

NBS Celebrates Its 75th Birthday 

During 1976, NBS staged a year-long celebration of its 75th year of service to the 

Nation with open houses at both its Gaithersburg and Boulder campuses, exhibits, 

symposia, workshops, and films. The party began on March 1, with a ceremonial visit 

to the Gaithersburg campus by Secretary of Commerce Elliot Richardson and the opening of a 4-day symposium staged by the Institute for Basic Standards. The 

symposium was titled Measurements for the Safe Use of Radiation. 

March 3, 1976, the 75th anniversary of the creation of NBS, was marked by an address by Director Ambler and by the dedication of new exhibit areas in the 

Gaithersburg Administration building. 

Lectures by distinguished scientists—Edward Teller of the University of California, 

Norman Ramsey of Harvard, William 0. Baker of Bell Laboratories, Henry Eyring 

of the University of Utah, Garrett Birkhoff of Harvard, Alan Penis of Yale, 

24NBS Standard, Vol. 20, No. 16, July 30, 1975, p. 3. 25 Ernest Ambler, SP 825, p. 31. 

458 
In November 1975. during a period when the Nation's energy crisis seemed to demand action. Deputy 

Administrator of the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) Robert W. Fri (left) and 

NBS Director Ernest Ambler signed a memorandum of understanding that Bureau scientists would assist 

ERDA in various technical capacities. 

Robert C. Seamans of the Energy Research and Development Administration, and 

Simon Ramo of TRW Corporation—were given at Gaithersburg during March and 

April. A similar series at the Boulder laboratories opened with Arthur Schawlow of 

Stanford University, who spoke on February 11. 

On April 5, the Institute for Applied Technology sponsored a symposium on Fire 

Standards and Safety. 

A 3-day symposium on Computers in a Democratic Society was presented by 

the Institute for Computer Science and Technology during July. Also in July, the 

National Conference on Weights and Measures met in celebratory session on the 

Gaithersburg campus. 

From September 20-24, a symposium on Methods and Standards for Environmental 

Measurement was presented by the Institute for Materials Research. 

Open houses were held on the Gaithersburg campus from May 6-8 and on the 

Boulder grounds from October An estimated 50,000 people—many of them 

schoolchildren—visited the laboratories and grounds of the Gaithersburg site over the 

3-day period. Dozens of selected tour stops featured imaginative presentations that 

described arcane projects in simplified terms. 

26NBS Standard, Vol 21, No. 4. pp. 1, 8, February 25, 1976; ibid., No. 5, pp. 1-8, March 10, 1976; ibid., 

No. 10, pp. 4,5,8, May 19, 1976. Further details were given in other 1976 issues of the periodical. 

459 
At a former NIKE missile base adjacent to its Gaithersburg site, NBS engineers tested 

solar collectors in a project sponsored by the Energy Research and Development 

Administration. A key part of solar heating and cooling systems. the collectors were lowered into the former missile silos when not under test. 

460 
NBS scientist Freddy A. Khoury explained research in synthetic surgical implants to school children at an NBS Open House held in 1976. 

The Fiscal Year Moves to September 30th 

During 1976, the fiscal year of the Federal government was delayed by a quarteryear to give the Congress more time to appropriate funds for government activity for 

another 12 months. The end of Fiscal Year 1976 took place on June 30, 1976; then a short, quarter-year funding cycle carried all the agencies through to September 30, 

1976, whereupon Fiscal Year 1977 began. 

The gambit could hardly be called a success, if judged by the need—which periodically recurred long after the change—for "continuing resolutions" to carry the 

government into a new fiscal year when the appropriations bills had not been passed 

in a timely fashion.27 

27 See, for example, Eric Pianin and Juliet Eilperin, "Hill Passes Temporary Spending Measure," The 

Washington Post, September 29, 1999, p. 1. In its lead paragraph, the authors explain, "The [Congressl voted 

yesterday for a temporary spending measure that would keep the government open for another three weeks as it tries to resolve internal differences . . 461 
NBS/EPRI Agreement 

The Electric Power Research Institute, a nonprofit organization funded by all sectors 

of America's electric utility industry, was created to advance electric-power technology 

by means that were sound not only from a technical viewpoint, but on environmental 

and energy-conservation grounds as well. 

During 1976, Director Ernest Ambler of NBS signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Chauncey Starr, President of EPRI, which involved the Bureau 

directly in EPRI projects. As might be expected, the NBS contribution was to be 

heavily slanted towards measurement technology—on equipment, power generation, 

power distribution, and methods of power usage. 

Five areas where EPRI expected the most help from NBS, according the MoU, were 

the measurement of electrical and electromagnetic quantities, physical-properties data, 

evaluation of devices and control systems, mathematical and computer-aided design, 

and energy conservation methods at all stages of power generation, distribution, and use. A Distinguished Federal Servant 

On Jan 12, 1977, Ambler received the President's Award for Distinguished Federal 

Service in the East Room of the White House. The award was presented by Vice 

President Nelson A. Rockefeller. Ambler was the first NBS employee and only the 

second Commerce employee to receive the award. Secretary of Commerce Elliot 

L. Richardson and former NBS directors Roberts, Branscomb, and Astin also 

attended.2X The citation read in part: 

His extraordinary accomplishments in the fields of low temperature and nuclear 

physics, his brilliant work which invalidated a previously accepted fundamental 

law of physics, and his leadership as Acting Director of the National Bureau of 

Standards, have been of great importance to the Nation and the world. 

The President's Award was only the latest of many for Ambler. His experimental 

work with Ralph Hudson, Raymond Hayward, and Dale Hoppes, performed in 

conjunction with C. S. Wu of Columbia University, demonstrated the non-conservation 

of parity in weak nuclear interactions and earned him and his colleagues several major 

awards. Over the years, Ambler received the Department of Commerce Gold Medal, 

the Arthur S. Flemming Award, the John Price Wetherill Medal of the Franklin 

Institute, the NBS Stratton Award, a 1-year John Simon Guggenheim Memorial 

Foundation Fellowship, the Washington Academy of Sciences Award, and the 

William A. Wildhack Award. 

2$ NBS Standard, Vol. 22, No. 2, January 26, 1977, p. I. 

462 
Oversight Hearings 

During the tenure of Lewis Branscomb as director, the Bureau was the subject of 

oversight hearings by the Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development of the 

House Committee on Science and Astronautics. On October 25, 1977, another day of 

hearings began, this time by the Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Technology 

of the House Committee on Science and Technology. Remarkably, the House hearings 

were followed a few months later by Senate oversight hearings, the first anyone could 

remember. 

As might have been expected, the testimony of Ernest Ambler dominated the 

hearings on October 25. His testimony was heavily buttressed, however, by statements 

from Jordan J. Baruch, the Commerce Department Assistant Secretary for Science 

and Technology; from Charles E. Peck of Owens-Corning Fiberglass Corporation, 

representing the NBS statutory Visiting Committee; and from William 0. Baker of the 

Bell Telephone Laboratories, representing the views of the evaluation panels chosen 

by the National Academy of Sciences and the National Research Council to review the 

work of the NBS technical divisions. 

Jordan Baruch, who opened the session, testified to his respect for NBS. "NBS," he 

said, "is in many ways a unique institution." Baruch enumerated the wide range of 

Bureau activities and its worldwide reputation for excellence and objectivity, praising 

the agency for providing the Nation with measurement know-how that spanned the 

scientific, technical, and commercial sectors. Significantly, Baruch pointed to NBS as a potentially powerful ally of the fading U.S. industrial prowess in the arena of 

international commerce. 

Ambler, in the midst of staff discussions regarding the major reorganization of 

1977-78 (discussed previously in this chapter), described the facilities of NBS, its staff, 

its budget,29 its congressional mandates,3° its major activities, and its problems. In 

discussing the last category, Ambler sounded a warning that all was not well with the 

Bureau. His message noted unfunded Congressional assignments, a staff too 

often called upon to solve short-term problems at the expense of long-term competence, and an effort to design a more effective management structure. 

Peck, at that time Chair of the statutory Visiting Committee, continued the somber 

theme. Peck quoted from a recent report of the five-member committee: 

NBS is on the brink of serious trouble. The persistent retrenchment that has 

taken place threatens to bring NBS to a mediocrity that is unacceptable. 

Shocking gaps exist in NBS' ability to carry out its basic assignment, even 

without supplemental assignments. New assignments thrust on the Bureau 

29 In Fiscal Year 1977, $70 million of direct appropriations, $48 million from other government agencies for 

consultations on their problems, and $6 million in calibrations and fees. 

These included the recent additions of the Brooks Act of 1965; the Federal Non-Nuclear Research and 

Develop,nent Act of 1974; the Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974; the Energy Policy and Conservation 

Act of 1975; and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976. 

463 
without funding or personnel have forced NBS leadership into defensive 

management, whereby long-range programs are sacrificed to salvage short-term 

objectives. 

One study indicates that basic research in constant dollars may have 

dwindled to half the level of 10 years ago. Fifteen new laws since 1965 have 

given NBS assignments, yet the NBS overall budget in constant dollars has not 

increased. 

NBS has had four different directors in 10 years. The present head has been 

in an "acting" status for two years. "Temporary" management cannot do a strong job. 

The Visiting Committee had pulled no punches in its condemnation of the poor 

care given NBS by the Office of Management and Budget, the Department of 

Commerce, and the Congress. Peck was glad for the opportunity to testify on behalf of 

the beleaguered scientists. 

Speaking for the many divisional evaluation panels, Baker expressed his admiration 

for NBS support of the Nation's science and technology. He reviewed the existing 

organization of the Bureau and threw the weight of the panels behind the dire assessment given by the NBS Visiting Committee. 

The hearings gave the House subcommittee some things to think about. 

Senator Adlai E. Stevenson, III, chaired oversight hearings on NBS held by the 

Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, Subcommittee on Science, Technology, and Space during February and April of 1978. Stevenson 

confessed uncertainty regarding the precedent for Senate oversight: 

This is the first congressional oversight hearing for the Bureau in memory. 

We haven't been able to figure out when the last one was, if ever, in the 

Senate. We aim to remedy that neglect. Our objective is a strong NBS which 

continues to contribute to the scientific and technical capabilities of the United 

States. 

The February Senate hearings were short. The Congress was in recess, so that only 

Stevenson was present. Nevertheless, four leading Bureau managers presented 

testimony—Ambler; John Hoffman, director of the Institute for Materials Research; 

John Lyons, recently appointed director of the Institute for Applied Technology; 

and Zane Thornton, acting director of the Institute for Computer Science and 

Technology. The topics discussed included the proposed NBS reorganization, which 

received final approval on March 8, 1978; a program in cooperative technology, 

included in the Fiscal 1979 budget; and overviews of the NBS institutes. 

On April 6, 1978, the Senate oversight hearings continued. Jordan Baruch once 

again testified to the quality of work done at NBS, cautioning, however, that the 

Bureau was "stretched thin" by its variety of new assignments. Baruch was followed 

by W. Dale Compton of Ford Motor Company, William Baker of the Bell Laboratories, and George E. Brown, Jr., congressman from the 36th district of California. Once 

again, the nascent cooperative technology program came under discussion, along with 

the question of periodic oversight hearings. Ambler suggested that reviews on a 2-year or 3-year cycle might be appropriate. 

464 
Later, Congress decided that it should review the authorization of NBS funding on a I- or 2-year cycle, in place of the continuing authorization used for so many years. 

Olin Teague, chair of the House Science and Technology Committee, suggested that 

periodic review would "assure that the Bureau of Standards will indeed be able to 

make its maximum contribution" to the Nation. In fact, hearings on the NBS authorization became an annual ritual. 

On February 1, 1980, George Brown, chair of the House Subcommittee on Science, 

Research, and Technology, opened a 6-day hearing on the NBS FY 1981 budget 

authorization. The hearings were historic in that they were held at NBS, in the Red 

Auditorium. 

Ernest Ambler, Thomas Dillon, John Hoffman, James Burrows, John Lyons, and 

Ray Kammer presented their views of the Bureau, either in prepared statements or in 

answer to the many questions posed by the committee members. Joining Rep. Brown 

were Reps. Don Fuqua and Alan Ertel. In questions and comments, the committee 

members expressed respect for NBS and support for its mission and needs. 

Following the presentations and question-and-answer sessions, the Congressional 

delegation toured the Gaithersburg site. 

Remaking the Civil Service 

As part of his plan to streamline the Federal government, President Jimmy Carter 

proposed on March 2, 1978, that the Civil Service should be reformed. If accepted by 

the Congress, the changes would affect 2.1 million Federal employees. 

Carter's proposal was intended to affect all aspects of government service—hiring 

and firing, pay, grievances, transfers, and retirement. 

After some debate, the Senate Governmental Operations Committee voted on July 

24, 1978, to support the major features of Carter's proposal, and the Civil Service 

Reform Act was signed by the president on October 13, 1978. 

The principal provisions of the 116-page law established new job performance 

standards. It also established a new type of government employment, the Senior 

Executive Service, composed of nearly 11,000 high-level managers who were subject 

to re-assignment from agency to agency. The Civil Service Commission was abolished, 

to be replaced by an Office of Personnel Management, a Merit Systems Protection 

Board, and a Federal Labor Relations Authority. 

It would take some time before the changes wrought by the new act would be fully 

assimilated by the nation's Federal civil servants. 

Scrutiny From a Conservative Administration 

President Reagan's avowed goal of reducing the reach of the Federal Government 

in areas that could possibly be served by private-sector efforts, coupled with the 

ever-growing budget deficit, forced NBS to justify many of its programs over and over 

again throughout the I 980s. Two government-wide surveys and continued scrutiny 

from the Administration's Office of Management and Budget kept the Bureau on constant alert. 

465 
The President's Private Sector Survey on Cost Control, chaired by J. Peter Grace 

and consequently known as the Grace Commission, undertook a monumental survey 

of the entire federal government during 1982 and 1983, looking for ways to economize. A total of 47 volumes eventually made up the report of the Commission—one of 

them devoted entirely to the Department of Commerce. 

The 45-member Commerce Task Force spent, by their own count, 80 person-months 

studying the department. They suggested that substantial cost savings (some $45 

million over 3 years) could be realized within NBS alone. The savings could result, 

they said, by eliminating certain activities that could be accomplished by the private 

sector and certain other activities that showed high cost/benefit ratios. Still other 

savings could be realized by generating more financial support for certain projects 

from the using public. Six of the NBS centers—Chemical Engineering, Manufacturing 

Engineering, Fire Research, Building Technology, Analytical Chemistry, and Materials 

Science—were cited as potential sources for the savings. 

Fortunately for the Bureau, the "using public," which depended heavily upon NBS 

scientific and engineering expertise, became vocal in defense of the Bureau. Largely 

through their efforts, damage to NBS programs from the Grace Commission 

recommendations was minimal. 

The White House Science Council Federal Laboratory Review Panel visited NBS 

on November 28, 1982. The panel was chaired by David Packard, Chairman of the 

Board of Hewlett-Packard Company; members included John Bardeen of the 

University of Illinois, D. Allan Bromley of Yale University, Donald S. Fredrickson of 

the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Arthur K. Kerman of MIT, Edward Teller of 

Stanford University, and Albert D. Wheelon of Hughes Aircraft. The Bureau was one of 16 laboratories visited, surrogates for some 700 laboratories operated either for or by the Federal government. 

The panel had been asked by George A. Keyworth, Science Advisor to the 

President, to review the operations of the laboratories with an eye to improving their 

use and performance. In contrast to the suffocating recommendations offered by the 

Grace Commission, NBS Director Ernest Ambler found in the Packard Report3' 

valuable guidance for the future of the Bureau.32 

The panel focused on five features regarded as crucial to the success of the 

laboratories. The features and brief synopses of panel recommendations follow: 

Mission—must be clearly defined and consistent with Federal goals. 

Personnel policies—should be changed to operate outside of normal civil service 

restrictions, in order to attract high-quality staff. 

• Funding—should be multi-year, with 5 %-l0 % devoted to independent research. 

• Management—should include outside peer review of laboratory management and 

operations. 

• Interaction with universities, industry, and users of laboratory outputs—access to 

Federal facilities, collaboration, and contracting should be encouraged. 

Report of the White House Science Council Federal Laboratory Review Panel, Office of Science and 

Technology Policy,Washington, DC, 20500, May 1983. 

Ernest Ambler, SP 825, pp. 33-34. 

466 
After meeting with Packard to discuss details of the report, Ambler was determined 

to follow its recommendations. He gave particular significance to refining the NBS 

mission with regard to assisting U.S. industrial prowess, to strengthening ties with 

outside organizations, and placing more emphasis on outside review of NBS work. 

Ambler noted several ways in which NBS improved its record during the following 

years: 

• By 1986, the number of Industrial Research Associates at NBS reached 255, 

three times the number in 1980. 

• By 1987, the number of cost-sharing projects with industry reached 244, with 

174 different companies involved. Gifts and loans of equipment similarly increased. 

• Other-agency funding and earned income both increased markedly during the 

1980s. 

• NBS was the scene of a 5-year Personnel Management and Demonstration 

project, beginning in 1988. 

During the Reagan administration, the Office of Management and Budget, pursuing 

the cost-cutting effort that drove the Grace Commission, viewed several programs at 

NBS as candidates for elimination or privatization. The National Academy of ScienceNational Research Council postdoctoral research associate program, a primary source 

of scientific talent for NBS, was earmarked for elimination at one point. The NBS 

library became a candidate for privatization. The 0MB questioned NBS expenses for 

travel, even to scientific meetings, and Bureau costs for printing and reproduction. 

Even funds spent for scientific consulting were challenged in a serious effort to reduce 

the cost of government. 

All of these efforts to truncate the work of the Bureau required detailed justification, 

both from within and outside NBS. Most of the NBS responses came from the staff of 

the Bureau's Office of Programs, Budget, and Finance. The PBF staff spent the decade 

of the 1980s in continual motion to minimize the cost to NBS of a strong national 

defense. 

Complicating Ambler's management during 1982 was the loss of Deputy Director 

Raymond G. Kammer. Kammer left on a temporary assignment to the Department of 

Commerce to assist the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in its efforts 

to procure a new radar system. In Kammer's absence, John W. Lyons served as Deputy Director of NBS. As part of his new duties, Lyons utilized the opportunity to 

broaden his knowledge of Bureau programs and personnel. 

Updating NBS Computers 

NBS scientists, mathematicians, and engineers were heavily involved in computer 

development even before the first ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and 

Automatic Computer) was built at the University of Pennsylvania in 1947. At the 

request of the Bureau of the Census and the Office of Naval Research, NBS prepared 

computer design specifications for those agencies just after the close of World War II. 

467 
To test computer components, train operators, and provide computations for its own 

staff, the Bureau built the Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) at the same 

time. It went into service during June, 1950. SEAC was the first general-purpose, 

stored-program computer in the U.S. It was used for 14 years; for a remarkable 

4000 hours, it performed without a malfunction. 

Keeping the Bureau abreast of the revolution in computers turned into a complicated 

problem while Ernest Ambler was still director of the Bureau's Institute for Basic 

Standards. The initial problem for NBS was difficult enough—to replace its badly 

outdated central computer. The large expense involved in the replacement had to be 

justified in terms of large need. As time went on, however, the issue of central 

main-frame vs minicomputers and even smaller units became an equally thorny one. 

The situation was complicated by the rationale used to support the central 

computer—running time on the machine was charged to individual project funds. 

Machine time was sufficiently expensive that the computer was idle for a substantial 

portion of each day. Some staff members argued for reduced-cost or free use of the 

computer so that it would be utilized more fully. 

During the late 1960s, minicomputers with relatively high capacity became available. 

As early as 1970, Harvey A. Alperin and Edward Prince of the Reactor Radiation 

Division reported the installation of a "medium-sized" computer that was used in a time-share mode to control data acquisition by a group of eight instruments at the NBS 

reactor and to perform computations in real time.33 The most "computer literate" of the 

scientific and engineering staff foresaw the use of small, dedicated computers both for 

off-line calculations and direct interactive support of laboratory data-taking.34 Some 

scientists argued that the purchase of several "mini-computers" might eliminate the 

need for a central facility. In fact, the Bureau administration was reluctant to allow 

the purchase of smaller machines for fear of weakening its case for a new central 

mainframe computer. 

Faced with a virtual ban on minicomputers, scientists with more need for computer 

use than they had project funds to pay for machine time sought out colleagues in 

other organizations who could share time on minicomputers which, once purchased, 

could be used full-time with nearly no further expense. 

As director of NBS, Ambler found the problem still alive and troublesome; there was still no new central computer. By 1975, the lack of computational facilities was 

damaging the Bureau's ability to attract top-ranking scientists to its laboratories. 

Like his predecessors, Ambler saw a continuing need for a central NBS computing 

facility which could be used for scientific calculations and data reduction by the 

technical staff as well as for record-keeping and secretarial functions by the administration. His advisors envisioned a network linking individual laboratories to a central 

H. A. Alperin and E. Prince, "A time-shared computer system for diffractometer control," J. Res. NBS 

74C, Nos. 3, 4, 89-95 (1970). 

This viewpoint was supported by a "Statement of AUP Policy for NBS," NBS Standard, Vol XV, No. 8, 

August 1970, pp. 4-5. 

468 
"supercomputer." To this end, he continued attempts to justify and fund a new, highcapacity main-frame machine. However, requests to the technical staff for information 

on their present and foreseeable computer needs met with resistance; already saddled 

with heavy costs for computation on the outdated central computer, some staff 

members feared that their project funds would be hit with still larger bills if their true 

needs were known. Also, Ambler found himself in the unenviable position of discouraging acquisition of laboratory-size computers—ever smaller and ever more 

powerful—in order to maintain demand for a central computer. 

Eventually NBS, largely through the personal efforts of Ambler and a substantial 

group of advisors including Eleazer Bromberg, Burton H. Colvin, Glenn R. Ingram, 

Stephen White, Richard T. Penn, John W. Lyons, and Guy W. Chamberlin, Jr., 

obtained both departmental permission and the money to buy a new central computer. 

It was delivered in 1985 and became operational in 1986. 

By the time the new central computer was in place, the question of main-frame vs individual computer was moot. Hundreds of relatively inexpensive, powerful desk-top 

computers were in use to run experiments, record and process data on-line, and 

function as private secretaries as well. Similar stand-alone units quickly came into use in secretarial offices throughout NBS. Because the secretarial staff had no experience 

in word-processing, NBS provided assistance in several forms: a computer-assistance 

office was formed under the leadership of Patsy Saunders to create standard procedures 

for office computing; and a newsletter was created to take some of the "magic" out of 

the computerized office. 

The availability of computers to run laboratory experiments at NBS, to acquire and 

process data, and to facilitate the communication of results constituted an enormous 

gain in the efficiency and productivity of Bureau scientists and engineers. Similar 

advantages accrued to administrative workers. But the development was a painful one. 

New Legislation for NBS 

During the tenure of Ernest Ambler, a raft of new legislation brought new duties to 

NBS. Among the new congressional acts were the following: 

• Energy Policy and Conservation Act (PL 94-163), 1975. This act called upon the 

Federal Energy Administration to direct NBS in the development of appropriate test 

procedures relating to energy conservation, including recycled oil. At NBS, the mission 

of the Center for Consumer Product Technology was altered: the Appliance Labeling 

Section was re-named the Product Standards Development Section; the Consumer 

Behavior and Information Section was abolished; the Electronics and Instrumentation 

Section and the Electrical and Mechanical Engineering Section were combined into an 

Advanced Measurement Technology Section; and the Product Systems Section was 

re-named the Product Safety Engineering Section. 

• Metric Conversion Act of 1975 (PL 94-168). This act instructed NBS to help the 

National Conference on Weights and Measures with its project on metric education for 

state governments. 

469 
• National Science and Technology Policy, Organization, and Priorities Act of 

1976 (PL 94-282). This act established an Office of Science and Technology Policy for 

the White House. It also instructed the President to form a President's Committee on Science and Technology. The legislation reflected congressional disappointment over 

the loss of direct science advice during the Nixon and Ford administrations. 

• Energy Conservation and Production Act (PL 94-3 85), 1976. In this act, the 

Federal Energy Administration was instructed to direct NBS in the development of 

energy-efficiency-improvement targets for major household appliances. The Department of Housing and Urban Development was called upon to promulgate performance 

standards for commercial and residential buildings. 

• Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (PL 94-580). Provisions of this 

act instructed NBS to assist the Office of Solid Waste of the Environmental Protection 

Agency on a reimbursable basis. 

• Clean Air Act, Amendments of 1977 (PL 95-95) and Clean Water Act of 1977 

(PL 95-2 17). In these acts, NBS was assigned to assist the EPA as requested. 

• Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977 (PL 95-124). NBS was called upon 

for analysis and testing as part of this Act. 

• Federal Mine Safety and Health Amendments Act of 1977 (PL 95-164). Among 

other provisions, this act placed the NBS Director on a mine-safety advisory 

committee. 

• Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974, amendment (PL 96-121), 

1979. This act updated the NBS Organic Act with respect to the 1974 law. 

• Trade Agreements Act of 1979 (PL 96-39). This act resulted in NBS becoming 

the inquiry point for the provision of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade that 

pertained to technical barriers to trade. It also led to the establishment at NBS of a National Center for Standards and Certification Information and to a technical office 

for non-agricultural products. 

During October 1980, President Carter signed into law five more bills of interest to 

NBS: 

• The NBS Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1981 and 1982 (PL 96-46 1) authorized the expenditure of $107. 6 million during Fiscal Year 1981 and $142.4 million 

during fiscal 1982. The act also contained two amendments to the NBS Organic 

Act; it increased the amount of appropriated funds available for refurbishing buildings, 

and it provided new authority for international activities. NBS was allowed to 

provide financial assistance to foreign scientists to work at NBS, and NBS employees 

working at foreign institutions were allowed to receive financial assistance, fellowships, and lectureships. It also allowed the Secretary of Commerce to support foreign 

scientists studying at NBS. 

470 

Foreign Guest Workers 

NBS always welcomed visits by scientists from foreign countries. The numbers of 

foreign visitors and guest workers increased as the effect of the NBS Authorization Act 

for Fiscal Years 1981 and 1982 (PL 96-461), which changed the ground-rules for 

foreign scientists, was felt throughout the Bureau. Visitors continued to come from the 

"usual" places—England, France, Germany, Australia, Japan, and the other industrialized nations— but increasing numbers arrived from countries with less industrial 

development. Korea, Mexico, China, and Brazil, among many others, sought to find 

the key to economic progress in the Bureau's activities in science and technology. 

Under the Protocol for Cooperation between NBS and the State Bureau of 

Metrology of the People's Republic of China, for example, three guest workers—all 

women—reached NBS during the summer of 1980. The three, chemists interested in 

learning some of the newest measurement techniques, represented the Chinese National 

Institute of Metrology: 

• Pan Xiurong, Chief of the Institute Chemistry Laboratory, was responsible for a project in standard reference materials. She came to study the Bureau's Standard 

Reference Materials program. 

• He Xiheng, a thermodynamicist, participated in the work of the Chemical 

Thermodynamics Division project in refuse-derived fuels. 

• Feng Fengdi, interested particularly in instrumental analytical chemistry, worked 

with Robert Watters on computerized trace analysis. 

The three scientists were typical of a growing number of foreign visitors to NBS. 

Reagan's RIF 

In April 1981, nearly 3 years had passed since the 1978 oversight hearings had 

featured plain warnings by observers of NBS that the Bureau was seriously 

understaffed and underfunded. If President Reagan was aware of those alarms as his 

2-term tenure began, he was indifferent to them. Reagan announced a plan to 

decrease the size of the Federal work force in non-defense agencies. For NBS, the 

edict amounted to a loss of about 300 of its employees (10 %) by the end of Fiscal 

Year 1982. 

In the NBS Standard for April 29, 1981, Director Ambler noted that NBS was 

already over its personnel ceiling at the end of the Carter administration, having 

expected relief in the Fiscal 1981 budget but receiving none. 

Ambler expected about 100 employees to leave via attrition and reprogramming 

during the 18-month period of the downsizing; the rest would be released through a Reduction in Force (RIF) action. A table was offered to identify the numbers of 

employees to be separated from the Bureau—by one means or another—during Fiscal 

1981. 

472 
John Hoffman and John Lyons, heads of the two major NBS units, each proposed to 

use programmatic criteria in enacting the RIFs. A "Job Search Assistance Program" 

was initiated by the Bureau Personnel Division to assist employees affected by the 

RIF to find other work, either at NBS or elsewhere. The JSAP augmented the longexisting Employee Assistance Program. 

The RIF was begun immediately after it was announced, to minimize the inevitable 

impact on employee morale. So-called "bumping rights," allowing employees who 

received RIF notices to displace other employees with similar duties but less job 

security, affected many Bureau staffers who were not initially touched by the RIF 

actions. It was an unhappy time for NBS. 

NBS Voice Grows Weaker 

Another of President Reagan's economies throttled the Bureau's voice. The 

employee newsletter, The NBS Standard, for a quarter-century the prime means by 

which employees received news of each other and a significant mechanism used by 

management to communicate news of administrative changes, was abolished in the 

name of cost efficiency after publication of the July 22, 1981, issue. It was to be 

replaced by "regular features or columns from each Commerce agency" in a department publication, World of Commerce. 

Three months after losing its internal voice, NBS lost Dimensions/NBS, the monthly 

magazine by which the Bureau had communicated with two generations of technical 

readers worldwide. Begun in 1917 as the NBS Technical News Bulletin and continued 

in 1976 as Dimensions/NBS, the magazine offered news of scientific projects written in 

understandable prose, schedules of meetings of scientific and technical groups, and 

availability of NBS reports and standards, including Standard Reference Materials. 

Cessation of the publication was "in line with reduced government spending." 

As it did with other economies practiced by the Reagan and other presidential 

administrations, NBS management played the good soldier with no complaint as two of 

its communications lines went down. There was no choice in the matter.35 

Organic-Act Hearings, 1981 

The House Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Technology held hearings on the NBS Organic Act on June 16-19, 1981. It was the intention of subcommittee 

members to review the adequacy of the act that created the Bureau in 1901; drafts of 

proposed amendments to the 1901 legislation were at hand. Subcommittee member 

Don Fuqua urged his fellows to take care that any revisions of the Organic Act 

not deter NBS from useful work on behalf of America. Rep. Douglas Walgren, subcommittee chair, suggested that the relevant question was, "What should the Bureau be 

doing for the country 5, 10, and 20 years from now?" 

John W. Lyons, suffering under the same communications ban during his term as Director, recalled 

instituting a monthly newsletter to staff. The size of the newsletter gradually expanded to contain 

information on activities throughout NIST, thus mitigating the effect of the ban. 

473 
During the hearings, Secretary of Commerce Malcolm Baidrige, only months into 

his new position, gave a ringing endorsement to NBS: 

I view it as one of the best in the world. 

It would be a mistake to alter the mission of the Bureau or otherwise affect its 

operations by legislation until we have seen what develops from its new relationship to the rest of DoC. 

At issue in the hearings were several proposed modifications to the Bureau's 

environment: a possible new Under Secretary of Commerce for Economic Affairs, 

who might influence NBS programs; Bureau participation in the work of the 

International Trade Administration; possible return to NBS of the National Technical 

Information Service and the Office of Product Standards Policy; and the proper 

Bureau role in industrial technology development, especially including automation 

research. 

Baldrige stressed his view that NBS should remain primarily a research laboratory, 

despite its involvement in America's industrial development. 

The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award 

Secretary of Commerce Malcolm Baldrige died in 1987, a victim of his love for 

riding in rodeos. Friends of Baidrige in Congress, seeking an apt memorial, gave his 

name to a new suggestion—an award for industrial excellence. Such an award, named 

for W. Edwards Deming,36 was given periodically in Japan. 

New Commerce Secretary C. William Verity asked NBS to manage the competition 

for the award.37 Ambler in turn assigned Curt Reimann to the task. Reimann was a good man for the job, since he had a long-standing interest in quality control and was 

familiar with the quality-control community in the United States and abroad. 

Operating without any special funding, Reimann quickly raised money from the 

private sector for the project and recruited industrial representatives to develop criteria 

for the award and to spearhead the selection process. 

So effective was Reimann that it became possible to present the first awards on November 14, 1988. President Reagan showed his interest in the concept by his 

personal participation; Vice President George Bush and several of the Reagan cabinet 

members also attended the ceremony. 

The success of the project led to awards for both Reimann and Ambler—cash for 

the former, the Secretary of Commerce Medal for the latter.3t 

Management of the Baldrige Quality Award became a continuing function for NIST. 

Competition for the award became keen among U.S. industrial firms, and NBS 

Andrea Gabor, The who discovered quality: how W. Edwards Denzing brought the quality revolution 

to America: the stories of Ford, Xerox, and GM (New York: Times Books/Random House, 1990). 

Ambler, SP 825, pp. 38-39. 3t This was the first award of the Secretary's Medal to a government official. 

474 
became more secure in the role given it by Congress to "assist industry in the 

development of technologies and procedures needed to improve quality and modernize 

manufacturing processes." By 1991 NBS publicists could write: 

The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award has quickly become both the 

U.S. standard of quality achievement in industry and a comprehensive guide to 

quality improvement. Tens of thousands of U.S. companies are using the 

application guidelines to evaluate their operations in seven key areas of quality 

management and performance—leadership, information and analysis, planning, 

human resource use, quality assurance of products and services, quality results, 

and customer satisfaction.39 

Civil Servants by Day, Public Servants by Night 

A variety of motives prompted many NBS employees to become active in civic 

affairs. Some sought an outlet for extra energy, but many more simply saw a need that 

they could fill on a part-time basis. Both Gaithersburg and its environs and Boulder 

and its environs offered plenty of opportunity for public service. 

It would be very difficult to record all of the instances of public service among 

Bureau staffers over the years, but it would be unkind to omit some mention of the 

activity. 

Examples of public service during Ernest Ambler's tenure as director included, in 

Montgomery County, Maryland, home of NBS/Gaithersburg: 

• John Menke, Center for Radiation Research, who served on the Montgomery 

County Council. 

• Larry Fischer, Product Performance Engineering Division, who served as a consumer representative for the Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission. 

• David Hogben, Statistical Engineering Division, President of the Greater Glen 

Mill Community Association. 

• Donald R. Johnson, Deputy Director, National Measurement Laboratory, member 

of the Gaithersburg Planning Commission. 

• Julius Persensky, Center for Consumer Product Technology, member of the 

Gaithersburg City Council. 

• Gene Rowland, Deputy Director, Center for Mechanical Engineering and 

Process Technology, member of the Maryland State Advisory Commission for 

Industrialized Buildings and Mobile Homes. 

"Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award," p. 6 in "Research, Services, Facilities: National Institute of 

Standards and Technology," NISTSP 817, August 1991, 88 pp. 

475 
In 1988, exemplars of American industrial excellence began to receive the Malcolm 

Baidridge National Quality Award, named for deceased Secretary of Commerce 

Malcolm Baidridge, Jr. 

In Boulder County, Colorado, home of the NBS/Boulder Laboratories: 

• William L. Gans, Electromagnetic Technology Division, member of the Boulder 

County Housing Authority. 

• John L. Workman, Electromagnetic Fields Division, Mayor of Nederland, 

Colorado. 

476 
Ambler's Impact on NBS 

Ernest Ambler was an important figure in the history of NBS. His scientific work 

gained international renown for himself and the Bureau. He served as chief of the 

Cryogenic Physics Section and the Inorganic Materials Division, as director of the 

Institute for Basic Standards, and as Richard Roberts' deputy before commencing a long tenure as Acting Director and Director of NBS. His leadership of the Bureau 

was instrumental in the transition from NBS to NIST. 

Win Some, Lose Some, But Keep On Leaning 

Ernest Ambler directed the work of the National Bureau of Standards for nearly 

14 years, longer than any save Samuel Stratton and Allen Astin. It can be argued that 

Stratton's administration of the Bureau was the most tumultuous—he personally 

carried the nascent agency through its infancy, successfully and continually marshalling new congressional support in order that NBS could undertake new and needed projects. 

It can also be argued that Astin personally brought the Bureau through a perilous 

time, overseeing the dispersal of one-third of its war-time staff to other agencies, see- ing his agency pilloried as unfair to American enterprise, and finding himself called 

upon to resign, only to leave his post years later of his own volition with the reputation 

of NBS at an all-time high. But one can make a case that Ambler, too, brought his 

agency through a decisive period of its existence. 

Heavy pressure on NBS during Ambler's tenure as director came from two sources. 

From the administrations of Presidents Carter and Reagan—both innately suspicious 

of big government and both determined to prune it—came calls for the privatization of 

the national standards of measurement; for abandonment of the postdoctoral research 

associate program; for disposal of the NBS fire program, its building-technology 

program, its library, its Personnel Division, its Instrument Shops, its NBS procurement 

group; and for an end to publication of the Journal of Research, the NBS Dimensions 

magazine, and the NBS Standard. From the Congress came ever-louder urging for the 

Bureau to do more for cooperative technology, industrial productivity, technology 

transfer, international competitiveness—many names for the same idea. 

Ambler intuitively resisted administration attempts to weaken NBS; the threat to its 

postdoctoral program he found especially dangerous. Some of those battles he won, some he lost. But Ambler had learned one lesson well during a decade of management 

at the Bureau—"keep on leaning." He recalled the lesson during a 1991 retrospective 

speech: 

I did not relish the thought of working with the government machinery outside 

NBS, but I was prepared to be patient and take it on. Above all, you kept coming back and improving your presentation and your own sense of conviction and commitment. "Keep on leaning" became my 

motto. 

4° E. Ambler, NBS Special Publication 825, April 1992, p. 32. 

477 
On the other hand, Congressional calls for NBS to assist American industry struck a responsive chord in Ambler early in his tour as director. Here was a niche that offered an expanding future for the Bureau. 

Leaning Towards Industrial Productivity 

In a revealing preface to a report on progress at NBS during 1979 and 1980, Ernest 

Ambler wrote:4' 

I would like to focus for a moment on the future, and on how NBS research 

can help find solutions to this country's most important and complex problems. 

Energy, environment, health, public safety are quite familiar. Relatively new challenges with equally important consequences for our standard of living and 

general economic strength are the needs for improved industrial innovation and 

productivity. 

In the introduction to that report, the following statement appeared: 

During 1980 every effort has been made to tailor the research programs of 

(NBS) to the technology needs of the coming decade. 

The text continued with a brief discussion of the effort to maintain and enhance both 

the NBS facilities and its staff in the fundamental areas of science and engineering 

that were seen as vital to coming national needs. Then it directed the reader's attention 

to projects intended to "bolster industrial productivity while encouraging energy 

conservation"—electronics, automation, chemical processing, and advanced materials. 

These new watchwords began to dominate the language of Bureau management during 

the decade of the l980s. 

In a 1991 discussion of his administration, Ambler dwelt at length on his personal 

reaction to the 1982 Packard Report.42 He was much taken with the recommendations 

of the report, particularly the first, calling for a "well-defined agency mission," and 

the fifth, calling for "stronger interactions with academia and industry." These, he felt, 

fit well with the mandates continually pressed on the Bureau by members of congress. 

He gave particular significance to refining the NBS mission with regard to assisting 

U.S. industrial prowess, to strengthening ties with outside organizations, and placing 

more emphasis on outside review of NBS work. During the 1980s, that approach was 

successful in attracting increasing financial support from other government agencies 

and from users of NBS services. 

As time went on, Ambler saw more and more clearly the significance of the push 

toward industrial productivity that was manifest in both the Congress and in Reagan's 

Commerce Department. 

41 "National Bureau of Standards 1980," NBS Special Publication 600, January 1981, 40 pp. 42 Ambler, NBS Special Publication 825, pp. 33-34. 

478 
By 1988, Ambler saw the transformation of the National Bureau of Standards into 

the National Institute of Standards and Technology not as a threat, but as an opportunity. He was convinced that intimate involvement by a strong technical agency in 

solving America's trade deficit would happen—if not by NBS, then by another agency 

taking its place. Shortly after his retirement, Ambler described the Congressional 

attitude on passage of the 1988 Competitiveness Act:43 

The intent was clear to have NIST "assist industry." Also implicit [was that] 

this new function should receive equal if not greater emphasis than that of 

providing basic standards and measurements. 

Congress wanted to expand our vision, our influence, and our funding and help us achieve our full potential in the way we worked with industry, small as well as large. To duck such a challenge, even if we could, would not only be 

faint-hearted, but foolish; we would have become the mother of yet another 

agency by starving ourselves. 

Ambler's attitude towards the place of scientific excellence at NBS was reminiscent 

of the often-expressed philosophy of Lewis Branscomb. Both men felt that a good 

scientific atmosphere brought good people to the Bureau, and that good people 

did good work. Branscomb especially decried the distinction between basic and applied 

science, preferring to speak of high intellectual content and productivity as the 

hallmarks of a good staff. 

Despite the continuous efforts of the Reagan administration to cut non-military 

government spending, Ambler left NBS with a substantially larger budget than it had 

when he took office as director. 

TECHNICAL WORK OF THE BUREAU, 1975-1989 

Research in Chemistry 

Only a few of the many chemistry research projects undertaken by the NBS staff 

during this period are mentioned in the following pages. However, the accounts serve 

to underscore the breadth of the Bureau program in chemical science. 

Isotopic Enrichment With Lasers 

A recurring problem in fields as diverse as clinical medicine and nuclear power was 

finding ways to obtain chemicals that were enriched in certain isotopes. In medicine 

and biological research, particular isotopes could be used as tracers to follow the 

course of chemicals added to living matter. In nuclear power, the radioactive properties 

of certain uranium isotopes made them especially suitable for use in reactors. 

Over the years, various methods were used to achieve isotopic enrichment. A 

particularly interesting method perfected during this period involved the use of photochemistry. A group of Bureau scientists employed electronic excitation to produce 

stable, enriched compounds containing chlorine or boron isotopes. 

Ibid., p. 39. 

479 
Taking advantage of support from the NBS Laser Chemistry Program, Joseph J. 

Ritter of Inorganic Materials Division and Richard A. Keller of the Physical 

Chemistr)\Division, along with their colleagues Harry J. Dewey, a postdoctoral 

research in the Optical Physics Division and Michel Lamotte, a visiting 

scientist the Faculty of Sciences of Bordeaux, France were able to markedly 

affect the composition of 35Cl using a photochemical 

The authors noted that earlier attempts at enrichment involving laser irradiation had 

failed to produce stable molecules. One of these attempts had involved Stephen R. 

Leone, prior to his joining NBS; along with his mentor at the University of California 

at Berkeley, C. Bradley Moore, Leone had irradiated bromine molecules, using the 

558 nm and 532 nm lines from an yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser. The laser irradiation 

selectively excited the diatomic bromine molecules until they dissociated into atoms 

that reacted with hydrogen iodide. They found indications that marked isotopic 

enrichments (from the normal 1:1 ratio of 79Br:81Br to 4:1 H8'Br:H79Br) occurred, prior 

to "scrambling"—atomic rearrangement of the HBr molecules through collisions, with 

loss of the enrichment.45 

Ritter and his colleagues sought to produce stable end-products in their experiments. 

To this end, they chose to excite 35C1 or 37C1 electrons in thiophosgene (C32S35C12 or 

C32S37C12) to a particular state by the choice of the irradiating wavelength of a nitrogen-pumped, tunable dye laser, then to retain the isotopic enrichment by taking 

advantage of an enhanced chemical reaction rate between the excited molecule and 

diethoxyethylene. The concentration of 35C1 in thiophosgene was changed from 75 % in 

the naturally occurring material to 64 % (about one-third the theoretical limit for the 

concentration change) when 35Cl was selectively irradiated, and from 75 % to 80 % 

when 37C1 was irradiated. 

A similar experiment was performed on boron isotopes by Keller and Samuel M. 

Freund of the Optical Physics Division, using radiation from a carbon dioxide laser. 

In this case, boron trichioride was reacted with hydrogen sulfide. After excitation of 

the "B—Cl stretching vibration in the BCI3 molecule for periods as long as 10 hours, 

the abundance of "B fell from its usual value of 80.5 % to 70.8 %; correspondingly, 

the '°B abundance rose from 19.5 % to 29.2%. Excitation of the '°B—CI stretching 

mode, on the other hand, resulted in an isotopic enrichment of 

These experiments led to the issuance of two patents—one for the laser-induced 

photochemical enrichment of boron isotopes47 and a second for photochemical 

enrichment of chlorine 

Michel Lamotte, Harry J. Dewey. Richard A. Keller, and Joseph J. Ritter, "Laser induced photochemical 

enrichment of chlorine isotopes," Chemical Physics Letters 30, No. 2, 165-170 (1975). 

'° Stephen R. Leone and C. Bradley Moore, "Isotopically selective photochemistry of bromine," Phys. Rev. 

Let!., 33, No. 5, 269-272 (1974). 

46"Laser-induced photochemical enrichment of isotopes," Dimensions/NBS, April 1975, pp. 80-82. 

'° U.S. Patent 3,996,120, issued December 7, 1976, to S. M. Freund and J. J. Ritter. 

U.S. Patent 4,025,406, issued on May 24, 1977, to M. Lamotte, H. J. Dewey, R. A. Keller, and J. J. Ritter. 

480 
Later, Ritter made use of the technique to study chemical reactions of the molecules 

CI2CF2 and Br2CF2 with several olefins, finding that he could establish the presence 

of certain intermediary molecules, as well as determining the levels of enrichment 

occurring in the isotopes of carbon. Ritter used a carbon dioxide transverse excitation 

laser in the experiments, which appeared to involve unexpectedly complex free-radical 

reactions. 

Atomic Weights 

Lura J. Powell, Thomas J. Murphy, and John W. Gramlich used the technique of 

mass spectrometry to determine the atomic weight of silver with unprecedented 

accuracy. The value, 107.868 15 ± 0.000 11, was obtained for the natural isotopic 

abundance of the element, which contained nearly equal parts '°7Ag and '°9Ag. The 

uncertainty of the new determination was smaller than the previous best by a factor of 

five. To obtain the result for the reference sample, carefully measured quantities of 

the two isotopes were mixed to calibrate the mass spectrometer.5° 

In their experiments, Powell, Murphy, and Gramlich used the same isotopic samples 

of silver that had been employed earlier by Richard S. Davis and Vincent E. Bower 

to improve coulometric measurements of the electrochemical equivalent of silver.5' 

Davis and Bower discovered a means of reducing the measurement error arising from 

impurities in the silver; they dissolved the silver from the residue in the coulometer 

and plated the silver onto a cathode held at constant potential with respect to a 

reference electrode, integrating the electrolysis current electronically.52 

A fundamental units task force of the (international group) CODATA immediately 

undertook to use the new value for a recalculation of the Faraday, historically 

evaluated by electrodeposition of silver. The new Faraday uncertainty, reflecting the 

improved accuracy of the silver atomic weight, improved by a factor of five. 

A discussion of progress in the evaluation of atomic weights and of the use of tables 

of atomic weights prepared under the auspices of the International Union of Pure and 

Applied Chemistry was presented by I. Lynus Barnes and H. Steffen Peiser for the 

National Conference of Standards Laboratories during its 1986 meeting. The authors 

pointed out the ubiquity of atomic weight data in science, technology and commerce, 

the usefulness of the IUPAC tables in unifying world-wide data on atomic weights, 

and the process by which the tabular values were derived.53 

J. J. Ritter, "Isotopically selective CO2 transverse excitation laser induced chemical reactions of CI2CF2 

and Br2CF2 with olefins," J. Am. Chern. Soc. 100, No. 8, 2441-2444 (1978). 5° L. J. Powell, T. J. Murphy, and J. W. Gramlich, "The absolute isotopic abundance and atomic weight of a reference sample of silver," J. Res. NBS 87, No. 1, 9-19 (1982). 

R. S. Davis and V. E. Bower, "Corrections to the Faraday as determined by means of the silver coulometer," Atomic Masses and Fundamental Constants, J. A. Nolen, Jr. and W. Benenson, editors (New York: 

Plenum Press, 1980), pp. 161-165. 52 R. S. Davis and V. E. Bower, "A novel method for analyzing silver sediment with high precision," J. Res. NBS 84, No. 2, 157-160 (1979). 5° 1. L. Barnes and H. S. Peiser, "Twenty five years of accuracy assessment of the atomic weights," pp. 

22/1-22/10 in Proc. Nat!. ConJ of Stds. Labs., October 6-9, 1986, Gaithersburg, Maryland. 

481 
Quality Control Through Standard Reference Materials 

At the July 1979 meeting of the National Conference on Weights and Measures, 

Donald R. Johnson, programs director for the National Measurement Laboratory, 

reviewed a few of the many contributions made by the NBS program in Standard 

Reference Materials (OSRM) to quality control of commercial products. The new chief 

of the OSRM program was George A. Uriano, a physicist with 10 years' research 

experience in the Electricity Division, 5 years as Deputy Director of the Institute for 

Materials Research, and 3 years as Deputy Chief of the OSRM. Uriano succeeded 

J. Paul Cali as chief; Cali had served in that position for a decade. 

Areas singled out by Johnson as particularly benefitting from NBS work included 

the following: 

• Control of the composition of steel, through reference materials and standard 

procedures. The Bureau offered more than 100 SRMs for steel. 

• Identification and measurement of toxic contaminants in food. 

• Accuracy in clinical chemistry. 

• Development and enforcement of environmental and occupational regulations, 

which required SRMs for use under the Clean Air Act and the Clean Water Act, as well as for use by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. 

• Measurements of automobile fuel economy. 

• Identification and measurement of materials involved in resource recovery 

programs. 

At that time, some 900 Standard Reference Materials in 70 different categories were available from NBS. 

Excitable Chemical Species 

Important advances in understanding the effects of radiation on chemical species, as well as the nature of chemical reactions among excited molecules were made at 

NBS over a long period of time. 

Although the Free Radicals program was formally discontinued in July 1959, Bureau 

work on the chemistry of excited molecules continued in several divisions, owing to 

the wealth of information to be obtained from such studies. 

During 1975, Pierre J. Ausloos, a radiation chemist trained at the University of 

Louvain, Belgium, and Sharon G. Lias—a Bureau scientist who first visited NBS as a student, then as a Visiting Professor from Rockefeller University in New York City— 

wrote a textbook on the role of ion-molecule reactions in radiation chemistry.54 The 

book was one of a series planned for the U.S. Energy Research and Development 

Administration. 

Sharon 0. Lias and Pierre Ausloos, Ion-Molecule Reactions: Their Role in Radiation Chemistry (Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 1975) 205 pp. 

482 
J. Paul Cali joined NBS in 1966 to manage the production and certification of 

Standard Reference Materials. He later headed the SRM program until his retirement in 

1978. 

In a study of the effect of solar radiation on chiorofluorocarbons and carbon tetrachloride, Ausloos, Richard E. Rebbert, and their colleague Lois Glassgow, a guest 

worker, discovered evidence that even sunlight that had filtered through the earth's 

atmosphere could dissociate these substances under the right conditions.55 It was noted P. Ausloos, R. E. Rebbert, and L. Glassgow, "Photodecomposition of chloromethanes absorbed on silica 

surfaces,"). Res. NBS 82, No. I, pp. 1-8, 1977. 

483 
George A. Uriano served NBS/NIST 

in a variety of ways during his 

32 years at the Bureau—as a bench 

scientist, as deputy to the director of 

the Institute for Materials Research, as chief of the Standard Reference 

Materials program. and as director of 

the Advanced Technology program. 

by a science writer that the breakdown of halocarbons by solar radiation played a strong role in the durability of the earth's ozone layer.56 

In recognition of his substantial contributions to excitation chemistry, Ausloos 

received the Department of Commerce Gold Medal award in 1976. Among the many 

achievements recorded by Ausloos and his colleagues were numerous experiments; the 

development of inert-gas lamps, some with special aluminum windows to permit 

passage of high-energy radiation, to provide radiant sources in the energy range 8 eV 

to 21 eV; editing of a text on Fundamental Processes in Radiation Chemistry; and 

organizing, for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization Advanced Study Institute, 

conferences in 1973 and 1974 devoted to the discussion of chemical spectroscopy and 

photochemistry in the vacuum ultraviolet. 

The specialty of Hideo Okabe was ultraviolet photochemistry—especially the study 

of photodissociation and fluorescence in various types of materials. He evaluated 

air-pollution aspects of sulfur dioxide (SO2), developing a detector with a linear 

response at levels ranging from 20 ppb to 1600 ppm. This work had an immediate 

impact on the work of the Environmental Protection Agency and industrial firms 

Industrial Research, April 1977, p. 19. 484 
NBS researcher Albert E. Ledford adjusted an instrument developed at the Bureau to measure very small amounts of ozone, a serious pollutant at ground level but protector 

against ultraviolet radiation in the upper atmosphere. 

485 
engaged in pollution monitoring and control, and it led to the Department of 

Commerce Gold Medal award for Okabe in Okabe also investigated the photodissociation of thiophosgene.58 He also wrote a book, Photochemistry of Small 

Molecules, that became a classic in the field of photochemistry.59 It was translated into 

several languages. 

Ion-molecule reactions were found to be important in the chemistry of the upper 

atmosphere of the earth, as well as in excited environments such as flames and 

plasmas; the reactions were observed in mass-spectrometric studies of the earth's upper 

atmosphere. Stephen R. Leone, chemist in the Quantum Physics Division and 

the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics, developed a new technique for the 

study of the elusive products of ion-molecule reactions. 

Leone and his university colleagues used an infrared detection technique to observe 

the afterglow in flow of excited helium gas carrying negatively charged oxygen 

atoms, which reacted with carbon monoxide in a flow tube. Vibrational chemiluminescence was observed from the carbon dioxide molecules formed by the ionmolecule reaction; it was the first such observation reported. The group found evidence 

of vibrational excitation in the CO2 spectrum, and they obtained to obtain information 

on the dynamics of the reactions and on the rates of energy loss from the excited 

vibrational states.6° 

Calorimetry, a Basic Tool for Chemists 

Calorimetry, the experimental determination of the heat content of materials, was a basic tool for chemists from the earliest days of the study of chemistry. Yielding 

information about the thermodynamic properties of a test substance and about the 

thermal changes occurring in chemical reactions, calorimetry provided essential 

guidance for the chemist and the chemical engineer. 

Since it was an important science, the study of calorimetry was a continuing 

program from the beginning of NBS. By the year 1911, the Bureau already was supplying about 100 types of combustion samples for use in the calibration of calorimeters.6' These calibration samples were extremely valuable to calorimetrists because 

each of their measurements was performed in a home-made instrument. 

In 1946, a meeting of a group of low-temperature calorimetrists was organized by 

Hugh M. Huffman, a scientist at the Bureau of Mines in Bartlesville Oklahoma, in 

conjunction with a meeting of the American Chemical Society. The meeting was sponsored by the Committee on Thermal Data for the Chemical Industry, an arm of the 

National Research Council. 

H. Okabe, "Fluorescence quenching of sulfur dioxide by source emission gases," Anal. Che,n. 48, No. I I, 

1487-1489 (1976). 

H. Okabe, "Photodissociation of phosgene," J. Chem. Phys. 66, No. 5, 2058-2062 (1977). 

Hideo Okabe, Photochemistry of Small Molecules (New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1978). 

V. M. Bierbaum, G. B. Ellison, J. H. Futrell, and S. R. Leone, "Vibrational chemiluminescence from 

ion-molecule reactions: 0 + CO CO2 + e," J. Chein. Phys. Leo'. 67, No. 5, 2375-2376 (1977). 

NBS Annual Report for 1911, p. 80. 

486 
In work that was recognized by the Gold Medal Award from the Department of 

Commerce, chemist Hideo Okabe developed a sulfur dioxide monitor. Here, he was 

shown adjusting the apparatus. 

The opportunity for calorimetrists to meet regularly with other scientists who shared 

their concerns so captivated them that they immediately made the calorimetry meeting an annual event called the Calorimetry Conference. It was decided quickly that 

conference topics should include high temperatures as well as low. Attendance at the 

conferences grew from 40 in 1947 to as many as 200 during the 1 980s. 

487 
Gradually, a loose structure for the conferences was formed by members in 

academia, in industry, and in government. Eventually, each conference elected officers 

including a chair, a treasurer, a Board of Directors, and Counselors. The Bureau was 

involved in the Calorimetry Conferences from the start. Ferdinand G. Brickwedde and 

Russell B. Scott were among only 14 scientists who attended the first meeting.62 

The expressed intention from the beginning of the conferences was to cater to 

scientists actively practicing thermal measurements. The primary focus of the first 

meeting was on accuracy of measurements. Necessarily, that topic included an emphasis on the accuracy of the temperature scale and on the quality of available 

thermometers. 

Hugh Huffman died in 1950; 4 years later an award for excellence in calorimetry research was created in his name. Brickwedde was the second scientist to 

receive the Huffman Award. Other NBS winners of the award included Frederick 

D. Rossini, in 1956; Charles W. Beckett, in 1967; and Edward J. Prosen, in 1979. 

Many Bureau staff members were involved in administering the conferences.63 

These include service as: • Conference Chair: Prosen (1954), George T. Armstrong (1964), E. Dale West 

(1971), Patrick A. G. O'Hare (1985), Jane E. Callanan (1989), and Eugene S. 

Domalski (1995). 

• Secretary-Treasurer: George T. Furukawa (1961 -63). 

• Members of the Board of Directors: George T. Furukawa (1956, 1966, and 

1973), Armstrong (1961), West (1967), Prosen (1968), Robert N. Goldberg 

(1974 and 1993), Kenneth L. Churney (1976), Callanan (1983), Duane R. Kirklin 

(1986), Jennifer C. Colbert (1989), and Yadu B. Tewari (1992). 

• Counselors: Armstrong (1979-80), Callanan (1985-86), and Domalski (1988-92). 

Brief notes describing the Bureau's Huffman Award winners and members of the 

Bureau staff who chaired various conferences provides a precis of NBS activities in 

calorimetry: 

• Some of Brickwedde's accomplishments—producing the first measurable 

quantities of deuterium for Professor Harold Urey, and helping to create equipment for the liquefaction of liquid hydrogen in record quantities—have been 

chronicled earlier in this volume. His 30-year career at NBS also included 

thermodynamic studies of hydrogen and deuterium and a variety of thermometry 

and calorimetry work. He received the Department of Commerce Gold Medal 

in 1953. Brickwedde served as Chief of the NBS Low Temperature Laboratory 

from 1926-46 and as Chief of the Heat and Power Division from 1945-56. 

R. M. tzatt, P. R. Brown, and J. L. Oscarson, "The history of the Calorimetry Conference: 1946-1995," 

J. Chem. Thern,odyna,nics 27. No. 5, pp. 449-464 (1995). 63 Eugene S. Domalski, Private communication. Much of the information contained in this section was kindly 

provided by Domaiski. 

488 
• Rossini was a Bureau staff member from 1928 to 1950. He served for more than a decade on the Commission on Thermochemistry of the International Union of 

Pure and Applied Chemistry—5 years as its Chair. He built calorimeters for use 

in the study of the enthalpy of reaction of hydrogen and oxygen and also 

to measure the heat of combustion of methane and many other hydrocarbons. 

Besides some 200 scientific papers, Rossini was the author of 11 books. In 1942, 

he accepted the directorship of a project of the American Petroleum Institute— 

Project 44, the collection, calculation and compilation of a great variety of data 

of interest to the petroleum industry. His greatest legacy was NBS Circular 500, 

"Selected Values of Chemical Thermodynamic Properties." It became a valued 

reference for chemists and chemical engineers. 

• Charles Beckett joined NBS as a research chemist in 1950. He soon became 

Chief of the Thermodynamics Section of the Heat and Power Division. His 

scientific work, in the course of which he received the Department of Commerce 

Gold Medal Award, was achieved despite the effects of severe arthritis. He 

performed research in mass spectrometry, shock-tube studies, flame, drop, and 

bomb calorimetry, statistical mechanics, molecular and microwave spectroscopy, 

and high-speed thermodynamic measurements. 

Later, Beckett agreed to serve as Project Coordinator for an Air Force rocketry 

program to derive thermodynamic information on light elements. During the 

I 960s and I 970s, thermal-properties research of national importance was performed in the Heat Division by Joseph F. Masi, Beckett, Armstrong, and others 

under contract with the U.S. Army and the U.S. Air Force. Many NBS staff 

members contributed scientific work to this project over a period of several 

years. Beckett also edited the NBS Journal of Research from 1962-75. 

Upon Beckett's retirement from NBS in 1976, a symposium on the topic of 

chemical thermodynamics was held in his honor. 

• Edward Prosen came to NBS in 1936, before completing his formal training in 

science. His initial position was that of an assistant in physics. During his nearly 

45 years at the Bureau, he became known internationally for his work in 

thermodynamics, hydrocarbon bomb calorimetry and the reactions of boron 

compounds. He was a member of the International Union of Pure and Applied 

Chemistry (IUPAC) Commission on Thermodynamics. He won the Department 

of Commerce Gold Medal Award in 1956. 

As late as 1977, Prosen participated in a microcalorimetric study of heart 

pacemakers, a project intended to assess the feasibility of using that method to 

measure energy loss in the cardiac devices in a nondestructive manner.64 

• A transplanted Irishman, Patrick A. G. O'Hare spent most of his scientific 

career in physical chemistry research at the Argonne National Laboratory. He 

joined NIST in 1989. His principal calorimetric interests lay in bomb calorimetry, where he studied fluorides, selenides, silicides, and tellurides. 

E. J. Prosen and J. C. Colbert, "Microcalorimetric study of cardiac pacemakers," NBSIR 77-1310, September 1977, 21 pp. 

489 
• George T. Armstrong came to NBS from Yale University in 1951 as a member 

of the Heat and Power Division. His early work focused on the vapor pressures 

of fuels and other high-energy substances.65 By the early 1960s he directed the 

Combustion Calorimetry Laboratory in the division's Heat Measurements 

Section, with responsibility for creating techniques and standards of heats of 

combustion. He developed a special interest there in fluorine thermochemistry, 

for which he received the Department of Commerce Silver Medal Award in 

1967.66 

• E. Dale West joined NBS in 1948. His principal interests at the Bureau were in 

adiabatic calorimetry at high temperatures. He studied the heat capacity, 

transition temperatures and heats of transition in sulfur and made similar 

measurements in sapphire and graphite. West headed the Heat Measurements 

Section of the Heat Division for 2 years, then transferred to Boulder, where he 

headed the Laser Radiometry Section of the Quantum Electronics Division. 

There he developed a reference calorimeter for the measurement of laser power. 

He retired from NBS in 1980 to create a company for the commercial design and 

construction of calorimeters. 

• Jane E. Callanan came to NBS in 1981 as a research chemist. Her research interests were varied: low temperature heat capacity, standards for differential 

scanning calorimetry, thermal characterization, and thermodynamic properties. 

She left the Bureau in 1991 to establish a consulting firm in Boulder, Colorado. 

• Eugene S. Domalski joined NBS early in 1959 as a member of the Heat 

Measurements Section of the Heat Division. Soon he began collaborating with 

George Armstrong in studies of heats of formation and heats of combustion. 

Later he took an active role in preparing thermodynamic data, including two 

definitive compilations of heat capacity of organic compounds, for the Office of 

Standard Reference Data, and in the calorimetry of refuse-derived fuels for the 

energy-conservation program. 

Discussion of the Bureau's activities in calorimetry would be incomplete without 

acknowledgment of the large role played by George T. Furukawa and his associates. 

Furukawa joined NBS in 1949 as a member of the Thermodynamics Section of the 

Heat and Power Division. Ferdinand G. Brickwedde was chief of both the section and 

the division at that time. Furukawa's considerable ability as a calorimetrist was 

directed immediately to providing calorimetric data of interest to the members of the 

Calorimetry Conference. With his colleagues Defoe C. Ginnings, Robert E. McCoskey, 

Raymond A. Nelson, Gerard J. King, Martin L. Reilly, Thomas B. Douglas, Anne F. 

Ball, Jeanette H. Piccirelli, William G. Saba, and Andrew C. Victor, Furukawa 

furnished calorimetric properties data on a succession of materials intended for use as standard samples dedicated to the purposes of the Calorimetry Conference. 

George T. Armstrong, F. G. Brickwedde, and R. B. Scott, "The vapor pressure of the deuteromethanes," 

J. Chew. Phys. 21, 1297 (1953). 

E. S. Domaiski and G. 1. Armstrong, "The heats of combustion of polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) and 

graphite in elemental fluorine." J. Res. NBS 71A No. 2, 105-1 18 (1967). 

490 
When the Heat Measurements Section of the Heat Division was disbanded in 1970, 

Furukawa transferred his attention to more specifically thermometric problems with 

the same characteristic thoroughness he had earlier given to calorimetry. 

New Equations for Steam 

Steam, one of man's oldest sources of motive power and a key ingredient in many 

manufacturing processes, would seem an unlikely prospect for an NBS investigation. 

Yet Lester Haar and John S. Gallagher of the NBS Thermophysics Division and 

George S. Kell, a colleague from the National Research Council in Ottawa, Canada 

undertook the task of re-formulating the equations that provided thermodynamic 

properties for water and steam. 

The work was requested by the International Association for the Properties of Steam 

and performed under the auspices of the National Research Council of Canada (NRC) 

and the Bureau's Office of Standard Reference Data. The three scientists prepared new equations to cover the temperature range from 0 °C to 2000 °C and the pressure 

range from 0 GPa to 3 GPa (about 30,000 times atmospheric pressure). 

Demand for the new tables, entitled "NBS/NRC Steam Tables: Thermodynamic and 

Transport Properties and Computer Programs for the Vapor and Liquid States of 

Water in SI Units" was sufficiently large that the Hemisphere Publication Corporation 

of Washington, DC printed the tables in book form.67 

The new tables quickly became a "best seller" among NBS reports. Demand 

remained brisk for more than a decade. 

A Hectic Decade for NBS Fire Science 

Following release of "America Burning," a dramatic report issued in 1973 by the 

National Commission on Fire Prevention, the Nation's efforts in fire protection 

received more attention. In brief, the report indicted the United States as possessing the 

worst record for fire deaths and property loss of any of the major industrial nations. 

Enactment of the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 soon followed. 

The following account is lengthy, primarily to portray a coherent picture of a large 

Bureau program—fire science—over a long period of time. The account also illustrates 

well the level of dedication that came from a group whose very existence was 

questioned at the highest executive levels. 

An NBS Center for Fire Research 

By direct instruction of the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 65 the 

Bureau created a Center for Fire Research, "to conduct basic and applied fire research, 

research into the factors influencing human victims of fire, and operation tests, 

demonstration projects, and fire investigations." 

L. Haar, J. S. Gallagher, and 0. S. Kell, "NBS/NRC Stea,n Tables: Thermodynamic and Transport Properties and Computer Programs Jbr the Vapor and Liquid States of Water in SI Units" (Washington, DC: 

Hemisphere Publication Corporation, 1984) 320 pp. 

Public Law PL93-498, 88 Stat. 1535-1549, enacted October 29, 1974. 

491 
As we noted in chapter 3, Director of the new center was John Lyons, hired by 

Director Richard Roberts in October, 1973 to give new leadership to the entire 

program of fire research at NBS. By September, 1975, Lyons had in place his senior 

management team. 

Heading the Fire Science Division was Robert S. Levine, newly arrived from 

NASA's Langley Research Center with experience in rocket technology. The division's 

program for physics and dynamics was led by John A. Rockett, an experienced fire 

hand who had joined the Bureau in 1968 to plan for the implementation of the Fire 

Research and Safety Act of 1968. The division's program for fire chemistry was 

headed by Clayton M. Huggett, who since 1970 had supervised research on the 

chemistry of ignition and combustion, fire retardants, and the toxicity of combustion 

products. Acting Director of the program for toxicology of combustion products was 

Merritt M. Birky, a 1961 NAS/NRC postdoctoral research associate in chemical 

thermodynamics with 7 years' subsequent experience in atomic physics and 4 years 

with the fire science program. Acting chief of the Office of Information and Hazard 

Analysis was Benjamin Buchbinder. 

The Fire Safety Engineering Division was headed by Irwin A. Benjamin, a structural 

engineer who joined NBS in 1968 as Chief of the Fire Research Section of the 

Building Research Division. Studies of fire prevention were headed by James H. 

Winger—since his entry to NBS in 1971 heavily involved in the development and 

evaluation of fire test methods. A program in control of fire in furnishings was led by 

Sanford Davis, newly arrived from the BASF Wyandotte Corp. A project in fire 

design concepts was headed by Harold E. Nelson. Acting chief for control of fire in 

construction was Daniel Gross, since 1950 involved at NBS in various aspects of fire 

research. Acting chief of a program in fire detection and control systems was Richard 

0. Bright. 

By the end of 1974, the NBS fire program had stopped using test facilities at the 

former Bureau site in Washington, DC. The Fire Research building at Gaithersburg, 

begun in October 1973, was occupied in April 1974, dedicated on June 25, 1974, but 

completed only during October 1975. The building was located somewhat away from 

the general-purpose laboratories for improved safety. With forward-looking management at all levels, the program was well into its most productive era, but one that 

would not be free of controversy. 

Topsy-Turvy Funding 

The Center for Fire Research was staffed by 90 full-time permanent employees 

during 1974. This staff was augmented by perhaps 20 Industrial Research Associates, 

postdoctoral research associates, and guest scientists. They worked with great effective- ness on a variety of projects, as we shall soon see. However, funding for the new 

center was very much out of the ordinary, mainly because of repeated changes in the 

administration of the Nation's fire programs. 

492 
A chronological treatment of the House Appropriations Commerce Subcommittee 

may best illustrate the uneven support that the funding process produced for the NBS 

fire program: 

• Date: April 9, 1974 

Hearings on National Bureau of Fire Prevention.69 

Testimony given by: Betsy Ancker-Johnson, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for 

Science and Technology and John W. Lyons, Director, NBS Fire Programs. 

At the time of these hearings by the 93rd Congress in its second session, authorizing 

legislation for a National Bureau of Fire Prevention had passed the Senate and was 

awaiting floor action in the House. Assuming that the NBFP would come to exist, the 

Subcommittee intended to fund its planned $4 million budget from two sources: the 

National Science Foundation which, through its program on "Research Applied to 

National Needs," would contribute $1.7 million; andNBS, which would contribute 

$3 million from its fire program. The Subcommittee's uncertainty regarding the future 

of the Bureau's fire research program can be detected in the following exchange: 

Mr. Slack: Do you or do you not propose to have the National Bureau of 

Standards continue its program with your reimbursing them for their work? 

Dr. Ancker-Johnson: Yes, Sir, NBS will continue work with the $3 million in 

programs transferred to the new Bureau. At this time, we intend to do no research in-house. We will use the National Bureau of Standards facilities. 

As she had done the previous year, Ancker-Johnson presented the NBS budget as a part of a larger "Science and Technology" activity. During that presentation, the NBS 

fire program was discussed only briefly: 

Mr. Slack: What fire research work would remain as part of your regular 

appropriation in NBS? 

Dr. Ancker-Johnson: In Fiscal Year 1975, Mr. Chairman, there will be a base 

program funded at a level of $1,181 

Date: October 29, 1974 

Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 

The FFPCA-74 created new agencies for fire prevention and research, but the 

Bureau of Fire Prevention was not among them. Instead, the act established a National 

Fire Prevention and Control Administration as part of the Department of Commerce 

and a Fire Research Center as part of NBS. Joseph E. Clark, former chief of the 

Bureau's Fire Technology Division, was named Acting Administrator of the NFPCA. 

The NFPCA was authorized $10 million for the Fiscal Year ending June 30, 1975, and 

$15 million for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1976. The NBS Fire Research Center 

(as the Act called it) was authorized $3.5 million and $4 million for the same periods. 

House Appropriations Subcommittee hearings, Part 3, Commerce, pp. 824-845. 

70Ibid., p. 1008. 

493 
• Date: April 15, 1975 

Hearings on Fiscal 1976, House Appropriations Subcommittee on Commerce: 

A. National Fire Prevention and Control Administration.7' Testimony of Joseph E. 

Clark, Acting Administrator, NFPCA: 

The $3 million from the NBS Fiscal 1975 funding that was to have gone to the 

Bureau of Fire Prevention instead went to the NFPCA and thence back to NBS in 

reimbursement for services rendered. In his general statement, Clark observed: 

The 1975 (NFPCA) budget included a transfer of $1.7 million from the 

NSF. . . RANN program. . . and a transfer of $3 million from the NBS fire 

research and safety program. In 1976, the remaining $1.1 million of the NBS 

fire research and safety program is being transferred to the NFPCA to 

consolidate all Commerce fire programs within one appropriation. The Fire 

Research Center located at the NBS Gaithersburg, MD, facilities will be funded 

on a reimbursable basis by the NFPCA.72 

Carrying. out the plan outlined by Clark would place the entire NBS program in fire 

research under the direction of another agency. The Bureau had fought this type of 

problem earlier—Allen Astin had struggled during the post-WWII period to bring the 

fraction of direct congressional funding for NBS from 40 % to a more livable 80 %. 

To have an entire Bureau center under outside control—no matter the level of communication with the outside agency—would rob the Bureau of its ability to direct its own work. 

Mr. Slack displayed his puzzlement about the Commerce Department intentions in 

the following exchange: 

Mr. Slack: Is the Fire Research Center a separate organization? 

Mr. Clark: The legislation established a Fire Research Center in a formal sense as a separate entity. 

Mr. Slack: Would you tell us about the proposed transfer of this $1.1 million 

from NBS? 

Mr. Clark: The transfer of $1.1 million in 1976 from NBS to the Fire 

Administration is for the purpose of consolidating in one appropriation all of 

the Commerce Department fire programs.73 

B. The NBS Fire Research Center 

Director Richard Roberts, testifying on behalf of NBS, submitted a detailed budget 

for the Bureau that showed74 the loss of $3 million in fire-research base funding for 

Fiscal 1975, and the plan to transfer the remaining $1 million base support for fire 

71 Ibid., pp. 301-367. 

Ibid., p. 335. 

Ibid.. p. 364. 

' Ibid., p. 470. 

494 
research in Fiscal 1976. This plan was repeated in his discussion with Congressman 

Joseph D. Early of Massachusetts. 

Mr. Early: So in two transactions we are transferring $3.2 million [originally in 

the NBS budget] from the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration, 

and in another section of this request we are transferring $1.1 million from 

NBS? 

Mr. Roberts: That is correct, sir. We decided in the Department of Commerce 

that it would make more sense to budget all of the dollars in one place.75 

Congressman Early, perhaps not sure he was hearing the story correctly, asked 

Roberts to repeat it. Roberts did. 

In the House hearings through Fiscal 1979, there is no evidence of base-funding 

support for the NBS Center for Fire Research. All of the support came from outside, 

mostly (about $4 million to $5 million) from the National Fire Prevention and Control 

Administration.76 

• Date: February 28, 1979 

Hearings of Fiscal 1980, 96th Congress, House Appropriations Subcommittee on Commerce. 

During the hearings for Fiscal Year 1980, Jordan J. Baruch, Assistant Secretary of 

Commerce for Science and Technology under President Jimmy Carter, presented the 

NBS budget as had his immediate predecessor. Baruch sought to reverse the funds 

transfer that had taken place years before.77 

Mr. Slack: I note that you propose a transfer of $1.1 million from the U.S. Fire 

Administration [new name for the National Fire Prevention and Control 

Administration]. What is the alleged purpose of that transfer? 

Dr. Baruch: The research and development activity at the bureau in 

fundamental effects of fire would be moved out of the Federal Energy 

Emergency Management Association directly to the bureau [NBS]. The 

$1.1 million is dictated primarily by some needs for basic fire research. 

Mr. Slack: If you can, tell me again why would we not transfer all of the funds 

for fire research to NBS? 

Dr. Baruch: Good question. 

As the Fiscal 1980 NBS appropriations bill was enacted, it included the restoration 

of $1.1 million for its basic work in fire research. Direct Congressional funding for the 

NBS fire science program was back. The funding level stayed near $1.2 million for 

Ibid., p. 689. 76 House hearings, March 10, 1978, p. 631. 

House hearings, February 28, 1979, pp. 630-633. 

495 

Mr. Dwyer: I don't agree with the Administration or whoever recommended 

the cut of $4 million, to discontinue the research and experiments that go on to 

try to save lives of people who live in high-rise apartments and in places of 

public assembly. 

It seems to me that this work is most important, because of the new materials 

that are being developed and installed in these buildings. I think it is really the 

obligation of the Federal Government to be helpful and useful in that area in 

protecting these lives. 

Once again, the Congress overrode the wishes of the Reagan Administration, 

funding the fire program for Fiscal 1985 at the level of $5 

Prior to the Department of Commerce budget submission for Fiscal 1988 (March 24, 

1987), a new strategy for dealing with the NBS fire science program was devised. En this plan, the centers for fire research and building research were combined and 

their direct appropriation requests pared to reach a total of $5 million. Ultimately, this 

strategy prevailed, although it appeared to fly in the face of the Federal Fire 

Prevention and Control Act of 1974, which required an administratively separate center 

for fire research. 

Although the staff of the Center for Fire Research might have suffered some 

nervousness as they watched their appropriations numbers bounce up and down, their 

productivity during this period was impressive. A rapid search of the excellent 

facilities of the Fire Research Information Service produced nearly 3000 references to 

publications by the CFR staff and their colleagues in fire-science programs around 

the world during the period 1968-1993. 

Over the years, the NBS fire program was marked by its wide range of studies—in 

the theories of fire, in the development of testing devices, and in the examination of 

actual fire disasters. In the sheer numbers of collaborations with workers in other 

laboratories and in other disciplines, too, the program set an example for effectiveIn the following accounts, we illustrate the breadth of the fire program. 

Flammable Fabrics 

Public Law 90-189, the Flammable Fabrics Act, amendment of 21967, substantially 

broadened the responsibilities of NBS.87 Although these responsibilities declined 

drastically when the Consumer Product Safety Commission was formed late in 1972, 

work on fabric flammability continued. 

House Appropriations Subcommittee hearings on Commerce, March 6, 1985, p. 1729. 

D. Gross, "Fire Research at NBS: The First 75 Years," Proc. 3rd mm! on Fire Safety Sci, July 

8-12, 1991, Edinburgh Scotland, G. Cox and B. Langford, editors (New York: Elsevier Applied Science, 

1991), pp. 119-133. 81 Stat. 568, December 1967. 

497 
When the Flammable Fabrics Act amendment was passed, the Bureau got a taste of 

the life of a regulatory agency; the Congress specified that interstate trade would 

become illegal for fabrics that could not pass a test devised by NBS. Joseph E. Clark, 

Chief of the NBS Office of Flammable Fabrics, reviewed the new legal responsibilities 

of NBS for a textiles periodical.88 The Bureau, he wrote, was directed to provide the 

technical underpinning to permit the Secretary of Commerce to define reasonable and 

useful standards for fabrics, such as rugs, carpets, and clothing. The tools for this 

work would be flame ignition testing and evaluating the propagation of fire in the 

fabrics. One of the first fabric standards related to the flammability of children's 

nightwear. As reported by Emil Braun, James H. Winger, and James A. Slater, 

garments for children of ages 0 to 12 were chosen because of the relatively high 

probability of fire-induced injury in that age group. Study of actual fire data showed 

that fire spread rapidly in such garments, consuming most of the fabric within 

30 seconds after ignition. The standard involved the use of a test stand in which the 

effectiveness of fire retardant could be evaluated.89 

Refinement of a test cell designed to characterize the chemical and physical properties important to the generation of flash fires in polymeric materials was described by 

James E. Brown and John J. Comeford in December 1975. The new cell permitted 

measurement of temperature, geometry, sample orientation and sample size. 

After the formation of the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), NBS was 

asked to prepare a test that would help minimize the probability of ignition in fabrics 

and the likelihood of burns. Braun, John F. Krasny, Richard D. Peacock, and Anne K. 

Stratton reported the development of such a test at the 9th Annual Meeting of the 

Information Council on Fabric Flammability, held in New York City on December 11, 

1975. Called the Mushroom Apparel Flammability Test, it embodied a test stand that 

approximated real fire accidents, measured real-life hazards, was simple and repeatable, 

and discriminated between dangerous and safe fabrics.9' 

Braun and his group later investigated the effectiveness of protective clothing worn 

by fire-fighters, industrial workers, and others whose duties involved exposure to high 

heat loads. They developed a test stand with which they could apply either radiative or convective heating to a fabric and measure the transmitted heat.92 Results obtained 

J. E. Clark, "Federal Role in Fabric Flammability Research and Standards," Textile Information Source 

and Resources 4, No. 4, 7-9, April 1971. 

E. Braun, J. H. Winger, and J. A. Slater, "Development of the standards for the flammability of children's 

sleepwear." in NBS Special Publication 411; Fire Safely Research, Proceedings of a Symposium at NBS 

Gaithersburg, August 22, 1973, Mary Jo Butler and James A. Slater, editors, November 1974, pp. 5-15. 

J. E. Brown and J. J. Comeford, "Technique for the measurement of flash fire potential of polymeric 

materials." NBSIR 75-757, December 1975, 32 pp. 

E. Braun, J. F. Krasny, R. D. Peacock, and A. Stratton, NBS Activities in Apparel Flammability, 

(Galveston Texas; Information Council of Fabric Flammability, 1975, 317 pp.) pp. 263-277. 92 E. Braun, D. Cobb, V. B. Cobble, J. F. Krasny, and R. D. Peacock, "Measurement of the protective value 

of apparel fabrics in a fire environment," Journal of Consumer Product Flammability 7, No. I, pp. 15-25, 

March 1980. 

498 
with the new test stand as reported by John Krasny became part of a Special Technical 

Publication published by the American Society for Testing and Materials. Krasny 

noted the requirements of protective clothing—the fabric should not ignite, shrink, 

melt, or become brittle, yet it should insulate the wearer against external heat without 

inhibiting bodily motion. Seven types of fabric were tested in the study, including 

aramid, fire-retardant cotton, modacrylic, polyester, and wool. In general, 15-45 

seconds of protection against injury were provided by a single layer of any of the 

fabrics.93 

The CPSC continued to fund fire-research projects at NBS for some time. 

An excellent tool used to evaluate specimen flammability was called the cone 

calorimeter. Vytenis Babrauskas, a versatile fire-protection engineer, who came to NBS 

in 1977, developed the cone calorimeter in collaboration with William H. Twilley. 

Babrauskas also undertook the combustion calorimetry of furnishings, fire modeling, 

and test procedures. The cone calorimeter employed a load cell for automatically 

recording the changing mass of the specimen during the test, ignition by either spark or radiation, and monitors for released gases and smoke. Liquid, solid, or composite 

samples could be accommodated in either a vertical or a horizontal position. The cone calorimeter was chosen by Research and Development magazine for its R&D 100 

award in 

James Brown, Emil Braun, and William H. Twilley used the cone calorimeter to 

evaluate U.S. Navy ship components made of synthetic resins or composites of 

fiber-reinforced resins, often chosen for light weight or non-magnetic properties. They 

were able to derive indicators for five material parameters: the amount of radiant 

flux necessary to produce ignition within a preset time; burn intensity as a function of 

heat load; propensity to continue burning; yields of gaseous pyrolytic products; and 

the average area of extinction.95 

Laboratory Work in Fire Fundamentals 

Atomic and Molecular Studies 

One of the earlier projects in the fundamentals of fire science was initiated by a scientist from another laboratory—John W. Hastie, a flame spectroscopist who worked 

in the Inorganic Materials Division. Hastie prepared a detailed discussion of fire 

retardants from the point of view of molecular reactivity. He considered well-known 

retardants that contained antimony, phosphorus, and halogens. It appeared that these 

compounds acted as radical traps in the preflame or reaction zones. He pointed out the 

need for thermochemical and reaction kinetics data, as well as rates of vaporization.96 

J. F. Krasny, "Some characteristics of fabrics for heat protective garments," ASTM STP 900, R. L. Barker 

and G. C. Coletta, editors, (Philadelphia: ASTM, 1986) pp. 463-474. 

V. Brabrauskas, "The cone calorimeter, a new tool for fire safety engineering," ASTM Standardization 

News 18, No. I, pp. 32-35, January 1990. 

J. E. Brown, E. Braun, and W. H. Twilley, "Cone calorimeter evaluation of the flammability of composite 

materials," NBSIR 88- 3733, March 1988, 61 pp. 

96J. W. Hastie, "Molecular basis of flame inhibition," J Res NBS 77A, No. 6, 733-754 (1973). 

499 
William H. Twilley (left) and Vytenis Babrauskas with the cone calorimeter that they 

developed. The cone calorimeter, which won an IR-lOO Award from Industrial and 

Research and Development magazine, provided data critical to predicting the fire 

hazard of a product from a small sample of its material. 

Later, collaborating with David W. Bonnell of the Inorganic Materials Division, 

Hastie developed "a new thermochemical tool"—transpiration mass spectrometry—to 

sample high-temperature gases and vapors.97 The two scientists had overcome 

traditional limitations associated with classical vaporization methods. The new method 

did not require the use of low pressures, and it permitted positive identification of 

transport molecules. They found that use of the new instrument permitted them to 

sample reactive gases at temperatures as high as 1500 °C and pressures as high as 

1 MPa (10 atmospheres), with little or no loss of accuracy in resulting thermochemical 

data. 

The transpiration mass spectrometer was selected for an IR-l00 award as one of the 

best technical developments of 1980. 

An interdivisional team of scientists—Ilan Chabay of the Analytical Chemistry 

Division, Gregory J. Rosasco of the Inorganic Materials Division, and Takashi 

Kashiwagi of the Fire Science Division—developed a method of using fast-Fourier 

transforms of Raman signals from pollutant gases in turbulent air streams. For 

J. W. Hastie and D. W. Bonnell, "Transpiration mass spectrometry—a new thermochemical tool," pp. 

183-233 in Thermochemistry and Its Applications to Chemical and Biochemical Systems, M. A. V. Riheiro 

da Silva, Editor (D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1984). 

500 
John W. Hastie of the Bureau's Inorganic Materials Division adjusted the pressure in a flame-sampling mass spectrometer prior to observation of species involved in flame 

inhibition. 

illustrative purposes, they tracked methane as an impurity in air, measuring the average 

concentration, its change with time, and its change with frequency. The measurements 

could be recorded for different positions with respect to the apparatus. The method was expected to prove useful in studies of smoke and fire.95 

A method for tracking ions and neutral species by the opto-galvanic effect was presented by Peter Schenck. He found that when an atomic species in an electrical 

discharge was irradiated at a wavelength sufficiently low to cause an electronic 

transition, an easily detectable voltage signal arose because of the absorption.99 

In an effort to create a reference method for estimating '3C chemical shifts in solids 

that would still relate to earlier work with liquid tetramethylsilane, William L. Earl 

and David L. VanderHart performed nuclear magnetic resonance experiments on polydimethylsilane and several other materials. It was their hope to more easily 

characterize solid materials, including synthetic polymers.'°° 

I. Chabay, 0. J. Rosasco, and T. Kashiwagi, "Non-intrusive technique measures concentration fluctuations 

in turbulent gas flow," NBS Dimensions 62, pp. 22-23. April 1978. See also same authors, "Species-specific 

Raman spectroscopic measurements of concentration fluctuations in unsteady flow," Journal of Chemical 

Physics 70, No. 9, 4149-4154, May 1979. P. K. Schenck and K. C. Smyth, "Opto-galvanic spectroscopy of atomic neutrals and ions in discharges," 

J. Opt. Soc. Amer. 68, 626-627 (1978). 

° W. L. Earl and D. L. VanderHart, "Measurement of C chemical shifts in solids," J. Mag. Res. 48. 35-54 

(1982). 

501 
NBS chemist han Chabay prepared for the rigors of his backpacking trips by running 

up and down the stairs in the II -story Gaithersburg Administration Building with a 38 kilogram pack on his back. 

502 
Kermit Smyth teamed with free-radical experts Sharon Lias and Pierre Ausloos from 

the Center for Chemical Physics to study the ion-molecule which they felt 

played a leading role in soot formation, particularly in fuel-rich acetylene and benzene 

flames. They sought chemical reactivity data at thermal energies for with 

alkenes, alkynes, and aromatic molecules. During their work, they found two isomers 

of one linear and a second, more stable, cyclic isomer. They expected the work 

to be of use in the modeling of fires.'°' 

The role of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in soot formation was elucidated in optical studies by J. Houston Miller, W. Gary Mallard, and Kermit 

Smyth. Looking for reactive intermediates, they observed PAH by optical measurements in premixed and diffusion flames, obtaining data on fluorescence in various 

portions of the flames. 02 K. C. Smyth, 5G. Lias. and P. Ausloos, "Ion-molecule chemistry of and the implications for soot formation," Combustion Science and Technology 28, 147-154 (1982). 02 H. Miller. W. G. Mallard, and K. C. Smyth, "Optical studies of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in pyrolysis and diffusion flame environments," pp. 905-919 in Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, 7th 

International Symposium on Formation, Metabolism, and Measurement, M. W. Cooke and A. J. Dennis, 

editors (Battelle Press, Columbus Ohio, 1982). 

503 

David L. Vanderhart, scientist in the Bureau's Polymers Division, tuned a homemade nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer in studies of chemical shifts in solids. 
Later, a test stand was built for the study of concentration behavior within turbulent 

flows. Nelson P. Bryner, Cecilia D. Richards, and William M. Pitts designed the 

stand large enough (2.4 m by 2.4 m) to examine large flows and plumes, and they 

utilized Rayleigh light-scattering so that concentration values could be monitored in 

real time in regimes of flow which heretofore were inaccessible. The stand was constructed so as to minimize optical glare and scattering by dust particles.'03 

Combustibility and Combustion Products 

The question of the relative safety of hydrogen—under consideration for use as a vehicular fuel—in comparison with methane (natural gas) and gasoline was treated by 

Jesse Hord. Hord called attention to the relatively rapid mixing between air and 

hydrogen, leading quickly to an explosive atmosphere. Gasoline, by contrast, mixed 

relatively slowly. Each of the three substances offered fire and explosion danger, with 

the level of risk depending upon the circumstances of use.'°4 

By the end of the 1970s, it was realized that heat-transfer fluids involving the use of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) created a severe biological hazard. One of the 

major uses of PCBs was in electrical transformers, where the liquid was used to 

conduct to the outer casing any heat that was generated by electrical losses in the 

transformer core and in the windings. In a fire, the PCBs were likely to be spilled or ejected from the casing. Richard G. Gann published a discussion in which he noted 

the requirements for a replacement fluid in transformers, taking account of the high 

probability that either slow leakage or explosion would release the fluid. Likely 

candidates identified were hydrocarbons, silicone oil, and chlorinated aromatics. 

In 1981, Frederic B. Clarke, Irwin Benjamin, and Merritt Birky pointed out the need 

for laboratory toxicology measurements. These could establish the sources of toxic 

smoke and gases in order to provide a strong basis for regulatory decisions on 

construction, furnishings, and finishing materials. 106 Toxicology was also the topic of a study by Barbara C. Levin and Emil Braun. They 

prepared a test stand with a combustion system that would accommodate samples of 

various sizes, an analytical chemistry system, and an animal exposure system. They 

could analyze for CO, C02, and 02 in the test chamber on a real-time basis, as well as record temperature continuously. The goal of the work was to develop a new test 

method for toxicity.'°7 

N. P. Bryner, C. D. Richards, and W. M. Pifls, "Rayleigh light scattering facility for the investigation of 

free jets and plumes," Rev. Sci. Inst. 63, No. 7, 3629-3635 (1992). 04 Hord, "Is hydrogen safe?," NBS Tech Note 690, October 1976, 34 pp. 

R. G. Gann, "Development of flammability criteria for transformer dielectric fluids," NBSIR 80-1992, 

March 1980, 53 pp. 106 F. B. Clarke, I. A. Benjamin, and M. M. Birky, "Laboratory toxicology measurements," Letter to the 

Editor, Fire and Materials 5. No. 2, 86 (1981). 07 B. C. Levin and E. Braun. "NBS toxicity measurement method development," paper No. I I in 3rd Expert 

Meeting of the Canada- Japan- USA Trilateral Cooperative Study on Fire Gas Toxicity, October 23-25, 

1984, unpublished. 

504 
The inhibition of combustion in cellulose by powders containing boron, phosphorus, 

sulfur or halogens as anions was tested by Robert J. McCarter. Of 185 substances 

tested against samples of cellulosic "terrycloth," McCarter found about half to inhibit 

flame formation and about one-third to inhibit both flame and smolder.'°8 

In 1978, John W. Rowen reported the results of a comparative study of fire retardants in cellulose and cellular plastic. Plywood and hardboard treated by the manufacturer with fire retardant comprised the cellulose samples, and polyurethane and 

polystyrene, also treated by the manufacturer, made up the cellular plastic samples. 

The fire-retardant effectiveness was evaluated during ignition and in the rate of 

the heat release during the tests. Rowen found that the treated cellulose products 

performed better according to both criteria than did the cellular plastic.'°9 

During the late I 970s, Clayton Huggett and William Parker identified a new principle, oxygen consumption, for measuring the rate of heat release, now accepted 

as the central property affecting fire growth. Prior measurements were based on 

temperature rise of the ambient air, leading to large errors because of the uneven 

distribution of radiant The ideas contained in Huggett's analysis were incorporated in the development of cone calorimeter by Babrauskas and Twilley, and 

later provided the basis for several international standards. 

The plenary lecture at the 7th Conference on the Nonflammability of Polymers, held 

in Czechoslovakia during April 1983, was given by Clayton Huggett. He described some of the work of the Center for Fire Research, focusing on the flammability of 

both natural and synthetic polymers, and the influence of fire retardants on their 

performance in fires. 

In 1982, Alex Robertson published a description of an improved radiant heat source 

for use in combustion testing. A gas-fired unit, it was capable of creating temperatures as high as 935 °C over a surface 0.3 mX 0.5 m. The unit proved to be adaptable to 

existing test stands.''2 

Combustion products of wood under the heat fluxes found in fires interested CFR 

scientists Thomas J. Ohiemiller, Takashi Kashiwagi, and K. Werner. They wanted 

to determine the kind and level of pollutants to be expected from wood-burning stoves, 

which were responsible for many residential deaths. Subjecting a variety of types of 

wood to radiant heat in atmospheres of 0-20 % 02 in nitrogen, they directly monitored 

the temperature and concentrations of H20, CO and CO2, and total hydrocarbons. 

08 R. J. McCarter, "Combustion inhibition of cellulose by powders: preliminary data and hypotheses," Fire 

and Materials 5, No. 2, pp. 66-72, June 1981. 

J. W. Rowen, "Role of fire retardants in time for ignition and heat release measurements," in Proceedings 

of the 3rd International Conference on fire softly, January 16-20, 1978, San Francisco, CA, unpublished. 110 C. Huggett, "Estimation of rate of heat release by means of oxygen consumption measurements," Fire 

and Materials 4, pp. 6 1-65 (1980). 

C. Huggett, "Fire retardant testing and fire performance," Plenary Lecture, unpublished. 112 A. Robertson, "Development of an improved radiant heat source for fire testing," Fire and Materials 6, 

No. 2,68-71, 1982. 

505 
The hydrocarbons were further examined by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry, as appropriate. While they found the products to be fully as complex as they 

had expected, they were confident that the majority of the species could be identified 

and quantified."3 

Combustibility Studies in the Space Shuttle 

In a program that eventually would propel astronaut Gregory T. Linteris into space, 

Clayton Huggett joined a team of fire scientists to evaluate the usefulness of a space 

environment for the study of combustion. A. L. Berlad and C. H. Yang of the State 

University of New York, Frederick Kaufman of the University of Pittsburgh, George 

H. Markstein of the Factory Mutual Research Corporation, and Howard B. Palmer of 

Pennsylvania State University made up the balance of the team. After considerable 

thought, they came to the conclusion that the lack of gravity and the possibility of 

scaled-gravity experiments, the elimination of convective effects, and the possibility of 

homogeneous mixing of materials that could not be accomplished on earth constituted a unique experimental situation that should be pursued further, as indeed it was. Tentative assignment of experiments involved single-drop gas jets, porous solid arrays, 

unmixed solid-gas samples, and particle clouds. "4 

In a first for the agency, one of its own scientists performed the experiments 

designed for the Space Shuttle. Gregory T. Linteris, Princeton-trained mechanicall 

aerospace engineer, became a NIST staff scientist in 1992. He helped bring the 

low-gravity experiment package to completion, then applied for a spot on the shuttle 

microgravity mission as a payload specialist so that he could actually conduct the 

experiments in space. The idea suited NASA well—they wanted members of their 

scientific missions to be working scientists, and it was even better if the scientists had 

firsthand knowledge of the experiments. 

Linteris and the combustion experimental package were sent into space in April 

1997. After only 4 days, however, suspicious readings from one of the fuel cells of the 

Columbia prompted NASA to recall the flight. On July 1, 1997, a second liftoff was entirely successful. Mission STS-94, with the same crew as its predecessor, turned into a "routine"—the word seems entirely out of place for any flight into space— 

shuttle mission. For nearly 3 weeks, Linteris and his colleagues conducted a variety of 

microgravity experiments, including the combustion package prepared at NIST. 

113 T. J. Ohlemiller. T. Kashiwagi, and K. Werner, "Wood gasification at fire level heat fluxes," Combustion 

and Flame 69, No. 2, 155-170, 1987. 

"4A. L. Berlad, C. Huggett, F. Kaufman, 0. H. Markstein, H. 13. Palmer, and C. H. Yang, "Study of 

combustion experiments in space," NASA Report CR-134744, November 1974, unpublished. 

See, for example, "Second Time's the Charm," N/ST Connections, October 1997, p. 2. 

506 
Smoke Detectors and Alarms 

Interest in the topic of smoke detection in residences was spurred by fire statistics 

obtained for the year 1972. In that year, fire deaths per million of population in the 

United States reached the level of 57, nearly double the per-capita fire-death rate in 

Canada, the only other major industrial country experiencing a rate as high 20 deaths 

per million population."6 

In 1974, Richard G. Bright urged the wider use of smoke detectors in residences, an improvement which he estimated could reduce the loss of life by 40 % to 50 %. 

However, he noted that the reliability of smoke detectors available at that time was 

uneven, and that there were no published standards for detectors. He analyzed 

historical data on residential fires, as well as work done at NBS and elsewhere to 

improve smoke detectors."7 

Bright's paper was reprinted in 1982 in Fire Protection Structure and Systems 

Design Reader, published by Ginn Custom Publishing Company of Lexington, 

Massachusetts, as part of its Open Learning Fire Service Program. 

Irwin Benjamin, then chief of the Fire Safety Engineering Division, prepared during 

1980 a detailed study of the designs of fire detectors then in use in large buildings. 

Fire detectors, he noted, typically activated an alarm, an extinguishing system, or a specialized device. Available detectors were designed to respond to one of three 

conditions: when a set-point temperature was exceeded, when an aerosol exceeding a certain concentration was encountered, or when a pre-set level of radiant energy was 

exceeded. Temperature-activated detectors, usually employing a fusible link, a bimetallic switch, or a pneumatic switch, generally activated a sprinkler head. Aerosol 

detectors usually employed a photocell or an ion chamber to set off an alarm. 

Radiant-energy detectors made use of infrared filters, a lens, and a photocell, with the 

photocell signal connected to an alarm; although in some cases ultraviolet detection, 

at wavelengths in the range 200 nm to 300 nm, was used."8 

A few years later, Richard W. Bukowski, at that time leader of the fire analysis 

group in the Center for Fire Research, described the elements of fire detection and 

alarm during a workshop on the technology of fire protection held in Egypt."9 His was 

one of nearly a dozen CFR contributions to the workshop. 

116 "International Fire Statistics, 1972," Fire Record Department, Nati. Fire Prot. Assn., Fire Journal 67, 

No. 6, PP. 50-51, November 1973. 

R. 0. Bright, "Advances in residential smoke detection," Fire Journal 68, No. 6, 69-77, November 1974. 

I. A. Benjamin, "Detector response in large buildings," pp. 1-24 in Proc. Engineering Applications of Fire 

Technology Workshop, April 16-18, /980, NBS Gaiihersburg, H. E. Nelson, editor (Boston: Society of Fire 

Protection Engineers, 1983). 

R. W. Bukowski, "Fire detection and alarm systems," NBS/R 86-3360, April 1986, Kurt F. J. Heinrich, 

Andrew Fowell, and Doris Bluebond. editors, pp. 25-38. 

507 
Smoke and Its Control 

A handy tool in the study of smoke or other aerosols is a reference material that will 

permit the ready evaluation of the size of particulates. This tool was provided in 1985 

by a team consisting of George W. Mullholland of the Center for Fire Research and 

Arie W. Hartman, G. G. Hembree, Egon Marx, and Thomas R. Lettieri, all from the 

Center for Manufacturing Engineering. They created Standard Reference Material 

1690, an aqueous suspension of selected polystyrene spheres of approximately 1 diameter. The spheres were remarkable in that quantities were produced both in the 

NBS laboratories and in a space-shuttle experiment.120 Although the spheres were 

produced during a 1982 space shuttle flight, SRM 1690 was offered for sale to the 

public after SRM 1960, described in "Measuring Tiny Space Beads" later in this 

chapter. 

The group determined the average size of the particles in three ways; by observing 

the scattering of polarized laser light as it passed through the suspension; by observing 

the scattering of light from individual particles; and by measuring the row length 

generated by hexagonal close packing of the spheres in a two-dimensional array, 

using an optical microscope. The three methods agreed within ±0.5 %. Judging the 

overall uncertainty to be somewhat larger, they specified the average diameter of the 

spheres as (0.895 ± 0.007) im.'2' 

Even smaller aerosol particles, useful for simulating smoke conditions below the 

range of visible detection, could be produced with the use of low fuel flows in a laminar diffusion burner, according to more recent studies by Thomas G. Cleary, 

George Mulholland, Lewis K. Ives, and Robert A. Fletcher of the CFR, who collaborated on the project with J. W. Gentry of the University of Maryland. The group used 

acetylene, C2H2, to produce ultrafine aerosols, invisible to the eye but measured by 

transmission electron microscopy to be particles of 10 nm diameter. Particle densities 

of 106 cm3 were estimated. 122 The growth of soot in laminar flames was observed by Robert J. Santoro, Tsyh T. 

Yeh, John J. Horvath, and Hratch G. Semerjian, all of the Center for Chemical 

Engineering. The group noted that flames occurring in actual fires are not laminar, but 

they were convinced that soot growth in the two types of flame would be similar. In 

their experiment, the group prepared an ethene-air, co-annular diffusion flame and 

monitored the temperature and velocity of the flame as well as the size, velocity, and 

concentration of soot that formed at low fuel rates. 23 

21) 0. Mulholland, 0. Hembree, and A. Hartman, "Sizing of polystyrene spheres produced in microgravity," 

NBSJR 84-2914, July 1985, 26 pp. 121 W. Mulholland, A. W. Hartman, 0. G. Hembree, Egon Marx, and Thomas R. Lettieri, "Development 

of a one-micrometer-diameter particle size Standard Reference Material," J.Res. NBS 90, No. 1, 3-26 (1985). 122 T. G. Cleary, G. W. Mulholland, L. K. lves, R. A. Fletcher and 1. W. Gentry, "Ultrafine combustion 

aerosol generator," Aerosol Science and Technology 16, 166-170 (1992). 123 R. J. Santoro, T. T. Yeh, J. J. Horvath, and H. 0. Semerjian, "Transport and growth of soot particles in 

laminar diffusion flames," Combustion Science and Technology 53, 89-1 15, 1987. 

508 
Growing interest in the disposal of oil from leaking ocean-transport vessels led to 

experiments on the consequences of burning the spilled oil at sea. A CFR group, 

David D. Evans, George W. Muiholland, Daniel Gross, Howard R. Baum, and William 

D. Walton, collaborating with K. Saito of the University of Kentucky, created an apparatus in which they could float a pool of oil of a specified thickness on water and 

monitor its burning. They recorded the flame temperature, energy release rate, rate 

of radiation feedback, the nature of the oil residue, the pattern of the burn, and the heat 

balance at the burning surface. It was expected that these would become base data to 

be used later in modeling such oil fires.124 

The Handbook of Fire Protection issued its first edition in 1988. It was composed 

of four sections: fundamentals, hazard analysis, design calculations, and risk 

calculations. One of the "fundamentals" contributions came from George Muiholland, 

who described the production and properties of smoke.'25 

The burning of oil from spills was the topic pursued by a multinational group 

including Bruce A. Benner, Jr., Nelson P. Bryner, Stephen A. Wise, and George 

Muiholland, all of CFR, and Robert C. Lao and Mervin F. Fingas of Environment 

Canada. Referring to the difficulties involved in disposing of oil spills in remote 

locations, they pressed further the question of the consequences of burning the oil in 

situ. Laboratory study and modeling convinced them that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons involved in such a combustion situation would be substantially reduced and 

that the combustion products would disperse with relatively short-lived damage to 

the environment.'26 

An effective, long-term investigation of the role of smoke in creating danger to 

humans involved in fire came from John H. Kiote. Klote spent several years studying 

the movement and control of smoke in buildings. With J. W. Fothergill, he wrote a handbook'27 that proved very popular, serving as a text in courses on the topic and 

later being re-issued by the American Society for Heating, Refrigeration, and AirConditioning Engineering as its Smoke Control Handbook. 

124 D. D. Evans, G. W. Muiholland, D. Gross, H. R. Baum, and W. D. Walton, "Burning, smoke production, 

and smoke dispersal from oil spill combustion," N/STIR 89-4091, October 1989, 57 pp. 

IThG W. Mulholland, "Smoke production and properties," pp. 1/368-377 in Handbook of Fire Protection 

Engineering, 1st Edition, 1988, Philip. J. DiNenno, editor-in-chief, (Quincy Massachusetts: National Fire 

Protection Association, 1988) 700 pp. 

B. A. Benner, Jr., N. P. Bryner, S. A. Wise, G. W. Mulholland, R. C. Lao, and M. F. Fingas, "Polycyclic 

aromatic hydrocarbon emissions from the combustion of crude oil on water," Environmental Science and 

Technology 24, No. 9, 1418-1427 (1990). 27 H. Klote and J. W. Fothergill, "Design of smoke control systems for buildings," NBS Nandbook 14/, 

1983. 

509 
In a discussion prepared in 1992 for the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban 

Habitat, Kiote wrote, "Smoke is recognized as the major killer in all fire situations." 

He went on to discuss details of the efforts to conquer the fatal effects of smoke in 

tall-building fires; we review these comments later in this section.'28 

Education 

Considerable effort of the Center for Fire Research was given to activities that could 

be recorded under the heading of education. Lack of awareness of the dangers of fire on the part of industrial designers and workers, as well as designers, builders, and 

occupants of dwelling units has been cited over and over again as the single biggest 

contributor to fire deaths and economic loss from fire in the United States. 

In this section, we cite just three examples of educational material made available by 

the CFR staff. John Lyons, then Director of the CFR, outlined the U.S. efforts in 

fire loss reduction—both contemporary and planned—as a result of the 1974 Fire 

Prevention and Control Act during an international symposium on fire safety. He noted 

the many organizations that participate in the fire-reduction effort in the United States: 

Federal, state, and local governments writing fire codes; the American Society for 

Testing and Materials and the National Fire Protection Association developing test 

methods, often with the technical assistance of the National Bureau of Standards; and 

the Consumer Product Safety Commission working to reduce fire danger inherent in 

consumer goods. Lyons called attention to the change in focus of fire science from 

studies devoted exclusively to fire endurance and the compartmentalization of fire 

to "concern for the occupants in the room of origin"—leading to more effort to 

understand the processes and consequences of the burning of furnishings and interior 

finish materials of rooms in offices, hotels, and dwelling units. He expressed the view 

that the new Fire Academy, given better understanding and tools, would make rapid 

progress in improving fire-fighting in America and in educating its citizens on fire 

safety. 129 John Rockett provided a more technical form of education in a contribution to the 

first edition of the Society for Fire Protection Engineering Handbook. His efforts 

were directed to fire protection engineers; the topic was a "short course" in heat 

conduction in solids. Taking as his text the famous book written by Carsiaw and 

Jaeger,'3° Rockett reviewed the mechanisms of heat transfer by radiation, conduction, 

and convection, applying the concepts to the special conditions and geometries of 

fire. 131 

j• H. Klote, "Control of smoke and combustion products," pp. 17-52 in Fire Safety in Tall Buildings, D. 

Sfintesco. C. Scawthorn, and J. Zicherman, editors (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992). 129 W. Lyons. "Requirements for fire safety of combustible materials in the United States," pp. I 2-19 in 

International Symposium on Fire Safety of Combustible Materials, October, 1975, University of Edinburgh 

(Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, Centre for Industrial Consultancy and Liaison, 1975). 30 H. S. Carslaw and J. C. Jaeger, "Conduction of Heat in Solids," 2nd Edition (Oxford, England: Clarendon 

Press. 1959). J. A. Rockett, "Conduction of heat in solids," pp. 1149-64 in SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering (Quincy, Massachusetts: National Fire Protection Association, 1988). 

510 
A suggestion for a new test facility involving the generation of large-scale air 

motion represented a kind of educational effort, too. William M. Pitts presented such a suggestion in 1991, recalling the mass fires—fire storms and conflagrations—that 

accompanied the destruction of entire cities by fire, as well as countless acres of forest. 

Fire storms called to his mind the destructive effects of war-time bombing, resulting 

in tall heat columns and inwardly rushing winds that completely destroyed the targets. 

Wind-driven conflagrations such as those that destroyed Chelsea, Massachusetts in 

1973 and routinely burned timberlands moved as the wind directed them, halting only 

when their fuel was gone. 

Pitts assessed the need for a test facility that would help elucidate the nature and 

control methodology of mass fires, and he offered criteria for its design. His idea was 

to build a chamber similar to a wind-tunnel.'32 

Combustion of Furnishings and Room Interiors 

An early discussion of combustion in rooms was given by Jin Bao Fang and Daniel 

Gross. They described a test facility that would allow the evaluation of the contents 

of a room—from wastebaskets and furniture to the ceiling, floor, and walls—from the 

point of view of fire science. These aspects would include the study of the items as fuel for fire, as well as the products of their combustion—smoke and toxic gases—and 

likely scenarios for the progress of fire in a room environment. The test chamber fire 

was to be ignited by a stack, or crib, of wood. With such a heat source, the scientists 

could examine time-to-ignition, extent of surface flame and flame penetration, and 

smoke and heat generation. In the work reported, Fang and Gross presented results 

obtained with various types of room-finish materials such as particle board, plywood, 

gypsum board, melamine, and vinyl and acoustic tile.'33 

The close connection they found between death from fire in space heaters and 

residences caused Alan Gomberg of the CFR to team with John R. Hall of the Federal 

Emergency Management Agency to compile statistics on the topic. Studying some 1600 fatalities occurring in 12 states over the years 1978-1979, they found that, at 

53 deaths per million population, rural Americans (those in communities smaller than 

2500 people) were twice as likely as their urban neighbors to die in fire. The causes 

that predominated for the fatal fires involved space heaters—wood stoves, kerosene 

heaters, and electric baseboard heaters. Improper handling of the equipment, spills 

during filling or cleaning, or the ignition of paper or furnishings by the devices all led 

to disaster. 's" 

132 w• M. Pitts, "Wind effects on fires," Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 17, 83-134 (1991). J. B. Fang and D. Gross, "Contribution of interior finish materials to tire growth in a room," pp. 125-138 

in NBS Special Publication 411, "Fire Safety Research: Proceedings of a Symposium, August 22, 1973, 

Gaithersburg, Maryland," Mary J0 Butler and James A. Slater. editors. 34 A. Gomberg and J. R. Hall, "Space heater—rural death link," Fire Service Today 49, No. 9, pp. 18-21, 

September 1982. 

511 
Bureau scientist Randall Lawson adjusted instrumentation on the furniture calorimeter, 

part of an NBS-developed method to measure the rate at which heat was released from 

burning furnishings in offices and residences. 

512 
By 1983, there existed a proposed American Society for Testing and Materials 

standard method for the testing of wall and ceiling materials in rooms. William J. 

Parker described for an international workshop NBS efforts to obtain accurate and 

reliable data on which the proposed standard and other advances could rest.'35 

Andrew J. Fowell addressed the methods recommended to control industrial fires, 

during a workshop in Cairo, Egypt in 1986. Fowell pointed out the value of using 

non-combustible materials in construction, of providing for the isolation of a burning 

area, of installing automatic sprinkler or other fire-suppression systems, and of 

providing for smoke control. He dwelt especially on the design aspects of sprinkler 

systems—water supply, valving, distribution, and release mechanisms.'36 

The results of studies of flammability of upholstered furniture and mattresses were summarized by Vytenis Babrauskas and John F. Krasny in a chapter of the Fire 

Protection Handbook. The two veterans recounted frightening fire statistics from 1982. 

Nearly 80,000 fires were triggered by upholstered furniture and mattresses; these 

translated into 1900 deaths, more than 10,000 injuries, and $500 million in economic 

loss. Cigarettes played the key role in 65 % of the deaths, although half of the dead 

were not themselves the smoker; often a forgotten cigarette would fall into a crevice in 

the furniture, smoldering for hours before toxic gases would snuff out the lives of 

sleeping residents. Babrauskas and Krasny noted that some 15 tests were available for 

the evaluation of fire danger from particular items of furniture, including monitoring 

of CO, C02, HC1, HCN, and NON. 

Kathy A. Notarianni of CFR described a test bay set up at the request of the 

National Institutes of Health to simulate a two-bed hospital room with automatic 

sprinklers. The setup included, besides the room itself, a simulated bathroom, corridor, 

HVAC system, and ports for ventilation. Both pendant and sidewall sprinkler heads 

could be installed. The tests involved timing the operation of various positions and 

types of sprinklers and smoke alarms and monitoring temperatures, smoke meters, heat 

flux meters, a radiometer, and concentration of gases (CO, CO2. and 02) throughout 

the bay in response to flames generated within 

35 W. J. Parker, "NBS activities in room fire tests and heat release rates of materials," pp. 44-47 in C/B 

Report Publication 8/: Modeling of Pre-Flashover Fires; C/B W14 Workshop, Borös, Sweden, May 1983, P. H. Thomas and U. Wickström, editors (Bors, Sweden: Conseil International du Batiment, Statens 

Provningsanstalt, 1983). 136 A. J. Fowell, "Industrial fire suppression," pp. 63-66 in NBSIR 86-3360, Kurt Heinrich, Andrew Fowell, 

and Doris Bluebond, editors, April 1986. 137 V. Brabauskas and J. F. Krasny, "Upholstered furniture and mattresses," pp. 121120-128 in Fire 

Protection Handbook, 16th Edition, A. E. Cote and J. L. Linville, editors (Quincy, Massachusetts: Naiional 

Fire Protection Association, 1986). 38 K. A. Notarianni, "Five small flaming fire tests in a simulated hospital room protected by automatic fire 

sprinklers," Report of Test FR 3982, 23 pp., October 31, 1990, unpublished. 

513 
Combustion of Buildings, Aircraft, and Spacecraft 

In April 1971, a disastrous fire in a nursing home killed 31 residents. The extraordinarily high loss of life was traced to unusual flammability of the floor covering 

used in the home's corridors. In response to this well-defined problem, L. G. Hartzell was asked by his employer, the Armstrong Cork Company, to devise a test method for 

flooring materials. He worked on two aspects of flammability: ease of ignition of the 

flooring material, to establish its danger as a source of fire; and flammability rate, to 

establish its contribution to prolonging and extending a fire. As his work progressed, 

he came to NBS as a Research Associate to help adapt the method for possible use by 

the ASTM.'39 Sanford Davis of the CFR and his colleague C. Howard Adams, a Bureau Research Associate from the Society of the Plastics Industry, later summarized 

the results of the test-method development, which eventually incorporated a device 

that would subject a 20 cmX 100 cm specimen to radiant or burner heating while 

allowing measurements of air supply and temperatures, both by radiometric means and 

by thermocouple thermometers. "° 

In 1972, the National Transportation Safety Board requested that NBS help in the 

investigation of an explosion on March 24, 1972, that killed several residents of 

Canterbury Woods, Virginia, and destroyed or damaged three homes when a backhoe 

ruptured a natural gas pipeline in the vicinity. Robert W. Beausoliel, Clinton W. 

Phillips, and Jack E. Snell responded to the request and, using tracer gas, were able to 

determine the pathways by which the natural gas penetrated the homes in order to 

build up explosive gas concentrations.'4' 

Dozens of tall buildings suffered disastrous fires throughout the world in this 

century, leading to considerable effort on the process by which the smoke and flame 

could be restricted to a small area of the building. Francis C. Fung described 

experiments conducted in the 36-story Seattle Federal Building and in the 42-story 

Chicago Federal Building, using SF6 tracer gas to mark the path of simulated smoke 

through the rooms and corridors as emergency smoke-control air-handling systems 

attempted to isolate the "burn room." The burn room was equipped with a heavy-duty 

blower to propel the heated air-plus-tracer-gas mixture into the corridor. The 

experiment showed that the emergency systems succeeded by exhausting the air from 

the fire zone, replacing it with pressurized air from both above and below.'42 

A deadly fire broke out in the 26-story MGM Grand Hotel, crowded with visitors to 

Las Vegas, Nevada, on November 21, 1980. The blaze left 85 persons dead. In an 

139 L. G. Hartzell, "Development of a radiant panel test for flooring materials." NBS Interagency Rejort 

NBSIR 74-495, May 1974, 49 pp. 40 C. Howard Adams and Sanford Davis, "Development of the flooring radiant panel test as a standards test method." NBSIR 79-1954, March 1980. 4! R. W. Beausoliel, C. W. Phillips, and J. E. Snell, "Field investigation of natural gas pipeline accident: 

Canterbury Woods, Annandale, Virginia," Fire Journal 68, No. 3. 77-84, May 1974. 142 F. C. W. Fung, "Smoke control by systematic pressurization," Fire Technology 11, No. 4, 261-269 

(1975). 

514 
As pan of a general NBS study to develop effective means of predicting fire behavior 

in buildings, William J. Rinkinen observed streak lines from titanium dioxide 

smoke injected into a room-corridor fire-simulation model. The apparatus contained 

instruments to record pressure, temperature, and gas flow. 

effort to establish the cause of death, Merritt Birky, Maya Paabo, and NBS Guest 

worker Dolores Malek teamed with D. Mayne, Coroner of Clark County, Nevada, to 

study tissue samples from the victims. Tests indicated that the great majority of the 

victims—75——died from inhalation of smoke and carbon monoxide. Another eight died 

from smoke inhalation, burns, or a combination of these causes. One died of a blow to 

the head during the fire, and one suffered a fatal heart attack. The results showed again 

the potent danger of smoke and toxic gases in fires.'43 

Another casino fire, this time in the Dupont Plaza Hotel and Casino in San Juan, 

Puerto Rico, on New Year's Eve, 1986, took 97 lives. All but a few were so badly 

burned as to be unidentifiable. The Bureau staff once again was involved in the analysis of the fire. Harold E. Nelson prepared an engineering analysis of the fire. The 

fire apparently ignited in a cardboard box containing upholstered furniture that was 

stored on the first floor of the 20-story hotel. Also on the first floor were a ballroom 

complex, a foyer, a lobby, and connecting corridors. Nelson, part of a team that included representatives of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms; the U.S. Fire 

Administration; the U.S. Fire Academy; and the National Fire Protection Association, 

used eyewitness accounts where available to verify the actual progress of the fire in 

M. M. Birky, D. Malek, D. Mayne. and M. Paabo, "Study of biological samples obtained from victims of 

MOM Grand Hotel fire," J. Analytical Toxicity 7. 265-271 (1983). 44 H. E. Nelson, "Engineering analysis of the early stages of fire development: the fire at the Dupont Plaza 

Hotel and Casino, December 31, 1986," NBSIR 87-3560, 113 pp., April 1987. 

515 
comparison with a model prepared using available data on the structure and its furnishings. He found that 10 minutes after ignition, the fire had spread through the ballroom 

and had created sufficient momentum that flashover occurred, bursting windows and 

sending fatal concentrations of smoke and toxic gases throughout the ballroom and 

foyer areas. Within another 3 minutes, the casino area was in flames. Nelson was able 

to provide other fire scientists with detailed predictions—estimated to be accurate 

within about 25 %—of many features of the fire, including mass burn rates, rates of 

heat release, smoke temperatures, velocities of the fire and smoke fronts, and response 

of fire-suppression sprinklers. 

Barbara Levin, an expert in toxicology, participated with Pio R. Rechani, Fransisco 

Landron, Jose R. Rodriguez, Lucy Droz, Flor M. deCabrera, and Sidney Kaye of the 

Puerto Rico Institute of Forensic Science (IFS), with Joshua L. Gurman of the 

American Iron and Steel Institute, and with Helene M. Clark and Margaret F. 

Yoklavich of the University of Pittsburgh, in a study of tissue and blood samples from 

the fire victims.'45 Levin and her group screened the samples for carboxyhemoglobin 

and cyanide at the IFS in Puerto Rico, moving the positive samples to NBS for 

quantitative testing. They found that those persons who were badly burned in the 

fire—some 78 of the victims—were not killed by toxic gas, but rather by heat alone, so intense was the fire. 

Jack Snell was asked by the Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Technology of 

the House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology to testify on NBS work on 

the Dupont Plaza fire. Later, with the assistance of Harold Nelson, Snell published 

the substance of the testimony as part of the 4th International Fire Conference. Snell 

recounted that Nelson and James Quintiere of the CFR had been able to provide 

on-the-spot-analysis of the fire to assist local investigators, using portable computers 

programmed with CFR fire-modeling information. He noted that arson was suspected 

in the origin of the fire, but that the proximate cause of death for most of the 

dozens of victims lay with the design and construction of the hotel, with its fireprotection systems, and with the level of emergency training given the hotel staff. 

Snell stated that several minor changes in the situation would have saved both life 

and property: 

• Had an operating sprinkler head been located within 10 feet of the point of 

origin, the fire would have been extinguished within 3 minutes, well short of 

causing fatalities. 

• Had an operating smoke detector been located in the room of origination, an alarm would have sounded within 15 seconds of ignition. 

145 B. C. Levin, P. R. Rechani, F. Landron, J. R. Rodriguez, L. Droz, F. M. deCabrera, S. Kayc, 

J. L. Gurman, H. M. Clark, and M. F. Yokiavich, "Analysis of carboxyhemoglobin and cyanide in blood 

from victims of the Dupont Plaza Hotel fire in Puerto Rico," J. Forensic Sciences 35, No. 1, 151-168 

(1990). 

516 
• Had an existing standard code for fire resistance of interior walls (providing a 

1 hour delay in fire penetration) been applied to the hotel construction, the foyer 

and casino fatalities would likely not have 

The frightening predicaments encountered by residents of high-rise retirement homes 

were illustrated by a deadly fire in Johnson City, Tennessee, that occurred the day 

before Christmas, 1989, in the John Sevier Retirement Center. The 11-story structure 

was flanked by a single-story wing on one side and by a three-story wing on the other. 

Fire broke out in the one-story wing, igniting combustible ceiling materials. Although 

the local fire department responded promptly (estimated at 4 minutes after the alarm), 

hot, toxic gases killed 16 residents, almost all on upper floors of the central building. 

Kenneth D. Steckler, James G. Quintiere, and John H. Klote analyzed the fire debris 

and noted two key features that doomed the victims: firstly, the hidden combustible 

ceiling materials—mostly wood-fiber tiles—provided so much fuel that when flashover 

occurred, oxygen levels were severely depleted, leading to fatal concentrations of 

carbon monoxide; secondly, the elevator shafts provided a natural chimney for the hot, 

toxic gases to reach the upper floors, trapping the occupants, many of whom could 

not use the stairs because of their physical disabilities.'47 

In the Introduction to a publication mentioned Joseph Zicherman 

catalogued some 37 major fires occurring in tall buildings. The fires in the Las Vegas 

MGM Grand Hotel, the San Juan Dupont Plaza, and the Johnson City Sevier Retirement Center, disastrous as they were in terms of loss of life and property, served 

to illustrate the central fact of tall-building fires: smoke and toxic gas was the killing 

agent most of the time. John Klote, in a 35-page discussion, described progress in the 

treatment of smoke in high-rise buildings. He noted that pressurization of stairwells 

was introduced in the 1960s, requiring zoned HVAC systems. The next step was the 

"pressure sandwich"; pressurization from above a burning floor and below was 

coupled with exhaust from the burn area to restrict smoke and gases to the burning 

floor. Specialized air-handling equipment was needed for emergency use, along with 

smoke barriers, vents and shafts. 

Relatively little was written about the psychology of arson. According to Bernard 

M. Levin, this paucity resulted from the fact that only the "least successful" 

arsonists—those who were caught and those who confessed—were available for 

study. Writing in the journal Fire and Arson Investigator, Levin identified three major 

"u' j• E. Snell and H. E. Nelson, "Summary of the National Bureau of Standards' analysis of the Dupont 

Plaza Hotel Fire," pp. 98-105 in 4th International Fire conference, March 22-24, 1988, Cambridge, England, 

Interflam '88, Vol. 13, "Fire and Materials," S. P. Rogers and R. M. Quarterman, editors (New York: John 

Wiley and Sons, 1988). 

° K. D. Steckler, J. 0. Quintiere, and J. H. Klote, "Johnson City fire: Key factors," NIST Letter Report, 

1990, unpublished. 

H. Klote, "Control of smoke and combustion products," pp. 17-52 in Fire Safrty in Tall Buildings, D. 

Sfintesco, C. Scawthorn, and J. Zicherman, editors (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992). 

517 
motivations for arson: for-profit, typified by insurance fraud and arson to cover 

criminal evidence; revenge or pyromania, generally involving only one person; and 

vandalism, riot, or political motives, generally involving a group of people. 

Early in a study of residential fire (although residential fires constituted only 28 % 

of reported fires, they accounted for 78 % of the deaths and 58 % of the economic 

dollar losses at that time), room-scale floor-fire testing was described by un Bao Fang. 

Tests of seven weighted structures, four of unprotected wood and three of light steel, 

resulted in average time-to-failure of 10-12 minutes and less than 4 minutes, respectively. The steel floor, though not itself combustible, buckled long before the wood 

lost its strength. Protecting the steel members by a covering of gypsum board 

lengthened its service life to about 16 minutes.'50 

A survey of the types and amounts of "fuel" available in residential fires was conducted by Lionel A. Issen. He reported data for 359 residences in the Washington, 

DC area, mostly single-family detached houses but including single-family attached 

and mobile homes. The logic used in cataloging the value of household furnishings as "fuel" involved the use of an average figure for their energy of combustion—8000 Btu/ 

lb. This simplification permitted the survey to estimate the total energy available in 

terms of the total weight of the furnishings in any given room.'5' 

A major source of fire in residences, particularly those in which wood-burning 

stoves contributed to the heating, was chimneys. Accordingly, the CFR carried out 

experiments on behalf of the Consumer Product Safety Commission and the U.S. 

Department of Energy in which several chimneys were purchased or constructed, then 

loaded with condensibles from fires of various kinds of wood. Richard D. Peacock, 

who reported the results, noted that the vernacular name for the condensibles was "creosote," which often was taken to include "everything but the birds' nests." The test 

burns were performed on the chimneys with no external restrictions on airflow; the 

results were given in terms of maximum chimney temperature and fire duration. The 

maximum temperatures generally reached 800 °C (1500 °F). Peacock gave minimum 

specifications for safe use of masonry chimneys; a fire-clay liner of at least 1.6 cm thickness, masonry of at least 10 cm thickness, and an air gap separating the two.'52 

A user-interactive computer program for evaluating heat-detection systems installed 

in buildings was presented in a massive (557-page) tome both in the BASIC and the 

FORTRAN languages. The compilation was prepared by David W. Stroup, David 

D. Evans, and Phyllis M. Martin.'53 The report included a number of examples treated 

with the use of the program. a B. M. Levin, "Psychological characteristics of firesetters," Fire and Arson Investigator 27, No. 4, 12-22 

(1977). 50 J. B. Fang, "Fire performance of selected residential floor materials," NBSIR 80-2134, December 1980, 79 PP. L. A. Issen, "Single-family residential fire and live loads survey," NBSIR 80-2/55, December 1980, 176 

pp. - 52 R. D. Peacock, "Chimney fires: Intensity and duration," Fire Technology 22, No. 3, 234-252 (1986). 

D. W. Stroup, D. D. Evans, and P. M. Martin, "Evaluating thermal fire detection systems (SI Units). Final 

Report," NBS Special Publication 713, April 1986, 557 pp. 

518 
In response to a request from the National Institutes of Health for data on which to 

base the design of new chemical laboratories, William D. Walton of CFR prepared a test facility to simulate the response of various types of sprinkler systems to benchtop fires. Acetone, an extremely flammable solvent, was selected as the test fuel; 

measurements were made of the flame temperature and the concentrations of 02, CO, 

and CO2 as standard sprinklers, quick-acting sprinklers, or no sprinklers at all were 

used to suppress the fire. Both types of sprinkler were effective in dousing the flames, 

but without sprinkler protection, the fires were judged to be lethal to bystanders. 

On October 17, 1989, a strong earthquake shook northern California; it was estimated to have been the most severe disturbance along the San Andreas fault since 

1906. The epicenter of what came to be called the Loma Prieta Earthquake was placed at a spot 16 km northeast of the city of Santa Cruz and some 18km deep in the 

earth. Damage in the Bay Area was extensive—62 dead, more than 3500 injured, 

12,000 people displaced from their homes, some $6 billion in property loss. A 50-foot 

span of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay bridge collapsed, as did elevated sections of 

Interstate 880 in Oakland. A six-member team from NIST, led by Hai S. Lew, joined 

representatives of the Federal Highway Administration, the Department of Housing and 

Urban Development, and the U.S. Geological Survey to assess the damage. 

Harold E. Nelson of CFR examined the state of the Bay Area fire protection systems 

after the shock. He found that most private fire-protection facilities survived the 

quake in serviceable condition, but that the public fire-protection systems suffered 

extensive interruption. Had the quake been accompanied by widespread fire in 

San Francisco, he said, the public fire response would have been hamstrung by inoperative equipment. In Nelson's opinion, substantial fire losses were avoided only 

because electric utilities were shut down according to emergency procedures and be- cause safeguards had become so common on the pilot lights of gas appliances. Good 

fortune also played a role—the weather was warm, so that most home-heating 

furnaces were turned off, and there was little or no wind on that day.'55 

At a U.S. Navy facility, equipment used to train fire-fighters was found to malfunction in high winds. Designed to simulate actual pool fires involving jet fuel, the trainer 

propane-burner assembly located beneath the apparatus would become engulfed in 

flame under certain conditions on very windy days. Glenn P. Forney and William 

D. Davis modeled the trainer geometry in an effort to quickly determine how best to 

counter this malfunction. Their model indicated that the blow-down could be corrected 

by the installation of a wind-deflecting fence plus pressurization of the burner area. The solution proved satisfactory, quickly restoring full use of the trainer. 56 

154 w• D. Walton, 'Quick response sprinklers in chemical laboratories: fire test results," N/STIR 89-4200, 

November 1989, 49 pp. 

H. E. Nelson, "Performance of fire protection systems," pp. 6/1-3 in N/ST Special Publication 778, 

"Performance of Structures During the Loma Prieta Earthquake of October 1 7, 1989." H. S. 

Lew, editor, 201 pp., January 1990. The Loma Prieta earthquake is discussed from a structures perspective 

in Ch. 6. 56 G. P. Forney and W. D. Davis, "Analyzing strategies for eliminating flame blow-down occurring in the 

Navy's 19F4 fire fighting trainer," N/STIR 4825, 56 pp., May 1992. 

519 
Fire aboard spacecraft remained a terrifying prospect throughout the decades of the 

l970s and 1980s. The Center for Fire Research was involved in both experimentation and modeling in order to minimize the danger from fire. Takashi Kashiwagi 

participated in a workshop on combustion in microgravity which was sponsored by 

the National Aeronautics and Space Administration during January of 1989. 

Kashiwagi noted the differences between ordinary building fires on earth and fires 

in spacecraft: 

• Most obvious, the crew of the spacecraft could not evacuate a burning compartment at a moment's notice. 

• Detection of space combustion was made more difficult by the lack of upward, 

buoyancy-induced convection. 

• Quick detection and nearly no false alarms were vitally important. 

• Equally crucial was rapid suppression of any actual blaze, perhaps with a nitrogen-pressurized foam. 

• Emergency extinguishment was a necessary option, perhaps by venting ambient 

oxygen in the cabin to space. 

Kashiwagi also suggested a number of areas in which research could usefully be 

undertaken: flow calculations in the capsule; development of a fire-decision algorithm; 

development of specialized detectors for space use; data on the burning of materials in 

microgravity; and development of specialized fire extinguishers for use in space.'57 

Later, Kashiwagi teamed with Richard L. Smith to further explore the idea of an "expert system" for space use which would combine problem-solving programs with a knowledge base and a reasoning mechanism. Such a system, according to Kashiwagi 

and Smith, could provide solutions to the problems of quick fire detection and 

suppression and drastic measures for coping with out-of-control fires. 

The deliberate setting of oil-well fires in Kuwait during the invasion of Kuwait by 

Iraq consumed an enormous amount of crude oil in the Al Mawqa-Al Ahmadi 

fields. The Kuwait Oil Company estimated a peak loss of 6 million barrels of oil per 

day during the height of the action. Daniel Madrzykowski and David D. Evans 

performed thermal radiation measurements in an effort to test the feasibility of 

determining the heat-release rates of individual well fires by a combination of radiation 

and flame-height data. Data were obtained on a dozen fires burning at estimated rates 

of 1500-30,000 barrels per day. Extrapolating these measurements to the total of 

651 wells yielded a figure of 7.4 million barrels per day, in good agreement with the 

Kuwait Oil Company estimate. 

T. Kashiwagi, "Suggested approach for fire safety of the space station," pp. 1-5 in NASA International 

Workshop. on Microgravity Co,nbustion, January 25-26, 1989, Cleveland Ohio, unpublished. 

R. L. Smith and T. Kashiwagi, "Expert systems applied to spacecraft fire safety," Journal of Applied Fire 

Science 1. No. 2, pp. 102-I 13, 1990. 

D. Madrzykowski D. D. Evans, and Gerald A. Hayes, "Large fires: Kuwait," Proceedings of the 12th 

panel ,neeling of the United States-Japan Government Cooperative Program on Natural Resources, October 

27- Nove,nber 2, 1992, unpublished. 

520 
Fire Data Compilations and Calculations 

Throughout its existence, the Center for Fire Research actively engaged in compiling 

fire data and recording the results of fire calculations, often obtained by modeling 

techniques. These contributions sometimes involved basic heat, heat-transfer and 

thermodynamic data, the modeling of particular types and properties of fire, or the 

effects of fire on people. 

A key ingredient to the usefulness of CFR work was the ready availability of 

reports, books, and compilations. The Fire Research Information Service, headed by 

Nora H. Jason, offered annual compilations of references to research in 

Data on Fire-related Properties of Materials 

As examples of the compilation of information on the properties of materials as they 

relate to fire, we cite the calculation of emissivity and absorptivity of combustion 

products in building corridors, by K. Bromberg and James G. Quintiere, and a comparison of the relative influence on flame extinction of induced temperature 

decrease and heats of combustion of fuels, by Andrej Macek.'6' 

Fire Modeling 

Daniel Gross and Alexander Robertson produced theoretical models of fire as early as the mid-l960s, while John Rockett was beginning his own work in modeling. 

During the 1970s, the focus of modelingchanged from predictions relating to the bum 

duration for entire buildings to more detailed efforts to model the early stages of 

residential fires. So-called "zone" models treated individual rooms or floors of buildings. Jeffrey P. Cohn described the Work of Gross, Robinson, and Rockett, and also 

more recent work by Walter Jones on the modeling of smoke movement.'62 

One of Director Ambler's efforts to stimulate new scientific work at NBS was to set 

aside a small amount of money to fund what were called Competence Proposals. One 

of the first of these went to Howard Baum of the Center for Fire Research and 

Ronald Rehm of the Center for Applied Mathematics, who collaborated on a study that 

eventually formed the basis for all of the computational fluid dynamics modeling of 

60 See, for example, N. H. Jason, "Fire Research Publications, 1980," NBSIR 81-2272, 16 pp., April 1982. 

These bibliographies typically provided access to journal articles, conference proceedings, NBS publications—interagency reports, technical notes, special publications, and handbooks—contract and grant reports, 

and an author index. 

161 K. Bromberg and J. 0. Quintiere, "Radiative heat transfer from products of combustion in building 

corridor fires," NBSJR 74-596, 26 pp., February 1975. See also Andrej Macek, "Flammability limits: 

Thermodynamics and kinetics," NBSIR 76-1076, 22 pp., May 1976. 162 P. Cohn, "Firefighting in the computer age using math and computer models to study fire." NBS 

Diniensions 65, No. 6, pp. 2-5, August 1981. 

521 
fire and combustion over a 20-year span.'63 Their work—cited by many researchers 

both within and outside NBS—made possible the development of simulations that 

could quickly be prepared for calculation on desktop computers. 

There were many other contributions to the science of modeling fire. For example, 

Howard Baum also calculated how a point source of heat could generate laminar 

airflow in the surrounding In another example, David Evans generated a model for the temperature rise from resistive heating in electrical cables. 65 And 

in 1980 Robert Levine developed a model to predict the growth of fire in 

compartments.'66 

Other contributors to fire modeling included Fred I. Stahl, Leonard Y. Cooper, 

Robert E. Chapman, James G. Quintiere, Rosalie T. Ruegg, Ronald G. Rehm, Daniel 

W. Lozier, Daniel M. Corley, Vytenis Babrauskas, Richard W. Bukowski, Henri E. 

Mitler, Marc R. Nyden, Glenn Forney, and James E. Brown. 

Fire Statistics 

Edward K. Budnick collected statistics on U.S. fire deaths in relation to the installation of smoke detectors and sprinklers. He found that, per capita, more people died 

in residential fires than in other types of buildings. However, the use of smoke 

detectors and sprinklers reduced the probability of death by as much as 75 %• 167 Statistics on electrical fires were collected by John R. Hall, Richard W. Bukowski, 

and Alan Gomberg. They surveyed some 105 fire reports in ten U.S. cities—Akron, 

Grand Rapids, Long Beach, Oakland, Portland, Sacramento, San Diego, San Francisco, 

San Jose, and Toledo. They catalogued the locations of the fires and the extent of 

code violations (as many as 60%) associated with 

Books and Conference Proceedings 

In fire science, it was important to communicate information on advances in fighting 

fire—lives depended upon it. For many responsible parties, conference attendance 

provided a vital boost to fire-fighting progress; information could be obtained directly 

from the primary investigators and they could be quizzed about the best means to 

apply new results. 

R. Rehm and H. Baum, "The equations of motion for thermally driven, buoyant flows," J. Res. NBS 83, 

pp. 297-308 (1978). 

'64H. R. Baum, "Laminar flow induced by a point source of heat," J. Res. NBS81B, No. 1, pp. 45-60, 1977. 

D. D. Evans. "Modeling for determination of temperatures of electrical cables within thermally insulated 

walls." NBS!R 80-2129, 28 pp., October 1980. 

R. S. Levine, "Mathematical modeling of fires," NBSJR 80-2107, 44 pp.. September 1980. 

E. K. Budnick, "Estimating effectiveness of state-of-the-art detectors and automatics sprinklers on life 

safety in residential occupancies," Fire Technology 20, No. 3, pp. 5-22, August 1984. 

R. Hall, R. W. Bukowski, and A. Gomberg, "Analysis of electrical fire investigations in ten cities," 

NBSIR 83 -2803, 35 pp., December 1983. 

522 
Bureau fire staffers participated frequently in conferences and contributed to books 

and handbooks on the subject of fire research. A partial listing of conferences routinely 

attended by CFR personnel and handbooks and texts written by them follows. The 

organizations sponsoring the production of the handbooks and textbooks are included 

in parentheses: 

Conferences Attended 

• International Symposium on Combustion. 

• National Heat Transfer Conference. 

• Heat Release and Fire Hazards. 

• International Symposium on Fire Safety Science. 

• International Conference on Fire and Materials. 

• Information Council on Fabric Flammability. 

• International Conference on Flammability. 

Handbooks 

• Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering (Society for Fire Protection 

Engineering). 

• Fire Protection Handbook (National Fire Protection Association). 

• Fire Investigation Handbook (NBS Handbook 134). 

523 

Walter W. Jones of the NBS Center for Fire Research compared the results of a computer model's calculations with a schematic of the actual experiment that the 

model simulated. 
Textbooks 

• Heat Release in Fires (Elsevier Applied Science). 

• Fire and Flammability of Furnishings and Contents of Buildings (ASTM STP 

1233). 

• Fire Safety: Science and Engineering (ASTM STP 882). 

• Mathematical Modeling of Fires (ASTM STP 983). 

• Fire Standards and Safety (ASTM STP 614). • Performance of Protective Clothing (ASTM STP 900). 

Standards and Calibration 

Work in the areas of standards and calibration occupied many researchers and other 

staff members of NBS during this period, as the following selections demonstrate. 

Proton Gyromagnetic Ratio 

After several years of painstaking research, Edwin R. Williams and P. Thomas 

Olsen completed a redetermination of the gyromagnetic ratio of the proton in 1979. In 

turn, their measurement allowed them to set a new value for the fine-structure constant, a central component of one of the most fundamental and accurate theories of physics— 

quantum electrodynamics (QED).'69 

Quantum electrodynamics was used in discussions of all the physical phenomena 

that did not directly involve nuclear forces, gravitation, or weak interactions. Electrical 

and magnetic interactions of subatomic particles, for example, could be accounted for 

by the use of QED. The fine-structure constant, designated by the Greek letter a, 

entered QED as one of the physical quantities that appeared in manyof its equations; 

therefore better accuracy for the fine-structure constant could lead immediately to more 

penetrating tests of the reliability of QED as a physical theory. 

The two Bureau physicists set up their experiment around a small spherical sample 

of water—a substance dense in protons—positioned within a solenoid wound, with 

great precision, of copper wire. The solenoid was powered by a direct current that was 

carefully measured in terms of the U.S. standard ampere. Detection of the precession 

frequency of the protons by nuclear magnetic resonance, a determination involving 

highly accurate frequency measurements, was possible with an uncertainty considerably 

less than 1 ppm. Part-per-million calculation of the magnetic flux density generated 

by the solenoid, however, presented a serious stumbling block to the success of the 

experiment, this was so because of the uncertainty of the solenoid dimensions and the 

E. R. Williams and p. i. Olsen, "New measurement of the proton gyromagnetic ratio and a derived value 

of the line- structure constant accurate to a part in Phys. Rev. Lert. 42, No. 24, 1575-1579 (1979). 

524 
uncertainty of the location of the current elements within the copper wire. Williams 

and Olsen finally hit upon use of sensitive probe coils and a laser interferometer to 

minimize uncertainty in the magnetic flux density determination. 

As a result of their experiment, Williams and Olsen evaluated a to one part in 

i07, reducing its uncertainty by a factor of ten.'7' The Williams-Olsen experiment also 

had the virtue that its determination of the fine-structure constant was independent of 

QED theory; thus their value could be used to test the theory itself. 

Study of the gyromagnetic ratio of the proton had a long history at NBS even before 

the work of Williams and Olsen. Raymond L. Driscoll and Peter L. Bender used 

laboratory space borrowed in 1958 from the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey to 

provide the first high-accuracy measurement (about ten parts per million) of the 

quantity. Their work led to improved electrical standards, allowing a continuing check on the stability of the NBS chemical cells used to define the volt until about 1970. 

By 1988, the Williams-Olsen experiment had been refined, its uncertainty being 

reduced by about a factor of two. The new research was performed in collaboration 

with Marvin E. Cage, Ronald F. Dziuba, Randolph E. Elmquist, Bruce F. Field, 

George R. Jones, Wililiam D. Phillips, John Q. Shields, Richard L. Steiner, and Barry 

N. Taylor. The group's experiments provided information about the time-dependence 

of the NBS ohm and the NBS volt representation, as well as the low-field proton 

gyromagnetic ratio.'72 

In 1989, Cage, Dziuba, Olsen, Shields, Taylor, and Williams received the Department of Commerce Gold Medal Award for their group effort on behalf of electrical 

standards. The justification for the award read, in part: 

This group has made contributions without which the 1990 international 

adjustment of electrical units could not take place. They performed four key 

experiments linking the (International System of Units) definitions of the 

electrical units to NIST national standards at unprecedented levels of accuracy. 

A discussion of the experiment in down-to-earth language was given by Michael Baum, "The precisely 

precessing proton," Dirnensions/NBS 63, No. Il, November 1979, pp. 10-17. 

The reported values were: for the gyromagnetic ratio of the proton, measured at low magnetic field in 

water, 2.675 132 29X 108 TNBS', within 0.21 ppm; for the inverse of the fine- structure constant, 

137.035 963, within 0.11 ppm. 172 M. E. Cage, R. F. Dziuba, R. E. Elmquist, B. F. Field, G. R. Jones, P. T. Olsen, WilIliam D. Phillips, J. Q. Shields, R. L. Steiner, Barry N. Taylor, and E. R. Williams, "NBS determination of the fine-structure 

constant, and of the quantized Hall resistance and Josephson frequency-to-voltage quotient in SI units," IEEE 

Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurements IM- 38, No. 2, pp. 284-289 (1989). See also E. R. 

Williams, G. R. Jones, S. Ye, R. Liu, H. Sasaki, P. T. Olsen, W. D. Phillips, and H. P. Layer, "Low field 

determination of the proton gyromagnetic ratio in water," IEEE Transactions on Instru,,,entation and 

Measurement IM-38, No. 2, pp. 233-237 (1989). 

525 
High-Precision Measurement and Test Equipment Program 

On June 13, 1977, the U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO), "charged with 

examining all matters relating to the receipt and disbursement of public funds,"173 

recommended that the Office of Management and Budget (0MB) create a centralized 

scheme for program direction and coordination of instrument calibration systems used 

by civilian agencies. In turn, the 0MB quickly asked Commerce Secretary Juanita 

Kreps to have NBS take the lead for coordinating improvements in the management 

and use of "high-precision" measurement and test equipment (PMTE) among civilian 

agencies. 

The Federal expenditure in the category represented by PMTE exceeded $2.7 billion 

per year, including more than $250 million in direct calibration expenses. The GAO 

had recently commended the Department of Defense for its sophisticated system that 

coordinated PMTE use within the military, although the GAO was less happy with the 

duplication of effort that it found there.'74 Coordination among civilian agencies was poor, according to the GAO; considerable savings appeared possible if the civilian 

system were to be improved. 

Responding to the Secretary's request, Director Ambler assigned the Office of 

Measurement Services (OMS) to prepare a plan to take the lead role as requested, to 

help civilian agencies improve their PMTE programs, and to report to the Office of 

Management and Budget any needed actions. Brian C. Belanger, then head of the 

OMS, directed the planning effort, which was approved by 0MB in mid-1978. 

The new PMTE Project was managed by Jack Vogt. His staff included Kathryn 

Leedy, Kenneth Edinger, Brenda Schriver, and Joanne Mobley. The array of Federal 

agencies using highly precise measurement and test equipment was impressive. Besides 

the Department of Defense, the list included most of the technical agencies—the 

departments of transportation, energy, health and human services, agriculture, and 

labor, as well as subsidiary or independent organizations such as National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the U.S. 

Postal Service, the Federal Communications Commission, the General Services 

Administration, the Tennessee Valley Administration, the Consumer Product Safety 

Commission, and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Coordinating PMTE activities 

among such a large group would be no easy task. 

One of the first activities undertaken by the PMTE project staff was the preparation 

of a Catalog of Federal Metrology and Calibration Capabilities, intended to promote 

cooperation among federal agencies. It contained a listing of laboratories using highly 

The United States Government Manual 1997-98, (Washington, DC: Office of the Federal Register, 

National Archives and Records Administration, 1997) p. 46. 

GAO Report #LCD-427 A Centralized Manager is Needed to Coordinate the Military Diagnostic and 

Calibration Program. 

'"GAO Report #LCD-426 Centralized Direction Needed for Calibration Program. 

526 
precise measurements and their equipment, along with the name of a contact person in 

each laboratory. The entries were coded to indicate 17 different types of measurements 

used in some 270 laboratories.'76 

A newsletter, PMTE Update, was issued twice a year to improve communications 

among the user laboratories on topics such as new developments in precise equipment, 

publications and meetings, management strategies, and current issues in testing and 

calibration. Two thousand copies of the newsletter were circulated in 1981. 

The NBS project funded cost-effectiveness studies performed by the Raytheon 

Service Company. These covered calibrations, measurement assurance programs, and 

government-wide calibration-interval practices. 

Issues such as the use of Automatic Test Equipment, traceability of measurements to 

national standards, focal points for improved training and recruitment, standardization 

of procedures for calibration, and a handbook of standard terms and definitions were 

treated during the comparatively short (3 years) lifetime of the project. 

Pressed by a persotmel shortage during 1981, the Bureau abandoned the PMTE 

project, ending its short but useful life. 

Voltage and Resistance Standards Based on Quantum Phenomena 

A 60-page NBS Technical Note entitled Guidelines for Implementing the New 

Representations of the Volt and Ohm, Effective January 1, 1990 was published by 

Norman B. Belecki, Ronald F. Dziuba, Bruce F. Field, and Barry N. Taylor in 1989. 78 Issuance of the guidelines was the culmination of brilliant technical work that extended over 20 years. Laboratories contributing to final values for the new standards 

encompassed the earth, bringing a revolutionary change to two of the oldest standards 

of physical measurement. 

For a century and a half, electrochemical cells were used as standards of voltage; 

such cells had provided NBS with its voltage references from the time of its founding. 

The history of standard cells was described by Hamer in 1965. "s' The most stable type 

of cell, the Weston cadmium cell, dated from Enclosed in an H-shaped glass 

76 Kathryn 0. Leedy, "Catalog of Federal Metrology and Calibration Capabilities," NBS Special Publication 

546, first issued, June 1979, 48 pp.; re-issued, September, 1980, 65 pp. 

Brian C. Belanger kindly provided historical materials on the PMTE project. 

r76 Norman B. Belecki, Ronald F. Dzuiba, Bruce F. Field, and Barry N. Taylor, "Guidelines for Implementing the New Representations of the Volt and Ohm," Effective January 1, 1990, N/ST Technical Note 

1263, June 1989, 60 pp. 

Walter J. Hamer, "Standard cells, their construction, maintenance, and characteristics," NBS Monograph 

84, January 1965, 38 pp. 

Forest K. Harris, Electrical Measurenients (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1952), p. 185. The Weston 

cell is also described in NBS Monograph 84, by Hamer. 

527 
container, each column contained an electrode and the cross-tube contained a saturated 

cadmium sulfate electrolyte. When carefully prepared and aged and maintained at a constant temperature, a group of such cells could provide the same reference voltage 

(about 1.018 V) within a few microvolts. 

The actual value of the volt was derived from the basic SI units of length, mass, 

time, and electric current. The great care needed to maintain Weston cells at constant 

temperature and to avoid mechanical disturbance made their calibration a complex 

and time-consuming process. In its Calibration Services Users Guide, the Bureau 

recommended the use of thermoregulated containers maintained in an upright position 

for transporting the cells, with a minimum of one week given to stabilizing the cell at 

NBS, followed by a month of measurements to achieve voltage uncertainties of 

I ppm.'8' 

With a similarly venerable history, the NBS standard of dc resistance was embodied 

in a group of wires. James L. Thomas devised a stable resistance standard for NBS 

during the 1930s, using bare wire coiled in a stress-free manner in a carefully prepared, sealed atmosphere. A group of I fi Thomas-type resistors was 

found invariant in resistance within 1 ppm over several years.'83 Although manganin 

wire had a low temperature coefficient of resistivity, standard resistors were maintained 

at a constant temperature to minimize resistance changes. 

Both Weston cells and Thomas resistors provided standards known as artifacts— 

each copy yielding a slightly different value of the standard depending upon the 

workmanship of the maker. 

The discovery in 1962 of a superconductive tunneling effect by Brian Josephson at 

the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, England markedly changed the situation for 

the voltage standard. Josephson received the 1973 Nobel Prize in physics for his 

theoretical prediction that the flow of electrons between two superconductors connected 

by a thin insulating layer would be quantized according to the applied voltage. It was 

found that when a properly prepared Josephson tunnel junction was irradiated with 

microwave radiation, its current-voltage curve would exhibit steps at precise, quantized 

voltages characterized by the microwave frequency, by an integer denoting the step 

number, and by a constant relating the Josephson voltages to the frequency. None of 

these three numbers involved the identity of the particular Josephson junction, nor even 

the materials from which it was made. 

Realizing the implications of the Josephson effect for voltage standards, scientists 

from national laboratories in Holland, England, the United States (Barry N. Taylor 

from NBS), and the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in Paris 

Bruce F. Field, "NBS Measurement Services: Standard Cell Calibrations," NBS Special Publication 250- 

24, October 1987, 52 pp. Also see "NIST Calibration Services Users Guide, 1989," Joe D. Simmons, editor, 

N/ST Special Publication 250, January 1989, pp. I 14-I 18. - 1S2 "Manganin" is an alloy containing approximately 84% copper, 12 % manganese, and 4% nickel, chosen 

for its low temperature coefficient of resistivity and its chemical stability. 

Harris,op. cit, p. 213. 

528 
formed a working group under the aegis of the BIPM to evaluate the Josephson 

voltage-to-frequency quotient in units consistent with the International System (SI). 

In 1988, the International Committee of Weights and Measures suggested that the 

national laboratories adopt the value of the quotient to be 483 597.9 GHzJV, with the 

transition to the new voltage standard to take place on January 1, 1990. 

While evaluation of the Josephson voltage effect was in progress, Klaus von 

Klitzing discovered a quantum effect related to measurements of the Hall coefficient 

in semiconductors.'86 If a high-electron-mobility semiconductor was cooled to a few 

kelvins above absolute zero and a magnetic flux density of 10 T was applied to it, the 

two-dimensional electron gas which the system approximated became quantized. As a 

Barry N. Taylor joined NBS in 1970 as chief of the Electrical Measurements Section. An expert in the field 

of superconductivity. Taylor became a major contributor to the analysis of 

international physical standards and 

fundamental constants. 

B. N. Taylor and T. J. Witt, "New international electrical reference standards based on the Josephson and 

quantum Hall effects," Met rologia 26, 47-62 (1989). 

B. N. Taylor, "New internationally adopted reference standards of voltage and resistance," J. Res. NIST 

94, No. 2, 95 (1989). 

K. v. Klitzing, G. Dorda, and M. Pepper, Phys. Rev. Left. 45. 494-497 (1980). 

529 
result, the plot of Hall voltage (at fixed current) vs flux density exhibited plateaus of 

resistance characterized by a constant which, like the Josephson frequency-to-voltage 

quotient, was independent of material parameters. The BIPM working group happily 

accepted the task of determining the best possible value of the "von Klitzing constant" 

in SI units; following their recommendation during its 1988 meeting, the CIPM 

selected 25 812.807 fl as the adopted value. As might have been expected, convincing NBS customers (and their counterparts in other countries) of the wisdom of accepting a change in the volt and the ohm for any reason—let alone on the basis of quantum physics—was a challenging task as well.'87 

Ronald F. Dzuiba and R. E. Elmquist were photographed kneeling on a removable panel above a helium-3 

refrigerator and high-field superconducting magnet system, part of a measurement system for the realization 

of the U.S. ohm using the quantum Hall effect. 

1X7 K. B. Jaeger and B. N. Taylor, perspective on possible changes in the electrical units," IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. IM-36, No. 2. pp. 672-675, June 1987. 

530 
Building a New Temperature Scale 

Promulgation of the International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 (IPTS-68) 

relieved but little of the pressure to improve standard thermometry. The measurement 

of temperature pervaded all areas of science and engineering, and there was a growing 

demand for improved range, accuracy, and measurement methods. 

Creating an adequate replacement for the IPTS-68 was necessarily a team activity. 

This was so because of the many features that made up such a scale—many temperature reference points, specialized thermometers for the various temperature ranges, 

and recipes to define calibration procedures. The devices used to create reference 

temperatures for thermometer calibration needed to be available commercially or relatively easy to prepare, and they had to be reasonably easy to use at the desired 

level of precision. Thermometers selected to realize scale temperatures had to be 

reliable. Choosing appropriate values for the reference temperatures, selecting suitable 

standard thermometers, and designing workable calibration methods all required 

considerable work. No one person—no one laboratory—possessed the resources needed 

to replace the International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968. 

Spurred by the discoveries of Evans and Wood, and of Guildner, Anderson, and 

Edsinger (noted in Ch. 2) that demonstrated flaws in the IPTS-68, scientists at NBS 

and in many other laboratories set to work to improve it. Realizing that goal would 

take two decades of hard work. 

Provisional 0.5 K to 30 K Scale of 1976 (EPT-76) 

Better understanding of the relations between thermodynamic temperatures below 

30 K and various laboratory scales, aided by development of new thermometry 

methods, led to the promulgation of a new Provisional 0. 5 K to 30 K Scale of 1976 

(EPT-76). Bureau contributions to the new scale included temperature reference values 

obtained by Harmon H. Plumb and George Cataland'88 and by George T. Furukawa, 

William R. Bigge, and John L. Riddle;'89 helium vapor pressure measurements by 

Roland and reference temperatures based on superconductivity, by Robert J. 

Soulen, Jr. and James F. Schooley.'9' 

The new provisional scale proved to be very useful, and it led eventually to the 

formulation of the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90), which defined 

scale temperatures down to 0.65 K. 

88 H. H. Plumb and G. Cataland, "Acoustical thermometer and the National Bureau of Standards Provisional 

Scale 2-20 (1965), Metrologia 2, 127 (1966). 

'89G T. Furukawa, W. R. Bigge, and J. L. Riddle, "Triple point of argon," pp. 23 1-243 in Temperature, Its 

Measurement and Control in Science and Industry 4, 1972, H. H. Plumb, Editor. 

'90R. Gonano, "Isothermal comparisons of He3 and He4 vapor pressures," pp. 121-126 in Temperature, Its 

Measurement and Control in Science and Industry 4, 1972, H.H. Plumb, Editor. J. F. Schooley and R. J. Soulen, Jr., "Superconductive thermometric fixed points," pp. 251-260 in 

Te,nperature, Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry 5, 1982, J. F. Schooley, Editor. 

531 
Temperatures High and Low 

The NBS gas thermometry program is discussed in some detail in Ch. 6. Pursued 

over a period of several decades, it was a principal contributor to the ability to more 

accurately realize the thermodynamic temperature scale in the range 0 °C to 660 °C. 

Temperatures chosen for the ITS-90 in that range were derived mainly from Bureau 

gas thermometry measurements. 

Leslie A. Guildner and Robert E. Edsinger, utilizing a mercury manometer of unique 

accuracy to measure the pressure of a gas thermometer, found that IPTS-68 temperatures were higher than the gas thermometer temperatures'by 0. 025 °C at 100 °C, 

by 0.044 °C at 231 °C, and by 0.079 °C at 457 °C.'92 These were startling numbers, 

showing that the IPTS-68 was not nearly so representative of thermodynamic 

temperatures as had been supposed when it was prepared. 

Guildner retired from the Bureau before he and Edsinger completed their plan to 

operate the NBS gas thermometer to its highest design temperature, 660 °C. James 

Schooley was given the opportunity to collaborate with Edsinger in finishing the 

measurements. This he did. The newer results generally corroborated the earlier 

Guildner-Edsinger findings in the range of overlap between the two experiments, 

although Edsinger and Schooley found the discrepancies between the IPTS-68 and 

thermodynamic temperatures to be smaller than had been evaluated earlier. Their 

values for the differences were 0.03 °C ± 0.002 °C at 230 °C, 0.045 °C ± 0.005 °C at 

457 °C, and 0.11 °C±0.Ol °C at 660 °C. 

In constructing the 1990 International Temperature Scale, the international 

thermometry body—the Consultative Committee for Thermometry (CCT)—took an average of all of the NBS gas thermometry results as the basis for the new scale in the 

range 0 °C to 660 °C. 

Nuclear Orientation Thermometry 

The technique of nuclear orientation thermometry was applied by Harvey Marshak 

to the evaluation of thermodynamic temperatures in the range 0.01 K to 1.2 K. In this 

elegant method, single crystals of cobalt and holmium were made slightly radioactive 

by neutron irradiation. The materials were chosen carefully; both elements were naturally monoisotopic and both produced thermometrically useful radioactive samples on irradiation. In his experiments, Marshak carefully aligned the samples in a 3He-4He 

dilution refrigerator, then measured the anisotropy of the gamma radiation given off 

by the decay of the radioactive 6°Co or atoms with respect to the appropriate 

crystal axes. Because the nuclear orientation parameters for each system were known, 

192 L. A. Guildner and R. E. Edsinger, "Deviation of international practical temperatures from thermodynamic 

temperatures in the range from 273.16 K to 730 K," J. Res. NBS 80A, pp. 703-738 (1976). 

R. E. Edsinger and J. F. Schooley, "Difference between thermodynamic temperature and t(IPTS-68) in the 

range 230°C to 660 °C," Metrologia 26, pp. 95-106 (1989). 

532 
Marshak was able to calculate, within about 0.5 %, thermodynamic temperatures 

indicated by the measured radiation anisotropies.'94 Marshak's work helped the CCT 

to prepare the ITS-90, as well as laying the foundation for possible extension of 

international scale temperatures below 0.1 K. 

Sealed Triple-Point Cells 

During this period, a far-reaching idea occurred to thermometrists. In simplest terms, 

they decided to rid themselves of the aggravation of dealing with "open" cells for the 

realization of liquid-state reference points used below room temperature. In this 

context, "open" cells were those which incorporated a capillary tube for adding and 

removing gas, or for measuring pressure. For many years, use of such open cells had 

led to experimental difficulties and irreproducibilities arising from changing purity 

levels in supposedly "pure" substances. 

The model for the sealed cell was the water triple-point device. Made of glass in 

the form of a long, closed tube with a re-entrant central thermometer well, it contained 

only water. When the device was cooled sufficiently, a portion of the water would 

freeze. While the three phases—ice, water, and water vapor—co-existed in thermal 

equilibrium, the temperature in the re-entrant well remained at 273.16 K, usually 

within 0.001 K. With no tubes or wires attached, it provided one of the two 

fundamental defining temperatures for all of thermometry.195 

George T. Furukawa and William R. Bigge examined several water triple-point cells 

in preparation for a new scale. They found that all cells of a group of 20 provided the same temperature within 0.0002 °C. 

It should be clear that in abandoning open cells one effectively abandoned the use of 

vapor pressures for thermometry as well as the use of boiling points, since these 

thermometry schemes required the measurement of pressure as part of the thermometric process. In return for the loss of these measurement opportunities, the 

thermometrist obtained triple-point temperatures of higher quality. 

John Ancsin of the National Research Council laboratory in Canada showed the 

way to the expanded use of triple points for scale thermometry by measuring the 

triple-point temperature of oxygen adiabatically.196 At the Istituto di Metrologia 

"G. Colonnetti" in Torino, Italy, Franco Pavese used Ancsin's method for the measurement of triple points of gases purified and sealed into high-pressure cells at room 

temperature. Once prepared, these cells were sealed permanently so that their 

characteristics—in the absence of leaks—never changed. 

George Furukawa brought NBS into the low-temperature-sealed-cell arena with a study of the triple point of purified argon. Constructing three miniature cells with 

volumes of only 50 ml, Furukawa determined the reproducibility of the triple-point 

"i" H. Marshak, "Nuclear orientation thermometry from —0.001 to —1.2 K," pp. 95-101 in Temperature, Its 

Measurement and Control in Science and Industry 5, 1982, J. F. Schooley, Editor. 

The reader may recall that the other fundamental temperature reference point was the zero point of the 

thermodynamic scale. It was inaccessible and thus was not realized in any device. 

Ancsin, "The triple point of oxygen and its change by noble gas impurities," Metrologia 6,53(1970). 

533 
temperature, using the methods of adiabatic calorimetry with which he was familiar. 

He found agreement among the three cells within iO-4 K, demonstrating the viability of 

the technique for low-temperature reference points. 

Billy W. Mangum and Donald D. Thornton, a Postdoctoral Research Associate, 

carefully compared the triple-point temperatures of purified gallium metal obtained 

from several sources. They found the material to provide an excellent reference 

temperature near 30 °C. Relatively inexpensive and easy to use in reference cells, the 

highest-purity gallium (impurities estimated at no more than I ppm) offered reproducibility at its triple point within K.'99 Mangum and Thornton tried both plastic and 

steel containers for the gallium, and they found no systematic differences. 

Mangum and Thornton suggested that the excellent thermal conductivity of gallium, 

coupled with its ease of use, might make it superior to water as a defining reference 

temperature for the international scale.'99 

G. 1. Furukawa. "Reproducibility of the triple point of argon in sealed transportable cells." pp. 239-248 in 

Temperature, Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry 5. 1982, J. F. Schooley. Editor. 

B. W. Mangum and D. D. Thornton. "Determination of the triple-point temperature of gallium." Metrologia 15. No. 4, 201- 215 (1979). 

B. W. Mangum and D. D. Thornton, submission to the 12th Session of the Consultative Committee for 

Thermometry. Paris, May 9-10, 1978. 

534 

NBS Postdoctoral Research Associate Donald D. Thornton (left) and NBS physicist 

Billy W. Mangum inspected an assembled gallium triple-point cell. Able to fix an 

important temperature reference point to within a few ten-thousandths of a degree 

Celsius, the device was selected by Industrial Research and Development magazine as one of the 100 most significant new technical products of 1978. 
Radiation Thermometry 

Malcolm S. Morse and Ared Cezairliyan teamed with G. M. Foley, a colleague 

from the Canal Winchester Company, to propose the use of a specially designed, 

two-wavelength radiation thermometer to measure temperatures in the range 2000 K to 

6000 K.20° They used the device to measure the changing temperatures of rapidly 

heated specimens on a microsecond time scale. In the analysis quoted, they gave 

special attention to its accuracy, estimating that the experimental uncertainties of the 

two channels might range from ±3.7 K to ±30 K. They expected these levels to 

diminish if the instrument would be used in conjunction with a high-quality laboratory 

blackbody. 

Flame Temperatures 

A high-temperature measurement problem rarely faced in the laboratory but common 

in industrial thermometry was the measurement of flame temperatures. Hratch G. 

Semerjian and Robert J. Santoro addressed this problem in conjunction with their 

colleagues P. J. Emmerman and R. Goulard of George Washington University.20' The 

technique suggested by this group involved laser tomography, a multi-angular 

absorption method in which the spatial temperature variation within the flame could be 

evaluated by computer analysis of the absorption data. 

A Resistance Bridge for Thermometry 

A notable advance in thermometry using standard platinum resistance thermometers 

resulted from the development of a new microprocessor-based resistance bridge by 

Robert D. Cutkosky.202 Prior to Cutkosky's invention, taking data with resistance 

thermometers typically was accomplished by manual balancing of a resistance bridge, 

accompanied by manual recording of resistance values using pen and paper. As soon as his design for an automatic bridge was available, several copies were constructed 

for use at NBS, providing enormous savings of time and effort through computerized 

data acquisition and calculation. 

The bridges employed five-stage transformers, five standard resistors, and microprocessors that controlled the generation of 15 Hz or 30 Hz measuring signals at a current level variable in steps between I mA and 8 mA, the iterative bridge balance, 

and the display of the unknown resistance to I The output also could be obtained 

from a standard computer bus. Two versions of the bridge quickly became 

"standard"—one with a resistance limit of 32 fl and a second that could measure 

resistances up to 100 if 

M. Foley, M. S. Morse, and A. Cezairliyan, "Two-color microsecond pyrometer for 2000 to 6000 K," 

pp. 447-452 in Temperature, Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry 5, 1982. J. F. Schooley, 

Editor. 20! H. G. Semerjian, R. J. Santoro, P. J. Emmerman, and R. Goulard, "Laser tomography for temperature 

measurements in flames," pp. 649-660 in Temperature, Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry 

5, 1982, J. F. Schooley, Editor. 202 R. D. Cutkosky, IEEE Trans. Instr. and Meas. IM-29, 330 (1980). 

535 
The advent of the automatic resistance bridge was accompanied by efforts to 

improve the standard resistance thermometer. Along with separate experiments by 

colleagues in China and Germany, the Heat Division's John Evans sought to create a thermometer design that would allow the resistance thermometer to be used to temperatures as high as 1100 °C—the melting temperature of gold, and, traditionally, the 

temperature above which radiation thermometry defined the international scale.203 This 

proved to be a difficult goal to reach for a variety of reasons, but Evans' thermometer 

designs helped make the platinum resistance thermometer the standard instrument up to 

the melting temperature of silver.204 

Frequency of Visible Light 

Continuing the absolute frequency-measurement chain described in chapter 3, 

Donald A. Jennings, F. Russell Petersen, and Kenneth M. Evenson extended the 

technique into the range of visible light. The trio determined the frequency of the 

strong 1.15 laser line in 20Ne at 260 THz and lines in iodine at twice that 

frequency. The frequencies were synthesized in solid-state crystals, CdGeAs2, AgAsS3, 

and LiNbO3.205 

An automatic fringe-counting interferometer was developed by John L. Hall and his 

student Siu Au Lee for the calibration of continuous-wave laser sources during the 

same period. The two scientists were able to demonstrate uncertainty levels well below 

I ppm with the new instrument.206 

Calibrating Radio Antennas With the Moon and the Stars 

Scientists in the Boulder Electromagnetic Fields Division worked long and hard to 

develop a system for the calibration of radio antennas and for the minimization of 

unwanted radio noise. David F. Wait described in 1978 an Earth Terminal Measurement System (EMTS). It could be used to measure earth terminal and satellite 

parameters such as figure of merit, antenna gain relative to a reproducible reference 

level, satellite effective isotropic radiated power, ratio of carrier power to operating 

noise temperature, and noise ulterior flux. Wait's report included troubleshooting hints 

and software description.207 

203 J. P. Evans, "Experiences with high-temperature platinum resistance thermometers," pp. 771-781 in Temperature, Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry 5, 1982, J. F. Schooley, Editor. 204 H. Preston-Thomas, "The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)," Metrologia 27, 3-10 (1990). 205 D. A. Jennings, F. R. Petersen, and K. M. Evenson, "Direct frequency measurement of the 260 Thz 

(1.15 li.m) 20Ne laser, and beyond." Laser Spectroscopy, Vol IV, H. Walther and K. W. Rothe, editors, (New 

York: Springer-Verlag, 1979) pp. 41-48. 206 L. Hall and S. A. Lee, "lnterferometric real-time display of cw dye laser wavelength with sub-Doppler 

accuracy," App! Phys. Lett. 29. No. 6, 367-369 (1976). 207 D. F. Wait, "Earth Terminal Measurement System operations manual," NBSIR 78-879, 268 pp., April 

1978. 

536 
A computer-driven, automatic resistance bridge was only one of many achievements by 

NBS scientist Robert D. Cutkosky. His research on electrical standards won him the 

Gold Medal Award of the Department of Commerce. 

By 1984, Wait and William C. Daywitt had worked out methods by which certain 

stars and the moon could be used as electromagnetic reference sources, relying on the 

reproducible nature of the radiation emitted by Cassiopiea A and the lunar surface. The 

sun, a more powerful source, was less reproducible because of its intense and variable 

solar flares and other activity. 

537 
John L. Hall and his student, Siu Au Lee, stood beside their wavelength-calibration 

interferometer. Dubbed the "Laser Wavelength Meter," the instrument received an IR- 100 award from Research and Development magazine as one of the most significant new products of 1977. 

538 
With the use of the celestial sources, the ETMS noise measurements typically 

provided 5 % to 15 % uncertainty levels for frequencies in the range 1 GHz to 

10 GHz.208 

A Load-Cell Mass Comparator 

Conventional mass comparison balances were mechanical devices capable of weighing up to 30 kg with an uncertainty of about one part per million in the early I 980s. 

Their cost was about $20,000 and the reading was generally recorded manually by the 

operator. Electronic load cells were comparatively inexpensive commercial devices that 

produced electrical signals in response to weight. While the devices were capable of 

excellent resolution, their response curves tended to drift when the applied load was 

removed between weighings. 

Randall M. Schoonover devised a comparator which made use of the load cell for its 

low cost, its inherent resolution, and its computer-compatible signal but avoided the 

drift problem. His solution, in principle, was to maintain the force on the load cell 

while the test mass was replaced by a reference mass—a principle that was introduced a century ago and is employed in virtually all present-day high-precision balances. 

Using electronics developed by Robert J. Cutkosky and Richard M. Davis, Schoonover 

built a prototype of the new device. It exhibited 1 ppm repeatability.209 

The Texas state metrology laboratory was happy to undertake field tests of the new comparator. Its cost was expected to range from $6000 to $7000; its time for measurement, about 2 minutes, compared with about 15 minutes by the mechanical balance 

it replaced. 

Low-Velocity Airflow Facility 

Philip Klebanoff and Patrick Purtell developed a new low-velocity airflow facility 

that could produce uniform flows at velocities in the range 3 rn/mm to 1000 rn/mm, 

with nearly no turbulence. The two scientists devised a laser-based system to establish a primary standard for the measurement of low air velocities.210 

One of the first customers for the new facility was the U.S. Bureau of Mines, when a USBM staff member brought to NBS a vane anemometer for calibration to improve 

its use in monitoring mine ventilation. 

Ultimately the earlier air-speed calibration standard, the pitot tube, was replaced by a fiber optic laser Doppler anemometer (LDA) developed by Vern E. Bean and J. 

Michael Hall. The LDA measured the speed of a flowing stream of air by observing 

very small particles entrained in the air. Once the measurement technique was worked 

208 D. F. Wait, "Precision measurement of antenna system noise using radio stars," IEEE Trans. Instruni. 

Meas. IM-32, No. I, 110-116 (1983). See also W. C. Daywitt, "Error analysis for the use of presently 

available lunar radio flux data in broadbeam antenna-system measurements," NBS Technical Note 1073, 

pp., February 1984. 209 R. M. Schoonover, "A 30 kg capacity high precision load cell mass comparator," J. Res. NBS 87, No. I, 

47-48 (1982). 210 L. P. Purtell and P. S. Klebanoff, "A low-velocity airflow calibration and research facility," NBS Technical Note 989, March 1979, 21 pp. 

539 
out, it became a simple matter to calibrate the LDA system; Bean and Hall fixed a vertical tungsten wire of diameter 5 at a carefully measured radius on the perimeter of a horizontal disk rotating at a known rate, thus producing an LDA target with a calculable velocity. The uncertainty of the air-speed calibration was reduced by the new method to 0.006 m/s.2 

Measuring Electromagnetic Interference 

A new portable broadband rf radiation field meter developed by Francis X. Ries and 

E. B. Larsen of the Electromagnetic Fields Division found immediate application in 

plant safety, in monitoring of power equipment, and in particularly sensitive geographical areas. Electromagnetic interference, arising from sources as ubiquitous as radio and television broadcasts, power transmission, and semiconductor-activated 

switchgear, produced ac radiation at levels that could injure plant workers, ruin radio 

reception, and interfere with the operation of sensitive equipment in hospitals or 

laboratories. 

The new NBS field meter was able to detect radiation from 0.2 MHz to I GHz, thus 

covering the spectrum from radio waves to microwaves. The new device was isotropic 

in its response, thanks to the incorporation of three small, mutually orthogonal dipole 

antennas. Dubbed the EFM-5 Electric Field Monitor, the probe could sense field 

intensities in the range I Vim to 1000 VIm.212 The usefulness of the new meter was so plain that one manufacturer began immediately to design a commercial version. 

A New High-Voltage Calibration Service 

In 1985, Martin Misakian published an NBS Technical Note describing a new calibration service for high-voltage dividers and high-voltage resistors. The new service 

was important to researchers in such fundamental studies as elementary-particle 

physics, to operators of x-ray and other high-voltage equipment, and to the power 

industry. 

In principle, the measurement system was simple—a guarded Wheatstone-bridge 

apparatus. In practice, the laboratory gave the appearance of a science-fiction movie 

set, with its large high-voltage insulators. Misakian was able to offer calibrations with 

uncertainty levels below 0.01 % for equipment useful at voltages from 10 kV to 

150 ky.23 

211 Vem E. Bean kindly provided information on the new laser Doppler anemometer calibration system. 212 E. B. Larsen and F. X. Ries, "Design and calibration of the NBS isotropic electric-field monitor (EFM-5), 

0.2 to 1000 MHz," NBS Tech. Note 1033, March 1981, 104 pp. 

20 M. Misakian, "High voltage divider and resistor calibrations," NBS Technical Note 1215, July 1985, 

25 pp. 

540 
Martin Misakian prepared to evaluate the performance of a dc high-voltage power supply used for calibrating 

high-voltage dividers at NBS. 

A Prize for Hermach 

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IEEE) recognized a lifetime 

of contributions to electrical standards by Francis L. Hermach by presenting him 

with the Morris E. Leeds prize during a 1976 meeting. In one of Hermach's many 

projects, he developed the concept of using thermal converters as transfer standards in 

the measurement of ac-dc voltage differences. He made careful studies of the physical 

bases for the frequency-dependence found the devices. 

The Leeds prize was not Hermach's first honor. Joining the NBS Electricity 

Division in 1939, he became chief of the Electrical Instruments Section in 1963. In 

recognition of his achievements in electrical standards and instrumentation, he was 

elected to fellowship in the IEEE and in the Instrument Society of America (ISA). In 

1970, Hermach received the Silver Jubilee Award from the ISA for "his contributions 

to the accuracy of current and voltage measurements." 

541 
Francis L. Hermach of the Electricity Division in the National Bureau of Standards Institute for Basic 

Standards was awarded the prestigious 1976 Morris E. Leeds prize of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers for outstanding contributions to the field of electrical measurements. 

Technology of Buildings and Other Structures 

The Bureau's building research and fire research groups often were asked to form 

teams to investigate natural disasters, structural failures, and fires in addition to the 

many in-house projects in both groups. In some cases, the investigations were sensitive 

in nature, having been requested by highly placed officials. National Engineering 

Laboratory Director John Lyons referred to such cases as "hot potatoes." The conduct 

of the investigations themselves, their conclusions, and any resulting reports were 

carefully monitored by senior managers, designated specialists, and legal counsel. 

Some of the "hot potatoes" are discussed in this section; others may be found 

elsewhere in the volume. Such cases added spice to the lives of the investigators and 

gray hairs to the heads of the senior managers. 

Designing Structures for Wind Loads 

The safe and economical design of structures for wind loads required meaningful 

estimates of maximum wind speeds. Historically, this design problem was a difficult 

OflC for designers. They could build using any of several estimates of extreme wind 

speeds, balancing maximum safety and minimum cost. 

542 
NBS scientists Emil Simiu of the Center for Building Technology and James 

Filliben of the Center for Applied Mathematics considered the problem in collaboration 

with Jaques Bietry, a French colleague, using a new approach. They employed the 

methods of Monte Carlo calculation to analyze existing wind data in non-hurricane 

areas for comparison with the historical models. Their results clearly supported the 

"Gumbel" model—one that limited the prediction of high-velocity winds to lower 

values than other models.214 

The results obtained by the three scientists led to a change in standardization 

practices and building design throughout the world. Particularly affected was the area 

of statistical analysis. Their ideas became part of an engineering text, co-authored by 

Simiu, describing the fundamental effects of wind on structures. 

Structural Disasters 

During an evening dance contest on Friday, July 17, 1981, at the Hyatt Regency 

Hotel in Kansas City, Missouri, two suspended walkways—carrying patrons who were 

watching the scene or traversing an atrium high above the festivities—gave way and 

fell into the mass of people below. It was the deadliest structural disaster in American 

history—I 13 dead, 186 injured. Three days later, Senator Thomas F. Eagleton and 

Mayor Richard L. Berkley asked NBS to help discern the cause of the catastrophe. The 

Bureau was ready, willing, and able to help. 

A team of scientists and engineers from the Center for Building Technology in 

Gaithersburg and the Center for Materials Science in Boulder was assembled immediately. The team included Richard D. Marshall, Edward 0. Pfrang, Edgar V. 

Leyendecker, Richard P. Reed, Maurice B. Kasen, and T. Robert Shives; they reached 

the scene the next day. The group examined the atrium area and visited a warehouse 

where authorities had temporarily stored debris from the collapse. 

Until certain legal questions could be answered, NBS access to some of the 

materials needed for analysis of the disaster was delayed. But eventually Bureau 

scientists and engineers were able to examine the fallen walkways and remove critical 

portions of the debris for testing in their own laboratories. On the basis of the study, 

they were able to describe the course of events on the fateful evening in terms of 

material strengths, design criteria, and construction techniques, comparing the actual 

strength of the walkways with that required by the Kansas City building code.2t5 Theirs 

is an arresting analysis of a disaster that was inevitable once construction of the 

walkways was complete. 

The hotel was built with a tall atrium between a residential tower and an area that 

encompassed registration, dining, and other facilities. Three walkways traversed the 

atrium at different levels. The fourth-floor walkway was directly above the secondfloor walkway, while a third-floor walkway crossed at some distance from the other 

214 E. Simiu, J. Filliben, and J. Bietry, "Sampling errors in the estimation of extreme winds," J. Structural 

Division, Amer. Soc. of Civil Eng. 104, No. ST3, March 1978. 215 Richard D. Marshall, Edward 0. Pfrang, Edgar V. Leyendecker, R. P. Reed, M. B. Kasen, and T. Robert 

Shives, "Investigation of the Kansas City Hyatt Regency walkways collapse," NBS Building Science Series 

143, May 1982, 350 pp. 

543 
two. Three pairs of threaded steel rods anchored in the ceiling of the atrium (hanger 

rods) supported the third-floor walkway, and another three pairs supported the fourthfloor walkway. Each pair of hanger rods actually supported a cross-beam, with the 

walkway itself lying atop the beam; the rods passed through holes in the beams which 

then rested on large steel washers and nuts. The way the walkway supports were 

installed turned out to provide an inadequate margin of safety, according to the testing 

done by the NBS team and the requirements of the Kansas City Building Code. 

Although the original design of the hotel called for the fourth-floor walkway hanger 

rods to be long enough to also support the second-floor walkway, the actual construction resulted in the use of a second set of hanger rods anchored to the fourth-floor 

walkway beams. This deviation from the original design was a fatal error, for 

it effectively doubled the load on each of the fourth-floor cross-beams, causing the 

washer-nut connection on one of the fourth-floor beams to pull through its hole when 

some 40-60 people gathered on the walkways to watch the dancing. 

The NBS analysis was painstaking. Micrographic analysis of the support hardware 

and strength testing of the beam assemblies allowed the team to estimate the loadbearing capability at each of the hanger-rod positions. The flawed design of the 

cross-beam, washer-and-nut connections, coupled with the unwise suspension of the 

second-floor walkway from the one above it, resulted in a load-carrying capacity 

barely strong enough to bear the weight of the walkways themselves—no more than 

half the capacity demanded by the local building code. The recipe for disaster required 

only the ingredient of a certain amount of extra weight, provided on a summer evening 

by the attraction of a dance contest. 

Earthquake! 

The year 1977 saw the heaviest damage from earthquakes in four centuries, according to seismic experts. It was thought that the problem might not ease anytime soon. 

Congress reacted to the perceived increase in the danger to U.S. cities with passage 

of the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977 (PL 95-124). The Act directed 

the President to establish and maintain a coordinated earthquake hazards reduction 

program, based upon improved structural design and construction methods, improved 

prediction techniques, and improved land-use policies. The Bureau was asked to 

participate in data-gathering, testing, and analysis of earthquake damage and improved 

construction methods. 

Following are only two examples of several earthquake investigations by NBS 

during Ambler's tenure. 

An earthquake demolished many buildings in downtown Bucharest, Romania, on March 4, 1977. Two NBS engineers led a U.S. study team to the site, where they 

gathered information on the types of buildings that were damaged, evident sources of 

the damage, and the effectiveness of earthquake-resistant construction in Bucharest. 

The Bureau team was directed by the Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance of the 

Agency for International Development. 

544 
The NBS report, written by George S. Fattal, Emil Simiu, and Charles G. Culver, 

ran to some 160 pages and included more than 100 photographs illustrating the damage 

caused by the earthquake.216 The report also recommended methods for restoration of 

some of the structures, as well as suggestions for building practices for improved 

seismic resistance. The eventual U.S. offer of assistance to Romania was based, in 

part, on the NBS recommendations. 

Graphic images resulting from a severe earthquake (8.1 on the Richter scale) that 

rocked Mexico City on September 19, 1985, stayed in the minds of many who saw—in 

news reports or first-hand—the extent of the damage. More than 6,000 people were 

killed or could not be found; some 14,000 were injured; places of employment were lost by 150,000. Contributing to the human suffering, more than 5,000 buildings were 

damaged more or less severely, nearly 700 of those partially or completely collapsing. 

Streets and water mains were shredded, along with many telephone lines. Total 

economic damage was expected to approach $4 billion. 

Large as it was, the disaster could have been worse. The earthquake occurred at 

7:19 am, before many people had left their homes to work in the medium-tall buildings 

that suffered some of the worst damage. And the damage, mimicking the destructive 

pattern of a Richter 7.5 quake that struck Mexico city in 1957, was selective. Although 

buildings in the 5-20 story range suffered major damage, many nearby buildings and 

all buildings taller than 30 stories escaped. 

A team of five scientists—William C. Stone and Felix Y. Yokel of NBS and 

Mehmet çelebi, Thomas Hanks, and Edgar V. Leyendecker of the U.S. Geological 

Survey—was dispatched under the aegis of the Interagency Committee on Seismic 

Safety in Construction to provide technical advice to rescuers and to assess the nature 

and extent of the structural damage with respect to minimizing earthquake damage in 

the future.217 Professors from the Institute of Engineering of the University of Mexico 

assisted the U.S. team with information on subsoil conditions, building codes, and 

other information on Mexico City. 

The team observed that most of the destruction was confined to an area of the city 

that once lay beneath a lake, where the soft surface land subsided continuously and 

noticeably with time. The substantial ground motion was amplified by the nature of the 

subsoil. The group analyzed the failures of buildings and their foundations in terms of 

existing seismographic records and obvious differential displacement of sidewalks and 

pavement around buildings. Many details of tilted and overturned structures showed 

the influence of the subsurface on the extent of earthquake damage. 

216 G. S. Fattal, E. Simiu, and C. 0. Culver, "Observations on the behavior of buildings in the Romania 

earthquake," NBS Special Publication 490, 168 pp., September 1977. 217 William C. Stone and Felix Y. Yokel of NBS and Mehmet çelebi, Thomas Hanks, and Edgar V. 

Leyendecker, "Engineering aspects of the September 19, 1985 Mexico earthquake," NBS Building Science 

Series 165, May 1987, 207 pp. 

545 
Engineers from the NBS and the Bureau of Mines collaborated in earthquake hazards prevention research, 

using a special tn- directional test facility at the NBS Center for Building Technology. In this photograph. 

engineers studied the behavior of masonry walls under shear stress. 

On the basis of previous experience with earthquake damage from the relatively 

close Middle American Trench area that ran along the Southwest coast of Central 

America, the Mexico City authorities long ago issued special building codes intended 

to minimize earthquake damage. Structures were to be built so as to move as a unit, 

with minimum foundation motion. Nevertheless, not even the newest buildings escaped 

damage. 

The disaster team from the U.S. obtained an enormous amount of detailed information about the response of a variety of structures, mainly buildings, to the welldocumented forces resulting from the Mexico City earthquake. For example, a 43-story 

steel frame building apparently survived because its natural vibration period was well 

outside the resonance period of the earthquake, so that it was "detuned" from major 

structural damage. In other cases, buildings built close to each other suffered damage 

from "pounding" as they swayed and made contact with each other in response to the 

earthquake. 

Stress-Wave Analysis of Concrete 

In 1983, Nicholas Carino and Mary Sansalone of the Center for Building Technology initiated a research project to develop a stress-wave-propagation technique for locating defects within concrete structures. While the use of stress waves was a familiar 

practice in the non-destructive evaluation of metals, little success had resulted from 

previous efforts in concrete analysis. 

546 
With colleagues in CBT and acoustics experts from the Center for Manufacturing 

Engineering, Carino and Sansalone took advantage of advances in numerical simulation 

methods, transducer technology, and signal processing to propose a new analytical 

technique which they called the "impact-echo" method.218 

The new method was a big hit. It was adopted as an approved test method for 

thickness measurement by the American Society for Testing and Materials (C 1383, 

1998), and it formed the basis for new commercial products for use in the Nation's 

highway industry. 

Projects in Preservation 

During 1980, the White House received a much-needed face-lift with help from 

NBS. 

Paul Campbell, Gerald Sleater, and Mildred Post of the Structures and Materials 

Division, Center for Building Technology, were called in during 1978 by the National 

Park Service for advice on cleaning and painting the exterior of the venerable 

residence. For nearly 2 years, the NBS team evaluated the exterior surface of the 

building's walls, tested certain points and cleaning methods, and made their 

recommendations. 

Restoration began in 1980, with stripping of the paint on the building's east side, 

where the paint had suffered the most damage. Following the Bureau recommendations, the paint on the east side was stripped chemically and the entire building hosed 

with a high-pressure water spray. Defects in the exterior masonry were patched and 

allowed to cure, and a primer coat of paint was applied to the east side. Finally, an alkyd-based paint was applied to the entire structure. Interestingly, the paint color 

chosen by the White House staff was not white, but a softer cream color to make the 

building "more appealing" by day and night.219 Bureau scientists undertook other 

investigations for the National Park Service as well, most of them of a geophysical 

nature. 

Helping OSHA 

During construction of a five-story condominium building in Cocoa Beach, Florida 

in March 1981, the building suddenly collapsed, killing 11 workers and injuring 

two dozen others. Occupational Safety and Health Administration officials asked representatives of the Bureau's Center for Building Technology to investigate the disaster 

in order to determine its cause. 

An experienced team—Hai S. Lew, Nicholas J. Carino, S. George Fattal, and Martin 

E. Batts—responded with on-site inspections, laboratory tests, and analytical studies. 

The team concluded that the construction had proceeded without full attention to 

certain factors, among them: 

218 M. Sansalone and N. J. Carino, "Detecting delaminations in concrete slabs with and without overlay using 

the impact-echo method," AC! Materials Journal 86, No. 2, March-April 1989, PP. 175-184. 219 "How do you keep the White House white?," NBS Standard, Vol 25, No. 18, p. 5. 547 
Chemist James R. Clifton of the Bureau's Center for Building Technology 

headed an NBS project on preservation technology which was initiated at the 

request of the National Park Service. In the accompanying photograph, Clifton 

(left) and Paul Brown prepared an adobe specimen for microscopic examination 

by impregnating it with methyl methacrylate. The inset shows a cross section of an adobe specimen. 

548 
• Non-uniform concrete was used in the construction, and its strength was not up 

to code. 

• Positioning of the reinforcing rods in the floor sections did not allow specified 

shear resistance criteria to be met. No test of this parameter had been performed, 

because the test had not been specified in the building design. 

The result of the faulty design and construction led to failure of the building after 

the fifth floor was installed. The fifth floor collapsed, carrying with it all the lower 

floors.220 

OSHA also requested NBS assistance in ascertaining the cause of the collapse of a highway bridge ramp in East Chicago, Indiana, which killed 13 wOrkers and injured 

17 others. 

In both cases, NBS tests showed an increasing need for improved test methods for 

evaluating the strength of structures during construction. 

Measuring Insulating Values 

The heat-retardant value of various types of thermal insulation received increased 

attention as the costs of all building materials spiraled upwards during the l980s. At 

the request of the Federal Trade Commission and the Department of Energy, NBS 

scientists Chock In Siu and Charles Bulik designed and built a new device for 

improved measurement of batts of thermal insulation. 

The new apparatus, a specially designed guarded hot plate, provided greatly 

improved precision in the measurement of the thermal conductivity of the batts, the 

basis of "R" values in the construction industry. Heat was applied to the samples from a line heat source, with the temperature of the surrounding guard ring set to minimize 

transverse energy loss. The apparatus could be used at any temperature within the 

range 250 K to 400 K.22' 

Using the new device, the National Engineering Laboratory initiated production of 

standard samples of insulation with thicknesses ranging from 25 mm to 150 mm for use as references for the FTC. For the first time, R-values for all thicknesses of 

thermal insulation materials could be based upon actual measurements. 

Health & Safety Projects 

We illustrate Bureau projects relating to health and safety with an octet of programs 

diversely based—upon superconductivity, dentistry, high-frequency sound, ionizing 

radiation, mercury detection, metallurgy, thermometry, and prosthetics. 

220 H. S. Lew, N. J. Carino, S. G. Fattal, and M. E. Batts, "Investigation of construction failure of Harbour 

Cay condominium in Cocoa Beach, florida," NBSIR 81-2374, September 1981, 138 pp. 221 M. C. I. Siu and C. Bulik, "National Bureau of Standards line-heat-source guarded-hot-plate apparatus," 

Rev. Sci. Inst. 52, No. II, 1709-17 16 (1981). 

549 
Frank J. Powell (standing on the left), Chief of the NBS Thermal Engineering Systems 

Section. and section colleague Thomas W. Watson watched as the Bureau's Chock I. 

Siu operated a guarded hot-plate apparatus (on table) to determine the thermal conductivity of insulation. 

Magnetoencephalography 

In Ch. 2, we noted that James E. Zimmerman of the Boulder Cryogenics Division 

was a pioneer in the use of superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUID) for 

medical diagnostics. During the late I 970s, Zimmerman carried his studies further 

into medical research with the collaboration of M. Reite of the University of Colorado 

Medical Center, J. Edrich of the University of Denver, and J. T. Zimmerman of the 

University of Colorado department of Psychology. 

550 
The experiments undertaken by the group went by the generic title of magnetoencephalography, the recording of magnetic activity in the brain. The SQUID served as a magnetic gradiometer, able to detect local variations in the intensity of magnetic 

fields produced by brain activity. For improved sensitivity, observations were 

performed in a shielded room in the Boulder laboratory. The magnetic measurements 

of brain activity appeared to be capable of better spatial precision on the skull of human subjects than electroencephalography. 

To test brain response to auditory signals, the team .presented clicking sounds to four 

subjects through earphones. Within less than a half-second after receiving a sound 

pulse, each subject exhibited a magnetic response that was detectable by the apparatus 

near the area on the scalp thought to correspond most closely to the primary auditory 

cortex of the brain. It was the first demonstration of auditory evoked response by 

magnetoencephalography.222 

Dental Work at NBS 

Collaboration between the American Dental Association (ADA) and NBS continued 

without interruption from 1928, when the first ADA research associate, Norris 0. 

Taylor, arrived. The productivity of the collaboration was outstanding. 

Almost 50 years later, in 1977, there were nine NBS employees working as members of the Dental and Medical Materials Section of the Polymers Division, 

22 research associates of the ADA Health Foundation Research Unit, and individual 

associates from the U.S. Navy, the Air Force, and the National Association of Dental 

Laboratories. Funding was provided by the ADA foundation, by NBS, and by agencies 

such as the National Institutes of Health. 

During its first half-century, the collaboration produced 25 standards for dental 

materials and more than 600 scientific papers. Among the items of apparatus 

commonly used in 1977, the high-speed-turbine hand drill and the panoramic x-ray 

machine were developed at NBS. Composite restorative dental materials were 

developed at the Bureau as well. 

During World War I, Wilmer Souder, an NBS physicist working in conjunction with 

the U.S. Army, began evaluating the properties of dental amalgams. In 1926 the work 

led to the first dental specification by the ADA. 

George Paffenbarger was the Senior Research Associate in 1977; with Nelson Rupp, 

chief of Clinical Research for the ADA foundation, he updated the amalgam specification to eliminate from common use those amalgams that tended to produce inferior 

results. The goal of amalgams research, to make the restoration last the entire lifetime 

of the patient, was near, said Rupp; only slight differences in dental handling limited 

the service life of amalgams. 

A 1956 collaboration, led by Ray Bowen—in 1977 still part of the research team 

at NBS—developed silica-resin composites that became standard materials for filling 

pits and fissures in teeth. 

222 M. Reite, J. Edrich, J. T. Zimmerman, and J. E. Zimmerman, "Human magnetic auditory evoked fields," 

E/ec:roencephalogr. C/in. Neurophysio/. 45, 114-117 (1978). A simplified discussion of this work can be 

found in Dimensions/NBS, February 1978, pp.19-21. 

551 
In 1974, Walter Brown published a new theoretical discussion of tooth decay; his 

idea was that decay initiated slightly below the tooth surface with a process of 

demineralization. 223 Richard Waterstrat, chief of Dental Metallurgy, sought an effective substitute for 

gold in dental restorations. Gold constituted one of the principal components of 

restoratives that involved the fusing of porcelain to metals. The high cost of gold 

provided the motivation for Waterstrat's efforts. His work led him to become an expert 

on the phase diagrams of alloys of noble metals with less expensive elements. 

Properties such as toxicity and response to the chemistry of the mouth complicated 

Waterstrat's metallurgical problems. 

In 1977, Curtis Mabie was chief of dental ceramics. His work focused on porcelain 

and other ceramic restoratives. An example of this effort was an attempt to render 

ceramic fillings opaque to x rays, so as to distinguish them from cavities. 

Gerhard Braucr of the NBS dental group prepared a review of the use of polymers 

in dentistry for the construction of dentures, plastic teeth, and impression materials. 

He pointed out the advantage of liners that bonded securely to teeth, and discussed 

research in progress.224 Brauer received the Department of Commerce Gold Medal 

award in 1975 for his work in dental research. 

Bonding dental resins to dentin was an objective of research by Joseph M. 

Antonucci. He sought to replace the "acid-etch" process with monomers that co- polymerized with dentin.225 

223 W. E. Brown, 'Physicochemical mechanisms of dental caries," J. Dent. Res. 53. No. 2. 204-216 (1974). 224 G. M. Brauer, 'Polymers in dentistry," Chapter 5 in Dental Materials Review, R. G. Craig. editor (Ann 

Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1977), pp. 78-Il 1. 22S "New technique for dental restorations," DirnensionslNBS, April 1977, p. 22. 

552 

Crystallographer Leroy W. Schroeder, an American Dental Association 

Research Associate, was photographed with models of glaserite, used in studies 

of the crystalline structure of the apatites found in teeth. 
Medical Diagnosis With Ultrasound 

High-frequency sound waves were used in many ways at NBS. Some of these 

involved non-destructive evaluation. A special category of non-destructive evaluation 

turned out to involve ultrasonic medical diagnosis, a new field that came into its own 

during the tenure of Ernest Ambler as director of NBS. 

During May 1975, an international seminar on ultrasonic characterization of tissue 

was held at the Gaithersburg campus of NBS. The seminar was chaired by Melvin 

Linzer of the Bureau's Inorganic Materials Division.226 It was co-sponsored by NBS, 

the National Institutes of Health, and the National Science Foundation. Some 22 papers 

were given during the meeting; they focused on experimental methods. Participants 

represented research hospitals, universities, government agencies, and private firms. In a keynote talk, G. B. Devey of the National Science Foundation traced the beginnings 

of NSF support for research on medical ultrasonics and progress towards the goal of 

bringing the techniques to clinical medicine. The seminar played an important role in 

disseminating new information on the status of the field. 

A Second International Symposium on Ultrasonic Tissue Characterization, again 

co-sponsored by NBS, NIH, and NSF, and held at NBS from June 13-15, 1977, 

brought forth further instrumental details of ultrasonic techniques. Included among the 

50-odd papers were specifics on some of the medical uses of ultrasound. These 

included the fact that, properly administered, ultrasound did not damage tissue during 

diagnostic use. Birth defects, brain disorders, heart disease, tumors of the breast, liver 

anomalies, and bone composition, all of these were diagnosed using ultrasound. 

One contribution to the second symposium was offered by Melvin Linzer in 

collaboration with Stephen I. Parks, S. J. Norton, F. P. Higgins, and R. W. Sheidler, 

and their colleagues from NIH, T. H. Shawker and J. L. Doppman. Their paper described progress in developing at NBS a comprehensive analysis system for tissue, 

based upon the use of ultrasonics. Techniques considered for the system included 

computer-assisted tomography, opto-acoustic testing of imaging, transducer calibration, 

and sensitivity enhancement through signal averaging. Portions of the new system 

were tested and found satisfactory in the Clinical Center of the National Institutes of 

Health. 

Safe Use of Ionizing Radiation 

Lauriston S. Taylor took advantage of an opportunity to lecture on one of his 

specialties, radiation safety, on March 1, 1976. Taylor was a veteran member of NBS 

(his service to the Bureau began in 1927 and extended to 1965) and a national 

spokesman for radiation-related public safety problems. He was chief of the Bureau's 

radiation physics activities from 1950 to 1962, he served the National Academy of 

Sciences for 4 years in emergency planning, and during 1976 he was President of the 

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement. As keynote speaker 

226 "Ultrasonic Tissue Characterization: Proc. of a seminar held at NBS, May 28-30, 1975," Melvin Linzer, 

editor, NBS Special Publication 453, 288 pp., October 1976. 

553 
for the NBS-sponsored symposium on Measurements for the Safe Use of Radiation, 

Taylor reminded his audience of a few facts from the history of radiation safety, as well as some of his own thoughts on the topic. 

First to be mentioned was the idea of traceability of measurement standards; it 

would be of little benefit to patients at a hospital if the radiation-measurement capability of NBS could not be transferred at an acceptable level to that hospital. Taylor was involved in inter-laboratory comparisons of x-ray standards as early as 1931. 

Early medical x-ray dosimetry involved color-change chemicals, photosensitive 

films, and ionization chambers. Taylor traced the history of x-ray standards activities to 

the mid-70s, noting the availability of 5 % accuracy for patients in hospitals with the 

best measurement practices. 

Taylor suggested continuing maintenance of basic radiation-safety measurements, 

continuing measurement assurance with organizations that place people in radiation 

situations, and continuing development of accurate and reliable field instruments.227 

A New Mercury Monitor 

Industrial workers encountered mercury less frequently during the mid-70s than 

they did in earlier times,228 but NBS nevertheless found a ready audience for its 

development of an improved mercury monitor. 

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) safety standards 

limited exposure to mercury vapor to 0.05 mg/rn3 during an 8-hour workday. Eugene P. 

Scheide and John K. Taylor developed a sensitive, portable, inexpensive device that 

measured the total amount of mercury exposure over a workday. 

The device was based upon the principle of the microbalance. It employed frequency 

measurement to indicate the amount of mercury encountered in its active components. 

The two scientists found that they could evaporate a gold layer on the surface of a piezoelectric crystal of quartz. Gold amalgamated easily, absorbing mercury as room 

air was drawn past the crystal; as the mercury accumulated, the natural frequency of 

vibration of the quartz changed. A simple formula related the amount of mercury 

absorbed to the change in resonant frequency of the dosimeter. 

Perhaps best of all, a simple baking procedure could remove as much as 90 % of the 

mercury from the dosimeter after it was read. The sensor/air-pump system could 

readily be worn on a worker's clothing.229 

227 Lauriston S. Taylor, "A saga of radiation safety," DimensionslNBS, May 1976, pp. 7-9, 21. 

Madeleine Jacobs, in "NBS develops new mercury monitor, Dimensions/NBS, January 1976, pp. 3-5, 

noted that the "Mad Hatter" of Lewis Carroll's "Alice in Wonderland" derived from the visible symptoms 

exhibited by workers in the hat industry when felt and fur processing involved the use of mercury in large 

quantities. 229 E. P. Scheide and J. K. Taylor. "Piezoelectric sensor for mercury in air," Environ. Sci. Technol. 8, No. 13, 

1097-1099 (1974). 

554 
NBS chemists John K. Taylor (left) and Eugene P. Scheide discussed the portable 

mercury monitor that they developed to help public health officials determine whether a worker was exposed to hazardous levels of mercury. 

Safety From Burning Metals 

Metal combustion studies at NBS/Boulder had as their goal the elucidation of the 

basic mechanisms involved in the burning of metals in the workplace. A research team 

of John L. Moulder C. C. Runyan, and Alan F. Clark undertook the project at the 

suggestion of a triplet of agencies—the Departnient of Transportation, the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific 

Research. 

Metals of special interest were involved in the transport of liquefied or gaseous 

oxygen. Any tendency for metal to burn—to oxidize, usually—would be enormously 

speeded up by the presence of oxygen in large quantities. One example of such a disaster was the explosion of a liquid oxygen tank truck in Brooklyn, which killed or 

injured more than 30 people. 

The research team prepared a test fire by igniting 100 g samples of steel in an oxygen pressure tank, then dropping them on other metals. All experiments were con- ducted by remote control, with video monitors. Filming at a rate of 500 frames per 

second, they followed the details of combustion. Reaction rates could be monitored 

by weighing the samples during combustion. Radiation thermometers and spectrometers provided temperature and spectral data, showing the presence or absence of 

intermediate species.23° 

A. F. Clark, J. C. Moulder, and C. C. Runyan, "Combustion of bulk titanium in oxygen," paper in 15th 

International Symposium on Combustion (Pittsburgh: The Combustion Institute, 1974) pp. 489-499. 

555 
Medical Thermometry 

From the hand on the fevered brow, to the mercury thermometer under the tongue, 

to the electrical thermometer encased in a throw-away protector, medical and clinical 

thermometry gained both speed and accuracy. 

In 1973, the NBS Heat Division initiated a program in Medical Thermometry, 

headed by Billy W. Mangum. At that time, the most accurate thermometer available to 

the medical profession was uncertain by 0.3 °C in terms of the International Practical 

Temperature Scale of 1968. Standard thermometers and a temperature reference point 

based on the melting point of purified gallium, subsequently developed in the Medical 

Thermometry program, reduced the previous uncertainty level by a factor ten. The new thermometers were made part of the Standard Reference Materials program and given 

the designations SRM 933 and SRM 934. They were used primarily to calibrate new, 

miniature electrical-resistance thermometers—thermistor thermometers or tiny platinum 

resistance thermometers. While they were very sensitive, the new thermometers needed 

re-calibration on a regular basis. 

Working with thermistor manufacturers, Mangum and his co-workers helped to 

develop types of thermistor thermometers of exceptional stability—some showing drift 

rates as small as 0.005 °C per year. 

To provide thermometry for body tissue under high-frequency irradiation, the group 

studied the use of ordinary radiation thermometry or non-metallic thermometers. A 

birefringent-crystal thermometer, LiTaO3, connected to its power source and readout 

device by optical fibers, showed promise for contact thermometry in irradiation 

experiments.23' 

New Body Parts for Old 

In 1975, about I million foreign objects (implants) were surgically inserted into 

human patients. These consisted of nails and screws, plates and joints, heart valves and 

synthetic blood vessels. Since the implants were inserted into younger and younger 

patients, questions about their long-term biocompatibility and service life became more 

and more pressing. In 1976, a Medical Devices Amendment required manufacturers of 

implants to meet stricter standards—in some cases, standards still in the developmental 

stage. 

James M. Cassel, chief of the Bureau's Dental and Medical Materials Section, 

headed an NBS program on synthetic implants at that time. Collaborating with Cassel 

were Freddy A. Khoury, Anna C. Fraker, John R. Ambrose, and Arthur W. Ruff; they 

studied the two largest areas of implant medicine, orthopedic and cardiovascular 

devices. 

Orthopedic implants were made of stainless steel, cobalt-chromium alloys, or titanium alloys. Leading the way in such devices were artificial hips, with about 

40,000 insertions per year. Fatigue and wear in use limited the service life of the 

B. W. Manguni, "Mercury thermometers—are they becoming antiques?" Dirnensions/NBS, February 1976, 

pp. 12-17. 

556 
prosthetic hips. Another factor in the service life of hip joint prostheses was the use of 

high-density polyethylene in the socket portion of the joint. It was subject to severe 

pressure because of its configuration and thus its wear characteristics were vital to 

the service life of the joint. And the cement used to hold the components of the 

implanted hip joint in place similarly was subject to extreme wear. Stephen S. Haas, 

Gerhard M. Brauer and George Dickson developed a polymethylmethacrylate bone 

cement that was effective with prosthetic implants.232 

Energy Conservation 

Research and other activities in support of energy conservation, created as a major 

thrust of NBS work during the tenure of Richard Roberts, continued as an active 

program under Director Ambler. Following are brief notes on some of these projects. 

ETIP Initiates the Modular Integrated Utility System Study 

Jordan Lewis, head of the Bureau's Experimental Technology Incentives Program, 

announced during 1976 the selection of the University of Florida, at Gainesville (UF), 

to test a new concept in energy generation and conservation that was given the name 

"Modular Integrated Utility System" (MIUS). The announcement was made jointly 

with Gerrit D. Freemouw of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 

and Robert Q. Marston, President of UF. 

The sub-systems comprising MIUS at UF included the generation of a fraction of 

needed power on the site of the project; the creation of a heating, ventilating, air 

conditioning, and hot water system; systems for disposal of liquid and solid waste; and 

the conservation of potable water.233 

Clinton Phillips of the Office of Housing and Building Technology, Department of 

Housing and Urban Development was the lead technical advisor for the MIUS project. 

John Schaefgen was the leader of the MIUS demonstration project at the Bureau. 

One of the major goals, they stated, was the conservation of energy used within the 

demonstration community through recovery of waste heat, typically discarded into 

ponds or streams by electrical utilities. Other goals included protection of the 

environment, cost minimization, and maintaining high system reliability. 

Besides the University of Florida project, a second contract was let for a project to 

be centered on the construction of a new town, St. Charles, Maryland, located 

40 km southeast of Washington, DC. The town was planned to incorporate one 

high-rise apartment building, 205 apartments in four-story units, 200 townhouses, a shopping mall, offices, and a high school. 

At the time of the award of the project, it was hoped that energy savings as large as 40 % could be realized by the new approach. A bonus would take the form of 

reduced environmental pollution. 

232 S. S. Haas, G. M. Brauer and G. Dickson, "A characterization of polymethylmethacrylate bone cement," 

J. Bonef. Surg. 57A, No.3,380-391(1975). 

233 "University of Florida, Gainesville, Selected to Test Integrated Utilities System Concepts," 

Dirnensions/NBS, March 1976, p. 19. 557 
The MIUS experiment provided a useful model for a national utility program rooted 

in energy conservation and environmental protection. 

Energy-Efficient, Automatic Control of Furnaces 

A new furnace-testing facility was completed in 1980 by the NBS Center for 

Mechanical Engineering and Process Technology. It was designed to improve the 

energy efficiency of industrial furnaces using automatic controls and heat-recovery 

systems known as "recuperators." 

Recuperators, heat exchangers that recovered energy from hot exhaust gas to 

pre-heat the make-up air prior to combustion, lent complexity to automatic furnace 

controls, explained Hratch Semerjian, project leader for the new installation. The 

efficiency of the recuperator depended upon the temperature of the incoming air, which 

in turn depended upon the temperature of the recuperator. Developing the procedures 

for balancing the control system in the presence of such feedback mechanisms 

presented a problem which industrial combustion engineers were happy to bring to 

NBS. 

The furnace was a slot-forging type rated at 300 kW (I million Btulh), with a maximum air preheat of 850 °C. A mini-computer was dedicated to the development of 

the control algorithm. 

The furnace project also enabled Bureau scientists to study the combustion characteristics of various fuels and evaluate diagnostic test methods for furnaces. 

Insulating an Older Home 

NBS scientists showed the value of insulating homes against the heat and cold 

during 1978-79. Using the Bowman House, mentioned in Ch. I, they measured the 

energy consumption of the poorly insulated home under simulated conditions of 

occupancy, then insulated it and installed storm windows. The energy consumption in 

the house dropped by nearly 60 

Catching Energy Losses With Infrared Thermography 

The value of infrared thermography for detecting loss of energy from residential and 

industrial structures was convincingly demonstrated in 1978 by scientists from the 

Center for Mechanical Engineering and Process Technology. 

As part of the EPIC publications series, Lawrence A. Wood, John F. Ward, and 

Kenneth G. Kreider described a specialized camera that produced images indicating the 

temperature distribution on the outside surfaces of industrial furnaces—for example, an iron-forging furnace. The information would allow an exact calculation of the rate 

of loss of energy, a growing expense at that time.235 

234 "National Bureau of Standards, A National Resource for Science and Technology, Fiscal Year 1978," 

NBS Special Publication 538, July 1979, p. 35. 

L. A. Wood, J. F. Ward, and K. G. Kreider, "Energy management for furnaces, kilns, and ovens," Handbook 124, January 1978, 44 pp. 

558 
Environmental Science 

Many Bureau projects of this period influenced the welfare of man's environment. 

Of these, we highlight only a few: a sampling device for life deep in the ocean, 

ozone-layer chemistry, a study of smog, corrosion by the environment, and the polluting aspects of oil spills. 

A Deep-Ocean Sampler Wins a Prize 

Heat Division physicists Max Klein, Meyer Waxman, and Harry A. Davis made a brief excursion into the high-pressure world of deep-sea biotechnology during the late 

l970s and came away with an award for their trouble. 

Rita R. Colwell and Paul S. Tabor, microbiologists at the University of Maryland, 

needed help in retrieving live microorganisms from the ocean depths. Study of the 

living microbes was important to understanding their roles—if any—in decomposing 

wastes at great depths, and in the deep-ocean life cycle. They came to NBS for aid in 

designing a specialized sampling device primarily because Colwell was married to a 

Bureau physicist, Jack H. of the NBS Heat Division, who was well aware of 

the Bureau's capabilities in high-pressure physics. 

Davis, Waxman, and Klein designed a sampling apparatus for use to depths of 

10,000 m, where the pressure was about 1000 times atmospheric pressure. The design 

proved entirely suitable for its tasks: to pre-pressurize a sterilized interior sampling 

chamber; to capture a sample at the required depth; to maintain the sample at its 

deep-water pressure while allowing the scientists to study enclosed microorganisms in 

the laboratory; and to permit the extraction of small samples at will. 

The device was relatively small, inexpensive to construct, corrosion-resistant, safe, 

and reliable. Trials in the Puerto Rico Trench at 6800 meters depth brought up live 

bacteria of unknown types in addition to species previously studied with great effort. 

The device was immediately commissioned by the microbiology team for routine use. The deep-ocean sampler was cited by Industrial Research and Development 

magazine as a winner of its 1979 IR-l00 award, given to the "100 most significant new technical products." 

Chiorofluorocarbons vs the Ozone Layer 

The idea that chlorofluorocarbons, used extensively in refrigeration, air conditioning, 

and as propellants for bug bombs and paint, might absorb ultraviolet light, thereby 

freeing atomic chlorine to deplete the earth's protective ozone layer, led to a search for 

details of such a process. 

The Bureau's Robert J. Celotta, Stanley R. Mielczarek, and Chris E. Kuyatt, 

members of the Optical Physics Division, collaborated with Russell H. Huebner and 

David L. Bushnell of the Argonne National Laboratory to establish a few relevant 

facts, using the technique of electron-loss spectroscopy. 

559 
In a laboratory at the University of Maryland (UM), Max Klein. an NBS physicist, 

and Rita R. Coiwell. a UM microbiologist, looked at colonies of deep ocean microorganisms cultured from water samples retrieved by the deep-ocean sampling device 

(on counter). 

Key to the method was the ability to count electrons of a given energy. The team's 

spectrometer was designed so that electrons projected from a gun were made to pass 

through a monochromator that transmitted only those electrons moving within a narrowly defined range of energy. The transmitted beam then passed through the test 

gas where some fraction of the electrons lost energy by colliding with atoms or molecules of the test gas. From there, the electrons were accelerated and energyanalyzed before entering a detector. The group estimated that cross-sections for 

electron-molecule interaction could be determined by the device within about 15 %. 

Two chiorofluorocarbons, CFCI3 and CF2CI2, were studied by the group. Their 

results agreed well with one of two sets of measurements that themselves differed by 

factors of two to four.236 Because the NBS-Argonne experimental arrangement 

incorporated very different systematic errors than the other experiments, the results were seen as strong confirmation of data published by Mario Molina and Sherwood 

Rowland of the University of California at Irvine, who had proposed the ozonebreakdown theory. 

More information came from Pierre J. Ausloos, Richard E. Rebbert, Michael J. 

Kurylo, and Walter Braun, all members of the Physical Chemistry Division. 

236 R. H. Huchner. D. L. Bushnell, R. J. Celotta, S. R. Mielczarek, and C. E. Kuyatt, "Ultraviolet photoabsorption by halocarbons I 1 and I 2 from electron impact measurements," Nature 257, No. 5525, pp. 376- 

378 (1975). 

560 
University of Maryland microbiologist Paul S. Tabor guided the deep-ocean sampler 

from the deck of a research vessel. 

Ausloos and Rebbert studied the photodecomposition of CFCI3 and CF2CI2 at several 

different wavelengths, using methane and ethane to intercept atomic chlorine. They 

derived values for the quantum yields of half a dozen molecular fragments resulting 

from the photodissociation. Near the lower limit for absorption, they found evidence 

561 
that atomic chlorine was indeed released during the photodissociation process. At 

higher photon energies, it appeared that two chlorine atoms were produced from each 

reacting halocarbon molecule. 237 Kurylo and Braun, meanwhile, simulated the effect of sunlight on the reaction of 

atomic chlorine with ozone, using the process of flash-photolysis resonance fluorescence. They obtained the rate constant for one of the sequential reactions that was predicted by Molina and Rowland to result in essentially catalytic conversion of ozone 

to ordinary oxygen in the presence of atomic chlorine and sunlight.238 

NBS was well into the ozone-layer controversy. 

A New Molecule, Born in Smog 

An entirely new class of chemical compounds was identified during research at NBS 

on the components of smog. The new molecule, called dioxirane, was discovered in 

reactions between ozone and ethylene. Predicted by theorists on the basis of the 

energetics of reactions, the molecule had defied detection until two Bureau research 

teams found it independently. 

Richard D. Suenram and Frank J. Lovas of the Optical Physics Division identified 

the three-membered ring compound, which contained only carbon, hydrogen, and 

oxygen, using the technique of microwave spectroscopy at low temperatures (77 K). 

The two physicists carried out the ozonolysis reaction in a waveguide held at the 

temperature of boiling nitrogen.239 The new molecule appeared to consist of a small 

ring in which two oxygen atoms were singly bonded to each other and to a CH2 

radical. 

Working independently, John T. Herron, Robert E. Huie, and Richard I. Martinez 

found the molecule, too. They observed dioxirane as a product of the low-temperature 

reaction of ozone with ethylene, using the methods of photoionization mass spectrometry in the gas phase. They found that the molecule decomposed to form hydrogen 

and carbon monoxide.24° 

The following year, Suenram and Lovas expanded their study to provide information 

on the synthesis, structure, microwave spectrum, and dipole moment of dioxirane. 

They were able to synthesize several isotopic forms of the molecu'e involving '2C, '3C, 

60 and 80 obtaining molecular constants for the resulting isotopes.24' 

237 R. E. Rebbert and P. J. Ausloos, "Photodecomposition of CFCI, and CF2CI2," J. Photochern. 4, pp. 419- 

434 (1975). 

2311 M. J. Kurylo and W. Braun, "Flash photolysis resonance fluorescence study of the reaction 

Cl+03=.ClO+02 over the temperature range 213-298 K," Chein. Phys. Len. 37, No. 2, 232-235 (1976). 239 F. J. Lovas and R. D. Suenram, "Identification of dioxirane (H2COO) in ozone-olefin reactions via 

microwave spectroscopy," Chen,. Phys. Len. 51, No. 3, 453-456 (1977). 240 R. I. Martinez, R. E. Huie, and J. T. Herron, "Mass spectrometric detection of dioxirane, H2COO, and its 

decomposition products, H2 and CO, from the reaction of ozone with ethylene," Cheni. Phys. Len. 51, 

No. 3, 457-459 (1977). 241 R. 0. Suenram and F. J. Lovas, "Dioxirane, its synthesis, microwave spectrum, structure, and dipole 

moment," J. Am. Chem. Soc. 100, 5117-5122 (1978). 

562 
Corrosion, an Expensive Problem 

When Congress directed NBS "to embark upon a study of the economic effects of 

corrosion," they got their money's worth. By early 1978, the first phase of the study, 

covering the year 1975, was complete. A report, Economic Effects of Metallic 

Corrosion in the United States, provided details based upon a carefully chosen 

economic model. The model included all identifiable cost elements, along with an error 

analysis. It was considered to be the most reliable estimate of the economics of 

corrosion ever produced. 

The report placed U.S. corrosion costs at the level of $70 billion each year. Some 

$10 billion, according to the study, could be avoided by the use of corrosion-control 

technology already in existence. Substantial savings of energy and of raw materials 

would also result if appropriate steps were taken to reduce the likelihood of corrosion. 

Jerome Kruger, Lawrence H. Bennett, Robert L. Parker, Elio Passaglia, Curt 

Reimann, Arthur W. Ruff, and Harvey Yakowitz of NBS were joined in the project by 

Edward Berman of Edward B. Berman Associates to form the study team. Bennett 

pointed out that the $400,000 undertaking verified with solid information what many 

suspected. Corrosion was a tremendously costly problem to the Nation. 

The study targeted for special attention three sectors of American activity; the 

electric power industry, the Federal government, and privately owned automobiles. 

About $4 billion was lost to the electric power industry through corrosion, including 

approximately 50 % of all maintenance costs for power generators. As much as 2 % of 

the Federal budget paid for corrosion costs—about $2 billion for maintenance and a staggering $6 billion in capital costs. Corrosion-based costs to the owners of private 

automobiles were not so firmly identifiable, but estimates ranged from $6 billion to 

$14 billion per year.242 

Preparing for Oil Development in Alaska 

Environmental dangers inherent in developing enormous oil reserves found near the 

Alaskan shore were obvious. As far back as 1971, sections of pipe were shipped to 

Prudhoe Bay, site of successful drilling on the northern coast of Alaska, to begin 

construction of a trans-Alaska pipeline all the way to Valdez, the southern pipeline 

terminus on Prince William Sound. Damage to the marine environment of both coasts 

could easily occur, along with degradation of the ecology of any state crossed by a line 

conveying as much as 2 million barrels per day of crude oil. 

NBS became involved in the project during 1974 at the request of the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Harry S. Hertz and Stuart Cram, 

chemists in the Bureau's Analytical Chemistry Division, and Herbert Bruce of NOAA 

led a team of investigators who were assigned the task of collecting baseline data on the marine environment of Alaska. The group was requested to pay particular attention 

242 L. H. Bennett, J. Kruger, R. L. Parker, E. Passaglia, C. Reimann, A. W. Ruff, H. Yakowitz, and E. 

Berman, "Economic Effects of Metallic Corrosion in the United States," NBS Special Publication 511-I, 

May 1978, 65 pp. 

563 
to existing levels of hydrocarbons. Stephen N. Chesler, Willie E. May, Stephen Wise, 

Dalmo P. Enagonio, Susan M. Dyszel, and Barry Gump, a visiting scientist from the 

California State University at Fresno, comprised the balance of the study group. 

Because they were looking for extremely low levels of contaminants, the team 

sought especially sensitive collection and analytical techniques for the investigation. 

About 700 samples of sediment, water, and marine life were collected over a 2-year 

period. Flights in light aircraft, collection in whatever weather conditions prevailed, 

and extreme care to avoid contaminating the samples even as they were obtained, 

made the project challenging. 

Back in the laboratory, the samples were immersed in specially purified water and 

the hydrocarbons removed by flowing nitrogen gas, to be analyzed later by the 

methods of gas chromatography, mass spectrometry, or liquid chromatography. The 

results, cross-checked in triplicate, were believed to be significant at the 

(parts-per-billion) level.243 

The precautions taken by NOAA and NBS proved prophetic on March 24, 1989, 

when the Exxon Valdez, an oil tanker, struck a reef in Prince William Sound. The 

largest oil spill in U.S. history resulted; some 10 million gallons of oil were released, 

with enormous damage to the coastal environment. 

Oil in the Monongahela 

The collapse of a large oil tank on January 2, 1988, released nearly 1 million gallons 

of oil into the Monongahela River near Pittsburgh. The tank capacity was 4 million 

gallons. After nearly 40 years of service elsewhere, it had been re-installed at an Ashland Oil Company storage terminal. As the tank was filled for the first time in its new position, it ruptured. 

An NBS team from the Structures Division, including John L. Gross, Felix Y. 

Yokel, Richard N. Wright, A. Hunter Fanney, John H. Smith, George E. Hicho, and 

T. Robert Shives, investigated the spill, identifying the cause of failure of the 

The Bureau work helped the American Petroleum Institute and the Environmental 

Protection Agency to reduce the probability of such failures in the future. 

Non-Destructive Evaluation 

Consumer safety, energy conservation, and industrial productivity were expected to 

benefit from a new NBS program known as non-destructive evaluation. Initiated as an inexpensive means for quality control in manufacturing, the technique became 

something of a self-contained specialty as a result of its broad application. 

243 S. N. Chesler, B. H. Gump, H. S. Hertz, W. E. May, S. M. Dyszel, and D. P. Enagonio, "Trace hydrocarbon analysis: The National Bureau of Standards Prince William Sound/Northeastern Gulf of Alaska 

baseline study," NBS Tech. Note 889, 73 pp., January 1976. 

L. Gross, F. Y. Yokel, R. N. Wright, A. H. Fanney, J. H. Smith, G. E. Hicho, and T. R. Shives, 

'investigation into the Ashland Oil storage tank collapse on January 2, 1988," NBSJR 88-3 792, June 1988, 

202 pp. 

564 
Assisting in the Alaskan oil baseline study, NBS chemist Stuart P. Cram dug for samples of marine life in the early morning hours. 

A variety of scientific methods found application as NDE techniques, according to 

Harry Berger, a physicist in the Reactor Radiation Division, who was selected to 

head the new program. These included ultrasonics, radiography, visual-optical, eddycurrent, liquid penetrant, and magnetic particles. Each technique had the advantage 

that defects could be spotted without causing damage to the object under test; use of 

NDE methods to examine materials prior to manufacture could save considerable 

expense in processing costs. Most NDE methods could be used to find service-related 

failures in products or materials, saving repair costs or preventing failure-related 

accidents. 

A symposium on NDE testing standards, co-sponsored by the Bureau, ASTM, and 

the American Society for Non-destructive Testing, was held at Gaithersburg on May 

19-21, 1976.245 

245 H. Berger. "The National Bureau of Standards program in nondestructive evaluation," pp. 3 17-327 in American Society for Testing and Materials Special Technical Publication 624, "Nondestructive Testing 

Standards—A Review," H. Berger, editor, (Philadelphia: ASTM, June 1977). 

565 
Harold Berger inspected neutron radiographs as part of an NBS program to improve 

measurement methods used in the non-destructive evaluation of materials. 

Berger himself offered one of many discussions of non-destructive methods—those 

used in nuclear science, his He described gamma ray and neutron sources, 

as well as the techniques involved in non-destructive studies: 

• Neutron and x-radiography. • Scatter and secondary radiation, using x rays and neutrons. 

• Activation analysis with neutrons. 

• Radioactive tracers. 

Testing Prosthetics With Vibration 

Piezoelectric polymers, discussed at some length in the next section, made possible a variety of non-destructive tests on as many types of materials. In the hands of Darrell 

H. Reneker, Seymour Edelman, Aime S. DeReggi, and David L. Vanderhart, the 

devices permitted the non-destructive testing of plastic prosthetic materials prior to 

their implantation. Making use of the high mechanical compliance of the piezoelectric 

polymers, the group found they could perform vibrational spectroscopy to detect 

hidden manufacturing flaws in the materials. The method involved synchronization of a mechanical shock to the test material and the computerized recording of the oscillatory 

Berger. "Nondestructive evaluation: A review of nuclear methods," pp. 427-437 in 22nd International 

Instrumentation Symposium, B. Washburn. editor. (Pittsburgh; Instrument Society of America. 1976). 

566 
return signal from the piezoelectric transducer. On-line analysis of the return signal to 

produce Fourier transforms revealed the frequencies and intensities of the normal 

modes of vibration of the test piece; flawed materials exhibited spectra different from 

those of perfect samples.247 

Inspecting Objects With Neutrons 

In a cooperative project with the U.S. Navy, the Reactor Research Division used the 

ability of neutrons to "see" through metal walls into the inner parts of Navy aircraft. 

Using the method of neutron radiography, Donald A. Garrett was able to detect 

corrosion in the aluminum aircraft components with high sensitivity. Using specialized 

imaging techniques, Garrett found that he could provide visual evidence of the 

corroded parts on x-ray film. Quantification of the extent of the corrosion appeared 

possible. 248 Garrett also was able to respond to a request for more accurate determination of 

levels of lubricating oil in a special jet engine. Early tests, using x rays, were not 

encouraging, but Garrett's use of thermal neutrons from the NBS high-flux reactor 

proved to be just the ticket. Oil levels were imaged by the neutrons using irradiation 

times as short as ten minutes. 

Garrett produced many other images with the neutron radiograph technique as well, 

examining the quality of high-performance turbine blades, viewing activators for 

spacecraft solar panels for trouble spots, studying the interior of an ancient Chinese 

urn, and diagnosing the chemical activity of batteries in use. X-Ray Magnifier 

X-ray images of industrial equipment often provided evidence of cracks, voids, or 

other imperfections. Frequently, however, it was desirable to magnify the image for 

more detailed examination. Ordinary photographic enlargement techniques could offer 

the needed enlargement with satisfactory resolution, but the technique was slow and 

cumbersome. A method was wanted that offered real-time analytical convenience. 

Masao Kuriyama, William J. Boettinger, and Harold E. Burdette provided a solution 

to the problem—an x-ray magnifier built on the principle of successive diffractions 

of the x-ray beam from carefully prepared silicon crystals. Their device magnified the 

test image before it reached the detector.249 

247 D. H. Reneker, S. Edelmari, A. S. DeReggi, and D. L. Vanderhart, "An ndt method using piezoelectric 

polymer transducers and computerized vibrational spectroscopy" NDT Intl., pp. 15-16 (February 1978). 248 D. A. Garrett, "The macroscopic detection of corrosion in aluminum aircraft structures with thermal 

neutron beams and film imaging methods," NBSIR 78-1434, December 1977, 42 pp. 249 J. Boettinger, H. E. Burdette, and M. Kuriyama, "X-ray magnifier," Rev. Sd. Instrum. 50, No. I, 

26-30 (1979). 

567 
In 1977, NBS researchers demonstrated a way to use neutron radiation in xeroradiography. In a successful 

application of this new tool for non-destructive evaluation, Bureau scientists analyzed a sealed ancient 

Chinese lead vessel for the Smithsonian Institution. Neutron radiograph from the collections of the 

Freer Gallery, Smithsonian Institution. Reprinted courtesy of the Hermitage Foundation Museum, Norfolk, 

Virginia. The inset shows the vessel waiting to be irradiated. 

568 
NBS Metallurgy Division scientist Masao Kuriyama with the x-ray magnifier that he 

developed. It won Industrial Research and Development magazine's IR-IOO award 

in 1979. 

The x-ray magnifier developed by Kuriyama's group improved the resolution of 

industrial x-ray imaging by a factor of 25, and furthermore could be used as the part was examined. 

569 
Gentle Tests for Bipolar Transistors 

Semiconductor switches called bipolar power transistors were used to power highvoltage and high-current devices, including such items as automobile ignition systems. 

Testing the transistors was a chancy enterprise, because of the risk of damage to the 

units owing to variability in their manufacture. As a result, untested units occasionally 

failed during use, to the chagrin of the new owner. 

Researchers from the Center for Electronics and Electrical Engineering developed a non-destructive test circuit for the bipolar power transistors. The circuit placed a variety of electrical conditions on the transistors while monitoring the voltages in key 

locations. Any potentially damaging readings caused removal of the power within 

about 40 ns, before destruction of the device could occur. Use of the test circuit during 

manufacture gradually decreased the in-service failure rate of the transistors. 

Polymer Science 

Studies in polymer science generally include theoretical studies, crystal and structure 

observations, properties information, and applications. Each of these is represented in 

the following accounts. 

Crystal Growth in Polymers 

Fundamental studies in the nucleation and growth of polymers involved a number of 

scientists in the Polymer Science Division, as well as colleagues elsewhere. 

Janice Breedon Jones and P. H. Geil, a visitor from Case Western Reserve University, experimented with the cracking of polyoxymethylene (POM) single crystals grown on Mylar film. Stretching of the Mylar film stressed the POM crystals to the point of 

rupture. Jones and Geil examined the areas containing the resulting cracks to gain 

insight into the mechanisms of deformation in polymeric substances. By the use of 

electron microscopy, they obtained detailed images of the broken surfaces. In one case 

they found indications that a very thin surface film might exist, and that it might be so lightly attached that it would slip under the stress of deformation.25° 

John D. Hoffman and G. Thomas Davis presented a model representing the surface 

of folded-chain polymer single crystals. They hoped to explain the experimental 

indications of the occasional existence of surface layers that exhibited different properties from the bulk of polymer crystals. Such "amorphous" layers, if present, could 

account for results such as those reported by Jones and Geil.25' 

Janice Breedon Jones and P. H. Geil, "Surface films on poly(oxymethylene) single crystals," J. Res. NBS 

79A. No. 5, 609-611(1975). 

251 John D. Hoffman and G. Thomas Davis, "On the origin of the amorphous component in polymer single 

crystals and the nature of the fold surface," J. Res. NBS 79A, No. 5, 613-617 (1975). 

570 
In a long discussion, Hoffman, John I. Lauritzen, Jr., Lois J. Frolen, and Gaylon 

Ross described the rates of growth of polyethylene crystals. They used the formalism 

of nucleation constants and observed the crystal growth in terms of the magnitude of 

undercooling and the molecular weight of particular samples, which spanned the range 

3600 to more than 800,000. Particular stress was laid on the influence on crystal 

growth of the number of surface sites and on the morphology of the resulting 

crystals.252 

Frolen and Ross each had served NBS for nearly 25 years by 1975; the two nearly 

always worked as a team. Ross, formerly a chemist in the U.S. Navy, joined the 

Bureau's Pure Substances Section in 1951. Frolen first came to the attention of the 

Bureau as a Westinghouse Science Talent Search winner at about the same time. 

Thereafter she became a summer-time student employee, assisting Harold F. Stimson 

in studies of benzoic acid and then joining Ross in the Pure Substances Section; in 

1955, she became a full-time Bureau employee. In 1964, the two were transferred to 

the Polymers Division, where they continued their productive collaboration. 

Polymers—Sensors for Heat and Pressure 

Because of research accomplished at NBS, certain polymers joined single-crystal 

solids in providing useful electromechanical devices based upon the principle of 

piezoelectricity. Polymeric piezoelectrics brought advantages in flexibility, low density, 

toughness, size versatility, and low cost that were lacking in the generally brittle and 

relatively dense inorganic materials.253 

The phenomenon of pyroelectricity generally accompanied piezoelectricity in 

polymers. The co-existence of the two properties presented problems if measurement 

times allowed the test sample to change temperature during piezoelectric measurements. 

A number of Bureau projects featured the use of polymeric piezoelectrics and 

pyroelectrics, most undertaken by scientists in the Polymers Division, including Martin 

Broadhurst, Seymour Edelman, G. Thomas Davis, John McKinney, Steven Roth, 

Fred Mopsik, R. E. Collins, Aime DeReggi, and James Kenney. 

One of the devices used in the program was used to monitor heart rates. The 

similarity of the polymer to human tissue permitted easy application to skin. 

Another project involved the testing of piezoelectric polymers as pressure sensors for 

the U.S. Treasury Department, for use in presses that printed paper money. 

Other uses of the devices include detonators, hydrophones for underwater sonar, 

underground tunneling sensors, and temperature detectors for radiometric instruments.254 

252 John D. Hoffman, Lois J. Frolen, Gaylon S. Ross, and John I. Lauritzen, Jr., "On the growth rate of 

spherulites and axialites from the melt in polyethylene fractions: Regime I and regime 11 crystallization," 

J. Res. NBS 79A, No. 6, 67 1-699 253 Edelman, "Piezoelectric and pyroelectric polymer sensors," Proc. Conf on Sensor Technology for 

Battlefield and Physical Security Applications, Fort Belvoir, VA, July 13-15, 1977, pp. 204-2 12. 254 Detailed discussions of piezoelectric polymers can be found in Dinzensions/NBS, February 1978, pp. 3-9; 

and NBS Standard, March 8, 1978, pp. 4-5. 

571 
NBS was sought out by manufacturers and other government agencies for assistance 

in the use of piezoelectric polymers because it was one of the few laboratories 

that supported its experimental work with continuing theoretical and analytical 

studies.255 

Davis and Broadhurst, for example, developed a theoretical treatment for piezoelectricity and pyroelectricity in polymer electrets; it was based upon a model 

of molecular dipoles, aligned during the poling procedure and frozen thereafter. Their 

theory was able to account for experimental results on polyvinylchioride, a glassy 

polymer.256 

Spectroscopy involving x ray, infrared, and Raman techniques were commonly used 

for analysis of the polymeric sensor materials. 

Durability of High-Density Plastics 

During the early 1980s, John M. Crissman and Freddy A. Khoury began testing 

the durability of ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene. These polymers, with 

molecular weights as high as 4 million, were used in applications requiring exceptional 

durability and wear characteristics. Medical prosthetics was one of the most demanding 

of these applications; the lifetime of medical implants was determined, in the main, 

by the durability of the materials from which the implants were prepared. Creep, wear, 

and fatigue in use were the principal causes of failure. In turn, these mechanisms 

were related to crystallinity, orientation, size of spherulites, molecular weight, and 

molecular weight distribution. 

By 1982, studies of the methods of preparation of the raw polymer powders, 

establishment of procedures for forming bulk and sheet materials, and elementary 

characterization of the formed materials were behind the two scientists. Work then 

focused on measurements of the morphology, density, viscosity, stress-relaxation, and 

fatigue of the highest-molecular-weight polyethylene. Its density ranged from 

0.923 g/cm3 for sheets quenched from the melt to 0.942 g/cm3 for slowly annealed 

sheets. 

As a check on the variability with molecular weight of the critical properties of this 

class of polymer, Crissman and Khoury prepared and tested sheets with molecular 

weight only half as large (2 million). The densities were only slightly different. 

Both types of polyethylene retained memory of the granular texture of the raw 

polymer after forming, and both showed good recovery from strains less than those 

needed to break the materials. 

Studies of the properties of the ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene polymers 

continued for some time. They served in a variety of applications that extended well 

beyond medical implants. 

255 One such study was performed by M. G. Broadhurst, 0. T. Davis, S. C. Roth, and R. E. Collins, 

"Pyroelectricity and charge transport in a copolymer of vinylidene fluoride and tetrafluoroethylene," Proc. 

Conj Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena, Buck Hill Falls, PA, Oct. /8-21, 1976, pp. 38-47. 256 T. Davis and M. 0. Broadhurst, "Piezoelectricity and pyroelectricity in polar polymers," Proc. Intl. 

Symp. on Electrets and Dielectrics, Sao Carlos, Brazil, Sept. 1-6, 1975, pp. 299-319. 

572 
Thermodynamic Properties of Macromolecules 

In 1983, Umesh Gaur, Suk-fai Lau, Brent B. Wunderlich, and Bernhard Winderlich, 

prepared the seventh, eighth, and ninth installments to complete a series of articles on the thermodynamic properties of linear macromolecules. The scientists, members of 

the Chemistry Department of the Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute, were finishing a project initiated several years previously in collaboration with the NBS Office of 

Standard Reference Data. 

The series was published in the Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference 

Data. 257 A joint publication of the American Chemical Society and the American 

Physical Society for NBS founded in 1972, the publication provided an outlet for 

information that was critically reviewed by experts in the many topics treated in its 

pages. The strength of the Journal papers was the reliability of the information— 

mainly data, as implied by its name—contained therein. The first editor was David R. 

Lide; he was followed by Jean W. Gallagher in 1993 and Malcolm W. Chase in 1996. 

With the completion of the series, the colleagues of the Polymers Division scientists 

had tabulated heat capacity data, enthalpies, entropies, melting and other transition 

temperatures, and a variety of other thermodynamic information for a large group of 

polymers. Much of the data originated with Bureau work, and the OSRD support made 

it available in coherent form for a wide audience. 

Measuring Tiny "Space Beads" 

A measurement problem came to the Bureau from outer space during 1983, as the 

U.S. space shuttle "Challenger" landed. On board was a packet of several billion 

polystyrene beads, formed into nearly identical spheres about 10 p.m in diameter during 

Challenger's flight. 

The odyssey of the little beads began in a contract between personnel of Marshall 

Space Flight Center and the Emulsion Polymers Institute of Lehigh University. 

Lehigh Professor John W. Vanderhoff headed a small group who developed a novel 

technique for producing beads of approximately the desired size and shape, but found 

that—on earth—gravity caused the beads to take non-spherical shapes and to vary 

substantially in size. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was happy to design an apparatus to duplicate bead preparation in space, since NASA 

would acquire another payload item if the production experiment turned out to be a success. Already in the NASA records were successful production of two sets of 

smaller beads. 

257 Several papers written by U. Gaur, S. Lau, B. B. Wunderlich, and B. Winderlich appeared in the Journal 

of Physical and Chemical Reference Data 12, No. 1, (1983): 

Gaur, Wunderlich, and Wunderlich, "Heat capacity and other thermodynamic properties of linear macromolecules. VII. Other carbon backbone polymers," pp. 29-63. 

Gaur, Lau, Wunderlich, and Wunderlich, "Heat capacity and other thermodynamic properties of linear 

macromolecules. VIII. Polyesters and polyamides," pp. 65-89. 

Gaur, Lau and B. Wunderlich, "Heat capacity and other thermodynamic properties of linear macromolecules. IX. Final group of aromatic and inorganic polymers," pp. 9 1-108. 

573 
Two NASA engineers, Johnny M. Oddo and Jack E. Churchey, built the beadproducing equipment. Challenger astronauts and mission specialists operated the equipment during the April 1983 flight. Then came the "acid test:" deliver the beads to 

NBS for observation and measurement. 

Investigation of the polystyrene beads was placed in the hands of Thomas R. Lettieri 

of the Mechanical Production Metrology Division by Lee J. Kieffer and Stanley D. 

Rasberry of the Office of Standard Reference Materials. With Arie W. Hartman, Gary 

G. Hembree, and Egon Mark, Lettieri found that the beads made in the weightless 

environment of space were extremely uniform in size and nearly spherical in shape. 

The group had several different measurement methods at their disposal to study the 

beads. Using an optical microscope to view the beads under illumination from a collimated light source, Hartman was able to use a technique called "center distance 

finding." It utilized the light-refracting property of the tiny spheres to produce points 

of light; the distance separating two points could yield an average bead diameter. This 

method resulted in a value of 9.89 urn with a variance of only 0.04 urn.258 

The new SRM, first space-produced beads to be offered for sale, was given the 

identification SRM 1960. Hembree, Lettieri, Kieffer, and Hartman shared a 1986 

IR- 100 award, given by Research and Development magazine for new technical products judged most significant. 

Eventually, the list of polystyrene beads offered in the SRM program also included 

sizes of 30 urn (SRM 1961), 1 u.tm (SRM 1690) and 0.3 

Physical Science 

In this section, we see surface studies, phase relationships, television captioning, 

gravimetry, aerosol physics, nuclear safeguards, cooled atoms, and cold-neutron 

research. 

Surface Physics 

Theodore E. Madey, newly granted the Ph. D. degree in physics from the University 

of Notre Dame, and John T. Yates, with a fresh Ph. D. degree in chemistry from 

MIT, both arrived at NBS in 1963 as postdoctoral research associates. Within a year, 

they learned that they shared an interest in the science of surfaces. Soon they were 

trying to produce metal surfaces that were really clean and free of adsorbed atoms of 

any kind, let alone the grease and grime that covered the ordinary surface. 

The studies of atomically clean metal surfaces by Madey and Yates led naturally to 

an interest in catalysis. In a 1977 report, they offered results that showed a high level 

of catalytic activity for an atomically clean tungsten surface, synthesizing methane 

258 Gail Porter, "New particles for measuring pigments, flour, blood cells," NBS Research Reports, October 

1984, pp. 16-19. 

574 
molecules from hydrogen and carbon monoxide. This work, countering previous 

negative results for the same type of experiment, demonstrated the value of completely 

removing adsorbed material from catalytic surfaces.259 

An effective method of looking closely as adsorbed gases were blasted from metal 

surfaces was developed by the two scientists. It was an apparatus that performed a procedure they called ESDIAD. ESDIAD offered a new way of looking at surfaces. It 

was the acronym for Electron Stimulated Desorption Ion Angular Distributions, a mouthful that referred to the phenomenon that occurred when an electron beam struck a metallic single crystal covered by adsorbed gas. In one example, oxygen and 

hydrogen gas atoms were emitted as positive ions from an otherwise clean (100) 

surface of tungsten. The angular distribution of the ions depended upon the positions 

which the oxygen and hydrogen atoms occupied with respect to the metal crystal 

atoms. The ions were detected with an image intensifier and displayed on a fluorescent screen. In other experiments, they were able to identify the way that water molecules 

bonded to single-crystal ruthenium surfaces.26° 

A National Academy of Sciences panel identified surface science as one of the most 

fruitful types of study in materials science. Madey and Yates, both staff members of 

the Physical Chemistry Division, helped make it so. The two scientists received the 

NBS Samuel W. Stratton Award in 1978 for their work in surface catalysis. 

Many Bureau theoretical contributions to surface physics came from J. William 

Gadzuk, a solid-state theorist trained at MIT. He created models for the processes 

involved in spectroscopic measurements at surfaces, in the dynamic response to 

external perturbations of many-body systems, and in the dynamics of atomic and 

molecular reactions. 

Gadzuk joined NBS in 1968 and immediately began to collaborate with E. Ward 

Plummer and Russell D. Young on electron tunneling to metal surfaces (see Ch. 3 

Section on the Topografiner). His grasp of theoretical ideas helped make the group 

unusually productive in the physics of tunneling into clean metallic surfaces and 

through adsorbed atoms and molecules.26' One brief paper, entitled "Resonance tunneling of field emitted electrons through adsorbates on metal surfaces,"262 was the first 

report in which the electronic energy levels of atoms adsorbed on metal surfaces were 

observed experimentally and interpreted theoretically. By itself, it provided guidance 

259 R. D. Kelley, T. E. Madey, and J. T. Yates, Jr., "Activity of tungsten as a methanation catalyst," 

J. Catal. 50, 301-305 (1977), 

260T E. Madey and J. T. Yates, Jr., "Evidence for the conformation of H20 adsorbed on Ru(00l)," Chern. 

Phys. Leti. 51, No. I, 77-83 (1977). 261 See, for example, J. W. Gadzuk, "Resonance-tunneling spectroscopy of atoms adsorbed on metal surfaces: 

theory," Phys. Rev. BI, No. 5, 2110-2129 (1970); E. W. Plummer and J. W. Gadzuk, "Surface states on tungsten," Phys. Rev. Left. 25, No. 21, 1493-1495 (1970); J. W. Gadzuk and E. W. Plummer, "Hot-hole— 

electron cascades in field emission from metals," Phys. Rev. Lett. 26, No. 2, 92-95 (1971). 262 E. W. Plummer, J. W. Gadzuk, and R. D. Young, "Resonance tunneling of field emitted electrons through 

adsorbates on metal surfaces," Solid State Comni. 7, 487-491 (1969). 

575 
for later work on electron-energy-level spectroscopy of adsorbed species. A collaboration between Gadzuk and Plummer produced a lengthy review of the physics underlying the measurement of the energy distribution of field-emitted electrons.263 

Gadzuk's theoretical studies at NBS/NIST continued apace for three decades, 

reaching into the areas of angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy, core-level and 

vibrational spectroscopy, dynamics and chaos in surface processes, surface interactions 

at sub-picosecond time intervals (femtochemistry), and solid state tunneling. 

Numerous honors came to Gadzuk for the quality and quantity of his work at NBS. 

He received the Arthur S. Flemming Award as one of the ten outstanding Federal 

employees of 1978. The award was given for Gadzuk's theoretical work on surface 

physics. Also in 1978, Gadzuk was awarded a guest professorship by the Nordic 

Institute of Theoretical Atomic Physics in Copenhagen. Gadzuk took advantage of the 

grant mainly for study at the Institute for Theoretical Physics in the Chalmers 

University in Sweden. The award provided for visits to the institute for two to three 

weeks at a time, several times each year. 

A "Renaissance" Scientist Comes to NBS 

During 1977, John W. Cahn joined the NBS Center for Materials Science. A 

veteran of service as theorist to the General Electric Company and as professor of 

materials science at MIT, Cahn quickly became known at NBS for the depth and 

diversity of his knowledge of materials. 

Already well-known for his work on the thermodynamic limits to phase stability, 

Cahn soon published discussions of interphase boundaries near the critical point of 

two-phase fluids264 and antiphase boundary motion in alloys.265 

By 1980, Cahn was heavily involved in materials research with NBS colleagues, 

including Michael R. Moldover, William J. Boettinger, Samuel R. Coriell, Gretchen L. 

Kalonji, and Frank S. One of these projects was a study of rapid 

solidification phenomena. By dropping the temperature of molten materials at rates of 

K/s or greater, scientists could produce microstructures of unusual compositional 

uniformity and high levels of supersaturation; in addition, metastable phases could be 

263 W. Gadzuk and E. W. Plummer, "Field emission energy distribution (FEED)," Revs. Mod. Phys. 45, 

No. 3, 487-548 (1973). 264J. W. Cahn, "Critical point wetting." J. Chern. Phys. 66, 3667-3672 (1977). 265 S. M. Allen and J. W. Cahn, "A microscopic theory for antiphase boundary motion and its application to antiphase domain coarsening," Acta Metallurgica 27, 1085-1095 (1979). 266 M. R. Moldover and J. W. Cahn, "An interface phase transition: complete to partial wetting," Science 

207, 1073 (1980). J. W. Cahn, W. J. Boettinger, and S. R. Coriell, "Rapid solidification," paper in Laser and 

Electron Beam Processing of Materials, C. W. White and P. S. Peercy, editors, (New York: Academic Press, 

1980), p. 89. W. J. Boettinger, F. S. Biancaniello, 0. M. Kalonji, and J. W. Cahn, "Eutectic Solidification 

and the formation of metallic glasses," Proc. Second lntnl. Conf on Rapid Solidification Processing: 

Principles and Technologies, R. Mehrabian, B. H. Kear, and M. Cohen, editors (Baton Rouge: Claitor's 

Publishing Division, 1980), p. 50. 

576 
obtained, yielding materials with unexpected properties. In some cases, such as 

diamond, the natural conversion to the stable, equilibrium state (in the case of 

diamond, graphite) occurred at an immeasurably slow pace.267 

A paper written in 1984 with colleagues from Israel and France attracted unusual 

attention even for Cahn, who, by that time, possessed honors and awards from many 

parts of the globe for his scientific research. The new communication described a startling discovery; "quasicrystals," a metastable phase with icosahedral symmetry but 

the sharp x-ray diffraction patterns characteristic of crystals.265 One of the characteristics of icosahedral symmetry was its inconsistency with lattice "translations." The new materials were formed by the rapid solidification of alloys containing 10 atomic 

percent to 14 atomic percent of manganese, iron, or chromium in aluminum. The 

publication sparked a furor in crystallography and the study of metastable materials. 

Among the many awards earned by Cahn during his service to NBS were the 

Department of Commerce Gold Medal in 1984 and the NBS Stratton Award in 1986. 

In 1998, he was awarded the National Medal of Science by President William J. 

Clinton; it was the nation's highest scientific honor. 

An "Emmy" For NBS 

"Emmy" awards, given for outstanding contributions to television by the Academy 

of Television Arts and Sciences, did not usually go to NBS—in fact, the Bureau 

never had received the prize until 1980. However, Dicky Davis accepted an Emmy on September 6, 1980. It was jointly awarded to NBS, to the Public Broadcasting Service, 

and to the American Broadcasting Company for the development of closed captioning 

for the deaf. 

Closed captions were broadcast along with regular programs, but decoded only with 

the use of specialized equipment. Viewers with hearing defects could use the decoders 

to "see" the dialog accompanying the program. 

The closed-caption technique originated with a system called TvTime, developed 

by Davis, James Jesperson, and George Kamas in 1971 as a means of disseminating 

time and frequency information to a large audience.269 NBS collaborated with ABC to 

broaden the concept to include program dialog, and prepared decoding devices for 

the use of PBS. During 1979, three major networks, ABC, NBC, and PBS initiated 

regular broadcasts of captioned programs. 

267 See for example John W. Cahn and Denis Gratias, "Quasi-periodic crystals: a revolution in crystallography," chapter in Advancing Materials Research, Peter A. Psaras and H. Dale Langford, editors, 

(Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1987) p. 157. 266 D. Shechtman, I. Blech, D. Gratias, and J. W. Cahn, "Metallic phase with long-range orientational order 

and no translational symmetry," Phys. Rev. Let:. 53, 1951-1953 (1984). 269 See Ch. 2 for a brief description of the process. Details also are given in NBS Standard 25, 

No. 19, p. 1. 577 
A team of NIST scientists and visiting researchers led by John W. Cahn discussed quasicrystal structures in alloys. From left to right were Dan Shechtman of the Israel Institute of Technology. Frank S. Biancaniello 

of NIST. Denis Gratias of the National Science Research Center in France, John W. Cahn of NIST, Leonid 

A. Bendersky of Johns Hopkins University. and Robert J. Schaefer of NIST. 

A Super Spring for a Super Gravimeter 

The isolation of experiments sensitive to very slight mechanical disturbances was a problem from the beginning of science. The use of heavy tables, for example for 

optical spectroscopy and laser work, reduced the response to all but building and earth 

vibrations. The addition of mechanical or pneumatic springs to a massive support 

further isolated sensitive equipment from all vibrations of frequency higher than the 

578 
natural resonance frequency of the mass-spring system. But there the problem lay until 

James E. Faller and Robert L. Rinker of JILA took it up in the mid-1970s. 

Faller and Rinker, eventually accompanied by a succession of colleagues including 

William A. Koldewyn, wished to measure the rise and fall of the earth's surface with a portable device in order to better understand the science of tectonics. The desire 

included a price. They needed an absolute means of measuring the acceleration due to 

gravity, previously measured at NBS by others, including Paul R. Heyl.27° They 

devised an instrument—a gravimeter—based upon the notion of free-fall of a mass. It 

contained a drag-free, free-fall chamber; a stabilized laser; and suitable timing 

electronics. The trouble was that, in order to effectively isolate the instrument from the 

earth's natural microseismic vibrations using the mass-plus-spring technique, a spring 

about 1 kilometer in length would be necessary. 

Faller and Rinker tackled the problem by designing a servo system to move the 

upper support for a 30 cm spring closely in rhythm with the experiment dangling from 

the spring. In this fashion the effective length of the support spring could be forced to 

respond as if it were as long as tens of kilometers! 

By 1982 the gravimeter had been completed and tested. Results indicated its 

measurement uncertainty to be no more than 6 parts in lOg, providing an equivalent 

height sensitivity of about 2 cm.27' Faller and two of his colleagues spent some time 

making measurements in California, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Maryland, and 

Massachusetts. The measurement accuracy indicated by the results: about 3 cm.272 

Identifying Molecular Impurities 

During 1977, Edgar S. Etz and Gregory J. Rosasco reported the development of a new analytical tool, a laser-excited Raman microprobe that could be used to identify a variety of impurities, even those present only in tiny (micro-meter) particles. 

Significant in use of the new microprobe for the identification of chemical species was a discovery by the two spectroscopists in collaboration with Wayne A. Cassatt273 

that the spectra produced by very small particles were analytically identical to those 

from macroscopic particles of the same composition. This discovery made it possible 

for them to use the Raman technique for fine aerosols, often necessary for air-pollution 

studies. 

270 P. R. Heyl, "A redetermination of the constant of gravitation," J. Res. NBS 5, 1243 (1930). 271 j• E. Faller, Y. G. Guo, and M. A. Zumberge, "Determination of absolute gravity," Proc. Amer. Soc. of 

Photograninietry, Amer. Cong. on Surveying and Mapping, Denver, Co, Mar. 14-20. 1982, pp. 63-74. 272 M. A. Zumberge, J. E. Falter, and J. Geschwind, "Results from an absolute gravity survey in the United 

States," J. Geophys. Res. 88, No. B9, 7495-7502 (1983). 

273G J. Rosasco, E. S. Etz, and W. A. Cassatt, App!. Spectrosc. 29, 396 (1975). 

579 
In 1930 and again in 1942. NBS physicist Paul R. Heyl redetermined the Newtonian 

constant of gravitation. 

The Raman microprobe used an argon-krypton ion laser to irradiate the test samples 

in a carefully prepared irradiation chamber. A mechanism composed of a differential 

micrometer and a piezoelectric translator was employed to move the sample substrate 

in order to focus the irradiating beam on the chosen particle. A double monochromator 

provided the Raman-scattering spectrum for detection by a photomultiplier tube.274 

Rosasco and Etz were able to balance inherent experimental conflicts: between 

maximizing beam power and minimizing sample damage from the beam; and between 

supporting the test sample in a rigid manner and avoiding intense background 

radiation from the substrate. The pair chose sapphire as the substrate material, taking 

advantage of its relatively weak Raman activity. 

The versatility of the Raman microprobe was demonstrated by the observation of 

particles of thorium oxide, ammonium sulfate, dust" (identified through its 

spectrum as calcium sulfate), cholesterol, and polyvinyl chloride. The new instrument 

became a potent tool for analytical chemists. 

G. J. Rosasco and E. S. Etz, Raman microprobe: a new analytical tool." Researclz/Dcrc/opinent 28, 

(June issue) pp. 20-35 (1977). 

580 
In 1977, James E. Faller (right) and William A. Koldewyn of the Joint Institute for 

Laboratory Astrophysics conducted an experiment to measure the acceleration due to gravitation even more precisely than Heyl did. 

Measurements for Nuclear Materials 

Late in 1979, the NBS Office of Measurements for Nuclear Technology and the 

Institute of Nuclear Materials Management co-sponsored a conference on measurements for nuclear safeguards and control of nuclear materials. The 4-day meeting featured more than 60 papers on measurement methods, inventory techniques, assay of 

reactor materials, and management systems designed to keep nuclear materials safely. 

The proceedings were edited by T. R. Canada and by B. Stephen Carpenter of the NBS 

Reactor Radiation Division.275 275 Measurement technology for safeguards and materials control," T. R. Canada and B. S. Carpenter, 

editors, NBS Special Publication 582, 769 pp., June 1980. 

581 
Edgar S. Etz watched as Gregory J. Rosasco adjusted the eyepiece of a laser-excited 

Raman spectrometer that the two scientists developed to identify the composition of 

tiny particles. 

Among the topics discussed during the conference by Bureau authors were the 

following: 

• Role of NBS Standard Reference Materials in measurement accuracy, by William 

P. Reed. 

• Mass-spectrometric determination of the half-life of 241Pu, by Ernest L. Garner 

and Lawrence A. Machlan. 

• Resonance neutron radiography measurements for safeguards, by Roald A. 

Schrack, James W. Behrens, Charles D. Bowman, and Allan D. Carison. 

• Reactor track-etch power monitor, by B. Stephen Carpenter, Ivan G. Schroder, 

Lawrence J. Pilione, J. W. Roe, and S. Santani. 

• In situ density of solutions, by Frank E. Jones, Randall M. Schoonover, and John 

F. Houser. 

Sharper Lines from Cooler Atoms 

By the early 1980s one of the principal impediments to improved resolution in 

high-precision spectroscopy and to improved frequency standards was the fuzziness of 

spectral lines incurred because of the thermal motion of the participating atoms. The 

Doppler effect—the increase or decrease of observed line frequency caused by motion 

of the atom towards or away from the observer—was an inevitable consequence of 

the temperature of the experimental species. 

582 
Two groups of NBS scientists attempted to minimize the Doppler effect by trapping 

ions or atoms in ingenious "cages" and reducing their velocities—and thus their 

temperatures—by various means. 

An ion-storage group, working in the NBS/Boulder laboratories, numbered among 

its collaborators Robert E. Drullinger, Fred L. Walls, John J. Bollinger, Wayne M. 

Itano, Joseph S. Wells, James C. Bergquist, H. Hemmati, and R. G. Hulet. Leader of 

the group was David J. Wineland, a Harvard-trained physicist who joined NBS in 

1975. One of the first successes of Wineland's group was the cooling of doubly 

ionized magnesium ions below 40 K during 1978. The ions were confined in an electromagnetic Penning trap, then irradiated with a dye laser tuned for resonant 

photon capture to slow their motion. Theirs was the first such observation.276 

Wineland's group made spectacular progress during the next several years in their 

efforts to create a new frequency standard based on laser-cooled ions. By 1991, they 

had demonstrated a frequency standard using cooled beryllium ions, with a level of 

reproducibility comparable to that achievable with NBS-6, the then-current national 

frequency standard (8 parts in 1014).277 

Finding that mercury ions were less susceptible to certain types of frequency shift 

than beryllium ions, the Boulder group explored a new area. They were able to cool 

mercury ions to the point where they existed 99 % of the time in the n 1/2 state, 

creating a quantized-harmonic-oscillator system. This advance allowed resulted in a new frequency standard at 40 GHz with a reproducibility of one part in 10'6—superior 

to that of NIST-7, the present national frequency standard.278 

Joining NBS in 1978 was William D. Phillips, recently awarded the Ph. D degree in 

physics by MIT. Despite the spartan atmosphere at NBS dictated by presidential 

economies, Phillips was hired for his great promise in the fields of fundamental 

constants, atomic physics, and electrical standards.279 

By 1983, Phillips and Harold Metcalf, a visiting scientist from the University of 

New York at Stony Brook, had assembled in Gaithersburg an experiment that demonstrated the use of counter-propagating resonant laser beams to decelerate neutral 

sodium atoms to about 40 % of their thermal velocities. A 500 °C oven produced a continuous collimated beam of sodium atoms directed along a decreasing magnetic 

276 D. J. Wineland, R. E. Drullinger. and F. L. Walls, "Radiation-pressure cooling of bound resonant 

absorbers," Phys. Rev. Len. 40, No. 25, 1639-1642 (1978). 277 C. Bollinger, D. J. Heinzen, W. M. Itano, S. L. Gilbert, and D. J. Wineland, "A 303 MHz frequency 

standard based on trapped beryllium ions," IEEE Trans. IM-40, pp. 126-128 (1991). 278 D. J. Berkeland, J. D. Miller, J. C. Bergquist, W. M. Itano, and D. J. Wineland, "A laser-cooled mercury 

ion frequency standard," Phys. Rev. Len. 80, pp. 2089-2092 (1998). 279 Barry N. Taylor, Memo to Emanuel Horowitz, Deputy Director, National Measurement Laboratory, May 

15, 1978. Subject; "Dr. William Phillips: Target of Opportunity." Taylor noted that Phillips, an outstanding 

young scientist, had an interest in NBS and enthusiasm for imaginative and careful measurements. 

583 
field. The changing Zeeman effect on the atomic levels of the sodium atoms tended to 

bunch atoms of like velocity-distribution as they met the oncoming laser beam. 

Despite some tricky problems with optical pumping of the atoms by the laser beam, 

deceleration was clearly demonstrated.28° Within months, Phillips, John V. Prodan, 

and Metcalf had reduced the equivalent temperature of a neutral sodium beam to about 

70 mK, only 4 % of its initial velocity. 

In April 1983, a 2-day workshop was held at the NBS Gaithersburg laboratory on slow atomic beams. Some 20 participants presented papers on the methods and 

applications of cooled atoms. Both Wineland and his group and Phillips and his 

co-workers exhibited their latest results.28' 

The laser-cooling work continued with greater and greater success. By 1985, the 

Gaithersburg group learned how to build a magnetic trap to confine the neutral atoms 

for about a second so that measurements of their properties could be performed.282 By 

1988, the level of cooling reached 40 far below the equivalent temperature limit 

supposed possible in then-current theories. 

For participating in the development of experiments that opened a new field of 

study, Wineland, Bergquist, Bollinger, and Itano received the Department of 

Commerce Gold Medal in 1985. The same group shared the 1989 Stratton Award. In 

1990, Wineland received the Davisson-Germer Prize of the American Physical 

Society and the William F. Meggers Award of the Optical Society of America. He was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1992. 

For his part in leading the way to the use of lasers to cool and trap atoms, Phillips— 

by then a NIST fellow—was elected to the National Academy of Science in April 

1997. Later that year, Phillips and two of his colleagues, Steven Chu of Stanford 

University and Claude Cohen-Tannoudji of the Ecole Normale Superieure of Paris, 

shared the 1997 Nobel Prize in physics. It was the first Nobel Prize for an NBS/NIST 

employee. 

Cold Neutrons for Science 

On January 12, 1989, a Cold Neutron Research Facility was dedicated at NIST. 

It was the first such facility in America dedicated entirely to research. Before the new 

NIST facility opened, Bureau scientists performed cold-neutron experiments 

281) William D. Phillips and Harold Metcalf, "Laser deceleration of an atomic beam," Phys. Rev. Left. 48, No. 

9, 596-599 (1982). 28) "Laser-cooled and trapped atoms," NBS Special Publication 653, W. D. Phillips, editor, June 1983, 172 pp. Papers included the following: pp. 1-8, W. D. Phillips, J. V. Prodan, and H. Metcalf, "Neutral atomic 

beam cooling experiments at NBS"; pp. 19-26, D. J. Wineland, W. M. Itano, J. C. Bergquist, J. J. Bollinger, 

and H. Hemmati, "Frequency standard research using stored ions"; pp. 137-141, J. V. Prodan and W. D. 

Phillips, "Chirping the light—fantastic? Recent NBS atom cooling experiments"; and pp. 142-153, R. Blatt, 

W. Ertmer, and J. L. Hall, "Cooling of an atomic beam with frequency-sweep techniques." 282 A. L. Migdall, J. V. Prodan, W. D. Phillips, T. H. Bergeman, and H. J. Metcalf, "First observation of 

magnetically trapped neutral atoms," Phys. Rev. Lett. 54, No. 24, 2596-2599 (1985). 

584 
NBS/NIST atomic physicist and Nobel Prize winner William D. Phillips with his laser 

cooling and trapping apparatus circa 1988. 

wherever they could.253 Cold neutrons, produced by a block of D20 ice held in the 

temperature range 30 K to 40 K by re-circulating helium gas, served some 15 

experimental stations in the NIST research reactor by the time the installation was 

253 See, for example, R. M. Lindstrom, R. Zeisler, and M. Rossbach, "Activation analysis opportunities using 

cold neutron beams," J. Radioanalyrical and Nuclear Chern. 112, No.2. 32 1-330 (1987). 

585 
fully completed in 1 The new facility incorporated a Small Angle Neutron 

Scattering capability, a depth profiling instrument, prompt-gamma-ray activation 

analysis, and a variety of other instrumentation designed to take advantage of the 

greatly reduced thermal energy of the cold-neutron beam. J. Michael Rowe was designated as the NIST contact for the new facility. 

New Radius for the Carbon Nucleus 

A group of radiation physicists including Lawrence S. Cardman, John W. Lightbody, 

Jr., Samuel Penner, Sherman P. Fivozinsky, and Xavier K. Maruyama of NBS and 

their colleagues W. P. Trower of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and S. E. Williamson 

of the University of Illinois used the Bureau linear electron accelerator to measure 

the elastic electron scattering cross-section from 2C atoms. Analysis of the new data 

along with the results of an earlier experiment involving lower momentum transfer 

allowed them to determine the shape of the ground-state charge distribution and the 

charge radius with substantially improved accuracy. The new value of the charge 

radius of the carbon nucleus was determined with an uncertainty estimated at 0.6 

New Classifications for Critical Data 

Writing in the journal Science during 1981, David R. Lide, Jr., chief of the NBS 

Office of Standard Reference Data (OSRD), called attention to the avalanche of 

scientific data that by then was overwhelming the technical literature and suggested 

that there was a way to ease the increasingly tedious search for needed information.286 

The solution to the scientific "information explosion," in Lide's view, was the 

omnipresent computer, itself source of much of the information flow. The development 

of computer-based bibliographic files that could be searched from remote terminals 

greatly increased access to documents for multitudes of researchers and technical 

workers. A second stage in bringing information directly to its users, Lide suggested, 

might be the provision of actual data on demand. 

Providing data directly to those who needed the information carried certain risks, 

however. In many cases, the quality of the data was as important to the user as the 

actual numbers involved—and quality control in the production of scientific data 

was non-uniform at best. 

Lide noted that even a vocabulary for information concepts was lacking in many 

areas—for example, the word "data" was used both to refer to documents and to 

numerical files of values. 

A. Arif, R. D. Deslattes, M. S. Dewey, G. L. Greene, and I. 0. Schroder, "Facilities for fundamental 

physics research at the NIST Cold Neutron Facility," Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research 

A284, 2 16-219 (1989). 

L. S. Cardman, J. W. Lightbody, Jr., S. Penner, S. P. Fivozinsky, X. K. Maruyama, W. P. Trower, and 

S. E. Williamson, "The charge distribution of Phys. Lea. 91B, No. 2, 203-206 (1980). 2$6 David R. Lide, Jr. ,Critical data for critical needs," Science 212, June 19, 1981, pp. 1343-1349. 

586 
The classification of scientific data was addressed by the International Council of 

Scientific Unions as early as 1975. Through its Committee on data for Science and 

Technology, the Council provided a detailed scheme that recognized three broad 

classes of data: 

• Repeatable measurements on well-defined systems. These data constituted much 

of the traditional output of experiments in physics and chemistry laboratories. 

• Observational data, in which any values quoted depended on transient conditions 

that, in general, prevented checking by remeasurement. 

• Statistical data on such subjects as demographics, materials production, health, 

and energy use. 

Each of the classes of data were necessary for particular individuals in the pursuit of 

their goals, noted Lide, although the efforts of the OSRD lay principally in improving 

the quality of the information contained in the first-named class. 

Lide reviewed computer-based methods still under development to improve the 

dissemination of information—methods that finessed the increasingly large costs of 

printing handbooks and journals. These included electronic data bases on interactive 

computer networks, use of magnetic tapes and other computer-compatible storage 

media, and on-line data-retrieval services. 

Optical Fibers and the Information Age 

What properties should optical fibers possess, and why would anyone particularly 

want optical fibers? As this history was written, the question sounded silly, given the 

intense effort today to stretch optical fibers around the world to speed communications. 

In the mid 1970s, however, few people understood the potential impact of optical fiber 

communications on telephone networks. Still fewer imagined the Internet, or other 

magic now worked by computer links. 

It seems surprising, therefore, that the first significant proposal for telecommunications over fiber networks was published as long ago as 1966. And that two key 

advances—the reduction of attenuation of radiation below 20 dB/km in fibers, and the 

development of cw semiconductor lasers capable of room-temperature operation— 

occurred in 1970. 

Fortunately for NBS, Harold S. Boyne, then chief of the Electromagnetics Division 

in Boulder, had friends in the telecommunications industry who helped him understand 

the potential benefits of optical communications: 

• Far greater carrying capacity for information than copper wire. 

• Better signal-to-noise properties than copper wire. 

• Longer distances between repeater stations than copper wire. 

• Effectively free of interference. 

587 
In the fall of 1975, Boyne took a member of his staff to the First European 

Conference on Optical Communications, held in London. There they heard researchers 

from the British Telecom Research Laboratories and elsewhere advocate the immediate 

deployment of optical fibers in the telephone networks, though only laboratory 

experiments had been conducted at that time. 

A year later, Boyne called Douglas Franzen, Bruce Danielson, and Gordon Day to 

his office. Boyne told the trio to begin work on optical fibers. 

"What kind of work should we do?" they asked. 

"That's for you to find out," Boyne replied. 

Thus began NBS work on optical communications. 

It soon became apparent to the three scientists that one could buy similarly-specified 

fiber from two different manufacturers and receive two very different products. The 

attenuation of an optical fiber produced in that era was in the range of several dB/km 

(two decades later, the best value was about 0.2 dB/km). The group showed by 

interlaboratory comparisons that the uncertainty of measurements among the various 

manufacturers was at best ±1 dB. They demonstrated in the laboratory that it was possible to make more accurate measurements and they worked with standards groups, 

especially the Electronics Industry Association and the Telecommunications Industry 

Association, to help them develop standard measurement procedures. 

There were similar problems to be solved for bandwidth measurements and many 

other fiber parameters. By 1980, the group had doubled in size, adding Robert 

Gallawa, George Chamberlain, and Matt Young. 

In 1980, Franzen and Day initiated a biennial Symposium on Optical Fiber Measurements. It still provides a principal forum for reporting the results of research on 

optical fiber characterization. 

The pattern of organizing interlaboratory comparisons to quantify measurement 

problems, working in the laboratory to understand measurement techniques, and 

collaborating with standards groups to develop standard procedures became a familiar 

one. As more instrumentation became available commercially, the work shifted toward 

the development of artifact standards—Standard Reference Materials—to serve as calibration references for the commercial devices. 

The effectiveness of the NBS/NIST group was recognized by a large group of 

colleagues. The President of the Telecommunications Industry Association wrote, 

"Without the NIST assistance and leadership, the U.S. fiber optics industry would not 

be in the competitive position it enjoys today." The Department of Commerce, too, 

recognized the high quality of the group's effort with Bronze, Silver, and Gold Medal 

Awards. 

Electronics and Electrical Engineering 

Examples of contributions in the areas of electronics and electrical engineering 

include a new automated test facility, methods for flaw detection in integrated circuit 

manufacture, solar-cell materials, the evaluation of an interesting new device, and the 

measurement of contact resistance. 

588 
Automated Test Facility for AID Converters 

During this period, the static transfer characteristics of high-performance converters 

for analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog signals were evaluated automatically by a new test set developed by T. Michael Souders and Donald R. Flach. The new facility 

provided measurements of gain, offset, linearity, and equivalent input noise with an uncertainty not exceeding 4 ppm. Up to 40 readings per second could be performed 

without degrading the instrumental accuracy. The two scientists used a 20-bit 

digital-to-analog converter as a comparison standard.287 

Quick Checks of Integrated Circuits 

One problem that bedeviled manufacturers of integrated circuits during the late 

I 970s and early I 980s was circuit failure brought on by defects in manufacture. Tiny 

flaws in the semiconductor materials could result in equally small leakage currents, 

impairing the performance of the circuit. But these flaws were difficult to spot without 

extensive—and therefore, expensive—testing. 

Center for Electronics and Electrical Engineering researchers Gary Carver and 

Martin G. Buehler attacked the problem by devising an integrated gated-diode 

electrometer that could be included in the manufacture of each semiconductor wafer. 

A tiny amplifier in the electrometer magnified any leakage currents and indicators of 

certain other quality defects, allowing the manufacturer to monitor the wafer by 

computer during processing. Wafers showing any indication of defects could be 

removed from the system. The electrometer also was used to monitor the fabrication 

and performance of charge-coupled detectors.288 

Physicist David E. Sawyer and engineer David W. Berning of the Electronic 

Technology Division developed an instrument to test semiconductor devices. Called a "Flying Spot Scanner," the instrument could be used to map dc and high-frequency 

gains in transistors, reveal areas where non-linearities occurred, and detect the presence 

of "hot spots," all these in a non-destructive manner.289 

The new apparatus was chosen for an IR-lOO award in 1976. 

Solar Cell Workshop 

Eighteen papers were presented at a 1979 workshop co-sponsored by the Bureau and 

by the Department of Energy on the stability of solar cells. Data pertained to 

all the major materials used in the cells. The papers discussed subjects ranging over 

the economics of solar cells, the reliability of various cells, materials problems, and 

measurement problems. 

287 T. M. Souders and D. R. Flach, "An automated test set for high resolution analog-to-digital and digital-toanalog converters," IEEE Trans. Instrurn. Meas. 28, No. 4, 239-244 (1979). 288 0. P. Carver and M. 0. Buehler, "The development of test structures for characterization of the fabrication and performance of radiation-hardened CCD imagers," NBSIR 79-1 744, May 1979, 54 pp. 289 For a synopsis of the scanner, see Dimensions/NBS, November 1976, pp. 17-18. 

589 
David W. Beming (left), an electronics engineer, and David E. Sawyer, a physicist, of 

the NBS Electronic Technology Division. operated the laser flying-spot scanner they 

developed for testing semiconductor devices. 

The workshop proceedings were published in the NBS Special Publication 400 series 

entitled "Semiconductor measurement technology" and edited by David E. Sawyer and 

Harry A. Schafft.29° 

Evaluating an "Energy-Producing" Device 

One of the "hot potatoes" that arrived on the doorstep of the Center for Electronics 

and Electrical Engineering (CEEE) during the tenure of Ernest Ambler concerned the 

never-ending search for free power. One Joseph Newman had proffered a device 

which he claimed produced more power than it used. Neither the NBS Office of 

Energy-Related Inventions nor the U.S. Patent Office gave the device a second glance, 

since very basic laws of physics denied Mr. Newman even the possibility of success. 

Mr. Newman held the opinion that his device should get a fair test, and said so in 

U.S. District Court. The judge in the case ruled that Mr. Newman had been denied due 

process, and he ordered that a technical review of the device be conducted forthwith. 

Patent Office officials negotiated with NBS officials, and responsibility for conducting 

the technical review fell upon Robert E. Hebner of the NBS Electrosystems Division 

of the Center for Electronics and Electrical Engineering. 

"Semiconductor measurement technology: NBS/DOE workshop, stability of (thin film) solar cells and 

materials," D. E. Sawyer and H. A. Schafft, editors, NBS Special Publication 400-58, August 1979, 181 pp. 

590 
For about 6 months during 1986, the Newman device resided at NBS. It was kept in a locked compartment throughout the examination except when it was actually 

under test. The District Court had ordered the production of a formal report on the test, 

with clear identification of the testing personnel and their credentials, full descriptions 

of the device, the NBS test equipment and procedures, and test results. More than one Bureau employee remembered the AD-X2 battery case and hoped for an early and 

satisfactory completion for the task. 

The actual testing, done by Hebner, Gerard N. Stenbakken, and David L. Hillhouse, 

took some ingenuity. The machine contained a large coil of wire, a rotating permanent magnet, and a commutator that periodically reversed the connections from a battery-pack power supply. Its output consisted of a series of high-voltage pulses, so that some care was required to evaluate the output power. 

Despite the problems, testing was completed with a few months. The testing team 

found that, once again, the laws of physics had triumphed over human ambition—the 

output power was less than the power used to run the machine. 

The court-ordered report was carefully prepared, with a Foreword signed by Director 

Ambler, who stated:291 

Our results are clear and unequivocal. As the report states, "At all conditions 

tested, the input power exceeded the output power. That is, the device did not 

deliver more energy than it used." 

Not a happy man, but at last the beneficiary of due process, Mr. Newman departed 

the scene. All the NBS participants in the case breathed sighs of relief and returned 

to more mundane matters. 

Measuring Contact Resistance 

Stephen J. Proctor and Loren W. Linhoim, researchers in the Electron Devices 

Division, developed a test method for the measurement of contact resistance in 

metal-semiconductor contacts. They employed a two-dimensional resistor network 

model to relate the specific contact resistance to the measured interfacial contact 

resistance with a homogeneous interfacial layer. The authors illustrated the technique 

with measurements of aluminum contacts on n-type silicon and of contacts with a 98.5 % aluminum, 1.5 % silicon composition, also on n-type silicon.292 

Computer Science 

High Speed for the NBS Net 

The NBS Net received a boost in the speed of its data communication with new 

equipment developed by Robert J. Carpenter, Joseph Sokol, Jr. and Robert A. 

Rosenthal. The three scientists noted the need for improvement in the development of 

291 Robert E. Hebner, Gerard N. Stenbakken, and David L. Hillhouse, "Report of tests on Joseph Newman's 

device," NBSIR 86-3405, June 1986, 35 pp. 292 S. J. Proctor and L. W. Linhoim, "A direct measurement of interfacial contact resistance," IEEE Electron 

Device Left. EDL-3, No. 10, 294-296 (1982). 

591 
local-area computer networks. Their innovation involved a new terminal design which 

allowed a wide variety of terminals, microprocessors, and larger mainframes to be 

fully interconnected by a common coaxial cable. The so-called Terminal interface 

Equipment was partitioned to permit modular expansion and data encryption.293 

Aid for Computer-Aided Design 

Computer-aided design became a popular tool during this period as smaller, dedicated computers appeared on the desks of the Nation's engineers. Plans for all sorts of 

projects, usually involving complex graphics programs used to design and portray new products on computer monitors, were speeded considerably by the use of 

"canned" data and procedures. One flaw in the CAD system, however, was a lack of 

digital transportability of the results to an installation manufactured by a different 

producer. In general, it was necessary for the operator to print out the results of the 

work and re-enter data in an unrelated CAD system. 

The data transport problem was attacked by personnel from a consortium of 

industrial and government organizations, including Bradford M. Smith and Joan D. 

Wellington of the Bureau's Center for Manufacturing Engineering. Smith served as chair of the interface task group that represented the armed services, NASA, and 

more than forty large U.S. corporations. The group was successful in producing a mechanism that could solve the problem. 

Completed in 1980 was a project called initial Graphics Exchange Specification 

(IGES). The IGES enabled data originating on any CAD system to be transferred 

to any other CAD system, regardless of manufacturer. In addition, IGES provided an important link to Computer Aided Manufacturing systems, to robotic operations, and 

to other computer-assisted manufacturing activities.294 

The task group noted that the IGES was not a panacea but a prototype. It was intended to alleviate then-existing data-exchange problems, which it did. But the 

concept embodied in IGES could be extended to other interface problems as the need arose. When the improvement brought by the IGES became known, the American National 

Standards Institute, an organization supported by all areas of the Nation's technology 

sector, immediately commenced study of IGES as part of its program on industrial 

voluntary standards. 

R. J. Carpenter, J. Sokol. Jr. , and R. A. Rosenthal, "A microprocessor-based local network node," IEEE 

Catalog No. 78CH 1388-8C (New York: IEEE, 1978) pp. 104-110. 294 "A technical briefing on the Initial Graphics Exchange Program (IGES)," J. C. Kelly (Sandia Laboratories. Co-Chair), Robert Wolf (Xerox Corp., Co-Chair), Philip Kennicott (General Electric), Roger N. Nagel 

(International Harvester), and Joan D. Wellington (NBS Center for Manufacturing Engineering, 

editor), NBSIR 81- 2297, July 1981, 128 pp. 

592 
Evaluating Computer Performance 

During 1983, the 19th meeting of the Computer Performance Evaluation Users 

Group was held in San Francisco. The 4-day meeting touched on a variety of problems 

associated with the utilization of supercomputers, microcomputers, and 

in-between sizes as well. Some of the topics were the following:295 

• Local Area Networks—control of the flow of messages to buffered receivers, 

modelling a LAN. 

• Statistical methods for computer evaluation. 

• Improvement of software by modification and replacement methods. 

• Sizing computer systems for particular applications. 

• The Information Center concept for users of small systems. 

• Automatic data processing—independent use vs organizational control. 

information Processing Standards 

During Ambler's term as director, the Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology continued as the source of Federal information Processing Standards, intended 

to guide government employees in the use of computerized data processing. New FIPS 

publications of the era addressed the following problems: 

• Passwords (FIPS publication 112), which specified basic security criteria for 

verification of personal identity and for access to restricted data. 

• Graphical Kernel System (publication 120), which noted the adoption as a FIPS 

of an American National Standards Institute (ANSI) protocol of computer 

subroutines for handling two-dimensional graphics packages. 

• Syntax for handling videotex and teletex information (publication 121), which 

described the formats, rules, and procedures for encoding alphanumeric text and 

pictorial materials in those applications. 

• Data Descriptive Files (publication 123), which noted the adoption as a FIPS of an ANSI specification for information exchange between computer systems 

without loss of data integrity. 

• Revision of FZPS on FORTRAN (publication 69-1), which updated a standard 

issued earlier to specify the form and interpretation of programs written in the 

FORTRAN language. 

During 1987-88, two new FIPS were issued that built on the effectiveness of the 

initial Graphics Exchange Specification, mentioned earlier in this section. Known by 

the acronyms POSIX and GOSIP, they provided additional means for the interconnection of computer hardware and software, regardless of manufacturer. 

295 D. Mowbray, editor, "Computer science and technology: Proceedings of the Computer Performance Evaluation Users Group, 19th meeting, October 25-28, 1983," NBS SP 500-104, October 1983, 236 pp. 

593 
POSIX, the Portable Operating System Interface for Computer Environment 

(publication 151), offered a standard for the transport of software from computer to 

computer. GOSIP, the Government Open System Interface Profile (publication 146-I), 

updated an international standard for data communications. The new standards 

encouraged computer vendors to offer products with enhanced versatility. 

NBS Radiometry Comes of Age 

In chapter 3 we noted progress in optical radiation measurements. More can be 

added to that story at this point, covering advances made during the latter half of the 

1970s and the 1980s.296 

Electrical Substitution Radiometry 

The measurement of total radiant energy emitted by a variety of sources—for 

example, by lasers, by standard lamps, and by simulators of solar radiation—was eased 

considerably at NBS by the development of electrical substitution radiometry and by 

the development of electrically calibrated pyroelectric radiometers. 

E. Dale West, a calorimetrist transplanted from the Gaithersburg Heat Division to 

the Boulder Quantum Electronics Division, joined colleagues W. E. Case, A. L. 

Rasmussen, and L. B. Schmidt to create an electrical substitution radiometer—basically a reference calorimeter—to evaluate the energetics of Boulder's new lasers. Use of the 

calorimeter allowed laser energy and power to be evaluated in terms of standard joules 

and watts, respectively.297 

The operating characteristics of lasers made certain portions of the group's task 

particularly interesting. One such property was that of time variation in laser energy. 

Pulsed lasers delivered energy in short bursts; treated carefully, the pulsed outputs 

could be compared with those of continuous-wave lasers through calorimetry. In 

addition, transient variation in cw laser power could be averaged calorimetrically. 

West's group utilized the constant-temperature calorimetry method to develop a type of 

instrument designated the C-series calorimeter. The calorimeter accuracy was estimated as I % of the laser energy, with a range of 0.01 J to 20 J and with a limiting laser 

pulse intensity of 0.1 J/cm2. 

In the meantime, Jon Geist and Albert Crigler were working in the Heat Division 

on the measurement of incoherent radiant sources. They developed a versatile radiometer that could be used with lasers, standard lamps, and solar simulators.295 

296 Most of this material comes from an account kindly furnished by Jon Geist. 297 E. D. West, W. E. Case, A. L. Rasmussen, and L. B. Schmidt, "A reference calorimeter for laser energy 

measurements."J. Res. NBS 76A, No. I, 13-26 (1972). 298 Geist, "Fundamental principles of absolute radiometry and philosophy of this NBS program," NBS 

Technical Note 594-1, June 1972, 59 pp. 

594 
A comparison of the Boulder and Gaithersburg radiometers in 1973 produced agreement within 0.1 % in laser energy measurements, well within estimated uncertainties 

for the two devices. 299 Use of the Geist-Crigler radiometer in a 1970 comparison of pyrheliometers—solar 

simulators—under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) of 

the United Nations demonstrated unexpectedly large errors in the international solar 

simulator calibrations. By 1979, however, the WMO, using the NBS information, 

was able to redefine its solar scale in terms of units consistent with the International 

System of Units. 

Defoe C. Ginnings and Martin L. Reilly created a radiometer based upon the use of an electrical substitution calorimeter cooled to the temperature of liquid helium. The 

device was intended for measuring the temperatures of blackbody radiators,30° and its 

advanced design provided a new level of accuracy in radiometric measurements. 

The principles developed by Ginnings and Reilly were subsequently incorporated by 

Terence J. Quinn and John E. Martin of the British National Physical Laboratory into a larger radiometer of extremely high accuracy. 

Electrically Calibrated Radiometers 

The development of electrically calibrated pyroelectric radiometers, like their substitutional cousins, took place both in the Boulder laboratories and the Gaithersburg 

laboratories. Robert J. Phelan, Jr., A. R. Cook, Clark A. Hamilton, and Gordon W. 

Day produced at Boulder an electrically calibrated pyroelectric radiometer.30' Jon 

Geist, William Blevin, a guest worker from the Australian National Measurement 

Laboratory, and Albert Crigler accomplished a similar development at Gaithersburg.302 

The two efforts produced instruments that were more sensitive and easier to use than 

the forerunner in either laboratory, and almost as accurate. The Geist-Blevin device 

attracted the attention of a manufacturer and won an IR-lOO award in 1975. Its 

availability allowed NBS to discontinue the calibration of several total-irradiance lamp 

standards and helped many user groups to trace their measurements to SI units. 

While working on the radiometer problem with Geist, Blevin collaborated with 

Bruce W. Steiner of the Heat Division on a suggestion to redefine the SI base unit for 

photometry, the candela, in terms of a specified number of lumens per watt, thus 

effectively transforming photometric standards into radiometric standards.303 

299 j• Geist, L. B. Schmidt, and W. E. Case, "Comparison of the laser power and total irradiance scales 

maintained by the National Bureau of Standards," App!. opt. 12, 2773-2776 (1973). 300 D. C. Ginnings and M. L. Reilly, "Calorimetric measurements of thermodynamic temperatures above 0 °C 

using total blackbody radiation," Temperature, Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, 

Vol. 4, Part 1, H. H. Plumb, editor, pp. 339-348 (1972). 

R. J. Phelan, Jr. , and A. R. Cook, "Electrically calibrated pyroelectric optical-radiation detector," App!. 

Opt. 12, No. 10, 2494-2500 (1973). See also C. A. Hamilton, R. J. Phelan, Jr. ,and 0. W, Day, 

"Pyroelectric radiometers," Opt. Spectra 9, No. 10, 37-38 (1975). 302 Geist and W. R. Blevin, "Chopper-stabilized null radiometer based upon an electrically calibrated 

pyroelectric detector," App!. Opt. 12, 2532 (1973). 

303W. R. Blevin and B. Steiner, "Redefinition of the candela and the lumen," Metro!ogia 11, 97-104 (1975). 

595 
Robert J. Phelan used the electrically calibrated pyroelectric optical-radiation detector 

that he developed with colleagues at the NBS Boulder laboratories. 

The success of the collaboration on the new radiometric instrumentation impelled 

Steiner, Geist, Russell Schaefer, and Edward Zalewski to form a research effort 

intended to improve the accuracy. reliability, and versatility of radiometric and 

photometric measurements. Eventually the project developed into a more formal 

collaboration called the Electro-Optical Radiometry Group. 

Lasers and Photodiodes 

Some time after their introduction, photodiodes became known as highly stable 

detectors of radiation—more stable, in fact, than the lamps NBS used to calibrate 

them. Less happy features of the devices were large variation in response with source 

position, angle of incidence, and wavelength. Seeking to overcome these problems 

through the use of lamps, monochromators, and filters was tough going because the 

energy content of the resulting beam was too low for accurate measurement. 

Having learned to measure laser energies accurately during their earlier experiments, 

Geist, Steiner, Zalewski, and Antonio Corrons, a guest worker from Spain, in 1975 

adopted the use of lasers as sources for photodiode-response measurements. Their 

technique involved the use of an electrically calibrated pyroelectric radiometer for the 

calibration of the response of a silicon photodiode. The group irradiated the photodiode 

with a wavelength-tunable cw dye laser through an interference filter. The laser 

provided substantially more power than had the lamps tried earlier, improving substantially the accuracy of the measurements. A wedge-shaped beam splitter and a second 

596 
photodiode used to monitor the laser beam proved satisfactory in compensating for the 

natural temporal variation in the beam intensity of the laser.304 

The calibrated photodiodes became useful in measurements of the spectral irradiance 

of NBS lamp standards, used at the Bureau to reproduce the irradiance of the goldpoint blackbody source at 602 nm. The uncertainty of the lamp standards, about 1 %, was degraded only to 1.3 % by the introduction of the photodiode detectors, demonstrating for the first time the suitability of the dye-laser approach to calibrations of 

spectral irradiance a well as the utility of lasers for radiometry. 

Later, Michael A. Lind, Edward Zalewski, and Joel B. Fowler adapted the electrooptical modulator stabilizer, devised in the Boulder laboratories, to reduce the 

variation with time of laser energy emission. The technique—use of intensity-stabilized 

tunable dye lasers and discretely tunable ion lasers with electrical substitution radiometers to characterize photodiodes—proved successful and was still in use years later 

for measurements at the highest accuracy levels. 

Self-Calibration With Silicon Photodiodes 

Continuing to advance the understanding of photodiode response, the NBS radiometry group assembled in 1977 a set of Detector Response Intercomparison and 

Transfer (DRIT) packages. Each package contained a photodiode-filter combination 

calibrated at the Bureau with ion-laser lines. NBS customers measured the photodiode 

response using their own instruments and reference standards, in accord with an NBS-prescribed protocol, then returned the results to the NBS radiometry group for 

analysis. The Bureau team examined the data, providing an evaluation of the 

customer's measurement capability and especially highlighting any apparent errors 

found in the customer's procedures.305 

The new DRIT package nicely complemented the NBS calibration trend that passed 

beyond the calibration of reference standards towards analysis of a client's in-house 

measurement techniques—the procedure known generically as Measurement Assurance 

Programs. 

In the course of studies of the physics of photodiodes, the NBS radiometry group 

discovered a method by which they could use the quantum efficiency of certain silicon 

photodiodes to create natural radiometric standards. In some cases, the uncertainty 

involved in the method was as low as 0.1 %306 

In 1984, Zalewski and Warren Gladden used the "self-calibration" method to 

calibrate a spectroradiometer with the 633 nm helium-neon laser line. The spectroradiometer was composed of an integrating sphere, a monochromator, and a photo-multiplier tube. The two then used the spectroradiometer to measure the 

304J. Geist, B. Steiner, E. Zalewski, and A. Corrons, "Electrically based spectral power measurements 

through use of a tunable cw laser," App!. Phys. Lett. 26, 309 (1975). 305 M. A. Lind, E. F. Zalewski, and J. B. Fowler, "The NBS detector response package: the instrumentation," 

NBS Technical Note 950, July 1977, 23 pp. 306 Geist, E. F. Zalewski, and A. R. Schaefer, "Spectral response self-calibration and interpolation of 

silicon photodiodes," App!. Opt. 22, 3795 (1980). 

597 
spectral irradiance, at the same wavelength, of an NBS spectral-irradiance standard 

lamp. Since the lamp had been calibrated against a gold-point blackbody source, it was possible to compare the two methods directly; they agreed within 1.1 %. This was 

the first time such a comparison had been accomplished. It showed the value of the 

laser calibration of spectroradiometers.307 

The self-calibration method was tested further in 1984 by Henry J. Kostkowski, 

J. L. Lean, Schaefer, Robert D. Saunders, and Lanney Hughey. Using a self-calibrated, 

filtered photodiode equipped with an integrating sphere, the group measured the 

spectral irradiance of a standard lamp, traceable to a gold-point blackbody source, and 

they measured the spectral irradiance of the radiation from the storage ring of the 

Synchrotron Ultraviolet Research Facility, version II (SURF-TI), for which the spectral 

irradiance could be calculated. All of the measurements agreed within %. 308 The self-calibration method developed by Zalewski and Gladden proved so easy to use that it rapidly became a favorite within the international radiometry community. 

Only the cryogenic radiometer at the National Physical Laboratory in England was its 

equal in accuracy. A 1988 international comparison of measurements in 11 countries, 

6 based on self-calibration and 5 on electrical-substitution radiometry, showed good 

agreement. Nine of the results agreed within 0.15 %, a distinct improvement over 

results obtained 20 years earlier. 

High-Temperature Superconductivity 

The discovery that superconductivity, long thought to be a phenomenon restricted to 

temperatures below 20 K, could exist at much higher temperatures brought visions 

of lossless power transmission, revolutionary transportation systems, and exotic 

industrial and scientific devices during the late 1980s. 

A Presidential Initiative 

President Ronald Reagan, generally skeptical about the value of non-military 

government activity, paid a surprise visit to a Federal Conference on Commercial 

Applications of Superconductivity on July 28, 1987. The Federal government, he 

announced, should strive mightily to develop and commercialize the field of hightemperature superconductivity. 

Reagan proposed an 11-point initiative on superconductivity, partly legislative and 

partly executive. He requested legislation to expand the National Cooperative Research 

Act to encompass new joint industrial-governmental production avenues; to increase 

307 E. F. Zalewski and W. K. Gladden, "Absolute spectral irradiance measurements based on the predicted 

quantum efficiency of a silicon photodiode," Optica Pura YAplicada 17, No. 2, 133-140 (1984). 308 H. J. Kostkowski, J. L. Lean, R. D. Saunders, and L. R. Hughey, "Comparison of the NBS SURF and 

tungsten ultraviolet irradiance standards," App!. Opt. 25, No. 18, 3297-3306 (1986). See also A. R. Schaefer, 

R. D. Saunders, and L. R. Hughey, "Intercomparison between independent irradiance scales based on silicon 

photodiode physics, gold-point blackbody radiation, and synchrotron radiation," Optical Engineering 25, 

No. 7, 892-896 (1986). 

598 
)atent protection for manufacturing processes; and to exempt from the Freedom of 

'nformation Act commercially valuable scientific and technical information on highemperature superconductivity. 

On the executive side, Reagan proposed a number of steps: 

• To establish an Advisory Group on Superconductivity, by which "Wise Men" 

could counsel the White House on research and commercialization policies. 

• To establish several Superconductivity Research Centers to conduct basic 

research and serve as focal points for information on superconductivity. Four 

centers would arise within the Department of Energy—at the Argonne National 

Laboratory, at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, at the Iowa Ames Laboratory, 

and in the DoE headquarters where a database would be created. The Department 

of Commerce was directed to establish a center devoted to electronic applications 

of high-temperature superconductivity at NBS/Boulder. Other activities in the 

program would take place in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 

in the National Science Foundation, and in the Department of Defense (the 

DoD was expected to invest $150 million in development of superconductive 

technology over a 3-year period). 

• To urge all Federal agencies to help create and transfer to industry new technology based upon superconductivity. 

• To establish accelerated processing procedures within the U.S. Patent and 

Trademark Office for superconductivity inventions. 

• To urge NBS specifically to assist the program by the expeditious development 

of appropriate physical and reference standards and technical data, and to focus 

efforts on devices for the detection and measurement of low-level magnetic 

fields. 

• To encourage all agencies to reallocate Fiscal 1987 funds to accelerate basic and 

applied superconductivity research. 

Scientists at NBS responded enthusiastically to the encouragement of President 

Reagan, although they could accurately claim that the field of superconductivity had 

seen considerable action at the Bureau for more than a half-century. 

Robert A. Kamper, chief of the Electromagnetic Technology Division in Boulder 

and himself a long-time student of superconductivity, gave his perspective to the 

topic: 309 The Bureau has been studying and measuring the properties of superconducting 

materials for more than three decades. While the new materials hold great 

commercial promise, the superconductor industry already registers annual sales 

of about $200 million. The measurement standards and methods that support 

Mark Bello, "Riding a Heat Wave: Researchers Take Another Look at Superconductivity," pp. 5-13 in 

"NBS Research Reports," NBS Special Publication 733, August 1987, 32 pp. 

599 
manufacturing and commerce in this industry were developed here. We also 

have developed several superconducting devices, including what is probably the 

• world's largest working array of Josephson junctions—a series of 14,184 

junctions that can produce a precise 10-volt standard of electricity. 

Our expertise and measurement capabilities in areas crucial to exploiting this 

tremendous opportunity will support U.S. industry's efforts to surmount the 

many obstacles that must be overcome before the new high-temperature 

superconductors can be put to practical use. Laboratory work on high-temperature superconductors followed several paths at 

NBS: study of the crystallographic phase relationships in the materials comprising 

high-temperature superconductors; measurements of the critical current densities of 

various high-temperature superconductors; and preparation of devices based on the use of high-temperature superconductors. 

Phase Diagrams of High-Temperature Superconductors 

The new superconductor materials were brittle ceramics, generally polycrystalline. 

Forming such materials into wires, thin films, and bulky structures would not be an 

'easy task. Francis W. Beech, Salvatore Miraglia, Antonio Santoro, and Robert S. Roth 

prepared a comprehensive phase diagram of one material, showing 

its structure to be orthorhombic. Their determinations were made by analyzing 

neutron-diffraction results from powder samples at the NBS nuclear reactor.31° 

Other phase transition studies, structure analysis, and observations of crystal growth 

were accomplished in several groups: 

• Roger L. Stockbauer and Richard Kurtz of the Surface Science Division, in 

collaboration with David L. Ederer of the Radiation Physics Division. 

• A group led by Robert Roth of the Ceramics Division. 

• A group led by Hassel M. Ledbetter of the Fracture and Deformation Division. 

• Stanley Block and Gasper J. Piermarini of the Ceramics Division. 

In some cases, the chemical composition of the superconductor materials was uncer- tain, let alone the crystal structure. 

Instruments and Machines 

The high-temperature superconductivity program in Boulder grew out of an older 

program which utilized "ordinary" superconductivity for the creation of new 

instruments and machines. The discovery of high-transition-temperature materials 

simply presented new options for the program. 

310 F. Beech, S. Miraglia, A. Santoro, and R. S. Roth, "Neutron study of the crystal structure and vacancy 

distribution in the superconductor Phys. Rev. B35, No. 16, 8778 (1987). 

600 
Soon after the announcement of superconductivity in yttrium barium copper oxide 

(YBCO) by Wu and Chu in 1987, James E. Zimmerman re-thought an earlier decision 

to retire. With some of his old colleagues, he devised a mechanical method to form 

the superconducting weak link required for a superconducting quantum interference 

device (SQUID). The resulting instrument was a sensitive magnetic sensor. When 

President Reagan paid his visit—mentioned earlier in this section—to the Federal 

Conference on Superconductivity, he attended a demonstration of the new device.3t 

Impressive as it was, the new magnetic sensor needed an important modification. 

For routine use, such an instrument should be constructed with a more stable thin-film 

link. Ronald H. Ono and a group of colleagues subsequently developed a practical 

junction consisting of two YBCO films sandwiching a thin barrier of normal conductor. The new SQUID proved operable at frequencies up to 9 THz.312 The advance 

merited a Department of Gold Medal Award, presented to the entire team in 1993. 

Another early application of YBCO to instrumentation was a bolometer for radiation 

detection. 313 Soon after the discovery of superconductivity in YBCO, Jack W. Ekin investigated 

its current-carrying properties. He found that "weak links" existing between the grains 

of the polycrystalline material controlled the current flow. This discovery led to a world-wide effort to characterize the phenomenon and, if possible, to mitigate its 

effect.314 The paper describing that work received many citations in subsequent 

superconductivity publications. The investigation led directly to new approaches to 

electronic and power applications. Robert L. Peterson and Ekin contributed to the 

theoretical understanding of the "weak link" model.315 

Ekin and his colleagues Panson and Blankenship of the Westinghouse Research 

Laboratories also learned how to use noble metals to decrease the resistance of electrical contact in the new materials, enhancing their ability to transport large currents.316 

E. Zimmerman, J. A. Beall, M. W. Cromar, and R. H. Ono, "Operation of a Y-Ba-Cu-O rf SQUID at 81 K," App!. Phys. Len. 51, pp. 617-618 (1987). 312 R. H. Ono, J. A. Beau, M. W. Cromar, T. Harvey, M. Johansson, C. Reintsema. and D. Rudman, "High 

T. SNS Josephson microbridges with high resistance normal metal links," App!. Phys. Len. 59, p. 1126 

(1991). 313 C. Brasunas, H. W. Moseley, B. Lakew, R. H. Ono, J. A. Beall, J. E. Sauvageau, and D. 0. McDonald, 

"Fabrication and operation of a high composite bolometer," J. App!. Phys. 66, p. 4551(1989). 314J. W. Ekin, A. I. Braginsky, A. J. Panson, M. A. Janocko, D. W. Capone, N. J. Zaluzec, B. Flandermeyer, 

0. F. Delima, M. Hong, J. Kwo, and S. H. Liou, "Evidence for weak link and anisotropy limitations on the 

transport critical current in bulk polycrystalline YBCO," J. App!. Phys. 62, pp. 482 1-4828 (1987). 315 R. L. Peterson and J. W. Ekin, "Josephson junction model of critical current in granular YBa2Cu3O7 

superconductors," Phys. Rev. B37, p. 9848 (1988). See also R. L. Peterson and J. W. Ekin, "Airy pattern, 

weak link modeling of critical current in high T. superconductors," Physica C157, pp. 325-333 (1989). 316 W. Ekin, T. M. Larson, N. F. Bergren, A. J. Nelson, A. B. Schwartzlander, L. L. Kazmerski, A. J. 

Panson, and B. A. Blankenship, "High superconductor/normal metal contacts with surface resistivities in the range," App!. Phys. Len. 52, p. 1819 (1998). 

601 
The traditional role of NBS/NIST—development of definitive measurement and 

test methods—was filled for the new materials and devices by Ronald Goldfarb, who 

showed that ac susceptibility measurements were particularly advantageous for ceramic 

superconductors. Loren F. Goodrich and Steven L. Bray helped in this respect, too, 

describing at length the special measurement problems associated with the measurement of critical current, and recommending the adoption of specific methods as standard practice.317 The efforts of Goodrich Bray and were incorporated into two 

international standards for high-temperature superconductors. 

Other Properties of High-T. Superconductors 

Among the high-temperature superconductivity projects undertaken at the Bureau 

were the synthesis of samples and the dependence of the superconductive properties on magnetic fields using microwave absorption, by a group led by Lawrence H. 

critical currents, by Robert L. Peterson and Jack W. Ekin;319 and electron 

tunneling in thin films and bulk samples, by groups led by Richard Harris and by John 

Moreland. 320 Russell C. Casella pursued the theory underlying the new superconductors, which 

in many ways seemed not to follow the usual Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer theory of 

superconductivity.321 

Recycling to Save Energy and Materials 

America knew in those days that it could extend the useful lives of many products 

to conserve natural resources and to save energy; for many families, recycling was a routine practice. At NBS, however, science undergirded recycling and resource 

recovery; staff members evaluated products and processes to maximize the 

conservation of energy. 

R. B. Goldfarb, A. F. Clark, A. I. Braginski, and A. J. Panson, "Evidence for two superconducting components in oxygen annealed single phase Y-Ba-Cu-O," Cryogenics 27, p. 475 (1987). See also L. F. 

Goodrich and S. L. Bray, "High superconductors and critical current measurements," Cryogenics 30, 

pp. 667-677 (1990). 

F. J. Adrian, J. Bohandy, B. F. Kim, K. Moorjani, J. S. Wallace, R. D. Shull, L. J. Swartzendruber, and 

L. H. Bennett, "Magnetic field dependence of the superconductivity in Bi-Sr-Ca-Cu-O superconductors," 

Physica C156, 184-188 (1988). 319 R. L. Peterson and J. W. Ekin, "Josephson-junction model of critical current in granular 

superconductors," Phys. Rev. B37, No. 16, 9848-9851 (1988). 320 Moreland, R. H. Ono, J. A. Beall, M. Madden, and A. J. Nelson, "Evidence for the superconducting 

proximity effect in junctions between the surfaces of YBa2Cu3O, thin films," App!. Phys. Len. 54, No. 15, 

1477-1479 (1989). 321 R. C. Casella, "Theoretical models for high-temperature superconductivity," II Nuovo Ciniento 10, No. 12, 

1439-1448 (1988). See also "Comparison of interplanar-boson-exchange models of high-temperature superconductivity: possible experimental tests," Applied Phys. Len. 55, No. 9, 908-9 10 (1989). 

602 
Recycling Oil to Save Energy 

The Bureau became involved inrecycled oil as a result of the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act of 1975 (PL 94-163). This act called upon the Federal Energy 

Administration to direct NBS in the development of appropriate test procedures 

relating to energy conservation, including recycled oil. Federal Energy Administration 

officials estimated that oil re-use could reduce oil imports by about 70,000 barrels each 

day. At NBS, the mission of a Recycled Oil Program, formed in 1976 in the Institute 

for Materials Research with Donald A. Becker at its head, was to develop test 

procedures for the determination of the equivalency of re-processed oil and new oil. 

In November 1976 NBS held a workshop on Measurements and Standards for 

Recycled Oil. Some 26 presentations by technical experts from both government and 

industry were divided among seven sessions. Nearly 70 attendees represented government agencies, engine manufacturers, petroleum refiners, heavy industry, and standards 

groups. 322 A second workshop was held in November 1977. Considerable progress was reported in identifying the details of the recycling problem; for example, it was understood that the end use of the recycled oil—for fuel, for engine lubrication, for 

industrial use, or for hydraulics—dictated different levels of purification. Much of 

this progress resulted from NBS studies of recycled oil. 

A third conference, co-sponsored by NBS, the American Society for Testing and 

Materials, and the Mechanical Failures Prevention Group, was held at the Bureau in 

October 1979. By that time, NBS had completed its study of recycled oil for use as fuel and had transmitted test procedures for that use to the Federal Trade Commission. 

The Bureau staged a fourth conference in 1982, which provided closure to the topic 

of recycled oil by 1984. 

A new piece of legislation, the Used Oil Recycling Act of 1980, Public Law 96-463, 

provided new directions for NBS: 

• The Bureau retained responsibility for determining the quality of recycled oil. 

• NBS was forbidden to identify oil as recycled until the entire study was complete 

and the Federal Trade Commission had developed labeling rules. 

• The new act also mandated assessment by the Bureau of environmental problems 

caused by improper disposal or reuse of recycled oil, analysis of the supply and 

demand for used oil, and comparison of energy savings associated with new or refined used oil. 

During the lifetime of the recycled oil project, NBS was instrumental in forming a new technical division of the American Society for Testing and Materials. Bureau 

scientists also developed equipment and techniques for the chemical, physical, and 

thermal treatment and analysis of oils, and they contributed to the success of similar 

work in other laboratories. 

322 "Measurements and Standards for Recycled Oil," NBS Special Publication 488, D. A. Becker, editor, 

August 1977, 14.0 pp. 

603 
NBS contributors to the recycled oil program were many: Donald Becker (program 

manager); Reenie M. Parris, Franklin R. Guenther, Willie E. May, Charles S. Ku, 

Ronald F. Fleming, and Stephen N. Chesler (chemical analysis); Stephen J. Weeks and 

Stephen M. Hsu (mathematical analysis); Arthur L. Cummings and Patrick Pei (test 

methods); John J. Comeford, James A. Walker, Wing Tsang, Laszlo E. Szegvary, and 

David B. Clark (thermal analysis); Lewis K. Ives, Richard S. Gates, Paul A. Boyer, 

and Arthur W. Ruff (physical analysis). 

NBS Opens an Office of Recycled Materials 

During its discussion of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (PL 

94-580), members of Congress voiced the idea of locating in the Department of 

Commerce some or all of the research and development work connected with the act. 

This they did, calling upon the Secretary of Commerce to provide guidelines for 

specifications for recovered materials, to stimulate markets for recovered materials, to 

promote proven recovery methods, and to generate a forum for the discussion of 

technical and economic information on resource recovery. In turn, the Secretary 

delegated much of the responsibility to NBS. 

By November 1976 the Bureau had established a Resource Recovery Program. In 

1978 the activity was expanded to include the Recycled Oil Program. The new entity was given the name Office of Recycled Materials (ORM); located in the National 

Measurement Laboratory, it was temporarily placed under the command of Donald R. 

Johnson. In 1979, a Technical Advisory Center was created within the ORM to 

determine suitable market locations for recycled materials and to establish a database 

for technical and economic resource recovery systems. 

NBS had discharged nearly all of its responsibilities under the 1976 Resource 

Recovery Act by the end of Fiscal Year 1982. Accordingly, the Office of Recycled 

Materials was disbanded at that time. 323 The major activities undertaken by ORM during its 6-year life included the 

following: 

• Study of recycled oil. 

• Study of the recycling of municipal solid waste. 

• Study of the recycling of industrial wastes. 

• Studies of the recovery and disposal of hazardous wastes. 

• Probing markets for recovered materials. 

• Evaluating the commercial feasibility of resource recovery facilities. 

• Assisting in the formation of pilot resource recovery program for the state of 

California. 

323 "The National Bureau of Standards Office of Recycled Materials 1976-1982," Harvey Yakowitz, editor, 

NBS SP 662, September 1983, 634 pp. 

604 
Recovering Energy From Municipal Wastes 

American consumers generated about 150 million tons of solid waste per year 

during the period 1976-82. Another estimated 50 million tons of waste was designated as hazardous. The Bureau collaborated with other resource-recovery agencies in an 

effort to separate usable materials and energy from municipal solid waste. The effort 

extended to metals—aluminum and ferrous metals—and to glass. In addition, there 

were efforts to recover energy from the combustion of the organic waste fraction. 

An eddy-current method proved useful in removing aluminum from the waste 

stream. Aluminum often was used to manufacture soft drink cans; the metal could 

be recovered at purity levels useful as feed stocks for aluminum refiners. Electromagnetic separation could be used to remove ferrous metals. Glass often could be 

recovered as a heavy fraction once the metals were removed. 

Bureau scientists undertook the problem of determining the energy available from 

the combustion of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste. Duane R. Kirklin 

and Eugene S. Domaiski built an oxygen bomb calorimeter to accommodate 25 g 

samples of Refuse Derived Fuel, pellets prepared by compressing pre-processed solid 

waste. In collaboration with David J. Mitchell, they found experimental values 

averaging 25 Mi/kg for the fuel. The results seemed not to depend upon processing 

methods.324 With the assistance of Jennifer C. Colbert, P. Decker, H. Xiheng, and 

Stanley Abramowitz, the scientists verified the early results by examining more than 

100 samples and calibrating the calorimeters. 

Construction, testing and use of a large-scale flow calorimeter were accomplished 

in 198 1-82 by Domaiski, Kirklin, Colbert, Kenneth L. Churney, Martin L. Reilly, 

Albert E. Ledford, Russell V. Ryan, and Donald D. Thornton.325 Four members of the 

group—Churney, Ledford, Reilly, and Domaiski—received the Department of 

Commerce Silver Medal Award in 1984 for the development of the large-scale 

calorimeter. 

The Beginning of "Technology Transfer" 

From its founding, Bureau scientists communicated results of their investigations to 

the American—and, in many cases, the foreign—public. Sometimes the communication 

took place through the publication process. Other times it arose from a collaboration 

with an outside organization. Frequently, industrial associations were keenly interested 

in the progress of NBS work in particular areas. During the 1970s and l980s, however, the idea began to take hold that there should 

be direct connections between NBS projects and American industry in ways that previously had not been considered. In this section we note the growth of that idea. 

D. R. Kirklin and E. S. Domaiski, "A 25-gram-capacity oxygen- bomb calorimeter," Resources and 

Conservation 10, 177-187 (1983). 325 K. L. Churney, A. E. Ledford, M. L. Reilly, and E. S. Domalski, "multi-kilogram-capacity calorimeter for 

heterogeneous materials," J. Res. NBS 91, 277-298 (1986). 

605 
A Change in Emphasis 

It became clear to the Bureau's managers while Ernest Ambler was director that 

NBS should begin to express its output in terms of "technology transfer"—identifying 

directly those activities that allowed industry or other government agencies to make 

use of scientific or engineering advances. 

Looking at itself with new eyes in the early 1980s, NBS found many projects and 

programs that fitted the definition handily. Among them were the following: 

• Calibration Services, which allowed other organizations to measure their own 

capabilities in dozens of technical areas against those of the Nation's leading 

measurement laboratory. The Bureau, selling the calibration services at cost, 

realized millions of dollars annually from this program. 

• Measurement Assurance Programs, developed by NBS as a means of verifying 

not only the reference devices used by outside organizations but the latter's 

measurement practices as well. These enabled users to compare their measurement results against those obtained by Bureau scientists. 

• Standard Reference Materials, which allowed other organizations to obtain 

samples chosen from a list of 1000 well-characterized materials or devices for use in their own plants or laboratories as reference devices. During Fiscal 1980, 

NBS sold about 40,000 SRM units to more than 10,000 users worldwide. 

• Standard Reference Data, which gave outsiders access to technical data evaluated by experts for its accuracy and reliability. More than 20 data centers, 

located at NBS or elsewhere, screened thousands of literature references for the 

most reliable information. 

• Standards Information Service, a reference collection of more than 200,000 

standards, specifications, test methods, codes, and recommended practices issued 

by U.S. technical societies, professional organizations, State standards offices, 

Federal agencies, and international organizations. 

• Energy-Related Inventions, a program in which experts reviewed plans submitted 

by individuals or small businesses. The free service, arising from the Federal 

Nonnuclear Energy Research and Development Act of 1974, resulted in the 

examination of more than 3000 ideas in 1980; some 30 were referred to the Department of Energy for further study. 

• The Research Associate Program, under which personnel sponsored by industry, 

professional, or trade organizations were accepted for cooperative study with 

NBS scientists. Bureau laboratories and other facilities were made available for use by the associates. In addition, they enjoyed daily contact with NBS scientists 

and engineers. Since 1921, more than 1000 individuals participated in the 

program. 

606 
• Liaison with State and local governments in the areas of weights and measures, 

construction, and environmental measurements led to other communication as well. The government officials learned of NBS ideas and practices in unexpected 

areas such as fire-fighting and fire prevention, energy conservation, computers, 

and resource recovery. 

• The Postdoctoral Research Associates program, which brought to NBS for one or two years some of the Nation's most promising young scientists and 

engineers. The associates worked with the most senior project leaders at the 

Bureau under the auspices of the National Research Council. 

• The Guest Worker program, which allowed visitors from U.S. or foreign 

laboratories to work on specific projects for periods as short as a few months or as long as 2 years. 

• Conferences, tours, exhibits, and technical films, which carried information from 

NBS to citizens and non-citizens at all levels of scientific sophistication. 

All told, technology transfer became identifiable as an integral part of daily life at 

NBS. 

Automated Manufacturing Research Facility 

As the manufacture of machine tools, aircraft, and automobiles became—perhaps 

paradoxically—more automatic and yet more intricate, measurement of the component 

parts became more complex as well. In the United States, most of the companies 

involved in parts manufacture employed fewer than 50 people. As automated manufacturing became more necessary to meet growing competition for business, such 

companies found it increasingly difficult to cope with the demands imposed by 

short-run, automated operations. But the complexity of automated manufacturing was felt by government agencies and large companies, too. NBS provided help with 

automation to all corners. In a new Bureau facility known as the Automated Manufacturing Research Facility 

(AMRF), located in the main instrument shop, researchers in the National Engineering 

Laboratory developed protocols for the standardization of automated, small-quantity 

manufacturing that addressed the use of numerically controlled metal machining, 

robotic parts handling, in-plant conveyors, and software compatibility. The AMRF326 was one of the largest and most influential progams ever undertaken at NBS, rivaling 

in many ways the wartime efforts in proximity-fuse and guided-missile development. 

326 Simpson, R. Hocken, and J. Albus, "The Automated Manufacturing Research Facility of the National 

Bureau of Standards," J. Manufricturing Systems 1, 17-31 (1982). 

607 
The AMRF involved dozens of innovative scientists and engineers under the capable 

leadership of John A. Simpson. Protocols developed in the AMRF allowed the 

small manufacturer to compete with larger firms that employed process-development 

staffs, and they allowed large companies and government agencies to undertake 

automation projects that otherwise would have been beyond their reach.327 

In developing new manufacturing measurement methods, Bureau experts initially 

worked with representatives of a dozen companies, using equipment lent by the firms 

and involving their personnel in the development through the Tesearch associate 

program. Equipment located in a Turning Center work station could be used to 

produce in half an hour parts that took as long as 17 hours with manual methods. In some cases, the need for spare-parts inventory could be entirely eliminated. 

The AMRF also included a test bed to solve problems associated with interconnecting components used in computer-aided manufacturing systems and connecting 

those systems to design, planning and control operations. The most significant 

problems arose from the need to develop the software used to interconnect devices 

made by different companies. The interfaces had to be effective without exposing 

proprietary software. Continuous contact with industrial standards bodies permitted the 

development of such standards as the Initial Graphics Exchange Specification, 

mentioned earlier, that enabled all manufacturers to utilize computerized processing. 

Eventually the AMRF became a $50 M technical research program that directly 

involved Industrial Research Associates from 50 firms and produced 18 patents and 

dozens of technical papers.328 

According to a 1990 report of the National Academy of Science, the AMRF 

"catalyzed" the transition of NBS into NIST:329 

The AMRF has for years served as a platform to develop needed technology for 

flexible, integrated, and automated manufacturing of discrete parts. It has 

played a significant role in the identification and development of emerging 

technologies in manufacturing. It has had considerable influence on various 

private efforts throughout the nation. It was also the catalyst in the legislative 

process that resulted in the Technology Competitiveness Act. 

327 For a general discussion of the AMRF, see Michael A. Baum, "Manufacturing Technology for the Second 

Industrial Revolution," pp. 16-21 in "NBS Research Reports," NBS Special Publication 721, April 1987, 

32 pp. 32$ p• N. Nanzetta, "Technology transfer from the Automated Manufacturing Research Facility at the National 

Institute of Standards and Technology," in Control and Dynamic Systems: Advances in Theory and Applications. Vol 45, Manufacturing and Automation Systems (Academic Press, 1992). 329 "An assessment of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Programs, Fiscal Year 1990," 

National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1991. 

608 
Measurements for Chemical Processing 

During the early l980s, Bureau researchers developed new methods for measurements involving the flow of multi-phase materials. Many chemical processes involved 

mixtures of solids and fluids; techniques for the determination of properties such as composition, viscosity, temperature, and density were necessary for effective process 

design and control. 

Calibration of instruments used in process-control measurements presented special 

problems because of the complex nature of many of the process streams. With the 

American Petroleum Institute, for example, scientists in the National Engineering 

Laboratory (NEL) prepared a database for use in evaluating the performance of orifice 

meters—used in gas pipelines to measure flow rates and establish equity in the 

transfer of metered gases. 

In a related activity, NEL scientists developed a predictive model that incorporated 

properties such as density, thermal conductivity, and viscosity of whole classes of 

industrial mixtures—chemicals such as alcohols, ethylene, vinyl chloride, both natural 

and synthetic gases, and even such complex mixtures as those derived from tar sands, 

coal, and oil shale. The model was immediately adopted by the Gas Processors 

Association. The NBS Office of Standard Reference Data assisted in its distribution to 

interested firms. 

To broaden the database used in the design of pumps, heat exchangers, compressors, 

and pipeline architecture, other NEL scientists designed and built an apparatus for 

the direct measurement of thermodynamic properties of hydrocarbon, chemical, and 

petrochemical fluids at temperatures up to 900 K and pressures as high as 35 MPa. 

Materials of special interest to particular industry groups could be studied in the 

facility, yielding key design data. 

Sharing NBS Facilities 

NBS management became more conscious in the mid-1980s of a new trend in the 

U.S. government with respect to Bureau interactions with private companies. No 

longer—as was the case during the 1960s—were NBS scientists required to beware of 

charges of favoritism if they collaborated too closely with industrial colleagues. 

Gradually, as the effectiveness of the close government-industry cooperation in other 

countries—especially Japan—became clear, cooperation between NBS researchers 

and representatives of individual firms was tolerated, then encouraged. Eventually, 

Bureau laboratories were made available for proprietary industrial research. 

Ernest Ambler recalled especially an admonition delivered in the 1983 Packard 

report (mentioned earlier in this chapter) encouraging increased access to Federal 

facilities for industrial and academic projects. The Bureau responded to that 

exhortation by expanding its programs for Industrial Research Associates, its 

cost-shared projects with industry, and the use of NBS facilities by industrial and 

government scientists and engineers.330 

Ambler, SP 825, p. 33. 

609 
One example that illustrated the new trend in the use of NBS laboratories by outsiders was the issuance of NBS Special Publication 682, "Facilities of the National 

Bureau of Standards. " In the foreword to the publication, Director Ambler stated: 

As the nation's foremost science and engineering laboratory, the National 

Bureau of Standards has some of the premier research and testing facilities in 

the United States. Many of the facilities are available for use by the scientific 

and engineering communities either on a cooperative or independent basis. 

Now, recognizing the strong challenges from abroad and the need for U.S. 

researchers to pool their resources, we have decided to make selected NBS 

facilities available to U.S. researchers for proprietary work on a cost-recovery 

basis, when equal or superior facilities are not otherwise readily available. 

In this first venture into uncharted waters, the Bureau listed two dozen of its 

strongest experimental installations, along with the names of appropriate contact 

personnel. These included: 

• The NBS Research Reactor, providing a peak thermal neutron flux of 4X 

neutrons per cm2 (contact person, Robert S. Carter), along with a neutron depth 

profiling facility (Ronald F. Fleming), a high-resolution neutron diffractometer 

for use with powder samples (Edward Prince), and a small-angle neutron 

scattering facility (Charles J. Glinka). 

• The 140 MeV Electron Linear Accelerator, providing electron beam power of 

50 kW (Sam Penner). 

• The Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation Facility-Il, a 280 MeV electron storage 

ring providing photons of wavelengths 60 nm to 120 nm (Robert P. Madden). 

• A metals-processing laboratory, with capabilities for inert gas atomization, 

electrohydrodynamic atomization, melt spinning, electron-beam and laser surface 

melting, hot isostatic pressing, and plasma-transferred arc coating (John R. 

Manning). 

• Toxic chemicals handling laboratory, with the capability for safe use of dangerous materials (Willie E. May). 

• High-voltage measurement facility, with capabilities for direct voltages up to 

300 kV, 60 Hz alternating voltages up to 175 kV, and lightning pulses up to 

500 kV (Robert E. Hebner). 

• Transverse electromagnetic cells (Mark T. Ma, NBS/Boulder). 

• Electromagnetic anechoic chamber, for field strengths up to 100 VIm at frequencies from 200 MHz to 18 GHz (Norris S. Nahman, NBSIBoulder). 

• Ground-screen antenna range, enclosed by an air-inflated non-metallic cover for 

all-weather use (Norris S. Nahman, NBS/Boulder). 

• Near-field scanning facility for antenna measurements, (Allen C. Newell, 

NBS/Boulder). 

610 
Robert P. Madden checked a connecting flange on the Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation Facility-Il 

• Outdoor extrapolation range for antenna measurements, featuring 6 m towers 

with separation variable up to 60 m (Allen C. Newell, NBS/Boulder). 

• Automated Manufacturing Research Facility, with three machining centers, a coordinate-measuring machine, a cleaning/deburring station, and robotic handling 

system (Philip N. Nanzetta). 

• Fire research facilities with heat-release calorimeters, a room/corridor smoke-andgas station, a 2.4 m by 3.7 m by 2.4 m bum room and smaller subsidiary rooms, 

two pilot furnaces, reduced-scale physical models, and a two-story structural 

steel facility (Jack E. Snell). 

• Plumbing Research Laboratory, a five-story plumbing stack (Lawrence S. 

Galowin). 

• Large Environmental Chamber, with static and dynamic temperature and 

humidity profile capability (Tamami Kusuda). • Line heat-source guarded hot plate, with a temperature variable over 200 °C 

(Thomas K. Faison or Douglas Burch). 

• Acoustic Reverberation Chamber, 9 m by 7.6 m by 6 m with controlled env ironment (Simone L. Yaniv). 

611 
• Acoustic Anechoic Chamber, 6.7 m by 10 m by 6.7 m, with controlled humidity 

(Daniel R. Flynn). 

• Network Protocol Testing and Evaluation Facility, for testing network protocols, 

satellite communications, high-speed and multi-processing networks, v ideotex, 

public data networks, network security, local area networks, and computer-based 

office systems (Robert P. Blanc). 

It was an extensive list, containing facilities available nowhere else in America. The 

"arms-length" relationship formerly existing between U.S. industry and government 

was changing rapidly into an "arm-in-arm" relationship. 

612 
CHAPTER FIVE 

THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS BECOMES THE 

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY: 

PUBLIC LAW 100-418, AUGUST 23, 1988 

A NEW MISSION AND A NEW NAME 

Although he did not realize it, Luigi Crovini, chief of the thermometry program at 

the Italian national standards laboratory, spoke for many metrologists when he asked 

in 1988, "Is it true that the National Bureau of Standards is changing its name? This 

is a very strange thing, to discard a name that is known throughout the world as designating the best metrology laboratory." The change puzzled many staff members 

at NBS, too. 

However, the change should have come as no surprise. It was rooted in the growing 

awareness in Congress that the American enterprise was faltering in international 

competition. Many in Congress knew that foreign governments—far from worrying 

about the niceties of anti-trust legislation as the United States government had done for 

decades—joined wholeheartedly in the industrial programs of their countries, smoothing the way to success in international trade. Even members of Congress who decried 

the excesses of "big government"—an attitude long associated with the Republican 

party—became willing to marshal the resources of the Federal establishment for the 

benefit of U.S. industry. 

Given the increased emphasis on international competitiveness, technology transfer, 

and industrial productivity in the dialog between NBS and Congress during the 1980s, new legislation to re-define the mission of the Bureau was almost a certainty. The 

change in the name of the agency—in the view of the Congress—merely served to 

underscore its new role within the Department of Commerce. 

Following the Congressional elections of 1986, the Senate Commerce Committee— 

under its new chairman, Ernest Hollings of South Carolina—was determined to give 

additional responsibilities to NBS as one of several initiatives to improve American 

competitiveness in world-wide markets. As it happened, there were many members 

of both houses of Congress who had similar feelings about American agencies and 

practices. Considering activities as varied as educational methods, Patent Office 

regulations, and international fiscal policy, Senators and Representatives debated ways 

to cure the ills of the American economy. 

Luigi Crovini, Head of Thermometry, Istituto di Metrologia "0. Colonetti," Torino, Italy; private conversa- tion with the author. 

613 
Months of effort—both in the Senate and in the House—to accomplish these multipie goals resulted in the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988, Public 

Law Ten Titles covered a range of trade-related topics in more than 

460 pages of text, representing an amalgamation of ideas from throughout Congress. 

The titles convey the breadth of the Act's intended reach: 

• Title I. Trade, Customs, and Tariffs. 

• Title II. Export Enhancement. 

• Title III. International Financial Policy. 

• Title IV. Agricultural Trade. 

• Title V. Foreign Corrupt Practices Amendments, Investments, and Technology. 

• Title VI. Education and Training for American Competitiveness. 

• Title VII. Buy American Act of 1988. 

• Title VIII. Small Business. 

• Title IX. Patents. 

• Title X. Ocean and Air Transportation. 

For Bureau employees and their colleagues in the world's national metrological 

laboratories, the most significant of the provisions of Public Law 100-418 were to be 

found deep within Title V. Mimicking the Act itself, Title V addressed a mixture of 

ideas: 

• Subtitle A. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act Amendments, Review of Certain 

Acquisitions. 

• Subtitle B. Technology. 

• Subtitle C. Competitiveness Policy Council Act. 

• Subtitle D. Federal Budget Competitiveness Impact Statement. 

• Subtitle E. Trade Data, Impact, and Studies. 

The line that caught the attention of NBS employees was lodged in Subtitle B. 

Technology of Title V's disparate collection. Subpart A of Part 1, Subtitle B, Title V, 

PL 1 00-418 carried the heading "National Institute of Standards and Technology." Just 

like that, the "National Bureau of Standards" was no more. An indication of congressional faith that NBS could play a significant role in a 

resurgent American presence in world trade can be found in a few lines of the text of 

Subpart A: 

2102 STAT. 1107, Public Law 100-418. Its 10 titles occupy 467 pages in the U.S. Statutes At Large. 

Title V, amending the NBS Organic Act, fills 26 pages. 

614 
The National Bureau of Standards since its establishment has served as the 

Federal focal point in developing basic measurement standards and related 

technologies, has taken a lead role in stimulating cooperative work among 

private industrial organizations in efforts to surmount technological hurdles, and 

otherwise has been responsible for assisting in the improvement of industrial 

technology. It is the purpose of this Act to rename the National Bureau of 

Standards as the National Institute of Standards and Technology and to 

modernize and restructure that agency to augment its unique ability to enhance 

the competitiveness of American industry while maintaining its traditional 

function as lead national laboratory for providing the measurements, calibrations, and quality assurance techniques which underpin United States 

commerce, technological progress, improved product reliability and manufacturing processes, and public safety. 

It was clear from the quoted text that Congress intended to add substantial new responsibilities to the NBS mission. There was no indication that the new assignments 

should replace existing ones. 

When the announcement came, the great majority of NBS staff members were 

offended that Congress would change the name of the Bureau. Only a few read the text 

of PL 100-418. Some employees counseled Director Ernest Ambler to retain NBS as a title, as if it were his option. Others simply shook their heads at the apparent ease 

with which Congress cast aside nearly a century of tradition. 

Foreign colleagues such as Luigi Crovini were thunderstruck that such a valued 

American "trademark" would be discarded. For them, "National Bureau of Standards" 

identified the ultimate in objectivity and accurate measurements. 

Because of the widespread surprise caused by passage of Public Law 100-418, it is 

worthwhile to document the signs of its coming. 

SIGNS OF IMPENDING CHANGE AT NBS 

The Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988 came as a shock to most NBS 

employees. For those who would see, however, the portents of change had been 

visible for years. 

A Growing National Need 

A key ingredient in the mandate for change—not simply in name, but in the Federal 

role for the Bureau as well—was the existence of a pressing National need. A pressing 

National need there was indeed, and it was a need of long standing. American industry 

had been out-sold for years by foreign competitors. Consumer goods led the list— 

automobiles, television sets, radios, audio and video players, electronic toys, clothing, 

and a raft of other items. The steel products, heavy tractor-based equipment, and many 

other construction items used by Americans quite often were manufactured outside 

615 
the United States. By 1983, the balance of international trade had shifted dramatically 

away from America.3 The following table comparing trade balances for several nations 

during the decade of the 1980s illustrates the magnitude of the shift. 

Country 1981 

Current Tr 

1982 

ade Bat 

1983 ances (in 1984 

billions 

1985 

of U.S. d 

1986 

ollars) 

1987 1988 1989 1990 United States 6 —7 —44 —104 —113 —133 —144 —127 —106 —92 West Germany —3 5 5 10 17 40 46 50 55 44 

United Kingdom 15 8 6 3 5 16 —7 —27 —34 —24 Japan 5 7 21 35 49 86 87 80 57 36 

Source: International Monetary Fund, quoted by Lester Thurow, Head to Head: the Coming Economic Battle 

Among Japan, Europe, and America (New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc. 1992) p. 231. 

The Congress, with advice from many quarters, perceived the problem underlying 

the debilitating trade balance as one of declining American technology. A committee 

of the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) issued in the spring of 1988 a comprehensive report on the role of technological issues in American competitiveness.4 

In its report, the NAE committee—which included among its members John W. Lyons, 

then director of the NBS National Engineering Laboratory—urged the Federal government to: 

Use its diverse capabilities to broadly encourage the technological developments that are critical to sustaining the competitive interests of the nation. 

Efforts need to be focused through a designated entity that can effectively 

respond to industry initiatives and interact with non-government groups, 

including industry. 

It was not difficult for members of Congress to envision the National Bureau of 

Standards fulfilling the role of such a "designated entity," given the well-earned and 

well-known bond between the Bureau and the technology sector of American industry. 

What's in a Name? 

Besides wanting a Federal champion for American industry, it is likely that certain 

members of Congress also recalled the words of Allen Astin, testifying before a House 

Appropriations subcommittee in 

Part of the difficulty in some of the lack of appreciation of the range of the 

Bureau programs and services is the name—The National Bureau of Standards. 

Some Secretaries of Commerce, on learning of the scope and importance of the 

See, for example. the description of "stagflation" by James MacGregor "The Crosswinds of 

Freedom," (New York: Vintage Books, 1990) pp. 557-559. 

"The technological dimensions of international competitiveness," National Academy of Engineering, 

Washington, DC, April 1988. 

See Oversight Hearings Testimony, Chapt. 2. 

616 
Bureau activities, have suggested that we devise a new and more descriptive name. I have viewed such suggestions with mixed thoughts. I can definitely see 

several advantages to a broader name. On the other hand, the present name is 

held in high regard by the Bureau's specialized clients and there is danger of 

losing some of this with a new name. I would want to retain the word 

"standards" in any new title. However, our counterpart laboratories in England 

and Germany have the names National Physical Laboratory and PhysikalischTechnische Bundesanstalt, respectively, and the word "standards" does not 

appear. 

The National Bureau of Standards had never been represented by a more devoted 

champion than Allen Astin. Yet it was clear that Astin himself had considered its name 

to be a mixed blessing. On the one hand, it provided a well-known mark of excellence 

in research and rigor in objectivity. On the other, it offered a delimiting title that 

identified only part of the multi-faceted entity that was the Bureau. 

"New Activities in Technology" 

In tracking the path of Congress towards its designation of NBS for a key role in 

improving America's position in international competition, it is also well to remember 

the words of Lewis Branscomb. Branscomb, during his brief but intense tenure as NBS Director, saw Bureau involvement in industrial technology as neither new nor 

frightening. In his first address to the NBS staff, Branscomb noted the plethora of new responsibilities given NBS by the Congress, many of them ranging far beyond 

traditional research on measurements and scientific standards. But he urged the staff 

not to shrink from assigned tasks in applied science:6 

I have been aware of the widespread view that the new activities in technology 

introduce an alien, and some would say incompatible, dimension into NBS—a 

set of programs essentially different in character from those that have gone 

before. But the more I look into the problem of fostering innovation—or, if you 

prefer, encouraging engineering creativity in the solution of practical problems 

—the more I find that the cure calls for the science of measurement once again, 

and often at a high level of sophistication. 

Branscomb backed up his words with action throughout his short reign, modifying 

even the style in which NBS programs were presented to Congress during budget 

hearings. From a listing that emphasized scientific disciplines, Branscomb changed the 

description to one that portrayed NBS as an agency that addressed national problems:7 

• Providing the basis for the Nation's physical measurement system. 

• Providing scientific and technological services for industry and government. 

• Providing the technical basis for equity in trade. 

6 See Assessing Branscomb's Directorship, Chapt. 2. 

Budget hearings, House Subcomnzittee on Departments of State, Justice, and Co,n,nerce, the Judiciary, and 

Related Agencies, 92nd Congress, First Session, April 20, 1971, p. 1118. 

617 
• Providing technical services to promote public safety. 

• Providing technical information services. 

• Providing one-of-a-kind facilities for use by NBS and visiting scientists. 

It is worth noting that Congress responded favorably to Branscomb's activist 

language, voting to raise the NBS appropriation by some 30 % for Fiscal Year 1972. 

"Industrial Innovation and Productivity" 

Early in his tenure as director, Ernest Ambler developed the view that NBS could 

prosper as a more active partner in American industrial progress. Observing the 

positive response to Bureau research in the areas of energy, environment, safety, and 

health, Ambler noted in 1980 the "needs for improved industrial innovation and 

productivity." Throughout his term, he continually pressed the idea that NBS should 

become more directly involved with industry in solving technological problems. 

Ambler took to heart suggestions in the 1982 Packard Report calling for a sharper 

definition of agency mission and for closer ties to outside organizations. Under his 

leadership, Bureau relations with industry expanded vigorously. 

"Automated Manufacturing" Shows the Way 

The success of the Automated Manufacturing Research Facility might have 

convinced the last skeptics that NBS could work directly with industrial engineers to 

enhance their use of technology.9 

The basis for the Bureau's automated manufacturing project was research in 

dimensional metrology under the leadership of John A. Simpson and Robert J. Hocken. 

Taking as one challenge the accurate measurement of large container volumes, Hocken, 

Simpson, Bruce R. Borchardt, John W. Lazar, Charles P. Reeve, and Philip G. Stein by 

1977 had developed new methods for accurate measurements in three dimensions. 

Their work was based on the use of a classical measuring machine fitted with laser 

interferometers. The machine and the interferometers were controlled by a dedicated 

minicomputer to determine the position of a single reference point, from which a machine-independent set of measurements could be created.° By 1979, Hocken and 

Borchardt had evaluated axis non-orthogonality errors associated with the technique.1 

'E. Ambler, Preface to "NBS 1980," NBS Special Publication 600, January 1981, 40 pp. 

Much of the information in this section was kindly supplied by Dennis A. Swyt. See also The Beginning of 

'Technology Transfer," Chapt. 4. 

'° R. Hocken, J. A. Simpson, B. Borchardt, J. Lazar, C. Reeve, and P. Stein, "Three dimensional metrology," 

Ann. mt. Inst. Prod. Eng. Res. 26, No. 2, 403-408 (1977). 

1 R. J. Hocken and B. R. Borchardt, "On characterizing measuring machine geometry," NBSIR 79-1 752, 

June 1979, 25 pp. 

618 
John A. Simpson, an expert in 

electron physics, worked at NBS/ 

NIST from 1948 to 1993. He received 

many awards for the excellence of his 

scientific studies and his management 

achievements. His vision was of the 

greatest importance to the creation 

of the Automated Manufacturing 

Research Facility. 

Within another 2 years, a group including Hocken, Borchardt, Reeve, William C. 

Haight, Clarence L. Carroll, Ronald G. Hartsock, Fredric E. Scire, and Ralph C. Veale 

had demonstrated the ability to measure the capacity of ship cargo tanks designed for 

the transport of liquefied natural gas (LNG) with an uncertainty of only +0.05 % of the 

total volume. They measured 18 such tanks using the laser-based dimensional metrology, providing calibration reports that specified the tank volumes as functions of their 

liquid levels.'2 

The measurements presented a challenging problem: each tank held about 5 million 

gallons of LNG; each tank was made from 10 flat planes which—when assembled— 

could enclose an eight-story building; and the temperature of the tanks in use dropped 

to —160 °C, engendering significant volume changes as a result of thermal expansion. 

The actual volume of the tanks was a critical issue in the pricing of LNG shipments, 

since no accurate cryogenic flowmeter then existed. 

2 W. C. Haight, R. J. Hocken. B. R. Borchardt, C. L. Carroll, R. G. Hartsock, C. P. Reeve, F. E. Scire, and 

R. C. Veale, "Estimated accuracy of calibration of some membrane-type LNG transport tanks," NB SIR 

80-2141 January 1981, 83 pp. See also Robert J. Hocken and Philip Nanzetta. "Dimensional metrology at the 

National Bureau of Standards," The Physics Teacher 21, No. 8, 506-513 (1983). 

619 

A natural collaboration between researchers working on dimensional metrology and a robotics team from the Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology was fostered 

by the NBS reorganization of 1978. 

James S. Albus, an electrical engineer who left the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration in 1973 to study sensors and computer control technology at NBS, led a team that created a variety of robotic devices at the Bureau. These found uses in 

many military and industrial settings. In one project, NBS prepared specifications for 

the Navy to use in competitive procurement of robots. 

Led by Albus and including Anthony J. Barbera, Mary L. Fitzgerald, and Marilyn 

Nashman, the NBS robotics team focused its early efforts on some eight features of 

robots: 

• Accuracy of position. 

• Dynamics of manipulation. 

• Sensors. 

• Control systems. 

• World modeling. 

• Development of software. 

• Standards for interfaces. 

• Mobility. 

The idea to create an Automated Manufacturing Research Laboratory was born in 

1979 as NBS scientists realized the significance to American industry of a factory in 

which every part could be made automatically, with no rejects and little scrap. The 

concept had several components: careful analysis of the manufacturing process to 

reduce errors in materials treatment to acceptable levels; generation of manufacturing 

protocols involving robotics and humans within a generic system; and development 

of interfacing methods to permit the use of optimum efficiency in the choice of 

equipment, control computers, and software.'5 

The AMRF received congressional funding as a new NBS initiative in 1981, and it 

received financial support from a U.S. Navy program in Manufacturing Technology at 

the same time. Taken together, these funds allowed construction of the facility as an adjunct to the NBS Instrument Shop. 

" James S. Albus, "Industrial robot technology and productivity improvement," Exploratory Workshop on 

the Social impacts of Robots: Summary and issues, February 1982, pp. 62-89. See also J. S. Albus, A. J. 

Barbera, M. L. Fitzgerald, and M. Nashman, "Sensory interactive robots," Ann. CIRP 30, No. 2, pp. 559-562 

(1981). J. A. Simpson, R. J. Hocken, and J. S. Albus, "The Automated Manufacturing Research Facility of the 

National Bureau of Standards," J. Manufacturing Systems 1, pp. 17-31 (1982). See also John A. Simpson, 

"Mechanical measurement and manufacturing," Control and Dynamic Systems 45, pp. 17-30, 1991. See also 

Philip Nanzetta, "Technology transfer from the Automated Manufacturing Research Program at the National 

Bureau of Standards," ibid pp. 307-331, 1991. 

621 
James S. Albus (right) utilized a low-cost, mobile robot (left) to pick 

up a small object. The robot was built circa 1974 by NBS for the 

Department of the Navy to prove 

the feasibility of using low-cost. 

readily available components in 

robot construction. 

622 
In 1977, a computer-controlled manipulator, used in research that developed sensor 

control systems for industrial robots, handed NBS electronics engineer Anthony J. 

Barbera a cup of tea. Within a few years, the facility had achieved spectacular success. More than 40 

companies had sent Industrial Research Associates to work on its projects, and 

equipment worth more than $12 million had been donated or lent by participating 

organizations. By the time NBS became NIST, the facility boasted a horizontal 

turning center, a vertical turning center, a cleaning and deburring center, and a final 

inspection center. Each center was served by a robot, robotic materials transport, and an automated storage and retrieval system. A Hierarchical Control System, developed 

in concert with hundreds of private companies and other government agencies, 

operated the facility's equipment. 

The AMRF was an operating model of technology transfer, industrial productivity, 

and industrial competitiveness. Its projects benefitted the U.S. military effort in 

many ways as well. 

So it was that one could easily find reasons for inclusion of NBS in Public Law 

100-418, legislation intended to rescue American industry from the ravages of foreign 

competition. Congress readily saw the Bureau as an effective weapon to be used in 

the battle. And if its name were to be changed to emphasize its expanded role in the 

fight, well, Astin himself had not discouraged such a step. 

623 
NBS engineering technician Michael Huff (seated) and project manager Kang Lee monitored the Mare Island 

Flexible Workstation at the Bureau's Automated Manufacturing Research Facility (AMRF). This workstation was developed by NBS for the U.S. Navy's Mare Island Naval Shipyard in the first large-scale transfer of 

flexible automation technology from the AMRF to a production facility. 

PLANNING FOR CHANGE 

Most aware of all the Bureau staff regarding impending changes in the NBS charter 

were three of its leading managers in 1987—Director Ambler and two of his major 

laboratory directors, Donald R. Johnson, director of the National Measurement 

Laboratory and John W. Lyons, director of the National Engineering Laboratory. By 

the time PL 100-418 became law, Johnson had been involved for nearly a year in 

the extensive planning necessary to prepare the massive text, and Lyons had been 

involved even longer, though unofficially. 

On September 30, 1987, Director Ambler sent to Johnson a memo assigning him to 

lead the planning effort for the Technology Competitiveness Act: 16 

6 Memo. "Preparing for the Technology Competitiveness Act Assignments." Ernest Ambler to Donald R. 

Johnson. September 30, 1987. 

624 
In 1985, NBS engineers Azizollah Abrishamian (foreground) and Roger Kilmer 

began examination of a laboratory testbed for robotic sensor/controllers. The 

installation was built to study logistics for a U.S. Army human engineering 

project. The scientists sought to integrate proximity, vision, and other sensors 

into the NBS-developed real-time robot control system. 

In the days just before the unveiling of the NBS Automated Manufacturing 

Research Facility in November 1983, (left to right) Anthony J. Barbera, Mary 

Lynn Fitzgerald, Len Haynes, Steve Leake, and Kathleen Strouse worked to solve last-minute problems with the facility's control systems. 

625 
It seems prudent to commit ourselves to a full planning effort in order to 

prepare for the assignments to the Bureau contained in the House and Senate 

drafts of the Technology Competitiveness Act. 

Effective October 6, 1987, I would like for you to head the planning effort on a full-time basis. While you are on detail from your present assignment as Director of the National Measurement Laboratory, Dr. Helmut Hellwig will act 

for you. 

In addition to leading the planning effort, you will take primary responsibility 

for working with all the interested parties external to the Bureau. Ray Kammer 

will assist you in assuming these responsibilities. 

Johnson's planning assignment lasted until the following June. During that time he 

led the effort that resulted in a workable plan for an Advanced Technology Program, 

Regional Centers for the Transfer of Manufacturing Technology, State Technology 

Extension Services, a Non-Energy-Related Inventions project, and—perhaps of 

necessity—a change in the venerable name of the National Bureau of Standards. It was a busy time for the manager, but one that he recalled as challenging.'7 

Even before Donald Johnson was operating as the Bureau's designated planner for 

PL 100-418, John Lyons was involved in discussions with staff members of the Senate 

Committee on Commerce, Science, and Lyons was sought out for 

his views because Bureau programs such as the Automated Manufacturing Research 

Facility were located within the National Engineering Laboratory (NEL). Director 

Ambler encouraged Lyons to provide members of Congress and their staffs with 

information on the successes of industrially oriented NEL programs. Lyons also 

provided information obtained by him during visits to "technology centers" in Japan. 

These were governmental bodies that funded selected industrial research and development initiatives in Japan. 

It was the opinion of Lyons that the accomplishments and future plans for the 

AMRF figured heavily in the eventual "technology transfer" content of PL 100-418. 

For both Johnson and Lyons, the new legislation simply reflected a crystallization in 

Congress of long-felt needs to find some way to stanch the hemorrhage of dollars 

from a disastrously negative U.S. ba'ance of payments. Lyons—a veteran of two 

decades of employment in industry—was particularly attuned to reorganization as a frequent response by corporate management to changing conditions. He saw the 

Congress as a sort of "Board of Directors" for government agencies; unwieldy because 

of numbers and variation in views held by individual members, but all-powerful 

nonetheless.'9 

Donald R. Johnson, Oral History, September 8, 1998. 

W. Lyons, Oral History, June 1, 1993, and June 9, 1993. 

'9iohn W. Lyons. Oral History, June I, 1993. 

626 
In 1987, Donald R. Johnson (right), director of the NBS National Measurement Laboratory, showed Maryland Senator Paul Sarbanes (center) and a member of Sarbanes' 

staff several examples of NBS Standard Reference Materials. 

627 
In February 1991. John W. Lyons taught classes at a Gaithersburg, Maryland, school as part of an annual 

National Engineers Week 

PUBLIC LAW 100-418 

The Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act received a sympathetic hearing by 

the 100th Congress, primarily because control of the Congress had passed to the 

Democratic Party in the 1986 elections. In the minority during the previous years of 

President Reagan's administration, Senator Hollings and his colleagues on the 

Commerce, Science, and Transportation Committee favored governmental intervention 

in the plight of America's industry in international trade. Hollings visited the NBS 

Automated Manufacturing Research Facility (AMRF) during efforts to bring to his 

home state a new technology center. In the course of that visit, Hollings recognized the 

significance of the AMRF program for developing and commercializing new technology. He became a leading proponent of an expanded role for NBS in the National 

competitiveness effort. 

Congressional plans to enhance U.S. competitiveness had surfaced in several draft 

bills over a period of years. Many of these plans were made part of PL 100-418 to add 

technological strength to the legislation. Although issues involving international trade 

dominated congressional discussion of the bill, the future of NBS was bound tightly to 

its technical provisions. 

628 
Many Republican members still agreed with the President that less government was better government, but their numbers were dwindling. By the time Congressional 

Republicans returned to power in 1995, support of FL 100-418 was moot; the value to 

U.S. industry of the new programs had been well established. 

A New Organic Act 

The 26 pages of text of PL 100-418 that referred to NBS was identified as the 

Technology Competitiveness Act. This Act-within-an-Act made few substantive changes 

in the duties assigned to NBS/NIST, but changed drastically the emphasis on those 

duties and the level of detail with which they were prescribed. Gone was the simplicity 

of the two-page legislation approved by the 56th Congress in 1901, with its few lines 

instructing the Bureau to develop and maintain standards, offer calibration services, 

provide needed data, and solve technical problems. In its place, Congress sent forth an intricate set of instructions that left no doubt of its intent.20 

The contrast in length between the Bureau's founding legislation and PL 100-418 is so striking as to merit explanation. In simple terms, the difference in detail between 

the two acts is less surprising when measured against the gradual lengthening of 

amendments to the 1901 legislation over the better part of a century. 

Appendix A lists more than 70 pieces of legislation affecting the National Bureau of 

Standards during the period 1901-1993. One of these, the Solar Heating and Cooling 

Demonstration Act of 1974, PL 93-409, exemplifies the trend toward more and more 

lengthy instructions for all agencies with the passage of time. Some eight sections of 

the Solar Act pertain to NBS. Descriptions of such matters as definitions of solar 

heating and cooling, development and demonstration of solar systems to be used in 

residential and commercial buildings, monitoring of projects, and dissemination of 

information thus produced more text than had been used to establish the 

Bureau in 1901. Viewed in this light, the length of PL 100-418 is more understandable. 

The Technology Competitiveness Act—the portion of the Omnibus Trade and 

Competitiveness Act that created NIST—consisted of Subparts A through F. The headings for these subparts were: • Subpart A—National Institute of Standards and Technology. 

• Subpart B—Technology Extension Activities and Clearinghouse on State and 

Local Initiatives. 

• Subpart C—Advanced Technology Program. 

• Subpart D—Technology Reviews. 

• Subpart E—Authorization of appropriations. 

• Subpart F—Miscellaneous Technology and Commerce Provisions. 

In the following paragraphs, we note significant features of each subpart. 

20 The text of Subtitle B, Part I is reproduced in full in Appendix A. So is the NBS founding legislation, PL 

56-177. 

629 
Subpart A—A New Name for NBS 

Section 1 of the original organic act (Public Law 56-177, 3 Marcl 1901) consisted 

of a single sentence: "Be it enacted that the Office of Standard Weights and Measures 

shall hereafter be known as the National Bureau of Standards." This sentence was 

replaced in the new legislation by a page of declarations and intentions rooted in the 

traditional responsibilities for precise measurements and calibrations, but stressing 

heavily the importance of providing assistance to American industry in acquiring new 

basic technologies, including automated manufacturing processes. 

As noted earlier, most Bureau employees were startled at the change in the name of 

the institution from the National Bureau of Standards to the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology. Few were aware that, save for the unfortunate definition of 

the acronym NIT ("nit, n. —The egg of a louse or other parasitic insect"2t), the new 

name might have become National Institutes of Technology, in analogy with the 

National Institutes of Health, an organization long respected for its effectiveness in 

advancing the quality of U.S. health care.22 

New Functions and New Activities 

The language of Section 2 of the 1901 Act, a nine-line paragraph describing the 

functions of NBS, was given much greater detail in 1950 by Public Law 8 1-619. That 

act provided the first complete restatement of NBS functions since its founding. 

Although the legislation was entirely consistent with the original Organic Act, it 

enumerated in detail some six functions and 19 activities for the Bureau. 

The 1988 Omnibus Trade Act further expanded Section 2 to three pages in the U.S. 

Statutes. By placing it first, the Act emphasized the importance of the following task: 

(1) To assist industry in the development of technology and procedures needed 

to improve quality, to modernize manufacturing processes, to ensure product 

reliability, manufacturability, functionality, and cost-effectiveness, and to 

facilitate the more rapid commercialization, especially by small- and mediumsized companies throughout the United States, of products based on new scientific discoveries in fields such as automation, electronics, advanced 

materials, biotechnology, and optical technologies. 

The new text followed the first instruction with more than 30 detailed provisions 

that were mostly consistent with ongoing Bureau projects. 

In the 1901 legislation, the Bureau had been instructed to exercise its functions for 

the benefit of "firms and corporations." Within the limits of then-current antitrust 

legislation, NBS scientists had often followed that instruction, assisting industry in 

solving its measurements and standards problems. In the new legislation, relations 

between NIST and industrial firms were spelled out in considerable detail to make it 

clear that the old antitrust fears limiting contact between NBS researchers and 

industrial researchers were to be eased considerably. 

21 Webster's New International Dictionary, 2nd Ed. 

22John W. Lyons, Oral History, June 9, 1993. 

630 
NIST Director's Organization Plan 

Subpart A also required the NIST Director, within 120 days, to present to the House 

Committee on Science, Space, and Technology and the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation a detailed organization plan for NIST. The 

plan had to satisfy several requirements: 

• Establish the major operating units of NIST. 

• Assign each of the required functions of NIST to one or another of these units. 

• Provide details of a 2-year program for NIST, including an Advanced Technology 

Program. 

• Provide details indicating how NIST would expand and fund a Non-energyrelated Inventions Program. 

• Make no changes in the Center for Building Technology or the Center for Fire 

Research. 

Creating a plan for reorganizing NBS into NIST so quickly was a challenging task, 

though it was made easier by the preliminary planning carried out by Johnson and 

Lyons. Foretelling a useful, expanded role for NIST in technology transfer was itself 

problematic, since only the first steps in that direction had been taken. Forecasting the 

likely interests of a new presidential administration—to be elected and installed just as the plan was due to be submitted—presented similar uncertainties. Another problem 

was that Ernest Ambler was about to retire from government service after 14 years as the agency director—he might have felt it wise to leave some or all of the transition 

decisions to his successor. 

As matters would turn out, Ernest Ambler and his deputy director, Raymond G. 

Kammer, Jr., would share the responsibility for submitting the required organization 

plan to Congress. 

Subpart B—Technology Extension Activities 

Technology Extension Activities, the subject of Subpart B of Title V, were created in 

the image of the extension centers of the Department of Agriculture. The agricultural centers had been powerful forces in disseminating up-to-date information on farming practices throughout America in an earlier time, and they still served U.S. 

agriculture well in 1988. 

Regional Technology Centers 

As part of the extension services, PL 100-418 mandated the establishment of 

Regional Centers for the Transfer of Manufacturing Technology. These centers, to be 

"affiliated with any United States-based nonprofit institution or organization that 

applies for and is awarded financial assistance under this section," were intended to 

become technological resources for U.S. manufacturing companies. 

631 
Activities of the new centers were to consist of demonstrating "automated manufacturing systems and other advanced production technologies" to industry, especially 

the small- and medium-sized firms that could ill afford to send research associates to 

NIST. Along with relevant information, the centers would be authorized to lend 

equipment to firms with fewer than 100 employees. 

Each Regional Center was to be funded at least 50 % by its sponsoring organization. 

The maximum duration of support for any center was set at six years. 

Authorization for the appropriation of earmarked funds—$40 million for fiscal years 

1989 and 1990—was given for the Regional Centers program. However, the size of 

the program clearly would be determined by the amount of funds actually appropriated 

for it. 

State Technology Programs 

In addition to the Regional Centers, the new Act directed NIST to provide technical 

assistance to individual State technology programs through a variety of other activities. 

The assistance was to begin with a national survey—to be completed within 120 

days—of technical help currently provided by the states to manufacturing firms within 

their boundaries. On the basis of the information so acquired, NIST was to suggest 

ways by which it could make the state extension services more effective. 

The legislation specified that information and advice, workshops for state personnel, 

and cooperative agreements between NIST and individual state governments should 

be used to implement the NIST activity. Appropriations to support the state extension 

program were authorized to the extent of $2 million per year over the following 3 

fiscal years. 

Non-Energy Inventions 

Another paragraph of the new legislation directed the establishment of a program for 

the evaluation of inventions that were not energy-related (the NBS program which 

evaluated energy-related inventions was not to be impacted by this activity). 

Subpart C—Advanced Technology Program 

Subpart C of the Technology Competitiveness section of the new act addressed the 

establishment of an Advanced Technology Program, to be created at NIST. 

The stated intent of the ATP was to help American businesses to: 

• Rapidly commercialize new, economically significant scientific discoveries. 

• Refine manufacturing technologies. 

The clear motivation of the ATP was to enhance the competitive positions of U.S. 

manufacturing enterprises. Joint ventures among NIST, universities, and independent 

research organizations were encouraged, with the transfer of funds to individual 

companies in support of new, generic technical plans. It was hoped that such a step 

would "avoid providing undue advantage to specific companies." 

632 
The text suggested that joint ventures might consist of start-up funding for demonstration projects involving development and testing of equipment and process 

prototypes. It also encouraged emphasis on areas of NIST technical strength, and 

suggested that the collaborations make use of the provisions of the 1980 StevensonWydler Technology Act where appropriate. 

The merit review process was to be used in choosing joint-venture collaborators. 

Corporate intellectual property was to be protected at all times. 

Visiting Committee on Advanced Technology 

The statutory Visiting Committee, which had advised the Secretary of Commerce on the state of NBS since its founding, was replaced in the new legislation by a Visiting 

Committee on Advanced Technology (VCAT). The new entity was to consist of nine 

members, appointed by the NIST Director. At least five of these were to come from 

U.S. industry, with the rest coming from academia. No one was to represent the 

Federal Government. The VCAT was to meet quarterly or more frequently. An annual 

report was to be transmitted to the Secretary of Commerce with reference to the new 

responsibilities of NIST. 

Subpart 0—Technology Reviews 

Subpart D placed reporting tasks in the hands of the President. He was required to 

include in his 1990 budget request statements of policy and budget proposals in four 

research areas; semiconductors and semiconductor manufacturing technology, fiber 

optics and optoelectronic technology, superconductivity, and advanced technology for 

manufacturing. There would be plenty of work for NIST staff members in preparing 

these reports! 

Subpart E—Authorization of Appropriations 

The new act authorized about $145 million for technology activities at NIST for 

Fiscal 1988. The total was distributed among the following activities: 

• Measurement Research and 

and 

and 

and 

Research Support, $19.6 M. 

• Cold Neutron Facility, $6.5 M. 

• Technology Extension Activities, $5 M. 

Congressional appropriations of funds did not always match congressional authorizations (the numbers given above). In Fiscal 1988, for example, the authorization 

figures given above, totaling just under $145 M, did not materialize in the appropriation, which totaled a bit less than $138 M.23 

23 See Appendix 1. 633 
Subpart F—Other Provisions 

Among provisions discussing, for example, continuity for the agency, user fees, and 

Stevenson-Wydler Act amendments, Subpart F of the new act contained one page of 

kind words for the Metric System, designating it as "preferred" for U.S. trade and 

commerce. Escape clauses were retained, however, in case metric measure was found 

"economically infeasible," "impractical," or "inefficient." In addition, use of traditional 

measurement systems was approved for non-business activities. The metric system still was obliged to make its own way through America's technical life. 

A NEW AGENCY BEGINS WORK 

Resistance within the organization to the change in name from NBS to NIST died 

hard. Many staff members had exerted themselves greatly to ensure that the initials 

"NBS" on technical work denoted accuracy and objectivity. They were not happy that 

people who knew little of the organization could eradicate its name. Gradually, 

however, it became obvious to all that the deed was irreversible. It was time to begin 

new lives as employees of—could they say it?—NIST. 

Ernest Ambler was still director when NIST began its life in August 1988, although 

he had announced his intention to retire from government service in April 1989. 

Within 4 months, however, Ambler had acceded to a request by Secretary of 

Commerce C. William Verity to serve temporarily as Under Secretary for Technology, a post created by Verity to enhance the role of technology in his department. 

Along with two smaller agencies, the Under Secretary was responsible only for 

NIST, so that Ambler was able to participate—albeit at some distance—in the 

guidance of his home agency while on duty "downtown." Ambler returned to NIST 

in time to retire as its director.24 

Raymond G. Kammer, Jr., Acting Director 

Ambler's involvement with the office of Under Secretary for Technology left 

effective leadership of NIST to Deputy Director Raymond G. Kammer, Jr. Kammer, 

unique among those charged with direction of the agency, had no training as a scientist. His first position with NBS, in 1969, was as an analyst in the Office of 

Program Planning. In a series of assignments in budget and program analysis both at 

NBS and Commerce, however, Kammer became familiar with the management of 

Bureau technical projects. He quickly learned to evaluate the effectiveness of technical 

work despite his lack of formal training in technology. Ernest Ambler selected 

Kammer to be his deputy director in 1980. He served in that post until Ambler 

accepted the temporary position of Under Secretary of Commerce for Technology on 

December 2, 1988. At that time, Kammer became Acting Director of NIST; there he 

served until John Lyons was confirmed as Director on February 9, 1990. 

24 Ambler, Special Publication 825, pp. 39-40, 1991. 

634 
In 1977, NBS Director Ernest Ambler presented NBS senior program analyst Raymond G. Kammer. Jr. 

(center), with the William A. Jump Memorial Foundation Meritorious Award for Exemplary Achievement in 

Public Administration. Associate Director for Programs Howard F. Sorrows stood at Kammer's left. 

NIST Reorganization Plan 

In one of his first acts as NIST director, Ernest Ambler established an Advanced 

Technology Program (ATP). As mandated by PL 100-418, the program was made part 

of the office of the NIST director. Donald R. Johnson, who helped prepare the 

legislation describing the new program, was designated Acting Chief of the ATP.25 

Another of Ambler's early acts as NIST director was to reassure the staff that, 

although the agency had been given new and ambitious marching orders, it would 

continue to embody high standards of scientific competence. Ambler accomplished this 

goal through an interview entitled "NBS has new name, expanded role," prepared by 

Michael Baum, a NIST Public Affairs Specialist. Discussing the new legislation, 

Ambler offered a prefatory statement: 

I believe the most significant part of this legislation is found right up front in 

the list of functions assigned to the agency. We now have a direct, unambiguous charge to work closely with industry on the development and use of 

the new technologies that U.S. companies need to stay competitive in the world 

marketplace. 

25 NIST Admin. Bull. 88-13. September 20, 1988. 

635 
The interview mentioned the Regional Centers for the Transfer of Manufacturing 

Technology, the Advanced Technology Program, the Technology Extension Program, 

and the Non-energy Inventions Program, all embodied in the Trade Act but unfamiliar 

to most of the NIST staff. While no details were given of the manner in which the new 

programs would be accomplished, Director Ambler expressed pleasure that Congress 

had shown faith in the traditional scientific capabilities of the Bureau: 

During the past 87 years as the National Bureau of Standards, this agency 

developed a reputation, of which we are all quite proud, for the highest 

standards of technical competence and objectivity. As the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology, we will continue to maintain the same high 

standards and to pursue excellence.26 

In December 1988, Acting Director Kammer submitted to the Department of 

Commerce a proposed reorganization plan for NIST as required by PL 100-418. In 

the new plan, the four existing major units of NBS remained intact. This step was intentional. It minimized disruption of continuing programs which, after all, would be 

expected to provide the bulk of NIST accomplishments for the immediate future. 

The most noticeable change from the structure of the old NBS was the addition of a new organizational unit identified as Industrial Technology Services (ITS), with 

Donald Johnson at its head. Comprising the new ITS were the following units: 

• The Manufacturing Technology Program, headed by Philip N. Nanzetta. 

• The Advanced Technology Program under George A. Uriano. 

• 'The Office for Standards Services, led by Stanley I. Warshaw. 

• The Office for Technology Commercialization, headed by David E. Edgerly. 

• The Office for Industrial Extension Services under George P. Lewett. 

• The Office for Measurement Services, with no chief named. 

In addition to the new components, the reorganization plan included three traditional 

outreach programs—Standard Reference Materials, Standard Reference Data, and the 

calibration services—as parts of the Industrial Technology Services unit. 

Kammer expected that the new structure might take effect by May 1989.27 

An Associate Director for Quality Programs 

In the context of NIST's mandate for increased emphasis on industrial productivity, 

the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award (see The Malcolm Baldrige National 

Quality Award, Chapt. 4) assumed new significance. First presented in November 

1988, the award resonated immediately within American industry. The criteria used in 

judging award entries, circulated widely among manufacturing firms, seemed to 

provide both an incentive to excel and a recipe for excellence. 

26"NIST Research Reports," Special Publication 743, October 1988. 27 NIST Admin. Bull. 88-16, December 14, 1988. 

636 
In recognition of the high place deserved by the Baidrige award, Raymond Kammer 

created the post of Associate Director, NIST, for Quality Programs. Curt Reimann, 

who had generated the nation-wide program on short notice, was designated to act as director of the new office. 

Regional Man ufactu ring Technology Centers 

As directed by the provisions of the Trade Act, Philip Nanzetta, head of the 

Manufacturing Technology Centers program, quickly prepared and circulated application forms for use in choosing regional centers. Some 36 non-profit organizations 

applied for the designation despite the short notice. 

The first Regional Manufacturing Technology Centers to be established were located 

at the Cuyahoga Community College in Cleveland (The Cleveland Advanced Manufacturing Program, a not-for-profit organization intended to emphasize research and 

development, technology applications, and training), Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 

(RPI) in Troy, NY, and the University of South Carolina (USC) in Columbia. 

At RPI, the funding provided by the program—approximately $1.5 million in 

matching funds per center—was expected to help establish the Northeast Manufacturing Technology Center, dedicated to applying advanced manufacturing technologies 

to material removal, assembly, and inspection of mechanical components for the 

automotive, consumer and electronics industries. The South Carolina Technology 

Transfer Cooperative, to be established at USC, would involve faculty members from 

nearby Clemson University to help transfer new manufacturing technology to 

small- and medium-sized metal-fabricating companies. 

Kammer said of the choices, "We expect not only to monitor the progress of these 

centers but to work closely with them. NIST researchers will visit the centers, and we expect the centers' staffs to spend time at our laboratories."28 

The major NIST organization expected to interact with the new Regional Centers was the Automated Manufacturing Research Facility (AMRF), known in some circles 

as the "factory of the future." The AMRF already had developed and implemented new 

manufacturing techniques in cooperation with industry, government and universities. 

New Appointments 

As part of the effort to lay a solid foundation for NIST, Acting Director Kammer 

made several appointments to managerial positions during 1988-89: 

• Dennis A. Swyt, an NBS/NIST staff physicist since the early 1970s, was 

assigned to head the Precision Engineering Division of the Center for Manufacturing Engineering. Swyt was an expert in optical surface and linewidth 

measurement. 

• Richard H. F. Jackson, an applied mathematician, was named deputy director of 

the Center for Manufacturing Engineering. 

28 Man Heyman, "New Centers to Aid Industry," NIST Research Reports, N/ST Special Publication 76/, 

March 1989, pp. 10-lI. 

637 
• Hai S. Lew, veteran of earthquake investigations and other structural studies in 

the Center for Building Technology, was designated chief of its Structures 

Division. Barry I. Diamondstone, an analytical chemist, was named Deputy 

Director of the Center for Analytical Chemistry. 

• Rance A. Velapoldi, former deputy director of the Center for Analytical 

Chemistry, was named chief of the Gas and Particulate Science Division. 

• Frederick C. Johnson, former chief of the Mathematical Analysis Division, was 

assigned to the position of associate director of the Center for Computing and 

Applied Mathematics (CCAM). 

• John A. Brown, former head of the Advanced Computing Environment group, 

was named assistant director for Boulder of the CCAM. 

• Patsy B. Saunders was assigned as acting chief of the Information Systems 

Division in the CCAM. 

• Two new divisions were created in the CCAM to replace the Mathematical 

Analysis and the Scientific Computing divisions. A Scientific Computing 

Environments Division was formed with Sally E. Howe as chief, and an Applied 

and Computational Mathematics Division was created with Paul T. Boggs at the 

helm. 

• B. Stephen Carpenter, an expert in nuclear tracer techniques, was selected to 

head the Office of International Relations. 

• J. Michael Rowe, veteran of years of research in solid state physics at the NBS 

reactor, was named chief of the Reactor Radiation Division. 

Settling in at NIST 

In June 1989, Kammer spoke before the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science 

and Transportation about the legislation passed the previous year. His comments 

included the following remarks: 

This past year has probably been one of the more eventful in our history as we made the transition from the National Bureau of Standards to the National 

Institute of Standards and Technology. Along with that name change, we saw the enhancement of our traditional measurement research and standards function 

to include a more general mandate to improve the competitiveness of U.S. 

industry. 

To my way of thinking, the NIST now has three major elements: measurement 

(providing the scientific data and standards that our economy needs to compete 

in the world mafket), technology (assisting U.S. industry to make world-class 

products), and technology transfer (accelerating the application and wide deployment of new technologies). World-class products have the following 

characteristics: highest quality, advantageous life-cycle cost, modern features, 

and prompt availability in the marketplace. 

638 
Kammer went on to describe NIST programs that contributed to the success of 

competitiveness effort. Product quality, he said, was enhanced by the Malcolm 

Baidrige National Quality Award, created by Congress to promote world-class product 

manufacture. As noted above, the Malcolm Baldrige Award competition was managed 

by NIST and quickly established a productive relationship between American industry 

and NIST in terms of making improved quality an industry goal.29 

A second example given by Kammer was that of measurement science. The new 

NIST superconducting volt standard and the NIST scanning electron microscope with 

polarization analysis both provided world-leading advances to help entire industries to 

compete better in world markets. 

Kammer described the NIST work in intelligent processing as an example of a new technology that could be communicated broadly, and he completed his report by noting 

the designation of Regional Manufacturing Technology Centers as a new means of 

technology transfer. 

In an article in the newly renamed Journal of Research of the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology, Donald Johnson outlined the new directions that would 

accompany the transition to NIST, with emphasis on its new responsibilities:30 

The rapid loss of competitiveness of American industry in international markets 

is an extremely serious problem with wide-ranging consequences. Its causes are many, but among them certainly are the slow rate at which new technology is 

incorporated in commercial products and processes. 

As a nation, we have been slow to capitalize on new technology developed 

from America's own intellectual capability. Our government must now find 

ways to help companies meet the demand of global competition, when speed 

is of the utmost importance. 

NIST will maintain the traditional functions of NBS in support of U.S. industry 

and will continue to offer the full array of measurement and quality assurance 

services including calibration services, standard reference materials, standard 

reference data, and measurement assurance programs. 

A Caution to Congress 

The 1988 Visiting Committee on Advanced Technology, replacing the former NBS 

Visiting Committee upon the enactment of PL 100-41 8, was chaired by William D. 

Manly, a consultant to the Oak Ridge National Laboratories. Making up the balance of 

the committee were Arden L. Bement of TRW Corporation, John G. Bollinger of the 

University of Wisconsin, Nolen M. Ellison of the Cuyahoga Community College, 

Jeanette G. Grasselli of Ohio University, William G. Howard of the National Academy 

29The award was established by the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Improvement Act, August 1987. For a brief note on its early success, see John Makulowich, "Quest for Quality," N1ST Research Reports, NIST 

Special Publication 761, March 1989, pp. 16-18. 

Donald R. Johnson, "New program and directions at the National Institute of Standards and Technology," 

J. Res. NJST 95, No. 1, pp. 1-5 (1990). 

639 
of Engineering, John P. McTague of Ford Motor Company, William P. Schlichter of 

AT&T Bell Laboratories (retired), and William J. Spencer of Xerox Corporation. This 

group, representing considerable technical experience and a variety of viewpoints on science and technology, had strong words for the Secretary of Commerce and the 

the need for adequate resources for the new NIST: 

The Administration and Congress must work together to make Federal funding 

of civijian technology development a high priority. The Committee encourages 

the Government to provide the resources NIST needs for real growth 

and for fulfilling its mandate under the Trade Act to provide leadership in 

developing technology that meets national needs. These resources are not now 

available. In fact, a shortfall in the 1989 NIST budget threatens the health of an agency that has just been given a lead role in promoting U.S. technological 

competitiveness. This will be interpreted as a lack of commitment by the 

Federal Government to continued U.S. leadership in science, technology, and 

international economic competition. 

The committee report called attention to the potential damage to NIST programs 

from consistent underfunding of the agency. Key technical personnel left NIST during 

the previous year, noted the report, and more losses could be expected if support for 

research programs was not forthcoming. The committee went on to point out that 

$40 million was authorized for the Regional Centers for the Transfer of Manufacturing 

Technology for the 2-year period 1989-90, but only $7.5 million was actually 

appropriated for Fiscal 1989 to get the program going. Furthermore, no funding at all 

had been proposed for the centers in the 1990 budget. 

In its 1989 report, the same committee observed that funding for NIST core science 

and engineering had failed to even keep up with inflation. In addition, no new work 

proposed in the 1990 budget was funded. The only alternative to dropping needed 

research at NIST was to seek financial support from other government agencies, a poor 

strategy in the best of times. 

A caution sounded 10 years later in an editorial by Peggie J. Hollingsworth, 

president of Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society, eerily echoed NIST's situation 

in 1989. Hollingsworth warned that a trend to university-based "Technology 

Transfer"—the commercialization of research results—held danger in two areas for the 

scientific enterprise. First, the effort to create new wealth for the university through the 

commercialization of applied projects might well sap the energy—formerly given by 

the faculty to undirected research—that was essential for the transformation of 

students.into imaginative scientists and engineers. Second, the traditional openness of 

academic scholarship might well suffer as faculty members suppressed publication of 

results until patent or other commercialization issues were resolved.3' It was not 

difficult to see in Hollingsworth's words a warning that NIST's ability to preserve its 

scientific competence might suffer from an overemphasis on technology transfer. 

P. J. Hollingsworth, "Technology Transfer in Higher Education," American Scientist 87, p. 482, 1999. 

640 
CHAPTER SIX 

METROLOGY MAKES ROOM FOR INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTIVITY (February 

1990-April 1993). 

With the change in name reinforcing-on a continual, daily basis-a change in the 

way that the former National Bureau of Standards was perceived both within and 

outside the venerable institution, it fell to new leadership to define the myriad of 

details by which traditional metrology would co-exist with expanded efforts to boost 

U.S. industrial productivity. 

The new legislation made clear that NIST should maintain its historical role as the 

U.S. authority on standards of measurement. Yet the same legislation called explicitly 

for emphasis on programs meant for the rescue of American industry in the international economic arena. Managing the balance between these sometimes conflicting 

goals fell to John Lyons and his senior management staff. 

By the time Lyons completed his 3-year term as director, the new orthodoxy of 

industrial productivity had replaced the standards-and-science orientation of the old 

National Bureau of Standards. Only time would tell whether the dual roles could 

co-exist in the same unique institution. 

GEORGE HERBERT WALKER BUSH 

George Bush was a man of many accomplishments and a Washington insider since 

1966. The son of Senator Prescott Bush of Connecticut, George was a decorated Navy 

pilot in World War II and a graduate of Yale University in 1948. He was an oilcompany executive for several years prior to his election to the U.S. House of 

Representatives in 1966 and 1968, representing Houston, Texas. He was appointed by 

President Nixon to be Ambassador to the United Nations in 1971 and served as 

Chairman of the Republican National Committee during Watergate. President Ford 

posted him as chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in Peking in 1974, and as Director of 

the Central Intelligence Agency in 1976. 

In 1980, Ronald Reagan chose Bush as his Vice-Presidential running mate. Their 

Republican ticket handily beat the Democratic team of President Jimmy Carter and 

Vice President Walter F. Mondale, winning 489 of the 537 available electoral votes. 

The Reagan-Bush ticket won again in 1984, defeating Walter Mondale and Geraldine 

Ferraro by an even larger margin. 

Bush was effective as Reagan's Vice-President, leading the administration's battles 

on regulatory reform and an anti-drug campaign, assisting the President with crisis 

management, and serving well as Reagan's surrogate when the President was shot by 

John Hinckley. 

641 
Running for President on his own in 1988, Bush chose Danforth Quayle as his 

candidate for Vice-President. They faced Michael S. Dukakis of Massachusetts and 

Lloyd Bentsen of Texas in a campaign nearly devoid of issues save those of personality. The voter turnout on election day fell to 50 % of eligible voters—the lowest in 

more than 60 years. However, the Bush-Quayle ticket still won easily. 

One of Bush's early tasks was to nominate a permanent director of the National 

Institute of Standards and Technology. This he did, on November 17, 1989; he 

nominated John W. Lyons, a career scientist and at that time the director of the NIST 

National Engineering Laboratory.' 

During his term as America's 41st president, Bush saw the end of the Evil Empire— 

the Berlin Wall was breached in 1989, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 

collapsed in 1991 into a loose federation of tentative democracies. The Reagan-Bush 

policy of militant anti-communism contributed heavily to the termination of the Cold 

War; Bush gladly undertook the construction of a suitable U.S. stance with respect to 

post-Cold-War Eastern Europe. 

Bush directed the U.S. participation in the Persian Gulf War in early 1991 that 

successfully liberated Kuwait, overrun by the Iraq military during 1990. Although the 

U.N. forces stopped short of total victory, the United States, and thus its President, 

stood tall as the defender of militarily weak nations. 

Although he basked in the glory of America's armed might, Bush was required to 

face the punishing trade and budget deficits that he inherited from his predecessor. He 

found it increasingly tricky to reduce the deficits while struggling with military 

cutbacks mandated by the end of the Cold War. His efforts brought on a recession and 

rising unemployment that persisted throughout his term of office. Bush also presided 

over the resolution of a financial scandal arising from the insolvency of a number of 

profligate savings and loan institutions; rescue of the defunct businesses cost the U.S. 

treasury more than $100 billion. 

President Bush chose Robert A. Mosbacher, Sr., a flamboyant Texas oilman, to be 

Secretary of Commerce in 1988. In 1992, while Bush was campaigning for re-election, 

he replaced Mosbacher with Barbara H. Franklin, former Commissioner of the 

Consumer Product Safety Commission (1972-78) and more recently (1979-88) Senior 

Fellow of the Wharton School of Business at the University of Pennsylvania. 

William J. Clinton, Governor of Arkansas, successfully gained the presidential 

nomination of the Democratic party in 1992. With Albert Gore, Jr. as his running 

mate, Clinton attacked the Bush-Quayle economic policies vigorously. H. Ross Perot, an independent candidate for President, added spice to an already heated campaign. In an election that attracted the highest voter participation since 1968, the Clinton-Gore 

team defeated both the Bush-Quayle slate and the Perot-Stockdale ticket. 

Clinton's election, preventing a second term for George Bush, would also spell the 

end of John Lyons' tenure as NIST director. 

'"Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents," 25, p. 1774, 1989. 

642 
JOHN WINsHIP LYONS 

If there was one NIST manager who was at ease with the change of name and 

modification of purpose as stated in the 1988 revision of the NBS Organic Act, that 

manager was John Lyons, nominated by President George Bush on November 17, 

1989, to be the ninth Director of the agency newly re-named the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology. Lyons was employed for 20 years by the Monsanto 

Corporation before joining the staff of NBS in 1973. There he had seen re-orgariizations, technical re-alignments, and changes in corporate goals on many occasions. He 

expressed his views on the changes wrought by Public Law 100-418 plainly: 

The Bureau is whatever the Congress says it is. Congress is the Board of 

Directors and what they say, by definition that is what you are.2 

Lyons was raised in Boston and graduated from Harvard College with a A.B. degree 

in chemistry. After 2 years of service in the U.S. Army, he joined the Monsanto 

Corporation as a chemist. During his service with Monsanto, he obtained M.A. and 

Ph.D. degrees in physical chemistry from Washington University in St. Louis. While at 

Monsanto, Lyons investigated the chemistry of phosphorus compounds, the behavior 

of polyelectrolytes in solution, and rheology. 

Participation on an evaluation panel for the NBS fire program led to his joining 

NBS in October 1973 to head the program.3 During that year, a report entitled America 

Burning, issued by the National Commission on Fire Prevention, awakened the 

country to America's deplorable fire-safety record. The United States suffered the 

highest death rate from fire among all industrial nations, and the worst property-loss 

rate, too. Spurred by the impact of the report, the 93rd Congress enacted the Federal 

Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974; it mandated, among other things, the 

creation of a Center for Fire Research at NBS. Lyons became the first director of the 

new center.4 

During the NBS reorganization of 1977-78, Director Ernest Ambler selected Lyons 

to lead the planning of a new entity, a National Engineering Laboratory, and then to 

become its first director. The NEL included centers for applied mathematics, electronics and electrical engineering, mechanical engineering and process technology, building 

technology, fire research, and consumer products. Lyons spent more than a decade 

working with Ambler and the NEL managers to complete an organization—eventually 

including a separate chemical engineering unit—that could interact with American 

industry in all the engineering areas.5 His leadership in the NBS fire program and in 

the creation and management of NEL earned him election in the National Academy of 

Engineering. Ultimately, Lyons was entirely at ease with the idea that NBS could 

provide direct assistance to bolster U.S. industry in its efforts to adopt the most 

modern methods of manufacturing. 

2 John Lyons, Oral History. June I, 1993. 

NBS Admin. Bull. 73-70, October 29, 1973. 

"See Chapt. 3. The Bureau Gets a New Fire Law and a New Fire Center. 

Lyons, Oral History, June I, 1993. 

643 
John W. Lyons was the ninth director of 

NBS/NIST. 

Aware in 1988 that Ernest Ambler intended to retire within months, Lyons hoped to 

succeed him. A decade of management experience in the engineering/technology 

area of NBS provided Lyons with a background that matched well the emphasis on technology transfer sought by congressional authors of the 1988 Trade Act.6 

As noted above, President Bush nominated Lyons for director on November 17, 

1989. During his confirmation hearing in February 1990, he was asked about his view 

of the future for NIST. His response was optimistic: 

In some critical aspects the Institute will be unchanged in the years ahead. We 

shall still have a substantial core of fundamental research in science and 

engineering and thereby serve both our internal interests and those of the 

technical community at large. We shall continue our dedication to excellence in 

all of our activities. We shall continue to work on the basic physical and 

chemical standards of measurement on which our National quality assurance 

systems are based and provide the necessary services to all those seeking to 

base their work on ours. The Institute will keep up its work in supporting 

technologies. We shall continue to serve as a crossroads for the technical 

community, conducting hundreds of conferences, hosting thousands of visitors, 

and participating in a myriad of external committees and activities. The Institute 

will remain an open laboratory. 

Lyons, Oral history. June 9. 1993. 

644 
The U.S. Senate confirmed the nomination on February 8, The next day, John 

took office as the ninth Director of 

During his swearing in ceremony, held March 20, 1990, Lyons gave the following 

view of NIST: 

I am the ninth Director of this great laboratory, the second chemist, and 

the first technologist. I am only the second director to have had extensive work 

experience in industry. Our first priority here at the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology is to provide technical support to industry. This 

priority is written down in law. It is also in direct support of Secretary 

Mosbacher's top priority for the Department of Commerce: namely, to support 

industry's efforts to improve competitiveness in the global marketplace. 

I have enunciated two other top priorities: to support selected programs in 

public health and safety and to support the scientific and engineering research 

communities through a program of fundamental research. 

There are three related aspects of NIST that are critical to achieving success 

with the three priorities I have just mentioned. These are excellence, strength of 

our research base, and relating our rate of growth to industrial demand. 

Excellence—our reputation for getting it right and getting it right the first 

time—is our stock in trade. We must not sacrifice this reputation for any 

objective. Our research base is the foundation on which we build our applied 

programs and to which we recruit our next generation of staff. It is essential 

that this research base be maintained at substantial fraction of the total effort 

and that it do world-class work. 

And finally, we must find a way to relate the rate of growth of NIST to that of 

the industries we serve. These industries are based on advanced technologies 

that are ever more complex. We find we have to provide more and more 

services to them. Finding the resources to respond to these needs is a challenge we must somehow meet. 

Taking Charge 

John Lyons had the same kind of head start on the task of directing the work of 

NIST that all previous directors save two had enjoyed—he had spent more than a decade as an NBS employee. In addition, his participation in the planning of the 1988 

Trade Act gave him a deep understanding of the intentions of Congress for the newly 

re-created agency. 

In testimony during the 1991 Congressional appropriations hearings, Lyons reviewed 

the agency's progress since NBS became NIST: 

"Lyons New Head of NIST," NIST Research Reports, N/ST Special Publication 783, May 1990, pp. 5-8. 

John W. Lyons, "Welcome and Current View," in NBS/NJST, A Historical Perspective: A Symposium in 

Celebration of NIST's Ninetieth Anniversary, March 4, 199/, Karma A. Beal. Editor. N/ST Special Publication 825, April 1992, p. 2. 645 
The Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988 established new programs 

and approaches on a successful foundation at the old National Bureau of 

Standards. The Act confirms the importance of the existing NBS functions and 

reaffirms the primary NBS mission to promote the competitiveness of U.S. 

industry. 

Today NIST is a far different laboratory. Over a thousand guest scientists and 

88 cooperative research and development agreements with industry and 

academia (plus 33 in the process of completion) have become part of our lives. 

We are in the closing stages of our first competition under the Advanced 

Technology Program. We have three Regional Centers for the Transfer of 

Manufacturing Technology in the Manufacturing Extension Partnership 

Program, and we are in the process of selecting two more. Restructuring NIST 

Lyons began to adapt the management of NIST to his vision for the agency as soon as he was nominated as Director.9 He formed task groups for the purpose of replacing 

the National Measurement Laboratory and National Engineering Laboratory hierarchies 

with a management structure that could better focus on newly assigned goals. Despite 

his early start, however, the new structure did not gain final approval from its many 

overseers—the Department of Commerce, the Office of Management and Budget, and 

four congressional committees—until February 1991. In the meantime, many managers were "designated to serve" in their newly assigned positions. 

An interim organizational chart issued in July 1990 and a more complete one issued 

in March 1991 (the latter is shown in part in Appendix K) defined the new structure of 

NIST. Raymond Kammer continued as Deputy Director until his departure late in 

1991 to accept a position as Deputy Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and 

Atmosphere—the chief operating officer for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration. Lyons appointed Samuel Kramer, his long-time planning assistant in 

the National Engineering Laboratory, to the post of Associate Director of NIST; upon 

the departure of Deputy Director Kammer, Lyons designated Kramer as Kammer's 

replacement. Apart from Kramer, the new structure had no Associate Directors. 

In accordance with the wishes of Congress, Lyons placed two of NIST's newest 

entities—the Office of Quality Programs, headed by Curt Reimann, and an Advanced 

Technology Program (APT), headed initially by Donald R. Johnson, directly under his own supervision. Within a few months Lyons appointed George A. Uriano, a physicist 

with more than 26 years of service at NBS, to be permanent head of the ATP. It fell to 

Uriano to manage the large transferred-funds program to develop—on a cost-sharing 

basis—a variety of high-risk, innovative technologies to enhance the economic growth 

of American industry. 

Within the ATP was created an important unit that contained most of its in-house 

competence—the directorate of Technology Services, led by Donald R. Johnson. It 

contained an Office of Standards Services, under Stanley I. Warshaw; an Office of 

John Lyons. Ora' History, June 9. 1993. 

646 
Technology Commercialization, headed by Cary Gravatt; an Office of Measurement 

Services, under Stanley D. Rasberry; an Office of Technology Evaluation, under 

George P. Lewett; and an Office of Information Services, headed by Patricia W. 

Berger. 

A directorate of Administration, led by Guy W. Chamberlain, Jr., included a Management and Organization Division, headed by Sharon E. Bisco; an Office of the 

Comptroller, under John C. McGuffin; a Public Affairs Division, led by Matthew 

Heyman; a Plant Division, under Jorge R. Urrutia; a Facilities Services Division, 

headed by Walter J. Rabbitt; an Occupational Health and Safety Division, under 

Lyman E. Pevey; an Acquisition and Assistance Division, led by Richard E. de Ia 

Menardiere; a Boulder Executive Office, under Paige L. Gilbert; and a Boulder 

Technical Services Division, headed by Henry W. Tyler. 

A group of 8 laboratories completed the traditional portions of NBS: 

• An Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory, directed by Judson C. 

French, included an Electricity Division, headed by Oskars Petersons, that was 

responsible for the standards of electricity; a Semiconductor Electronics Division, 

under Frank F. Oettinger; a Boulder Electromagnetic Fields Divsion, led by 

Ramon C. Baird; and an Electromagnetic Technology Division, under Robert A. 

Kamper, who also functioned as Director of the Boulder Laboratories, reporting 

directly to Lyons. • A Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory, directed by John A. Simpson, included a Precision Engineering Division, under Dennis A. Swyt; an Automated Production Technology Division, led by Donald S. Blomquist; a Robot Systems 

Division, under James S. Albus; a Factory Automation Systems Division, led by 

Howard M. Bloom; and a Fabrication Technology Division, under Adrian W. 

Moll. 

• A Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory, directed by Harry S. Hertz, 

included a Biotechnology Division, under Lura J. Powell; a Boulder Chemical 

Engineering Division, under Larry L. Sparks; a Chemical Kinetics and Thermodynamics Division, under Sharon Lias; an Inorganic Analytical Research 

Division, led by James R. DeVoe; an Organic Analytical Research Division, 

under Willie E. May; a Process Measurements Division, headed by Hratch G. 

Semerjian; a Surface and Microanalysis Science Division, headed by Rance A. 

Velapoldi; and a Thermophysics Division, led by Richard F. Kayser. 

Included within the Biotechnology Division of the Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory was a relatively new unit called Advanced Research in Biotechnology. 

Like other new technology outreach programs, it was a joint venture for academic, 

government, and industrial scientists. The program sprang from a desire, shortly after 

the 1978 Bureau reorganization, to create an effective role for NBS in the biological 

sciences. Director Ernest Ambler, John Hoffman, and Donald R. Johnson were involved in the effort, although the bulk of the organizational work was accomplished by 

Johnson. 

647 
As a result of visits to industrial biotechnology laboratories, Johnson became 

convinced that an initiative in biotechnology could be coupled with a longdesired NBS goal to create university classrooms near the NBS Gaithersburg 

campus. 

Drawing on experience gained as a Gaithersburg city planner and a member of 

the Montgomery County High-Technology Council, Johnson collaborated with 

Rita CoIwell of the University of Maryland—who envisioned the new NBS 

entity as part of a University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute—to convince 

NBS management, the state of Maryland, the University of Maryland, a philanthropic trust, and Montgomery County to jointly found a Center for 

Advanced Research in Biotechnology, eventually housed in its own classroom 

building. '° Johnson became its first director. 

A Physics Laboratory, directed by Katherine B. Gebbie. It included an Electron 

and Optical Physics Division, led by Charles W. Clark; an Atomic Physics 

Division, under Wolfgang L. Wiese; a Molecular Physics Division, headed by 

Alphonse Weber; a Radiometric Physics Division, led by Klaus D. Mielenz; a Quantum Metrology Division, headed by Richard D. Deslattes; an Ionizing 

Radiation Division, led by Randall S. Caswell; a Boulder Time and Frequency 

Division, under Donald B. Sullivan; a Boulder Quantum Physics Division, under 

David W. Norcross; and a Radiation Source and Instrumentation Division, under 

P. H. Debenham. 

• A Materials Science and Engineering Laboratory, directed by Lyle H. Schwartz, 

included an Office of Nondestructive Evaluation, headed by H. Thomas Yolken; a Ceramics Division, under Stephen M. Hsu; a Boulder Materials Reliability 

Division, led by H. I. McHenry; a Polymers Division, headed by Leslie E. 

Smith; a Metallurgy Division, under E. Neville Pugh; and a Reactor Radiation 

Division, headed by J. Michael Rowe. 

• The Building and Fire Research Laboratories were combined, despite apparent 

to the contrary in PL 100-41 8. Richard N. Wright, veteran in the 

building-technology area, was named Director, and Jack E. Snell, former director 

of the Center for Fire Research, was made Deputy Director. Included in the new entity were a Structures Division, under Hai S. Lew; a Building Materials 

Division, led by Geoffrey J. Frohnsdorff; a Building Environment Division, led 

by James E. Hill; a Fire Science and Engineering Division, under Andrew 

Fowell; and a Fire Measurement and Research Division, under Richard G. Gann. 

• Two computer-based laboratories completed the NIST structure in March 1991. 

One, a Computer Systems Laboratory, directed by James H. Burrows, included an Information Systems Engineering Division, under David K. Jefferson; a Systems and Software Technology Division, led by Allen L. Hankinson; a Computer Security Division, under Stuart W. Katske; a Systems and Network 

Architecture Division, headed by Kevin L. Mills; and an Advanced Systems 

Division, led by Shukri A. Wakid. 

'° Donald R. Johnson. Oral History, September 8. 1998. 

648 
A second computer laboratory, called the Computing and Applied Mathematics 

Laboratory, directed by Francis E. Sullivan, included an Applied and Computational 

Mathematics Division, led by Paul T. Boggs; a Statistical Engineering Division, under 

Robert J. Lundegard; a Scientific Computing Environments Division, headed by Sally 

E. Howe; A Computer Services Division, headed by Martin R. Shaver; a Computer 

Systems and Communications Division, under Stephen White; and an Information 

Systems Division, headed by Patsy B. Saunders. 

The new structure, with some 18 office and laboratory directors reporting directly to 

Lyons, would have been thought unwieldy in many organizations. Nevertheless, it 

remained in effect during the balance of Lyons' tenure as Director. Lyons recalled later 

that the communications problem was eased considerably by the ubiquity of electronic 

mail. 

Staffing Changes by Lyons 

During his tenure as Director, Lyons, as might be expected, made many changes in 

staffing. Those assigned at the division level or higher, along with the reference in the 

NBS Administrative Bulletin (NBS Admin. Bull.) series, follow: 

• Ellen M. Dowd, Personnel Officer: Nominated, NBS Admin. Bull. 91-5, April 4, 

1991; Confirmed, NBS Admin. Bull. 91-10, July 10, 1991. 

• Blame R. Bateman, Chief, Boulder Chemical Engineering Division: NBS 

Admin. Bull. 91-11, August 9, 1991. 

• Albert C. Parr, Chief, Radiometric Physics Division: NBS Admin. Bull. 91-11, 

August 9, 1991. 

• Radiation Source and Instrumentation Division abolished: NBS Admin. Bull. 

91-12, September 30, 1991. 

• Allen C. Newell, Chief, Boulder Electromagnetic Fields Division: NBS Admin. 

Bull. 91-15, October 6, 1991. 

• Stephen Freiman, Acting Chief, Ceramics Division: Nominated, NBS Admin. 

Bull. 91-17, October 6, 1991; Confirmed, NBS Admin. Bull. 93-2, November 1, 

1992. 

• Bruno Fanconi, Acting Chief, Polymers Division: NBS Admin. Bull. 9 1-17, 

November 3, 1991. 

• Samuel Kramer, Deputy Director, NIST: NBS Admin. Bull. 92-1, December 29, 

1991. 

• Harry Hertz, Deputy Director, Office of Quality Programs: NBS Admin. Bull. 

92-5, April 5, 1992. 

• Hratch G. Semerjian, Director, Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory: NBS Admin. Bull. 92-5, April 5, 1992. 

649 
• Marvin A. Bond, Acting Director, Office of Information Services: NBS Admin. 

Bull. 92-12, October 4, 1992. 

• Metric Program, reassigned from the Department of Commerce Technology 

Administration to NIST Technology Services: NBS Admin. Bull. 92-15, November 13, 1992. 

• Paul Vassallo, Director, Office of Information Services: NBS Admin. Bull. 93-2, 

January 10, 1993. 

• Gregory J. Rosasco, Chief, Process Measurement Division: NBS Admin. Bull. 

93-2, October 4, 1992. 

• Richard D. Suenram, Acting Chief, Molecular Physics Division: NBS Admin. 

Bull. 93-2, October 4, 1992. 

• Joan R. Rosenblatt, Director, Computing and Applied Mathematics Laboratory: Nominated, NBS Admin. Bull. 93-3, February 14, 1993; Confirmed, 93-10, 

May 2, 1993. 

• Chemical Engineering Division abolished: NBS Admin. Bull. 93-9, November 

27, 1992. 

Strategic Planning 

During 1991, John Lyons and his senior managers prepared a 10-year strategic plan 

for NIST." The plan was based upon three assumptions: that industrial competitiveness would continue to be a top priority for the Department of Commerce; that 

Commerce would continue as the focus of programs in that area; and that Commerce 

would support the mission with lively programs to improve industrial technology. 

The NIST vision included the following items: 

• Doubling of the NIST laboratory budgets. 

• Even faster growth for the Advanced Technology Program. 

• Modernization of the NIST laboratory facilities. 

• Expansion of the Manufacturing Technology Centers program to span state, local 

Federal, and private-sector technology efforts. 

• Tighter coupling between the internal NIST programs in science and 

and the outreach programs. 

• Expansion of the Quality Program to include non-profit organizations in health can 

and education. 

• Addition to U.S. embassies abroad of "Technology Attaches," whose duties wouli 

include gathering information on foreign technical projects, as well as the promotior 

of U.S. technology-based products. 

"NIST in the 1990s: The Strategic Outlook," February 1991. 

650 
A second management tool prepared by NIST in 1991 was a Research Relationship 

Handbook, intended to guide NIST staff and potential industrial partners in selecting 

and establishing collaborative projects. Included in the handbook were: • Types of organizations to be involved—all U.S. entities. • Types of activities covered—Cooperative Research and Development Agreements, Proprietary Measurement Agreements, licenses, non-disclosure 

agreements, guest researchers, and gifts and loans of equipment. 

• A "decision tree" for use in selecting appropriate interaction mechanisms. 

Personnel Policy 

The NBS Authorization Act for Fiscal designated NBS as the site of a Personnel Management Demonstration Project. Based on a similar project in one of the U.S. 

Navy research laboratories, the plan was intended to accomplish several goals, partly 

for NBS and partly for broader use within the Federal government: 

• Simplified position classification based on knowledge, skill, and duties. 

• Separate career paths—Scientific and Engineering Professional, Scientific and 

Engineering Technician, Administrative, and Support. 

• "Pay banding" into five broad salary ranges within each career path. 

• "Pay for Performance," which tied salaries to performance appraisals. 

• Direct hiring authority for new employees. 

The new personnel policies developed within the Demonstration Project improved 

the ability of NBS/NIST to attract and retain well-qualified staff in all personnel areas. The length of the hiring process was reduced considerably—by a month or more—improving the NIST competitive edge in the competition for highly qualified candidates. 

The flexibility gained by enabling line managers to recommend incentive bonuses 

and rapid salary increases for deserving employees offered a powerful motivational 

tool. At the same time, the program reduced the manager's paperwork burden. 

The 1990 Report of the Visiting Committee on Advanced Technology 

Public Law 100-418 required the Visiting Committee on Advanced Technology 

(VCAT)—larger and with more responsibility than its predecessor—to meet quarterly 

rather than annually. This more intense schedule produced a more tightly focused 

agenda and considerable detail in the VCAT reports. 

New VCAT Members 

By the time that the VCAT had prepared its 1990 annual report, a new chairman— 

Arden L. Bement, Vice President for Science and Technology, TRW Corporation—had 

succeeded William D. Manly. Other new members of the committee were Edward C. 

Heffron of the Michigan Department of Agriculture; Richard S. Nicholson, Executive 

651 
Officer of the American Association for the Advancement of Science; Nam P. Suh, 

professor of Mechanical Engineering at MIT; and Albert R. C. Westwood, Vice 

President for Research and Technology at Martin Marietta Corporation. These men 

succeeded Nolen M. Ellison, president of Cuyahoga Community College; John P. 

McTague, Vice President for Research at Ford Motors Corporation; and William J. 

Spencer, Vice President for Research at Xerox Corporation. 

NIST Organization 

The VCAT expressed admiration for the way in which Kammer and Lyons had 

revamped the NBS organization to create a NIST that could fulfill the goals mandated 

by PL 100-418. The committee urged the Department of Commerce and the Congress 

to note the early success of NIST in raising the level of technology in the U.S. 

industrial sector, and to solidify the gains by helping NIST to evolve into something 

like the industrial equivalent of the National Institutes of Health in medicine and the 

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency in the military. 

Manufacturing Technology Centers 

The VCAT visited the three Manufacturing Technology Centers during June 1990 as part of a detailed inquiry into the suitability of the program to assist small- and 

medium-sized companies in the assimilation of new technology. The committee was 

pleased with early results; center clients reported technical gains worth a cumulative 

$75 million during the first 18 months. The committee recommended that the program 

be expanded to include as many as 12 centers at a time. 

Advanced Technology Program 

The VCAT also examined the joint-venture technology development and commercialization program initiated as part of the Advanced Technology Program. The 

program made use of two significant definitions: 

• Precompetitive research: research and development up to the point where commercial potential can be evaluated. 

• Generic technology: concepts, components, or processes with the potential for 

generating a broad range of products or manufacturing methods. 

The committee recommended several steps for program implementation: 

• Include the broadest possible range of American industry in the selection of candidate technologies. 

• Refine the technology selection process to include a "discovery" phase to weed 

out inappropriate ideas generated by the Request for Proposals (some 249 

proposals had already been received) and a second, more comprehensive, 

proposal phase focused on those technologies. 

652 
• Refine the program management to develop better interaction between the NIST 

program and industry, focusing on three to five areas at first, but preparing to 

expand the program as it succeeded. 

• Carefully protect proprietary aspects of companies involved, paying particular 

attention to intellectual property rights and antitrust liability. 

Baldrige Quality Award 

The VCAT noted that the Baldrige Quality Award program was drowning in its own 

success. More than 100,000 copies of the applications guidelines were distributed 

during 1990 alone. Many firms used the guidelines as self-evaluation tools without 

regard to potential submission of applications for the prize. Over the 3-year life of 

the program, it had become extremely successful and, said the committee, needed 

Federal funds to augment the private monies that thus far had provided its support. 

Such an increase would permit the addition of staff to process the growing numbers of 

submissions and requests for information. 

NIST Budget 

The VCAT noted a distinct improvement in the NIST budget with the Fiscal 1991 

appropriation. Funding for laboratory initiatives was paralleled by growth in the 

allocations for the ATP and the MTC programs. 

Cautionary alarms were sounded, however, regarding the state of the NIST physical 

plant, by then approaching 30 years of age. Critical areas noted were laboratory-space 

environmental controls (temperature, humidity, vibration, and air filtering), safety 

systems, and utilities. 

NIST RECEIVES AN EXAMINATION 

During Fiscal 1992, the National Research Council Board of Assessment took a long 

look at the progress made by NIST following passage of the Omnibus Trade and 

Competitiveness Act of 1988. The Board members liked what they saw, although they 

made numerous suggestions. 

The objectives Congressionally mandated for NIST in 1988 became three in number; 

to enhance the technical competitiveness of U.S. industry, to maintain the traditional 

measurement programs, and to solve technical problems of national importance. 

The Board found that NIST had made excellent progress in meeting its new challenges: "The Board considers conditions and trends at NIST to be better now than 

at any time in recent history." 

In assessing the situation at NIST, the Board used more than 150 technical assessors 

who visited the 10 NIST operating units. These operating units and their financial 

support levels from Congress (Approp) and from other Government agenices (OA) are shown in the following table: 

653 
NIST Unit FY91 $M Approp OA Total 

Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory 20.0 19.3 39.3 

Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory 10.0 17.3 27.3 

Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory 24.6 19.2 43.8 

Physics Laboratory 23.6 13.0 36.6 

Materials Science and Engineering Laboratory 32.4 17.2 49.6 

Building and Fire Research Laboratory 10.7 10.2 20.9 

Computer Systems Laboratory 12.3 14.4 26.7 

Computing and Applied Mathematics Laboratory 14.6 5.7 20.3 

Technology Services 19.6 13.5 33.1 

Director of Administration - - - - - - - - - - - - Total Support 167.8 129.8 297.6 

At the heart of NIST's response to its new challenges was a 10-year master plan, 

"NIST in the 1 990s, the Strategic Outlook," issued by Director John Lyons on February 6, 1991 (see previous section). The plan assumed that the level of U.S. 

industrial competitiveness would continue to dominate Commerce Department and 

Congressional thinking over the coming decade, and that Commerce would develop 

its own program to complement that of NIST. Another assumption was that 

Congressional funding would reflect its commitment to NIST's goal. 

Based on these assumptions, the 10-year plan envisioned a doubling of NIST laboratory budgets and modernization of NIST laboratory facilities; an Advanced Technology 

Program that would accelerate in order to address more industrial needs; increases 

in the program budget for the Manufacturing Technology Centers; increased synergism 

between the intramural NIST technical program—which would help create new technology—and the extramural program—which would help commercialize the new technology and assess new industrial needs; broader scope for the NIST Quality 

Outreach Program to include non-profit organizations as well as industrial firms; and 

moves by standards experts to join embassy teams throughout the industrially oriented 

world to collect and disseminate technical information. 

The Board urged that NIST increase the effort to bring industry into fuller participation in strategic planning for the 1990s, and develop measurement techniques for 

evaluating the success of its program. 

The Board noted that funding for the Standard Reference Data and Standard 

Reference Materials programs had effectively decreased over the previous decade, and 

that that trend had been deepened by the commitment of NIST resources to the new programs. The Board urged NIST management to reverse that trend, because of the 

proven value of the SRD and SRM programs to industry. 

Fundamental, long-term research also had suffered during recent years, according to 

the Board. The funding target declared by NIST management for basic work—l5 % of 

each year's appropriation—was a modest one by industry standards. As much as 20 % 

would have been more in line with industrial practice. 

Yet another area that was under-funded, in the view of the Board, was that of building new NIST capabilities through the Competence Building Program. The total of $27 millior 

spent since 1979 had been too small by at least a factor of two, in the Board's opinion. 

654 
Furthermore, the NIST management ran the program as a contest, rather than as an integral part of strategic planning with long-lasting support to fully establish new areas 

of competence. 

The Board report quoted a recent report by the Office of Technology Assessment: 2 There is a clear need in the United States for greater attention to standards. In an information-based global economy, where standards are not only employed 

strategically as marketing tools but also serve to interconnect economic 

activities, inadequate support for the standard-setting process will have 

detrimental effects. 

Adequacy of NIST's equipment and facilities was another concern expressed in the 

Board report. In many cases, found the Board's investigators, NIST staff was forced by 

circumstances to improvise or borrow needed equipment. 

The Board suggested that the principles of Total Quality Management be extended at 

NIST to all levels of the organization. 

The report closed with suggestions for new approaches to the challenges faëing 

NIST. Three of these were intended to be applied throughout NIST: 

• Utilize specialized management training to facilitate cooperation with industry. If 

such training is not available, create it. 

• Create a "technology transfer organization"—preferably in concert with industry—to facilitate commercialization of new technology. 

• Make increasing use of interdisciplinary teams built from various NIST units, 

perhaps in collaboration with industrial or academic colleagues, to foster technology transfer to industry. 

In addition to the suggestions for NIST generally, members of the various panels of 

the Board made many detailed suggestions that applied to the individual units of NIST 

listed in the previous table. 

The report was powerful in its support of NIST and extremely thorough in the 

depth of its coverage of the various NIST laboratories. 

In 1992 testimony before the Congressional Subcommittee on Technology and 

Competitiveness, Lyons reinforced the concerns of the Board of Assessment, citing an internal review of the state of the NIST laboratories. He noted that many of the NIST 

laboratory buildings were no longer equal to modern scientific demands. Such 

problems as ubiquitous dust—let alone a lack of critical services—rendered some of 

the laboratories unfit for specialized investigations. Lyons found this to be a double 

problem: not only did laboratory conditions impair scientific progress, but they made it 

increasingly difficult to retain some of NIST's most accomplished scientists, who 

routinely received offers of higher pay and better facilities elsewhere. 

12 "Global Standards: Building Blocks for the Future," Office of Technology Assessment Report, 1992. p. 9. 

655 
A POLITICIZED AGENCY? 

The Trade Act of 1988 certainly raised the profile of NBS/NIST. The success of the 

Technology Extension Program, with its Manufacturing Technology Centers; the 

growth of the Advanced Technology Program; the popularity of the Baidrige Quality 

Award; and the emphasis on industrial productivity generated in the balance of NIST's 

laboratories brought the agency more and more to the attention of America's technical 

establishment. Business and political leaders saw NIST as a leading agency in the 

technology effort of the Department of Commerce. Further, NIST became a helpful 

source of funds for research into advanced manufacturing by American companies. 

However, with increased attention and increased budgets came unavoidable consequences. One of these appeared when the Clinton administration replaced the Bush 

team. Instead of treating NIST as NBS and other apolitical agencies had been treated, 

the new administration considered NIST as one of many departments and agencies 

whose leadership should be chosen to reflect "correct" thinking on economic and 

political issues. Despite the obvious successes of NIST during the Bush administration, a Department of Commerce order early in 1993 moved John Lyons to the position of 

Acting Undersecretary for Technology. Raymond Kammer once again became Acting 

Director of NIST.'3 

Arati Prabhakar, director of the Microelectronics Technology Office of the Defense 

Advanced Research Projects Agency, a Defense Department unit, appeared to the 

administration to be an excellent choice for Director of NIST on account of her experience with an agency that supported many external grants. She was duly nominated for 

the post of Director, NIST, and confirmed by the U.S. Senate on May 28, 

Under the Clinton administration, the framework created by the Omnibus Trade and 

Competitiveness Act of 1988 remained essentially intact. In fact, the administration 

supported substantial funding increases for the Advanced Technology Program and the 

Manufacturing Extension Center activities. 

TECHNICAL WORK OF NIST, 1990-1993 

Technology Outreach Programs 

Advanced Technology 

In mandating the Advanced Technology Program (ATP) for NIST as part of the 

1988 Trade Act, Congress sought to make use of the technical sophistication of NIST 

scientists and engineers to identify promising new industrial ideas. Selected projects 

would be given Federal support during the crucial period of investigation that necessarily preceded the development of a product, with NIST helping to reduce the high risk 

inherent in the projects. After considerable discussion between NIST management and 

the Bush administration, funding became available for the development of "generic, 

precompetitive" technologies by individual firms or by industry-dominated joint 

ventures. 

John Lyons, Oral History, June 9. 1993. 

NIST Admin. Bull. 93-12. June 4, 1993. 

656 
The first person named to head the ATP was Donald R. Johnson, who had participated in planning the program at the request of Ernest Amb'er. When the new NIST 

structure was formally approved on January 4, 1991, however, it included a major unit 

called Technology Services. Johnson immediately was re-assigned to the position of 

director, Technology Services, with George A. Uriano succeeding him as director of 

ATP. Brian C. Belanger was appointed deputy director. The ATP force was never 

large—numbering but 10 people in 1991—although it administered millions of dollars 

in contract funds. 

Public Law 100-418 limited the amounts of the grants to individual companies to 

$2 million over a 3-year period. For joint ventures, the grants could be larger, 

depending on the projects, and they could be continued up to 5 years. The program 

was intended to be a cost-sharing one, so that all grantees would be seriously committed to their projects. 

As NIST gained experience with the ATP concept, Uriano and Belanger made 

extensive use of industrial representation to identify promising technical areas. They 

also followed examples from other more-experienced Federal-grant organizations such as the National Institutes of Health and the Defense Advanced Research Projects 

Agency. Quickly, the NIST ATP reached a workable approach to its responsibility: 

• Competitive selection of grantees. Each proposal was examined to see that it 

conformed to the basic requirements of the program, then given comprehensive 

reviews by experts in the technical area of the proposal. Further reviews of 

promising proposals evaluated their potential economic impact and the level of 

corporate commitment implicit in the presentation. To minimize the conflict of 

interest that would arise from reviews by industrial personnel, only Governmental and academic scientists and engineers served as technical reviewers; 

business-related evaluations were performed by industrial consultants who were required to avoid conflicts of interest and to preserve proprietary confidentiality. 

Proposals were ranked according to published criteria, and awards were based on 

the ranking. 

• Direct support to for-profit firms. Grants were awarded to start-up companies as well as small, medium, and large firms, and to joint ventures. The joint ventureS 

could include universities, governmental organizations, or non-profit groups as sub-contractors or partners. 

• Economic goals. The ATP, designed to "rapidly commercialize new technologies," continually maintained as its primary goal the economic success to be 

derived from its awards. The program supported both new products and 

lower-cost production methods. By supporting commercial firms, the ATP could 

rely on strong grantee commitment to financial success. 

• Monitoring of performance. ATP managers quickly developed a plan for continu- ous monitoring of the performance of its grantees. Measurable goals were 

defined for the critical aspects of each successful proposal. 

657 
Independent studies of the ATP undertaken in 1991 showed that the program was quickly bearing fruit. Publication of program criteria provided businesses—particularly 

smaller firms—with yardsticks by which they could measure their own efforts to bring new technologies to market. The studies detected increased industrial research and 

development activity, higher productivity, and quicker time-to-market for new products 

and processes. 

Viewpoints of industry on the ATP program were expressed by many individuals 

and groups. Senior industrial managers provided direct guidance on research priorities. 

Professional societies and trade associations yielded yet other suggestions. On occasion, NIST sponsored workshops and conferences specifically intended to generate 

ATP program input from a variety of sources. The file of ATP proposals also provided 

useful information for program direction. 

Brief sketches of successful proposals up to 1993 illustrate the breadth of the ATP: 

• Creation of generic computer software for use with motion pictures—to digitally 

restore, re-format, or enhance sequences of infrared, x-ray, or motion-picture 

images. 

• Design for multiple-axis machine tools of high precision, based on an octahedral 

frame. 

• A low-cost, automated DNA sequencer, incorporating on a single microchip 

synthetic DNA probes and computer sensor technology. 

• High-temperature-superconductor-based thick-film processing technology for 

radio-frequency communications components. 

• Erasable optical disk drive, using an electron trapping optical memory, for highspeed digital video recording. 

• Gas-phase cleaning agents for removing surface damage, trace metals, and 

particles from semiconductor wafers. 

• Improved production technology for lasers and light-emitting diodes. 

• New technology for designing and analyzing thermoplastic parts in terms of 

microstructure, geometry, and performance. 

• Production technology for ductile, metallic glass ribbon for use in high-power, 

low-loss electric transformers and motors. 

Early in 1995, Lura J. Powell succeeded George Uriano—retiring after more than 

two decades of service to NBS/NIST—as director of the ATP. Brian Belanger 

remained as her deputy. As the program expanded, it became necessary to divide 

responsibility for its various aspects. To this end, Powell created five offices during 

1996. These were: 

• Economic Assessment, under Rosalie T. Ruegg. 

• Information Technology and Applications, under Bettijoyce B. Lide. 

658 
• Chemical and Biomedical Technology, under Stanley Abramowitz. 

• Materials and Manufacturing Technology, under John P. Gudas. 

• Electronics and Photonics, under Brian Belanger. 

Still later, an Office of Programs and Information Management was formed under 

the direction of Alvin H. Sher. 

William F. Long of Business Performance Research Associates wrote a critique of 

the ATP in 1999.15 His report focused on the first 8 years of the program. During that 

period, 1990-1998, the ATP received more than 3,500 proposals; 431 of these were selected for funding. Long estimated the total cost of the funded projects to be $2.8 

billion. The industrial proposers provided slightly more than half of that sum, with 

ATP supplying the rest. 

As of March 1997, 38 of the projects were completed—final project reports had 

been submitted and financial and other required data had been supplied to ATP—and 

another 12 had been terminated prior to completion. Long and his colleagues analyzed 

the 38 completed projects to assess the significance of the ATP for American industry. 

Individual firms—27 with fewer than 500 employees—accounted for 34 of the 

successful projects. None received more than the $2 million grant from ATP allowed 

by PL 100-418. Most contributed resources worth as much as the Federal funding; 

eight firms spent about twice as much of their own funds as the amount of the grant. 

Of the four joint-venture grants, three received ATP funding of $5 million or less, 

while one received between $5 million and $10 million. 

Almost half of the completed projects involved electronics; the rest were distributed 

among the areas of computers and communications, biotechnology, energy and 

environment, manufacturing, materials, and chemicals. 

Industry gains from the completed projects could not be assessed accurately 

because, for most of the projects, the "bottom line" was still under evaluation by the 

participants. However, estimated returns on project efforts were offered by a few 

participants: 

• Auto Body Consortium, consisting of nearly a dozen industrial and academic 

entities involved in automobile production, estimated that their "2 mm" project— 

devoted to reducing assembly-line errors to 2 mm or less—might return 

$3 billion from quality improvements in American cars. By 1999, the new technology was in use in about half of the U.S. Chrysler and General Motors 

assembly plants. 

• Aastrom Biosciences, involved in a human-stem-cell-production project, 

projected its return at nearly $1 billion. 

• Tissue Engineering, a biotechnology start-up company working toward regeneration of body tissue to avoid the need for artificial replacements, projected return on its project investment at $1 billion or more. William F. Long, "Advanced Technology Program: Performance of completed projects. Status report 

No.1," N/ST Special Publication 950-1, March 1999, 134 pp. 

659 
Nearly two dozen of the completed project statements reported that the new technology had already led to new or improved commercial products or processes—some of 

them anticipated, some serendipitous. Some of the projects received recognition in the 

form of awards: • Superconducting wire fabrication and winding techniques, a project of the 

American Superconductor Corporation, received a 1996 R&D 100 award from 

Research and Development magazine. It also was named a Technology of the 

Year (1996) by industry Week magazine. Once the ATP project began, the 

company received support—previously unavailable—from the U.S. Department 

of Energy. 

• Software that recognized handwriting for computer input, developed by Communication Intelligence Corporation, received the "Ease-of-Use Seal" of the 

Arthritis Foundation in 1997. 

• Thallium-barium films for superconducting electronic devices, a project of E.I. 

du Pont de Nemours & Company, was recognized as one of the "Top Products 

of 1993" by Microwaves and RF magazine. 

• Animated three-dimensional representations of the human body, developed by 

Engineering Animation, Incorporated, received the Smithsonian Award in 1994 

for the use of information technology in the field of medicine, given by Computerworid magazine. The procedures also received two 1995 awards for animation 

from the Association of Medical Illustrators and the "Annie" award from the 

motion picture film industry, as well as a 1996 "25 Technologies of the Year" 

award from industry Week magazine. 

• Robots for transporting medicines in hospitals, a project of HelpMate Robotics, 

Inc., received the Japan prize in 1997 from the Science and Technology 

Foundation of Japan. 

• Cellular telephone site filters and superconducting ceramics, developed by 

Illinois Superconductor, Inc., received the Microwave and RF magazine award as one of the Top Products of 1996, and the 1997 Corporate Technical Achievement Award of the American Ceramic Society. 

The ATP funding received lavish praise from participating companies. Two-thirds of 

the successful participants testified that their projects would not have been undertaken 

without the stimulus provided by the program. The others expressed the belief that, 

without ATP funding, their projects would have been delayed by 18 months to 5 years. 

Clearly the Advanced Technology Program placed the NIST in the right place 

at the right time with the right leadership to the benefit of U.S. industry. 

660 
Quality Programs 

The General Accounting Office did not give praise lightly. Both NIST director John 

Lyons and Curt W. Reimann, director of Quality programs, were edified, therefore, 

that a GAO report, written less than three years after the Malcolm Baidrige National 

Quality Award was established late in 1988, described its selection criteria in glowing 

terms: 

[It isi the most widely accepted formal definition of what constitutes a total 

quality management company. In nearly all cases, companies that used total 

quality management practices achieved better employee relations, higher 

productivity, greater customer satisfaction, increased market share, and 

improved profitability. 

The Baldrige Award, described in The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award, 

Chapt. 4, was an instant success. Its selection criteria, developed in consultation with 

industry, provided many a company with a useful guide to evaluating its approach to 

business. The awards themselves lent prestige to the winning firms. Indeed, a letter 

from Solectron Corporation, a 1991 awardee, to the Secretary of Commerce indicated 

more tangible benefits as well: 

Since we applied for the Malcolm Baldrige award in 1989, Solectron's sales 

have increased 316 % and profit has increased 338 % in 3 years. 

We attribute our financial performance a great deal to the improvement we made through the rigorous examination and feedback from the Baldrige 

application process. 

The award guidelines touched upon seven areas of quality in industrial performance: 

• Leadership in setting goals for quality and paths to reach them. 

• Information and analysis that is timely, reliable, and accessible. 

• Strategic quality planning, integrated into the overall company business plan. 

• Human resource development and management to maximize employee potential 

for quality work. 

• Management of processes to achieve quality results. 

• Evaluation of the quality and trend of company operations. 

• Customer focus and satisfaction. 

Financial support of the Baldrige award initially was provided by industry, although 

the NIST staff members who administered the program were supported internally. 

Eventually, NIST management was successful in obtaining Congressional funding for 

the program. 

6"Malcolm Baidrige National Quality Award." pp. 7. 15 in "Guide to NIST," N/ST Special Publication 858, 

October 1993. 

661 
Quality experts from both the public and private sectors joined in independent 

reviews of the many applications received each year; those selected as outstanding 

received on-site visits to flesh out details of their quality programs. All applicants 

received written summaries of their quality operations. 

Curt Reimann remained in charge of the Baidrige award program until 1996, when 

he retired. He was succeeded by Harry S. Hertz. 

Technology Services 

Among the most visible of the NIST outreach programs were those adminstered 

through Technology Services: 

• Manufacturing Technology Centers, which by 1993 numbered seven, 

were located in California, Ohio, Kansas, Michigan, New York, South Carolina, 

and Minnesota. The MTC were set up mainly for the benefit of small- to 

mid-sized companies. 

Each center tailored its services to the needs of its manufacturing client base, 

usually offering assistance in the form of individual project engineering, training 

courses, demonstrations of equipment and procedures, and advice on the 

selection and use of tools and software. Visits to client plants and on-site advice on installations proved beneficial, as did consultation on management, finances, 

marketing, and employee training. 

Equipment available for demonstration generally included automated lathes 

and milling machines, industrial robots, and state-of-the-art measurement 

instruments. 

The success of the program was measured in terms of progress made by 

clients of the MTC. The average gains by such firms included an increase in the 

numbers of employees by 15 %, a 7 % increase in productivity, and an astonishing 34 % increase in sales. The total Federal investment in the MTC—about 

$18 million from January 1989 to June 1991—resulted in total savings to the 

client companies of nearly $140 million. 

Richard D. Suenram described several case histories illustrating the variety of 

assistance provided to client firms by the MTC. The firms discussed ranged 

in size from 27 employees to 174. Their products and the technologies involved 

included acrylic residential countertops (computer-controlled routing of one-of-akind designs), metallizing of plastic bottle caps (introduction of ultraviolet-light 

curing, eliminating dust), prosthetic hip and knee joints (computer aided design 

and manufacturing), high-volume, low-pressure paint spray equipment (plant 

layout, multi-purpose computing), automated machine tools (multi-purpose 

computing, automated measurements), surgical-instrument sterilizing equipment 

(computer-aided design and manufacture), roller bearings (process development 

and control, measurement), industrial cleaning equipment (computer modeling, 

videotaping), nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometers (manufacturing process 

design). 

" Richard Suenrarn, "The Manufacturing Technology Centers program: A sampling of individual case historics." N/ST Special Publication 830, February 1992, 21 pp. 

662 
• State Technology Extension Programs (STEP), initially known as the 

Boehlert-Rockefeller Technology Program, provided assistance in developing the 

infrastructure needed by the various states to assemble their own programs to 

help smaller manufacturing businesses. The STEP emphasized use of the 

Manufacturing Technology Center capabilities, local university centers, and 

community college programs in manufacturing technology. 

Among the methods used by the state programs were industrial extension 

agents to provide advice on the use of new technologies and pilot projects in 

important sectors of the state's industry. Grants, to be matched dollar for dollar 

by sponsoring organizations, could be allocated to non-profit institutions as well as state agencies. 

During 1993, both the Manufacturing Technology Centers and the State Technology Extension Program became part of a Manufacturing Extension Partnership Program (MEPP) mandated by President Clinton. Clinton, recognizing a concept with the potential of benefitting the economy, hoped to see "over 100 

manufacturing extension centers nationwide by 1997 to assist manufacturers to 

modernize their production capability." Philip N. Nanzetta was named head of 

the MEPP. 

• Office of Standards Services provided assistance on national and international standards and certification activities. Through the U.S. Interagency 

Committee on Standards Policy, for which NIST served as the secretariat, the 

OSS published guidelines for Federal participation in standards creation and 

laboratory accreditation. 

By this time the issue of international industrial standards was critical for U.S. 

firms participating in international trade. Thousands of U.S. standards affected 

domestic sales as well. Guiding American businesses through the maze of 

standards aided them greatly in their efforts to efficiently manufacture and sell 

their products. In 1992, Stanley I. Warshaw directed the office. Along with his 

deputy, Walter G. Leight, Warshaw coordinated the work of a Standards 

Code and Information program headed by John L. Donaldson, a Standards 

Management program led by Samuel E. Chappell, a Weights and Measures 

program headed by Carroll S. Brickenkamp, and a Laboratory Accreditation 

program under Albert D. Tholen. 

• Standards Management administered U.S. participation in the Jnternational Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML), as well as the Voluntary 

Product Standards program of the Department of Commerce. Effective representation in OIML of U.S. positions on trade standards was an important part of 

ensuring fair treatment for American products in foreign markets—OIML involved more than 80 nations in its deliberations. 

In the tiny unit, Samuel E. Chappell directed the work of Otto Warnlof, 

Barbara Meigs, and Rachel R. Phelps, who solicited technical advice from U.S. 

trade associations, instrument manufacturers, universities, and other government 

agencies to develop a U.S. viewpoint on OIML draft standards documents. They 

also assisted NIST scientists who participated in OIML meetings as technical 

experts. 

663 
Weights and Measures, an ancient arm of NBS/NIST, provided an accreditation program for state weights and measures laboratories in mass, 

length, and volume. In addition, the NIST office, headed in 1992 by Carroll S. 

Brickenkamp, offered training programs and advice on testing methods. 

In a 1993 NIST publication, Georgia L. Harris described the state standards 

program of the state weights and measures system and identified the capabilities 

of the member Under terms of its 1965 congressional mandate, 

NIST provided training to state metrologists in NIST testing procedures and 

conducted a voluntary accreditation program for state weights and measures 

laboratories. 

To qualify for accreditation, state laboratories were required to: 

• Maintain resources—laboratories, equipment, and personnel—adequate to 

perform standards measurements. 

• Employ a trained metrologist who could demonstrate use of program test 

procedures. 

• Establish measurement controls, based upon NIST standards, for each area. 

The areas of measurement included in the accreditation program were divided into 

two classifications—tolerance testing and calibration. Tolerance testing, determining 

whether a given actual standard was sufficiently close to its nominal value, was accomplished in mass and volume. Calibration, the assignment of a value and an uncertainty to a working standard, applied to mass, volume, length, frequency, and 

temperature. 

NBS Handbook 143, State Weights and Measures Laboratories—Program Handbook, provided guidance for the state metrologists, including a self-appraisal checklist. 

Six regional round robin measurement assurance programs conducted by NIST metrologists served to evaluate the accuracy of the state measurements. 

Besides the 50 state laboratories, accreditations had been earned by the city of Los 

Angeles, the Virgin Islands, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

The NIST Weights and Measures office also provided leadership for the National 

Conference of Standards Laboratories (NCSL), an organization devoted to developing 

and maintaining measurement standards. More than 3000 members of NCSL represented the standards interests of industrial, academic, and governmental organizations. 

Annual NCSL meetings served as a forum for dissemination of the latest information on standards and for discussion of outstanding standards problems. 

• Laboratory Accreditation, headed by Albert D. Tholen, monitored the 

competence and technical qualifications of testing and calibration laboratories 

operated by either public or private organizations. The National Voluntary 

Laboratory Accreditation Program offered its services in several areas of testing: product testing, computer networks, construction materials, electromagnetic 

8 Georgia L. Harris, "State weights and measures laboratories: state standards program description and directory," NIST Special Publication 79/, 1993 Edition, June 1993, 83 pp. 

664 
compatibility, energy-efficient lighting, fasteners, metals, telecommunications, 

and radiation dosimetry. In calibration, applicable areas included electrical 

quantities, dimensional measurements, radiation, mechanics, thermodynamics, 

time, and frequency. 

• Standard Reference Data By 1993, the 30-year-old Standard Reference 

Data program administered a national network of scientists devoted to the critical 

examination of data and offered to the public a large group of databases containing the fruits of their labors. In addition, the program continued publication of 

the Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data. Malcolm W. Chase 

directed the program throughout the tenure of John Lyons. 

Initially operating under a 1963 request from the Federal Council for Science 

and Technology to provide reliable data in the physical sciences through a process of critical evaluation, the program received legal status in Public Law 

90-396, the Standard Reference Data Act of 1968 (see Appendix A). 

Evaluation programs, conducted in data centers and cooperative projects 

located at NIST, in universities, and in industrial research centers, assembled sets 

of reliable data for use in several fields: 

• Analytical chemistry. 

• Atomic physics. 

• Biotechnology. 

• Chemical kinetics. 

• Materials properties. 

• Molecular structure and spectrsocopy. 

• Thermodynamics and thermochemistry. 

• Thermophysical properties of fluids. 

The 1993 SRD catalog listed more than 40 databases available in electronic form— on computer disks, CD-ROMs, magnetic tapes, and in "online" form.'9 

The Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, since 1972 published jointly 

with the American Chemical Society and the American Physical Society, collected 

critical reviews of data in dozens of scientific areas. Journal articles were prepared by 

NBS/NIST authors and by experts from academia and industry. In 1993, Jean W. 

Gallagher became the editor of the journal, succeeding David R. Lide who had edited 

the magazine from its inception until well after his retirement from NBS in 1988. 

• Standard Reference Materials In 1993, NIST offered more than 1200 

different Standard Reference Materials. Ranging from chemicals certified for 

their properties to linewidth standards used in the production of integrated 

circuits, SRMs provided American science and industry with the capability to 

achieve and verify accuracy in their measurements. From 1991, measurements 

"NIST Standard Reference Data Products Catalog 1993," Malcolm W. Chase and Joan C. Sauerwein. 

editors, NIST Special Publication 782, 1993 Edition, January 1993. 79 pp. 

665 
were expressed in SI units;20 for convenience, customary units could also be 

listed on SRM certificates. Uncertainty statements were required as well. Stanley 

D. Rasberry directed the program from 1983 until mid-1991, when he was 

appointed director of Measurement Services. William P. Reed was named as his 

successor to head OSRM. Thomas E. Gills became director in 1993. 

The catalog of Standard Reference Materials offered its units in a variety of 

One of the oldest lines contained standards based upon chemical 

composition. These included ferrous and non-ferrous metals, high-purity materials, microanalytic aids, organic and inorganic materials, health-related items, 

food references, geologic standards, ceramics, and cement. SRMs defined for 

physical properties covered such fields as thermodynamics, optics, ionic activity, 

radioactivity, electricity, length measurements, and polymers. Reference materials 

for engineering touched upon fire research, surface finish, non-destructive evaluation, automatic data processing, and particle sizing. 

John K. Taylor, dean of the NBS/NIST staff in 1986 when he retired after 57 

years as an analytical chemist, was up-dating a Handbook for Users of Standard 

Reference Materials at the time of his death on March 26, 1992.22 Nancy M. 

Trahey brought the handbook to publication. The text offered a bibliography of 

nearly 200 monographs describing individual SRMs, in addition to discussions of a whole range of other topics related to their use: • Precision and accuracy. 

• Quality assurance. 

• SRM concept, production procedures, and certification. 

• Methods of use of SRMs in various applications. 

• Guidelines for reporting of analytical data. 

Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory 

Personnel of the Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory (EEEL) provided 

primary electrical standards and a raft of related services, including support for the 

Nation's electronic instrumentation, electronic products, electric utility, and semiconductor industries. Their specialties were to be found also in radio-frequency, 

microwave, and millimeter wave radiation, in superconductivity, magnetism, and optoelectronics. 

The staff numbered over 280 permanent employees and nearly 80 guest scientists 

participating in various programs. The laboratory calibration program provided nearly 

40 % of all NIST calibrations. 

20 "The International System of Units (SI)," N/ST Special Publication 330, Barry N. Taylor, editor. August 

1991,56 pp. 21 The "NBS/NIST Standard Reference Catalog" was re-issued periodically as NBSINJST Special Publication 

260 in order to provide an up-to-date listing of available standard samples. 22 John K. Taylor, "Handbook for Users of Standard Reference Materials," N/ST Special Publication 260- 

/00, edited by Nancy M. Trahey, February 1993, 102 pp. 

666 
Laboratory management was keenly conscious of the importance of close cooperation with industry, academics, and other Federal agencies (see The More Things 

Change, The More They Remain The Same: Industrial Productivity in Semiconductors—NIST Prefigured), numbering among its clients some of the tiniest firms as well as the largest. EEEL Director Judson French and his senior management staff 

had learned from experience how to maximize the effectiveness of the EEEL programs 

in metrology and associated technology, concentrating their efforts where NIST 

capabilities intersected with industry needs. 

Electricity, Oskars Petersons, chief 

Quantum-Based Voltage and Resistance Standards 

A document entitled Guidelines for Implementing the New Representations of the 

Volt and Ohnz, Effective January 1, 1990 was published by Norman B. Belecki, Ronald 

F. Dzuiba, Bruce F. Field, and Barry N. Taylor in 1989.23 Issuance of the guidelines 

was the culmination of brilliant technical work that extended over 20 years. 

Laboratories contributing to final values for the new standards encompassed the earth, 

bringing a revolutionary change to two of the oldest standards of physical measurement. 

In their note, the authors explained to the reader the meaning of the term "practical 

representation of the volt," which would replace terms such as "laboratory unit of 

voltage." Side-stepping the stability problems inherent in the electrochemical cell, the 

international standards community decided to express the standard of voltage through 

the use of the superconducting Josephson effect. An analogous substitution was made 

for the resistance standard, replacing the bank of wire resistors used by most nations as the practical embodiment of the ohm with a representation based upon the quantum 

Hall effect. 

From January 1, 1990, the U.S. representation of the volt based on the Josephson 

effect, "V(NIST-90)," would employ an assigned value of 483 597.9 GHz/V for the 

Josephson constant 2 e/h. Similarly, the U.S. representation of the ohm based on the 

quantum Hall effect, fl(NIST-90), would, from January 1, 1990, employ an assigned 

value of 25 8 12.807 fl for the von Klitzing constant h/e2. These statements embodied 

big changes in the technology of electrical standards. We should say "Thank you and 

goodbye" to the old standards; they had served well. 

Electrochemical Cell Calibrations 

For a century and a half, electrochemical cells were used as standards of voltage; 

they had provided NBS with its voltage references from its founding. The history of 

standard cells at the Bureau was described by Hamer in 1965.24 The most stable type 

23 Norman B. Belecki, Ronald F. Dzuiba, Bruce F. Field, and Barry N. Taylor, "Guidelines for Implementing 

the New Representations of the Volt and Ohm, Effective January I, 1990," N/ST Technical Note /263, June 

/989, 60 pp. 24 Walter J. Hamer, "Standard cells, their construction, maintenance, and characteristics," NBS Monograph 

84, January 1965, 38 pp. 

667 
During his tenure at NBS/NIST from 

1970 to 2000. Norman B. Belecki led 

the Electrical Reference Standards 

group for 25 years. He supervised the 

change in the electrical standards 

calibration program from manual to 

automated measurements and the 

adoption of primary standards based on quantum phenomena. 

of cell, the Weston cadmium cell, dated from 1891.25 Standard cells were not intended as sources of electric power; therefore, their design differed substantially from such 

devices as automobile storage batteries or flashlight cells. Enclosed in an H-shaped 

glass container, each column contained an electrode; the cross-tube contained a saturated cadmium sulfate electrolyte. When carefully prepared and aged and maintained at a constant temperature, a group of such cells could provide a uniform 

reference voltage (about 1.018 V) within a few microvolts. 

Until January 1990, the actual value of the volt was derived from the basic SI units 

of length, mass, time, and electric current. Even after that date, most users maintained 

their voltage references in the form of electrochemical cells. The great care needed to 

maintain Weston cells at constant temperature and to avoid mechanical disturbance 

made the shipment of these devices for calibration a complex and time-consuming 

process. In its Calibration Services Users Guide, NIST recommended the use of 

25 Forest K. Harris. Electrical Measurements (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1952). p. 185. The Weston 

cell is also described in NBS Monograph 84. by Hamer. 

668 
thermoregulated containers maintained in an upright position for transporting the cells, 

with a minimum of one week given to stabilizing the cell at NBS, followed by a month of measurements to achieve voltage uncertainties of I ppm.26 Often, the cells 

were transported to NBS by courier. 

Superconductive Volt Standard 

Both Weston cells and Thomas resistors provided standards known as artifacts— 

each copy yielding a slightly different value of the intended quantity, depending upon 

the workmanship exercised by the maker and the care taken by the user. 

The prediction in 1962 of a superconductive tunneling effect by Brian Josephson of 

Cambridge University in England markedly changed the situation for the voltage 

standard. Josephson received the 1973 Nobel Prize in physics for his theoretical prediction that the flow of electrons between two superconductors connected by a thin 

insulating layer would be quantized according to the applied voltage. It was found that 

when a properly prepared Josephson tunnel junction was irradiated with microwaves, 

its current-voltage ctirve would exhibit steps at precise, quantized voltages characterized by three quantities; the microwave frequency, an integer denoting the step 

number, and a Josephson frequency-to-voltage quotient. None of the three numbers 

involved the identity of the particular Josephson junction, nor even the type of 

materials from which it was made. 

By 1985, a group of scientists from the Boulder Electromagnetic Technology 

Division—Clark A. Hamilton, Richard L. Kautz, and Frances L. Lloyd—had prepared a practical superconducting voltage standard at I V. They accomplished this feat by 

connecting nearly 1500 Josephson junctions made of niobium and a lead alloy in a series array, then biasing the junctions with microwaves at 72 GHz. Painstaking testing 

showed that the array could provide a stable reference, despite thermal cycling to room 

temperatures.27 Their achievement heralded a new age for voltage standards. 

Realizing the implications of the Josephson effect for voltage standards, scientists 

from national laboratories in Holland, England, the United States (Barry N. Taylor 

from NBS), and the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in Paris 

formed a working group within the framework of the BIPM to evaluate the Josephson 

voltage-to-frequency quotient in units consistent with the International System 

In 1988, the International Committee of Weights and Measures suggested that the 

national laboratories define the value of the quotient to be 483 597.9 GHzIV, with the 

transition to the new voltage standard to take place on January 1, 1990.29 

26 Bruce F. Field. "NBS Measurement Services: Standard Cell Calibrations." NBS Special Publication 

250-24, October 1987. 52 pp. Also see "NIST Calibration Services Users Guide, 1989," Joe D. Simmons, 

editor. N/ST Special Publication 250. January 1989. pp. 114-118. 27 C. A. Hamilton. R. L. Kautz. R. L. Steiner, and F. L. Lloyd. "Practical Josephson voltage standard at I IEEE Electron Device Letters EDL-6, No. 12, pp. 623-625 (1985). 28 B. N. Taylor and T. J. Witt. "New international electrical reference standards based on the Josephson and 

quantum Hall effects." Metrologia 26. 47-62 (1989). 29 B. N. Taylor, "New internationally adopted reference standards of voltage and resistance." J. Res. NIST 94. 

No. 2, 95. (1989). 

669 
DC Resistance Calibrations 

With a similarly venerable history, the NBS standard of dc resistance was embodied 

in a group of carefully prepared wires. James L. Thomas devised a stable resistance 

standard for NBS during the 1930s, using bare manganin3° wire carefully coiled in a stress-free, sealed atmosphere. A group of I ohm Thomas-type resistors was found 

invariant in resistance within I ppm over periods of several years.3' Although 

nianganin wire has a low temperature coefficient of resistivity, standard resistors were maintained as nearly as possible at a constant temperature. Since sudden bumps could 

induce stress-related changes in the resistance of the wires, careful handling was an important feature of resistance standards measurement. 

Quantunz-Based Resistance Standards 

While evaluation of the Josephson voltage effect was in progress, K. von Klitzing 

discovered a quantum effect related to measurements of the Hall coefficient in 

semiconductors.32 He found that if a high-electron-mobility semiconductor was cooled 

to a few kelvins above absolute zero and a magnetic field of intensity 10 T was 

applied to it, the two-dimensional electron gas which the system approximated became 

quantized. As a result, the plot of Hall voltage (at fixed current) vs magnetic field 

exhibited plateaus of resistance characterized by a constant which, like the Josephson 

voltage-to-frequency quotient, was independent of material parameters. The BIPM 

working group happily accepted the task of expressing the so-called "von Klitzing 

constant" in a value consistent with SI units; following their recommendation, the 

CIPM selected 25 8 12.807 ci as the assigned value during its 1988 meeting. 

At NBS, Marvin E. Cage, Ronald F. Dziuba, Bruce F. Field, Thomas E. Kiess, and 

Craig T. Van Degrift began use of the quantum Hall effect to monitor drift in the 

resistances of five Thomas resistors of I ci each. The group of resistors provided NBS 

with its realization of the U.S. legal unit of resistance. Three different Hall-effect 

devices, all made from gallium arsenide, were used in the study, along with an intermediary reference resistor of 6,453 ci. The authors found the imprecision of the 

measurement process to be about 0.05 ppm. Over a 31-month period, the measurements 

indicated that the resistance of the U.S. legal ohm was decreasing at a rate of 

(0.05 ± 0.02) ppm per year. 

There was no question that new resistance metrology would be adopted at NBS. 

"Manganin" is an alloy containing approximately 84 % copper, 12 % manganese, and 4 % nickel, chosen 

for its low teniperature coefficient of resistivity and its chemical stability. 

Harris. op. cit., p. 213. 32 K. v. Klitzing. G. Dorda. and M. Pepper, Phys. Rev, Lea. 45, 494-497 (1980). 

Marvin E. Cage. Ronald F. Dziuba. Bruce F. Field, Thomas E. Kiess, and Craig T. Van Degrift, 

"Monitoring the U.S. legal unit of resistance via the quantum Hall effect," IEEE Trans. on Insirum. and 

Meas. IM-36, No. 2, 222-225 (1987). 

670 
Voltage and Resistance Calibrations 

As might have been expected, convincing NBS/NIST customers (and their counterparts in other countries) of the wisdom of accepting a change in the volt and the 

ohm for any reason—let alone on the basis of quantum physics—was a challenging 

task as well.34 Prior to the introduction of the 10 V array discussed below, Clark 

Hamilton, Charles Burroughs, and Kao Chieh reviewed the operation of the NIST I V 

Josephson-array volt standard, describing the physical structure of the chip on which 

1500 junctions were deposited, the mounting of the chip in its cryoprobe, and the use of the array in voltage calibrations.35 

Generally, calibrations were performed on Zener diodes rather than on Weston cells, 

because of the possibility of incurring current transients arising from switching within 

the Josephson array; typically, the uncertainty of the calibration was 0.02 ppm. 

As of January 1990, the NIST volt was defined in terms of the Josephson-junction 

array. The calibration of voltage standards for NIST customers was discussed by Bruce 

F. Field.36 An automated system incorporating a carefully chosen set of NIST electrochemical cells was used as the reference comparison. Inevitable drift in the voltage of 

the cells was monitored through routine comparisons with the Josephson array, using a set of Zener diodes as the intermediary. NIST's primary group of electrochemical 

cells drifted about 0.3 from July 1988 to October 1989, but the continual monitoring of the cell voltages kept the calibration process free of error from that source. 

Customers for dc resistance calibrations similarly found the NIST service essentially 

unchanged by the quantum revolution. The NIST group of 1 fl reference standard 

resistors was still used in calibrations, as were the usual working standards in the range 

lO4flto 1061L 

Stabilizing Electrical Currents 

Edwin R. Williams and Weston L. Tew conducted interesting electrical experiments 

early in the I 990s. The intent of the work was to produce a convenient source of stable 

electric current. In one case, they were able to reach stability levels as low as one part 

in I per hour using the output from a superconducting quantum interference device 

(SQUID) in an error feedback loop. They monitored a 10 mA test current by enclosing 

it in a toroidal transformer; variation in the current was detected by the SQUID as a change in magnetic field.37 

- K. B. Jaeger and B. N. Taylor. U.S. perspective on possible changes in the electrical units. IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. IM-36, No. 2, PP. 672-675. June 1987. 

Clark A. Hamilton, Charles Burroughs, and Kao Chieh, "Operation of NIST Josephson array voltage standards," J. Res. N/ST 95, No. 3. pp. 219-235 (1990). 

Bruce F. Field, "The calibration of dc voltage standards at NIST," J. Res. N/ST 95. No. 3. pp. 237-253 

(1990). 

W. L. Tew and E. R. Williams, "Flux locked current source reference," /EEE Trans. on Instrum. and 

Meas. 42, No. 2. 186-190 (1993). 

671 
NIST electronics engineer Clark A. Hamilton examined the I V Josephson series 

array voltage standard. With about 3000 junctions, these NIST-fabricated integrated 

circuits are used in standards laboratories around the world. 

A second study was performed by Williams and Tew with the collaboration of 

Chcol-Gi Kim, a guest worker from the Korea Research Institute of Standards and 

Science, Hitoski Sasaki, a guest worker from the Electrotechnical Laboratory in 

Tsukuba, Japan, and P. Thomas Olsen and S. Ye, colleagues in the NIST Electricity 

Division. The work featured the stabilization of a 1 A current using a nuclear magnetic 

resonance technique. Two pairs of solenoids, co-axial and connected in tandem but 

magnetically opposing, produced axial fields that were nearly uniform and almost 

impervious to interference from steady magnetic fields outside the apparatus. The team 

stabilized the current in the solenoids using nuclear magnetic resonance frequency error 

signals derived from water samples at the center of each solenoid. Evaluation of the 

constancy of the test current was accomplished by monitoring the voltage across a series standard resistor with a Zener diode. The culTent proved stable within 0.1 ppm over an 8-hour period. 

C. G. Kim. E. R.. Williams. H. Sasaki, W. L. Tew, S. Ye. and P. T. Olsen. NMR based currentlvoltage 

source." IEEE Trans. on Inqru,n. and Meas. 42. No. 2. 153-156 (1993). 

672 
Semiconductor Electrénics, Frank F. Oettinger, chief 

Semiconductors and Devices 

Following passage of the 1988 Trade Act, the EEEL offered research 

opportunities"—chances for outside organizations to work with the NIST staff—on 

several projects in the semiconductor electronics field. Among these were: • Silicon characterization. 

• Compound semiconductors. 

• Microstructures. 

• Molecular beam epitaxy. 

• Thin film metrology. 

• Integrated circuit metrology. 

• Fault detection and prevention. 

• Power electronics. 

In the following paragraphs, work done in some of these projects is briefly 

discussed. 

A Little History 

W. Murray Bullis, former chief of the Electron Devices Division, illustrated the 

development of silicon devices and the integrated circuit industry from its beginnings, 

when each manufacturer had to produce its own materials, processing technology, and 

measurement tools. Bullis noted the many lessons learned as the industry matured 

and a supporting infrastructure arose to provide uniform materials, equipment, and 

instruments for it.39 

Analysis of Semiconducting Films 

Deane Chandler-Horowitz, Nhan V. Nguyen, Jay F. Marchiando, and Paul M. 

Amirtharaj collaborated with the Defense Department Advanced Projects Research 

Agency to analyze amorphous films of silicon carbide grown on silicon substrates. The 

films were considered for use as mask membranes for x-ray lithography. The Semiconductor Electronics Division team performed ellipsometric measurements on the 

films—a sensitive technique for the evaluation of thickness and optical properties. A 

two-layer analytical method provided the best fit to experimental data. In addition to 

layer thickness, the method was able to detect surface roughness and the presence of 

silicon and graphite 

W. M. Bullis, "Semiconductor measurement technology: evolution of silicon materials characterization: 

lessons learned for improved manufacturing," N/ST Special Publication 400/92, July 1993. 46 pp. 40 D. Chandler-Horowitz, N. V. Nguyen. J. F. Marchiando, and P. M. Amirtharaj, "Metrologic support for the 

DARPA/NRL-XRL mask program: ellipsometric analyses of SiC thin films on Si," N/STIR 4860, January 

1993, 21 pp. 

673 
Linewidth measurement in x-ray lithography masks became slightly easier with the 

discovery by Michael T. Postek, Jeremiah R. Lowney, Andras E. Viadar, Robert D. 

Larrabee, W. J. Kerry, and Egon Marx that satisfactory contrast and good signal-tonoise ratios could be obtained using the transmitted-electron signal in a scanning 

electron microscope rather than the usual secondary electron signal. In the course of 

the work, the authors also developed a potential basis for the first SEM-based NIST 

linewidth standard.4' 

Nanolirhography 

The use of the scanning tunneling microscope to generate patterns at the nanometer 

level was demonstrated on Ill-V semiconductors such as n-doped gallium arsenide by a group that included John A. Dagata, Wing Tsang, Joseph Bennett, Jason M. Schneir, 

and Howard H. Haray.42 Molecular beam epitaxy was used to prepare the substrates. 

They were characterized by time-of-flight secondary-ion mass spectrometry and 

x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The same authors reported a novel method for 

preparing GaAs substrates with markedly improved topographical and chemical surface 

uniformity.43 

X-Ray Absorption 

Charles E. Bouldin, G. Bunker, David A. McKeown, Richard A. Forman, and 

Joseph J. Ritter, of the Semiconductor Electronics Division, demonstrated that the 

x-ray absorption fine-structure data for the tetrahedral germanium gases GeC14, 

GeFI-,Cl, and Gel-I4 in the range 10 (nm)' to 30 (nm)' could be analyzed using a single scattering 

Electromagnetic Fields, Allen C. Newell, chief 

Antenna Measurements 

During this period, the NIST/Boulder Electromagnetic Fields Division staff developed an automated facility for the measurement of near-field phase and amplitude 

distributions from test antennas. Using the facility, they could evaluate antenna characteristics, including gain, polarization, and radiation patterns. In addition, they could 

obtain diagnostic information such as locating faulty elements in phased-array models, 

making feed adjustments, and finding surface imperfections, and they could calibrate 

probes. 

M. T. Postek. J. R. Lowney, A. E. Vladar, R. D. Larrabee. W. J. Kerry, and E. Marx, "X-ray lithography use of transmitted electrons in an SEM for linewidth measurement," J. Res. NIST 98, No. 

4, pp. 415-445 (1993). 42 A. Dagata. W. Tsang, J. Bennett. J. M. Schneir, and H. H. Haray, "Nanolithography on Ill-V semiconductor surfaces using a scanning tunneling microscope operating in air," J. App!. Phys. 70. No. 7, 3661-3665 

(1991). 

" J. A. Dagata. W. Tsang, J. Bennett, J. M. Schneir. and H. H. Haray, "Passivation of GaAs surfaces for 

scanning tunneling microscopy in air." App!. Phys. Left. 59. No. 25. 3288-3290 (1991). 

C. E. Bouldin. G. Bunker, D. A. McKeown. R. A. Forman, and J. J. Ritter, "Multiple scattering in the 

x-ray absorption near-edge structure of tetrahedral Ge gases," Phys. Rev. B38, No. 15, pp. 10816-10819 

(1988). 

674 
At the same time, Arthur R. Ondrejka and Motohisa Kanda utilized a wideband 

time-domain reflectometer to evaluate the reflection characteristics of RF and 

microwave absorbers. The reflectometer consisted of an array of paired antennas, used 

in a difference mode to remove unwanted signals and thus to improve the instrument 

sensitivity. Reflection characteristics could be measured over the range 30 MHz to 

1000 MHz.45 

Results were obtained for the initial phase of a NIST study of the alignment of 

planar phased-array antennas using the merged-spectrum method. An Electromagnetic 

Fields Division group including Ronald C. Wittmann, Allen C. Newell, Carl F. 

Stubenrauch, Katherine MacReynolds, and Michael H. Francis developed a theory to 

support evaluation of the merged-spectrum technique and provided simulation examples to illustrate the calculation of near radiation fields from array and element 

The aim of the study was to quantify the effects of errors from uncertain 

measurements, antenna steering, and a variety of analytic approximations. 

A new standard reference source, a spherical dipole, was developed during 1991 for 

use with automated antenna test systems. Galen H. Koepke, L. D. Driver, Kenneth H. 

Cavcey, Keith Masterson, Robert T. Johnk, and Motohisa Kanda participated in the 

project. The instrument had the advantage that it could be characterized theoretically as well as by measurement. The radiated field was generated remotely; connections to the 

signal generator and control elements were made via an optical fiber cable. Initial data 

showed good agreement between field measurements and theoretical predictions.47 

Millimeter-Wave Devices 

The development of new instrumentation incorporating millimeter waves—wide 

band satellite communications, short range radar, and control of vehicular traffic, to 

name three—was traced by Gerome R. Reeve of the Electromagnetic Fields Division. 

Reeve noted the growth of gallium arsenide based devices to provide less expensive, 

higher performance circuitry, and the new features of the NIST semiconductor program 

intended to meet the challenge of the new technology.48 

Electromagnetic Technology, Robert A. Kamper, chief 

A 10 Volt Josephson Reference 

A 10 volt reference standard involving thousands of superconducting Josephson 

junctions—a dream of electronic instrument makers world-wide—first became a reality 

at the hands of Frances L. Lloyd, Clark A. Hamilton, James A. Beall, D. Go, Ronald u A. R. Ondrejka and M. Kanda, "Time-domain method for measuring the reflection coefficient of microwave absorbers at frequencies below I GHz," Proc. Digest Antennas and Propagation Society Syinposiu,n, London, Ontario, June 24-28, /99/ 3, PP. 1656-1659 (1991). 46 R. C. Wittmann, A. C. Newell, C. F. Stubenrauch, K. MacReynolds, and M. H. Francis. "Simulation of the 

merged spectrum techique for aligning planar phased-array antennas," NISTIR 398/, October 1992, 51 pp. 

'° G. Koepke, L. D. Driver, K. Cavcey, K. Maserson, R. Johnk, and M. Kanda, "Standard spherical dipole 

source." N/ST Technical Note /35/, December 1991, 133 pp. 

G. R. Reeve, "Millimeter wave metrology at NIST," Proc. NCSL Workshop and symposium, Albuquerque, 

New Mexico, August /9-22, /99/, pp. 183-187. 

675 
H. Ono, and Richard E. Harris in the Boulder Electromagnetic Technology Division. A 

short time later, Hamilton and Lloyd, along with Kao Chieh, a guest scientist from the 

Sichuan, China, National Institute of Metrology, and Wayne C. Goeke of the Hewlett 

Packard Company described the operation of such an array.49 It was composed of 

nearly 19,000 tiny junctions, 12 by 24 in area, formed between layers of 

niobium and a lead-indium-gold alloy separated by Nb205 insulators on a small chip. 

Radiation at 70 GHz to 100 GHz generated voltages as high as 12 V dc in the array, a signal suitable for the calibration of Zener diodes and digital voltmeters. 

The achievement was a natural consequence of the landmark development described 

earlier (see Superconductive Volt Standard in this chapter), in which Hamilton, Kautz, 

and Lloyd produced a I V reference using a series array of some 1500 Josephson 

junctions. 

In order to achieve the goal of operating as many as 19,000 junctions within the 

required specifications, the research team modified the usual fabrication process 

by improving the lithographic technique and by slight changes in the deposition 

procedure. 

Using the new array to observe a Zener diode over a 5-month period, the group was 

able to report a drift in the Zener output of about 0.5 ppm with an imprecision less 

than 0.1 ppm. 

Within 2 years, Richard L. Steiner and Robert J. Astalos of the Electricity Division 

reported the automation of a 10 V calibration system using the new array.5° They 

achieved an uncertainty level of 0.02 ppm, using a commercial standard-cell scanner 

connected to the array, to the Zener references, and to a digital voltmeter. Key to their 

success were new procedures for using a programmable millimeter wave attenuator 

and for error checking. 

The new system facilitated the calibration of up to 20 Zener diodes per day, along 

with occasional digital voltmeter calibrations. Self-check features caught infrequent 

inconsistencies arising from system flaws—some of them so slight as to escape 

observation by the human operators. 

The new array played an important role for the Hewlett-Packard Company, materially advancing its development of a new, high-accuracy multimeter. 

High-Temperature Superconductivity 

Industrial interest in superconductivity perked up noticeably with the discovery that 

the phenomenon could exist at unbelievably high temperatures (see High-Temperature 

Superconductivity, Chapt. 4). No less a personage than President Ronald Reagan 

touched off the furor with a Federal Conference on Commercial Applications of 

Superconductivity in July 1987. Congress followed the President's lead by including 

Clark A. Hamilton. Frances L. Lloyd. Kao Chieh, and Wayne C. Goeke, "A 10-V Josephson Voltage 

Standard." IEEE Trans. on Instru,n and Meas. 38, No. 2. 314-316 (1989). 

50Richard L. Steiner and Robert J. Astalos. "Improvements for automating voltage calibrations using a 10-V 

Josephson array," IEEE Trans. on Instrum. and Meas. 40, No. 2. 321-325 (1991). 

676 
high-temperature superconductivity among the subjects to be covered by technical 

reviews mandated by the Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988. John W. Lyons was a member of the superconductivity review panel.5' 

NBS immediately became a center for research and information on high-temperature 

superconductivity. 

By 1990, NIST scientists were studying the preparation, analysis, and properties of 

superconductive materials with transition temperatures as high as 110K, well above 

the normal boiling point of liquefied nitrogen—a much less expensive refrigerant than 

liquefied helium. The NIST program involved major collaborations among scientists 

from the EEEL and the Materials Science and Technology Laboratory. 

A NIST Materials Science group including C. K. Chiang, Winnie Wong Ng, 

Lawrence P. Cook, Stephen W. Freiman, N. M. Hwang, Mark Vaudin, and Michael D. 

Hill found that one such material, a cuprate with the improbable formula 

(often given the acronym BSCCO in technical papers), could be 

synthesized from an amorphous oxide. Melting the constituents in powder form at 

1200 °C, the group was able to prepare a ceramic mixture containing the desired 

compound in crystalline form. They presented a discussion of their preparation 

methods, along with electrical and magnetic measurements of the superconductor, 

during a 1990 meeting on Advances in Materials Science and Applications of High 

Temperature Superconductors.52 

Another Materials Science group consisting of Lawrence H. Bennett, Marina 

Turchinskaya, Lyden J. Swartzendruber, A. Roitburd, D. Lundy, Joseph J. Ritter, and 

Debra L. Kaiser made a detailed study of magnetic flux dynamics in BSCCO and 

YBa2Cu3O6 (often shortened to YBCO or simply 123). These superconductors were Type II, and thus exhibited the general property of allowing magnetic flux to permeate 

the sample without driving it entirely out of the superconducting state. Bennett and his 

group studied the way in which the penetrating magnetic flux formed geometric 

patterns that changed with the magnitude and the frequency of applied magnetic 

fields. 

Structure analysis and magnetic effects in high-temperature superconductor materials 

could be accomplished readily through the use of neutron diffraction at the NIST 

reactor. One such investigation was undertaken by a group from Bell Communications 

Research Company—P. F. Miceli, J. M. Tarascon, P. Barboux, L. H. Greene, 

B. G. Bagley, G. W. Hull, and M. Giroud—in collaboration with J. J. Rhyne and 

SI "Report of the National Commission on Superconductivity," National Co,n,nission on Superconductivity, 

Washington. D.C., August 7. 1990, 76 pp. 52 C. K. Chiang, W. Wong-Ng, L. P. Cook, S. W. Freiman, N. M. Hwang, M. Vaudin, and M. D. 1-lill, 

"Processing Bi-Pb-Sr-Ca-Cu-O superconductors from amorphous state," pp. 127-136 in Advances in Materials Science and Applications of High Temperature Superconductors, NASA Goddard Space Flight Centcr. 

1991. 

L. H. Bennett, M. Turchinskaya, L. J. Swartzendruber, A. Roitburd, D. Lundy, J. Ritter, and D. L. Kaiser. 

"Flux flow and flux dynamics in high-Tv superconductors," pp. 2 13-229 in Advances in Materials Science 

and Applications of High Temperature Superconductors, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 1991. 

677 
D. A. Neumann of the Reactor Radiation Division.54 The authors noted that the hightemperature superconductor exhibited either superconductivity at 

temperatures near 60 K or antiferromagnetism, depending upon details of the composition. They examined in particular the influence of the oxygen concentration in the 

material, using neutron diffraction to track the magnetic transitions. 

Paul Rice and John M. Moreland of the Electromagnetic Technology Division 

employed an electron tunneling technique known as Tunneling Stabilized Magnetic 

Force Microscopy (TSMFM), a variation of the scanning tunneling microscopy 

developed at NBS by Russell D. Young (see New Ideas in Physics, Chapt. 3) to 

examine films of The tip of the TSMFM was made of a tiny magnetic 

film that flexed in response to magnetic forces on the test surface. Using it, Rice and 

Moreland were able to prepare images showing the presence and pattern of magnetic 

pinning sites on the superconducting films.55 

One of the first problems to be faced in evaluating the electrical properties of the new superconducting materials was making good electrical contact with samples. When 

electrical leads were attached to the ceramic superconductors by ordinary methods such as silver epoxy or paint or indium solder, the contact resistance usually was so high as to impair or preclude sensitive measurements. NIST researcher Jack W. Ekin, working 

with Betty A. Blankenship and Armand J. Panson of the Westinghouse Research and 

Development Center, created contacts with only about fl—cm2 resistance by 

sputter-depositing silver on the sample and annealing it in oxygen at 500 °C for one hour. The new technique reduced the magnitude of the usual contact resistance by 

about a factor of one million. The U.S. Patent Office issued a patent for the process.56 

Along with K. Salama and V. Selvamanickam of the Texas Center for Superconductivity at the University of Houston, Ekin used his new electrical contact process 

to make connections to oriented YBCO crystals prior to measuring the magnitude of 

their critical current. The new contact method, reducing enormously the heat generated 

by the test currents, appeared responsible for increasing markedly the maximum 

attainable current densities. 

At 77 K, the measured critical current density reached 8 kA/cm2 at 8 T, three times 

the maximum value achieved in previous experiments. Measurable values of critical 

current extended to 30 T at the same temperature, well in excess of earlier results. 

P. F. Miceli, J. M. Tarascon. P. Barboux, L. H. Greene, B. G. Bagley. G. W. Hull, M. Giroud, J. J. Rhyne, 

and D. A. Neumann. "Magnetic transitions in the system Phys. Rev. B39, No. 16 (Rapid communications), 12375-12378 (1989). P. Rice and J. Moreland, Stabilized Magnetic Force Microscopy of YBa2Cu3O7_5 films on MgO at 76 K," iEEE Trans. on Magnetics 27, No. 6. 5181-5183 (1991). 

W. Ekin. A. J. Panson. and B. Blankenship. "Method for making low-resistivity contacts to high T1. superconductors," AppI. Phys. Leit. 52, No. 4. 33 1-333 (1988). See also Collier Smith, "Low-resistance 

contacts developed for high-temperature superconductivity," pp. 3, 12 in "NBS Research Reports." NBS 

Special Publication 735, December 1987. See also Collier Smith, "Making Good Contact," p. II in NIST 

Research Reports. NIST Special Publication 809, March 1991. 

678 
The authors noted the crucial importance of high current density for many applications 

in superconductivity.57 

A comparison of methods used for the evaluation of superconducting critical 

current—the most current that a material could carry without returning to the normal, 

resistive state—was undertaken by Loren F. Goodrich and Ashok N. Srivastava of the 

Electromagnetic Technology Division. Noting the variety of available methods to 

obtain critical current values, the authors outlined several of these techniques, calling 

attention to the advantages and disadvantages of each.55 

A method for making improved electrical contacts to high-temperature superconductors was developed and patented by researchers at NIST and the Westinghouse Electric 

Corporation. Here NIST physicist Jack W. Ekin inserted a sample into a cryogenic test fixture. 

J. W. Ekin. K. Salama, and V. Selvamanickam, "High transport current density up to 30 T in bulk 

YBa2Cu3O7 and the critical angle effect," App!. Phys. Len'. 59. No. 3, 360-362 (1991). 

L. F. Goodrich and A. N. Srivastava. "Comparison of transport critical current measurement methods," 

Advances in Cryogenic Engineering (Materia!s) 38. 559-566 (1992). 

679 
NIST physicist Loren F. Goodrich lowered a test cryostat containing a high-current 

niobium-titanium superconductor into a high-field magnet for critical current testing. 

Robert L. Peterson undertook an analysis of the technical and economic impact of 

NIST/Boulder superconductivity programs, beginning in late 1990. He accumulated 

data from 33 companies by means of brief questionnaires, asking whether any of 

eight programs had benefitted the company, and, if so, in what ways. 

Peterson found that high-temperature superconductivity had led to relatively few 

products by 1992. Half a dozen projects had reached the prototype stage—connectors 

among semiconductor chips, microwave devices, magnetic bearings and shielding, 

motors, and infrared detectors, for example, but the economic impact of these projects 

was minimal.59 

Robert L. Peterson. "An analysis of the impact on U.S. industry of the NIST/Boulder superconductivity 

programs: an interim study." N/STIR 5012, November 1993. 29 pp. 

680 
Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory 

The Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory was created during the reorganization 

approved in January 1991 (see Taking Charge earlier in this chapter). John A. 

Simpson and his deputy Richard H. F. Jackson founded the laboratory on the malTiage 

of state-of-the-art dimensional measurements and the needs of the U.S. manufacturing 

industry—the premise that had led, years before, to the Automated Manufacturing 

Research Facility.60 Simpson retired in April 1993 after a scientific career that included 

45 years' service to NBS/NIST. Robert Hocken, until 1989 chief of the Precision 

Engineering Division, left NIST to accept an engineering professorship at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. The rest of the MEL management team remained 

intact throughout the tenure of John Lyons. 

The Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory offered unique facilities and expertise in a variety of technical areas that U.S. industry needed to upgrade its products and 

processes. The Automated Manufacturing Research Facility continued as a star 

performer for the laboratory, but scientific competence was highly visible throughout 

its divisions—Precision Engineering, led by Dennis A. Swyt; Automated Production 

Technology, under Donald S. Blomquist; Robot Systems, headed by James S. Albus; 

and Factory Automation Systems, with Howard M. Bloom as chief. The achievements 

of the scientists and engineers in these divisions were manifold. 

Precision Engineering, Dennis A. Swyt, chief 

A Molecular Measuring Machine 

A major project in NIST's precision engineering area was the development of a measuring machine intended to operate on an atomic scale. E. Clayton Teague, veteran 

of nearly two decades of experimentation on metallic surfaces, led the project. If all 

went well, the new instrument, dubbed the Molecular Measuring Machine (M3), would 

be able to position itself accurately within a few atomic diameters over an area of 

about 25 cm2, and to detect changes in surface topography at the same level. Heart of 

the M3 would be a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) to observe surface characteristics, laser interferometry to accurately position the STM probe, and a carefully 

designed mounting system to provide smooth motion and isolation from the bumpy 

world surrounding the new tool. By 1993, the noise limit of the M3 interferometcr 

optics and electronics system was less than 0.1 nm, well within the design specification, although the instrument had not yet achieved overall atomic resolution. 

Coordinate Measuring Machines 

Under Ralph C. Veale, the dimensional metrology group completed installation of a coordinate measuring machine capable of detecting position at the 1 level. Such 

machines—though not equally capable—were becoming more and more noticeable in 

Former Director John Lyons recalled the vital role played by the U.S. Navy and other Federal agencies in funding the AMRF at its inception. Without such aid, the program might well have foundered. 

681 
the planning of the manufacturing industries. The group developed several Standard 

Reference Materials to be used in the testing and calibration of coordinate measuring 

machines, and collaborated on measuring machine research with a number of industrial 

firms. 

Measuring Surface Roughness 

Responding to increased industrial need for smooth surface texture, Jun-Feng 

Song—in 1991 a guest researcher from the ChangCheng Institute of Metrology and 

Measurement in Beijing, China—and Theodore V. Vorburger—leader of the division's 

surface metrology group—reviewed the use of standard reference samples in controlling the quality of product surfaces. They noted disagreements as large as 50 % 

among measurements made by different methods for profiling surfaces—contact, 

optical, and electron tunneling techniques. In many such cases, different measuring 

instruments simply responded to different aspects of the same surface, producing 

measurement results that varied accordingly. In other cases, significant variation in 

surface roughness, designated by the symbol Ra, occurred in different areas of the same 

surface. The two scientists concluded that satisfactory and reproducible manufactured 

surfaces could be achieved only after reaching a detailed understanding of the desired 

surface texture and employing reference samples consistent with that texture.6t 

With P. Rubert, of Rubert & Company, Stockport, England, the two researchers 

compared the Ra values derived from roughness master samples—relatively expensive 

to produce—with cheaper copies made by electroforming. For the test, they selected 

two masters with values of 0.028 and 0.043 and compared measurement 

results, using a stylus instrument, with electroformed replica surfaces. The agreement 

between the two surfaces was good—fluctuations in master Ra values repeated on the 

copies within 1 .8 nm. This was good news, as it boded well for more extensive use of the technique with less expensive reference surfaces. Flatness reproduction and 

hardness was noticeably poorer in the replicas, however.62 

Vorburger, Joseph Fu, and Russell D. Young adapted a scanning tunneling 

microscope (STM) for longer-range scanning. They were able to extend its field of 

view to an area 0.5 mm by 0.5 mm. They accomplished the improvement by mounting 

the specimen on a traveling stage while holding the STM probe stationary in the plane 

of the stage. The probe mapped the topological features of the specimen by scanning 

within a range of 0.008 mm in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the stage.63 

J.—F. Song and T. V. Vorburger, "Standard reference specimens in quality control of engineering sur- J. Res. NIST 96. No. 3.271-289(1991). 

62 J.—F. Song. T. V. Vorburger, and P. Rubert, "Comparison between precision roughness master specimens 

and their electroformed replicas," Precision Engineering 14, No. 2, 84-90 (1992). 6. Fu, R. D. Young, and T. V. Vorburger, "Long-range scanning for scanning tunneling microscopy," Rev. 

of Sci. Instruni. 63, No. 4, 2200-2205 (1992). 

682 
Calibrating Optical Microscopes 

Carol F. Vezzetti, Ruth N. Varner, and James E. Potzick completed a family of 

photomask linewidth standards for use with optical measuring microscopes. An antireflecting chromium linewidth standard, SRM 473, joined SRMs 475 and 476 as an optical micrpscopy reference set. The new standard was expected to be most helpful 

for measuring linewidths in the range 500 nm to 3000 nm, often required in the 

production of integrated circuits. Such measurements were difficult with optical microscopes because of the similarity of the linewidth dimension to the wavelength of the 

light used to make the measurement. The team recommended procedures for use of the 

standard to minimize edge effects in photomask measurements.64 

Automated Production Technology, Donald S. Blomquist, chief 

Error Compensation in Machine Tools 

Researchers in the Automated Production Technology Division made use of the 

NIST computer-vision capability to help turning-machine operators reduce manufacturing errors in "real time." G. Nobel, M. Alkan Donmez—leader of the sensor systems 

group—and R. Burton developed a method to compensate for changes in the geometry 

of a cutting-machine tool while a part was being formed. They accomplished this feat 

by utilizing the output of a tool-inspection system to determine the magnitude of 

deviations from the nominal circular shape of the cutting edge. The system relied on visual observation of the tool while it was in use. Feeding the visual output to the 

control computer, they were able to modify the position of the tool to reduce cutting 

errors. Inspection of completed parts on a coordinate measuring machine showed 

substantial improvement in cutting performance.65 

Somewhat later, Donmez, Kenneth W. Yee, and Bradley Damazo wrote a 50-page 

dissertation summarizing then-current methods for error compensation in machine 

tools. The major cutting errors, they said, arose from geometric relationships between 

the machine and the workpiece, and from heat generated during the cutting process. 

Geometric errors were caused by unexpected motions of machine elements—carriages, 

spindles, and work tables—due to imperfect machine construction and misalignments 

during its assembly. Thermal errors arose from gradients created by tool cutting 

friction and by drive motors; uneven thermal expansion caused relative displacement of 

the tool with respect to the workpiece. 

The authors presented a generalized approach to error compensation based on the 

prediction of both geometric and thermally induced errors, using the control software 

to implement corrections. They identified more than 30 error components, although 

they pointed out that not all machines would necessarily exhibit all types of 

64 C. F. Vezzetti, R. N. Varner, and J. E. Potzick, "Antireflecting-chromium linewidth standard, SRM 473. 

for calibration of optical microscope measuring systems," N/ST Special Publication 260-1/9, September 

1992, 52 pp. 65 ci. Nobel, M. A. Donmez, and R. Burton, "Real-time compensation for tool form errors in turning using 

computer vision," Department of Energy Report DOE/OR/21584-T/, 1990, 9 pp. 66 M. A. Donmez, K. W. Yee, and B. Damazo, "Some guidelines for implementing error compensation on machine tools," N/STIR 5236, August 1993, 56 pp. 

683 
Robot Systems, James S. Albus, chief 

The robotics laboratory of NIST provided a variety of challenges for its staff. A 

major goal, of course, was to achieve intelligent control of machines, so that they 

would quickly and efficiently turn out work that consistently met design specifications. 

To meet this goal, however, required detailed information, both on the machine itself 

and on its operating environment. Further, the machine had to be equipped with sensors to provide it with real-time monitoring of the process it was performing. 

James S. Albus, chief of the Robot Systems Division, led a group devoted to 

perfecting intelligent machine controls. This was a pivotal study, in the view of its 

proponents, because the industry-wide lack of a structured, theoretical approach to 

machine control resulted in relatively unsophisticated applications for robots in 

manufacturing. 

The controls research project emphasized development of a formal theory for 

machine control, with testing facilities in which matching hardware could be coupled 

with the new instructions for trial and demonstration. 

By 1993, a hierarchical program for machine control was in use in the division. 

Called the Real-Time Control System (RCS), it could be used in conjunction with 

job-specific control programs. The RCS program incorporated explicit software subroutines to generate machine actions, process sensor data, and assess the machine 

world model. Assignments in the program were decomposed by tasks, using generic 

subprograms to colTelate machine motions. John A. Horst and Anthony J. Barbera 

prepared a discussion of one use of the RCS under joint sponsorship of NIST and 

Advanced Technology and Research, Incorporated, a local engineering firm. 67 Another use of the Real-Time Control System hierarchy involved the Advanced 

Deburring and Chamfering System (ADACS). Keith Stouffer, John L. Michaloski, B. 

Russell, and Frederick M. Proctor described ADACS in a NIST Interagency Report.68 

In the ADACS, the machine operator was prompted by a graphical display to specify 

cutting parameters and edges to be chamfered on the part. The program then used the 

given information to configure and execute a plan for finishing the part. Sensory 

information was used in the cutting process to correct for small positional errors. The 

program was found to be successful in controlling the machining of individual parts. 

Other efforts in the robotics division specialized in the processing of machine 

sensory data. A group under Ernest W. Kent focused on vision systems for use in 

real-time machine control. The team investigated both single-camera and multiplecamera systems, including scanning, non-uniform resolution, and visual input to the 

machine world model. Much of the sensory work dated back to 1981, when the 

Robotics Division—under Albus and his deputy Sidney Weiser—led the effort. Weiser, 

holder of several patents in the field, helped develop the first computer-controlled industrial assembly robot in 1959 while employed in industry. 

67 j• A. Horst and A. J. Barbera. "Intelligent control system for a cutting operation of a continuous mining 

machine." N/STIR 5/42, March 1993. 54 pp. 

K. Stouffer. J. L. Michaloski. B. Russell, and F. M. Proctor, "ADACS, an automated system for part 

finishing." N/STIR 5171, April 1993, 14 pp. 

684 
Because of the cost of downtime for robotic machines, another group, led by Ronald 

Lumia, turned its attention to off-line programming of robots. The trouble with off-line 

machine programming was that the model used to generate the programs almost never 

matched the actual workshop environment. One approach to the mismatch problem 

was the extensive use of sensory information to re-form the world view of the robot 

when it was placed in the workshop; sometimes that technique saved days of setup 

time. 

Yet another effort, led by Kenneth R. Goodwin, sought to develop and validate 

standard test procedures for measuring robot performance. An industry group, the 

Robot Industries Association, collaborated in the effort. 

The U.S. Army had an understandable interest in mobile robots. Mans Juberts 

directed the NIST mobile-robot effort, which, besides the Army, included the Intelligent Vehicle Highway System program of the Department of Transportation. The Army 

wanted a standard robot-control program for a variety of labor-saving applications; the 

DoT wished to develop a vision-based control system for autonomous highway driving. 

As part of the multi-faceted study, NIST researchers developed a vision-based program 

for robotic maneuvering on existing roads. Test courses on the NIST/Gaithersburg 

grounds, on a Maryland highway, and on a closed-loop track at the Montgomery 

County Police Training Academy were used to demonstrate and evaluate the program. 

The first tests of the "traveling robot" utilized paint lines on the road for guidance. The 

tests were completely successful—the system proved feasible even at night. 

Factory Automation, Howard M. Bloom, chief 

The Factory Automation Division took as its major focus the strengthening of 

information systems for the manufacturing industry. Information systems helped to 

streamline manufacturing techniques, reducing the cost of production and enhancing 

product quality. A crucial first step in establishing the project was to create a standard 

for the sharing of product data. 

One of the first activities of the division became embodied in the Product Data 

Exchange Specification. The PDES was conceived as a non-proprietary, neutral 

standard for the transmittal of product information among various manufacturing 

applications. NIST developed a software medium for the manipulation of PDES data; 

it was described in some detail by Stephen N. Clark. 69 A medium developed for exchange of PDES product models was a physical file 

format called STEP—Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Data. Clark also 

presented an early version of sTEp.7° 

A whole series of subsequent publications from the division provided details of the 

maturing standard. The series, mostly published in the NIST Interagency Report 

format, included numbers 4353, 4528, 4538, 4573, 4577, 4612, 4629, 4641, 4683, 

4684, and 4685. S. N. Clark, "NIST PDES toolkit: Technical fundamentals. National PDES testbed report series." N/STIR 

4335, November 1990, 34 pp. 

S. N. Clark, "NIST working form for STEP: National PDES testbed report series." N/STIR 435/, Noveniber 1990. 

685 
The PDES system was applied to the apparel industry with the collaboration of the 

Defense Logistics Agency and the American Apparel Manufacturing Association. 

The short-term goal of the project was to develop a neutral data format for exchanging 

two-dimensional pattern data between two apparel computer-aided-design systems. 

Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory 

When NIST was formed from NBS, all chemical standards and research activities were incorporated into the Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory. First director 

of the CSTL was Harry S. Hertz, a graduate of MIT in analytical chemistry. Hertz 

joined NBS in 1973; by 1978, he was chief of the Organic Analytical Research 

Division. During 1992, Hertz became the deputy to Curt W. Reimann in the Office of 

Quality Programs. 

Hratch G. Semerjian succeeded Hertz as CSTL director. Semerjian was trained at 

Brown University as a mechanical engineer. He came to NBS in 1977. An expert in 

combustion processes, Semerjian was named chief of the CSTL Process Measurements 

Division in 1991. 

The program in CSTL included a wide variety of research projects gathered into 

eight divisions devoted to biotechnology, chemical engineering,7' chemical kinetics and 

thermodynamics, inorganic analysis, organic analysis, chemical processes, surface and 

microanalysis, and thermophysics. 

In the following pages, we provide brief synopses of projects in each of the CSTL areas. Biotechnology, Lura J. Powell, chief 

Protein Characterization 

One of the first problems studied in the biotechnology area was the quantification of 

proteins. CSTL researchers Susan F. Stone and Roif L. Zeisler and their colleague 

Glen E. Gordon, of the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry at the University ol 

Maryland, utilized the techniques of polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and neutron 

activation analysis for the quantification studies. With these tools, they determined the 

amount of phosphorus associated with separated phosphoproteins by autoradiography 

and densitometry as a prelude to protein quantification. They found that they could 

measure quantities of phosphorus at levels as low as 0.2 micrograms.72 

" The Chemical Engineering Division. located on the Boulder campus, consisted of sections devoted to the 

study of transport processes. systems dynamics. and properties of solids. During 1993, the division was disbanded. The various research groups were reassigned to other CSTL divisions or to the Materials Science 

and Technology Laboratory. 72 F. Stone. R. L. Zeisler, and G. E. Gordon. "Quantitative determination of proteins using polyacrylamide 

gel clectrophoresis and neutron activation," Trace Ele,nent Analytical Chemistry in Medicine and Biology 5, 

pp. 157-166 (1988). 

686 
Another early problem tackled by the new biotechnology staff was the development 

of reliable biosensors. Edith S. Grabbe and Dennis J. Reeder sought to immobilize 

bioactive species on a substrate without simultaneously destroying its chemical activity. 

The first step in such a process, it seemed to Grabbe and Reeder, was to determine 

the structure of immobilized protein films. They decided to employ the technique of 

total internal reflection fluorescence to characterize layers of the protein inirnunoglobulin G (IgG) on thin nylon films. The two researchers studied three features of 

such systems: energy transfer between IgG tagged with fluorescein isothiocyanate and 

nylon tagged with tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate; binding activity, using labelled 

antigens; and energy transfer between labelled IgG and labelled antigens.73 

Center for Advanced Research in Biotechnology 

The Center for Advanced Research in Biotechnology (CARB) became a reality in 

1984, the first major joint venture involving NBS in the biotechnology field (see 

Restructuring NIST in this chapter). As NBS became NIST in 1988, the Center 

received as its new director Thomas L. Poulos, professor of biochemistry at the 

University of Maryland. Walter J. Stevens, a veteran of 13 years at NBS as a theoretician in the field of chemical physics, was selected as associate director. 

Initial research at the Center focused on five areas: 

• Crystal structures of proteins, mainly by x-ray crystallography. 

• Structure of proteins in solution, mainly by two-dimensional nuclear magnetic 

resonance spectroscopy. • Modeling of protein structures, using a large, dedicated computer. 

• Characterization of protein properties, using the methods of physical 

biochemistry. 

• Production of proteins in quantity by means of molecular biology. 

Scientists in the Center commenced their studies on the proteins ribonuclease, 

chymosin, cytochrome P450, and beta-lactamase, working mainly in NIST laboratories 

until CARB facilities were completed. The NIST scientists studied jointly with collaborators from universities, other government laboratories, and biotechnology firms.74 

Gary Gilliland and his collaborators Alex Wlodawer of the National Cancer Institute, 

Joseph Nachman, a guest worker from Isreal, and Evon Windborne of the University 

of Maryland determined the structure of chymosin, one of the best-known commercial 

enzymes. The protein, used in cheese production under the name rennin, was composed of 323 amino acids. The group determined its three-dimensional structure, 

E. S. Grabbe and D. J. Reeder, "Characterization of adsorbed protein layers on thin nylon films with 

fluorescence energy transfer between protein and nylon: A method for biosensor analysis." Proc. 4th 

European ConJ On the Spectroscopy of Biological Molecules, York, England, September 1-6, 199/, pp. 321- 

322. 

14John S. Makulowich, "Biotech center names top officials," pp. 20-21 in "NIST Research Reports." N/ST 

Special Publication 743, October 1988. 

687 
mapping the pattern with a resolution of about 0.3 nm. The work was particularly 

interesting because a form of chymosin was known to occur in human blood, where it 

played a role in regulating blood pressure.75 

Acting NIST Director Raymond G. Kammer helped dedicate the first building on the 

site of the new CARB laboratories on November 29, 1989. Montgomery County, 

Maryland financed the construction, leasing it to a foundation associated with the 

University of Maryland. A memorial to Isadore M. Gudeisky, head of a family foundation that gave the 50-acre site for CARB, was dedicated at the same time. The CARB 

parent organization, the Maryland Biotechnology Institute (MB!) of the University of 

Maryland, appointed a CARB Board of Overseers headed by Donald R. Johnson of 

NIST. At that time, the CARB staff numbered 4() people, including 10 principal 

investigators drawn from NIST and MB!, 12 staff scientists and technicians, 4 postdoctoral fellows, 5 graduate students, and several visiting scientists. 76 

"High-resolution structure for chyrnosin solved," p. 22 in "NIST Research Reports." NIST Special PublicaIwn 743. October 1988. 

76Roger Rensherger, "Biotechnology research facility dedicated." pp. 16-17 in "NIST Research Reports," 

NIST Special Publication 770. January 1990. 

688 

New state-of-the-art laboratory facilities for the Center for Advanced Research in Biotechnology were dedicated in November 1989 in Rockville, Maryland. 
NIST research scientist Gary Gilliland studied a model of the structure of the protein 

chymosin on a workstation screen at the Center for Advanced Research in Biotechnology. 

By 1990, a CARB group including Keith McKenney and Prasad Reddy of NIST. 

and Joel Hoskins, Kalidip Choudhury, and Marc Kantorow of the University of 

Maryland were studying the sequencing of DNA. McKenncy and Reddy focused on E. coli, a relatively simple, single-celled bacterium, to discover the mechanisms by 

which genes transcribed the genetic code into particular proteins and by which DNA 

molecules replicated themselves. 

Chemical Engineering, Larry L. Sparks, chief 

Pulse Tube Refrigerators 

During the tenure of John Lyons, a group of Boulder researchers, including Wayne 

Rawlins, Ray Radebaugh—the group leader—Kalidip Chowdhury, James E. 

Zimmerman, Peter J. Storch, Lori K. Brady, and Peter E. Bradley, conducted extensive 

studies of cryocoolers. These small, durable devices were useful in the many situations 

where cooling was necessary in remote locations, or where working temperatures 

exceeded those provided by liquefied helium or hydrogen gases. Certain infrared detectors required a temperature environment as low as 80 K. Parametric amplifiers used in 

tracking satellites needed to be kept below 20 K. Cryocoolers also could be found in 

the semiconductor industry and cooling gamma-ray detectors in space. It was the hope 

of the Boulder group that cryocoolers would be useful for long-term cooling of hightemperature superconductivity products such as quantum interference devices. 

689 
At the Center for Advanced Research in Biotechnology Molecular Biology Laboratory. (in the foreground 

left to right) University of Maryland chemist Joel Hoskins. graduate student Kalidip Choudhury. NIST 

molecular biologist Dr. Keith McKenney. and graduate student Marc Kantorow examined the results of a DNA sequencing experiment. 

In a 1990 paper, Radebaugh noted the development of pulse tube refrigerators—variations of the Stirling-cycle cooler. He described three types of the devices: basic, 

resonant, and orifice, emphasizing the evaluation—both theoretically and experimentally—of the cooler efficiency.77 Along with Peter Storch and James Zimmerman, 

Radebaugh analyzed the operation of orifice pulse tube refrigerator—a difficult system 

to model—and compared the analysis with the results of experiments in the Boulder 

laboratory. Accurate prediction of the refrigeration power remained elusive, although a single-stage version of the device reached a no-load minimum temperature of 60 K, 

and it could remove 12 W of power at 80 K.75 

Ray Radehaugh, 'A review of pulse tube refrigeration." Advances in Cryogenic Engineering 35. pp. 1191- 

1205 (1990). 

Peter J. Storch, Ray Radebaugh, and James E. Zimmerman. "Analytical model for the refrigeration power 

of the orifice pulse tube refrigerator," NIST Technical Note /343, December 1990, 86 pp. 

690 
In other work on pulse tube refrigerators, Rawlins and Radebaugh studied the performance of the regenerator portion; and Radebaugh, Chowdhury, and Zimmerman 

examined the effect of pulse frequency variation on the performance. Bradley and 

Radebaugh studied the effectiveness of regeneration in a three-stage Vuilleumier 

refrigerator, capable of reaching third-stage temperatures below 20 K. 

Space Shuttle Engineering 

Boulder cryogenic engineering researchers contributed in several ways to the NASA 

space shuttle program. In one project, James D. Siegwarth evaluated the performance 

of vortex shedding cryogenic flowmeters for use with liquid oxygen supplies to the 

main engines of the shuttle. Siegwarth found that the flowmeters maintained nearly 

their full design accuracy even though the necessary placement of the instruments was 

far from ideal.7' 

Siegwarth, Andrew J. Slifka, Larry L. Sparks, D. Chaudhuri, R. Compos, and T. J. 

Morgan obtained values of the coefficient of friction of Type 440C stainless steel over an extended range of temperature for the benefit of the space shuttle as well. The 

project was important to NASA as a factor in evaluating the life expectancy of 

bearings made of type 440C steel to be used in a high-pressure oxygen turbo-pump. In 

1990, the group varied the experimental temperature from —140°C to 350°C and 

measured the sliding friction under loads from 1 GPa to 3.6 GPa and at speeds from 

0.5 mIs to 2 During the following year, the measurements were extended to both 

lower and higher temperatures.9' 

Cryogenic Fluid Flow 

A number of projects on fluid flow took place during this period. A method was 

developed for the production of "slush" hydrogen—a mixture of liquid and solid 

hydrogen—by James A. Brennan, Roland 0. Voth, and Paul R. Ludtke. Simplicity 

itself, the technique consisted of freezing hydrogen on the inside of a tube by 

immersing it in liquid helium (boiling point about 4 K, well below the 20 K freezing 

temperature of hydrogen) and rotating an augur to break up and remove the frozen 

particles.92 

J. D. Siegwarth. "Vortex shedding flowmeters for space shuttle main engines," Proc. ConJ on Advanced 

Earth-to-Orbit Propulsion Technology, Huntsville, Alabama, May /0-12, 1988 2, 429-441. 

A. J. Slifka, J. D. Siegwarth, L. L. Sparks. and D. Chaudhuri. "Coefficient of sliding friction of 440C as a function of temperature," NASA Conference Publication 3092 1, pp. 123-134 (1990). 

A. J. Slifka, R. Compos, T. J. Morgan, and J. D. Siegwarth. "Tribological behavior of 440C martensitic 

stainless steel from —184 °C to 750 °C," Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials 38, part A, pp. 323- 

330 (1991). 82 R. 0. Voth, P. R. Ludike. and J. A. Brennan, "Producing hydrogen slush with a small augur," NASP 

Technical Me,norandun, 1099, May 1990. 12 pp. 

691 
Brennan, Jennifer L. Scott, Charles F. Sindt, and Michael A. Lewis evaluated the 

effect on accuracy of cryogenic orifice flowmeters exerted by various flow conditioners. Such inserts as tubing bundles, star and Zanker conditioners, and pressure 

tap locations were considered in an effort to improve industry standards for the 

installation of orifice-type flowmeters.83 

Thermophysical Properties of Cryogenic Fluids 

An extensive, multi-purpose computer program to facilitate the availability of thermophysical data on cryogenic fluids was offered through the NIST Standard Reference 

Data Program from I Prepared by Robert D. McCarty, the program was called 

MIPROPS. In 1992, the program was updated and expanded by James Brennan, Daniel 

0. Friend, Vincent D. Arp, and McCarty. The revised program employed 32-term 

equations of state, augmented by equations for the ideal gas specific heat, vapor 

pressure vs temperature, melting pressure vs temperature, saturated liquid and vapor 

densities vs temperature, and viscosity and thermal conductivity information. In 

constructing the database, some 90 constants were critically evaluated for each of the 

17 fluids listed below: 

argon isobutane normal butane 

carbon dioxide carbon monoxide deuterium 

ethane ethylene helium 

normal hydrogen para hydrogen methane 

nitrogen nitrogen trifluoride oxygen 

propane xenon 

The improved program was designed to run on desktop computers, and to provide 

calculated values of many thermophysical properties over the range of base parameter 

values.85 

Chemical Kinetics and Thermodynamics, Sharon G. Lias, chief 

Combustion Kinetics 

Rate constants for the unimolecular decomposition reactions and the reverse radical 

combination processes of four simple alkanes—methane, ethane, propane, and isobutane—were determined in 1989 by Wing Tsang.86 The project was part of a larger 

program to develop a base of critically evaluated data on chemical reaction rates for 

combustion, sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy. 

J. L. Scott, C. F. Sindt. M. A. Lewis, and J. A. Brennan, "Effects of flow conditioners and tap location on orifice flowmeter performance," NIST Technical Note 1352, October 1991, 73 pp. 

R. D. McCarty. "Interactive FORTRAN programs for micro computers to calculate the thermophysical 

properties of twelve fluids (MIPROPS)," NBS Technical Note 1097, 1986. J. A. Brennan, D. G. Friend, V. D. Arp, and R. D. McCarty, "Computer program for computing the properties of seventeen fluids," Cryogenics 32, No. 2, 212-214 (1992). 

W. Tsang. "Rate constants for the decomposition and formation of simple alkanes over extended temperature and pressure ranges," Combustion and Flame 78, No. 1, pp. 71-86 (1989). 

692 
The temperature range covered by Tsang's study, 300 K to 1100 K, was more 

extensive than had previously been attempted in such a work. Consequently, he 

employed a more complex theoretical treatment than in previous discussions, with 

specific modifications for particular species. Despite his care, Tsang was not 

completely satisfied with the results; he was not able to find a reasonable closed form 

for calculating rate constants that would represent all of the experimental data. In 

part, the difficulty of describing the data lay in experimental inaccuracies, but more 

influential in Tsang's view were the complicated dependencies of the rate constants on temperature, pressure, and the nature of secondary ambient species. 

For each of the alkanes studied, Tsang provided limiting high-pressure rate expressions for the decomposition and the corresponding recombinations. 

In 1991, Tsang and Joseph M. Herron completed an evaluation of a database con- sisting of kinetic information on a number of elementary reactions involving small 

polyatomic molecules important to propellant combustion. The work—on which the 

authors spent a full year—was accomplished under the aegis of the Standard Reference 

Data System; it was reported in the Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference 

Both experimental and estimated data were included in the study. Data covered 

the temperature range from 500 K to 2500 K and the density range from bY- particles 

per cm3 to 1022 particles per cm3. Reactions of the following species were considered: H, H2, H20, 0, OH, HCHO, CHO, CO, NO, NO2, HNO, HNO2, HCN, and N2O. 

Kinetics From Flash Photolysis Experiments 

As part of a continuing study of peroxy radicals—important as reactive intermediates 

in combustion and in atmospheric oxidation of organic compounds—Philippe Dagaut, a guest worker from the CNRS in Orleans, France, and Michael J. Kurylo investigated 

the absorption spectrum and the reaction kinetics of the neopentylperoxy radical, 

(CH3)3CCH2O2. 

The technique used by the researchers was gas-phase flash photolysis. They determined the absorption cross section at 298 K and 250 nm to be about 5 X cm2! 

molecule. Coupling flash photolysis with spectroscopic observation of the radical at 

250 nm, they also determined the rate constant for self-reaction——chemical reaction of 

the radical with itself—over the range 228 K to 380 K in low-pressure nitrogen gas. 

Theirs was the first spectral analysis of the neopentylperoxy radical in the measured 

ranges.58 

Dagaut, Kurylo, and their colleagues Renzhang Liu of NIST and Timothy J. 

Wallington, a guest worker from the Ford Motor Company, also used a flash photolysis technique—involving resonance fluorescence—to obtain absolute rate constants 

W. Tsang and J. M. Herron, "Chemical kinetic data base for propellant combustion. I. Reactions involving 

NO. NO2. HNO. HNO2. HCN, and N20," J. Phys. Cheat. Ref Data 20. No. 4, pp. 609-663 (1991). 

P. Dagaut and M. J. Kurylo. "Flash photolysis investigation of the gas phase UV absorption spectrum and 

self-reaction kinetics of the neopentylperoxy radical." International]. ojC/iein. Kinetics 22, No. II, 1177- 1187 (1990). 

693 
for the gas phase reactions of hydroxyl radicals with a series of dioxanes and other 

cyclic ethers. The authors compared the new results with similar ones obtained for 

aliphatic ethers, seeking to predict the reaction rates from group reactivity values.89 

The work was part of a larger program to study trends in the reactivity of hydroxyl 

radicals in the gas phase. On the basis of their investigations, the authors had developed a scale of reactivity useful for the prediction of rate constants for simple ketones, 

alcohols, and ethers. The hydroxyl study filled a gap in the literature, significant 

because of the possible role of the reactions in industrial atmospheric chemistry. 

Hydroxide Thermodynamics 

New experimental and theoretical data on alkaline earth monohydroxides and 

dihydroxides caused Malcolm W. Chase and Rhoda D. Levin to re-evaluate the relevant thermodynamic properties. Recent spectroscopic investigations had provided 

new values for the molecular structure, vibrational frequencies, and electronic energy 

levels of several hydroxides. 

Early studies of magnesium dihydroxide—"m ilk of magnesia"—and calcium 

dihydroxide—"hydrated lime"—simply provided information on substances used in the 

daily lives of American citizens. Later studies of colors in flames led to observations on the monohydroxides of calcium, strontium, and barium. Still later, propellant 

investigations focused on the monohydroxides of beryllium and magnesium. Gradually, 

the data were organized as part of joint Army, Navy, and Air Force thermodynamic 

data compilations. 

Chase and Levin brought up to date the information available up to 1989 on molecular structure, entropy, and enthalpy of formation of the monohydroxides of beryllium, 

magnesium, calcium, strontium, and barium, with emphasis on the gas phase.9° 

Estimating Thermodynamic Properties 

Eugene S. Domalski and Elizabeth D. Hearing extended earlier estimation methods, 

used for calculating gas-phase thermodynamic properties of organic substances, to the 

liquid and solid phases for a variety of hydrocarbons at room temperature. One scheme 

in particular, derived by S. W. Benson and his colleagues over a period of years, 

correlated molecular structure with a corresponding energy contribution to a thermodynamic property, achieving good agreement between calculated and experimentally 

derived values. Domaiski and Hearing used the Benson approach to estimate thermodynamic properties for liquid and solid hydrocarbons at 298.15 K. Among the properties considered were enthalpy of formation, heat capacity, and entropy. 

Philippe Dagaut. Renzhang Liu. Timothy J. Wallington, and Michael J. Kurylo, "Hash photolysis resonance fluorescence investigation of the gas-phase reactions of hydroxyl radicals with cyclic ethers," 

J. Phys. Che,n. 94, No. 5, 1881-1883 (1990). 

Malcolm W. Chase and Rhoda D. Levin, "Thermodynamic properties of the alkaline earth hydroxides: a JANAF case history," High Temperature Science 26, pp. 207-2 14 (1990). 

694 
The two researchers made some 1300 comparisons between theory and experimentally derived quantities. The differences were scarcely larger than the uncertainty 

values often reported with experimental data, demonstrating the versatility of the 

Benson approach.9' 

In a later investigation, Domalski and Hearing carried the method to the liquid and 

solid phases of organic compounds containing the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, 

sulfur, and the halogens. Comparisons between literature values of thermodynamic 

properties and estimated values were obtained for more than 1500 compounds at 

25 °C.92 

Inorganic Analysis, James R. DeVoe, chief 

Analyzing Fluorides 

In 1990, fluoride glasses appeared likely to challenge silica fibers as choice materials for conveying messages via optical fibers. Theoretical calculations of the intrinsic 

power losses at communications wavelengths—about 2 jim—of heavy metal glasses 

composed of zirconium, barium, lanthanum, aluminum, and sodium fluorides indicated 

values as low as those of silica. To achieve low intrinsic losses, however, the fluoride 

glasses had to be nearly free of interfering impurities such as divalent iron, copper, 

cobalt, nickel, and neodymium—perhaps at the picogram-per-gram level. A second 

caution was the possible presence of scattering centers such as oxides and oxyfluorides. 

In order to prepare fluoride glasses with the extreme purity levels indicated by the 

calculations, it was crucial that analytical methods be developed to detect specific 

impurities at the requisite levels. A research team composed of members from NIST— 

Ellyn S. Beary, Paul J. Paulsen, and T. C. Rains—and from the U.S. Naval Research 

Laboratory—K. J. Ewing, J. Jaganathan, and I. Aggarwal—devised chemical preparative techniques and selected sensitive analytical instruments that appeared capable of 

preparing and analyzing fluoride glass samples at the required impurity levels. 

Following the line of reasoning taken by the group indicates the state of materials 

preparation and analysis characteristic of that period. 

First to be considered was the use of a "clean room" to minimize contamination of 

the glass blanks by particulate matter in the originating laboratory. Such a facility was available on the NIST Gaithersburg site. Use of quartz or teflon laboratory vessels was 

preferred over ordinary glassware or plastics. Reagent-grade chemicals were purified 

with respect to some 37 elements to the part-per-billion level or better. 

E. S. Domalski and E. D. Hearing, "Estimation of the thermodynamic properties of hydrocarbons at 298.15 

K," J. Phys. Cheni. ReJ Data 17, pp. 1637-1678 (1988). E. S. Domalski and E. D. Hearing, "Estimation of the thermodynamic properties of C-H-N-O-S-Halogen 

compounds at 298.15 K." J. Phys. Che,n. ReJ Data 22, pp. 805-1159 (1993). 

695 
The group discussed methods of glass preparation, emphasizing the care needed to 

obtain meaningful analytical samples to track the quality of the process. 

Various analytical methods were discussed for the project, including atomic absorption spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, neutron activation analysis, and absorption loss 

spectrometry. In their initial laboratory efforts, the group chose atomic absorption 

spectroscopy coupled with electrothermal atomization in a graphite furnace (GFAAS). 

Detailed examination of the NIST clean room produced measureable amounts—from 

less than 5 ng/g to 600 ng/g—of iron, cobalt, nickel, and copper in a hood and two 

ovens, with iron by far the most persistent. Similarly, measureable quantities of the same elements appeared in three NIST "ultra-pure" acids, with iron and nickel the 

most prevalent. Four lanthanum salts, to be used in glass preparation, yielded ng/g 

amounts of neodymium impurity.93 

Clearly, preparation of "pure" fluoride glasses would be a challenge. 

Analysis by Mass Spectrometry 

Analysis of sulfur in steel was important for a simple reason—the toughness of 

certain steel formulations was known to increase rapidly as the sulfur content dropped 

below about 100 ppm. W. Robert Kelly, LeTian Chen—a guest scientist from the 

Academia Sinica in Beijing, China—John W. Gramlich, and Karen E. Hehn, recognizing the relatively poor accuracy of existing methods, attacked the steel problem using an isotope dilution technique developed at NIST for the determination of sulfur 

concentration. 

Carefully mixing a known amount of 34S with a measured amount of steel samples, 

the group performed thermal ionization mass spectrometry to compare the 34S132S ratio 

in the spiked samples with the ratio in the original steel samples. The method proved 

accurate within about 3 %, considerably better than techniques used previously. An 

additional benefit was the determination of the sulfur content of four steel Standard 

Reference Materials with the same accuracy.94 

X-Ray Analysis Program 

Peter A. Pella, B. Cross, and L. Feng—a colleague from China—collaborated on improvements to computer programs for the analysis of x-ray scattering data. Influence 

coefficient algorithms using fundamental parametric equations for correction of 

inter-element effects in x-ray analysis were employed both at NIST and in analytical 

laboratories in China. One of these, a Chinese variation of the Comprehensive 

E. S. Beary. P. J. Paulsen. T. C. Rains. K. J. Ewing, J. Jaganathan, and I. Aggarwal, "Approaches to the 

accurate characterization of high purity metal fluorides and fluoride glasses." J. Crystal Growth 106, 5 1-60 

(1990). 

W. Robert Kelly. LeTian Chen, John W. Gramlich. and Karen E. Hehn, "Determination of sulphur in low 

sulphur steels by isotope dilution thermal ionization mass spectrometry." Analyst 115, 1019-1024 (1990). 

696 
Algorithms of Lachance called the FLY-FPM program, served as the basis on which 

the group developed a new program for use with spectrometers that incorporated both 

tube and secondary targets for excitation. The new program complemented others in use at NIST.95 

Ion Exchange Chromatography 

One of the analytical tech iques in common use at NIST for the characterization of 

Standard Reference Materials at this time was ion exchange chromatography. The 

principal use of the method was for the determination of non-metals such as sulfur and 

chlorine. William F. Koch reviewed newly developed procedures and instrumentation 

adapted to improve the accuracy and precision of ion chromatography, emphasizing 

critical features of sample preparation for the analysis of fuels, botanical, and other 

biological material.96 

There were many occasions in analytical chemistry when it was important to know 

the chemical state of a metal rather than just its concentration. Liquid chromatography was useful for those occasions, since it could separate different chemical forms of an element. However, the dilution that accompanied the chromatographic process placed a premium on sensitive detection of the species. Gregory C. Turk, William A. 

MacCrehan, Katherine S. Epler, and T. C. O'Haver found that laser-enhanced ionization not only was the most sensitive method for use in flame atomic spectroscopy, but 

it was also well-suited to the liquid chromotographic technique. The group illustrated 

the method with observations on the trialkyltin compounds.97 

Organic Analysis, Willie E. May, chief 

Analyzing River Sediment 

A new Standard Reference Material, SRM 1939, useful in determining the concentrations of trace organic constituents of river sediment, was developed by a group 

including Richard E. Rebbert, Stephen N. Chesler, F. R. Guenther, Barbara J. Koster, 

Reenie M. Parris, Michelle M. Schantz, and Stephen A. Wise.99 Samples for SRM 

1939, "Polychlorinated Biphenyls in River Sediment A," were collected from the 

Hudson River. The new standard joined SRM 1941, "Organics in Marine Sediment"— 

collected from Baltimore Harbor—in the SRM catalog. 

L. Feng, P. A. Pella, and B. Cross, "Versatile fundamental alphas program for use with either tube or secondary target excitation," Advances in X-Ray Analysis 33, pp. 509-5 14 (1990). 

W. F. Koch, "Ion chromatography and the certification of Standard Reference Materials," J. Chromatographic Science 27, No. 8. pp. 418-421 (1989). 

G. C. Turk. W. A. MacCrehan, K. S. Epler, and T. C. O'Haver. "Laser-enhanced ionization as an elementspecific detector for liquid chromotography," Proc. 4th International Symposium on Resonance Ionization 

Spectroscopy and its Applications, Gaithersburg, MD, April 10-15, 1988, pp. 327-330 (1989). 

Richard E. Rebbert, Stephen N. Chesler, F. R. Guenther, Barbara J. Koster, Reenie M. Parris, Michelle M. 

Schantz, and Stephen A. Wise, "Preparation and analysis of a river sediment Standard Reference Material for 

the determination of trace organic constituents," Fresenius' J. Anal. Che,n. 342, pp. 30-38 (1992). 

697 
The two reference materials were intended for use in marine monitoring projects 

(SRM 1941) and for cleanup of polychiorinated biphenyl (PCB) spills (SRM 1939). 

The latter reference featured certified values for three derivatives of PCB and data for some 1 4 other derivatives. Information was included also on chlorinated pesticides and 

polyaromatic hydrocarbons present in the samples. The U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency supplied bulk samples collected from the Hudson River to NIST for preparation of the standard materials. 

Sample preparation for SRM 1939 illustrated the realistic approach to standards that 

characterized scientific work at NIST. Rather than producing a synthethic river 

sediment for calibration of environmental monitoring instruments, NIST derived its 

reference standard from actual river "mud." 

Step one consisted of removal from the 55-gallon samples all large debris. The 

liquid-solid mixture was then blended and progressively sieved to remove all particles 

larger than about 45 The remaining sediment, about 40 kg, was sterilized by 

exposure to more than 3 Megarads of 60Co radiation and bottled in 50 g quantities. 

Uniformity of particle size was ascertained to assure even distribution of PCB 

contamination. 

Four different analytical procedures were employed to determine the amounts of 

various classes of organic compounds in the reference material. The use of multiple 

procedures satisfied the SRM certification requirement that at least two independent 

methods be used to evaluate specified quantities of any certified species. 

By the time SRM 1939 joined the more than 1000 other reference materials in the 

OSRM catalog, it was without peer for the calibration of marine PCB monitors. 

Examining Human Plasma 

Interest within the biomedical community in the efficacy of an extract of licorice 

root as a cancer preventative in humans led a NIST research group to develop a new analytical method in 1991. The licorice-root derivative identified as potentially defying 

cancer was I acid (GRA). Basic to any cancer-related studies of the 

substance was accurate evaluation of its concentration in human blood plasma. Among 

the several existing techniques for the determination of GRA concentrations in plasma, 

none offered a good combination of sensitivity, accuracy, and convenience. 

The research team, Jeanice M. Brown-Thomas, Richard G. Christensen, Winfred 

Malone, and Willie E. May of NIST, and Roland Rieger, a colleague from the 

University of Ulm in Germany, developed an analytical method based upon the use of 

high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). An important feature of their 

technique was the preparation of an internal standard, composed of an easily identified 

GRA acetate derivative. A measured quantity of this substance was added to the 

plasma samples. Extraction of the GRA and its derivative by the HPLC method was followed by ultraviolet absorbance detection at 248 nm. 

698 
The method proved sensitive to concentrations of GRA in blood at the 10 ng/g 

level; quantitative determinations appeared feasible at the 100 nglg level with 10 % 

uncertainty.99 

Carcinogens in Coal Tar 

Coal tar, a common ingredient of urban daily life, was known to harbor many 

carcinogenic compounds. A Standard Reference Material, SRM 1597, "Complex 

Mixture of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) From Coal Tar," was issued by 

NIST in 1987 to assist in analysis of various samples of coal tar. The NIST development team, Stephen A. Wise, Bruce A. Benner, G. D. Byrd, Stephen N. Chesler, 

Richard E. Rebbert, and Michelle M. Schantz, had provided certification or other basic 

information on some 30 polycyclic aromatic compounds in preparing SRM 1597. 

It was clearly advantageous to refine the analysis of the reference material, however, 

to analyze the numerous methyl-substituted PAH compounds. The biological activity of 

the isomers varied significantly, and certain of the methyl isomers were known to be 

more active carcinogens than the parent compounds. 

To improve NIST understanding of its SRM, Stephen Wise took advantage of an opportunity to collaborate with Philippe Garrigues and Jacqueline Bellocq of the 

Physico-Chemical Oceanography group at the University of Bordeaux in France, who 

had some familiarity with the problem compounds. The group used a combination of 

liquid chromatography and high-resolution Shpol'skii spectroscopy—a low-temperature 

fluorescence technique—to determine the concentrations of 12 methyl isomers of 

benzopyrene, some of the most virulent of the known carcinogens. It was the first 

unambiguous identification and quantification of these substances in a coal tar.'°° 

Chemical Processes, Hratch G. Semerjian, chief; succeeded by Gregory J. Rosasco in 

1992 

A New Scale of Temperature is Adopted, New Thermometry Projects Begin 

The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90), the fifth international 

temperature scale since the Treaty of the Meter in 1 875, was adopted by the International Committee of Weights and Measures during its meeting in 1989. Authority for 

the adoption had been granted by the 18th General Conference of Weights and 

Measures in 1987.01 The new scale incorporated the results of numerous NBS/NIST 

projects in thermometry. Some of these projects were mentioned in Ch. 4, others were 

of more recent origin. By no means were all of the projects discussed below carried 

out in the Process Measurements Division—they are gathered here to give coherence to 

the discussion. 

M. Brown-Thomas. Richard 0. Christensen, Roland Rieger, Winfred Malone, and Willie E. May, 

"Determination of glycyrrhetinic acid in human plasma by high-performance liquid chromatography," J. 

Chromatography 568, pp. 232-238 (1991). 

'°° Philippe Garrigues, Jacqueline Bellocq, and Stephen A. Wise, "Determination of methylbenzo(a)pyrene 

isomers in coal tar standard reference materials using liquid chromatography and Shpol'skii spectrometry," 

Fresenius J. Anal. Cheni. 336, 106-I 10 (1990). 

101 H. Preston-Thomas. "The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)," Metrologia 27. 3-10 (1990). 

699 
N/ST Contributions to ITS-90 

The ITS-90 was defined according to different physical principles in different 

ranges. Underlying all the ranges were more than a dozen reference temperatures, 

assigned specific values that were intended to tie the ITS-90 closely to the Kelvin 

thermodynamic scale. From 20 K to 1000 K, gas thermometry measurements were relied upon to provide approximate Kelvin-scale values for the defining fixed points of 

the ITS-90; in the range 273 K to 1000 K, the defining gas thermometry was 

accomplished by Leslie A. Guildner, Robert E. Edsinger, Richard L. Anderson, and 

James F. Schooley at NBS. 

The assigned temperature of the gold freezing point was determined by Klaus D. 

Mielenz, Robert D. Saunders, Jr., and John B. Shumaker (see below). 

Many of the devices and procedures used to create fixed-point reference temperatures in the laboratory originated in part or in toto at NBS/NJST. Over many years, 

fixed-point research was performed by a group led by George T. Furukawa. Other 

members of the group were William R. Bigge, John L. Riddle, and Earl R. Pfeiffer. 

Their investigations provided needed data on the triple points of neon, oxygen, argon, 

mercury, and water, and the freezing points of tin, zinc, and aluminum. Billy W. 

Mangum and Donald D. Thornton performed similarly successful development of 

gallium and indium fixed-point devices. 

The defining relations in the various portions of ITS-90 were as follows: 

• Between 0.65 K and 5.0 K, ITS-90 temperatures were obtained from defined 

relations between 3He and 4He vapor pressures and temperature. 

• Between 3.0 K and 24.6 K (the neon triple point), ITS-90 temperatures were obtained from a gas thermometer, calibrated according to specific instructions. 

• Between 13.8 K (the equilibrium hydrogen triple point) and 1235 K (the freezing 

point of silver), ITS-90 temperatures were obtained from defined relations 

between calibrated platinum resistance thermometers and temperature. 

• Above 1235 K, ITS-90 temperatures were obtained from ratios of blackbody 

spectral radiances referred to the freezing point of silver, gold, or copper. 

For the first tin-ic, the international temperature scale did not include a range defined 

by the electromotive force of thermocouple thermometers. High-temperature versions 

of the platinum resistance thermometer proved more precise all the way to the silver 

freezing point. 

Temperature of the Freezing Point of Gold 

One of the most significant measurements affecting the quality of ITS-90 in com- parison to the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature scale was undertaken by Klaus D. 

Mielenz, Robert D. Saunders, Jr., and John B. Shumaker. In work completed just 

before the ITS-90 input was finalized, the NIST group offered a first-principles mea- surement of the freezing point of gold, an especially important reference temperature 

because it was often used as the basis for radiation thermometry.'°2 

02 Klaus D. Mielenz, Robert D. Saunders. Jr., and John B. Shumaker. "Spectroradiometric determination of 

the freezing temperature of gold," J. Res. N/ST 95, No. I. 49-67 (1990). 

700 

Rapid-Response Thermometers 

The need to measure temperatures quickly in his new pulse-tube refrigerator—discussed earlier in this section—led Ray Radebaugh to collaborate with W. Rawlins and 

K. D. Timmerhaus of the University of Colorado in the design and test of a new, 

high-speed thermometer.'°6 As a temperature sensor, the authors settled on a platinumplated tungsten wire only 4 in diameter. This probe was sufficiently robust to 

survive high gas-flow rates, yet it responded to temperature changes with a time 

constant less than 0.3 ms, providing the needed 30 Hz response time. 

For many years there had been a continuing need for accurate thei-mometry in the 

hot, harsh environment found inside jet aircraft engines and automobile engines. Such 

engines generally performed more efficiently, the higher the operating temperature. As 

the temperature neared the softening temperature of the engine materials, however, 

there was danger of catastrophic failure. Before he came to NBS in 1973 from the 

United Aircraft Research Laboratories, Kenneth G. Kreider was well aware of this 

problem. In 1992, he summarized progress on the use of durable, fast-response 

thermocouple thermometers for such hostile environments. 

For use at temperatures up to 1300 K, thermocouples made in the form of thin 

(about 2 plates of platinum and platinum-plus-JO % rhodium, protected by various 

refractory alloys and oxides, proved to be capable of response times of the order of 

50 yet also able to survive hostile environments. 

A striking new development in high-speed, high-temperature thermometry was 

proffered in 1983 by Raymond R. Dils of the Thermal Processes Division. Dils utilized 

single-crystal sapphire to carry radiation from the heated zone of a test chamber to a radiometer, providing temperature values in the range 600 °C to 2000 °C. Dils prepared 

the "hot" end of the sapphire rod by sputtering on it a refractory metal coating, which 

approximated a blackbody cavity. Over a period of years, Dils and his colleagues 

refined the device, achieving speed of response, wide range of temperature, and 

surprisingly good thermometric accuracy. 

For many years, a laser-based method for the determination of temperatures in gases was used to provide information on conditions in harsh environments. Designated by 

the acronym CARS—Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Spectroscopy—the technique 

required only optical access to the gaseous environment. 

06 W. Rawlins, K. D. Timmerhaus, and R. Radebaugh, "Resistance thermometers with fast response for use 

in rapidly oscillating gas flows. pp. 47 1-474 in Temperature, Its Measure,nent and Control in Science and 

Industry 6, 1992. J. F. Schooley. editor. 07 Kenneth 0. Kreider. thermocouples," pp. 643-648 in Temperature, Its Measurement and 

Control in Science and Industry 6, 1992, J. F. Schooley, editor. 06 R. R. Dils. temperature optical fiber thermometer," J. AppI. Phys. 54. No. 3, pp. 1198-1201(1983). 

See also R. R. Dils, J. Geist. and M. L. Reilly, "Measurement of the silver freezing point with an optical 

fiber thermometer: proof of concept," J. App!. Phys. 59, No. 4, pp. 1005-1012 (1986). 

702 
After a decade of work in which they patiently improved the accuracy of the 

technique at NBS/NIST, Gregory J. Rosasco, Vern E. Bean, and Wilbur S. Hurst 

proposed in 1990 that diatomic gases could simultaneously serve as primary standards 

for temperature and pressure in measurements by dynamic methods: 09 With modern laser diagnostic techniques, it is possible to characterize the 

pressure and temperature of a gas at the molecular level. The measurement 

times for these techniques are such that the response to changes in T and P is 

limited only by the fundamental relaxation and transport processes of the 

molecular system. This provides the basis for a new approach to the calibration 

of transducers used in the measurement of dynamical P and T. 

The authors stated that the CARS technique permitted them to derive temperature 

and pressure data from measurements of the optical transitions between atomic or molecular energy levels in the gas under observation. Since the data were generated 

by nanosecond-length pulses from gas-volume elements of millimeter dimensions, 

extremely rapid and localized values of temperature and pressure could result. 

Rosasco, Bean, and Hurst suggested that they could use the CARS technique to 

characterize the dynamic temperature and pressure profiles within, for example, a shock tube, with uncertainty levels of perhaps 5 % up to Pa in pressure and 

1500 K in temperature. These parameters represented entirely new levels of measurement capability for traditional standards. 

New Thermocouple Functions 

It had long been suspected (see Problems with an Unseasoned Temperature Scale 

in Ch. 2) that a simple quadratic function could not adequately represent the relation of 

the emf of standard type S thermocouples to temperature. Exhaustive experimentation 

demonstrated the need for higher-order reference functions. A wide-ranging collaboration produced the results, involving NIST experimenters George W. Burns, Gregory F. 

Strouse, and Billy W. Mangum; NIST statisticians M. Carroll Croarkin and William F. 

Guthrie; and experimentalist colleagues from seven other national laboratories.' ° The new functions consisted of a 9th-degree polynomial for the range —50 °C to 250 °C; 

another 9th-degree polynomial for the range 250 °C to 1200 °C; a 5th-degree polynomial for the range 1064°C to 1665 °C; and a 4th-degree polynomial for the range 

1664°C to 1768°C. 

Gregory J. Rosasco. Vem E. Bean, and Wilbur S. Hurst. "A proposed dynamic pressure and temperature 

primary standard," J. Res. N/ST 95, 33-47 (1990). 

"°G. W. Burns, G. F. Strouse, B. W. Mangum, M. C. Croarkin. W. F. Guthrie, P. Marcarino, M. Battuello. 

H. K. Lee. J. C. Kim. K. S. Gam, C. Rhee, M. Chattle. M. Arai, H. Sakurai, A. 1. Pokhodun. N. P. Moiseeva, S. A. Perevalova, M. J. de Groot, Jipei Zhang. Kai Fan, and Shuyuan Wu. "New reference 

function for platinum-b % rhodium versus platinum (type S) thermocouples based on the ITS-90." pp. 541- 

546 in Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry 6. 1992, J. F. Schooley, editor. 

703 
A type of thermocouple composed of gold vs platinum proved capable of precision 

at the level of 0.01 °C. NIST colleagues George Burns, Gregory Strouse, and Billy 

Mangum, in collaboration with B. M. Liu of the Shanghai Institute of Metrological 

Technology studied the stability of gold-platinum thermocouples and prepared reference functions for them based upon the ITS-90." 

Extending JTS-90 to Lower Temperatures 

William E. Fogle, Robert J. Soulen, Jr., and Jack H. Colwell created a thermodynamically based temperature scale in the range 0.006 K to 0.65 K using Johnson 

noise thermometry, the melting curve of 3He, and paramagnetic salt susceptibility. 2 They undertook their study to provide accurate thermometry for world-wide research 

into the properties of materials at extremely low temperatures—particularly the 

interesting quantum substance, 3He. To construct the new scale, the authors had to 

bring known thermometry methods to new stages of perfection. 

Expanding on initial experiments led by Robert A. Kamper and James E. 

Zimmerman (See Thermomètry with Superconductors in Ch. 2), Soulen and his 

colleagues spent a decade perfecting a noise thermometer based upon the use of a resistive superconducting quantum interference detector (R-SQUID). To accomplish 

this goal required careful circuit design and analysis, and painstaking comparison with 

other thermometers, including the nuclear orientation thermometer developed by 

Harvey Marshak (see Nuclear Orientation Thermometry in Ch. 4). Ultimately, the 

noise thermometer was considered to represent thermodynamic temperatures within an uncertainty of 0.1 % over the range 0.01 K to 0.7 K. 114 In a similar way, the 3He melting curve had to be transformed from a physics 

experiment into a reliable thermometer—not a primary thermometer, but an extremely 

useful interpolation device."5 Using a capacitance cell borrowed from Dennis S. 

Greywall of the Bell Telephone Research Laboratory, a piston gauge borrowed from 

the NIST Pressure Group, and careful experimentation involving the R-SQUID noise 

thermometer mentioned earlier, the authors determined the 3He melting curve (pressure vs temperature) over the range 0.005 K to 0.7 K with an uncertainty estimated at 

0.1 %. The curve exhibited a minimum in pressure which the investigators utilized as a fixed point for pressure measurement. 

1H C. W. Burns. G. F. Strouse. B. M. Liu. and B. w. Mangum, "Gold versus platinum thermocouples: 

performance data and an ITS-90 based reference function," pp. 531-536 in Temperature, Its Measurement 

and Control in Science and Industry 6, 1992. J. F. Schooley, editor. 112 E. Fogle, R. J. Soulen, Jr.. and J. H. Coiwell, "A new cryogenic temperature scale from 6.3 to 650 

mK,' pp. 91 -96 in Te,,,perature, Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry 6, 1992. J. F. Schooley. editor. 

R. A. Kamper and J. E. Zimmerman, "Noise thermometry with the Josephson effect." J.App!. Phys. 42, 

132-136 (1971). R. J. Soulen, Jr.. W. E. Fogle, and J. H. CoIwell, "A decade of absolute noise thermometry at NIST using a resistive SQUID." pp. 983-988 in Temperature, Its Measuremnent and Control in Science and Industry 6, 

1992. J. F. Schooley. editor. 

"5J. H. Colwell, W. E. Fogle. and R. J. Soulen, Jr., "The 3He melting curve thermometer as a universal 

temperature transfer standard." pp. 101 -106 in Temnperature, Its Measurement and Control in Science and 

Industry 6. 1992, J. F. Schooley. editor. 

704 
The temperature-dependent susceptibility of the paramagnetic salt cerous magnesium 

nitrate—prepared in powdered form and with a portion of the cerium atoms replaced 

by non-paramagnetic lanthanum atoms to extend its useful range to lower temperatures—was used to provide a check on the linearity of the new scale. The authors 

found the scale to be linear within 0.1 % over its entire range. 

The ink was barely dry on the reports of the work before Soulen, Fogle, and Coiwell were deeply involved in discussions with scientists at other laboratories on questions 

of low-temperature physics illuminated by the new scale. 

Temperatures from Radiance Measurements 

A suggestion that radiance temperatures of refractory metals might serve as useful 

temperature references in the range 1700 K to 3700 K came from Ared Cezairilyan, 

Archie P. Muller, and their colleagues Francisco Righini and Antonio Rosso from the 

CNR Istituto di Metrologia "G. Colonnetti." The suggestion was based on the results 

of an exhaustive series of experiments on 10 metals—nickel, iron, palladium, titanium, 

zirconium, vanadium, niobium, molybdenum, tantalum, and tungsten. The experiments 

showed that the radiance temperature of each element measured was constant within 

about I K, as long as all measurements were performed at a fixed wavelength. A 

pronounced wavelength dependence (as much as 0.5 K per nm) was found. A similar 

dependence was observed for the spectral emissivity of each element. I NBS/NIST Gas Thermometry—An Ending and a Beginning 

For a century and a half, thermometrists pursued manometer-based gas thermometry 

to elucidate the thermodynamic temperature scale. No other fundamental method could 

match the accuracy of the gas bulb, thermostat, and manometer, operated by an 

experienced hand over an extended range of temperatures both above and below the 

ice point. During this period, however, the study of traditional gas thermometry at 

NBS/NIST came to a halt. To take its place there arose a more modern type of gas 

thermometry involving acoustical resonances. It was a sea-change in a fundamental 

measurement area. The End of Classical Gas Thermometry at NBSINIST 

For decades, classical gas thermometry contributed heavily to the international 

understanding of the thermodynamic temperature scale. NBS/NIST scientists figured 

prominently in this effort. With the adoption of the International Temperature Scale of 

1990, however, the NIST gas thermometry project came to an end. 

Classical gas thermometry was deceptively simple in its principle. The idea was to 

enclose a gas (the "working gas") in a bulb, measure the pressure of the working gas 

at some reference temperature, heat (or cool) the bulb to a temperature whose value was to be determined, and to measure the gas pressure at the new temperature. The 

ratio of temperatures—on the thermodynamic, or Kelvin, scale—was the same as the 

ratio of the measured pressures, give or take a few corrections. 

116 A. Cezairliyan, A. P. Muller. F. Righini, and A. Rosso, "Radiance temperature and normal spectral 

emissivity of metals at their melting point as possible reference values." pp. 377-382 in Temperature, its 

Measurement and Control in Science and industry 6, 1992. J. F. Schooley. editor. 

705 
The principle was so simple that many a thermometrist approached gas thermometry 

with a light heart and a song on his lips, only to find disaster. It turned out that the 

two ratios were identical only within strict limits: 

• The working gas had to obey the Ideal Gas Law, or deviate from it in a way that 

could be accounted for with great accuracy. Impurities in the working gas—a 

common occurence—doomed many an experiment. 

• All of the working gas had to feel the same temperature, a difficult constraint 

whenever the temperature to be evaluated was far from the reference temperature. Gas in the tubing used to fill and empty the bulb and to measure its 

pressure inevitably passed through a temperature gradient, complicating the 

analysis of the experiment. 

• The manometric pressure measurement had to be highly accurate, a difficult 

requirement because of the large temperature dependence of the density of 

mercury—the most common manometric fluid. 

The ability to find and evaluate the consequence of each of the hidden, or systematic, errors in gas thermometry determined its success or failure. Over and over again, 

gas thermometrists felt certain that they had achieved the desired thermodynamic 

accuracy in their experiments. Just as frequently, subsequent measurements proved 

them wrong. One experiment would founder on unsuspected impurities in the working 

gas; another, on imperfect manometry; a third, on poor temperature equilibrium within 

the measurement chamber. 

The National Bureau of Standards entered the gas-thermometry arena in the 1920s. 

Carl S. Cragoe and T. B. Godfrey, realizing the central importance of manometry to 

successful gas thermometry, began a project on high-accuracy pressure measurement at 

that time. C. H. Meyers and R. D. Thompson later made improvements to their 

design."7 

Harold F. Stimson, a leader in NBS thermometry for four decades, continued the 

manometry project, focusing on the use of constant-volume gas thermometers with the 

pressure of the working gas to be measured using mercury manometry. Stimson settled on the use of gage block end standards to determine the height difference the 

lower arm of the manometer and its upper arm. Using these methods and carefully 

isolating the experiment from thermal disturbances, Stimson achieved estimated 

uncertainties of ±20 ppm in the density of the mercury, ± 10 ppm in the gravitational 

constant, and ±2 ppm in the end standards. 

In the late 1950s, a new team of NBS gas thermometrists was formed. The team 

leader was Leslie A. Guildner, trained in the science by James A. Beattie at MIT. 

Guildner's principal Bureau colleagues were Richard L. Anderson and Robert E. 

Edsinger. This team's destiny was to create the ultimate in gas thermometry, including a mercury manometer with an estimated overall uncertainty of only I ppm—arguably 

the most accurate ever constructed for its range. 

L. A. Guildner, H. F. Stimson. R. E. Edsinger. and R. L. Anderson, "An accurate mercury manometer for 

the NBS gas thermometer," Metrologia 6, No. 1, pp. 1-18 (1970). 

706 
Developed on the Bureau's Connecticut Avenue site, the gas thermometry equipment 

reached its full potential after the move to the new Gaithersburg laboratories. The 

manometer was installed in a subterranean chamber of the Gaithersburg Physics 

building, two floors below the main laboratory and one floor below an aggressive 

air-handling system that regulated and measured the air temperature at the millidegree 

level. The gas-bulb system could be moved hydraulically from an ice bath to a stirred 

liquid bath without breaking any gas-handling connections. Four platinum resistance 

thermometers recorded the temperature of the gas bulb. Some 20 thermocouples 

measured the temperature distribution along the connecting tube to the manifold that 

controlled the initial cleanout of the bulb, its filling, and its pressure measurement. No 

pains were spared to minimize the errors that had deviled earlier experiments, 

particularly those associated with impurities in the working gas, 4He. 

The efforts put into the gas thermometer paid off when the first determinations were 

made of possible differences between the 1968 temperature scale and the Kelvin 

thermodynamic scale. Guildner and Edsinger found a difference between the two scales 

of 0.027 °C at 100 °C, five times larger than the estimated uncertainty of the 1968 

scale at that temperature! From that moment on, international progress towards a new temperature scale awaited further NBS gas thermometry results. 

Before Guildner retired from NBS, he and Edsinger produced gas thermometry 

results at temperatures as high as 457 °C, and he designed a new oven in which the 

experiment could be continued to 660 °C. At 457 °C, the 1968 scale appeared too high 

by 0.08 °C, far beyond previous estimates of its uncertainty with respect to thermodynamic temperatures. M9 Urged by the international thermometry community to 

continue the NBS project to its ultimate goal despite Guildner's retirement, division 

management asked James F. Schooley to collaborate with Edsinger to finish the work. 

Edsinger and Schooley published measurements from 230 °C to 660 °C in 1989.120 In 

the region of temperature overlap with the earlier results, they found similar deviations 

between the IPTS-68 and thermodynamic temperatures, although the magnitude of the 

deviations appeared to be smaller than those that Guildner and Edsinger had found. 

In formulating the International Temperature Scale of 1990, the Consultative 

Committee for Thermometry chose to use an average of the Guildner-Edsinger and 

Edsinger-Schooley gas thermometry results as the basis for the new scale in the range 

0°C to 660°C.'2' 

Shortly after completing their measurements on the NBS/NIST gas thermometer, 

both Edsinger and Schooley retired. The apparatus was never used again. 

u L. A. Guildner and R. E. Edsinger, J. Res. NBS 77A, 383 (1973). 119 L. A. Guildner and R. E. Edsinger, "Deviation of international practical temperatures from thermodynamic 

temperatures in the temperature range from 273.16 K to 730 K," J. Res. NBS 80A. 703 (1976). 

21) R. E. Edsinger and J. F. Schooley, "Differences between thermodynamic temperature and t(IPTS-68) in 

the range 230 °C to 660 °C," Merrologia 26, 95-106 (1989). See also "Back to the Basics," pp. 5-6 in "NBS 

Research Reports." NBS Special Publication 735, December 1987. 121 R. L. Rusby, R. P. Hudson, M. Durieux, J. F. Schooley, P. P. M. Steur, and C. A. Swenson, 

"Thermodynamic basis of the ITS-90," Merrologia 28, 9-18 (1991). 

707 
A New Range for Acoustic Thermometry 

Measurements of the speed of sound in purified gases were used to determine 

thermodynamic temperatures in the cryogenic range for some time. Among others, 

Harmon Plumb and George Cataland derived a useful scale of temperature from 2 K to 

20 K by means of acoustic thermometry in 4He gas (see Cryogenic Temperature Scales 

and Cryogenic Physics in Ch. 1). Beginning in the late 1970s, however, Michael R. 

Moldover and several colleagues took acoustic thermometry into the range above 

room temperature, long the exclusive province of classical gas thermometry. 

Instead of relying on the accurate measurement of pressure, as had Guildner, 

Edsinger, and many other thermometrists over a period of more than a century, 

Moldover sought to measure the acoustic resonance frequencies of an argon-filled 

sphere that could in principle be used at temperatures well above 0 °C. At vanishingly 

low pressures of the working gas, the thermodynamic value of a selected temperature 

could be calculated from the ratio of the speed of sound at that temperature to the 

speed of sound at a reference temperature, multiplied by the reference temperature 

value—usually chosen to be the triple-point temperature of water, 273.16 K. 

Teaming at various times with colleagues Meyer Waxman, Martin Greenspan, 

James B. MehI, J. P. M. Trusler, T. J. Edwards, Richard S. Davis, and M. B. Ewing, 

Moldover found that he could determine thermodynamic temperatures in this fashion 

with uncertainties as low as K. One of the first such temperatures to be determined was the triple-point temperature of gallium.'22 A bonus in the experiments was the re-determination of the gas constant with an uncertainty of less than 2 ppm— 

smaller than the uncertainty found in previous measurements by a factor of five. 23 As the spherical resonator was tested and modified to minimize or eliminate systematic problems, it appeared likely to succeed manometer-based gas thermometry as the 

most reliable thermodynamic thermometer in its operating range of temperature. The 

transition to a new technology for fundamental thermometry was complete. 

Surface Chemistry and Microanalysis, Rance A. Velapoldi, chief 

A Festival of Microbeam Analysis 

The year 1991 marked the 25th anniversary of the Microbeam Analysis Society, an organization of industrial, academic, and government scientists devoted to the use of 

the electron microscope and its close relatives in analytical work. NIST staff members 

were prominent in the MAS: John A. Small served as Secretary to the Executive 

122 M. R. Moldover and J. P. M. Trusler, "Accurate acoustic thermometry I: the triple point of gallium." 

Mctrologia 25, 165-187 (1988). Recently, Moldover, Christopher W. Meyer, S. J. Boyes, and A. R. H. 

Goodwin reported finding the presence of a "virtual leak"—probably outgassing from sealants—in the 

spherical resonator that modified the earlier results; this report can be found in J. Res. N/ST 104, No. I, 

11-46 (1999). 23 M. R. Moldover. J. P. M. Trusler, T. J. Edwards, T. J. MehI, and R. S. Davis, "Measurement of the 

universal gas constant R using a spherical acoustic resonator," J. Res. NBS 93, No. 3, 85-I 14 (1988). 

708 
Council; Ryna B. Marinenko was one of its directors; an award to outstanding young 

Society scientists was named for Kurt F. J. Heinrich, by then an Honorary Member; 

and one of the most recent awards for outstanding authorship had been earned by a group that included Robert L. Myklebust and Dale E. Newbury. 

The 1991 technical program included several contributions from NIST, which 

utilized only a fraction of the instrumental techniques reported during the meeting: 

• "AMMS and Raman spectroscopy of metal phthalocyanine particles and films," 

by Robert A. Fletcher, Joseph A. Bennett, and Edgar S. Etz of NIST, together 

with S. Hoeft, a chemistry graduate student at Washington University in 

St. Louis. 

• "Micro-Raman characterization of impurity phases in ceramic and thin-film 

samples of the Y-Ba-Cu-O high superconductor," by Edgar S. Etz, 

T. D. Schroeder—a NIST guest scientist from Shippensberg University of 

Pennsylvania—and Winnie Wong-Ng. 

• "A controlled-dispersion parallel-wavelength dispersive x-ray spectrometer for 

electron microscopy," by Charles E. Fiori, Scott A. Wight, and A. D. Romig, Jr., a colleague from the Sandia National Laboratory. 

• "Electron probe compositional mapping of particles and samples with irregular 

surfaces," by John A. Small, David S. Bright, Robert L. Mykiebust, and Dale 

E. Newbury. 

• "Analysis of high-Tv bulk superconductors with electron microprobe compositional mapping," by Ryna B. Marinenko. 

• "Scanning electron microscopy with polarization analysis: an update," by John 

Unguris, M. W. Hart, Robert J. Celotta, and Daniel T. Pierce. 

• "Monte Carlo electron trajectory simulation of the depth sensitivity of electron 

backscattering," by Dale E. Newbury and Robert L. Myklebust. 

Surface Science 

Studies of photoinduced desorption and other chemical reactions at surfaces 

stemmed in part from their importance to semiconductor and energy-conversion 

technologies and in part from the insight they provided into surface science. Lee J. 

Richter, Steven A. Buntin, Daved S. King, and Richard R. Cavanagh sought information on the mechanism involved in the desorption of nitrous oxide from silicon single 

crystals. Irradiating a (Ill) silicon surface with a 1064 nm beam from a neodymiumyttrium-aluminum-garnet laser, the authors found evidence that the desorption of NO 

followed two different mechanisms, depending upon the extent of coverage of the 

surface. 

709 
The experiments were performed in an ultra-high vacuum apparatus, with the precleaned silicon surface held at temperatures in the range 95 K to 100 K. Purified NO 

gas was introduced through capillaries placed near the crystal surface. Following laser 

irradiation, desorbed NO was detected by fluorescence of an optical transition in the 

molecule. 

Evidence that the NO desorption mechanism from the (111) silicon surface varied 

with the extent of initial coverage appeared in a straightforward manner. The laserinduced-fluorescence signal, indicative of the number of NO molecules leaving the 

surface, varied by more than a factor of four as the initial exposure of the surface to 

NO was increased by a factor of ten. The authors offered detailed evidence that, at low 

NO coverage, the desorption involved a complex interaction between the silicon 

surface and the NO molecule.'24 

A guide to the principles and techniques important to the characterization of surfaces 

was provided through the publisher Plenum Press, Incorporated, by a group that 

included prominent present and former NBS/NIST surface scientists—Cedric J. Powell, 

chief of the division's Surface Spectroscopies and Standards group; Theodore E. 

Madey, NBS/NIST alumnus (1963-1990) then at Rutgers University; and John T. 

Yates, Jr., NBS alumnus (1963-1983) then at the University of Pittsburgh. Together 

with their colleagues Alvin W. Czanderna of the Solar Energy Research Institute of 

Golden, Colorado, and David M. Hercules of the University of Pittsburgh, the three 

served as editors of a series of tutorial books on Methods of Surface Characterization. 

In "Ion Spectroscopies for Surface Analysis," Powell, Hercules, and Czanderna 

presented a comparison of the half-dozen major methods by which the compostion of a surface could be analyzed.'25 The techniques discussed were: • Auger electron spectroscopy (AES). 

• Ion scattering spectroscopy (ISS). 

• Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (RBS). 

• Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). 

• Secondary neutral mass spectrometry (SNMS). 

• X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). 

In their discussion, the authors provided comparative information on the types of 

particles that took part in the techniques, the extent of damage to the surface under 

investigation, the quantity measured in the techniques, and the depth to which the 

surfaces were probed. Various features of the analytical methods—factors important for 

data collection, detection capabilities, strong points and limitations—were provided as well. 

24 Lee J. Richter, Steven A. Buntin, Daved S. King, and Richard R. Cavanagh, "State-resolved studies of the 

laser-induced desorption of NO from Si(l I l)7x7: Low coverage results," I. Chem. Phys. 96, No. 3, pp. 

2324-2338 (1992). 25 J. Powell, D. M. Hercules, and A. W. Czanderna, "Comparisons of SIMS, SNMS, ISS, RBS, AES, and 

XPS methods for surface compositional analysis," pp. 417-437 in Jon Spectroscopies for Surface Analysis 

(New York: Plenum Press, 1991). 

710 
J. William Gadzuk prepared a discussion that incorporated various aspects of the 

study of molecular activity at surfaces: photoemission spectroscopy, stimulated desorption, electron energy-loss spectroscopy, and collisions between molecules and surfaces. 

Gadzuk focused his treatment on molecular-level modeling of time-dependent phenomena at surfaces within the framework of semiclassical wave packet dynamics, building 

upon earlier theoretical work by E. J. Heller. 126 Details of the modeling formalism 

were provided to demonstrate that a variety of surface phenomena—adsorbate photoemission 1 inc shapes, stimulated desorption distributions, resonance electron energy 

loss spectroscopy, and molecule surface collisions were the examples given—could be 

treated in the same way, using time-dependent quantum mechanics. 

Thermophysics, Richard F. Kayser, chief 

Replacing Chiorofluorocarbons 

Scientists at NIST were well aware, during this period, that chiorofluorocarbons 

(CFCs) had been convicted of poking holes in the earth's protective ozone layer—sunlight freed atomic chlorine from the CFC, chlorine acted essentially catalytically to 

convert ozone into oxygen, and the sun's most energetic ultraviolet radiation was free 

to wreak biological havoc on the earth and its creatures (see Chiorofluorocarbons vs the Ozone Layer in Ch. 4). NBS/NTST was asked to help find replacements for CFCs 

in refrigeration and aerosols, two major uses for the offending substances. 

During 1991, Graham Morrison described the NIST program in the acquisition and 

correlation of data on alternative refrigerants. Experimental measurements discussed by 

Morrison included the following: 

• Saturated liquid and vapor densities and vapor pressures. 

• Pressure-volume-temperature relations in the gas phase, using a Burnett 

apparatus. 

• Compressed liquid densities to 6500 kPa. • Vapor pressure from steady-state boiling. 

• Refractive index. 

• Surface tension. 

• Dielectric properties. 

• Ideal gas heat capacity, using the spherical acoustical resonator (described earlier 

in this section). 

j• W. Gadzuk, "Semiclassical way to molecular dynamics at surfaces." Annual Rev, of Physical Chemistry 

39, pp. 395-424 (1988). 

711 
Refrigerants under study (and their short-hand designations) included: • 1,1 , 1 ,2-Tetrafluoroethane (RI 34a). 

• I , I -Dichloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethane (RI 23). 

• Pentafluoroethane (R 125). 

• l,l,l-Trifluoroethane (R143a). 

• 1,1-Difluoroethane (R32). 

• I -Chloro- 1 ,2,2,2-tetrafluoroethane (RI 24). 

• I , 1 -Dichloro- 1 -fluoroethane (Ri 41 b). 

• 1,1 ,2,2-Tetrafluoroethane (RI 34). 

• 1,1 ,2-Trifluoroethane (R143). 

Three data correlation schemes were discussed by Morrison. One was based upon a modified hard-sphere equation of state. A second utilized an extension of corresponding states. And a third employed a 90-term Benedict-Webb-Rubin equation.'27 

Mark 0. McLinden and David A. Didion also responded to the need for reconsideration of refrigerant working fluids. They presented a discussion of the thermodynamic basis for choosing alternative compounds which emphasized the necessity for 

tradeoffs among the desirable and undesirable properties of such alternatives. 28 Didion 

independently pursued the question of the efficiency of heating and air-conditioning 

equipment with the use of various mixtures of working fluids. Using thermodynamic 

calculations, Didion provided manufacturers of heat pumps with the opportunity of 

achieving as much as a 30 % increase in efficiency. He received the Department of 

Commerce Gold Medal Award in 1987 for his efforts. 

Hot Wires for Thermal Conductivity Measurements 

Nitrogen always was an important substance in the technology of cryogenics. As 

technology became more complex, the level of detail required for cryogenic fluids 

became more penetrating. Noting a lack of thermal conductivity and heat capacity data 

below room temperature, Ruth A. Perkins, Hans M. Roder, and Dale G. Friend of 

Thermophysics/Boulder, in collaboration with C. A. Nieto Dc Castro of the University 

of Lisbon, Portugal, undertook a series of measurements to fill some of the gaps. 

In 1991, the group reported absolute measurements of the thermal conductivity and 

thermal diffusivity of nitrogen using a transient hot wire method. The observations, 

consisting of eight supercritical isotherms, three vapor isotherms, and four liquid 

isotherms, covered the temperature range from 80 K to 300 K and pressures up to 

70 MPa. 

Data were obtained with the use of a dedicated microcomputer which controlled two 

programmable digital voltmeters. The I 500-odd measurements included variation in the 

power delivered to the hot wire and variation in heating time to verify freedom from 

27 Graham Morrison, "Alternative refrigerant properties measurement and correlation program at NEST," 

Pure and Applied Chen,. 63, No. tO. 1465-1472 (1991). 

M. 0. McLinden and D. A. Didion, "CFCs (chiorofluorocarbons): is the sky falling, Quest for alternatives," ASHRAE Journal. December 1987, pp. 32-42. 

712 
As part of the search for alternatives to chiorofluorocarbons, chemical engineer Mark 

McLinden (left) and physicist Graham Morrison developed property data for refrigerants that do not harm the ozone layer. 

identifiable systematic errors and to allow calculation of thermal-difusivity and heatcapacity values with minimum measurement error. The team estimated the uncertainty 

in thermal conductivity determinations at ± 1 % and in thermal diffusivity results at 

±5 %, except for a 131 K isotherm near the critical density, where the uncertainties rose to ±3 % and ± 10 %, respectively. 

Correlating their data with the predictions of kinetic and other theories allowed the 

group to conclude that observations over a wide range of temperatures and densities would 

be repaid by better understanding of the thermodynamics of nitrogen.'29 

De Castro, Perkins, and Roder also evaluated the effect of radiative heat transfer in 

transient hot-wire thermal conductivity measurements during the same period that the 

work described above was in progress. They used the technique at higher temperatures— 

up to 548 K—so that the radiative effect would be more pronounced. Measurements on the 

thermal conductivity of toluene could be fitted well using heat transfer calculations that 

incorporated participation by the toluene in the radiative transfer process. 30 

29 R. A. Perkins, I-I. M. Roder. D. G. Friend, and C. A. Nieto Dc Castro, thermal conductivity and heat 

capacity of fluid nitrogen." Physka A 173. pp. 332-362 (1991). 

C. A. Dc Castro, R. A. Perkins. and H. M. Roder. "Radiative heat transfer in transient hot-wire measure- ments of thermal conductivity," Intl. J. of Thermophysics 12. No. 6. pp. 985-997 (1991). 

713 
Fiowmeters for Vacuum Standards 

Certain low-pressure standards required the creation of accurately known gas flow 

rates. Two of these concerned measurement of flow through orifices and the measurement of gaseous leak rates. Using one type of NIST standard, a calculable conductance, the operator could produce a known pressure differential by passing a gas 

through it at a measured flow rate. The NIST conductance standard nominally passed 

1OL/s for the range 0.1 Pa and below, requiring a gas-flow reference source in the 

range 10_in mol/s to l0_6 mol!s. 

Kenneth E. McCulloh, Charles D. Ehrlich, Frederick G. Long, and Charles R. 

Tilford developed two constant-pressure piston-displacement flowmeters, either of 

which could be used for the orifice standard or for leak calibrations. One of the 

devices employed a piston with sliding seals. Its volume change and the flow rate were derived from the movement of the piston. The other, an all-metal system reaching two 

decades lower in flowrate, consisted of a welded bellows driven by a hydraulic press. 

The group evaluated the uncertainties of the new flowmeters by considering a number of potential systematic errors—uncertainty in the reading of the pressure gage 

used to measure the pressure in the fixed-pressure reference chamber, volume changes 

during operation, temperature errors, desorption, and leakage. Over the range of usable 

flow rates, they estimated the uncertainties at 0.8 % to 2 %. 

Membrane Diffusion 

Porous membranes came into increasing use during this period for purposes as diverse as blood cleansing, industrial waste recovery, and gas purification. Theorist 

Rosemary A. McDonald wondered whether one could predict the efficacy of filtration 

through a given membrane. She examined the process by means of a simple randomwalk procedure, using a two-dimensional model for the membrane. She considered two 

types of membranes—each constructed of two sizes of pores. Spherical molecules, also 

of two sizes—either pure or mixed 50-50——"walked" through the membranes, sometimes under a simulated pressure head. 

McDonald's results were promising in terms of predicting the diffusive nature of her 

simplified system. She noted, however, ". . . it is important that experimental data be 

available for comparison with the model results. We hope that this work may stimulate 

experiments along the lines we have pursued here."32 

Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium 

Increasing interest in the technology of supercritical fluids led to heavy involvement 

by NIST scientists in reviews of the relevant theory and applications to thermophysical 

properties. A 600-page text, "Supercritical Fluid Technology: Reviews in Modern 

°' K. E. McCulloh, C. D. Ehrlich. F. 0. Long, and C. R. Tilford, "Low range flowmeters for use with vacuum and leak standards," J. Vac. Sci. and Tech. A-Vacuum Surftices and Films 5, No. 3, PP. 376-38 I (1987). 132 Roseinary A. McDonald. "Modeling macromolecular diffusion through a porous medium," J. Membrane 

Science 68, 93-106 (1992). 

714 
Richard Hyland (left) and Charles Ehrlich compared features of several calibrated leak 

artifacts mounted to the vacuum manifold of a new primary leak standard. Developed 

in the mid-1980s, the leak standard initially was used to provide calibrations for 

helium permeation leaks. 

Theory and Applications"33 was edited by Thomas J. Bruno and James F. Ely of the 

Thermophysics Division/Boulder. A listing of the titles of chapters written by NIST 

researchers (six of the 16 chapters in the book) gives a flavor of the topics 

covered: 

CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. 1991. 

715 
• "Thermodynamics of solutions near the solvent critical point," by Johanna 

M. H. L. Sengers. 

• equilibrium and the modified Leung-Griffiths model," by James C. 

Rainwater. 

• "Thermophysical property data for supercritical extraction design," by Thomas J. 

Bruno. 

• "Properties of carbon dioxide rich mixtures," by Joe W. Magee. 

• transfer in supercritical extraction from solid matrices," by Michael C. 

Jones. 

• "A summary of the patent literature of supercritical fluid technology," by 

Thomas J. Bruno. 

Physics Laboratory 

The Physics Laboratory was formed from the Center for Atomic, Molecular, and 

Optical Physics and the Center for Radiation Research when the new NIST organizational structure was approved in February 1991. The laboratory continued to function 

much as its predecessors had—as a source of new physics and new instrumentation at 

the leading edge of physical science. We illustrate the work of the laboratory through 

examples chosen from each of its eight divisions. 

Physics Laboratory Office 

An Update on Physical Constants 

The Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA), an interdisciplinary arm of the International Council of Scientific Unions, periodically published— 

through its Task Group on Fundamental Constants—reports summarizing worldwide 

progress in evaluating the large (some 38 quantities) list of fundamental physical 

constants. 

In 1990, Barry N. Taylor and B. Richard Cohen, a physicist at the Rockwell International Science Center who customarily collaborated with Taylor on the reviews, 

surveyed recent advances in this field. Major progress had taken place in the evaluation of the Planck constant, the fine-structure constant, and the molar gas constant. 

Also brought forth since the most recent (1987) CODATA report'35 were new 

definitions for the volt and the ohm. 

Barry N. Taylor and E. Richard Cohen, "Recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: a status J. Res. N/ST 95, 497-523 (1990). 

E. R. Cohen and B. N. Taylor. Revs. Mod. Phys. 59. 1121(1987). 

716 
It was interesting that the authors could not present new values for the re-determined 

quantities because to do so would require "nothing less than a new least-squares 

adjustment" of many of the constants previously publicized. However, they did review 

the so-called "auxiliary constants"—those quantities for which values were defined by 

international agreement or else were so accurately known as to not be subject to 

change by any forseeable experiments. This list included the following constants: 

• Speed of light. 

• Meter. 

• Ratio of the proton mass to the electron mass. • Atomic masses and mass ratios. 

• Rydberg constant. 

• Magnetic moment anomalies of the electron and positron. 

• Ratios of the magnetic moments of the electron, the proton, and other nucleons. 

• The "as-maintained" volt and ohm. 

• Acceleration due to gravity. 

Taylor and Cohen cited NIST work that contributed to several of these determinations. 

Electron and Optical Physics, Charles W. Clark, chief 

Images of Ferromagnetism 

In 1990, Michael R. Scheinfein, John Unguris, Michael H. Kelley, Daniel 1. Pierce, 

and Robert J. Celotta compared a relatively new measurement method known as SEMPA to other types of instruments that displayed the distribution of magnetization 

in ferromagnets. 

One of the earliest field-imaging methods involved, for example, the use of fine 

magnetic particles that, when dusted on a magnetic surface, agglomerated in the fringe 

fields produced at domain walls, thus producing an image that could be viewed with an optical microscope. Another imaging technique, Lorentz microscopy, in which 

incident electrons were deflected by magnetic fields at the surface of the sample, could 

be used at low magnification (1000 nm) by beam reflection from thick samples or at 

high magnification (10 nm) by transmission through samples of thickness less than 

300 nm. In general, transmission electron microscopy required the use of thin samples. 

A newer instrument, the magnetic force microscope, utilized a ferromagnetic tunneling 

tip to achieve resolution of domain walls at 100 nm. SEMPA—Scanning Electron Microscopy with Polarization Analysis—achieved 

10 nm resolution by detection of the polarization of secondary electrons emitted from 

ferromagnetic surfaces. Magnetization maps could be obtained from the surfaces of 

bulk specimens, thin films, and even monolayers of certain types. 

717 
In their review article, the NIST group described the individual components of their 

instrument—a probe forming electron optical column, a spin analyzer, transport optics, 

and signal-processing electronics—and they outlined the advantages and limitations of 

the method, including examples of images produced by its use.'36 

Illustrations of the ferromagnetic domains in an iron-silicon crystal surface showed 

in clear, contrasted detail the domain structure below the 10 nm level, though they were obtained in only a three-minute scan of the sample. Other illustrations portrayed 

domains on crystalline iron and cobalt surfaces and Permalloy computer 

memory elements, with similar clarity. 

The next order of business for the NIST group was to compare the SEMPA 

technique with magneto-optical Kerr microscopy (MO), using measurements of surface 

domain-wall magnetization profiles in a Permalloy film and micromagnetic theory. 

With the collaboration of P. J. Ryan of Seagate Technology, Inc., they found that the 

two methods, substantially different in principle, produced similar domain-wall 

magnetization profiles (though the MO resolution was limited to about 200 nm) and 

similar analytical results with the use of bulk specimen parameters.'37 

Peeking at Piconieters With a Scanning Tunneling Microscope 

The electron physics group pursued a goal of refining the resolution of the scanning 

tunneling microscope (STM) on conductive surfaces. During this period, they developed the capability of routinely observing picometer-sized structures—individual 

atoms—on metal and semiconductor surfaces, offering seemingly endless possibilities 

for both science and technology. 

In one example of the use of the STM at its best resolving power, Lloyd J. 

Whitman, Joseph A. Stroscio, Robert A. Dragoset, and Robert J. Celotta presented 

topographic images of the surface of an InSb (110) crystal face at the atomic level of 

resolution. The presence of unfilled electron bonds at the surface made InSb an interesting subject for study. In the words of the authors, . . . the occupied surface 

state density, observed when tunneling from the sample to the STM tip, is concentrated on the group-V anion, and the unoccupied state density, observed when tunneling 

from tip to sample, is on the group-Ill cation." Both tunneling directions were illustrated in the discussion. 

136 M. R, Scheinfein. J. Unguris, M. H. Kelley, D. T. Pierce, and R. J. Celotta. "Scanning electron 

microscopy with polarization analysis (SEMPA)," Rev. Sci. lnstru,n. 61, No. 10. 250 1-2526 (1990). 

'° M. R. Scheinfein. P. J. Ryan. J. Unguris, D. T. Pierce, and R. J. Celotta, "180° surface domain wall 

magnetization profiles: Comparisons between scanning electron microscopy with polarization analysis 

measurements, magneto-optical Kerr microscopy measurements and rnicromagnetic models," App!. Phys. 

Let!. 57. No. 17. 18 17-1819 (1990). 

311 L. J. Whitman, Joseph A. Stroscio, R. A. Dragoset, and R. J. Celotta, "A scanning tunneling microscopy 

study of clean and Cs-covered lnSb (110)." J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B9, No. 2. 770-774 (1991). 

718 
The authors obtained a clean (110) surface by cleaving the InSb crystal under high 

vacuum—pressure less than Pa. Vertical resolution on the surface was typically 

2 picometers. 

Occasionally, the researchers found defects in the sample surface, which they 

ascribed to missing Sb atoms or to missing In and Sb pairs. These images, too, were presented in the paper. 

A handsome perspective figure was formed by adsorbed Cs atoms, introduced by 

room-temperature deposition. The prefelTed modes of arrangement of the adsorbed Cs 

were easily seen in the image. 

X-Ray Optics Characterization Facility 

The capability for x-ray optics characterization at the Synchrotron Ultraviolet 

Research Facility (SURF-Il) was described by James R. Roberts, J. Kerner, and 

Edward B. Saloman.'39 The 300 MeV synchrotron source provided radiation from 5 nm through the visible portion of the spectrum. A turning mirror directed the SURF beam 

towards a 2.2 m grazing-incidence grating monochromator and thence to a reflectometer, all within a vacuum of about Pa. A sample manipulator allowed various 

irradiation angles and directions to be used. This feature allowed, for example, study of 

the response of the sample to radiation polarization. 

The authors illustrated the capability of the x-ray unit with a graph showing the 

reflectance of a 10-layer molybdenum-silicon sample in the range 12 nm to 17 nm. The 

reflectance peak of the sample at the second spacing of 13.8 nm was very clearly 

displayed. 

Ideas for improvement of the facility were presented, too. These included better use of the shortest wavelengths of the SURF radiation and improvements in the monochromator, the reflectometer, and the data-acquisition system. A multi-divisional drive to 

create a new beam line was funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects 

Agency in 1991. Development and installation of the new hardware was the responsibility of David L. Ederer, Thomas B. Lucatorto, Robert P. Madden, and Richard 

N. Watts. 

Theories of High-Temperature Superconductivity 

The interactions underlying the phenomenon of high-temperature superconductivity 

were not understood in 1991, although many theorists were investigating the problem. 

The Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) theory, so successful in accounting for most 

details of "ordinary" metallic superconductivity since 1957, appeared to need modifications to fit the newer oxide-superconductor properties. 

David R. Penn collaborated with T. W. Barbee and Marvin L. Cohen to explore 

tenable theories and to explain some of the limitations that any successful theory must 

meet. Cohen was well-equipped for the task, having earlier predicted the occurrence 

of superconductivity in semiconducting materials such as SrTiO3, which closely 

resembled the oxides. 

J. R. Roberts, J. Kemer, and E. B. Saloman, "Soft x-ray optics characterization on SURF 11,' Physica 

Scripia 41, pp. 9-12 (1990). 

719 
The authors suggested that simple modifications of the phonon-based BCS and 

Eliashberg theories might be useful, but that such modifications must accurately 

represent several experimental parameters of the newer superconductors, including the 

high superconducting transition temperatures, the relatively small isotope effect, the 

jump in the heat capacity at the transition temperature, and the ratio of the superconducting energy gap to the transition temperature. Historically, the presence of a strong isotope effect had been taken as evidence for the participation of phonons in the 

superconductive interaction, whereas the energy gap ratio and the heat capacity 

anonialy at the transition temperature were used to distinguish between strong-coupling 

and weak-coupling superconductors. 

In their study, the authors focused on the established properties of several high-Tv 

materials, including the bismuth-strontium-calcium-copper-oxygen system, the yttriumbarium-copper-oxygen system, and the lanthanum-strontium-copper-oxygen system. 

They restricted their calculations to mechanisms that included at least some phonon 

participation, possibly in combination with electronic interactions. They pointed out 

that, for purely electronic mechanisms, the isotope effect would necessarily be insignificant since the ionic lattice mass would make no contribution to the superconductive 

interaction. 

Penn and his colleagues expressed the view that neither a purely phononic nor a purely electronic mechanism was consistent with all of the existing experimental data. 

They postulated that a combined phonon-electron mechanism should be able to account 

for all the experimental results on the high-T. materials, but confessed that, for the 

moment, no existing theory appeared to fit all of the experimental data. '4° 

Atomic Physics, Wolfgang L. Wiese, chief 

Calibrating the Hubble Space Spectrograph 

Joseph Reader and Craig J. Sansonetti helped NASA calibrate the high-resolution 

spectrograph of the Hubble Space Telescope during 1991. The wavelength calibration 

for the spectrograph consisted of an atlas of some 3000 lines of the platinum-neon 

spectrum in the range 103.2 nm to 410 nm for use with on-board platinum lamps. 

Reader and Sansonetti measured the lines with a NIST 10.7 m vacuum spectrograph 

and used photon-counting detection to obtain relative line intensities accurate within 

about 20 %. 

Besides the high-resolution spectrograph, the NIST results were used to calibrate the 

Hubble's Faint Object Spectrograph, to calibrate other satellite and rocket-borne 

spectrometers, and for laboratory ultraviolet spectroscopes. 

A New Test of Quantum Electrodynamics 

Increasingly accurate calculations and experiments in atomic and elementary particle 

physics provided rigorous testing of the theory of quantum electrodynamics (QED) 

during this period. Even more stringent tests were possible by examining the Lamb 

shift in two-electron systems such as helium. 

W. Barbee, Ill, Marvin L. Cohen, and David R. Penn, "Experimental constraints on some mechanisms 

for high-temperature superconductivity," Phys. Rev. B44, No. 9, 4473-4479 (1991). 

720 
Craig J. Sansonetti, John D. Gillaspy, and Chris L. Cromer took up the QED 

challenge by measuring the energy of the 2'S—3'P transition in 4He, using Doppler-free 

laser spectroscopy. "i' They considered their measurement, 19931 .924794 cm', accurate 

within 0.000045 order of magnitude improvement over the uncertainty of 

previous experiments. 

Key to the success of the experiment was the careful use of up-to-date equipment 

and techniques. The authors created a beam of metastable helium atoms, tightly 

collimated to reduce the Doppler effect to a value much smaller than the width of the 

transition. This arrangement gave them access to the 2'S state of helium. Radiation 

from a calibrated cw laser intersected the helium beam, exciting helium molecules to 

the 3'P state. The process of fitting the metastable depletion curve yielded values for 

the line center and width. The experiment was repeated so as to generate more than 

40 independent values, which averaged to the value quoted. 

Comparison with QED theory was made through evaluation of the calculated Lamb 

shift in the binding energy of the 2'S state in helium, which was expected to be 

relatively large in the NIST experiment. The authors found their result to be significantly different from the value predicted on the basis of then-current QED theory. 

Atomic Spectroscopy Data 

Atomic transition probabilities for the five iron-group elements—scandium, titanium, 

vanadium, chromium, and manganese—(some 8800 spectral lines in all) were compiled 

for the Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data after critical evaluation 

by Georgia A. Martin, Jeffrey R. Fuhr, and Wolfgang L. Wiese. The data were collated 

for easy reference. Separate tables were included for each element and stage of 

ionization, with subdivisions for allowed and forbidden transitions and a subdivision 

for multiplets. For each line, data included the transition probability for spontaneous 

emission, line strength, spectroscopic designation, wavelength, statistical weight, and 

the connecting energy levels.'42 

Wiese also offered a critical evaluation of emission spectroscopic experimental data on the prominent spectral lines of argon I and argon II in an effort to reduce wellknown discrepancies of 30 % to 40 % in argon atomic transition probabilities. For the 

argon I case, the analysis was successful in reducing the discrepancies to ±5 %; Wiese 

reported only minimal improvement for argon II. "° 

Also during this period, William C. Martin and Wiese embarked on a new project 

for the benefit of all spectroscopists but especially for scientists working in astronomy 

and the fusion programs. The work would be incorporated into the Atomic 

141 Craig J. Sansonetti. J. D. Gillaspy. and C. L. Cromer, "Precise experimental test of calculated twoelectron Lamb shifts in helium," Phys. Rev. Len'. 65, No. 20, pp. 2539-2542 (1990). 42 0. A. Martin, J. R. Fuhr, and W. L. Wiese, "Atomic transition probabilities scandium through manganese." Suppl No. 3, J. Phys. Che,n. Ref Data 17, 1988, 531 pp. 

W. L. Wiese, "Atomic transition probabilities of argon: a continuing challenge to plasma spectroscopy," J. 

Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer 40, No. 3, 421-427 (1988). 

721 
Jeffrey R. Fuhr (left), a physicist in the NIST Atomic Physics Division. demonstrated 

the wall-stabilized arc to Wolfgang L. Wiese. chief of the division. The arc is an intense source of optical radiation. 

Energy Levels Data Center. Their plan was to add to a critically evaluated, digital 

database for spectroscopy—wavelengths, energy levels, and transition probabilities for 

atoms and their ions. The database was arranged for easy access by computer. Data 

could be retrieved in a number of ways—by species or by wavelength range, for 

example. Wavelengths were included from 0.1 nm to the mm range. 

By 1991, spectra of multiply ionized vanadium, cobalt, and chromium and wavelengths and energy levels for aluminum and germanium had been added to the data set. 

Ultra violet Calibration for Semiconductor Processing 

Mervyn J. Bridges and James R. Roberts provided special assistance to the semiconductor industry to correct a processing problem. In photolithography—the use of 

light to create etch patterns on semiconductors—intense ultraviolet (UV) radiation was used in conjunction with photomasks as a precursor to etching the semiconductor 

surface to form the patterns needed for integrated circuits. Controlling the UV 

exposure was accomplished by trial and error, however, for lack of adequate UV 

standards. 

The NIST researchers characterized two types of radiometers for SEMATECH, the 

consortium undertaking development of the new process. Calibration of UV response 

and the effects of irradiation variables were included in the study, which turned up 

several unexpected problems with the methods then in use in photolithography. With 

the collaboration of scientists from the Radiometric Physics Division, Bridges and 

Roberts also developed a new spectroradiometer for semiconductor work. 

722 
Molecular Physics, Alfons Weber, chief 

Infrared Spectroscopy of Chemical Complexes 

Infrared and microwave spectroscopy of chemical complexes occupied considerable 

attention in the Molecular Physics Division during this period. A number of different 

complexes were investigated from as many different points of view. 

Both infrared and microwave techniques were used by NIST scientists Gerald T. 

Fraser, Richard D. Suenram, Frank J. Lovas, Alan S. Pine, Jon T. Hougen, and Walter 

J. Lafferty in collaboration with J. S. Muenter of the University of Rochester in a study of tunneling in the dimer of acetylene. 

One question asked by the group concerned the structure of the dimer and the 

possible presence of isomers—rarely seen in adiabatic expansion experiments. In the 

region of the H-C stretching fundamental, an infrared spectrum was obtained with an optothermal molecular-beam color-center laser spectrometer. A pulsed-nozzle Fourier 

transform microwave spectrometer was used to examine the ground state of the 

vibrational modes. 

The authors interpreted their results as arising from a single isomer which showed 

internal-rotation tunneling. The wealth of spectral data yielded considerable other 

molecular information as well.'44 

During the same period, Fraser, Pine, and Suenram teamed with W. A. Kreiner of 

the University of Ulm, Germany, to obtain the infrared spectrum of the NCH-NH3 

complex. The team was particularly interested in the structure and dynamics of the 

hydrogen-bonded complex. A molecular-beam apparatus was used to form the complex 

by adiabatic expansion of a gas mixture of NH3 and HCN in helium through a 40 

diameter nozzle. The driving pressure through the nozzle was varied between 100 kPa 

and 300 kPa. A silicon bolometer cooled by liquid helium served as the detector. 

The group obtained a rich spectrum of infrared and microwave transitions for the 

complex. By the use of applicable theory, these were identified with particular 

vibrations of the complex, including the "umbrella" mode of NH3. Discussion of the 

results focused on a shift of the vibration frequency to lower values than had been seen 

in other NH3 complexes.'45 

Pine and Fraser collaborated with M.—L. Junttila of the Helsinki University of 

Technology in Finland and J. L. Domenech of the Materials Institute in Madrid, Spain, 

to perform a similar experiment on benzene.'46 Since benzene, with a center of 

G. T. Fraser, R. D. Suenram, F. J. Lovas, A. S. Pine, J. T. 1-lougen. W. J. Lafferty. and J. S. Muenter. 

"Infrared and microwave investigations of inter-conversion tunneling in the acetylene dimer," J. Chem. Phys. 

89, No. 10, pp. 6028-6045 (1988). 

"° G. T. Fraser, A. S. Pine. W. A. Kreiner, and R. D. Suenram. "Optothermal-detected microwave-sideband 

C02-laser spectroscopy of NCH-NH3," Chemical Physics 156. pp. 523-531 (1991). 

M.—L. Junttila, J. L. Domenech, G. T. Fraser, and A. S. Pine, "Molecular-beam optothermal spectroscopy 

of the 9.6 p.m v,4 band of benzene," Journal of Molecular Spectroscopy 147, 5 13-520 (1991). 

723 
symmetry, had no microwave spectrum, it was necessary to determine its ground-state 

rotational constants indirectly. The authors noted that experimentally determined values 

of these constants from different laboratories varied by larger amounts than the 

experimental uncertainties would warrant. 

The authors were able to perform collisionless molecular-beam spectroscopy experiments on benzene. They hoped to provide high-quality calibration standards in the 

range around 10 for a variety of purposes. They used laser excitation on a benzene-helium gas vapor that was directed through a flow-controlled nozzle. Doppler 

shifts were minimized by crossing the laser beam and the molecular beam at nearly a right angle. They recorded spectral transitions in the v,4 band of benzene. This 

information enabled them to determine ground-state molecular constants with improved 

accuracy, thus reaching their goal of providing a new calibration standard. 

Picosecond Energy Transfer on Surfaces 

Molecular Physics Division researchers Michael P. Casassa, Edwin J. Heilweil, and 

John C. Stephenson teamed with John D. Beckerle and Richard R. Cavanagh of the 

Surface and Microanalysis Division to investigate the ultrafast exchange of energy 

between adsorbed gases and metallic surfaces.'47 They were able to reach picosecond 

tinie resolution by observing with infrared spectroscopy the creation and relaxation of 

excited states in CO molecules absorbed on a platinum single crystal. An intense 

picosecond laser pulse at about 2105 cm' was used to excite a stretching band in Co. 

Then a much weaker, time-delayed probe pulse monitored the recovery of the surface 

absorption. 

It was the first direct measurement of the time scale of energy transfer in a vibrationally excited, ordered monolayer bound to a metal single-crystal surface. The 

authors discussed the results in terms of transitions from the excited band of the 

adsorbed CO molecules to overtone levels. 

Orientation Effects in Chemical Reactions 

Interest in the effects of orientation on the progress of chemical reactions led Lovas 

and Suenram to collaborate with scientists from three universities on a study of 

bimolecular gas-phase reactions. Joining the NIST researchers were C. W. Gillies of 

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, J. Z. Gillies of Union College, and E. Kraka and 

D. Cremer of the University of Goteborg, Sweden. 

The authors took a direct approach to obtaining the orientation of the reactants in a mixture of ethylene and ozone, sampling the reacting process in a pulsed-beam nozzle. 

Dilute concentrations of ozone and ethylene in argon were separately fed to the 

high-pressure side of a pulsed solenoid valve, which served both as a flow reactor for 

the formation of formaldehyde as a reaction product and as a sampling device for 

study of the reaction. The Van der Waals complexes formed in the pulsed-nozzle 

expansions of 0.2 ms to 0.4 ms duration, repeated up to 10 times per second, were 

detected in the Fabry-Perot cavity of a Fourier-transform microwave spectrometer. 

J. D. Beckeric, M. P. Casassa, R. R. Cavanagh, E. J. Heilweil, and J. C. Stephenson, "Ultrafast infrared 

response of adsorbates on metal surfaces: vibrational lifetime of CO/Pt (Ill)," Phys. Rev. Leir. 64, No. 17, 

2090-2093 (1990). 

724 
Both microwave data and calculations were used to determine the geometry of the 

complex, its internal motion, and its stability. The authors were able to deduce the 

likely orientation of the reactants at large separations along the reaction coordinate and 

to estimate the stability of the Van der Waals complex involved in the reaction. 

Vibrational Spectra of Acetylene Ions 

Ionization in planetary atmospheres of simple molecules such as acetylene was known to be an important extraterrestrial chemical process. Partly for that reason, study 

of acetylene and its fragments attracted the interest of Marilyn E. Jacox and two NIST 

guest scientists, Daniel Forney and Warren E. Thompson.'49 Earlier experiments in 

Jacox' laboratory had evolved a new technique for producing molecular ions trapped in 

solid neon; the infrared spectra of several ions, including and COP, were obtained in this fashion. Jacox and her colleagues hoped to use similar experimental 

methods to study 

The authors co-deposited an acetylene-neon mixture at low temperatures—about 

5 K—along with neon that had been subjected to a microwave discharge. Absorption 

spectra of the deposits were obtained using a Fourier-transform interferometer. Further 

information on the materials was obtained by subjecting them to a variety of visible 

and ultraviolet irradiations. 

Sure enough, the trio of researchers found spectral evidence that permitted the 

assignment of an infrared absorption to the positively charged acetylene ion, as well as a line attributed to the HCC- fragment, detected through identification of the known 

CC-stretch absorption frequency. Their identificajion of the cation in the neon- matrix experiments led them to postulate that the spectrum shifted strongly as a result 

of a change in polarizability from an argon matrix to a less-polarizable neon matrix. 

In an earlier study involving a similar sampling technique but employing an argon 

matrix and an argon excitation source, Jacox and W. Bruce Olson had discovered an extremely complex series of absorption bands in the near infrared spectral region. They 

were able to show that these bands arose in the HCC fragment.'50 Only a few of these 

bands had been seen in the gas phase, and they corresponded closely with the HCC 

bands found in solid argon. Daniel Forney, Marilyn Jacox, and Warren Thompson 

studied these bands later using HCC and DCC trapped in solid neon. They proposed a detailed spectroscopic assignment for the band system. 

C. W. Gillies. J. Z. Gillies, R. D. Suenram, F. J. Lovas, E. Kraka, and D. Cremer. "Van der Waals 

complexes in I, 3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions: Ozone-ethylene." J. Am. Chem. Soc. 113, No. 7, pp. 

2412-2421 (1991). 149 Daniel Forney, Marilyn E. Jacox. and Warren E. Thompson, "The vibrational spectra of molecular ions 

isolated in solid neon: and HCC," Spectroscopy 153. 680-691 (1992). 

Marilyn E. Jacox and W. Bruce Olson, "The A 2fl—X transition of HC2 isolated in solid argon," J. 

Che,n. Phys. 86. No. 6, 3134-3142 (1987). 

151 Daniel Forney, Marilyn E. Jacox, and Warren E. Thompson, "The infrared and near-infrared spectra of 

HCC and DCC trapped in solid neon," J. Molecular Spectroscopy 170, 178-2 14 (1995). 

725 
Radiometric Physics, Klaus D. Mielenz, chief, succeeded by Albert C. Parr in 1991 

Absolute Cryogenic Radiometer 

One of the new research tools in the Radiometric Physics Division during this period was an absolute radiometer that employed cryogenic radiation collection and energy 

evaluation by electrical substitution. The instrument was based upon a development of 

Martin L. Reilly and Defoe C. Ginnings (see Electrical SubstitutiOn Radiometry in Ch. 

4) which was brought to the stage of demonstrated high-accuracy radiometry by Ter- ence J. Quinn and John Martin of the National Physical Laboratory in England. Later, a NIST group collaborated with NPL physicists in the development of a similar instrument for the NIST radiometer calibration program. The cryogenic radiometer, 

operating near 5 K, incorporated smaller and simpler corrections than instruments 

operating at higher temperatures. Its radiometric measurement uncertainty was 

estimated at 0.01 %. Jeanne M. Houston operated the instrument for the calibration 

program. 

More on Silicon Photoderectors 

We described the initial stages of detector-based radiometry in the section entitled 

Progress in Optical Radiation Measurements in Ch. 3. During the tenure of John 

Lyons, analysis of the response of silicon to radiant energy continued. Jon Geist and 

Alan Migdall collaborated with Henry Baltes, a guest scientist from the ETH Institute 

of Quantum Electronics in Zurich, Switzerland, in a detailed study of the silicon 

absorption coefficient in the spectral range near 760 nm (1.63 eV). They sought to 

verify or refute evidence obtained in optical density spectra by NIST scientists Richard 

A. Forman and W. Robert Thurber, working with David E. Aspnes of the Murray Hill, 

New Jersey, Bell Telephone Laboratories research center, that an indirect transition 

occurred in silicon at that energy. 

For their investigation, Geist, Migdall, and Baltes employed a stabilized ring dye 

laser to irradiate a 100 thick, 2.5 cm diameter wafer of high-purity silicon. The 

silicon wafer, held at a 45° angle to the laser beam, was backed by a calibrated silicon 

photodiode, so that accurate measurements could be obtained of its absorption 

coefficient. They found a smooth absorption spectrum in the range 1.61 eV to 1.65 eV, 

with no features as large as a few parts in 1000 that would support the existence of a transition at 1 .63 eV. 

In a study intended to provide the best available accuracy for the silicon absorption 

coefficient at 633 nm, Geist, Jun-Feng Song, Yun Hsia Wang, and Edward F. Zalewski 

of NIST, in collaboration with A. Russell Schaefer, a former NIST colleague then at 

Science Applications International Corporation of San Diego, derived a value of 

(3105±62) cm'. Their value was lower by about 15% than handbook values but they 

believed it to be more accurate by virtue of improved sample quality and more reliable 

thickness and transmittance measurements. 52 

152 Jon Geist. Alan Migdall. and Henry BaRes. "Shape of the silicon absorption coefficient spectrum near 1.63 Applied Optics 29. No. 24. 3548-3554 (1990). See also Jon Geist, A. Russell Schaefer. Jun-Feng 

Song. Yun Hsia Wang. and Edward F. Zalewski, "An accurate value for the absorption coefficient of silicon at 633 nm," J. Res. N/ST 95, No. 5,549-558 (1990). 

726 
On the automated spectral comparator facility, physicists Jeanne M. Houston and Chris L. Cromer aligned 

the silicon photodiode light traps that were used in photodetector research and calibration. 

Lott' Background Infrared Calibration Facility 

The Bureau's Low Background Infrared Calibration Facility (LBIR), discarded in 

1985 because of old age and high maintenance costs, was reborn in 1991 at the hands 

of Raju Datla, Steven Lorentz, and Stephen C. Ebner. Datla designed an infrared 

monochromator for the spectral calibration of infrared sources—principally blackbody 

devices, detectors, and optical components. Lorentz developed a laser-based infrared 

source to provide radiation in the range 2 to 25 rim. Ebner was responsible for 

development of a low background blackbody source. The Department of Defense contributed funds for the resurrection because of the 

national need for the calibration capability. 

Datla, Ebner, James Proctor. and Albert C. Parr described the new LBIR facility in 

NIST Handbook /47.153 The facility was placed within a class 10,000 cleanroom 4.3 m by 5.2 m by 3.2 m high, with storage and assembly space outside. A closed-cycle helium refrigerator, built by Donald McDonald and Joseph Sauvageau of the Boulder 

Electromagnetic Technology Division, provided cooling to 2 K for the instrumentation. 

R. U. Datla. S. C. Ebner, J. Proctor, and A. C. Parr, "LBIR Facility User Handbook." N/ST Handbook 

/47, June 1991,23 pp. 

727 
A vacuum tank capable of reaching pressures as low as Pa housed the radiation source to be calibrated, as well as the detector. The standard detector was an absolute 

cryogenic radiometer (ACR) of the type described earlier in this section. It absorbed 

more than 99.5 % of all incoming radiation in the spectral range 0.3 i.i.m to 30 p.m, 

providing an overall uncertainty of I %. Electrical substitution radiometry was used for 

the measurement of radiative flux. The ACR could be placed in any of three positions 

along the optic axis of the system to accommodate sources with different radiant 

fluxes. 

Data collection was performed with a menu-driven computer program that incorporated data files, data reduction, and plotting routines. 

Cleanliness, both within the cleanroom and within the vacuum tank, were considered 

vital. Hydrocarbon contamination of the vacuum tank was especially minimized to 

preserve the quality of the LBIR optics. Instructions were presented to guide the user 

in pieparing for clean and accurate calibrations. 

Quantum Metrology, Richard D. Deslattes, chief 

Lattice Period of Silicon 

Richard D. Deslattes and Ernest G. Kessler, Jr. described for the 1990 Conference on Precision Electromagnetic Measurements the current status of measurements of the 

lattice spacing in silicon. The discussion necessarily included an update on the 

division's recently modified x-ray/optical interferometry experiment (XROI). 

The XROI experiment, contained in an ion-pumped, thermostated vacuum chamber, was protected from most mechanical vibration by an air spring, a granite support, and an acoustically damped enclosure. Recent additions to the experimental setup 

included two new laser systems and a revised computer automation capability. One of 

the lasers, a variable-frequency local oscillator, was monitored continuously by an iodine-stabilized He-Ne laser used as the system reference. The other laser had a fixed 

frequency; it was used to monitor the trajectory of measurement components. 

Measurements of the silicon lattice distance involved excursions of about 280 optical 

orders, traversed back and forth over periods of 10 h to 20 h. At each measurement 

point, the x-ray phase was determined by x-ray intensity measurements. The effect on the x-ray phase of pitch and yaw errors was estimated as trajectory curvature. 

The primary output data of the XROI-silicon experiment was the rate of change of 

the x-ray phase with respect to distance covered within the crystal. Uncertainty in the 

silicon lattice spacing remained at a level of about 0.3 ppm, despite the XROI intrinsic 

capability for more accurate measurement. With the use of a double-crystal Laue x-ray 

spectrometer, stated the authors, lattice parameters of silicon crystals could be 

compared with an uncertainty less than a tenth as large. 

54 Richard D. Deslattes and Ernest G. Kessler, Jr., "Status of a silicon lattice measurement and dissemination 

exercise." IEEE Transactions on lnstru,nentation and Measurement 40, No. 2, 92-97 (1991). 

The authors noted, however, that noises from nearby traffic and wind outside the building were easily 

detectable. 

728 
Polarized X-Ray Emission Spectroscopy 

Capitalizing on earlier studies using synchrotron radiation to excite polarized x rays 

from molecules in the gas phase, Dennis W. Lindle, Paul L. Cowan, Terrence Jach, 

Robert E. LaVilla, Richard D. Deslattes, and their colleague R. C. C. Perera of the 

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory undertook a detailed investigation of four chlorinated 

methane compounds—CH3CI, CF3CI, CF2CI2, and CFCI3.'56 

The group found that they could observe highly polarized molecular valence x-ray 

fluorescence from each of the test gases. Their experiments made use of x rays from 

the NIST synchrotron light source that were energy-selected by a large-aperture 

double-crystal monochromator, providing a well-resolved, intense excitation beam. 

Ionization chambers monitored both incident and transmitted flux, allowing the team to 

determine relative photoabsorption cross sections as a function of photon energy for 

each sample. A Johann-geometry secondary spectrometer analyzed the x-ray emission; use of a silicon crystal in connection with the secondary spectrometer provided 

polarization analysis of the emitted radiation. 

A wealth of information on the x-ray emission properties of the test molecules came 

from the experiments, leading the researchers to observe that the degree and the 

direction of x-ray polarization in the chlorinated methanes was sensitive to the initial 

excitation energy in the core level region, and sensitive as well to the symmetry 

properties of the valence molecular orbitals involved in the x-ray emission process. 

Shortly after completing the experiments described above, Lindle and Cowan, 

collaborating with Stephen H. Southworth and R. Mayer, found a strong anisotropy in 

the polarized chlorine K-V x rays emitted following resonant excitation of CF3CI gas 

with a linearly polarized x-ray beam. It was the first such observation.'57 

Previously it had been supposed that observation of anisotropic x-ray emission from 

molecular crystals and other solids arose from ordering inherent to the crystalline 

lattice structures; gas-phase samples were expected to exhibit isotropic x-ray emission. 

But not so, said the authors—excitation by an incident beam could leave an atom or a molecule in an anisotropic state, which then could influence subsequent photon 

emission. 

The authors accomplished their feat in a fashion similar to the experiment described 

previously. Linearly polarized x rays from the NIST synchrotron light source were used 

to excite CF3CI molecules to energies near the Cl K edge, and the Cl K-V 

fluorescence emitted normal to the incident beam was analyzed using a curved-crystal 

spectrometer. The entire Cl K-V spectrum was analyzed at once by a position-sensitive 

56 D. W. Lindle, P. L. Cowan, T. Jach, R. E. LaVilla, R. D. Deslattes, and R. C. C. Perera. "Polarized x-ray 

emission studies of methyl chloride and the chlorofluoromethanes," Phys. Rev. A43, No. 5, 2353-2366 

(1991). 

S. H. Southworth, D. W. Lindle. R. Mayer, and P. L. Cowan, "Anisotropy of polarized x-ray emission 

from molecules," Phys. Rev. Left. 67, No. 9, 1098-1101 (1991). 

729 
proportional counter. Angular distribution of the x-ray emission was made possible by 

rotating the target chamber and the emission spectrometer. Variation in the energy of 

the exciting beam produced different patterns, interpreted by the researchers as representing the properties of different quantum levels of the target molecule. The 

authors were able to describe their results in terms of a classical model of the x-ray 

absorption-emission process. 

Ionizing Radiation, Randall S. Caswell, chief 

Radon, Invader of Homes 

During the 1970s, environmentalists throughout the world became aware that radon 

gas, mainly in the form of 222Rn, was seeping from the earth into certain dwellings, 

exposing the occupants to a low-level hazard from radioactivity. NBS quickly 

developed two approaches to ameliorate the radon problem. One provided a device to 

evaluate the natural rate of exchange of air between the inside and outside of homes. 

Owners of homes with rapid air exchange had little reason to fear a buildup of radon 

within their homes. 

The other program involved detection of radon and the creation of standards of 

measurement for its concentration within homes. The radioisotope 222Rn is a decay 

product of radioactive 226Ra. The 4 day half-life of 222Rn is short compared to the 1600 

year half-life of its radium parent, which occurs naturally in many areas. The ubiquity 

and striking variability in concentration of radon gas was described simply by 

Kiement: 

Radon is released as a decay product [of 226Ra] from soils, rocks, waters, and 

building materials. It is also contained in natural gas and other fossil fuels. 

Radon concentrations vary considerably from place to place and from time to 

time. 

The enormous variability in concentration of terrestrial radon gas, plus the fact that 

its decay half-life was only 4 days, made it a challenging problem for standards 

scientists. In June 1989, a I day seminar in Braunschweig, Germany, brought 

together an international group of scientists who shared information about efforts in 

their own countries to perfect calibration schemes for use in radon detection programs 

operated by state and local governments. According to J. M. Robin Hutchinson, the 

favored methods for detection and quantification of radon gas involved ion izationchamber or scintillation-cell measurements of alpha particles emitted by 222Rn samples, 

and gamma-ray measurements of radon decay products. 59 

58 Alfred W. Klement. Jr.. "Natural sources of environmental radiation." section in CRC Handbook of 

Environ,nental Radiation (Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. Inc. 1982), Alfred W. Klement, Jr.. editor. 

pp. 5-22. J. M. R. Hutchinson, "Radon measurement standards and calibration," Preface to issue No. 2, J. Res. 

N/ST 95. (1990). 

730 
The NIST calibration system was described by R. Collé, Hutchinson, and M. P. Unterweger. The system used as its reference 226Ra sources three Standard Reference Materials consisting of radium solutions of different concentrations. The radon gas generated by the decay of the radium atoms in solution was separated from the 

solution in a gas-handling system, then the alpha particles resulting from the decay of 

the radon atoms were detected in pulse ionization chambers. NIST used the ionization 

chambers preferentially because of their stability. 

Perfecting a Radioactive Standard 

Because was under consideration in the l990s as a therapeutic radioactive 

isotope, it was important to understand its half-life and its types and levels of radioactive decay. Bert M. Coursey, Jeffrey Cessna, Dale D. Hoppes, Frank J. Schima, and 

Michael P. Unterweger, along with their colleagues E. Garcia-Torano, A. Grau 

Malonda, J. M. Los Arcos, and M. T. Martin-Casallo of the Center for the Investigation of Energy and Technology of Madrid, Spain, and D. B. Golas and D. H. Gray of 

the U.S. Council for Energy Awareness in Washington, DC, undertook this task.'6' 

Much was already known about the decay scheme. The isotope decayed with a half-life of about 89 hours by electron capture to '56W and by beta-emission to 

Radiation associated with the decay included a 1 MeV beta particle, a 940 keV beta 

particle, and gamma rays of 123 keV and 137 keV. 

Using samples obtained commercially in the form of dilute solutions of sodium 

perrhenate in saline solution, the group employed a method of liquid-scintillation 

efficiency tracing—developed jointly by their two institutions—to standardize the 

activity of the radionuclide. The team then made use of standard solutions to prepare 

calibration sources for semiconductor spectrometer measurements of the x-ray and 

gamma-ray probabilities per decay. They also determined the '86Re half-life and 

obtained calibration factors for the NIST primary ionization chamber. 

Taking account of detectable radioactive impurities in their samples, the group 

obtained a value for the half-life of 89.25 ±0.07 h. 

Estimating Absorbed Dose in Food Processing 

An important feature of the use of ionizing radiation for the sterilization of foods 

was the accurate determination of the amount of radiation absorbed during the sterilization process. A multinational group including Marc F. Desrosiers of NIST, G. L. 

Wilson and D. R. Hutton of the Department of Physics at Monash University in 

Victoria, Australia, and C. R. Hunter of the Monash Department of Anatomy offered an evaluation method based on electron paramagnetic resonance measurements of 

irradiated food samples. 

R. Collé. J. M. R. Hutchinson, and M. P. Unterweger. "The NIST primary radon-222 measurement system," J.Res. N/ST 95. 155-165 (1990). B. M. Coursey. J. Cessna. E. Garcia-Torano. D. B. Golas, A. Grau Malonda. 0. H. Gray, 0. D. Hoppes, 

J. M. Los Arcos. M. T. Martin-Casallo. F. J. Schima, and M. P. Unterweger. "The standardization and decay 

scheme of rhenium- 186." Applied Radiation and Isotopes 42. No. 9. 865-869 (1991). 

731 
Effects from the irradiation of foods were known to show up later in certain 

analyses by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) of bone samples. By re-irradiating 

samples, one could generate curves of EPR signal amplitude vs radiation dosage; 

extrapolating such curves back to zero signal amplitude then provided an estimate of 

the initial dose. The EPR signals persisted much longer than the shelf life of the irradiated foods, thus potentially providing a suitable standardized method for evaluating 

initial doses in the radiation-processing method. 

The group focused their efforts on mathematical methods for best analyzing the EPR 

signal strength-dosage data to provide the most accurate estimates of initial dose. They 

irradiated samples prepared from ground chicken bones with various measured doses 

from a '37Cs gamma-ray source. The first irradiation in each case was assumed to be 

the "initial" dose; subsequent irradiation doses were analyzed to derive experimental 

estimates of the initial dose. 

For initial doses at levels 0.5 kGy and 1.76 kGy, a simple linear plot of dose vs signal amplitude provided acceptable estimates of the initial dose. However, initial 

doses as high as the legal maximum for chicken processing—8 kGy in certain 

countries—were estimated less well by the linear approach. Possible complicating 

features of the method, particularly an unexpected variation in the stablility of the EPR 

signal amplitude with time after irradiation and a dosage dependence different from 

linear, were contemplated by the group. In a follow-up article, Desrosiers utilized a response function in which the EPR signal intensity varied with the dose in an exponential manner. This step provided more accurate estimates of initial radiation 

dosages.'62 

Radiation Transport Theory and Martin J. Berger 

During April 1990, a Symposium on the Physics of Electron Transport was held at 

NIST/Gaithersburg in honor of Martin J. Berger, a major contributor to the field during 

his 36 years at NBS/NIST that ended with his retirement in 1988. The symposium 

was attended by more than 60 colleagues from North America and Europe. Three 

sessions held over the 2 days of the symposium featured 8 papers on various aspects of 

the topic, including five presented by Berger and by four of his long-term co-workers 

Ugo Fano, Lewis V. Spencer, Stephen M. Seltzer, and Mitio Inokuti.'63 

62 M. F. Desrosiers, G. L. Wilson, C. R. Hunter, and D. R. Hutton, "Estimation of the absorbed dose in 

radiation-processed food—I. Test of the EPR response function by a linear regression analysis," App!. 

Radiation and Isotopes 42. No. 7, 613-616 (1991). See also M. F. Desrosiers, "Estimation of the absorbed 

dose in radiation-processed food—2. Test of the EPR response function by an exponential fitting analysis." 

App!. Radiation and Isotopes 42, No. 7. 617-6 19 (1991). 63 Martin J. Berger. "Differences in the multiple scattering of positrons and electrons," App!. Radiation and 

Isotopes 42, No. 10. pp. 905-9 16 (1991); Stephen M. Seltzer, "Electron-photon Monte Carlo calculations: the 

ETRAN codc.' ibid., pp. 9 17-942; Lewis V. Spencer, "Notes on electron penetration," ibid., pp. 943-952; 

U. Fano and Ning-Yi Du. "Dissipative polarization by slow electrons," ibid., pp. 975-978; and Mitio Inokuti, 

"Subexcitation electrons: an appraisal of our understanding," ibid., pp. 979-984. 

732 
In a synopsis of Berger's career, Randall S. Caswell and Robert Loevinger noted 

that Berger had developed a unique approach to photon transport based upon the use of 

Monte Carlo calculations. Identified by the acronym ETRAN, a computer program 

telescoped the multitudinous collisions between ionizing particles and complex media 

into a manageable series of random-walk segments characterized by energy loss and 

directional changes. The program, initially developed in the 1960s, was, they said, still 

the most accurate available for transport calculations. 

Time and Frequency, Donald B. Sullivan, chief 

Rydberg Constant 

One of NIST's contributions to the science of fundamental physical constants that 

has not been discussed elsewhere in this volume came from Howard P. Layer, James 

C. Bergquist, and their colleagues Ping Zhao, W. Lichten, and Zhi-Xiang Zhou from 

Yale University.'64 They performed a new determination of the Rydberg constant, 

providing the value (109 737.315 73±0.000 03) cm'. At the heart of their determinations was the wavelength and frequency reference embodied in a '2712-stabilized 

helium-neon laser. 

The experiment accomplished by Layer, Bergquist and their colleagues involved 

measurement of the 2S-4P line in hydrogen and deuterium. A cw dye laser 

beam was used to quench the metastable atomic beam through the transition, with the 

iodine-stabilized laser serving as the frequency and wavelength standard. The experiment yielded four independent measurements of the Rydberg constant (in cm-'): 

109 737.315 770; 109 737.315 720; 109 737.315 692; and 109 737.315 741. The four 

values differed from the average, 109 737.3 15 731 cm', by no more than 4 parts 

in 1010. 

Essays on Time and Frequency 

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers devoted the July 1991 issue of 

its proceedings to papers on time and frequency. The editors of the special issue were James L. Jesperson and D. Wayne Hanson, veteran staff members of NIST's 

Time and Frequency division. Among the scientists invited to review progress in 

various aspects of the subject, we take note of these: 

• Norman F. Ramsey, emeritus professor of physics at Harvard University, who 

received the 1989 Nobel Prize in physics for work basic to the development of 

atomic time and frequency standards ("The past, present, and future of atomic 

time and frequency"). 

• Donald B. Sullivan and Judah Levine of NIST's Time and Frequency division 

("Time generation and distribution"). 

• Wayne M. Itano, also with the NIST Time and Frequency division ("Atomic ion 

frequency standards"). 

Ping Zhao, W. Lichten, Zhi-Xiang Zhou, H. P. Layer. and J. C. Bergquist, "Rydberg constant and fundamental atomic physics," Phys. Rev. A39, No. 6, pp. 2888-2898 (1989). 

733 
• Steven L. Rolston and William D. Phillips of NIST's Atomic Physics division 

("Laser-cooled neutral atom frequency standards"). 65 • Jacques Rutman, Deputy Director of the French Committee of the International 

Union of Radio Science (URSI), and Fred L. Walls, a senior staff member of 

the Time and Frequency division ("Characterization of frequency stability in 

precision frequency sources"). 

We briefly outline 3 of these contributions in the next sections. 

Stability of Precise Frequency Sources 

Publication of the special issue mentioned above provided a fine opportunity for 

Fred L. Walls and Jacques Rutman to review progress in high-precision frequency 

standards over the past three decades. Their discussion focused on the question of 

stability of frequency sources. 

The authors noted the advent of the cesium beam atomic clock in 1955, which led to 

the commercial manufacture of such time-keepers—-cesium beams and optically 

pumped rubidium clocks—by the thousands. Progress in the quality of oscillators 

controlled by quartz crystals made them useful, too, in such applications as fundamental metrology, telecommunications, space projects, and commercial broadcasting. 

In the early 1960s, the stability of the frequency underlying the chronornetric 

devices was addressed to facilitate comparisons among laboratories and among devices, 

and to assess the relation between frequency stability and satisfactory performance in 

specialized applications. 

Rutman and Walls pointed out that frequency stability of real oscillators could be 

characterized only after considering the nature of such devices. For example, their 

(theoretically) perfect sine-wave outputs were perturbed by random noise or drifts 

caused by aging or environment. Solution of this problem required development of 

mathematical models that could account for such deviations from sinusoidal output 

signals. These models allowed the introduction of tools useful for the characterization 

of fluctuations—correlation functions, spectral densities, averages, and standard 

deviations. Quickly, two types of analysis developed: spectral descriptions of phaseand frequency fluctuations in the Fourier frequency domain, and averages of 

fluctuations in the time domain. NIST's David W. Allan was a pioneer in the use of 

variances in the study of frequency stability. 

The authors brought up to date the progress of stability studies rooted in the 

concepts they had outlined. They noted, however, that in 1991 there was no single 

analytical mode that would produce a "best" measure of frequency stability.'66 

'65This work is discussed in Sharper Lines from Cooler Atoimis in Ch. 4. Phillips shared the 1998 Nobel 

Prize in physics for his work on laser cooling. 66 Jacques and F. L. Walls, "Characterization of frequency stability in precision frequency sources," 

Proc. IEEE 79. No. 7, pp. 952-960 (1991). 

734 
David W. Allan explained the methods used to measure performance of different 

clocks and to transfer time worldwide. 

Frequency Standards Based on Trapped ions 

Wayne M. Itano described for the special time and frequency issue the progress to 

date on frequency standards based on the use of trapped ions, a topic discussed 

elsewhere in this volume. The basic premise in such devices was that the frequency of an oscillator could be locked to a resonance corresponding to a transition between 

two energy levels of an atomic ion, held in space by a combination of electric and 

magnetic fields. 

A microwave frequency standard that was already a reality in 1991 utilized 

Others under development involved or Some studies were then in 

progress at NIST on the use of narrow-linewidth transitions in single trapped ions for 

optical frequency standards. 

Itano briefly described the Penning trap, which utilized static electric and magnetic 

fields to hold the ions near the center of the trap, and the Paul trap, involving a radiofrequency potential applied to electrodes of particular geometries. He noted that 

the accuracy of the frequency derived from trapped ions depended upon phenomena 

that could shift the resonance frequency of the ions—such factors as collisions with 

background gas, perturbations caused by external fields, and Doppler shifts. Cooling of 

735 
the ions provided a useful escape from Doppler effects. Itano called attention to the use of laser cooling for this purpose by himself and David J. Wineland'67 and by 

Claude Cohen-Tannoudji and William D. Phillips.'65 

Often, Itano pointed out, it was necessary to trade accuracy for stability in trappedion frequency standards. 

Itano outlined the use of in both microwave and radiofrequency standards, he 

noted NIST work on laser cooling of ions, and he mentioned other frequency 

standards based on the probing of a single ion. 

Technology of Frequency and Time 

Donald B. Sullivan and Judah Levine discussed at length for the IEEE Proceedings 

the generation and distribution of frequency and time signals using the latest available 

methods. 170 The two scientists opined that laser manipulation of atoms and satellite 

time transfer already provided the potential for accuracy that would be superior to 

existing atomic frequency standards. They pointed out that the stability of a frequency 

standard was a measure of its ability to remain within specific limits for a given time, 

whereas its accuracy was based on comparisons with a physical model of the standard. 

Frequency standards, according to Sullivan and Levine, jumped in accuracy with the 

earlier developments of quartz-crystal oscillators and atomic clocks. Quartz oscillators 

constituted the least expensive class of frequency standards. Increasingly superior in 

performance—but also increasingly expensive—were rubidium standards, cesium-beam 

standards, and hydrogen masers. A limit on the performance of these atomic standards, 

however, was the Doppler effect, arising from their operation at room temperatures or 

even higher temperatures. 

Comparisons of clocks benefitted enormously from the use of satellite methods, 

which allowed uncertainties as low as. 10 ns on a global level, better than typical 

performance characteristics of individual clocks. 

So-called "trapped ion" frequency standards, then under development by David J. 

Wineland, Robert E. Drullinger, and Fred L. Walls in Boulder, and "trapped neutral 

atoms," then under development by William D. Phillips and his group in Gaithersburg, 

offered two major advantages over conventional atomic devices—essentially zero firstorder Doppler shifts because of the near-immobility of the ions or atoms, and reduction 

of transition linewidths because of the availability of long observation times. 

Sullivan and Levine described current methods of time transfer as falling into one of 

three categories; one-way, common-view, and two-way. In the one-way case (typified 

by the broadcast signals from WWV), a time signal from a source to a user was 

delayed by the medium through which the signal passed; the delay had to be estimated 

D. J. Wineland and W. M. Itano, "Laser cooling." Physics Today 40, pp. 34-40, June 1987. 

C. N. Cohen-Tannoudji and W. D. Phillips, "New mechanisms for laser cooling." Physics Today 43, pp. 

33-40. October 1990. 

Wayne M. Itano, "Atomic ion frequency standards," Proc. IEEE 79. No. 7, pp. 936-941 (1991). 

Donald B. Sullivan and Judah Levine, "Time generation and distribution," Proc. IEEE 79, No. 7, pp. 

906-914 (1991). 

736 
Wayne M. Itano adjusted an external frequency doubler, which was part of a laser 

setup for the mercury ion clock experiment. 

in order to synchronize the user's signal. In the common-view case (typified by the use of the Global Positioning Satellite), both the source and the user compared their clocks 

to a reference visible to both. The difference between the medium-based delays 

experienced by the source and the user—often much smaller than either time delay 

considered by itself—had to be estimated to yield the correct relation between source 

and user clocks. In the two-way case (for example, two-way broadcasting between the 

source and the user via a satellite), the source and the user would exchange timing 

data. In favorable instances such an exchange would allow nearly perfect cancellation 

of the delay error. Sullivan and Levine estimated best-case accuracy at 100 ns and 

available stability at 10 ns. They saw the evaluation of time-delay error as the 

outstanding problem facing progress in time transfer. 

Optically Pumped Cesium Frequency Standard 

In 1991, Time and Frequency Division scientists were in the process of developing an optically pumped, cesium-beam primary frequency standard. They were confident 

that such an instrument would exhibit unusually good stability compared to conventional cesium standards. 

737 
The new device was conceived by Robert E. Drullinger, David J. Glaze, John L. 

Lowe, and Jon H. Shirley. In considering the improvement, they analyzed several 

systematic uncertainties that afflicted the conventional cesium apparatus: fluorescent 

light shift; second-order Doppler shift: end-to-end cavity phase shift: Rabi-pulling; 

cavity-pulling; Majorana effects; RF spectral purity; and magnetic field uniformity. 

The new instrument featured a 3 mm diameter atomic beam, derived from a new oven design. The vacuum chamber was 25 cm in diameter and 2.5 m long. Instead of 

using laser diodes, the authors employed a laser-line-narrowing method 

based Ofl optical feedback from a high Q cavity. They felt that their improvements 

would yield a line-center accuracy somewhat better than one part in lOs. 

First results were promising, leading the group to predict excellent short-term 

stability and an overall frequency accuracy of about one part in 

Physicist David J.Glaze adjusted NIST 7, an atomic clock used as an international time 

standard. 

E. Drullinger. David J. Glaze. J. L. Lowe. and Jon H. Shirley. "The NIST optically pumped cc- sium frequency standard." IEEE Trans. on Instrum. and Mc'ac. 40. No. 2. PP. 162- I 64 (1 99 I. 

738 
Quantum Physics, David W. Norcross, chief 

Making New Lasers 

Stephen R. Leone, a staff member of both the Quantum Physics division and the 

Joint Institute of Laboratory Astrophysics, and his JILA colleague Harold C. Miller 

spent the early 1990s investigating the lasing properties of various systems in an effort 

to produce lasers for special applications. 

With Katsuyoshi Yamasaki of the University of Tokyo and John E. Smedley of 

Bates College, the two researchers demonstrated that a laser operating between 300 nm and 350 nm could be obtained using the unstable radical sulfur monoxide (SO). Lasing 

had already been demonstrated in heteronuclear diatomics—NO, IF, and NaK—by 

pumping energy into the ground state of the molecule and exciting it to a higher level. 

Such systems, the authors noted, provided excellent opportunities for the study of 

the influence of the dynamic Stark effect and the stimulated Raman effect on laser processes. In certain cases, the lasers offered high-resolution, Doppler-free 

spectroscopy as well. 

The group knew that the SO radical could be prepared by irradiating sulfur dioxide 

at 193 nm. They used an argon fluoride excimer laser, ilTadiating flowing SO2 for this 

purpose; it produced SO in the electronic state. A pumping pulse at 256 nm was obtained by frequency-doubling the visible output of a dye laser. This pulse populated the state of SO. Emission from the excited SO radicals was observed using 

monochromator-photomultiplier detection in the 300 nm to 400 nm range. Spontaneous 

emission appeared in the form of about a dozen lines in that range, and four relatively 

sharp stimulated emission lines appeared in the range 300 nm to 350 nm. 172 Miller and Leone also collaborated with Robert L. Pastel of the University of New 

Mexico and 0. D. Hager of Kirtland Air Force Base in Albuquerque to demonstrate 

lasing at 2.7 in atomic bromine. Technical needs for efficient lasers in the midinfrared spectral range made this work particularly useful. 

The authors prepared excited bromine atoms by photolyzing IBr with light at 

532 nm. A pump laser—a frequency-doubled neodymium-yttrium-aluminum garnet 

laser operated at 532 nm—produced laser radiation from the excited bromine atoms 

with a temporal distribution that varied noticeably with the pump energy. The 2.7 

laser emission appeared to arise from the 4 2P,,2—4 2P312 transition in atomic bromine. 

The maximum pump energy conversion efficiency was calculated to be 1 .5 %, 

relatively high for such a process. 173 

172 Harold C. Miller, Katsuyoshi Yamasaki, John E. Smedley, and Stephen R. Leone, "An optically pumped 

ultraviolet laser on Cheni. Phys. Left. 181, No. 2. 3, pp. 250-254 (1991). 

Robert L. Pastel, G. D. Hager, Harold C. Miller, and Stephen R. Leone, "Efficient Br* laser pumped by 

frequency-doubled Nd:YAG and electronic-to-vibrational transfer-pumped CO2 and HCN lasers," Cheni. 

Phys. Left. 183, No. 6, pp. 565-569 (1991), 

739 
Electron-inzpact Excitation Cross Sections 

A new technique for the measurement of cross sections for the excitation of multiply 

charged ions by electron impact was put forward by a group of scientists at the 

Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics late in 1990. The group included Gordon 

H. Dunn, on the staff of JILA and also the NIST Quantum Physics Division; JILA 

members E. K. Wahlin and J. S. Thompson; R. A. Phaneuf and D. C. Gregory of the 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory; and A. C. H. Smith of University College in London. 

The authors noted the important role played by highly charged ions in studies of 

fusion, lasers, and astrophysics, as well as the lack of experimental information on electron-impact excitation of such species. 

To help close the gap in that area of physics, the authors developed an apparatus in 

which electrons were merged with ions in an analyzer involving crossed electric and 

magnetic fields. After colliding with the ions, the electrons were removed from the 

stream with a second analyzer and detected with a position-sensitive detector. The 

detection efficiency approached unity—orders of magnitude higher than conventional 

fluorescence or differential monochromator techniques. 

The new method had the additional advantages of providing absolute cross section 

values, operating near the critical threshold, and providing data on non-radiating states as well as those that radiated. 

The group demonstrated their new method on triply ionized silicon. They chose that 

species particularly because it resembled sodium and thus could be described with 

confidence in theoretical terms, thus providing as a bonus an experimental comparison 

with theory. 

The cross section for 3s to 3p excitation of by electron impact using the new technique was determined at the 90 % confidence level to be cm2 ±20 % at 9 eV 

electron energy, in good agreement with theoretical predictions. 

Spectroscopy from the Hubbie Space Telescope 

In August 1991, the Astrophysical Journal Letters set aside an issue for the first 

reports of spectroscopy accomplished using the Hubble Space Telescope. The editors 

dedicated the issue to Lyman Spitzer, known as the "Father of the Hubble Space 

Telescope." Spitzer, professor of astronomy at Princeton University for some 30 years, 

had worked towards the deployment of an orbiting astronomical telescope from the end 

of World War II. 

One of the reports in the special issue described the first results obtained with the 

Goddard High-Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS) as part of the Science Assessment 

Program for the Hubble Space Telescope. Members of the GHRS team included 

Jeffrey L. Linsky, a staff member of JILA and NIST; JILA staff scientist Alexander 

E. K. Wahlin, J. S. Thompson. G. H. Dunn, R. A. Phaneuf. D. C. Gregory, and A. C. H. Smith, 

"Electron-impact excitation of (3s—3p) using a merged-beam electron-energy-loss technique," Phys. Rev. 

Let!. 66. No. 2. pp. 157-160 (1991). 

740 
Brown; Kenneth G. Carpenter, Richard D. Robinson, Glenn M. Wahigren, and Thomas 

B. Ake, of the NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center; Dennis C. Ebbets of the Bell 

Aerospace Systems Group; and Frederick M. Walter of the State University of New 

York at Stony Brook. 

The report emphasized the types of observations that could not have been obtained 

without the new equipment, in this case high-precision spectra from the star a Tauri. 

The authors wrote: 

This [Hubble project] study of a Tau produced the highest quality ultraviolet 

spectra ever obtained of a cool star. The high dynamic range of the data 

allowed detection of 25 new emission lines from a Tau, 10 of which do not 

appear in the solar spectrum. The accurate wavelength calibration led to a confident measurement of flow velocities for most of the spectral lines, but 

also indicated the need for more precise laboratory wavelengths for ions such as Co 

It was clear that orbiting astronomical instruments, disparaged in their early days 

because of a defect" in the Hubble telescope optics, had before them a very 

useful career. Linsky was also part of a group utilizing the Very Large Array (VLA), a radio 

telescope facility of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, to survey some 26 

main-sequence, giant, and supergiant stars in a search for radio emissions at 2 cm and 

6 cm wavelengths. Linsky was joined in the search by P. G. Judge of JILA, S. A. 

Drake of ST Systems Corporation, and M. Elitzur of the University of Kentucky. 

Within the limits of the VLA sensitivity, the group obtained no signals from the dwarf 

stars, indicating that such stars emit weakly, if at all, at radio frequencies. Three of 

the cool stars—two M giants and an infrared carbon star—were identified as radio 

sources. On the basis of their measurements, the group estimated the temperature of 

the infrared carbon star, IRC + 10216, as only about 2000 K. 176 Materials Science and Engineering Laboratory 

In 1984, Lyle H. Schwartz came to NBS as director of the Bureau's Center for 

Materials Science after 20 years with Northwestern University, including service as director of the N. U. Materials Research Center beginning in 1979. The following year, 

the center became an institute—like the Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology an entity separate from the National Measurement Laboratory and the National 

Engineering Laboratory. The Institute for Materials Science and Engineering (IMSE) 

comprised an Office of Non-Destructive Evaluation and five divisions, devoted to 

studies in inorganic materials, fracture and deformation, polymers, metallurgy, and 

reactor radiation. 

Kenneth G. Carpenter. Richard D. Robinson, Glenn M. Wahigren, Thomas B. Ake. Dennis C. Ebbets. 

Jeffrey L. Linsky, Alexander Brown, and Frederick M. Walter, "First results from the Goddard High-Resolution Spectrograph: the chromosphere of a Tauri," The Astrophys. J. 377. L45-L48 (1991). 17(. A. Drake, J. L. Linsky, P. 0. Judge, and M. Elitzur. "Radio-continuum observations of a variety of 

cool stars," The Astronomical Journal 101, No. I, pp. 230-236 (1991). 

741 
Lyle H. Schwartz. an expert in the 

phase transitions in iron alloys, x-ray 

and neutron diffraction, and catalysis. 

joined NBS as Director of the 

Materials Science and Engineering 

As NBS became NIST in 1988, IMSE became the Materials Science and Engineerintz Laboratory, with the Inorganic Materials and the Fracture and Deformation 

divisions reconstituted as Ceramics and Materials Reliability, respectively. The 

Laboratory increased its emphasis on the advanced materials needed for up-to-date 

manufacturing and construction processes. Research initiatives focused on ceramics, 

metals, polymers, composites, and superconductors. In mid-1991, the Office of 

Non-Destructive Evaluation was renamed the Office of Intelligent Processing of 

Materials. 

Office of Intelligent Processing of Materials, H. Thomas Yolken, chief 

The OIPM had but three scientists on its staff in 1991: H. Thomas Yolken, John P. 

Gudas—Yolken's deputy—and George Birnbaum. Theirs was a task in matrix management, to facilitate work in specific technical areas without direct supervisory power over 

the rsearchcrs who were involved in the investigations. 

742 

Laboratory in 1984. 
The change in name of Yolken's office was indicative of a larger mission—not only 

to continue to encourage studies of non-destructive testing, but to focus work in technical divisions both within MSEL and elsewhere in NIST on joint materials projects 

with industrial firms. These latter projects involved the processing of metal powders, 

modernized steel manufacture, and metallic joining techniques. Companies such as General Electric, United Technology Pratt and Whitney, Crucible Materials Corporation, and Martin Marietta Energy Systems teamed with the Department of Energy and 

NIST scientists to create the projects. 

Ceramics, Stephen M. Hsu, chief; succeeded by Stephen W. Freiman, 1991 

Research in ceramics in the I 990s covered a range of topics—processing methods, 

including the effect of sintering on particle size and shape; surface properties as related 

to wear and machinability; electro-optic crystals; mechanical properties; phase 

equilibria; and measurement techniques. A few examples from the work of this division follow. 

Standards and Data 

In 1991, three new Standard Reference Materials—SRM 1414, a lead-silica glass 

resistivity reference; SRM 8501, a lubrication oil-oxidation catalyst; and SRM 710a, a soda-lime-silica glass reference—joined more than 70 other standard materials 

developed and produced by division scientists. 

Other standards accomplishments during this period included: 

• Development of 25 analytical procedures for the evaluation of the properties of 

ceramic powders.'77 

• Adoption by the American Society for Testing and Materials of two tests for 

mechanical properties of ceramics developed by a group led by George D. 

Q 

• Completion of a 350-entry database on material and tribological properties of 

advanced ceramic materials, by Ronald G. Munro and Edwin F. Begley. Properties data evaluated by Munro and Begley included thermodynamic transport 

properties, heat capacity, bulk and shear moduli, hardness, fracture strength, 

and creep properties.'79 

See, for example, S. G. Maighan. "Silicon nitride powders and their processing." pp. 562-576 in Advanced Materials Processing, P. Ganguli. editor (Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B. V.. 1991). 

'v" G. D. Quinn. et al., "Flexural Strength of Advanced Ceramics at Ambient Temperatures." ASTM Standard 

C-I 161, December 1990. 

E. F. Begley and R. G. Munro, "The structural ceramics database," N/STIR 4601, 1991. 

743 
• Completion of three volumes as part of a joint NIST-American Ceramic Society 

phase-diagram project involving Helen M. Ondik, Stephen W. Freiman, Mary A. 

Clevinger, Thomas R. Green, Kimberly M. Kessell, Nils Swanson, and Carla 

G. Messina. The texts produced were: volume 9 in the series "Phase Diagrams 

for Ceramists"; a 1991 annual report; and a monograph containing nearly 

200 phase diagrams pertaining to high-temperature superconductivity. 

Characterization of Ceramic Powders 

Robert D. Shull, Joseph J. Ritter, and Lydon J. Swartzendruber were interested in 

the possibilities of preparing magnetic composites with made-to-order properties. 

Gelled composites of iron and silica, prepared with iron-containing particles of about 

2 nm diameter, had been found to be paramagnetic at room temperatures but likely to 

exhibit ferromagnetism after certain types of processing. The investigation by the three 

scientists focused on nanocomposites of silica gel with various concentrations of iron 

in the range 11 % to 40 %. They determined the iron particle sizes by the use of 

MOssbauer spectra. After gelling and curing the composites, they heated them in 

hyrdrogen to reduce the iron, then separated them into two samples for further 

treatnient. One set of samples was re-heated in hydrogen to 770 °C, then annealed for an hour in an ammonia atmosphere at 475 °C. The other set was annealed in ammonia 

at 375 °C for a day. Mössbauer analysis of the first set of samples showed a marked 

change in the iron component to a form containing iron silicate with a small admixture 

of a Fe. Weak ferromagnetism at room temperature strengthened continuously on cooling to 10 K, with no apparent phase change. Evidently the short ammonia anneal 

had no effect on these samples. 

The second set of samples exhibited superparamagnetism and an indication of 

magnetic spin-glass behavior. The magnetic moment per iron atom was enhanced by 

factors of three to four by the lengthy, medium-temperature ammonia annealing. 

Facilitating Crack Detection With Electron Microscopy 

Understanding the mechanics of cracks in ceramics required the observation of the 

crack area during the initiation of stress on samples. To facilitate the use of the 

scanning electron microscope (SEM) in crack investigations, Brian R. Lawn and James 

F. Kelly, in collaboration with their colleague Jurgen ROdel of Lehigh University, 

designed and built a new testing device. 

Designed for use with disks about 10cm in diameter, the device incorporated a piezoelectric force actuator connected by pivot arms to either side of the test disk, 

which was notched in the crack-test area. The entire device was housed in the sample 

chamber of an SEM. Actuating voltage to the piezoelectric stressor could be preprogrammed or externally controlled. The SEM in use allowed videotaping of the 

entire test procedure. 

R. D. Shull. J. J. Ritter, and L. J. Swartzendruber, "Change in magnetic state of Fe + silica gel nanocom- posites to low temperature treatment in ammonia," J. App!. Phys. 69, No. 8, 5144-5146 (1991). 

744 
The researchers used alumina and soda-lime glass test disks to illustrate the capability of the new device. "Starter" cracks were initiated in the disks using standard 

procedures. They found that crack extension generally occurred in a discontinuous 

fashion between grains. Active grain bridges appeared at intervals over the entire 

length of the cracks; these were easily seen in illustrations provided in the report. The 

authors analyzed the crack growth quantitatively to evaluate the toughness of the 

specimens used in the 

Machining Ceramics 

The cost of machining ceramic materials in the 1990s occasionally accounted for 

90 % of the total cost of highly precise components, in part because of inadvertent 

damage during the machining process. Said Jahanmir, Lewis K. Ives, Arthur W. Ruff, 

and Marshall B. Peterson set about to study the state of ceramic machining in America 

and, if possible, to identify research areas which could lead to significant improvements. Their efforts, recorded in a NIST Special Publication, included literature 

searches, visits to industrial firms involved in machining ceramics, and the products of a NIST workshop on the topic held in September 1990. 

What did they find? First of all, they found that, indeed, the cost of machining was the primary impediment to the introduction of advanced ceramic parts into industrial 

goods—more so than the admittedly high costs associated with raw materials, 

processing, and quality control. They also found a serious gap in the store of data on machining methods for ceramics, a fault that tended to keep machining costs high. 

They identified rapid machining of advanced ceramics as unknown territory that 

needed careful investigation, along with techniques for the assessment of damage to 

ceramic components in machining and for automated machining. 

The authors recommended a broad program of research to address the roadblocks 

slowing the adoption of advanced ceramic materials as routine industrial tools: 

• Optimization of the grinding process. 

• Chemically assisted machining. • Grinding wheels for machining of ceramics. 

• Direct damage assessment methods. 

• Non-destructive methods for machining damage evaluation. 

• Sensors for real-time surface finish and damage detection. 

• Standard Reference Materials for use in tool calibration and evaluating machined 

parts. 

• Post-machining damage remed iation. 

• Development of high-strength, machinable ceramics. 

• Automated systems for high-volume production. 

Jurgen Rödel, James F. Kelly, and Brian R. Lawn, "In Situ measurements of bridged crack interfaces in the scanning electron microscope," J. Am. Cera,n. Soc. 73. No. II. 3313-3318 (1990). 

S. Jahanmir, L. K. Ives, A. W. Ruff, and M. B. Peterson, "Ceramic machining: Assessment of current 

practice and research needs in the United States," N/ST Special Publication 834, June 1992, 102 pp. 

745 
Properties of Alumina 

A group including Gabrielle G. Long, Susan Krueger, R. A. Gerhardt, and R. A. 

Page used the Small Angle Neutron Scattering facility at the NIST reactor to examine 

the evolution of pore microstructure in glassy silica and polycrystalline alumina as a function of sintering. They showed that the two major sintering mechanisms, viscous 

flow and diffusion, led to similar surface-porosity levels. Their work led to improvec 

models for ceramics processing and better predictability for the microstructure of 

ceramics. 

Another group, including Steven J. Bennison, J. Rödel, S. Lathabai, P. Chantiku!, 

and Brian R. Lawn, also investigated the properties of alumina. Focusing on the tough- ness of the ceramic, which they assumed derived from the interlocking of grains to 

stop the progression of cracks, they developed a formalism to describe the origins of 

ceramic toughness. Many features were considered—the strength of internal 

boundaries, internal stress levels, and other details of alumina microstructure. Scanning 

electron microscopy observations provided information on many degradation mechanisms, leading to the conclusion that alumina ceramics could be processed to order for 

various properties. 

Creep in Ceramics 

Sheldon M. Wiederhorn, D. F. Carroll, and D. Ellis Roberts developed an experimental technique for evaluating the phenomenon of creep in ceramics. The method 

utilized laser extensometry to follow the displacement of markers attached to the test 

sections of the samples, which were shaped like dog bones. The tensile fixture featured 

hot grips and could be used to temperatures as high as 1500 °C.'85 

Materials Reliability, Harry I. McHenry, chief 

The Materials Reliability Division was located in the NIST/Boulder laboratories. 

Its major focus was placed on advanced materials. Division staff developed measurement techniques for process control, for nondestructive evaluation, and for reliability 

assessment. Long experience in topics such as cryogenics made the scientists aware of the importance of carefully preparing materials for potentially hostile environments 

in particular applications. 

G. G. Long. S. Krueger, R. A. Gerhardt, and R. A. Page, "Small Angle Neutron Scattering characterization of processing/microstructure relationships in the sintering of crystalline and glassy ceramics." 

J. Materials Res. 6, No. 12. 2706-2715 (1991). S. J. Bennison, J. Rödel. S. Lathabai, P. Chantikul, and B. R. Lawn, "Microstructure. toughness curves and mechanical properties of alumina ceramics," Toughening Mechanisms in Quasi-Brittle Materials, 

pp. 209-233, 1991. 

0. F. Carroll. S. M. Wiederhorn, and D. E. Roberts, "Technique for tensile creep testing of ceramics," J. 

Amer. Ceram. Soc. 72. No. 9, 1610-1614 (1989). 

746 
Diagnostics With Ultrasound 

An MSEL group that included Raymond E. Schramm, Alfred V. Clark, Jr., Stephen 

R. Schaps, Robert C. Reno, Gerald V. Blessing, and Todd J. McGuire employed 

ultrasound for a variety of diagnostic purposes in materials science. One development, 

accomplished with the collaboration of Dragan V. Mitrakovié of the University of 

Belgrade, Yossef Cohen of the Nuclear Research Center in Israel, and Peter J. Schull 

of The Johns Hopkins University, was the detection of defects in the wheels of railroad 

cars. By embedding a device called an electromagnetic-acoustical sensor in the train 

tracks, the group found that they could identify wheels with unusual stress conditions or unsatisfactory metallurgical texture—both properties likely to lead to failure of 

the wheel. The device emitted short bursts of horizontal shear waves and detected 

anomalies in the echoes. 

A prototype residual stress measurement system was delivered during 1991 to the 

American Association of Railroads for evaluation in its testing center. 

In collaboration with the Ford Motor Company, with Robert B. Thompson and Y. Li 

of the Center for Nondestructive Evaluation at Iowa State University, and with D. 

Matlock of the Colorado School of Mines, the research group also compared ultrasound with older, mechanical methods of testing sheet steel for its texture and 

formability. They found an ultrasonic measurement technique that accurately predicted 

the critical properties of the steel, potentially leading to on-line measurements to 

replace slower, more expensive mechanical testing in the laboratory. 57 The group also developed electromagnetic probes used in characterizing dielectric 

materials. A low-frequency capacitance probe could evaluate the density of certain 

ceramics within 0.2 %. 

Nondestructive Testing of Composites 

Christopher M. Fortunko, deputy division chief, led a research group dedicated to 

improving experimental methods for characterization of composites. The group, which 

included Dale W. Fitting, V. K. Tewary of the Ohio State University, E. Jensen of the 

Colorado School of Mines, L. J. Bond of the University of Colorado, and M. Renken 

of Valparaiso University, designed, built, and tested a high-pressure, gas-coupled 

acoustic microscope capable of 10 resolution on silicon wafers. They also produced an acoustic array for the testing of glass-epoxy composites. The gas-coupled 

microscope operated at frequencies from 10 MHz to 30 MHz and at pressures up to 

10 MPa. 

Raymond E. Schramm, Alfred V. Clark. Jr.. Dragan V. Stephen R. Schaps, and Todd J. 

McGuire, "Residual stress detection in railroad wheels: an ultrasonic system using EMATs." NISTIR 3968, 

May 1991. 47 pp. See also Raymond E. Schramm, Alfred V. Clark, Jr., Dragan V. Yossef 

Cohen, Peter J. Schull. and Stephen R. Schaps, "Tread crack detection in railroad wheels: an ultrasonic 

system using EMATs," N/STIR 3967, May 1991. 69 pp. 

° A. V. Clark. R. B. Thompson, Y. Li, R. C. Reno, 0. V. Blessing. D. V. Mitrakovié. R. E. Schramni, and 

D. Matlock. "Ultrasonic measurement of sheet steel texture and formability; comparison with neutron 

diffraction and mechanical measurements." Res. in Nondestruct. Eval. 2. 239-257 (1990). 

747 
In 1990, Dragan (left), a guest researcher from the University of Belgrade. and NIST physicist 

Raymond E. Schramm inspected railroad wheels using an Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) 

sensor mounted in a typical rail. 

A particular challenge for the group was insuring that a composite material was 

suited to its intended application. This task involved such measurements as quantifying 

the fiber volume fraction, the fiber orientation, porosity, and quality of bonding 

between matrix and reinforcing materials in composites. The evaluations were undertaken through the measurement of elastic wave velocities. Absolute phase velocities, 

for example, could be observed in the determination of elastic moduli. 

Cryogenic Properties of Materials 

A group led by Harry I. McHenry investigated the behavior of materials at low 

temperatures. One project, sponsored by the U.S. Air Force Systems Command, 

provided data on the mechanical properties of aluminum-lithium alloys under consideration for use in the Advanced Launch System (ALS). This was a detailed project. It 

addressed grain sizes and morphology of samples, hardness, tensile strength, stressstrain relations, and fracture toughness of four different alloy compositions. Richard 

P. Reed, Patrick T. Purtscher, Nancy J. Simon, Joseph D. McColskey, Robert P. 

Walsh, John R. Berger, Elizabeth S. Drexier, and Raymond L. Santoyo all contributed 

to the research. 

748 
The materials were envisaged for use in storage of cryogenic fluids. The evaluation 

project was a textbook case in fitting the material to the application—the reaction of 

the alloys to stresses caused by a combination of mechanical forces and large temperature excursions had to be predicted. The potential for tank leakage or breakage had to 

be anticipated, and measurements were needed to guide the choice of optimum 

composition and configuration of construction materials. 

The group found that two prime candidates for the ALS program, Al-Li alloys 

2090-T8 I and WL049-T85 I, showed 10 % to 20 % higher tensile yield strength and 

ultimate strength than the other alloys. Toughness in the alloys, however, proved to 

depend strongly on the direction of the stress with respect to the orientation of the 

composites. Many of the measurements addressed fracture toughness and issues 

relating to delamination of the composites under a variety of stresses. Recommendations were included for further detailed testing of the alloys under actual service 

conditions. 

Oxide Superconductors 

Hassel M. Ledbetter and Ming Lei, a colleague from the Institute of Metal Research 

in Shenyang, China, prepared a comprehensive study of elastic constants and related 

properties of oxides and oxide superconductors in 1991. Theirs was a contribution to 

the investigation of high-temperature superconductivity—in part their own measurements and in part the testing of models to provide guidance to others. 

The two scientists measured polycrystalline elastic constants by the use of a megahertz-frequency pulse-echo method in the range 4 K to room temperature, employing 

measured mass density data and a model developed by Ledbetter and S. K. Datta to 

correct the measurements for voids in the samples. They compared the elastic moduli 

of YBa2Cu3O7 (YBCO) with those of the related perovskites BaTiO3 and SrTiO3 and 

found good agreement with calculations based on the Born ionic model. They also 

derived a value of 423 K for the Debye temperature of YBCO, in good agreement with 

the value obtained from heat capacity data, 440 K. 

From these measurements and similar ones on related high-temperature-superconductor materials, Ledbetter and Lei were able to offer conclusions regarding the 

valence of copper in the compounds and the electron-hole distribution. 

Polymers, Leslie E. Smith, chief 

Major industrial partners of the Polymers Division included resin producers, proces- sors of polymeric materials, and end-users of polymer-based products. Division 

scientists assisted these technical partners in understanding the scientific basis for polymer technology, and they helped to provide measurement methods and standards as well. 

R. P. Reed. P. T. Purtscher, N. J. Simon, J. D. McColskey, R. P. Walsh. J. R. Berger, E. S. Drexler. and 

R. L. Santoyo. "Aluminum alloys for ALS cryogenic tanks: comparative measurements of cryogenic 

mechanicl properties of Al-Li alloys and alloy 2219." N/STIR 3979, February 1993, 137 pp. U'9 Ming Lei and Hassel Ledbetter, "Oxides and oxide superconductors: elastic and related properties." 

N/STIR 3980, August 1991, 92 pp., 249 references. 

749 
Polymer Vehicles fbr Printing Inks 

An interesting Polymers Division project involved the development of polymeric 

vehicles for use in various printing processes. In one case, three different types of 

polymer resins were prepared for trial as potential vehicles for inks to be used in 

printing by the intaglio technique—in which a plate is engraved or otherwise gouged 

and inked, and the printing paper is then pressed into the inked depressions. The most 

successful vehicle, according to Brian Dickens, Barry J. Bauer, and William R. Blair, was found in a family of alkyds based on pentaerythritol, sebacic acid, linseed oil fatty 

acids, and succinic anhydride. These alkyds formed a group of high-molecular-weight, 

low-viscosity materials that air-dried well and resisted subsequent wetting with various 

solvents. 190 Thermodynamics of Polystyrenes 

Questions about the thermodynamics of phase separation in polystyrenes intrigued 

Robert M. Briber and Barry J. Bauer. They knew that polymeric cross-linking might 

change the free energy of a given system and lead to phase separation. However, they 

wanted to study the thermodynamics of single-phase blends of cross-linked and linear 

polystyrene. Accordingly, they prepared samples containing linear protonated 

polystyrene and about I % of cross-linked deuterated polystyrene. These they analyzed 

in the small-angle neutron scattering facility at the NIST nuclear reactor. 191 The two researchers obtained scattering results using an incident neutron beam of 

wavelength 0.1 nm with a dispersion of 25 %. From these data, they derived static 

structure factors for the samples as functions of the scattering vectors. They used 

classical elasticity theory combined with estimates of the free energy of mixing to 

calculate the zero-angle scattering as a function of the density of the cross links. 

Shear Stress and Fluorescence Anisotropy 

A new experiment in which measurements of the anisotropy of fluorescence was used to monitor shear-induced molecular orientation in polymer systems was 

undertaken by Anthony J. Bur, Robert E. Lowry, Steven C. Roth, Charles L. Thomas, 

and Francis W. Wang early in 1991. 

In general, fluorescence anisotropy was expected to depend on the molecular 

orientation, on the decay time of the fluorescence, and on the rotational relaxation of 

the probe. The authors provided optical instrumentation for a cone and plate rheometer, 

90 Brian Dickens, Barry J. Bauer, and William R. Blair. "Cylinder wipe air-drying intaglio ink vehicles for 

U.S. currency inks." N/STIR 4498, January 1991.23 pp. 

Robert M. Briber and Barry J. Bauer. "Small-angle neutron scattering of blends of cross-linked and linear 

polystyrene," Macromolecules 24. No. 8. 1899-1904 (1991). 

750 
and they synthesized a polymeric fluorescent probe molecule consisting of polybutadiene tagged in the center of the principal polymer chain with anthracene. The tagged 

polybutadiene was expected to participate in the entanglement network of the host 

matrix of polybutadiene, reflecting the host orientation under applied stress.'92 

The authors observed the anisotropy as a function of shear rate and shear stress for 

5 % and 50 % plasticized specimens. They found that the samples displayed non- Newtonian behavior, and they obtained values for the sample relaxation times. They 

expected the new type of measurement to open windows into the stress-induced 

behavior of polymers. 

Modeling Tooth Decay 

Three American Dental Association research associates, using the facilities of the 

Paffenbarger Research Center at NIST, contributed to the development of mathematical 

models to describe dental caries. Their study, published in the NIST Journal of 

Research, expressed the demineralization of teeth in terms of diffusion and dissolution. 

The three, Thomas M. Gregory, Laurence C. Chow, and Clifton M. Carey, noted the 

typical progress of decay in teeth: a thin outer layer of enamel in relatively good 

condition, a deeper layer consisting of partly demineralized enamel, and an advancing 

front of demineralization where acids diffused into the sound portion of the tooth and 

dissolved mineral from it. 

Other studies had indicated that tooth mineral dissolved faster than the product ions 

could be transported from the site. Thus, a diffusion-controlled process appeared to be 

at work. The authors introduced into the modeling process an interaction between the 

permselective diffusion of ions and the dissolution of tooth mineral. They predicted 

the existence of concentration gradients in the calcium and phosphate ions, owing to 

gradients in the electrochemical potentials and differences in the permselectivity of the 

diffusion barrier. Instead of the concentration ratio 5/3 for CaJP, as was found in 

healthy tooth enamel, the loss of these ions to the outer layer of the tooth was limited 

by the (complex) diffusion process.' 

Despite the limitations of their assumptions—for example, that the barrier between 

the decaying portion of the tooth and its outer layer was infinitely thin—the authors 

found that their results agreed well with available experimental data. 

192 Anthony J. Bur, Robert E. Lowry, Steven C. Roth, Charles L. Thomas, and Francis W. Wang, 

"Observations of shear-induced molecular orientation in a polymer melt using fluorescence anisotropy 

measurements." Macromolecules 24, No. 12, pp. 3715-3717 (Communications to the Editor) (1991). 

T. M. Gregory, L. C. Chow, and C. M. Carey, "A mathematical model for dental caries: a coupled 

dissolution-diffusion process." J. Res. NIST96. No. 5, 593-604 (1991). 

751 
Metallurgy, E. Neville Pugh, chief 

Stress Corrosion Cracking 

In a collaboration between Richard E. Ricker and James L. Fink of NIST and 

A. K. Vasudevan of the Office of Naval Research, a study was made of the importance 

of precipitates in grain boundaries to the stress corrosion cracking of aluminum alloyed 

with small quantities of lithium, manganese, and copper. There were so many factors 

that were known to influence stress-corrosion cracking in precipitation-hardened alloys 

that the real challenge was to devise experiments in which one or two factors could be 

isolated for study. 

The group chose to hold constant the matrix precipitates of a binary aluminumlithium alloy. In turn, this technique held constant the yield strength. Then they could 

vary the size and volume percentage of grain-boundary precipitates. They also varied 

the matrix precipitate size and distribution with the grain-boundary precipitate size in a 

ternary aluminum-lithium-copper alloy so as to keep its yield strength constant at the 

same level as the binary alloy. 

Using a variety of heat treatments and aging, the authors measured the strain-tofailure in aggressive environments—half-molar deaerated sodium chloride, and a brew 

prepared by adding to the sodium chloride solution pinches of sodium bicarbonate, 

sodium carbonate, and lithium chloride. These data they compared to similar measurements taken in a nitrogen-gas reference environment. At relatively low values of 

strain-to-failure in nitrogen, equal values of strain-to-failure occurred in the aggressive 

environments. At higher values in nitrogen, however, the aggressive-environment 

strain-to-failure values tapered off noticeably. Moreover, although both the binary 

alloy and the ternary alloy showed similar deviations, the effect on the binary was 

significantly more pronounced. 

The experiments furnished evidence that the type, size and density of grain-boundary 

precipitates strongly increased the susceptibility of aluminum-lithium alloys to stress 

corrosion cracking. 

Graphite Fiber Composites in Electrolysis 

George L. Cahen, Jr. and Glenn E. Stoner of the University of Virginia knew how to 

purge seawater of certain micro-organisms in 1990—this they could accomplish by ac electrolysis. But they wanted to know how graphite fiber-polymer composites would 

perform as electrodes in this type of system. To find out, they teamed with Gery 

R. Stafford of NIST. The group was optimistic, since graphite displayed good electrical 

conductivity, good chemical resistance, and generated a volatile oxidation product that 

consumed no electrical energy upon repolarization. But how would the composites 

perform? 

Preliminary screening of candidate composites turned up some promising materials 

and some spectacular failures. Clearly a systematic study was needed. 

R. E. Ricker, J. L. Fink, and A. K. Vasudevan, "On the stress coirosion cracking of Al-Li alloys: the role 

of grain boundary precipitates." Metallurgical Transactions 22A, 264-267 (1991). 

752 
The authors prepared test electrodes, backed with nickel electroplating and embedded in a polyester resin so as to expose only a 4 cm by 0.25 cm face to the electrolysis 

solution, containing 2 % dehydrated seawater. A variety of electrical-current settings 

was used with random-oriented, parallel, and perpendicular fiber composites. Water 

absorption tests were performed on the composites, and voltage-time curves were obtained at fixed current densities, using the composite as the anode.'95 

Typically, after a period of time that varied with the composite, the measured potential at fixed current density would rise sharply for each material. Anodes with parallel 

fibers failed quickly, with the composite simply falling apart. Anodes with only the 

tips of fibers exposed to the solution lasted the longest. 

Composites made with polyphenylene sulfide appeared to survive substantially better 

than those based on nylon, epoxy-butadiene, polyester, or epoxy. 

The authors concluded that degradation of the cells occurred almost entirely at the 

anode, with loss of electrical contact to the conductive fibers. In the case of 

polyphenylene sulfide-fiber composites, integrity of the composite electrode could be 

expected to last for about 100 hours. 

Laser Vaporization Mass Spectrometry 

A dearth of reliable information on the behavior of materials at temperatures beyond 

2000 K prompted Peter K. Schenck, David W. Bonnell, and John W. Hastie to 

investigate the coupling of laser vaporization and high-pressure molecular beam mass spectrometry as a means of obtaining thermochemical data on refractory materials. 

Stripped to its bare essentials, the method chosen by the group was simple; blast the 

surface of a test sample with a powerful pulse of laser radiation, then peek at the 

debris as it whizzed through the mass filter of a mass spectrometer. However, estimating the temperatures reached on the surfaces of the samples and determining which 

chemical reactions might have given rise to the observed species was not so simple. 

The authors tried the new technique on two types of materials; graphite, and the 

high-temperature superconductor, (YBCO). They used a neodymiumyttrium aluminum garnet laser pulsed at 20 Hz as the energy source. The laser 

delivered from 10 mJ to 40 mJ of energy in 10 ns at a wavelength of 532 nm to a spot on the sample that was about 0.25 mm in diameter, producing temperatures estimated 

from the time of flight of the vapor plume to be as high as 8000 K. 

The mass spectrometer operated in a tank evacuated by a high-conductance (about 

2000 LIs) pump, allowing free flow of the vapor plume. The group collected mass data 

with a time resolution less than 0.1 ms. By moving the samples under the laser beam, 

the authors could obtain time-resolved mass data averaged over many laser pulses. 

Alternatively, they could integrate time-gated spectral scans. 

Gery R. Stafford. George L. Cahen. Jr., and Glenn E. Stoner. "Graphite fiber-polymer matrix composites as electrolysis electrodes," J. Electroche,n. Soc. 138, No. 2, 425-430 (1991). 

753 
The graphite targets yielded both neutral species and ions tentatively identified as C, C3, and under direct bombardment of the samples by the laser. 

The YBCO samples produced a rich menu of molecular fragments: Cu, CuOF, 02, 

H20, C02, BaO, Y0, CuBa, and YCu. 

The authors declared the new technique an unqualified success. Both equilibrium 

and nonequilibrium effects were found, and the vapor plumes generated by the laser 

appeared to be nonhomogeneous both in space and in time; yet the method was 

productive and the results were subject to reasonbie interpretation. 196 Reactor Radiation, J. Michael Rowe, chief 

The Reactor Radiation Division (RRD) was built on the concept of service. Possessing one of the few nuclear reactor research facilities in the Nation—with accompanying instruments that were unique—division personnel were keenly aware of the need 

to provide reactor run time for those scientists with experiments that required use of 

the facility. In some cases—both inside NIST and beyond its borders—scientific 

visitors could.plan and conduct their own experiments with only minimal assistance 

from the division staff. There were plenty of requests for instrument time, however, 

in which the expertise existing among the staff was needed to make a fruitful 

experimental plan and carry it out. 

The division explicitly welcomed visitors who needed only run time as well as those 

who desired to collaborate scientifically with its staff. In addition, division scientists 

maintained their own materials research programs involving the use of neutrons, and 

they continually looked to develop and maintain state-of-the-art instruments to take 

best advantage of the NIST reactor. 

We have already described many experiments performed at the NIST reactor by 

personnel of other divisions, often in collaboration with one or more RRD colleagues. 

Specialized instruments associated with the reactor included neutron spectrometers, 

reflectometers, and diffractometers serving the thermal column, and a like set of 

devices—plus a small-angle neutron scattering capability—facilitating experiments that 

used the cold neutron source. 

High- Superconductors and Phonons? 

A question asked immediately after the discovery of high-temperature superconductivity was: Does the origin of high-temperature superconductivity involve the 

crystal lattice, as the Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer theory indicated for conventional 

(low-temperature) superconductors? 

There seemed to be as many answers to that question as there were high-Ta materials. Certain materials with values near 30 K—lanthanum-strontium cuprate and 

barium-potassium bismuthate, for example—showed substantial isotope effects, md icating that the lattice indeed played a role in the superconductive interaction. Other 

materials, particularly those with transition temperatures above 77 K, showed no isotope effect at all. 

9(' P. K. Schenck, 1). W. Bonnell. and J. W. Mastic, "Laser vaporization mass spectrometry of refractory 

materials: graphite and YBa2Cu3O.1." J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A7, No. 3, pp. 1745-1749 (1989). 

754 
A team of investigators including Jeffrey W. Lynn, Dan A. Neumann, and John J. 

Rush of the Reactor division and I. W. Sumarlin, J. L. Peng, and Z. Y. Li of the 

University of Maryland, aware that inelastic neutron scattering provided good insight 

into lattice resonance modes, or phonons, conducted a series of such measurements on a 43 g sample of polycrystalline Nd1.85Ce015CuO4 (NCCO). 

In the range of neutron energy up to 100 meV, the group found structure that they 

attributed to generalized phonon density of states peaks at 13 meV, 51 meV, and 

65 meV. Tucked away in the results they also discovered smaller phonon structure. 

Comparing their results with those obtained in superconducting tunneling experiments, 

they found agreement at 14 meV, 32 meV, and 40 meV, indicating that, indeed, 

phonons did play a part in the superconductive interaction in NCCO.'97 

In the meantime, Russell C. Casella extended his earlier discussion of high-temperature superconductivity to account for anisotropy observed in electron tunneling 

experiments in Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8 (BSCCO). Previously, Casella had proposed a multipleenergy-gap explanation for the dependence of in certain compounds containing 

layers of Cu02 upon the number of layers. 

In tunneling measurements on single-crystal BSCCO, the ratio of the superconducting energy gap to the transition temperature had been evaluated as 6.2 ± 0.3 when the 

current was injected in the ab plane and as 3.3 ±0.5 when the current followed the c axis. Casella employed a model in which double intermediate boson exchange took 

place between fermions in two bands. The consequences of his model were consistent 

with current experimental results and allowed for specific experimental tests.'98 

Vibrational Modes in Fullerene 

R. L. Cappelletti spent a portion of his sabbatical leave from Ohio University at 

NIST, investigating fullerite, an interesting molecule with the formula In the work, 

he collaborated with John R. D. Copley and William A. Kamitakahara of NIST and 

with Fang Li, J. S. Lannin, and D. Ramage of Penn State University. 

The shape of the Cs,, molecule and its relatives was nearly spherical, with all atoms 

on the surface, forming cage-like structures known as "Buckey balls" or "Buckminster 

Fullerene." Some 46 distinct vibrational frequencies were possible for the Cu) structure. 

Previous observations of the molecule by infrared and Raman spectrsocopy were 

limited to only 14 of the frequencies, but all participated in neutron scattering. 

The team purified a 640 g polycrystalline sample of C50 and conducted scattering 

measurements using a modified three-axis spectrometer at the NIST reactor. The 

sample was held at 10 K during the 6-day run. 

J. W. Lynn, I. W. Sumarlin, D. A. Neumann, J. J. Rush, J. L. Peng, and Z. Y. Li, "Phonon density of 

states and superconductivity in Nd,95Ce0,5CuO4," Phys. Rev. Len. 66, No. 7, 919-922 (1991). 

R. C. Casella, "A theoretical model for the tunneling-gap anisotropy observed in layered copper-oxide 

high-temperature superconductors," Solid Stale Con,mun. 78, No. 5, pp. 377-379 (1991). 

755 
The neutron scattering spectrum, taken from 0 meV to 240 meV, was complex. It 

included three prominent peaks associated with vibrational density-of-states measurements in graphite, along with other structure attributed to the infrared-active and 

Raman-active modes as well as other vibrational modes predicted by theory. In certain 

respects, however, the data were not in accord with available theoretical predictions, 

leading to the suggestion that theoretical treatments might be improved on the basis of 

this type of measurement.'99 

Low-Temperature Motion of Protons in Scandium 

A neutron-scattering experiment on purified, single-crystal scandium provided a diverse group of scientists with new information on the motion of hydrogen within the 

scandium lattice. Norman F. Berk, John J. Rush, and Terrence J. Udovic of NIST 

collaborated on the project with I. S. Anderson of the Paul Scherrer Institute of 

Switzerland, R. G. Barnes of Iowa State University, A. Magerl of the Laue-Langevin 

Institute of France, and D. Richter of the Institute for Research in Solid State and 

Nuclear Science in West Germany. 

The group knew that hydrogen, when dissolved in hexagonal-close-packed rare-earth 

metals, displayed unusual short-range ordering, with consequences that were noticeable 

in certain physical properties of the material. They hoped to excite a "hopping" mode 

of hydrogen within the scandium lattice that would reveal to them some details about 

the localized motion. 

Accordingly they loaded one single crystal of scandium with 5 % to 20 % concentrations of hydrogen, left a second crystal unhydrogenated, and subjected both to neutron 

irradiation at the Laue-Langevin Institute in Grenoble, France. The difference spectra, 

obtained at temperatures of 300 K, 125 K, 100 K, 70 K, and 50K showed a sharp 

spectral line whose width surprisingly exhibited a noticeable minimum near 100 K. 

Below that temperature, the linewidth increased approximately as lIT, the first such 

observation seen in the system. 

The authors took the results as an indication of nonadiabatic behavior in the hydrogen motion. The data also indicated extremely rapid hopping rates, more than 1010 per 

second. They discussed their results in terms of the locations of the hydrogen atoms 

in the scandium lattice and the energetics of the hydrogen motion.20° 

199 R. L. Cappelletti. J. R. D. Copley, W. A. Kaniitakahara, Fang Li, J. S. Lannin, and D. Ramage. "Neutron 

measurements of intramolecular vibrational modes in Phys. Rev. Let!. 66, No. 25, PP. 326 1-3264 

(1991). 200 S. Anderson. N. F. Berk, J. J. Rush, T. J. Udovic. R. G. Barnes, A. Magerl. and D. Richter. "Rapid 

low-temperature hopping of hydrogen in a pure metal: the ScHx system," Phys. Rev. Let!. 65, No. 12, pp. 

1439-1442 (1990). 

756 
Building and Fire Research Laboratory 

The building research and fire research organizations were separate within NBS 

from 1974, when the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act directed the Bureau to 

create a Center for Fire Research (see A Hectic Decade For NBS Fire Science in 

Ch. 4), until Director John Lyons established the new NIST organization in 1991. At 

that time, Richard N. Wright was appointed director and Jack E. Snell was made his 

deputy. 

Structures, Hai S. Lew, chief 

Abating Earthquake Hazards 

On October 17, 1989, the "Loma Prieta" earthquake shook the San Francisco Bay area. The epicenter of the quake was located about 90 km southeast of the city along 

the San Andreas fault line. Because of the "shaky" history of the Bay area, many 

buildings had been instrumented with accelerometers to record their motion in response 

to earthquakes. Thus the Loma Prieta event provided NIST with an excellent opportunity to compare the recorded responses to the strong shaking of the earthquake with 

building-response predictions derived from low-level vibrations. Richard D. Marshall 

and Long T. Phan of NIST collaborated with Mehmed çelebi of the U.S. Geological 

Survey on the project. 

The team studied five buildings from the earthquake region. These were selected on the basis of several criteria: 

• Availability of accelerometer records showing strong motion as a result of the 

earthquake. 

• No visible signs of structural damage from any earthquake. 

• Accessibility to the building for ambient vibration studies. 

• Availability of detailed structural drawings and knowledge of soil conditions at 

the building site. 

• Adherence of the building to current construction codes. 

• Contribution to the variety of construction materials and methods desired in the 

investigation. 

• Degree of complexity in the analytical model to be used to describe the building 

response to earthquakes. 

Two organizations had instrumented buildings in the area with force balance 

accelerometers: the California Division of Mines and Geology, through its "Strong 

Motion Instrumentation" program; and the U.S. Geological Survey, through its 

Engineering Seismology Branch. The accelerometers produced time histories of 

velocity and displacement at various positions within each building. 

757 
NIST Structures Division engineers H. S. Lew and Nicholas J. Carino investigated 

structural damage to the two-tiered Nimitz Freeway. which collapsed during the 1989 

Loma Prieta Earthquake. 

758 
View to the southeast of the landmark Transamerica building in San Francisco, 97 km 

from the epicenter of the Loma Prieta earthquake. The Transamerica was built on a 9-ft thick concrete mat foundation with no piles. It was instrumented by the U.S. 

Geological Survey. 

759 
NIST scientists Richard D. Marshall (left) and Long T. Phan (seated) monitor real-time measurements of 

accelerations of a building resulting from ambient vibrations, along with Chang 1-1. Hyun (standing, center) 

of the Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety and Mehmed çelehi of the U.S. Geological Survey. 

The five buildings chosen for the study were the 13-story California State University 

Administration Building at Hayward, the 12-story Santa Clara County Office Building 

at San Jose, a 6-story commercial office building in San Bruno, the 49-story Transamerica Building in San Francisco, and the 30-story Pacific Park Plaza in Emeryville. 

Once the required structural and Loma Prieta records were in hand, the team conducted ambient vibration measurements in each building, using its existing accelerometer array to record building response to ordinary, everyday vibration—mostly from 

the effects of wind. 

Both the recorded strong-motion data and the ambient vibration responses were analyzed to identify relevant dynamic characteristics of each building: then the two sets 

of analyses were compared. 

The team found that, with suitable signal conditioning, the force-balance accelerometers produced reliable ambient vibration measurements. This finding would allow 

the use of the accelerometers to identify the main modes of building vibration. Several 

other conclusions were reached as well: these related to details of the building 

construction and to the nature of the soils on which the buildings were constructed.20' 

201 R. D. Marshall, Long T. Phan. and M. celebi. "Measurements of structural response characteristics of 

full-scale buildings: comparison of results from strong-motion and ambient vibration records." N/STIR 4884, 

October 1992. 74 pp. 

760 
350 

250 

150 E SO 

U —50 

• —150 

—250 

—350 

O.9E+03 

0.6E+03 

0.3E+03 

0 

0.0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Frequency (Hz) 

(Top figure) Acceleration-time graph in the east-west direction at the center of the roof of a 6-story office 

building in San Bruno, California during the Loma Prieta earthquake. (Bottom figure) Fourier spectrum 

derived from the top figure, showing the major vibrational frequencies of the building. 

As a consequence of the Loma Prieta earthquake, President Bush issued Executive 

Order 12699 on January 5, 1990. Entitled "Seismic Safety of Federal and Federally 

Assisted or Regulated New Building Construction," the order was intended to reduce 

risks to the lives of occupants of buildings owned by the Federal government and to 

persons who would be affected by failure of such buildings in earthquakes. The order 

helped secure new building codes in earthquake-prone areas. "The future of lifeline earthquake engineering depends, in large part, upon our 

ability to develop and communicate new concepts and ideas for design, construction, 

operation, and post-event restoration of lifelines." So read the Foreword to the 

Proceedings of the 4th U.S.-Japan Workshop on Earthquake Disaster Prevention for 

Lifeline Systems, held in Los Angeles from August 19-21, 1991. Robert D. Dikkers of 

NIST's Structures division served on the organizing committee for the workshop, 

which featured contributions from earthquake scientists from many organizations in 

Japan and America. 

761 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 

Time (sac) 

a. E 
Dikkers offered to the workshop participants a discussion of the U.S. response to the 

National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977 (PL 95-124)—updated by 

Congress in 1990—which requested the Federal Emergency Management Agency to 

oversee the formulation of a plan aimed at design and construction standards for lifelines. In the context of the Act, lifelines included electrical power, gas and liquid fuel, 

telecommunications, transportation, and water and sewer. The 1990 reauthorization of PL 95-124 directed FEMA to consult with NIST on the 

formulation of an action plan to create standards for the preservation of lifelines. 

Dikkers and his colleagues from industry, government, and academia collaborated to 

create a comprehensive response to that request. 202 Locating Reinforcing Bars in Concrete 

An important step in evaluating the load capacity of an existing reinforced concrete 

structure was the capability of locating the number and configuration of the steel rods 

used to strengthen the concrete. Particularly under the types of stresses arising in 

earthquakes were the details of the reinforcing significant. For years, sensing devices 

had been available to detect the presence of reinforcing rods and their locations within 

the concrete in a nondestructive fashion, but no U.S. industrial standards existed for 

these so-called "covermeters" when Nicholas J. Carino set about to characterize them 

in 1992. 

Carino conducted experiments comparing the capabilities of two types of covermeters available commercially—one based on measurements of magnetic reluctance 

and the other on eddy current observations. He examined the relationships between 

meter reading and "cover thickness," the thickness of concrete covering the reinforcing 

rod, and the change in reading occasioned by a change in rod diameter. He also 

investigated the limits for useful response of the meters to multiple bars, to ends of 

bars, and to spliced bars. 

In his report, Carino offered simple descriptions of the operation of the two types of 

covermeters, summarized the results of his many tests, made recommendations for 

developing standard test methods for the meters, and presented suggestions for enhancing the effectiveness of then-existing devices and for improvements in the design of 

such equipment.203 

Building Materials, Geoffrey J. Frohnsdorff, chief 

Detecting Surface Defects 

In certain industries—for example, automobiles and appliances—a perfect or 

near-perfect surface finish was vital to the commercial value of the manufactured item. 

Unfortunately, lumps and craters were the constant companions of coatings that 

202 Robert D. Dikkers. "Development of seismic design and construction standards for lifelines," N/ST 

Special Publication 840, August 1992, 48! pp. 203 Nicholas J. Carino, "Performance of electromagnetic covermeters for nondestructive assessment of steel 

reinforcement," NJST/R 4988, December 1992, 127 pp. 

762 
NIST Structures Division engineer Nicholas J. Carino operated a covermeter for 

locating reinforcing rods in reinforced concrete. The device operated by detecting magnetic reluctance. 

satisfied the criterion of minimal volatile organic content, and these defects were hard 

to spot. Ordinary visual inspection proved unsatisfactory, and profiling styli were 

unrealistic in time and expense. However, Dale P. Bentz and Jonathon W. Martin 

adapted a thermographic method that was up to the task. 

Relying on previous experience with thermography, the two scientists developed a theory for use of the technique for coating-defect detection, then devised a method to 

automatically survey the surface finish of test samples. A key element of the method was to create a temperature gradient of 20 °C to 30 °C between the coating and its environment. 

A thermographic camera then could be coupled with a computer-driven image processor 

for digitization of the surface appearance. Surface defects were readily apparent in the 

thermographic images, primarily because of the difference in coating thickness at the 

defect. The method was attractive—it was quick, simple, and automatic.204 

Evaluating Roofing Materials 

A research effort conducted by the U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research 

Laboratories, attempting to identify types of roofing that could be easily installed, durable, 

and low in maintenance, was materially aided by personnel from NIST. D. M. Bailey, 

Walter J. Rossiter, and James F. Seiler assisted Army personnel in the evaluation of three 

types of bitumen-based roofing at Fort Polk, Louisiana. The properties of the roofing 

materials were tested prior to installation on one of the buildings; at the end of each year 

for 3 years, the roofs were inspected for obvious damage and test samples were taken from 

the roofs for comparison with the original samples. 

204 D. P. Bentz and J. W. Martin. "Thermographic imaging of surface finish defects in coatings on metal 

substrates." Materials Evaluation 50. No. 2. pp. 242-246 (1992). 

763 
The NIST team found the roofing materials to be satisfactory in terms of wear on the building and to be usefully durable as well.205 

Predicting Service Life of Concrete 

Very costly decisions on the repair or replacement of concrete structures relied upon 

evaluations by inspectors of the serviceability of the structure. In order to place such 

evaluations on a sounder basis, James R. Clifton of NIST and James M. Pommersheim 

of Bucknell University collaborated on a study of the methods involved in lifetime 

predictions. 

Most evaluative methods assumed that corrosion was the principal cause of degradation of concrete structures. To predict the remaining useful life, the inspector 

typically would examine the concrete to determine its present condition, then seek the 

cause of any perceived decay. Extrapolating the progress of the degradation, the 

inspector would then estimate the time when the structure would reach a stage where 

repair or replacement would become necessary. 

Both modeling and measurements were used in forecasting the life of concrete. Both 

approaches assumed that degradation would follow a known path: an initiation period 

during which attacking ions would slowly penetrate the concrete to reach its reinforcing steel members and commence the process of chemical decay; and a propagation 

period during which the chemical decay would progress until the concrete structure lost 

its strength. The authors summarized the steps recorded by various writers in modeling 

the corrosion process, as well as polarization resistance measurements used to monitor 

the growth of corrosion currents. 

By conducting accelerated degradation tests, the inspecting authority could evaluate 

various corrosion routes, determine rate-controlling steps, and obtain estimates of 

useful lifetimes. The authors noted that such testing, while expensive, could well be 

justified to improve useful-life predictions of expensive concrete structures.206 

Building Environments, James E. Hill, chief 

Thermal Bridges in Buildings 

The building industry was well aware that certain features in the construction of 

buildings provided easy paths for the flow of heat energy between the inside of the 

building and the outside. These energy pathways were known as "thermal bridges." 

They included such items as ceiling fasteners in built-up roofs, metal studs in insulated 

masonry walls, steel casings at window frames, the joints between the roof and the 

side wall, and the joints between the floors of the building and its side walls. In every 

case, they provided a kind of "short circuit" of material with relatively high thermal 

D. M. Bailey, W. J. Rossiter, and J. F. Seiler. Jr.. "Three-year field test summary for experimental modified bitumen roofing at Fort Polk, LA." FM-93/O5, December 1992, 34 pp. 206 James R. Clifton and James M. Pommersheim. "Methods for predicting remaining life of concrete structures," N/STIR 4954, November 1992. 24 pp. 

764 
conductivity that reduced the effectiveness of the insulation installed in the building 

envelope. Steady-state analysis of thermal bridges typically put the increase in energy 

transmission on their account at 10 % to 20 %. Douglas M. Burch, George N. Walton, 

and Betty A. Licitra of NIST collaborated with John E. Seem of Johnson Controls 

Corporation to show that a time-dependent analysis of thermal bridges raised the 

steady-state estimates substantially. 

For their study, the authors configured a modest two-story office building constructed according to current practice. Then they calculated the conduction transfer 

function for the building without considering the thermal bridges. Finally, they 

repeated the calculation using a two-dimensional, finite-difference analysis to evaluate 

the dynamic heat-flow contribution of the thermal bridges. The overall heat transfer 

coefficient through the outer envelope of the building increased by an impressive 33 % 

when the contributions of the thermal bridges were included in the analysis.207 

Improved Buoys for Water Safety 

In the early 1990s, the U.S. Coast Guard—as a correspondent with the International 

Association of Lighthouse Authorities (IALA)—was concerned that the imperfect base 

of knowledge of visibility of navigational buoys was hampering the adoption of 

improved international standards for their shapes and color-coding. The IALA 

suggested that standard shapes and colored markings could identify the port and starboard limits for channels, the deepest water in an area, especially dangerous or especially safe areas, and special features of particular locations. The trouble was, nobody 

was sure how well any particular designs could be seen by boaters. To help the Coast 

Guard evaluate the effectiveness of some of the designs before they invested significant effort and expense in new buoys, Belinda L. Collins and Philip A. Sanders 

reviewed available research on buoy visibility and undertook experiments to enhance 

the state of knowledge on the topic. 

In a NIST Interim Report, Collins and Sanders reviewed existing TALA standards for 

buoys, including type, shape, color, and geometrical topmarks. They also reviewed the 

lore surrounding the use of buoys for daytime navigation—problems caused by tides, 

marine growths, sun-fading, open-air deterioration, and color-blindness in navigators. 

As their own contribution to the visibility question, Collins and Sanders hit upon the 

photography of 8 % scale models of test buoys, followed by evaluation of the images 

by a panel of observers. Ten different buoy configurations were prepared by Robert 

E. Stachon of the Groton, Connecticut, Coast Guard facility. Rosemary Porterfield and 

James R. McMahon, officials at Black Hills Regional Park, a facility of the MarylandNational Capital Park and Planning Commission, made their 200 hectare lake available 

for the photography. Some 13 slides were prepared for each scale model to simulate 

views from typical boating distances of 0.2 km to 4 km, and in a variety of lighting 

and background conditions. 

2(0 D. M. Burch. J. E. Seem. G. N. Walton. and B. A. Licitra, "Dynamic evaluation of thermal bridges in a typical office building." ASHRAE Transactions: Research 98, Part I, pp. 291-304 (1992). 

765 
The resulting photographic slides were first shown to 17 observers denoted as "naive," then again to 10 trained observers at Coast Guard Headquarters in 

Washington. The observers determined the distances at which the scale buoys could 

be identified under the various experimental conditions, relying on shape, color, and 

topmarks. 

Interpretation of the results required careful analysis, which the authors detailed in 

their report. Their conclusions included the following: 

• The presence of topmarks did not increase the visibility of the buoys tested for 

distances beyond 0.8 km—color was substantially easier to recognize than 

topmarks when viewed with front lighting. 

• In back lighting and twilight conditions, visibility decreased substantially, with or without topmarks. 

• Red colors were visible at greater distances than greens. 

• Painted bands in contrasting colors appeared to be effective visual aids for buoy 

recognition. 205 New Lamps for Old 

The introduction of new, more compact fluorescent lamps for commercial and 

domestic use in the United States and Canada brought longer lamp life, reduced energy 

use, and lower operating costs. These benefits were most welcome. However, the new 

lamps also brought questions about their performance compared to the older lamps 

they replaced—such concerns as their response to extremes of heat and cold, 

sensitivity to lamp position and mechanical shock, and visibility of flicker. 

In conjunction with Michael J. Ouellette of the National Research Council (NRC) of 

Canada, Belinda L. Collins and Stephen J. Treado of NIST began in 1992 to resolve 

the outstanding uncertainties regarding the performance of the compact lamps. The trio 

of scientists decided first to test lamp response to variation in ambient temperature. 

In a large NIST environmental chamber, 12 three-lamp sets of various types of the 

compact fluorescents and a control set of incandescent lamps were subjected to six 

different temperatures in the range 45 °C to —18 °C. Each lamp had been operated for 

100 hours at the NRC for pre-conditioning. Photocells positioned near each lamp 

monitored luminous output and flicker. Extensive measurements were made by the 

group—of time-to-ignition, light output vs time for each lamp at each temperature, 

power use of each lamp, flicker characteristics, and harmonic distortion. 

The authors found that the temperature of the space in which the lamps operated 

generally affected their performance in a big way—in some cases, the lamps failed to 

operate, in others the light output dropped to 10 % of the value at 25 °C. A notable 

exception were lamps with outer glass enclosures, which performed well at low 

temperatures. On the other hand, the fluorescent lamps were noticeably more efficient 

than the incandescent lamps when measured near 25 °C.209 2(5 Belinda L. Collins and Philip A. Sanders, "Evaluation of the visibility of buoys and topmarks," N/STiR 

4756, March 1992. 68 pp. 209 Belinda L. Collins, Stephen J. Treado, and Michael J. Ouellette, "Evaluation of compact fluorescent lamp 

performance at different ambient temperatures." NIST1R 4935, December 992. 47 pp. 

766 
Moisture Accumulation Under Roofs 

Department of Housing and Urban Development officials thought they might have a problem with moisture condensation in manufactured homes. A 1984 survey of several 

dozen manufactured homes throughout the United States turned up moisture problems 

in about one-third of the cases. A later survey in Canada showed similar results. 

Why should moisture particularly concern residents of manufactured homes? For one thing, HUD did not require ventilation of the space below the roof to the outside air, as many conventional homes possessed. For another, manufactured homes generally were smaller than conventional homes built for the same number of occupants, thus 

concentrating the moisture generated by normal household activities into a smaller 

space; in cold weather, unavoidable exchange of air between the living space of the 

home and its roof cavity carried the moist air into contact with the cold roof, resulting 

in increased humidity and, perhaps, accumulation of water. 

At the request of HUD, Douglas M. Burch of NIST fired up his computer and 

analyzed the problem. He assumed a layered roof structure for which he sought the 

time-dependent moisture content. Other assumptions included: • Moisture transfer was driven by temperature and humidity gradients. 

• Moisture transfer was one-dimensional. 

• Heat transfer was temperature independent. 

Burch prepared a computer program—which he called MOIST—to solve the 

problem, using standard heat-and moisture-transfer equations. Among many other 

findings, a significant one was the effect of indoor humidity levels on the moisture 

content of roof fibers. In cold climates, the calculations indicated that fiber saturation 

would occur above about 40 % relative humidity during the three coldest winter 

months if no roof-cavity ventilation to the outdoors was available. Another calculation 

showed that, in hot, humid c'imates, outdoor ventilation of the roof cavity could allow 

the sub-roof humidity to exceed 80 %, favoring the growth of molds and mildew. 

Burch's prescription for manufactured homes? 

I. In cold climates, install vapor barriers in the ceilings, seal all openings in the 

ceilings, and vent the roof cavity to the outdoors. 

2. In hot, humid climates, do not ventilate the roof cavity to the outdoors.21° 

Fire Safety, Andrew J. Fowell, chief 

Predicting Fire Danger: HAZARD I 

On March 25, 1990, 87 people died in a fire in the "Happyland Social Club" in the 

Bronx, New York. Evidence found on the scene indicated that the fatal blaze was the 

result of arson—gasoline appeared to have been poured and lighted near the club 

210 Douglas M. Burch, "Controlling moisture in the roof cavities of manufactured housing," N/STIR 4916, 

November 1992, 43 pp. 

767 
entrance, dooming many club patrons to death from smoke inhalation or from burns. A 

few days later, the New York City Fire Department asked NIST to help identify the 

reasons why the fire resulted in so many deaths; what changes on the scene could have 

reduced the death toll? 

NIST was ready for the NYFD request with a computerized program that could 

evaluate structure fires on the basis of the nature of the structure, the types of fire 

safety equipment on hand, and the progress of the conflagration. The program was called the HAZARD I Fire Hazard Assessment Model. Quickly, a NIST fire research 

team collected on-site information on the circumstances surrounding the fire for 

analysis with HAZARD I. On the basis of the analysis, Richard W. Bukowski and 

Robert C. Spetzler prepared a report for the NYFD which they later summarized in a journal article. 

The authors used HAZARD I to process the data gathered at the fire site and to 

predict the progress of the fire. The prediction matched closely the descriptions given 

by witnesses to the blaze, including the elapsed time until conditions in the club 

became inconsistent with life. The program also identified two key points regarding the 

high mortality rate from the fire: 

• No automatic sprinklers were operating in the building—such equipment would 

have stopped or severely restricted the loss of life. 

• The use of non-combustible finishes on the inner surfaces of the building would 

have denied the fire the fuel it needed to build to the magnitude that took so many lives. 

Bukowski and Spetzler pointed out that HAZARD I, with its relatively simple 

calculational tools such as algebraic equations and simple models, could effectively 

complement the more complex zone and field models already in use in fire safety 

engineering. It could identify factors leading to high fire-death tolls and point to strategies for avoiding similar fires in the many social clubs operating within large cities.21' 

Bukowski also presented a strategy for the development and implementation of performance-based fire codes for international use. His presentation took place during a forum for International Cooperation on Fire Research held in Sydney, Australia, October 18-20, 1992. The first step in the process, according to Bukowski, was agreement on a common set of goals, followed by agreement on suitable predictive tools. 

Ultimately, the procedure could be expected to lead to estimation of the performance 

of any building under the stress of fire.2t2 

Evacuating the Handicapped 

Rising concern within the U.S. General Services Administration for the safety of 

handicapped persons in burning buildings led to consideration by NIST researchers of 

the feasibility of using elevators to evacuate such individuals. In most countries, 

elevators were shut down during fire emergencies. By 1992, the NIST team, including 

211 R. W. Bukowski and R. C. Spetzler. "Analysis of the Happyland Social Club fire with HAZARD I." 

J. Fire Prot. Eng. 4, No. 4, 117-131 (1992). 212 R. W. Bukowski, "Toward the goal of a performance fire code," Fire and Materials 15, No. 4. 175-180 

(1991). 

768 
John H. Klote, Daniel M. Alvord, Bernard M. Levin, and N.E. Groner, completed a report to GSA that addressed the installation of elevator systems in buildings, design 

changes needed to make them available during fires, and human factors affecting their use. The study indicated that re-designed elevators could be of considerable help both 

in fires and in other types of emergencies.213 

Fire Science, Richard G. Gann, chief 

One of the greatest challenges to fire researchers was the need to place fire tests on a solid scientific footing and to develop computer models to reduce the amount of 

large-scale testing. A fully furnished room presents a very large number of potential 

ignition scenarios and hence a similar mumber of fire-growth alternatives. 

The tradition of fire testing was to devise simple bench-top tests. Since these could 

not generally be related to actual fire conditions, the technique grew to incorporate 

full-scale models of rooms or buildings, which then were burned to obtain 

one-time data. 

Beginning in the 1970s, computer modeling began to be feasible. The HAZARD I 

and CFAST models developed at NBS incorporated material properties, design data, 

and testing results, including the use of such devices as the cone calorimeter— 

developed at the Bureau. 

Fire Danger and Heat Release Rate 

During the 1990 meeting of the Fire Retardant Chemicals Association, Vytenis 

Babrauskas and Richard D. Peacock presented evidence, based upon years of correlating damage caused by fires with the various data characterizing them, that the single 

most important factor in assessing fire hazards was the heat release rate. 

To support their assertion, the two scientists cited case histories illustrating that, 

although toxic gases were the primary cause of death in fires, it was heat release rate, 

not the toxicity of the product gases, that was the best predictor of fire hazard. Such 

other observables as delays in ignition time proved to be of only minor importance.214 

Fire at Sea 

Fire damage control, important everywhere, was crucial on board combat ships in 

wartime. Simple survival, let alone successful effort in battle, depended upon freedom 

from crippling fires. 

During 1989, a study team including NIST's Emil Braun, Darren L. Lowe, and 

Walter W. Jones, collaborators Patricia Tatem and Jean Bailey of the Naval Research 

Laboratory in Washington, DC and Richard Carey of the David Taylor Naval Ship 

Research and Development Center in Annapolis, Maryland, conducted a series of fire 

tests on the USS Shadwell, a decommissioned Naval vessel, to help improve shipboard 

fire control procedures. 

213 j• H. Klote, D. M. Alvord. B. M. Levin, and N. E. Groner, "Feasibility and design considerations of 

emergency evacuation by elevators." N/STIR 4870, February 1992, 126 pp. 214 V. Babrauskas and R. D. Peacock, "Heat release rate: the single most important variable in fire hazard," 

Fire Safety Journal 18, No. 3. 255-272. 1992. 

769 
Four full-scale tests were performed on the Shadwell, using two different fuels, 

diesel oil and polyethylene beads, and two different ventilation systems. The results 

were analyzed to determine fuel mass loss, progress of the fires in the burn compartments, and changing conditions in compartments separated from the burn areas. In the 

burn compartments, a load platform tracked the fuel mass, thermocouple thermometers 

tracked the fire progress, and gas analyzers monitored 02, CO. and CO2. Gas and 

smoke concentrations were observed in two passageways and on the main deck. The 

effects of opening or closing doors and vents connecting various areas were examined. 

A smoke ejection system was set up to remove combustion products from surrounding 

areas. The data showed that within 6 to 7 minutes, the ejection system, coupled with 

the provision of adequate ventilation of test passageways and compartments, removed 

enough of the combustion products to remove the threat to life. 

A NIST model for fire growth and smoke transport, known as CFAST,215 was used 

to simulate the fires and predict the temperature distributions and the effect of 

ventilation on the fire progress and smoke concentrations. 

Results of the experiments indicated that sealing the compartments containing the 

fires and ventilating adjoining areas would provide the most effective control of 

the fire. The authors also found that the CFAST program successfully predicted the 

shipboard environment under fire conditions.216 

A New Tool for Flame Studies 

Nelson P. Bryner, Cecilia D. Richards, and William M. Pitts published a description 

in 1992 of a new instrument designed to give unprecedented measurement access to 

flame jets and plumes. The device, a Rayleigh light scattering facility that combined 

laser diagnostics with a cylindrical "clean room" test space of diameter 2.4 m and 

height 2.4 m, gave the authors the ability to examine the process of mixing in free jets 

and buoyant plumes. 

Key to the success of the new device was the minimization of interference from 

glare and Mie scattering by the suppression of background light and dust particles in 

the test cylinder. For the first time, the facility permitted scattering measurements to be 

made in momentum-driven flows.217 

215 W. W. Jones and'G. P. Forney, NIST Tech Note /283 (1990). 21(' Emil Braun. Darren L. Lowe. Walter W. Jones, Patricia Tatem, Jean Bailey, and Richard Carey, 

"Comparison of full scale lire tests and a computer fire model of several smoke ejection experiments." 

N/STIR 4961. November 1992, 43 pp. 217 N. P. Bryner. C. D. Richards. and W. M. Pitts, "Rayleigh light scattering facility for the investigation of 

free jets and plumes," Ret'. Sd. Instrwn. 63, No. 7, 3629-3635 (1992). 

770 
Fire Hazards from Burning Furniture 

The leading cause of residential fire deaths in the late 1980s was fire in upholstered 

furniture. From 1983 to 1987, one death in four came from that source. A majority of 

those fires originated from smoking materials, either pipes or cigarettes. Disturbed by 

the uncertainties in statistical data regarding the relation between the hazard created by a fire and the manner of ignition, Thomas G. Cleary, Thomas J. Ohlemiller, and Kay 

M. Villa designed an experiment to further examine the fire danger in upholstered 

furniture. 

The fire scientists subjected a set of upholstered chairs made from five different 

combinations of foam and fabric to five types of ignition source: 

• Burning cigarettes. 

• Small flames such as a burning match might create. 

• An incandescent lamp, typical of a reading aid. 

• A space heater, producing primarily radiative energy. 

• A large flame source such as an arsonist might choose. 

The experiment was conducted in a furniture calorimeter, which captured the plume 

from the buming chairs; measurements included heat release rate, oxygen usage and 

rate of production of gaseous CO and C02, and rate of change of the chair mass. 

The authors realized the limitations of their experimental procedure; they could not 

hope to duplicate the myriad types of fire leading to the death statistics. However, 

they were confident that heat release rate would best correspond to the fire hazard 

associated with a particular type of burning. They also relied upon HAZARD I, a methodology developed at NIST over the course of many years of fire research. 

Of the total of 25 combinations of chair type and ignition source, 15 resulted in 

ignition and burning of the chair. Only one chair type was ignited by the lamp, only 

one by the cigarette. The "match" ignited three types of chair. Predictably, the space 

heater and the gas burner ignited all the test chairs. The progress of the burning—time 

to ignition and time to peak heat release—varied with both chair type and ignition 

source. 

Using the HAZARD I modeling program, the authors assessed the likely fatality rate 

in their tests. To use the program, it was necessary for them to specify a number of 

conditions accompanying the fire: the type of home involved; the location of the chair; 

the age, mobility, and location in the dwelling of the victim; the time of day; and the 

presence or absence of a smoke detector. The rate and magnitude of heat release and 

the rate and nature of release of CO and CO2 constituted the measured input data. 

It is significant that the HAZARD I program predicted no deaths in the NIST experiment if a working smoke detector was in use. Without a smoke detector to warn the 

occupants of the simulated dwelling, about 45 deaths would have occurred to the 60 

people—in family groups of baby, mother, father, and grandparent—involved in the 

15 fires. The "arson-type" burner would have claimed 20 of the victims, and the 

771 
space heater another dozen. The "match" and the "reading lamp" together would have 

killed another 1 3 occupants. Only the cigarette, relatively ineffective as an ignition 

source in this experiment, would have spared any humans occupying the fictitious 

home. 

A New Particulate Generator 

Seeking the development of an effective tool for the study of small particulates in 

flames, a research team including Thomas G. Cleary, George W. Muiholland, Lewis 

K. Ives, and Robert A. Fletcher of NIST and J. W. Gentry of the University of 

Maryland used the tools of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and laser 

microprobe mass spectroscopy (LAMMS) to investigate the particles produced in 

combustion aerosols. 

For their study, the team adapted a laminar diffusion burner developed at NIST by 

Robert J. Santoro, Hratch G. Semerjian, and R. A. Dobbins in 1983. They used 

acetylene as the fuel, operating the burner at sufficiently low fuel flow rates that no visible sooting occulTed. 

Examination of the burner flame with the NIST TEM capability showed particle 

sizes clustered tightly around 7 nm. Observations with the LAMMS technique 

indicated the presence of carbonaceous materials as well as phosphorus and sulfur 

compounds originating in impurities in the acetylene. The authors stated that theirs 

was the first known steady-state generation of essentially monosized ultrafine aerosols 

in a diffusion flame.219 

Computer Systems Laboratory 

Much of the work of the Computer Systems Laboratory during this period was rooted in legislation—the Brooks Act, Public Law 89-306; the Computer Security Act 

of 1987. PL 100-235; and, of course, PL 100-418, the legislation that transformed 

NBS into NIST. The reach of the laboratory effort extended deep into America's 

computer-based technical structure, creating standards, guidelines, and test methods for 

computer systems and networks and providing assistance to both government and 

industrial information-system workers. 

Under the leadership of director James H. Burrows, a hallmark of the laboratory was 

its role the development of the concept of "open systems," which allowed computer users to purchase and install computer equipment from a variety of sources without the 

fear of component incompatiblity that could hamper or entirely frustrate system 

efficiency. This role was buttressed by a program of research on computer security, 

software engineering, data management, and new types of systems. During Fiscal 1991, 

the laboratory enjoyed direct congressional funding of $12 million, augmented by $14 

million in reimbursable funds—mostly from other Federal agencies. 

218 Thomas G. Cleary. Thomas J. Ohiemiller, and Kay M. Villa, "The influence of ignition source on the 

flaming fire hazard of upholstered furniture," N/STIR 4847, June 1992, 64 pp. 

219T. G. Cleary. G. W. Mulholland. L. K. Ives, R. A. Fletcher, and J. W. Gentry. "Ultrafine combustion 

aerosol generator." Aerosol Science and Technology 16, pp. 166-170 (1992). 

772 
Hratch G. Semerjian (left) and Robert J. Santoro developed a technique called optical tomography for taking 

cross-sectional "picturcs' of mixed gas or liquid flow systems. The technique used an infrared laser and an array of optical detectors to determine the type and concentration of specific molecules in a given flow 

system. 

Information Systems Engineering, David K. Jefferson, chief 

The responsibilities of the Information Systems Engineering staff lay primarily in the 

areas of data administration, the technology of data management, testing of computer 

graphics, and the validation of software standards. 

In 1989, Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) 156 was adopted. This 

standard was based on the Information Resource Dictionary System (IRDS). part of the 

standards library of the American National Standards Institute. Division personnel, led 

by Alan H. Goldfine, prepared test methods and techniques to evaluate use of the 

IRDS. Along with similar efforts in regard to the database language SQL, NIST 

rendered valuable assistance with the implementation of these information-management 

tools. Compliance with the requirements of FIPS 127—Database Language SQL—was 

eased by NIST's continuing development of test suites for SQL. During 1991 alone. 

16 licenses were issued for use of the test suites. 

FIPS 120, the Graphical Kernel System, required that implementations be tested 

prior to availability for Federal procurement. Some 9 copies of the Programmer's 

Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System Validation Test Suite were distributed by 

NIST during 1991, under the direction of Mark W. Skall. 

773 
The testing of programming language compilers for conformance to FIPS standards, 

too, continued to occupy division staff members. Several languages were included in 

the NIST work, among them COBOL, Fortran, Pascal, Ada, and MUMPS. 

The ISE division played an important role in a Department of Defense program 

known as CALS—Computer-Aided Acquisition and Logistical Support. The program, 

begun in 1985, was intended to accelerate the development and deployment of both 

weapons systems and commercial products. In June 1991, Sharon J. Kemmerer 

provided a synopsis of NIST activities in support of the CALS program. These 

activities took place in several areas: electronic data interchange; graphics; document 

standards; raster compression; data management; security; and data communication. In 

each of the activity areas, Kemmerer noted the progress achieved during 1990. 

Many of the activities included contributions to military or civilian standards; others 

took the form of consultation and research work. Additionally, NIST served as a focal 

point for information receipt and distribution with regard to CALS.22° 

Systems and Software Technology, Allen L. Hankinson, chief, succeeded by Roger J. 

Martin, 1992 

In April 1991, the SST division defined a framework for open systems in a broad 

range of Federal software systems applications—information technology services, 

protocols, interfaces, and data formats. The discussion was contained in NIST Special 

Publication 500-187 entitled "Application Portability Profile (APP): The U.S. 

Government's Open Systems Environment Profile OSE/l Version 1.0." Known as the 

APP Guide, the document rapidly gained wide acceptance in industrial information 

technology activities as well. 

The division also supported the FIPS 15 1-1 POSIX protocol with conformance 

testing, facilitating the portability of applications software. Seven POSIX testing laboratories were accredited under the National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation 

Program during 1991. 

A third division initiative operated in the realm of open-systems standards for multimedia computer-based interactive training software. With the collaboration of other 

Federal agencies, NIST sought to create an environment in which such multimedia 

software would become available as commercial, off-the-shelf products. 

Computer Security, Stuart W. Katzke, chief 

•A direct response to the Computer Security Act of 1987 could be seen in a joint 

NIST-National Security Agency project report published in September 1990. Instructed 

by the act to receive and review Federal security plans for unclassified but sensitive 

information, the two agencies immediately initiated the Computer Security and Privacy 

Plans (CSPP) review project. Dennis M. Gilbert coordinated the preparation of a report 

summarizing the results of the first year's work on the project.22' 

220 Sharon J. Kemmerer, "NIST support of the CALS program; 1990 synopsis," N/STIR 4609, June 1991, 19 pp. 221 Dennis M. Gilbert, "1989 Computer Security and Privacy Plans (CSPP) review project: a first-year 

Federal response to the Computer Security Act of 1987," N/STIR 4409, September 1990. 170 pp. 

774 
During the first year, the review team examined some 1500 plans from 63 civilian 

agencies and another 27,000 plans from over 400 Defense agencies. The team found 

considerable uncertainty among the agencies regarding the most effective means to 

provide for secure computer operations; thus, team recommendations focused on education. Each agency was urged to consider the types of loss that compromise of its 

system could entail, and to investigate the methods needed to prevent such loss. NIST 

plans for the second year included visits to the agencies by NIST, NSA, or Office of 

Management and Budget staff members for on-the-spot guidance. NIST also planned to 

develop model standardized specifications and language for agency use in contracting 

for assistance from security specialists. 

It was clear to review team members that Federal computer security would continue 

to present a hazard for some time to come. In its efforts to provide guidance and support to Federal agencies and industry in 

computer security, the division proposed in August 1991 that a FIPS be issued on the 

subject of digital signature standards for use by Federal agencies. In the proposed 

standard, a digital signature algorithm would be based on a public key. The digital 

signature standard would use the public key to verify to a recipient the integrity of 

data and the identity of the data source. 

A revision of FIPS 140 was initiated to help a great variety of organizations to use 

the latest equipment to establish the physical and logical security requirements for the 

design and manufacture of data encryption standard equipment. The new revision was expected to form a framework within which cryptographic standards would be 

incorporated into new products. 

During this period, the Computer Systems Laboratory initiated a new series of publications on computer security. Each report became part of NIST Special Publication 

800. First in the series was a retrospective bibliography describing computer security 

in the 1980s, compiled by Rein Turn and edited by Lawrence E. Bassham. It was followed by "Public-key cryptography," by James R. Nechvatal, and "Establishing a computer security incident response capability," by John P. Wack. 

Special Publication 800-7, issued in July of 1994 by a research team including 

Robert H. Bagwill, John F. Barkley, Jr., Lisa J. Carnahan, Shu-Jen H. Chang, David R. 

Kuhn, Paul Markovitz, Anastase Nakassis, Karen J. Olsen, Michael L. Ransom, and 

John P. Wack, contained a discussion of computer security in open systems. The 

280-page document described the Federal response to threats of disruption to the 

Public Switched Network, which provided telecommunications for national security and 

emergency preparedness. It offered answers to programmers in the network for the 

question "How do I build security into software based on open system platforms?" The 

POSIX open system environment was described, with its security interfaces and 

mechanisms; also the X Window system, a network-transparent graphical user interface 

system, and the database language SQL. In each case, security considerations were discussed. A long section in the publication described further procedures to be used in 

achieving a secure system. 

775 
NIST computer scientist Karen Olsen and computer specialist Robert Bagwill worked to improve standards 

for open systems environments to allow greater compatibility among software systems. 

776 
Systems and Network Architecture, Kevin L. Mills, chief 

In the Systems and Network Architecture division, NIST researchers worked with 

industry and other government agencies in three primary areas. In one of these areas, a division group headed by Frances Nielsen helped to establish standards for exchanging 

information on network management, emphasizing solutions to problems of communication among heterogeneous management systems. Methods utilized for this purpose 

included definitions for protocols needed for the exchange of management information, 

assembling proper formats for information under exchange, and preparing protocols for 

the support of the management function. 

As an example of information exchange, we note the work of Paul Markovitz in 

1991 on behalf of the Internal Revenue Service. Markovitz discussed the principles of 

electronic data interchange (EDT) as it applied to invoices, purchase orders, and other 

business information exchanged between companies. Use of electronic means for such 

exchange provided a quicker and more accurate set of transactions between trading 

partners. 

Markovitz pointed out that electronic messages in the EDI system were not intended 

for humans, but were to be interpreted by computers in terms of inventory updates, 

shipping orders, billing, and the like. Many standard formats for EDT were available at 

that time—the three most widely used were known as X12, EDTFACT, and UN/TDI. 

The X12 family of formats was approved by the American National Standards 

Institute. A message handling system (MHS) provided a necessary interconnecting 

protocol to permit X12 messages to be exchanged between companies with incompatible computer systems. The balance of the 34-page report published by Markovitz 

consisted of a discussion of the nature of the MHS system and EDI.222 

In another area, a division group under the leadership of Michael L. Ransom 

promoted the standardization and commercialization of networking technology. Activities in this area included standardization of the techniques for distribution and management of encryption keys, the design of a new protocol useful in negotiation of security 

services, facilitating the convergence of network-addressing methods, and standardizing 

algorithms involved in multicast transport and routing. 

Yet a third area of work, led by J. P. Favreau, had as its goal the advancement of 

tools for editing, compiling, and interpreting computer communications protocols in 

order to automate their execution. 

Advanced Systems, Shukri A. Wakid, chief 

Personnel of the Advanced Systems division worked in the areas of parallel 

processing, data storage, distributed systems, and automated recognition. 

222 Paul Markovitz, "Electronic data interchange in message handling systems," N/STIR 4608, June 1991, 

34 pp. 

777 
A group of scientists in the Systems and Network Architecture Division developed Open Systems Interconnection standards to facilitate the integration of computer components built by different manufacturers into 

efficient systems. Standing, from left to right, were Michael Anzenberger, Michael Wallace. and group leader 

Jerry Mulvenna. Seated were Deborah Tang and Paul Markovitz. 

A primary activity, headed by David Su, involved the Integrated Services Digital 

Net%t'ork. ISDN standards under development combined voice, data, text, and image 

communications within a single network connection. NIST helped develop the 

measurement capabilities and testbed facilities needed for conformance testing for the 

standards, as well as performance measurement techniques. An example of this activity was an overview of ISDN conformance testing prepared by Leslie A. Collica, Kathleen 

M. Roberts. and David Su; in a few pages, they outlined the scope of ISDN 

conformance test lug, they described several test suites for as many layers of ISDN, 

they noted guidelines for conformance testing, and they provided information on test 

suite selection.223 

Leslie A. Collica. Kathleen M. Roberts. and David Su, "Overview of Integrated Services Digital Network 

conformance testing." N/ST Special Publication 823-1, March 1992, II pp. 

778 
A study performed by William E. Burr examined the potential for voice, video, and 

data networks based on the use of optical fibers. Optical fibers, with the capability 

of information transfer by light waves, offered an enormous bandwidth relative to 

copper lines, and thus the possibility of carrying a correspondingly larger volume of 

information. Burr noted that the lagging development of fast, low-cost switching for 

optical fiber transmission had delayed the full utilization of its potential benefits. Burr 

speculated on the architectures that might be used in future high-bandwidth integrated 

services networks for voice, video, and data applications, comparing them with 

then-current schemes. 224 Another group, led by Gordon E. Lyon, looked to enhance the evaluation and use of 

the most modern computers by the Federal government. Their activities ranged from 

the characterization of new computer architectures to the identification of improved 

capability for the automatic processing of data, to the study of programming methods 

that promised standardization among different classes of computer architecture. 

An example of the characterization of state-of-the-art computer analysis was a study 

published by Robert D. Snelick in 1991. Snelick wished to examine the ratio of time 

spent by parallel processors in communication to the time spent in actual calculation. 

He noted that loosely coupled multiprocessors synchronized their operations and shared 

data through the exchange of explicit messages; thus the speed of communication was 

crucial to optimizing the performance of such machines. 

A process Snelick called time dilation allowed him to vary the ratio of communication time to computational time for hypercube applications. The time dilation technique 

offered better detail on these features than previous methods of system analysis. 

Snelick employed as a test program a ring-type benchmark, in which a synthetic ring was created with a number of logical nodes or processes. Each node originated a given 

number of messages and also processed all other messages passing through it. When a particular message reached its originating node, it was removed from the network. 

When all messages programmed into the ring were processed, the program was 

complete. Message reception was acknowledged within the ring to prevent buffer 

overflow. 

Snelick also used a random communication model benchmark in his tests, as well as a mesh model. He analyzed the results of the tests, finding that the time dilation 

technique provided an accurate method for investigating the performance of loosely 

coupled machine applications and, ultimately, improving the capabilities of 

programmers to better utilize their computing equipment.225 

Yet a third team worked in the area of optical disks. Under the direction of Dana S. 

Grubb, group personnel stayed abreast of developments in optical disks, preparing test 

methods for conformance to both national and international standards. 

David S. Pallett headed a group that was involved in collecting speech-recognition 

databases for distribution to dozens of organizations interested in the use of speech to 

direct the operation of computers. 

224 William E. Burr, "Architectures for future multigigabit lightwave networks" N/STIR 90-4240. February 

1990, 64 pp. 223 Robert D. Snelick, "Performance evaluation of hypercube applications: using a global clock and time 

dilation," N/STIR 4630, July 1991, 21 pp. 

779 
Image recognition, too, received the attention of the Advanced Systems division. 

Research led by Charles L. Wilson was directed to the development of methods for 

evaluating image quality, efficiency of data storage, and systems used in optical 

character recognition. Among the projects touched by the work were fingerprint 

recognition and automation of personnel form completion. 

Computing and Applied Mathematics Laboratory 

The Computing and Applied Mathematics Laboratory staff was composed primarily 

of mathematicians and statisticians. Formed decades earlier as the Applied Mathematics Division, whose staff gave much-appreciated assistance on the interpretation of 

scientific data to researchers and calibration personnel alike, the division built as well a program of independent research. By 1991, under the leadership of Francis E. Sullivan, 

former chair of the Mathematics Department at the Catholic University of America, 

the new CAML program included mathematics, statistics, scientific computing, 

graphics generation, data manipulation, and parallel processing. Following the 1993 

departure from NIST of Sullivan to engage in supercomputer research, NIST Director 

John Lyons appointed Joan R. Roscnblatt, veteran of nearly 40 years at NBS/NIST. to 

become laboratory director. 

780 

Leader of the NIST Automated Recognition Group David S. Pallett (left) and computer scientist James 

Hieronymus discussed a computer program designed to recognize vowels in their phonetic context. 
Applied and Computational Mathematics, Paul T. Boggs, chief 

Parallel computing received the attention of a group under the leadership of Isabel 

Beichl. Realizing that algorithms and computer codes developed for data processing on single machines provided little increase in efficiency when transferred to parallel 

computers, the group conducted research on algorithms specifically for use in parallel 

processing. Particular problems addressed in the work were computational geometry 

and random processes.226 

Work in the solution of computational geometry problems using parallel processing was discussed by Beichi and Sullivan in a 1991 paper. The authors noted the relative 

speed of progress in the use of parallel processing to solve problems in which iteration was known to be convergent—not the case with computational geometry problems. 

They outlined a new algorithm for triangulation to exploit the use of Single Instruction 

Multiple Data Stream computers. 

Other groups in the division attacked problems in analytical approximation, particularly in non-linear mechanics calculations; mathematical modeling; optimization and 

computational geometry; and accurate and robust software for scientific computing. 

Statistical Engineering, Robert J. Lundegard, chief 

The Statistical Engineering Division staff supported experimental design as it had for 

decades. The division also developed strategies for data acquisition, graphical and 

numerical analysis, modeling of results, and estimation of experimental uncertainties 

for scientific, technical, and calibration personnel of NIST and its industrial 

collaborators. 

An example of the work of the division during this period was a discussion of an ancient topic made new by changing events in science—uncertainty and accuracy in 

physical measurements—by Harry H. Ku. Ku outlined the historical scientific use of 

the term "uncertainty" to include "random" and "systematic" components. Random 

components could be treated statistically, whereas systematic components influenced 

all measurements leading to the reported results. Experimenters typically estimated 

bounds for the magnitudes of systematic uncertainties, added them linearly, and 

reported them separately from random error estimates. 

In 1978, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) issued questionnaires to the national laboratories, seeking information and opinions on the treatment 

of uncertainties. In 1981, the BIPM issued a set of five rules for the combination of 

experimental uncertainties. In these rules, new categories replaced "random" and 

Two categories for the components of experimental uncertainty were to be 

identified as "A"—those that were evaluated by statistical means—and "B"— 

those evaluated by other means. Detailed reports of all measurements were to 

include a complete list of the components, specifying the method used for each 

quantity. It was stressed that the new categories did not necessarily correspond to 

"random" or "systematic" definitions. 

226 Bcichl and F. Sullivan, "Parallelizing computational geometry: first steps," Siam News 24, No. 6, pp. 

14-16 (1991). 

781 
• Category A components were to be characterized by the estimated variances s12, 

(or the estimated standard deviations s1) and the number of degrees of freedom, 

VI. 

• Category B components were to be characterized by quantities U12, which might 

be considered as approximations to the corresponding variances. 

• The combined uncertainty was to be characterized by the numerical value obtained by applying the usual method for the combination of variances, with the use of standard deviations. 

• If, for particular applications, it was necessary to multiply the combined uncertainty by a factor to obtain an overall uncertainty, the multiplying factor had to 

be stated. 

Ku gave his own view of the new rules, pronouncing them "liberal" in potentially 

underestimating the overall uncertainty of a given measurement because of the "rootsum-of-squares" treatment of the non-statistical uncertainty components; in comparison, 

the older uncertainty treatments were "conservative," potentially overestimating the 

overall uncertainty because of the linear treatment of systematic uncertainties. 

Ku suggested that the best justification for the new method of calculating uncertaintites should be the uniformity that it would give to the treatment of data. He also 

suggested that the new treatment, minimizing the effect of non-statistical uncertainties, was a healthy change in international metrology, since it more clearly delineated 

differences in metrological results among the various laboratories that sought an accurate measure of a physical quantity. The older definition of uncertainty, he wrote, was more suited to industrial calibration laboratories, where elucidation of the 

reproducibility of a set of measurements, not its fundamental accuracy, was the goal.227 

Scientific Computing Environments, Sally E. Howe, chief 

Early in the period, Darcy P. Barnett and David K. Kahaner described a computer 

program designed to solve ordinary differential equations, a common problem for 

scientists. The two called their program PLOD; it attempted to simulate human 

reasoning in the solution of such problems. 2211 One of the strong programs that developed in the Scientific Computing Environments division was the use of graphical display techniques for the presentation of 

results in physics and chemistry. Also under exploration was the manipulation of 

dynamic objects in scientific research and in automated design and manufacturing 

systems. 

227 Harry H. Ku. "Uncertainty and accuracy in physical measurement." N/ST Special Publication 805, 

December 1990. 9 pp. 

2211 D. Barnett and D. Kahaner. "Experiences with an expert system for ODEs," Mathe,narics and Computers 

in Simulation 31, Nos. 4-5, pp. 315-323 (1989). 

782 
An interesting illustration of imaging teehniques concerned the elucidation of the 

structure of "quasicrystals"—the icosahedral phase formed by rapid solidification of an aluminum-manganese alloy (see A "Renaissance" Scientist Comes to NBS in Ch. 4). 

At that time, no complete description of the atomic structure for the icosahedral phase 

had yet been found. In the investigation, division scientist Howland A. Fowler collaborated with A. J. Melmed—at that time in the private sector, but for many years a member of the NBS/NIST Surface Science Division—and H. B. Elswijk, a young 

scientist working for Philips Research Laboratories in Holland. 

Starting with a field ion microscope image of the icosahedral phase showing twofold, three-fold, and five-fold poles, the authors attempted to duplicate the experimental 

image by computer simulation. Beginning with the cubic phase, they gradually 

increased the size of the unit cell, introducing a manganese sublattice forming a collection of Mackay icosahedra decorated with aluminum atoms. As the unit cell size was increased from an edge length of 1.3 nm to 3.3 nm, the cubic features became weaker 

in comparison to pentagonal features. It was their view that the simulation experiment 

might point to an improved understanding of the interesting new structure.229 

The division also carried the responsibility for maintaining the central NIST 

computing facility, as well as investigating the use of new computational hardware, 

software, and communications techniques. 

THE MORE THINGS CHANGE, THE MORE THEY REMAIN THE SAME: 

INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTIVITY IN SEMICONDUCTORS—NIST PREFIGURED 

In 1988, the National Bureau of Standards, an institution devoted to the creation of 

standards of measurement and to solving technical problems afflicting America, 

changed into the National Institute of Standards and Technology, aninstitution devoted 

to solving technical problems afflicting America and to the creation of standards of 

measurement. "A new institution, and not a better one, either," opined more than a few 

old-time employees. "A better institution, but hardly new," responded others. 

One of the most cogent pieces of evidence indicating that only a change in emphasis—not a change in actual practices—occurred at NBS in 1988 could be found in a 

tale told later by an NBS/NIST senior manager who was on the scene for a long time. 

We are indebted to Judson C. French, who recently completed a half-century of service 

to NBS/NIST, for the details of a 1995 presentation to its Standards Alumni Association. His story, "Development of the NBS/NIST Semiconductor Program" is told from 

the point of view of a physicist who opened a long Bureau career with investigations 

of microwave gas tubes and semiconductor materials and devices shortly after World 

War 11.230 

229 A. J. Melmed. H. B. Elswijk. and H. A. Fowler, "Field-ion microscope image simulations for icosahedral 

Al-Mn." Colloque de Physique, Supplement to Journal de Physique. 50, Colloque No. C8, November 1989. 

pp. C8-259 to C8-263. 

Judson C. French, "The NIST Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory and the development of 

its semiconductor program," NISTIR 6507 (2000). 

783 
The National Bureau of Standards had a difficult time keeping a scientific force to 

assist in the birth of transistorized electronics at mid-century. One effort, in the 

proximity fuze laboratory, was transferred to the U.S. Army along with the laboratory 

itself. A second effort began in 1955, when $30,000 of precious Bureau funds were 

apportioned to three sections in the Electricity Division—$l0,000 each for work under 

Franklin Montgomery on transistor-based instrumentation, under Augustus Shapiro on transistor reliability, and under Charles Marsden on transistor physics. The transistor 

work was to be performed by French. The expertise developed in Montgomery's 

section disappeared when the general instrumentation project—of which it was a part— was disbanded. The reliability work left NBS with the rest of a U.S. Navy project of 

which it was a part. 

French, working in the Bureau's Electron Tube Laboratory, digested William 

Shockley's first writings on transistors,23' then began visits to Federal and industrial 

laboratories to find common needs in the transistor field. Soon, industry-wide problems 

surfaced in attempts to characterize semiconductor materials and devices. Such 

investigations suited NBS just fine, so French and his early colleagues William Keery 

and Marvin Phillips concentrated their efforts in those areas. 

Visits to the American Society for Testing and Materials and to the Electronic 

Industries Association were similarly rewarding; both organizations were well aware of 

member complaints on the unreliability of semiconductor measurements.232 From the 

plethora of problems, the NBS group selected semiconductor resistivity and second 

breakdown in transistors. Each was addressed successfully at NBS and the results were well-received by the growing semiconductor industry. 

In the case of the resistivity of silicon—the most basic of measurements for electron 

device design and manufacture—measurement discrepancies were entirely too large to 

permit effective control of manufacturing processes or materials purchases. Rejecting 

the destructive two-probe measurement technique then believed by the industry to be 

necessary for accurate results, the NBS team, after visits with colleagues in industrial 

laboratories, developed a non-destructive, four-lead test involving commercially 

available instrumentation and precise procedures. The principal scientist in this project 

was Lydon J. Swartzendruber. The new techniques reduced measurement imprecision 

by more than a factor of ten. 

French and his team took their new ideas to the ASTM for study by the semiconductor industry. Once the Bureau scientists convinced their industrial colleagues, 

through interlaboratory trials under ASTM oversight, that reproducible results could be 

231 William Shockley. 1-loles and electrons: an introduction to the physics of transistors (Murray Hill, NJ: 

Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1949), based on lectures at the Bell Laboratories. See also William Shockley, 

Electrons and holes in semiconductors, with applications to transistor electronics (New York: Van Nostrand, 

1950). 232 Memorandum. J. C. French to R. D. Huntoon, Deputy Director NBS, March 9, 1960: "Minutes of a meeting of representatives of the Joint Electron Device Engineering Council and NBS on October I, 1959. 

See also 

Letter, R. D. Huntoon to Virgil Graham, Chairman, Joint Electron Device Engineering Council and Associ- ate director, EtA Engineering Department, June I, 1960. 

784 
achieved only by the introduction of improved temperature control, more careful 

measurements, and better procedures, the NBS methods were quickly accepted. 

Five industrial semiconductor measurement standards on silicon resistivity resulted 

from the NBS work, as well as several Standard Reference Materials. 

In this one project undertaken in the mid-1950s, the NBS research team demonstrated the kind of close interaction with industry that Congress mandated in its 1988 

Trade Act legislation—to select projects with high industry priority and a good match 

to the NBS measurement standards mission, and to involve industry directly in making 

quick use of the newly developed technology. Then, as later, NBS scientists found 

easy access to industrial laboratories because of their unique positions as objective 

scientific collaborators. 

With the advice and assistance of the semiconductor industry, the NBS team conducted a benefit-cost study on the resistivity project.233 The study showed economic 

benefits of more than $30 million in marketplace transactions as a result of the work— 

more than 100 times the cost of the project—and even more savings in manufacturing 

costs. 

Although considerable time has passed since they were first developed, semiconductor resistivity SRMs recently were purchased from NIST by as many as 1 80 companies. A vice president of a process control systems firm stated, "the availability of 

resistivity SRMs was a significant factor in successfully developing and selling the $50 

million installed base of these systems."234 

Clearly, the NBS semiconductor research prefigured the later insistence that Bureau 

programs should be guided by industry needs. 

In the second-breakdown project, for which Harry Schafft was the principal investigator, an even more startling development took place. During a visit to NBS by 

William Shockley, co-inventor of the transistor, the Bureau group reported to him 

experimental results that contradicted his theory of second breakdown. Convinced by 

the thoroughness of the NBS investigation, Shockley modified his theory to take 

account of the new results. The NBS characterization principles became widely applied 

in the industry. 

As the NBS work in semiconductors became better known, more frequent requests 

for assistance were heard from industry and government alike. Under French's direction, NBS developed a joint program with funding and participation from other Federal 

agencies, attacking problems considered important by both industry and the agencies. 

Quarterly progress reports from the joint semiconductor project were requested by as many as 2000 representatives of organizations in industry, government, and academia. 

Judson C. French, "Improvement in the precision of measurement of electrical resistivity of single crystal 

silicon: a benefit-cost analysis," NBS Electron Devices Section Internal Report 807, September 20, 1967. 234 Letter, Winthrop A. Baylies, President, The Baytech Group, to James Ehrstein, NBS, June 22, 1989. See also Letter, Winthrop A Baylies, Vice President/Marketing, ADE Corporation, to Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary of Commerce, November 25, 1981. 

785 
Passage of the Mansfield Act in 1973 seemed to doom the joint-agency program— no Department of Defense agency would be allowed to fund generic technologies. In 

the nick of time, however, the DoD Advanced Research Projects Agency commissioned NBS to undertake a multi-year, multi-million-dollar project to improve the 

performance and reliability of integrated circuits. Selection of NBS for the project was a direct result of the reputation for effective service gained by Bureau researchers. 

The ARPA project accomplished more than the salvation of the NBS semiconductor 

research program; it also initiated a pattern of external contracting by NBS—using 

Bureau funds to pay for research to be done at universities and private companies. W. 

Murray Bullis, Alvin H. Sher, and Joseph A. Coleman led the NBS contract-monitor 

group. 

The experience of the NBS contract monitors—who found that painstaking analysis 

and measurements were not part of the technical culture everywhere, and that the 

process of effectively monitoring technical aspects of contract research was both 

laborious and time-consuming——was not an entirely happy experience for the Bureau 

scientists. Yet, during the 6-year life of the ARPA program, some 30 contracts were 

let, some 240 report documents were prepared, and some $1 I million was spent 

productively.235 Most pleasing was a letter of praise for the NBS work, sent to the 

Secretary of Commerce by the ARPA director.236 The letter stated that the program had 

met its objectives, industry had benefitted directly, and dramatic improvements had 

been realized in the performance and reliability of devices built for DoD use, saving 

millions of dollars for Defense agencies. As a consequence, the director predicted that 

his agency and the military services would expand their programs of joint DoD-DoC 

projects. 

One of the ARPA program projects involved wire bonds to semiconductors. Unpredictable wire bond failures had imperiled the reliability of certain weapons. George G. 

Harman led the Bureau research effort to ameliorate the problem, visiting industrial 

laboratories and factories where bonding work was performed and then commencing 

NBS laboratory work with the help of existing (commercial) bonding equipment used 

for the DoD devices. Quickly, Harman found unexpected sensitivity in the bonding 

equipment to temperature variations and to vibrations, even those of small amplitude. 

Harman's work led to better understanding of the physics of bonding, to new 

bonding procedures, and to improved equipment. Productivity in bonded circuit manufacture improved by as much as 35 times, and the improved quality permitted the use 

of circuit elements with as many as 500 bonds each. Failure of bonds in field systems 

ceased to be observed. Once again, NBS had anticipated the change to NIST. 

235 W. M. Bullis. "Advancement of reliability, processing, and automation for integrated circuits with the 

National Bureau of Standards (ARPAIIC/NBS)," NBSIR 81-2224, March 1981. 236 Letter. Robert R. Fossum, Director. Advanced Research Projects Agency, to Juanita M. Kreps, Secretary 

of Commerce, April 17. 1979. 

786 
As the ARPA program drew to a close, NBS commissioned an "impact study" by 

the Charles River Associates to assess the value of the Bureau work to the semiconductor industry.237 Industry officials were happy to testify to the importance of the 

NBS effort. Specific benefits cited included improved product reliability, improved 

production, lower costs, increased ability to meet customer specifications—even new directions for company research. 

The Federal Government's financial stringency in the period almost caused the 

demise of the semiconductor project at the conclusion of the ARPA program, although new funds for the program had been appropriated by Congress. These would have re- placed the ARPA support, but they were to be cut by the Office of Management and 

Budget. However, the perceived benefits of the program led to a successful industrywide effort to make clear how important and appropriate it was for NBS to conduct 

such collaborative work with its own resources serving as a strong basis.23t The program was saved and has continued to this day. 

The semiconductor program provided direct benefits to industry through a continu- ous process of reaching outside of NBS for program guidance and evaluation. In 

that process it paralleled other programs described in this chapter—programs motivated 

to emphasize industrial productivity largely by the language of the 1988 Trade Act. 

The semiconductor program was not alone among NBS disciplines in initiating its 

policy of outreach decades prior to passage of the Trade Act—the fire research, 

building research, cryogenic engineering, time and frequency, and electromagentics 

programs, in particular, spring to mind immediately. But French's semiconductor 

progam serves admirably to demonstrate that no new practice for NBS as an institution was created when it became NIST in 1988. Rather, a culture already present in the 

agency was prescribed for its entire structure; a culture which believed that NIST 

should provide direct practical assistance to industry where NBS was uniquely 

positioned to respond, with that assistance backed up by the fundamental research 

needed to provide a solid foundation. 

As NIST settles into its expanded role in the Nation's technical life, it remains to be seen whether the agency will retain the capability for fundamental work in physics and 

chemistry that characterized its first century of existence—the capability that made it 

instantly successful in its new role. 

237 Planning Report No. 8, "Productivity impacts of NBS R&D: a case study of the semiconductor technology program." Summary Volume, prepared for Planning Office, NBS; CRA Report No. 493. Charles River 

Associates. Inc., June 1981. 23$ Letter, T. D. Hinkelman, Executive Director, Semiconductor Industry Association, to David Stockman, 

Director, Office of Management and Budget, December 14. 1981. 

787 
APPENDIX A 

LEGISLATION RELATING TO THE ORGANIZATION, 

FUNCTIONS, AND ACTIVITIES OF 

THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS/ 

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY 

For most of the legislative acts, only those portions are reproduced that mandated 

action by NBS/NIST. 

July 12, 1894, 28 Stat. 101 (Public Law 105—53d Congress, 2d session) 

CHAP. 131.—An Act To define and establish the units of electrical measure. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That from and after the passage of this Act the legal units of electrical measure in the united 

States shall be as follows: 

First. The unit of resistance shall be what is known as the international ohm, which is substantially equal to one thousand million units of resistance of the centimeter-gram-second system of electro-magnetic units, 

and is represented by the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a column of mercury at the 

temperature of melting ice fourteen and four thousand five hundred and twenty-one ten-thousandths grams 

in mass, of a constant cross-sectional area, and of the length of one hundred and six and three-tenths 

centimeters. 

Second. The unit of current shall be what is known as the international ampere, which is one-tenth of the 

unit of current of the centimeter-gram-second system of electro-magnetic units, and is the practical equivalent of the unvarying current, which, when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water in accor- dance with standard specifications, deposits silver at the rate of one thousand one hundred and eighteen 

millionths of a gram per second. 

Third. The unit of electro-motive force shall be what is known as the international volt, which is the 

electro-motive force that, steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is one international ohm, will 

produce a current of an international ampere, and is practically equivalent to one thousand fourteen hundred 

and thirty-fourths of the electro-motive force between the poles or electrodes of the voltaic cell known as 

Clark's cell, at a temperature of fifteen degrees centigrade, and prepared in the manner described in the 

standard specification. 

Fourth. The unit of quantity shall be what is known as the international coulomb, which is the quantity of 

electricity transferred by a current of one international ampere in one second. 

Fifth. The unit of capacity shall be what is known as the international farad, which is the capacity of a condenser charged to a potential of one international volt by one international coulomb of electricity. 

Sixth. The unit of work shall be the Joule, which is equal to ten million units of work in the centimetergram-second system, and which is practically equivalent to the energy expended in one second by an international ampere in an international ohm. 

Seventh. The unit of power shall be the Watt, which is equal to ten million units of power in the centimeter-gram-second system, and which is practically equivalent to the work done at the rate of one Joule per 

second. 

Eighth. The unit of induction shall be the Henry, which is the induction in a circuit when the electromotive force induced in this circuit is one international volt while the inducing current varies at the rate of one Ampere per second. SEC. 2. That it shall be the duty of the National Academy of Sciences to prescribe and publish, as soon as possible after the passage of this Act, such specifications of details as shall be necessary for the practical 

application of the definitions of the ampere and volt hereinbefore given, and such specifications shall be the 

standard specifications herein mentioned. 

Approved, July 12, 1894. 

789 
March 3, 1901, 31 Stat. 1449 (Public Law 177—56th Congress, 2d session) 

The first organic act for the National Bureau of Standards. 

CHAP. 872.—An Act To establish the National Bureau of Standards. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That the Office of Standard Weights and Measures shall hereafter be known as the National 

Bureau of Standards. SEC. 2. That the functions of the bureau shall consist in the custody of the standards; the comparison of 

the standards used in scientific investigations, engineering, manufacturing, commerce, and educational 

institutions with the standards adopted or recognized by the Government; the construction, when necessary, 

of standards, their multiples and subdivisions; the testing and calibration of standard measuring apparatus; 

the solution of problems which arise in connection with standards; the determination of physical constants 

and the properties of materials, when such data are of great importance to scientific or manufacturing 

interests and are not to be obtained of sufficient accuracy elsewhere. SEC. 3. That the bureau shall exercise its functions for the Government of the United States; for any State 

or municipal government within the United States; or for any scientific society, educational institution, firm, 

corporation, or individual within the United States engaged in manufacturing or other pursuits requiring the use of standards or standard measuring instruments. All requests for the services of the bureau shall be made 

in accordance with the rules and regulations herein established. SEC. 4. That the officers and employees of the bureau shall consist of a director, at an annual salary of 

five thousand dollars; one physicist, at an annual salary of three thousand five hundred dollars; one chemist, at an annual salary of three thousand five hundred dollars; two assistant physicists or chemists, each at an annual salary of two thousand two hundred dollars; one laboratory assistant, at an annual salary of one thousand four hundred dollars; one laboratory assistant, at an annual salary of one thousand two hundred 

dollars; one secretary, at an annual salary of two thousand dollars; one clerk, at an annual salary of one thousand two hundred dollars; one messenger, at an annual salary of seven hundred and twenty dollars; one engineer, at an annual salary of one thousand five hundred dollars; one mechanician, at an annual salary of 

one thousand four hundred dollars; one watchman, at an annual salary of seven hundred and twenty dollars, 

and one laborer, at an annual salary of six hundred dollars. SEC. 5. That the director shall be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the 

Senate. He shall have the general supervision of the bureau, its equipment, and the exercise of its functions. 

He shall make an annual report to the Secretary of the Treasury, including an abstract of the work done 

during the year and a financial statement. He may issue, when necessary, bulletins for public distribution, 

containing such information as may be of value to the public or facilitate the bureau in the exercise of its 

functions. SEC. 6. That the officers and employees provided for by this Act, except the director, shall be appointed 

by the Secretary of the Treasury, at such time as their respective services may become necessary. SEC. 7. That the following sums of money are hereby appropriated: For the payment of salaries provided 

for by the Act, the sum of twenty-seven thousand one hundred and forty dollars, or so much thereof as may 

be necessary; toward the erection of a suitable laboratory, of fireproof construction, for the use and occupation of said bureau, including all permanent fixtures, such as plumbing, piping, wiring, heating, lighting, and 

ventilation, the entire cost of which shall not exceed the sum of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, one 

hundred thousand dollars; for equipment of said laboratory, the sum of ten thousand dollars; for a site for 

said laboratory, to be approved by the visiting committee hereinafter provided for and purchased by the 

Secretary of the Treasury, the sum of twenty-five thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary; 

for the payment of the general expenses of said bureau, including books and periodicals, furniture, office 

expenses, stationery and printing, heating and lighting, expenses of the visiting committee, and contingencies 

of all kinds, the sum of five thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, to be expended under 

the supervision of the Secretary of the Treasury. SEC. 8. That for all comparisons, calibrations, tests, or investigations, except those performed for the 

Government of the United States or State governments within the United States, a reasonable fee shall be 

charged, according to a schedule submitted by the director and approved by the Secretary of the Treasury. 

790 
SEC. 9. That the Secretary of the Treasury shall, from time to time, make regulations regarding the 

payment of fees, the limits of tolerance to be attained in standards submitted for verification, the sealing of 

standards, the disbursement and receipt of moneys, and such other matters as he may deem necessary for 

carrying this Act into effect. SEC. 10. That there shall be a visiting committee of five members, to be appointed by the Secretary of 

the Treasury, to consist of men prominent in the various interests involved, and not in the employ of the 

Government. This committee shall visit the bureau at least once a year, and report to the Secretary of the 

Treasury upon the efficiency of its scientific work and the condition of its equipment. The members of this 

committee shall serve without compensation, but shall be paid the actual expenses incurred in attending its 

meetings. The period of service of the members of the original committee shall be so arranged that one member shall retire each year, and the appointments thereafter to be for a period of five years. Appointments 

made to fill vacancies occurring other than in the regular manner are to be made for the remainder of the 

period in which the vacancy exists. 

Approved, March 3, 1901. 

May 20, 1918, 40 Stat 556 (Public Law 152—65th Congress, 2d session) "Overman Act." 

First official interagency transfer of funds to the Bureau of Standards. The work was done in support of 

military agencies during World War 1. CHAP. 78.—An Act Authorizing the President to coordinate or consolidate executive bureaus, agencies, 

and offices, and for other purposes, in the interest of economy and the more efficient concentration of the 

Government. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That for the national security and defense, for the successful prosecution of the war, for the 

support and maintenance of the Army and Navy, for the better utilization of resources and industries, and for 

the more effective exercise and more efficient administration by the President of his powers as Commander 

in Chief of the land and naval forces the President is hereby authorized to make such redistribution of functions among executive agencies as he may deem necessary, including any functions, duties, and powers hitherto by law conferred upon any executive department, commission, bureau, agency, office, or officer, in such manner as in his judgment shall seem best fitted to carry out the purposes of this Act, and to this end is 

authorized to make such regulations and to issue such orders as he may deem necessary, which regulations 

and orders shall be in writing and shall be filed with the head of the department affected and constitute a public record: Provided, That the Act shall remain in force during the continuance of the present war and for 

six months after the termination of the war by the proclamation of the treaty of peace, or at such earlier time as the President may designate: Provided further, That the termination of this Act shall not affect any act 

done or any right or obligation accruing or accrued pursuant to the Act and during the time that this Act is 

in force: Provided further, That the authority by this Act granted shall be exercised only in matters relating to the conduct of the present war. SEC. 2. That in carrying out the purposes of this Act the President is authorized to utilize, coordinate, or consolidate any executive or administrative commissions, bureaus, agencies, offices, or officers now existing 

by law, to transfer any duties or powers from one existing department, commission, bureau, agency, office, or officer to another, to transfer the personnel thereof or any part of it either by detail or assignment, 

together with the whole or any part of the records and public property belonging thereto. 

791 
May 29, 1920, 41 Stat 681 (Public Law 231—66th Congress, 2d session) 

Beginning of transferred funds to the Bureau of Standards as authorized in appropriations legislation. 

CHAP. 2 14.—An Act Making appropriations for the legislative, executive, and judicial expenses of the 

Government for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1921, and for other purposes. 

During the fiscal year 1921, the head of any department or independent establishment of the Government 

having funds available for scientific investigations and requiring cooperative work by the Bureau of 

Standards on scientific investigations within the scope of the functions of that Bureau, and which it is unable to perform within the limits of its appropriations, may, with the approval of the Secretary of Commerce, 

transfer to the Bureau of Standards such sums as may be necessary to carry on such investigations. The 

Secretary of the Treasury shall transfer on the books of the Treasury Department any sums which may be 

authorized hereunder and such amounts shall be placed to the credit of the Bureau of Standards for the 

performance of work for the department or establishment from which the transfer is made. (41 Stat. 683) 

***** 

May 14, 1930, 46 Stat. 327 (Public Law 219—71st Congress, 2d session) 

CHAP. 275.—An Act Authorizing the establishment of a national hydraulic laboratory in the Bureau of 

Standards of the Department of Commerce and the construction of a building therefor. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That there is hereby authorized to be established in the Bureau of Standards of the Department of 

Commerce a national hydraulic laboratory for the determination of fundamental data useful in hydraulic re- search and engineering, including laboratory research, relating to the behavior and control of river and harbor 

waters, the study of hydraulic structures and water flow, and the development and testing of hydraulic instruments and accessories: Provided, That no test, study, or other work on a problem or problems connected 

with a project the prosecution of which is under the jurisdiction of any department or independent agency of 

the government shall be undertaken in the laboratory herein authorized until a written request to do such 

work is submitted to the Director of the Bureau of Standards by the head of the department or independent 

agency charged with the execution of such project: And provided further, That any State or political subdivision thereof may obtain a test, study, or other work on a problem connected with a project the prosecution of 

which is under the jurisdiction of such State or political subdivision thereof. SEC. 2. There is hereby authorized to be appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise 

appropriated, not to exceed $350,000, to be expended by the Secretary of Commerce for the construction and 

installation upon the present site of the Bureau of Standards in the District of Columbia of a suitable hydraulic laboratory building and such equipment, utilities, and appurtenances thereto as may be necessary. 

Approved, May 14, 1930. 

June 30, 1932, 47 Stat. 382 (Public Law 212—72d Congress, 1st session) "Economy Act of 1932." SEC. 312—An amendment to section 8 of the Act establishing the National Bureau of Standards 

authorized payment of fees, except for other Federal agencies, for Bureau of Standards tests and 

calibrations. SEC. 601—The policy of transferred funds was restated and made general throughout the Federal 

Government. 

[CHAPTER 314] 

AN ACT 

Making appropriations for the Legislative Branch of the Government for the fiscal year ending June 30, 

1933, and for other purposes. SEC. 312. Section 8 of the Act entitled "An Act to establish the National Bureau of Standards", approved 

March 3, 1901, as amended and supplemented [U.S.C., title 15, sec. 276], is amended to read as follows: 

792 
"SEC. 8. For all comparisons, calibrations, tests, or investigations, performed by the National Bureau of 

Standards under the provisions of this Act, as amended and supplemented, except those performed for the 

Government of the United States or State governments within the United States, a fee sufficient in each case to compensate the National Bureau of Standards for the entire cost of the services rendered shall be charged, 

according to a schedule prepared by the Director of the National Bureau of Standards and approved by the 

Secretary of Commerce. All moneys received from such sources shall be paid into the Treasury to the credit 

of miscellaneous receipts." (47 Stat. 410) 

SEC. 601. Section 7 of the Act entitled "An Act making appropriations for fortifications and other works 

of defense, for the armament thereof, and for the procurement of heavy ordnance for trial and service, for the 

fiscal year ending June 30, 1921, and for other purposes", approved May 21, 1920 [U.S.C., title 31, sec. 686], is amended to read as follows: 

"SEC. 7. (a) Any executive department or independent establishment of the Government, or any bureau or office thereof, if funds are available therefor and if it is determined by the head of such executive department, establishment, bureau, or office to be in the interest of the Government so to do, may place orders 

with any other such department, establishment, bureau, or office for materials, supplies, equipment, work, or services of any kind that such requisitioned Federal agency may be in a position to supply or equipped to 

render, and shall pay promptly by check to such Federal agency as may be requisitioned, upon its written 

request, either in advance or upon the furnishing or performance thereof, all or part of the estimated or 

actual cost thereof, as determined by such department, establishment, bureau, or office as may be requisitioned; but proper adjustments on the basis of the actual cost of the materials, supplies, or equipment furnished, or work or services performed, paid for in advance, shall be made as may be agreed upon by the 

departments, establishments, bureaus, or offices concerned: Provided, however, That if such work or services can be as conveniently or more cheaply performed by private agencies such work shall be let by competitive 

bids to such private agencies. Bills rendered, or requests for advance payments made, pursuant to any such 

order, shall not be subject to audit or certification in advance of payment. (47 Stat. 417) 

August 1, 1947, 61 Stat. 715 (Public Law 313—80th Congress, 1st session) 

From time to time amendments to this act extended the authority to other agencies, revised the number of 

positions allotted, and the salary range. In 1965, NBS had twelve appointees under this law. 

[CHAPTER 433] 

AN ACT 

To authorize the creation of additional positions in the professional and scientific service in the War and 

Navy Departments. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That the Secretary of War is authorized to establish and fix the compensation for, within the War 

Department, not more than thirty positions, and the Secretary of the Navy is authorized to establish and fix 

the compensation for, within the Naval establishment, not more than fifteen positions in the professional and 

scientific service, each such position being established to effectuate those research and development functions, relating to the national defense, military and naval medicine, and any and all other activities of the 

War Department or Naval Establishment which require the services of specially qualified scientific or professional personnel: Provided, That the rates of compensation for positions established pursuant to the provisions of this Act shall not be less than $10,000 per annum nor more than $15,000 per annum, and shall be 

subject to the approval of the Civil Service Commission. SEC. 2. Positions created pursuant to this Act shall be included in the classified civil service of the United 

States, but appointments to such positions shall be made without competitive examination upon approval of 

the proposed appointee's qualifications by the Civil Service Commission or such officers or agents as it may 

designate for this purpose. 

793 
October 15, 1949, 63 Stat. 886 (Public Law 366—8Ist Congress, 1st session) 

Authorization for the Boulder Laboratories. 

[CHAPTER 703] 

AN ACT 

To authorize the construction and equipment of a radio laboratory building for the National Bureau of 

Standards, Department of Commerce. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled. That there is hereby authorized to be constructed and equipped for the National Bureau of 

Standards a suitable radio laboratory building, together with necessary utilities and appurtenances thereto, 

under a limit of cost of $4,475,000: Provided, That such limit of cost may be exceeded or shall be reduced 

by an amount equal to the percentage increase or decrease, if any, in construction costs generally dating 

from March 1, 1948, as determined by the Federal works Administrator. SEC. 2. The Secretary of Commerce is authorized to acquire, by purchase, condemnation, or otherwise 

(including transfer with or without compensation from Federal agencies), such lands, estates in lands, and 

appurtenances thereto as may in his opinion be necessary or desirable for the construction of buildings to house activities of the National Bureau of Standards: Provided, That the site therefor shall be selected after 

consultation with the Director of the National Bureau of Standards. SEC. 3. There are hereby authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary of Commerce, out of any moneys 

in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, such sums as may be necessary to carry out the provisions of this 

Act: Provided, That such sums so appropriated, except such part thereof as may be necessary for the incidental expenses of the Department of Commerce, shall be transferred to the Public Buildings Administration 

in the Federal works Agency. 

Approved October 25, 1949. 

October 25, 1949, 63 Stat. 905 (Public Law 386—8lst Congress, 1st session) 

Authorization for a guided-missile research laboratory ultimately located on the site of a former United 

States Naval Hospital at Corona, California. 

[CHAPTER 7281 

AN ACT 

To authorize the construction and equipment of a guided-missile research laboratory building for the 

National Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That there is hereby authorized to be constructed and equipped for the National Bureau of 

Standards a research laboratory building, suitable for use as a guided-missile laboratory, together with neces- sary utilities and appurtenances thereto, under a limit of cost of $1,900,000: Provided, That such limit of 

cost may be exceeded or shall be reduced by an amount equal to the percentage increase or decrease, if any, 

in construction cost generally dating from June I, 1948, as determined by the Federal Works Administrator: 

Provided further, That such limit of cost shall not be exceeded by more than 10 per centum. SEC. 2. The Secretary of Commerce is authorized to acquire, by purchase, condemnation, or otherwise 

(including transfer with or without compensation from Federal agencies), such lands, estates in lands, and 

appurtenances thereto as may in his opinion be necessary or desirable for the construction of a building to 

house activities of such laboratory for the National Bureau of Standards: Provided, That the site therefor 

shall be selected after consultation with the Director of the National Bureau of Standards. SEC. 3. There are hereby authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary of Commerce, Out of any moneys 

in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, such sums as may be necessary to carry out the provisions of this 

Act: Provided, That such sums so appropriated, except such part thereof as may be necessary for the incidental expenses of the Department of Commerce, shall be transferred to the Public Buildings Administration 

in the Federal Works Agency. 

Approved October 25, 1949. 

794 
October 28, 1949, 63 Stat. 954 (Public Law 429—81st Congress, 1st session) Classification Act of 1949. 

The number of positions for the whole Civil Service in grades GS-16, GS-l7, and GS-l8 were specified. 

Periodic revisions in number and salary were made. In 1965, the National Bureau of Standards had 39 

appointees in GS-16 and 29 in GS-17. 

[CHAPTER 782] 

AN ACT 

To establish a standard schedule of rates of basic compensation for certain employees of the Federal 

Government; to provide an equitable system for fixing and adjusting the rates of basic compensation of 

individual employees; to repeal the Classification Act of 1923, as amended; and for other purposes. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That this Act may be cited as the "Classification Act of 1949". 

TITLE 1—DECLARATION OF POLICY SEC. 101. It is the purpose of this Act to provide a plan for classification of positions and for rates of 

basic compensation whereby— 

(1) in determining the rate of basic compensation which an officer or employee shall receive, (A) the 

principle of equal pay for substantially equal work shall be followed, and (B) variations in rates of basic 

compensation paid to different officers and employees shall be in proportion to substantial differences in 

the difficulty, responsibility, and qualification requirements of the work performed and to the contributions 

of officers and employees to efficiency and economy in the service; and 

(2) individual positions shall, in accordance with their duties, responsibilities, and qualification requirements, be so grouped and identified by classes and grades, as defined in section 301, and the various 

classes shall be so described in published standards, as provided for in title IV, that the resulting positionclassification system can be used in all phases of personnel administration. 

January 23, 1950, 3 C.F.R. 76 (1950). 

EXECUTIVE ORDER 10096 PROVIDING FOR A UNIFORM PATENT POLICY FOR THE GOVERNMENT WITH RESPECT TO INVENTIONS MADE BY GOVERNMENT EMPLOYEES AND FOR THE ADMINISTRATION OF SUCH POLICY. WHEREAS inventive advances in scientific and technological fields frequently result from governmental 

activities carried on by Government employees; and 

WHEREAS the Government of the United States is expending large sums of money annually for the conduct of these activities; and 

WHEREAS these advances constitute a vast national resource; and 

WHEREAS it is fitting and proper that the inventive product of functions of the Government, carried Out by Government employees, should be available to the Government in appropriate instances; and 

WHEREAS the rights of Government employees in their inventions should be recognized in appropriate 

instances; and 

WHEREAS the carrying out of the policy of this order requires appropriate administrative arrangements: 

NOW, THEREFORE, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and statutes, and as President of the United States and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces of the United States, in the 

interest of the establishment and operation of a uniform patent policy for the Government with respect to inventions made by Government employees, it is hereby ordered as follows: 

I. The following basic policy is established for all Government agencies with respect to inventions 

hereafter made by any Government employee: 

(a) The Government shall obtain the entire right, title and interest in and to all inventions made by 

any Government employee (I) during working hours, or (2) with a contribution by the Government of 

facilities, equipment, materials, funds, or information, or of time or services of other Government 

795 
employees on official duty, or (3) which bears a direct relation to or are made in consequence of the 

official duties of the inventor. 

(b) In any case where the contribution of the Government, as measured by any one or more of the 

criteria set forth in paragraph (a) last above, to the invention is insufficient equitably to justify a requirement of assignment to the Government of the entire right, title and interest to such invention, or in any case where the Government has insufficient interest in an invention to obtain entire right, title and interest 

therein (although the Government could obtain same under paragraph (a) above), the Government agency 

concerned, subject to the approval of the Chairman of the Government Patents Board. . . shall leave title 

to such invention in the employee, subject, however, to the reservation to the Government of a non- exclusive, irrevocable, royalty-free license in the invention with power to grant licenses for all governmental purposes, such reservation, in the terms thereof, to appear, where practicable, in any patent, 

domestic or foreign, which may issue on such invention. 

March 13, 1950, effective May 24, 1950, 64 Stat. 1263 (Reorganization Plan No. 5 of 1950) 

The functions of all the officers of the National Bureau of Standards were transferred to the Secretary of 

Commerce, with power vested in him to authorize their performance or the performance of any of his 

functions by any of the officers or employees of the National Bureau of Standards. 

REORGANIZATION PLAN NO. 5 OF 1950 

Prepared by the President and transmitted to the Senate and the House of Representatives in Congress 

assembled, March 13, 1950, pursuant.to the provisions of the Reorganization Act of 1949, approved 

June 20, 1949. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE SECrIoN I. Transfer offunctions to the Secretary.—(a) Except as otherwise provided in subsection (b) of 

this section, there are hereby transferred to the Secretary of Commerce all functions of all other officers of 

the Department of Commerce and all functions of all agencies and employees of such Department.... SEC. 2. Performance of functions of Secretary.—The Secretary of Commerce may from time to time 

make such provisions as he shall deem appropriate authorizing the performance by any other officer, or by 

any agency or employee, of the Department of Commerce of any function of the Secretary, including any 

function transferred to the Secretary, including any function transferred to the Secretary by the provisions 

of this reorganization plan. SEC. 4. Incidental transfers—The Secretary of Commerce may from time to time effect such transfers 

with the Department of Commerce of any of the records, property, personnel, and unexpended balances 

(available or to be made available) of appropriations, allocations, and other funds of such Department as he 

may deem necessary in order to carry Out the provisions of this reorganization plan. 

June 29, 1950, 64 Stat. 275 (Public Law 583, 81st Congress, 2d session) Deficiency Appropriation Act, 1950. 

Beginning of the Working Capital Fund for the National Bureau of Standards. 

[CHAPTER 405] 

AN ACT 

Making appropriations to supply deficiencies in certain appropriations for the fiscal year ending 

June 30, 1950, and for other purposes. NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS WORKING CAPITAL FUND For the establishment of a working capital fund, to be available without fiscal year limitation, for expenses 

necessary for the maintenance and operation of the National Bureau of Standards, including the furnishing of 

facilities and services to other Government agencies, not to exceed $3,000,000. Said fund shall be established as a special deposit account and shall be reimbursed from applicable appropriations of said Bureau for 

796 
the work of said Bureau, and from funds of other Government agencies for facilities and services furnished 

to such agencies pursuant to law. Reimbursements so made shall include handling and related charges; 

reserves for depreciation of equipment and accrued leave; and building construction and alterations directly 

related to the work for which reimbursement is made. (64 Stat. 279) 

July 21, 1950, 64 Stat. 369 (Public Law 617, 81st Congress, 2d session) 

The basic definitions of the act of 1894 were kept but eliminated the alternative definitions specifying 

devices which were not correct, gave clear legal effect in the United States to a world-wide agreement on electrical units and standards which had been obtained by the National Bureau of Standards, and established in scientific terms definitions of the units of light which had never been specifically established by 

Federal statutes. 

[CHAPTER 484] 

AN ACT 

To redefine the units and establish the standards of electrical and photometric measurements. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That from and after the date this Act is approved, the legal units of electrical and photometric 

measurement in the United States of America shall be those defined and established as provided in the 

following sections. SEC. 2. The unit of electrical resistance shall be the ohm, which is equal to one thousand million units of 

resistance of the centimeter-gram-second system of electromagnetic units. SEC. 3. The unit of electric current shall be the ampere, which is one-tenth of the unit of current of the 

centimeter-gram-second system of electromagnetic units. SEC. 4. The unit of electromotive force and of electric potential shall be the volt, which is the electromotive force that, steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is one ohm, will produce a current of one ampere. SEC. 5. The unit of electric quantity shall be the coulomb, which is the quantity of electricity transferred 

by a current of one ampere in one second. SEC. 6. The unit of electrical capacitance shall be the farad, which is the capacitance of a capacitor that is 

charged to a potential of one volt by one coulomb of electricity. SEC. 7. The unit of electrical inductance shall be the henry, which is the inductance in a circuit such that an electromotive force of one volt is induced in the circuit by variation of an inducing current at the rate of 

one ampere per second. SEC. 8. The unit of power shall be the watt, which is equal to ten million units of power in the centimetergram-second system, and which is the power required to cause an unvarying current of one ampere to flow 

between points differing in potential by one volt. SEC. 9. The units of energy shall be (a) the joule, which is equivalent to the energy supplied by a power 

of one watt operating for one second, and (b) the kilowatt-hour, which is equivalent to the energy supplied 

by a power of one thousand watts operating for one hour. SEC. 10. The unit of intensity of light shall be the candle, which is one-sixtieth of the intensity of one square centimeter of a perfect radiator, known as a "black body", when operated at the temperature of 

freezing platinum. SEC. II. The unit of flux of light shall be the lumen, which is the flux in a unit of solid angle from a source of which the intensity is one candle. SEC. 12. It shall be the duty of the Secretary of Commerce to establish the values of the primary electric 

and photometric units in absolute measure, and the legal values for these units shall be those represented by, 

or derived from, national reference standards maintained by the Department of Commerce. SEC. 13. The Act of July 12, 1894 (Public Law Numbered 105, Fifty-third Congress), entitled "An Act to define and establish the units of electrical measure", is hereby repealed. 

Approved July 21, 1950. 

797 
July 22, 1950, 64 Stat. 371 (Public Law 619, 81 Congress, 2d session) 

First major restatement of Bureau functions since 190!. The Act rewrote section 2 in its entirety and 

expanded its provisions to cover the standards and measurements functions and activities of the Department of Commerce. 

[CHAPTER 486] 

AN ACT 

To amend section 2 of the Act of March 3, 1901 (31 Stat. 1449), to provide basic authority for the 

performance of certain functions and activities of the Department of Commerce, and for other purposes. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That section 2 of the Act of March 3, 1901 (31 Stat. 1449), as amended, be, and the same hereby 

is, further amended so as to read in full as follows: 

"Scc. 2. The Secretary of Commerce (hereinafter referred to as the 'Secretary') is authorized to undertake 

the following functions: 

"(a) The custody, maintenance, and development of the national standards of measurement, and the provision of means and methods for making measurements consistent with those standards, including the compari- son of standards used in scientific investigations, engineering, manufacturing, commerce, and educational 

institutions with the standards adopted or recognized by the Government. 

"(b) The determination of physical constants and properties of materials when such data are of great importance to scientific or manufacturing interests and are not to be obtained of sufficient accuracy elsewhere. 

"(c) The development of methods for testing materials, mechanisms, and structures, and the testing of 

materials, supplies, and equipment, including items purchased for use of Government departments and independent establishments. 

"(d) Cooperation with other governmental agencies on scientific and technical problems. 

"(e) Advisory service to Government agencies on scientific and technical problems. 

"(t) Invention and development of devices to serve special needs of the Government. 

"In carrying out the functions enumerated in the section, the Secretary is authorized to undertake the 

following activities and similar ones for which need may arise in the operations of Government agencies, 

scientific institutions, and industrial enterprises: 

"(I) the construction of physical standards; 

"(2) the testing, calibration, and certification of standards and standard measuring apparatus; 

"(3) the study and improvement of instruments and methods of measurements; 

"(4) the investigation and testing of railroad track scales, elevator scales, and other scales used in 

weighing commodities for interstate shipment; 

"(5) cooperation with the States in securing uniformity in weights and measures laws and methods of 

inspection; 

"(6) the preparation and distribution of standard samples such as those used in checking chemical analyses, temperature, color, viscosity, heat of combustion, and other basic properties of materials; also the 

preparation and sale or other distribution of standard instruments, apparatus and materials for calibration 

of measuring equipment; 

"(7) the development of methods of chemical analysis and synthesis of materials, and the investigation 

of the properties of rare substances; 

"(8) the study of methods of producing and of measuring high and low temperatures; and the behavior 

of materials at high and at low temperatures; 

"(9) the investigation of radiation, radioactive substances, and X-rays, their uses, and means of protection of persons from their harmful effects; 

"(10) the study of the atomic and molecular structure of the chemical elements, with particular reference to the characteristics of the spectra emitted, the use of spectral observations in determining chemical 

composition of materials, and the relation of molecular structure to the practical usefulness of materials; 

"( I I) the broadcasting of radio signals for standard frequency; 

"( 12) the investigation of the conditions which affect the transmission of radio waves from their source 

to a receiver; 

798 
"(13) the compilation and distribution of information on such transmission of radio waves as a basis 

for choice of frequencies to be used in radio operation; 

"(14) the study of new technical processes and methods of fabrication of materials in which the 

Government has a special interest; also the study of methods of measurement and technical processes 

used in the manufacture of optical glass and pottery, brick, tile, terra cotta, and other clay products; 

"(15) the determination of properties of building materials and structural element, and encouragement 

of their standardization and most effective use, including investigation of fire-resisting properties of 

building materials and conditions under which they may be most efficiently used, and the standardization of types of appliances for fire prevention; 

"(16) metallurgical research, including study of alloy steels and light metal alloys; investigation of 

foundry practice, casting, rolling, and forging; prevention of corrosion of metals and alloys; behavior 

of bearing metals; and development of standards for metals and sands; 

"(17) the operation of a laboratory of applied mathematics; 

"(18) the prosecution of such research in engineering, mathematics, and the physical sciences as may 

be necessary to obtain basic data pertinent to the functions specified herein; and 

"(19) the compilation and publication of general scientific and technical data resulting from the 

performance of the functions specified herein or from other sources when such data are of importance to scientific or manufacturing interests or to the general public, and are not available elsewhere, including 

demonstrations of the results of the Bureau's work by exhibits or otherwise as may be deemed most 

effective." SEC. 2. The Act of March 3, 1901 (31 Stat. 1449), as amended, be, and the same hereby is, further 

amended by inserting at the end thereof the following sections: 

"SEC. 11. For all services rendered for other Government agencies by the Secretary in the performance of 

functions specified herein, the Department of Commerce may be reimbursed in accordance with section 601 

of the Economy Act of June 30, 1932. 

"SEC. 12. In the absence of specific agreement to the contrary, equipment purchased by the Department of 

Commerce from transferred or advanced funds in order to carry out an investigation authorized herein for 

another Government agency shall become the property of the Department of Commerce for use in subsequent investigations. 

"SEC. 13. (a) The Secretary of Commerce is authorized to accept and utilize gifts or bequests of real or personal property for the purpose of aiding and facilitating the work authorized herein. 

For the purpose of Federal income, estate, and gift taxes, gifts and bequests accepted by the Secretary 

of Commerce under the authority of the Act shall be deemed to be gifts and bequests to or for the use of the 

United States." 

Approved July 22, 1950 

September 9, 1950, 64 Stat. 823 (Public Law 776—8lst Congress, 2d session) 

The Technical Documentation Center in the Department of Commerce was transferred to the National 

Bureau of Standards in 1964. Reorganized and renamed the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and 

Technical Information, it provided inexpensive unclassified information about government-sponsored 

research and development in national programs. 

(CHAPTER 936] 

AN ACT 

To provide for the dissemination of technological, scientific, and engineering information to American 

business and industry, and for other purposes. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of A,nerica in Congress 

assembled, That the purpose of this Act is to make the results of technological research and development 

more readily available to industry and business, and to the general public, by clarifying and defining the 

functions and responsibilities of the Department of Commerce as a central clearinghouse for technical information which is useful to American industry and business. 

799 
CLEARINGHOUSE FOR TECHNICAL INFORMATION SEC. 2. The Secretary of Commerce (hereinafter referred to as the "Secretary") is hereby directed to establish and maintain within the Department of Commerce a clearinghouse for the collection and dissemination 

of scientific, technical, and engineering information, and to this end to take such steps as he may deem 

necessary and desirable— 

(a) To search for, collect, classify, coordinate, integrate, record, and catalog such information from what- ever sources, foreign and domestic, that may be available; 

(b) To make such information available to industry and business, to State and local governments, to other 

agencies of the Federal Government, and to the general public, through the preparation of abstracts, digests, 

translations, bibliographies, indexes, and microfilm and other reproductions, for distribution either directly or by utilization of business, trade, technical, and scientific publications and services; 

(c) To effect, within the limits of his authority as now or hereafter defined by law, and with the consent 

of competent authority, the removal of restrictions on the dissemination of scientific and technical data in cases where consideration of national security permit the release of such data for the benefit of industry and 

business. 

June 30. 1953, 67 Stat. Ill (Public Law 88—83d Congress, 1st session) Flammable Fabrics Act. 

Mandatory flammability standards were set for wearing apparel and fabrics in interstate commerce. The 

standards relied on the voluntary commercial standards adopted by industry working with the National 

Bureau of Standards over several years to produce these standards for the industry. 

Public Law 88 CHAPTER 164 

AN ACT 

To prohibit the introduction or movement in interstate commerce of articles of wearing apparel and 

fabrics which are so highly flammable as to be dangerous when worn by individuals, and for other purposes. STANDARD OF FLAMMABILITY SEC. 4. (a) Any fabric or article of wearing apparel shall be deemed so highly flammable within the meaning of section 3 of this Act as to be dangerous when worn by individuals if such fabric or any uncovered 

or exposed part of such article of wearing apparel exhibits rapid and intense burning when tested under the 

conditions and in the manner prescribed in the Commercial Standard promulgated by the Secretary of 

Commerce effective January 30, 1953, and identified as "Flammability of Clothing Textiles, Commercial 

Standard 19 1-53", or exhibits a rate of burning in excess of that specified in paragraph 3.11 of the Commercial Standard promulgated by the Secretary of Commerce effective May 22. 1953. and identified as "General 

Purpose Vinyl Plastic Film, Commercial Standard 192-53". For the purposes of this Act, suchCommercial 

Standard 19 1-53 shall apply with respect to the hats, gloves, and footwear. 

(b) If at any time the Secretary of Commerce finds that the Commercial Standards referred to in subsection (a) of this section are inadequate for the protection of the public interest, he shall submit to the 

Congress a report setting forth his findings together with such proposals for legislation as he deems appropnate. (67 Stat. 112) 

June 20, 1956, 70 Stat. 314 (Public Law 604—84th Congress, 2d session) 

Formal approval for the construction of new Bureau laboratories at Gaithersburg. 

Public Law 604 CHAPTER 415 

AN ACT 

Making appropriations for the Department of Commerce and related agencies for the fiscal year ending 

June 30, 1957, and for other purposes. 

800 
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS Construction of facilities: For acquisition of necessary land and to initiate the design of the facilities to be 

constructed thereon for the National Bureau of Standards outside of the District of Columbia to remain available until expended, $930,000, to be transferred to the General Services Administration. (70 Stat. 321) 

August 2, 1956, 70 Stat. 953 (Public Law 930—84th Congress, 2d session) 

The Secretary of Commerce was directed to prescribe commercial standards for a safety device which 

would enable the refrigerator door to be opened from the inside. The National Bureau of Standards, with 

the cooperation of the refrigerator manufacturing industry, engaged in experiments to determine the basic 

criteria of reasonable safety which manufacturers could incorporate in the design of their refrigerators for 

preventing the suffocation of children entrapped in refrigerators. 

Public Law 930 CHAPTER 890 

AN ACT 

To require certain safety devices on household refrigerators shipped in interstate commerce. SEC. 3. The Secretary of Commerce shall prescribe and publish in the Federal Register commercial 

standards for devices which, when used in or on household refrigerators, will enable the doors thereof to be 

opened easily from the inside; and the standards first established under this section shall be so prescribed 

and published not later than one year after the date of the enactment of thisAct. 

August 3, 1956, 70 Stat. 959 (Public Law 940, 84th Congress, 2d session) 

The Organic Act of the National Bureau of Standards was amended by Section 7 of this law which 

authorized the Bureau to retain fees received from the public for services performed, and allowed the 

Bureau to charge fixed prices for services performed for other agencies. Section 12 (a) incorporated 

authority for use of the Working Capital Fund in the Organic Act, and permitted changes in the accounting treatment under the fund. 

Public Law 940 

AN ACT 

To amend the Act of March 3, 1901 (31 Stat. 1449) as amended, to incorporate in the Organic Act 

of the National Bureau of Standards the authority to use the Working Capital Fund, and to permit 

certain improvements in fiscal practices. 

"SEC. 7. The Secretary shall charge for services performed under the authority of section 3 of this Act, 

except in cases where he determines that the interest of the Government would be best served by waiving 

the charge. Such charges may be based upon fixed prices or cost. The appropriation or fund bearing the cost of the services may be reimbursed, or the Secretary may require advance payment subject to such adjustment on completion of the work as may be agreed upon. 

"SEC. 12. (a) The National Bureau of Standards is authorized to utilize in the performance of its functions 

the Working Capital Fund established by the Act of June 29, 1950 (64 Stat. 275), and additional amounts as from time to time may be required for the purposes of said fund are hereby authorized to be appropriated. 

8W 
November 4, 1963, 77 Stat. 299 (Public Law 88-165, 88th Congress, 1st session) 

Public Law 88-165 

AN ACT 

To amend the Act redefining the units and establishing the standards of electrical and photometric 

measurements to provide that the candela shall be the unit of luminous intensity. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That the Act entitled "An Act to redefine the units and establish the standards of electrical and 

photometric measurement" (Act of July 21, 1950; (64 Stat. 370) is amended by deleting the word "candle" 

wherever it appears and inserting in lieu thereof the word "candela". 

Approved November 4, 1963. 

October 30, 1965, 79 Stat. 1127 (Public Law 89-306—89th Congress, 1st session) "Brooks Act" 

As the technical representative of the Department of Commerce, the National Bureau of Standards 

established the Center for Computer Sciences and Technology to improve the effectiveness and efficiency 

of the government's use of computers. 

Public Law 89-306 

AN ACT 

To provide for the economic and efficient purchase, lease, maintenance, operation, and utilization 

of automatic data processing equipment by Federal departments and agencies. AUTOMATIC DATA PROCESSING EQUIPMENT 

"(f) The Secretary of Commerce is authorized (I) to provide agencies, and the Administrator of General 

Services in the exercise of the authority delegated in this section, with scientific and technological advisory 

services relating to automatic data processing and related systems, and (2) to make appropriate recommendations to the President relating to the establishment of uniform Federal automatic data processing standards. 

The Secretary of Commerce is authorized to undertake the necessary research in the sciences and technologies of automatic data processing computer and related systems, as may be required under provisions of this 

subsection. (70 Stat. 1128) 

September 9, 1966, 80 Stat. 718 (Public Law 89-563—89th Congress, 2d session) National Traffic and 

Motor Vehicle Safrty Act of 1966. 

The Secretary of Commerce was to use the facilities of the National Bureau of Standards to initiate and 

conduct research, testing, development, and evaluation in cooperation with other Federal departments 

and agencies. The brake fluid and seat belt legislation passed in 1962 and 1963 was repealed by this 

broader law. 

Public Law 89-563 

AN ACT 

To provide for a coordinated national safety program and establishment of safety standards for motor 

vehicles in interstate commerce to reduce accidents involving motor vehicles and to reduce the death 

and injuries occurring in such accidents. SEC. 103. (1) In prescribing standards under this section, the Secretary shall— 

(I) consider relevant available motor vehicle safety data, including the results of research, development, 

testing and evaluation activities conducted pursuant to the Act; . . . (80 Stat. 719) 

802 
October 15, 1966, 80 Stat. 931 (Public Law 89-670—89th Congress, 2d session) Department of Transportation Act. 

The functions, powers, and duties given to the Secretary of Commerce under the National Traffic and 

Motor Vehicle Safely Act of 1966 were transferred to the Secretary of Transportation. The Office of 

Vehicle Systems Research was formed at the National Bureau of Standards in March 1967. 

Public Law 89-670 

AN ACT 

To establish a Department of Transportation and for other purposes. TRANSFERS TO DEPARTMENT SEC. 6. (a) There are hereby transferred to and vested in the Secretary all functions, powers, and duties of 

the Secretary of Commerce and other offices and officers of the Department of Commerce under— 

(6) the following laws relating generally to traffic and highway safety: 

(A) The National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1966 (80 Stat. 718). 

(B) The Highway Safety Act of 1966 (80 Stat. 731). 

November 3. 1966, 80 Stat. 1296 (Public Law 89-755—89th Congress, 2d session) Fair Packaging and 

Labeling Act. 

The National Bureau of Standards was given the responsibility to work with industry to reduce the number 

of package sizes, and to make labels more informative. 

Public Law 89-755 

AN ACT 

To regulate interstate and foreign commerce by preventing the use of unfair or deceptive methods 

of packaging or labeling of certain consumer commodities distributed in such commerce, and for 

other purposes. SEC. 5. (d) Whenever the Secretary of Commerce determines that there is undue proliferation of the 

weights, measures, or quantities in which any consumer commodity or reasonably comparable consumer 

commodities are being distributed in packages for sale at retail and such undue proliferation impairs the 

reasonable ability of consumers to make value comparisons with respect to such consumer commodity or commodities, he shall request manufacturers, packers, and distributors of the commodity or commodities to participate in the development of a voluntary product standard for such commodity or commodities under the 

procedures for the development of voluntary products standards established by the Secretary pursuant to section 2 of the Act of March 3, 1901 (3! Stat. 1449, as amended; IS U.S.C. 272). Such procedures shall 

provide adequate manufacturer, packer, distributor, and consumer representation. 

(e) If (I) after one year after the date on which the Secretary of Commerce first makes the request of 

manufacturers, packers, and distributors to participate in the development of a voluntary product standard as provided in subsection (d) of this section, he determines that such a standard will not be published 

pursuant to the provisions of such subsection (d), or (2) if such a standard is published and the Secretary of 

Commerce determines that it has not been observed, he shall promptly report such determination to the 

Congress with a statement of the efforts that have been made under the voluntary standards program and his 

recommendation as to whether Congress should enact legislation providing regulatory authority to deal with 

the situation in question. (80 Stat. 1299) 

REPORTS TO THE CONGRESS SEC. 8. Each officer or agency required or authorized by the Act to promulgate regulations for the packaging or labeling of any consumer commodity, or to participate in the development of voluntary product stan- dards with respect to any consumer commodity under procedures referred to in section 5 (d) of this Act, 

shall transmit to the Congress in January of each year a report containing a full and complete description of 

the activities of that officer or agency for the administration and enforcement of this Act during the preceding fiscal year. 

803 
COOPERATION WITH STATE AUTHORITIES SEc. 9. (a) A copy of each regulation promulgated under this Act shall be transmitted promptly to the 

Secretary of Commerce, who shall (I) transmit copies thereof to all appropriate State officers and agencies, 

and (2) furnish to such State officers and agencies information and assistance to promote to the greatest 

practicable extent uniformity in State and Federal regulation of the labeling of consumer commodities. 

(b) Nothing contained in this section shall be construed to impair or otherwise interfere with any program 

carried into effect by the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare under other provisions of law in coop. 

eration with State government or agencies, instrumentalities, or political subdivisions thereof. (80 Stat. 1300; 

December 14, 1967, 81 Stat. 568 (Public Law 90-189—90th Congress, 1st session) 

The Flammable Fabrics Act amendments provided a mechanism for continued evaluation and revision to 

keep the requirements up- to-date and extended coverage to flammable interior furnishings. The Secretary 

of Commerce was given the responsibility of developing mandatory flammability standards when necessary. NBS had the responsibility of providing the necessary technical information. 

Public Law 90-189 

AN ACT 

To amend the Flammable Fabrics Act to increase the protection afforded consumers against 

injurious flammable fabrics. SEC. 3. Section 4 of the Flammable Fabrics Act is amended to read as follows: 

"REGULATION OF FLAMMABLE FABRICS 

"SEC. 4. (a) Whenever the Secretary of Commerce finds on the basis of the investigations or research 

conducted pursuant to section 14 of this Act that a new or amended flammability standard or other regulation, including labeling, for a fabric, related material, or product may be needed to protect the public against 

unreasonable risk of the occurrence of fire leading to death or personal injury, or significant property damage, he shall institute proceedings for the determination of an appropriate flammability standard (including 

conditions and manner of testing) or other regulation or amendment thereto for such fabric, related material, or product. 

"(b) Each standard, regulation, or amendment thereto promulgated pursuant to this section shall be based on findings that such standard, regulation, or amendment thereto is needed to adequately protect the public 

against unreasonable risk of the occurrence of fire leading to death, injury, or significant property damage, is reasonable, technologically practicable, and appropriate, is limited to such fabrics, related materials, or products which have been determined to present such unreasonable risks, and shall be stated in objective terms. 

Each such standard, regulation, or amendment thereto, shall become effective twelve months from the date on which such standard, regulation, or amendment is promulgated, unless the Secretary of Commerce finds 

for good cause shown that an earlier or later effective date is in the public interest and publishes the reason for such finding. Each such standard or regulation or amendment thereto shall exempt fabrics, related materials, or products in inventory or with the trade as of the date on which the standard, regulation, or amendmeni 

thereto, becomes effective except that, if the Secretary finds that any such fabric, related material, or product 

is so highly flammable as to be dangerous when used by consumers for the purpose for which it is intended, 

he may under such conditions as the Secretary may prescribe, withdraw, or limit the exemption for such 

fabric, related material, or product. (81 Stat. 569) 

804 
March 1, 1968, 82 Stat. 34 (Public Law 90-259—90th Congress, 2d session) Fire Research and Safety Act of 

/968. 

The Fire Research and Safety Office was created to carry out the activities of the program. 

Public Law 90-259 

AN ACT 

To amend the Organic Act of the National Bureau of Standards to authorize a fire research and safety 

program, and for other purposes. 

Title I—FIRE RESEARCH AND SAFETY PROGRAM DECLARATION OF POLICY SEC. 101. The Congress finds that a comprehensive fire research and safety program is needed in this 

country to provide more effective measures of protection against the hazards of death, injury, and damage to property. The Congress finds that it is desirable and necessary for the Federal Government, in carrying out 

the provisions of this title, to cooperate with and assist public and private agencies. The Congress declares 

that the purpose of this title is to amend the Act of March 3, 1901, as amended, to provide a national fire 

research and safety program including the gathering of comprehensive fire data; a comprehensive fire 

research program; fire safety education and training programs; and demonstrations of new approaches and 

improvements in fire prevention and control, and reduction of death, personal injury, and property damage. 

Additionally, it is the sense of Congress that the Secretary should establish a fire research and safety center 

for administering this title and carrying out its purposes, including appropriate fire safety liaison and 

coordination. AUTHORIZATION OF PROGRAM SEC. 102. The Act entitled "An Act to establish the National Bureau of Standards", approved March 3, 

1901, as amended (IS U.S.C. 271-278e, is further amended by adding the following sections: 

"SEC. 16. The Secretary of Commerce (hereinafter referred to as the 'Secretary') is authorized to— "(a) Conduct directly or through contracts or grants— 

"(I) investigations of fires to determine their causes, frequency of occurrence, severity, and other 

pertinent factors; 

"(2) research into the causes and nature of fires, and the development of improved methods and 

techniques for fire prevention, fire control, and reduction of death, personal injury, and property damage; 

"(3) educational programs to— 

"(A) inform the public of fire hazards and fire safety techniques, and 

"(B) encourage avoidance of such hazards and use of such techniques; 

"(4) fire information reference services, including the collection, analysis, and dissemination of data, 

research results, and other information, derived from this program or from other sources and related to fire 

protection, fire control, and reduction of death, personal injury, and property damage; 

"(5) educational and training programs to improve, among other things— 

"(A) the efficiency, operation, and organization of fire services, and 

"(B) the capability of controlling unusual fire-related hazards and fire disasters; and 

"(6) projects demonstrating— 

"(A) improved or experimental programs of fire prevention, fire control, and reduction of death, 

personal injury, and property damage, 

"(B) application of fire safety principles in construction, or "(C) improvement of the efficiency, operation, or organization of the fire services. 

"(b) Support by contracts or grants the development, for use by educational and other nonprofit institutions, of— 

"(I) fire safety and fire protection engineering or science curriculums; and 

"(2) fire safety courses, seminars, or other instructional materials and aids for the above curriculums or other appropriate curriculums or courses of instruction. 

805 
"SEc. 17. With respect to the functions authorized by section 16 of this Act— 

"(a) Grants may be made only to States and local governments, other non-Federal public agencies, and 

nonprofit institutions. Such a grant may be up to 100 per centum of the total cost of the project for which 

such grant is made. The Secretary shall require, whenever feasible, as a condition of approval of a grant, that 

the recipient contribute money, facilities, or services to carry out the purpose for which the grant is sought. 

For the purposes of this section, 'State' means any State of the United States, the District of Columbia, the 

Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, the Canal Zone, American Samoa, and the Trust 

Territory of the Pacific Islands; and 'public agencies' includes combinations or groups of States or local 

governments. 

"(b) The Secretary may arrange with and reimburse the heads of other Federal departments and agencies 

for the performance of any such functions, and, as necessary or appropriate, delegate any of his powers 

under this section or section 16 of this Act with respect to any part thereof, and authorize the redelegation of 

such powers. 

"(c) The Secretary may perform such functions without regard to section 3648 of the Revised Statutes (31 

U.S.C. 529). 

"(d) The Secretary is authorized to request any Federal department or agency to supply such statistics, 

data, program reports, and other materials as he deems necessary to carry out such functions. Each such 

department or agency is authorized to cooperate with the Secretary and, to the extent permitted by law, to furnish such materials to the Secretary. The Secretary and the heads of other departments and agencies 

engaged in administering programs related to fire safety shall, to the maximum extent practicable, cooperate 

and consult in order to insure fully coordinated efforts. 

"(e) The Secretary is authorized to establish such policies, standards, criteria, and procedures and to prescribe such rules and regulations as he may deem necessary or appropriate to the administration of such 

functions or this section, including rules and regulations which— 

"(I) provide that a grantee will from time to time, but not less often than annually, submit a report 

evaluating accomplishments of activities funded under section 16, and 

"(2) provide for fiscal control, sound accounting procedures, and periodic reports to the Secretary 

regarding the application of funds paid under section 16." 

July II, 1968, 82 Stat. 339 (Public Law 90-396——9Oth Congress, 2d session) Standard Reference Data Act. 

This Act authprized the National Bureau of Standards to coordinate a National system for providing 

scientific data to science and industry, thereby strengthening and increasing the effectiveness of the 

Bureau's standard reference data operation. 

Public Law 90-396 

AN ACT 

To provide for the collection, compilation, critical evaluation, publication, and sale of standard 

reference data. DECLARATION OF POLICY SECTION I. The Congress hereby finds and declares that reliable standardized scientific and technical reference data are of vital importance to the progress of the Nation's science and technology. It is therefore the 

policy of the congress to make critically evaluated reference data readily available to scientists, engineers, 

and the general public. It is the purpose of this Act to strengthen and enhance this policy. SEC. 2. For the purposes of this Act— 

(a) The term "standard reference data" means quantitative information, related to a measurable physical or chemical property of a substance or system of substances of known composition and structure, which is critically evaluated as to its reliability under section 3 of this Act. 

(b) The term "Secretary" means the Secretary of Commerce. 

806 
SEC. 3. The Secretary is authorized and directed to provide or arrange for the collection, compilation, 

critical evaluation, publication, and dissemination of standard reference data. In carrying out this program, 

the Secretary shall, to the maximum extent practicable, utilize the reference data services and facilities of 

other agencies and instrumentalities of the Federal Government and of State and local governments, persons, 

firms, institutions, and associations, with their consent and in such a manner as to avoid duplication of those 

services and facilities. All agencies and instrumentalities of the Federal Government are encouraged to exer- cise their duties and functions in such manner as will assist in carrying out the purpose of this Act. This 

section shall be deemed complementary to existing authority, and nothing herein is intended to repeal, supersede, or diminish existing authority or responsibility of any agency or instrumentality of the Federal Government. SEC. 4. To provide for more effective integration and coordination of standard reference data activities, the 

Secretary, in consultation with other interested Federal agencies, shall prescribe and publish in the Federal 

Register such standards, criteria, and procedures for the preparation and publication of standard reference 

data as may be necessary to carry out the provisions of this Act. SEC. 5. Standard reference data conforming to standards established by the Secretary may be made available and sold by the Secretary or by a person or agency designated by him. To the extent practicable and 

appropriate, the prices established for such data may reflect the cost of collection, compilation, evaluation, 

publication, and dissemination of the data, including administrative expenses; and the amounts received shall 

be subject to the Act of March 3, 1901. as amended (15 U.S.C. 271- 278e). SEC. 6. (a) Notwithstanding the limitations contained in section 9 of title 17 of the United States Code, the 

Secretary may secure copyright and renewal thereof on behalf of the United States as author or proprietor in 

all or any part of any standard reference data which he prepares or makes available under this Act, and may 

authorize the reproduction and publication thereof by others. 

(b) The publication or republication by the Government under this Act, either separately or in a public 

document, of any material in which copyright is subsisting shall not be taken to cause any abridgment or 

annulment of the copyright or to authorize any use or appropriation of such material without the consent of 

the copyright proprietor. SEC. 7. There are authorized to be appropriated to carry out this Act, $1.86 million for the fiscal year 

ending June 30, 1969. Notwithstanding the provisions of any other law, no appropriations for any fiscal year 

may be made for the purpose of this Act after fiscal year 1969 unless previously authorized by the Congress. SEC. 8. This Act may be cited as the "Standard Reference Data Act." 

Approved July 11, 1968. 

August 9, 1968, 82 Stat. 693 (Public Law 90-472—90th Congress, 2d session) "Metric System Study". 

The Act authorized a study of the effect upon the United States of increased use of the Metric System 

throughout the world and development of recommendations for an action program to deal with the 

problem. 

Public Law 90-472 

AN ACT 

To authorize the Secretary of Commerce to make a study to determine the advantages and disadvantages 

of increased use of the metric system in the United States. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That the Secretary of Commerce is hereby authorized to conduct a program of investigation, 

research, and survey to determine the impact of increasing worldwide use of the metric system on the United 

States; to appraise the desirability and practicability of increasing the use of metric weights and measures in 

the United States; to study the feasibility of retaining and promoting by international use of dimensional and 

other engineering standards based on the customary measurement units of the United States; and to evaluate 

the costs and benefits of alternative courses of action which may be feasible for the United States. 

807 
SEc. 2. In carrying out the program described in the first section of this Act, the Secretary, among other 

things, shall— 

(I) investigate and appraise the advantages and disadvantages to the United States in international 

trade and commerce, and in military and other areas of international relations, of the increased use of an international standardized system of weights and measures; 

(2) appraise economic and military advantages and disadvantages of the increased use of the metric 

system in the United States or of the increased use of such system in specific fields and the impact of 

such increased use upon those affected; 

(3) conduct extensive comparative studies of the systems of weights and measures used in educational, engineering, manufacturing, commercial, public, and scientific areas, and the relative advantages 

and disadvantages, and degree of standardization of each in its respective field; 

(4) investigate and appraise the possible practical difficulties which might be encountered in accom- plishing the increased use of the metric system of weights and measures generally or in specific fields or areas in the United States; 

(5) permit appropriate participation by representatives of United States industry, science, engineering, 

and labor, and their associations, in the planning and conduct of the program authorized by the first 

section of this Act, and in the evaluation of the information secured under such program; and 

(6) consult and cooperate with other government agencies, Federal, State, and local, and, to the extent 

practicable, with foreign governments and international organizations. SEC. 3. In conducting the studies and developing the recommendations required in this Act, the Secretary 

shall give full consideration to the advantages, disadvantages, and problems associated with possible changes 

in either the system of measurement units or the related dimensional and engineering standards currently 

used in the United States, and specifically shall— 

(I) investigate the extent to which substantial changes in the size, shape, and design of important 

industrial products would be necessary to realize the benefits which might result from general use of 

metric units of measurement in the United States; 

(2) investigate the extent to which uniform and accepted engineering standards based on the metric 

system of measurement units are in use in each of the fields under study and compare the extent to such 

use and the utility and degree of sophistication of such metric standards with those in use in the United 

States; and 

(3) recommend specific means of meeting the practical difficulties and costs in those areas of the 

economy where any recommended change in the system of measurement units and related dimensional 

and engineering standards would raise significant practical difficulties or entail significant costs of 

conversion. SEC. 4. The Secretary shall submit to the Congress such interim reports as he deems desirable, and within 

three years after the date of the enactment of this Act, a full and complete report of the findings made under 

the program authorized by this Act, together with such recommendations as he considers to be appropriate 

and in the best interests of the United States. SEC. 5. From funds previously appropriated to the Department of Commerce, the Secretary is authorized to utilize such appropriated sums as are necessary, but not to exceed $500,000, to carry out the purposes of 

this Act for the first year of the program. SEC. 6. This Act shall expire thirty days after the submission of the final report pursuant to section 3. 

Approved August 9, 1968. 

October 27, 1972, 86 Stat. 1207 (Public Law 92-573—92d Congress, 2d session) Consumer Product Safety 

Act. 

This Act established the Consumer Product Safety Commission and transferred the regulatory functions of 

the Secretary of Commerce under the Flammable Fabrics Act and the "Refrigerator Safety Devices Act" to the Commission. The National Bureau of Standards provided technical support to the CPSC. 

AN ACT 

To protect consumers against unreasonable risk of injury from hazardous products, and for other purposes. 

808 
COOPERATION WITH STATES AND WITH OTHER FEDERAL AGENCIES SEC. 29. (d) The Commission shall, to the maximum extent practicable, utilize the resources and facilities 

of the National Bureau of Standards, on a reimbursable basis, to perform research and analyses related to 

risks of injury associated with consumer products (including fire and flammability risks), to develop test methods, to conduct studies and investigations, and to provide technical advice and assistance in connection 

with the functions of the Commission. TRANSFERS OF FUNCTIONS SEC. 30. (a) The functions of the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare under the Federal Hazardous Substances Act (15 U.S.C. 1261 et seq.) and the Poison Prevention Packaging Act of 1970 are transferred to the Commission. The functions of the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency and 

of the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare under the Acts amended by subsections (b) through (f) of 

section 7 of the Poison Prevention Packaging Act of 1970, to the extent such functions relate to the administration and enforcement of the Poison Prevention Packaging Act of 1970, are transferred to the Commission. 

(b) The functions of the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, the Secretary of Commerce, and the 

Federal Trade Commission under the Flammable Fabrics Act (15 U.S.C. 1191 et seq.) are transferred to the 

Commission. The functions of the Federal Trade Commission under the Federal Trade Commission Act, to 

the extent such functions relate to the administration and enforcement of the Flammable Fabrics Act, are transferred to the Commission. 

(c) The functions of the Secretary of Commerce and the Federal Trade Commission under the Act of 

August 2, 1956 (15 U.S.C. 1211) are transferred to the Commission. 

(d) A risk of injury which is associated with consumer products and which could be eliminated or reduced 

to a sufficient extent by action taken under the Federal Hazardous Substances Act, the Poison Prevention 

Packaging Act of 1970, or the Flammable Fabrics Act may be regulated by the commission only in accor- dance with the provisions of those Acts. 

(e) (I) (A) All personnel, property, records, obligations, and commitments, which are used primarily with 

respect to any function transferred under the provisions of subsections (a), (b) and (c) of this section shall be 

transferred to the Commission, except those associated with fire and flammability research in the National 

Bureau of Standards. The transfer of personnel pursuant to this paragraph shall be without reduction in classification or compensation for one year after such transfer, except that the Chairman of the Commission shall 

have full authority to assign personnel during such one-year period in order to efficiently carry out functions 

transferred to the Commission under this section. (86 Stat. 1231) 

***** 

October 27, 1972, 86 Stat. 1234 (Public Law 92-574——92d Congress, 2d session) Noise Control Act of 1972. 

The Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency was authorized to conduct research on the 

effects, measurement, and control of noise. 

Public Law 92-574 

AN ACT 

To control the emission of noise detrimental to the human environment, and for other purposes. SEC. 14 (1) (B) development of improved methods and standards for measurement and monitoring of 

noise, in cooperation with the National Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce; (86 Stat. 1245) 

809 
September 3, 1974, 88 Stat. 1069 (Public Law 93-409—93d Congress, 2d session) Solar Heating and Cooling Demonstration Act of 1974. 

The National Bureau of Standards was directed to determine what constituted an effective solar heating 

and cooling system. 

Public Law 93-409 

AN ACT 

To provide for the early development and commercial demonstration of the technology of solar heating 

and combined solar heating and cooling systems. SEC. 2. (b) It is therefore declared to be the policy of the United States and the purpose of this Act to 

provide for the demonstration within a three-year period of the practical use of solar heating technology, and 

to provide for the development and demonstration within a five-year period of the practical use of combined 

heating and cooling technology. (88 stat. 1069) DEFINITIONS SEC. 3. For purposes of this Act— 

(I) the term "solar heating", with respect to any building, means the use of solar energy to meet such 

portion of the total heating needs of such building (including hot water), or such portion of the needs of 

such building for hot water (where its remaining heating needs are met by other methods), as may be 

required under performance criteria prescribed by the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development utilizing the services of the Director of the National Bureau of Standards, and in consultation with the Director 

of the National Science Foundation, and the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; 

(2) the terms "solar heating and cooling" and "combined solar heating and cooling", with respect to any 

building, mean the use of solar energy to provide both such portion of the total heating needs of such 

building (including hot water) and such portion of the total cooling needs of such building, or such portion 

of the needs of such building for hot water (where its remaining heating needs are met by other methods) 

and such portion of the total cooling needs of a building, as may be required under performance criteria 

prescribed by the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development utilizing the services of the Director of 

the National Bureau of Standards, and in consultation with the Director of the National Science Foundation, and the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and such term includes 

cooling by means of nocturnal heat radiation, by evaporation, or by other methods of meeting peakload 

energy requirements at nonpeakload times; (88 Stat. 1070) DEVELOPMENT AND DEMONSTRATION OF SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS TO BE USED IN RESIDENTIAL DWELLINGS SEC. 5. (a) The Administrator and the Secretary shall promptly initiate and carry out a program, as provided in this section, for the development and demonstration of solar heating systems (including collectors, 

controls, and thermal storage) for use in residential dwellings. 

(b)(l) Within 120 days after the date of the enactment of this Act, the Secretary, utilizing the services of 

the Director of the National Bureau of Standards and in consultation with the Administrator and the Director, 

shall determine, prescribe, and publish— 

(A) interim performance criteria for solar heating components and systems to be used in residential 

dwellings, and 

(B) interim performance criteria (relating to suitability for solar heating) for such dwellings themselves, 

taking into account in each instance climatic variations existing between different geographic areas. (2) As soon as possible after the publication of the performance criteria prescribed under paragraph (I), 

the Secretary, in consultation with the Director of the National Bureau of Standards and the Administrator, 

will select on the basis of open competition a number of designs for various types of residential dwellings 

suitable for and adapted to the installation of solar heating systems meeting the performance criteria prescribed under paragraph (1) (A). (88 Stat. 1070) 

810 
DEVELOPMENT AND DEMONSTRATION OF COMBINED SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS TO BE USED IN RESIDENTIAL DWELLINGS SEC. 6. (a) The Administrator and the Secretary shall promptly initiate and carry out a program, as provided in this section, for the development and demonstration of combined solar heating and cooling systems 

(including collectors, controls, and thermal storage) for use in residential dwellings. 

(b) (I) As soon as possible after the date of the enactment of this Act, the Secretary, utilizing the services 

of the Director of the National Bureau of Standards and in consultation with the Administrator and the 

Director, shall determine, prescribe, and publish— 

(A) interim performance criteria for combined solar heating and cooling components and systems to be 

used in residential dwellings, and 

(B) interim performance criteria (relating to suitability for solar heating and cooling) for such dwellings 

themselves, taking into account in each instance climatic variations existing between different geographic areas. (2) As soon as possible after the publication of the performance criteria prescribed under paragraph (I) 

(and if possible before the completion of the research and development provided for in subsection (c)), the 

Secretary, in consultation with the Director of the National Bureau of Standards and the Administrator, will 

select on the basis of open competition a number of designs for various types of residential dwellings suitable for and adapted to the installation of combined solar heating and cooling systems meeting the perfor- mance criteria prescribed under paragraph (1) (A). (88 Stat. 1072) DEVELOPMENT AND DEMONSTRATION OF SOLAR HEATING AND COMBINED SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS SEC. 9. The Administrator, in consultation with the Secretary, the Director, the Administrator of General 

Services, and the Director of the National Bureau of Standards and concurrently with the conduct of the 

programs under sections 5 and 6, shall enter into arrangements with appropriate Federal agencies to carry out 

such projects and activities (including demonstration projects) with respect to apartment buildings, office 

buildings, factories, crop-drying facilities and other agricultural structures, public buildings (including 

schools and colleges), and other non-residential, commercial, or industrial buildings, taking into account the 

special needs of and individual differences in such buildings based upon size, function, and other relevant 

factors, as may be appropriate for the early development and demonstration of solar heating and combined 

solar heating and cooling systems suitable and effective for use in such buildings. (88 Stat. 1074) COORDINATION. MONITORING, AND LIAISON SEC. II. (a) The Secretary, utilizing the services of the Director of the National Bureau of Standards and 

in coordination with such other Government agencies as may be appropriate, shall— 

(I) monitor the performance and operation of solar heating and combined solar heating and cooling 

systems installed in residential dwellings under this Act; 

(2) collect and evaluate data and information on the performance and operation of solar heating and 

combined solar heating and cooling systems installed in residential dwellings under this Act; and 

(3) from time to time, carrying out such studies and investigations and take such other actions, 

including the submission of special reports to the Congress when appropriate, as may be necessary to assure that the programs for which the Secretary is responsible under this Act effectively carry out the 

policy of this Act. (88 Stat. 1074) DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION AND OTHER ACTIONS TO PROMOTE PRACTICAL USE OF SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING TECHNOLOGIES SEC. 12. (a) The Secretary shall take all possible steps to assure that full and complete information with 

respect to the demonstrations and other activities conducted under this Act is made available to Federal, 

State, and local authorities, the building industry and related segments of the economy, the scientific and 

technical community, and the public at large, both during and after the close of the programs under this Act, 

811 
with the objective of promoting and facilitating to the maximum extent feasible the early and widespread 

practical use of solar energy for the heating and cooling of buildings throughout the United States. In accor- dance with regulations prescribed under section 16 such information shall be disseminated on a coordinated 

basis by the Secretary, the Administrator, the Director of the National Bureau of Standards, the Director, the 

Commissioner of the Patent Office, and other appropriate Federal offices and agencies. (88 Stat. 1075) REGULATIONS SEC. 16. The Administrator and the Secretary in consultation with the Director of the National Bureau of 

Standards, the Director, the Administrator of the General Services Administration, the Secretary of Defense, 

and other appropriate officers and agencies, shall prescribe such regulations as may be necessary or appropri- ate to carry out this Act promptly and efficiently. Each such officer or agency, in consultation with the 

Administrator and the Secretary, may prescribe such regulations as may be necessary or appropriate to carry 

out his or its particular functions under this Act promptly and efficiently. (88 Stat. 1078). 

***** 

October 29, 1974, 88 Stat. 1535 (Public Law 93-498—93d Congress, 2d session) Federal Fire Prevention 

and Control Act of 1974. 

The establishment of the Center for Fire Research reorganized and strengthened the fire research 

programs at the National Bureau of Standards. 

Public Law 93-498 

AN ACT 

To reduce losses of life and property, through better fire prevention and control, and for other purposes. PURPOSES SEC. 3. It is declared to be the purpose of Congress in this Act to— 

(1) reduce the Nation's losses caused by fire through better fire prevention and control; 

(2) supplement existing programs of research, training, and activities by State and local governments; 

(3) establish the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration and the Fire Research Center 

within the Department of Commerce; and 

(4) establish an intensified program of research into the treatment of burn and smoke injuries and the 

rehabilitation of victims of fires within the National Institutes of Health. (88 Stat. 1536) FIRE RESEARCH CENTER SEC. 18. The Act of March 3. 1901 (15 U.S.C. 278), is amended by striking out sections 16 and 17 (as 

added by title I of the Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1968) and by inserting in lieu thereof the following new section: 

"SEC. 16. (a) There is hereby established within the Department of Commerce a Fire Research Center 

which shall have the mission of performing and supporting research on all aspects of fire with the aim of 

providing scientific and technical knowledge applicable to the prevention and control of fires. The content 

and priorities of the research program shall be determined in consultation with the Administrator of the 

National Fire Prevention and Control Administration. In implementing this section, the Secretary is 

authorized to conduct, directly or through contracts or grants, a fire research program, including— 

"(I) basic and applied fire research for the purpose of arriving at an understanding of the fundamental 

processes underlying all aspects of fire. Such research shall include scientific investigations of— 

"(A) the physics and chemistry of combustion processes; 

"(B) the dynamics of flame ignition, flame spread, and flame extinguishment; 

"(C) the composition of combustion products developed by various sources and under various 

environmental conditions; 

812 
"(D) the early stages of fires in buildings and other structures, structural subsystems and structural 

components in all other types of fires, including, but not limited to, forest fires, brush fires, fires underground, oil blowout fires, and water-borne fires, with the aim of improving early detection capability; 

"(E) the behavior of fires involving all types of buildings and other structures and their contents 

(including mobile homes and highrise buildings, construction materials, floor and wall coverings, 

coatings, furnishings, and other combustible materials), and all other types of fires, including forest 

fires, brush fires, fires underground, oil blowout fires, and waterborne fires; 

"(F) the unique fire hazards arising from the transportation and use, in industrial and professional 

practices, of combustible gases, fluids, and materials; 

"(G) design concepts for providing increased fire safety consistent with habitability, comfort, and 

human impact in buildings and other structures; and 

"(H) such other aspects of the fire process as may be deemed useful in pursuing the objectives of the 

fire research program; 

"(2) research into the biological, physiological, and psychological factors affecting human victims of 

fire, and the performance of individual members of fire services, including— 

"(A) the biological and physiological effects of toxic substances encountered in fires; 

"(B) the trauma, cardiac conditions, and other hazards resulting from exposure to fire; 

"(C) the development of simple and reliable tests for determining the cause of death from fires; 

"(D) improved methods of providing first aid to victims of fires; 

"(E) psychological and motivational characteristics of persons who engage in arson, and the 

prediction and cure of such behavior; 

"(F) the conditions of stress encountered by firefighters, the effects of such stress, and the alleviation 

and reduction of such conditions; and 

"(G) such other biological, psychological, and physiological effects of fire as have significance for 

purposes of control or prevention of fires; and 

"(3) operation tests, demonstration projects, and fire investigations in support of the activities set forth 

in this section. 

"The Secretary shall insure that the results and advances arising from the work of the research program are disseminated broadly. He shall encourage the incorporation, to the extent applicable and practicable, of 

such results and advances in building codes, fire codes, and other relevant codes, test methods, fire service 

operations and training, and standards. The Secretary is authorized to encourage and assist in the development and adoption of uniform codes, test methods, and standards aimed at reducing fire losses and costs of 

fire protection. 

"(b) For the purposes of this section there is authorized to be appropriated not to exceed $3,500,000 for 

the fiscal year ending June 30, 1975 and not to exceed $4,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1976." 

(88 Stat. 1545). 

December 31, 1974, 88 Stat. 1878 (Public Law 93-577—93d Congress, 2d session) Federal Nonnuclear 

Energy Research and Development Act of 1974. 

The Office of Energy Related Inventions was established to help the Energy Research and Development 

Administration evaluate non-nuclear energy ideas. 

Public Law 93-577 

AN ACT 

To establish a national program for research and development in nonnuclear energy sources. ENERGY-RELATED INVENTIONS SEC. 14. The National Bureau of Standards shall give particular attention to the evaluation of all promising energy-related inventions, particularly those submitted by individual inventors and small companies for 

the purpose of obtaining direct grants from the Administrator. The National Bureau of Standards is authorized to promulgate regulations in the furtherance of this section. (88 Stat. 1894) 

813 
December 22, 1975, 89 Stat. 871 (Public Law 94-163—94th Congress, 1st session) Energy Policy and Conservation Act. 

Public Law 94-163 

AN ACT 

To increase domestic energy supplies and availability; to restrain energy demand; to prepare for energy 

emergencies; and for other purposes. SEC. 323. (a) (2-5) (89 Stat. 919) Test Procedures.... The Administrator shall direct the National Bureau of 

Standards to develop test procedures for the determination of (A) estimated annual operating costs of cov- ered products of the types specified SEC. 383. (c) (89 Stat. 940) Federal Actions with Respect to Recycled Oil. 

As soon as practicable after the date of enactment of this Act, the National Bureau of Standards shall 

develop test procedures for the determination of substantial equivalency of re-refined or otherwise processed 

used oil or blend of oil, consisting of such re-refined or otherwise processed used oil and new oil or additives, with new oil for a particular end use. As soon as practicable after development of such test procedures, 

the National Bureau of Standards shall report such procedures to the Commission. 

December 23, 1975, 89 Stat. 1007 (Public Law 94-168—-94th Congress, 1st session) Metric Conversion Act 

of 1975. 

Public Law 94-168 

AN ACT 

To declare a national policy of coordinating the increasing use of the metric system in the 

United States, and to establish a United States Metric Board to coordinate the voluntary 

conversion to the metric system. SEC. 5. (a) (89 Stat. 1007) There is established , in accordance with this section, an independent instrumentality to be known as a United States Metric Board. SEC. 6. (7) (C) (89 Stat. 1010) ... consultation by the Secretary of Commerce with the National Conference 

of Weights and Measures in order to assure that State and local weights and measures officials are (i) appropriately involved in metric conversion activities and (ii) assisted in their efforts to bring about timely amendments to weights and measures laws. 

May II, 1976, 90 Stat. 459 (Public Law 94-282—-94th Congress, 2d session) National Science and 

Technology Policy, Organization, and Priorities Act of 1976. 

Public Law 94-282 

AN ACT 

To establish a science and technology policy for the United States, to provide for scientific and 

technological advice and assistance to the President, to provide a comprehensive survey 

of ways and means for improving the Federal effort in scientific research and information 

handling, and in the use thereof, to amend the National Science Foundation Act 

of 1950, and for other purposes. SEC. 201. (90 Stat. 463) This title may be cited as the "Presidential Science and Technology Advisory 

Organization of 1976" 

814 
SEC. 202. (90 Stat. 4.63) There is established in the Executive Office of the President an Office of Science 

and Technology Policy. SEC. 205.(b)(l) (90 Stat. 465) The Director [of OSTP] shall establish an Intergovernmental Science, Engineering and Technology Panel, whose purpose shall be to (A) identify and define civilian problems at State, 

regional, and local levels which science, engineering, and technology may assist in resolving or ameliorating; 

(B) recommend priorities for addressing such problems; and (C) advise and assist the Director in identifying 

and fostering policies to facilitate the transfer and utilization of research and development results so as to maximize their application to civilian needs. SEC. 301. (90 Stat. 468) The President shall establish within the Executive Office of the President a President's Committee on Science and Technology. SEC. 401.(a) (90 Stat. 471) There is established the Federal Coordinating Council for Science, Engineering 

and Technology. SEC. 402. The Federal Council for Science, and Technology established ... March 13, 1959 ... is hereby 

abolished. 

August 14, 1976, 90 Stat. 1125 (Public Law 94-385—-94th Congress, 2d session) Energy Conservation and 

Production Act. 

Public Law 94-385 

AN ACT 

To amend the Federal Energy Administration Act of 1974 to extend the duration of 

authorities under such Act; to provide an incentive for domestic production; to provide for 

electric utility rate design initiatives; to provide for energy conservation standards 

for new buildings; to provide for energy conservation assistance for existing buildings 

and industrial plants; and for other purposes. SEC. 161. (a) (I) (A) (90 Stat.l 140) The Administrator shall direct the National Bureau of Standards to develop an energy efficiency improvement target for each type of covered product SEC. 304. (a) (1-2) (90 Stat.l 146) [ Director of the National Bureau of Standards is to be consulted in the 

proposed performance standards for new commercial and residential buildings I SEC. 310. (90 Stat. 1149) The Secretary, in cooperation with the Administrator, the Secretary of Commerce utilizing the services of the Director of the National Bureau of Standards, and the heads of other 

appropriate Federal agencies, and the National Institute of Building Sciences, shall carry Out any activities 

which the Secretary determines may be necessary or appropriate to assist in the development of performance 

standards under section 304(a) and to facilitate the implementation of such standards by State and local 

governments. SEC. 413. (b) (2) (A) (90 Stat. 1153) The regulations promulgated pursuant to this section shall include 

provisions prescribing, in coordination with the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, the Secretary 

of Health, Education, and Welfare, and the Director of the National Bureau of Standards in the Department 

of Commerce, for use in various climatic, structural, and human need settings, standards for weatherization 

materials, energy conservation techniques, and balanced combinations thereof, which are designed to achieve a balance of a healthful dwelling environment and maximum practicable energy conservation. 

*** ** 

815 
October 21, 1976, 90 Stat. 2795 (Public Law 94-580—--94th Congress, 2d session) Resource Conservation 

and Recovery Act of 1976. 

Public Law 94-580 

AN ACT 

To provide technical and financial assistance for the development of management plans 

and facilities for the recovery of energy and other resources from discarded materials 

and for the safe disposal of discarded materials, and to regulate the management of hazardous waste. SEC. 5002. (90 Stat. 2820) The Secretary of Commerce, acting through the National Bureau of Standards 

shall ... publish guidelines for the development of specifications for the classification of materials recovered from waste which were destined for disposal. SEC. 6002. (e) (90 Stat. 2822)....National Bureau of Standards...shall prepare and from time to time revise, 

guidelines 

August 7, 1977, 91 Stat. 685 (Public Law 95-95—-95th Congress, 1st session) 

Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977. 

Public Law 95-95 

AN ACT 

To amend the Clean Air Act, and for other purposes. SEC. 320. (b) (91 Stat. 782) The [air quality modeling] conference conducted shall provide for participation by.... National Bureau of Standards. 

***** 

October 7, 1977, 91 Stat. 1098 (Public Law 95-124—---95th Congress, 1st session) 

Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977. 

Public Law 95-124 

AN ACT 

To reduce the hazards of earthquakes, and for other purposes. SEC. 5. (d) (91 Stat. 1101) Participation.—- In assigning the role and responsibility of Federal departments, 

agencies, and entities ... the President shall ... include ... the National Bureau of Standards. 

***** 

November 9, 1977, 91 Stat. 1290 (Public Law 95-164-——95th Congress, 1st session) Federal Mine Safety 

and Health Amendments Act of 1977. 

Public Law 95-164 

AN ACT 

To promote safety and health in the mining industry, to prevent recurring disasters 

in the mining industry, and for other purposes. SEC. 102. (91 Stat. 1295) Advisory Committees . The Secretary of the Interior shall appoint an advisory 

committee on coal or other mine safety research composed of (B)... the Director of the National Bureau of 

Standards. 

816 
November 4, 1978, 92 Stat. 2513 (Public Law 95-590--—95th Congress, 2d session) Solar Photovoltaic Energy Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1978. 

Public Law 95-590 

AN ACT 

To provide for an accelerated program of research, development, and demonstration 

of solar photovoltaic energy technologies leading to early competitive commercial applicabilty 

of such technologies to be carried out by the Department of Energy, with support of the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Bureau of Standards, 

the General Services Administration, and other federal agencies. 

November 9, 1978, 92 Stat. 3206 (Public Law 95-619—95th Congress, 2d session) National Energy Conservation Policy Act. 

Public Law 95-619 

AN ACT 

To improve the energy conservation policy. SEC. 212. (a) (92 Stat. 3211) Promulgation of Rules by Secretary- The Secretary shall....publish an advanced notice of proposed rulemaking with respect to rules on the content and implementation of residential 

energy conservation plans...after consultation with...the Secretary of Commerce (acting through the National 

Bureau of Standards)..., the Secretary shall publish a proposed rule on content and implementation of such 

plans. 

SEC.222. (92 Stat. 3223) Product Standards. The Secretary shall consult with the Secretary of Commerce, 

acting through the National Bureau of Standards, with regards to any product or material standard which is 

relied on in implementing this Part as a basis for judging the efficiency, energy efficiency, safety, or other 

attributes of energy conservation materials, products, or devices... 

SEC.545. (a) (92 Stat. 3278). Establishment of Life Cycle Cost Methods. The Secretary in consultation 

with...the Director of the National Bureau of Standards....shall (I) establish practical and effective methods 

for estimating and comparing life cycle costs for Federal buildings; and (2) develop and prescribe the procedures to be followed in applying and implementing the methods so established and in conducting preliminary 

energy audits required by section 547. 

SEC.546 . Energy Performance Targets for Federal Buildings. The Secretary, in consultation with....the 

Director of the National Bureau of Standards....shall establish and publish energy performance targets for 

Federal buildings, and shall take such actions as may be necessary or appropriate to promote to the maxi- mum extent practicable achievement of such targets by Federal buildings. 

***** 

July 26, 1979, 93 Stat. 144 (Public Law 96-39—-96th Congress, 1st session) 

Trade Agreements Act of 1979. 

Public Law 96-39 

AN ACT 

To approve and implement the trade agreements negotiated under the Trade Act of 1974, 

and for other purposes. SEC. 414. (93 Stat. 245) Standards Information Center. (a) Establishment- The Secretary of Commerce 

shall maintain within the Department of Commerce a standards information center. (b) Functions-The 

817 
standards information center shall-( 1) serve as the central national collection facility for information relating 

to standards, certification systems, and standards-related activities, whether such standards, systems, or activities are public or private, domestic or foreign, or international, regional, national, or local; (2) make available to the public at such reasonable fee as the Secretary shall prescribe, copies of information required to be collected under paragraph (I) other than information to which paragraph (3) applies; (3) use its best efforts 

to make available to the public, at such reasonable fees as the Secretary shall prescribe, copies of information required to be collected under paragraph (I) that is of private origin, on a cooperative basis with the 

private individual or entity, foreign or domestic, who holds the copyright on the information; (4) in case of 

such information that is of foreign origin, provide, at such reasonable fee as the Secretary shall prescribe, 

such translation services as may be necessary; (5) serve as the inquiry point for requests for information 

regarding standards-related activities, whether adopted or proposed, within the United States, except that in 

carrying Out this paragraph, the Secretary of Commerce shall refer all inquiries regarding agricultural products to the technical office established under section 4l2(a)(2) within the Department of Agriculture; and (6) 

provide such other services as may be appropriate, including but not limited to, such services to the technical 

offices established under section 412 as may be requested by those offices carrying out their functions. 

November 16, 1979, 93 Stat. 863 (Public Law 96-121—96th Congress, 1st session) Authorization, Appropriations-Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974. 

Public Law 96-121 

AN ACT 

To authorize appropriations for the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974, 

and for other purposes. SEC. 3. (93 Stat. 863) Section 16(b) of the Act entitled "An Act to establish the National Bureau of Standards", approved March 3, 1901 (15 U.S.C. 278f(b)), is amended to read as follows: "(b) Authorization of 

Appropriations.-For purposes of this section, there are authorized to be appropriated an amount not to exceed 

$5,650,000 for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1980, which amount includes-"(l) $525,000 for programs which are recommended in the report submitted to the Congress by the Administrator of the United 

States Fire Administration pursuant to section 24(b)( 1) of the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 

1974 (15 U.S.C. 2220(b)(l); and "(2) $1 19,000 for adjustments required by law in salaries, pay, retirement, 

and employee benefits." 

***** 

January 8. 1980, 93 Stat. 1339 (Public Law 96-187—96th Congress, 1st session) Federal Election Campaign 

Act Amendments of 1979. 

Public Law 96-187 

AN ACT 

To amend the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 to make certain changes 

in the reporting and disclosure requirements of such act, and for other purposes. SEC. 302. (93 Stat. 1368) Voting System Study. The Federal Election Commission, with the cooperation 

and assistance of the National Bureau of Standards, shall conduct a preliminary study with respect to the 

future development of voluntary engineering and procedural performance standards for voting systems used 

in the United States. 

818 
October 15, 1980, 94 Stat. 2049 (Public Law 96-46l—---96th Congress, 2d session) National Bureau of Standards Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1981 and 1982. 

Public Law 96-461 

AN ACT 

To authorize appropriations to the Secretary of Commerce for the programs of the 

National Bureau of Standards for fiscal years 1981 and 1982, and for other purposes. SEC. 2. (a) (94 Stat. 2049) There are hereby authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary of Commerce, 

hereinafter referred to as the Secretary, to carry out activities performed by the National Bureau of Standards. SEC. 8 . (94 Stat. 2051) Facilities Improvement. Section 14 of the Act of March 3, 190l..is further 

amended.... SEC. 9. (94 Stat. 2051) International Activities. In order to develop and strengthen the expertise of the 

National Bureau of Standards in science and engineering, to enhance the Secretary's ability to maintain the 

Bureau's programs at the forefront of worldwide developments in science and engineering, and to cooperate 

in international scientific activities, the Act of March 3, 1901 (15 U.S.C. 271-278h), as amended, is further 

amended by inserting immediately after section 16 the following new section: "Sec. 17. (a) The Secretary is 

authorized, notwithstanding any other provision of law, to expend such sums, within the limit of appropriated funds, as the Secretary may deem desirable, through the grant of fellowships or any other form of 

financial assistance, to defray the expenses of foreign nationals not in service to the Government of the 

United States while they are performing scientific or engineering work at the National Bureau of Standards 

or participating in the exchange of scientific or technical information at the National Bureau of Standards. 

"(b) The Congress consents to the acceptance by employees of the National Bureau of Standards of fellowships, lectureships, or other positions for the performance of scientific or engineering activities or for the 

exchange of scientific or technical information, offered by a foreign government, and to the acceptance and 

retention by an employee of the National Bureau of Standards of any form of financial or other assistance 

provided by a foreign government as compensation for or as a means of defraying expenses associated with 

the performance of scientific or engineering activities or the exchange of scientific or technical information, 

in any case where the acceptance of such fellowship, lectureship, or position or the acceptance and retention 

of such assistance is determined by the Secretary to be appropriate and consistent with the interests of the 

United States. For the purposes of this subsection, the definitions appearing in section 7342(a) of title 5 of 

the United States code apply. Civil actions may be brought and penalties assessed against any employee who 

knowingly accepts and retains assistance from a foreign government not consented to by this subsection in 

the same manner as is prescribed by section 7342(h) of title 5 of the United States Code. "(c) Provisions of 

law prohibiting the use of any part of any appropriation for the payment of compensation to any employee or officer of the Government of the United States who is not a citizen of the United States shall not apply to 

the payment of compensation to scientific or engineering personnel of the National Bureau of Standards." 

October 15, 1980, 94 Stat. 2055 (Public Law 96-463—-96th Congress, 2d session) Used Oil Recycling Act 

of 1980. 

Public Law 96-463 

AN ACT 

To amend the Solid Waste Disposal Act to further encourage the use of recycled oil. SEC. 9. (94 Stat. 2058) Study. The Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, in cooperation 

with the Secretary of Energy, the Federal Trade Commission, and the Secretary of Commerce, shall conduct a study (I) assessing environmental problems associated with improper disposal or reuse of used oil... 

819 
October 19, 1980, 94 Stat. 2257 (Public Law 96-472—-96th Congress, 2d session) Earthquake Hazards Reduction and Fire Prevention and Control Program. 

Public Law 96-472 

AN ACT 

To amend the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977 and the Federal Fire Prevention 

and Control Act of 1974 to authorize the appropriation of funds to the Director of the Federal 

Emergency Management Agency to carry out the earthquake hazards reduction program 

and the fire prevention and control program and for other purposes. SEC. 6. (d) (94 Stat. 2259) National Bureau of Standards- To enable the Bureau to carry out responsibilities that may be assigned to it under this Act, there are authorized to be appropriated $425,000 for the fiscal 

year ending September 30, 1981. 

Sec. 201 (c) (3) (94 Stat. 2260) not less than $4,255,000 for research and development for the activities 

under section 18 of this Act at the Fire Research Center of the National Bureau of Standards.... 

October 21, 1980,94 Stat. 2311 (Public Law 96-480—.-96th Congress, 2d session) Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980. 

Public Law 96-480 

AN ACT 

To promote United States technological innovation for the achievement of national economic, 

environmental, and social goals, and for other purposes. Promotes U.S. technological 

innovation for the achievement of national economic, environmental, and social goals. Requires 

Secretary of Commerce to establish and maintain an Office of Industrial Technology 

and establishes National Technology Medal. SEC. 6. (a) (94 Stat. 2313) Establishment—The Secretary shall provide assistance for the establishment ol 

Centers for Industrial Technology. Such Centers shall be affiliated with any university, or other nonprofit 

institution, or group thereof, that applies for and is awarded a grant or enters into a cooperative agreement 

under this section. 

SEc. 11. (b) (94 Stat. 2318) Establishment of Research and Technology Applications Offices.—-Each Federal laboratory shall establish an Office of Research and Technology Applications. SEC. 12. (a) (94 Stat. 2319) Establishment—-There is hereby established a National Technology Medal 

November 20, 1981, 95 Stat. 1081 (Public Law 97-80-—97th Congress, 1st session) Authorization, Appropriations-Earthquake Hazards Reduction and Fire Prevention and Control Program. 

Public Law 97-80 

AN ACT 

To amend the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977 and the Federal Fire Prevention 

and Control Act of 1974 to authorize the appropriation of funds to the Director of the 

Federal Emergency Management Agency to carry out the earthquake hazards reduction 

programs and the fire prevention and control program, and for other purposes. SEC. 201 (95 Stat. 1081-82) Section 17 of the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 is amended 

by adding at the end thereof the following: "(d) Except as otherwise specifically provided with respect to the 

820 
payment of claims under section II of this Act, to carry out the purposes of this Act, there are authorized to be appropriated-"(l) $20,815,000 for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1982, and $23,312,800 for the 

fiscal year ending September 30, 1983, which amount shall include-"(A) such sums as may be necessary for 

the support of research and development at the Fire Research Center of the National Bureau of Standards 

under section 18 of this Act, which sums shall be in addition to those funds authorized to be appropriated 

under the National Bureau of Standards Authorization Act for fiscal years 1981 and 1982;' 

October 6, 1982, 96 Stat. 1222 (Public Law 97-286——-97th Congress, 2d session) National Bureau of Standards Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1983. 

Public Law 97-286 

AN ACT 

To authorize appropriations to the Secretary of Commerce for the programs of the 

National Bureau of Standards for fiscal year 1983, and for other purposes. SEC. 2 (a) (96 Stat. 1222) There are hereby authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary of Commerce, 

hereinafter referred to as the Secretary, to carry out activities performed by the National Bureau of Standards, the sums set forth in the following line items: (I) Measurement Research and Standards, for fiscal 

year 1983, $50,389,000. (2) Engineering Measurements and Standards, for fiscal year 1983, $20,807,000. (3) 

Computer Science and Technology, for fiscal year 1983, $10,000,000. (4) Core Research Program for Innovation and Productivity, for fiscal year 1983, $1 1,188,000. (5) Technical Competence Fund, for fiscal year 

1983, $6,986,000. (6) Fire Research Center, for fiscal year 1983, $4,991,000. (7) Central Technical Support, 

for fiscal year 1983, $13,500,000. (b) Notwithstanding any other provision of this or any other Act, for fiscal 

year 1983: (1) of the total amount authorized under subsection (a)(4) not less than $3,000,000 shall be available for "Metals Processing"; (2) of the total amounts authorized under subsections (a)( 1) and (a)(2), not less 

than $1,000,000 shall be available for "Measurement Standards for the Handicapped"; (3) of the total amount 

authorized under subsection (a)(3), not less than $10,000,000 shall be available for "Computer Science and 

Technology"; and (4) of the total amount authorized under subsection (a)(4), $3,200,000 for "Robotics Research and Development". SEC. 3. (96 Stat. 1222) In addition to the sums authorized in section 2, not more than $500,000 is authorized for fiscal year 1983 for expenses of the National Bureau of Standards incurred outside the United 

States, to be paid for in foreign currencies that the Secretary of the Treasury determines to be excess to the 

normal requirements of the United States. SEC. 8. (96 Stat. 1223) The Secretary of Commerce shall charge for any service performed by the Bureau, at the request of another Government agency.... 

January 6, 1983, 96 Stat. 2097 (Public Law 97-424-——-97th Congress, 2d session) Surface Transportation 

Assistance Act of 1982. 

Public Law 97-424 

AN ACT 

To authorize appropriations for construction of certain highways in accordance with title 23, 

United States Code, for highway safety, for mass transportation in urban and rural areas, and for 

other purposes. SEC. 110. (c)(l) (96 Stat. 2105) The Secretary of Transportation is directed to coordinate a study with the 

National Bureau of Standards, the American Society for Testing and Materials and other organizations as deemed appropriate, to determine existing quality of design, need for uniform standards and costs for highway systems and bridges. ***** 

821 
July 16, 1984, 98 Stat. 431 (Public Law 98-362—-98th Congress, 2d session) 

Small Business Computer Security and Education Act of 1984. 

Public Law 98-362 

AN ACT 

To amend the Small Business Act to establish a small business computer security and education 

advisory council, and for other purposes. SEC. 3. (B) (98 Stat. 432) The advisory council shall consist of the following members:... (ii) an official of 

the Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology of the Department of Commerce, appointed by the Secretary of Commerce. 

October 30, 1984, 98 Stat. 2925 (Public Law 98-567—-98th Congress, 2d session) Cigarette Safety Act of 

1984. 

Public Law 98-567 

AN ACT 

To establish an interagency committee and a technical study group on cigarette safety. SEC.3. (a) (I) . (98 Stat. 2925) ... one scientific or technical representative each from...the Center for Fire 

Research of the National Bureau of Standards... 

July 29, 1985, 99 Stat. 171 (Public Law 99-73—99th Congress, 1st session) 

National Bureau of Standards Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1986. 

Public Law 99-7 

AN ACT 

To authorize appropriations to the Secretary of Commerce for the programs of the 

National Bureau of Standards for fiscal year 1986, and for other purposes. SEC. 2. (a) (99 Stat. 171) Authorizations for Program Activities. There are authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary of Commerce for fiscal year 1986, to carry out activities performed by the National Bureau of 

Standards, the sums set forth in the following line items: (1) Measurement Research and Standards, 

$36,843,000. (2) Materials Science and Engineering, $21,943,000. (3) Engineering Measurements and Standards, $33,555,000. (4) Computer Science and Technology, $9,657,000. (5) Center for Fire Research, 

$5,827,000. (6) Technical Competence Fund, $8,481,000. (7) Central Technical Support, $8,179,000. 

(b) Notwithstanding any other provision of this or any other Act for fiscal year 1986- (I) 

...$2,000,000 is authorized only for steel technology; (2)....$3,895,000 is authorized only for the Center for 

Building Technology, and $50,000 is authorized only for the purpose of assisting the creation and maintenance of data bases on structural failures; and (3)...$2,575,00 is authorized for transfer to the Working Capital Fund....(d) The National Bureau of Standards shall seek reimbursements of not less than $500,000 from 

other Federal agencies to expand its efforts in support of basic scientific research on the atmospheric, climatic, and environmental consequences of nuclear explosions and nuclear exchanges. SEC. 7. (99 Stat. 173) Structural Failures. The National Bureau of Standards, on its own initiative but only 

after consultation with local authorities, may initiate and conduct investigations to determine the causes of 

structural failures in structures which are used or occupied by the general public. 

822 
October 20, 1986, 100 Stat. 1785 (Public Law 99-502—-99th Congress, 2d session) Federal Technology 

Transfer Act of 1986. 

Public Law 99-502 

AN ACT 

To amend the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980 to promote technology 

transfer by authorizing Government-operated laboratories to enter into cooperative research agreements 

and by establishing a Federal Laboratory Consortium for Technology Transfer within the 

National Bureau of Standards, and for other purposes. SEC. 3. (e) (1) (100 Stat. 1787) Establishment of Federal Laboratory Consortium for Technology Transfer—- There is hereby established the Federal Laboratory Consortium for Technology Transfer. SEC. 3. (e) (4) (100 Stat. 1788) The Director of the National Bureau of Standards shall provide the Consortium, on a reimbursable basis, with administrative services, such as office space, personnel, and support 

services of the Bureau, as requested by the Consortium and approved by such Director. 

October 22, 1986, 100 Stat. 2970 (Public Law 99-519—99th Congress, 1st session) Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act of 1986. 

Public Law 99-5 19 AN ACT 

To amend the Toxic Substances Control Act to require the Environmental Protection Agency 

to promulgate regulations requiring inspection for asbestos-containing materials in the Nation's schools, 

development of asbestos management plans for such schools, response actions with respect to friable asbestos-containing material in such schools, and for other purposes. 

SEc. 206. (d)(2) (100 Stat. 2982) The National Bureau of Standards...shall...develop an accreditation program for laboratories which conduct qualitative and semi-quantitative analysis of bulk samples of asbestoscontaining material, and develop an accreditation program for laboratories which conduct analysis of air 

samples of asbestos from school buildings under the authority of a local educational agency. 

October 28, 1986, 100 Stat. 3236 (Public Law 99-574-——99th Congress, 2d session) National Bureau of 

Standards Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1987. 

Public Law 99-574 

AN ACT 

To authorize appropriations to the Secretary of Commerce for the programs of the National Bureau 

of Standards for fiscal year 1987, and for other purposes. SEC. 2 (a) (100 Stat. 3236) There are authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary of Commerce for 

fiscal year 1987, to carry Out the activities performed by the National Bureau of Standards, the sums set 

forth in the following line items: (I) Measurement Research and Standards, $36,582,000; (2) Materials Science and Engineering, $21,228,000; (3) Engineering Measurements and Standards, $35,875,000; (4) Computer Science and Technology, $7,500,00; and (5) Research Support Activities, $22,768,000. 

823 
(b)(l)...$ 1,900,000 is authorized only for steel technology; (2)...$3,470,000 is authorized only for the Center 

for Building Technology and $5,402,000 is authorized only for the Center for Fire Research; (3)...$l,000,000 

is authorized only for Computer Security Activities; (4)...$6,763,000 is authorized only for the Technical 

Competence Fund; and (5)..$6,500,000 is authorized only for the design, equipment, and construction of the 

Cold Neutron Research Facility. SEC. 6. (a) (100 Stat. 3237) Financial Assistance to Current and Prospective Employees Sec. 18. The 

Director is authorized to expend up to I per centum of the funds appropriated for activities of the National 

Bureau of Standards in any fiscal year, as the Director may deem desirable, for awards of research fellowships and other forms of financial assistance to students at institutions of higher learning within the United 

States who show promise as present or future contributors to the mission of the Bureau.... SEC. 7. (100 Stat. 3237) Assessment of Emerging Technologies Requiring Research in Metrology. The 

Board of Assessment of the National Bureau of Standards programs shall include, as part of its annual re- view, an assessment of emerging technologies which are expected to require research in metrology to keep 

the Bureau abreast of its mission.... SEC. 8. (a) (100 Stat. 3238) Post-Doctoral Fellowship Program Sec. 19. The National Bureau of Standards, in conjunction with the National Academy of Sciences, shall establish and conduct a post-doctoral 

fellowship program... SEC. 9. (a) (100 Stat. 3238) Process and Quality Control and Calibration Programs. The Director of the 

National Bureau of Standards shall hold discussions with representatives of Federal agencies....which use the 

process and quality control and calibration programs of the Bureau, and with ...private sector, in order to determine the extent of the demand for research and services under such programs... 

SEC.l0. (a)(l) (100 Stat. 3238) Demonstration Project Relating to Personnel Management. The Office of 

Personnel Management and the National Bureau of Standards shall jointly design a demonstration project 

which shall be conducted by the Director of the National Bureau of Standards. 

November 17, 1986, 100 Stat. 4082 (Public Law 99-662—-99th Congress, 2d session) Water Resources Development Act of 1986. 

Public Law 99-662 

AN ACT 

To provide for the conservation and development of water and related resources and the 

improvement and rehabilitation of the Nation's water resources infrastructure. SEC. 1201. (b) (100 Stat. 4262) The Secretary, in cooperation with the National Bureau of Standards, shall 

undertake a program of research in order to develop improved techniques and equipment for rapid and effective dam inspection, together with devices for the continued monitoring of dams for safety purposes. 

March 17, 1987, 101 Stat. 103 (Public Law 100-12—-lOOth Congress, 1st session) National Appliance Energy Conservation Act of 1987. 

Public Law 100-12 

AN ACT 

To amend the Energy Policy and Conservation Act with respect to energy conservation 

standards for appliances. SEC. 323(C) (101 Stat. 106) The Secretary shall direct the National Bureau of Standards to assist in 

developing new or amended test procedures. 

824 
August 20,. 1987, 101 Stat. 724 (Public Law 100-107—100th Congress, 1st session) Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Improvement Act of 1987. 

Public Law 100-107 

AN ACT 

To amend the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980 to establish the 

Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award, with the objective of encouraging American 

business and other organizations to practice effective quality control in the provision 

of their goods and services. SEC. 2. (b) (101 Stat. 725) Purpose.—-It is the purpose of this Act to provide for the establishment and 

conduct of a national quality improvement program under which (1) awards are given to selected companies 

and other organizations in the United States that practice effective quality management and as a result make 

significant improvements in the quality of their goods and services, and (2) information is disseminated 

about the successful strategies and programs. SEC. 3. (101 Stat. 726) Establishment of the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award Program Sec. 16. (d) Criteria for Qualification.-(l) An organization may qualify for an award under this section only if 

it-"(A) applied to the Director of the National Bureau of Standards in writing, for the award.... 

January 8, 1988, 101 Stat. 1724 (Public Law 100-235-—-- 100th Congress, 1st session) Computer Security Act 

of 1987. 

Public Law 100-235 

AN ACT 

To provide for a computer standards program within the National Bureau of Standards, to provide for Government-wide computer security, and to provide for the training in security 

matters of persons who are involved in the management, operation, and use of 

Federal computer systems, and for other purposes. SEC. 3. (101 Stat. 1724-1725) Establishment of Computer Standards Program. The Act of March 3, 1901 

is amended....by inserting...the following new sections: "Sec. 20. (a) The National Bureau of Standards 

shall—-(l) have the mission of developing standards, guidelines, and associated methods and techniques for 

computer systems; (2) except as described in paragraph (3) of this subsection (relating to security standards), 

develop uniform standards and guidelines for Federal computer systems....(3) have responsibility within the 

Federal Government for developing technical, management, physical, and administrative standards and guidelines for the cost-effective security and privacy of sensitive information in Federal computer systems...(4) 

submit standards and guidelines developed pursuant to...this subsection...to the Secretary of Commerce for 

promulgation under...the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949; (5) develop guidelines 

for use by operators of Federal computer systems that contain sensitive information in training their employees in security awareness and accepted security practice. ..(6) develop validation procedures for, and evaluate the effectiveness of, standards and guidelines developed pursuant to....this subsection through research 

and liaison with other government and private agencies. (b) In fulfilling subsection (a) of this section, the 

National Bureau of Standards is authorized—-(1) to assist the private sector, upon request, in using and 

applying the results of the programs and activities under this section; (2) to make recommendations, as appropriate. to the Administrator of General Services on policies and regulations proposed pursuant to section 

111(d) of the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949; (3) as requested, to provide to operators of Federal computer systems technical assistance in implementing the standards and guidelines promulgated pursuant to section 111(d) of the Federal Property and Administrative Act of 1949; (4) to assist, as appropriate, the Office of Personnel Management in developing regulations pertaining to training, as required 

by section 5 of the Computer Security Act of 1987; (5) to perform research and to conduct studies, as needed, to determine the nature and extent of the vulnerabilities of, and to devise techniques for the cost-effective security and privacy of sensitive information in Federal computer systems; and (6) to coordinate 

closely with other agencies and offices.... 

825 
"SEC. 21. (a) (lOt Stat. 1727) There is hereby established a Computer System Security and Privacy Advisory Board within the Department of Commerce. SEC.4. (101 Stat. 1728) Amendment to Brooks Act. Section 111(d) of the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949 is amended to read as follows: "(d)(l) The Secretary of Commerce shall, on thc 

basis of standards and guidelines developed by the National Bureau of Standards pursuant to section 20(a) 

(2) and (3) of the National Bureau of Standards Act, promulgate standards and guidelines pertaining to Federal computer systems, making such standards compulsory and binding to the extent to which the Secretary 

determines necessary to improve the efficiency of operation or security and privacy of Federal computer 

systems 

August 23, 1988, 102 Stat. 1107 (Public Law 100-418—-lOOth Congress, 2d session) Omnibus Trade and 

Competitiveness Act of 1988. 

Public Law 100-418 

AN ACT 

To enhance the competitiveness of American industry, and for other purposes. 

SUBTITLE B—TECHNOLOGY 

PART I—TECHNOLOGY COMPETITIVENESS SEC. 5101. 15 Usc 271 note SHORT TITLE. 

This part may be cited as the "Technology Competitiveness Act". 

SUBPART A—NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY SEC.. 5111. FINDINGS AND PURPOSES. 

Section 1 of the Act of March 3, 1901 (15 U.S.C. 271) is amended to read as follows: 

"FINDINGS AND PURPOSES 

"SECTION I. (a) The Congress finds and declares the following: 

"(I) The future well-being of the United States economy depends on a strong manufacturing base and 

requires continual improvements in manufacturing technology, quality control, and techniques for ensuring 

product reliability and cost-effectiveness. 

"(2) Precise measurements, calibrations, and standards help United States industry and manufacturing concerns compete strongly in world markets. 

"(3) Improvements in manufacturing and product technology depend on fundamental scientific and engineering research to develop (A) the precise and accurate measurement methods and measurement standards 

needed to improve quality and reliability, and (B) new technological processes by which such improved 

methods may be used in practice to improve manufacturing and to assist industry to transfer important laboratory discoveries into commercial products. 

"(4) Scientific progress, public safety, and product compatibility and standardization also depend on the 

development of precise measurement methods, standards, and related basic technologies. 

"(5) The National Bureau of Standards since its establishment has served as the Federal focal point in developing basic measurement standards and related technologies, has taken a lead role in stimulating cooperative work among private industrial organizations in efforts to surmount technological hurdles, and otherwise has been responsible for assisting in the improvement of industrial technology. 

"(6) The Federal Government should maintain a national science, engineering, and technology laboratory 

which provides measurement methods, standards, and associated technologies and which aids United States 

companies in using new technologies to improve products and manufacturing processes. 

"(7) Such national laboratory also should serve industry, trade associations, State technology programs, 

labor organizations, professional societies, and educational institutions by disseminating information on new basic technologies including automated manufacturing processes. 

826 
"(b) It is the purpose of this Act— 

"(I) to rename the National Bureau of Standards as the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

and to modernize and restructure that agency to augment its unique ability to enhance the competitiveness of 

American industry while maintaining its traditional function as lead national laboratory for providing the 

measurements, calibrations, and quality assurance techniques which underpin United States commerce, technological progress, improved product reliability and manufacturing processes, and public safety; 

"(2) to assist private sector initiatives to capitalize on advanced technology; 

"(3) to advance, through cooperative efforts among industries, universities, and laboratories, 

promising research and development projects, which can be optimized by the private sector for commercial 

and industrial applications; and 

"(4) to promote shared risks, accelerated development, and pooling of skills which will be necessary to 

strengthen America's manufacturing industries." SEC. 5112. ESTABLISHMENT, FUNCTIONS, AND ACTIVITIES. 

(a) ESTABLISHMENT, FUNCTIONS, AND ACTIVITIES OF THE INSTITUTE.—Section 2 of the 

Act of March 3, 1901 (15 U.S.C. 272) is amended to read as follows: 

"ESTABLISHMENT, FUNCTIONS, AND ACTIVITIES 

"SEc. 2. (a) There is established within the Department of Commerce a science, engineering, technology, and 

measurement laboratory to be known as the National Institute of Standards and Technology (hereafter in this 

Act referred to as the 'Institute'). 

"(b) The Secretary of Commerce (hereafter in this Act referred to as the 'Secretary') acting through the 

Director of the Institute (hereafter in this Act referred to as the 'Director') and, if appropriate, through other 

officials, is authorized to take all actions necessary and appropriate to accomplish the purposes of this Act, 

including the following functions of the Institute— 

"(1) to assist industry in the development of technology and procedures needed improve quality, to 

modernize manufacturing processes, to ensure product reliability, manufacturability, functionality, and costeffectiveness, and to facilitate the more rapid commercialization, especially by small and medium-sized companies throughout the United States, of products based on new scientific discoveries in fields such as au- tomation, electronics, advanced materials, biotechnology, and optical technologies; 

"(2) to develop, maintain, and retain custody of the national standards of measurement, and provide the 

means and methods for making measurements consistent with those standards, including comparing standards 

used in scientific investigations, engineering, manufacturing, commerce, industry, and educational institutions 

with the standards adopted or recognized by the Federal Government; 

"(3) to enter into contracts, including cooperative research and development arrangements, in furtherance 

of the purposes of this Act; 

"(4) to provide United States industry, Government, and educational institutions with a national clearinghouse of current information, techniques, and advice for the achievement of higher quality and productivity 

based on current domestic and international scientific and technical development; 

"(5) to assist industry in the development of measurements, measurement methods, and basic measurement 

technology; 

"(6) to determine, compile, evaluate, and disseminate physical constants and the properties and perfor- mance of conventional and advanced materials when they are important to science, engineering, manufacturing, education, commerce, and industry and are not available with sufficient accuracy elsewhere; 

"(7) to develop a fundamental basis and methods for testing materials, mechanisms, structures, equipment, 

and systems, including those used by the Federal Government; 

"(8) to assure the compatibility of United States national measurement standards with those of other na- tions; 

"(9) to cooperate with other departments and agencies of the Federal Government, with industry, with 

State and local governments, with the governments of other nations and international organizations, and with 

private organizations in establishing standard practices, codes, specifications, and voluntary consensus standards; 

827 
"(tO) to advise government and industry on scientific and technical problems; and 

"(It) to invent, develop, and (when appropriate) promote transfer to the private sector of measurement 

devices to serve special national needs. 

"(c) In carrying Out the functions specified in subsection (b), the Secretary, acting through the Director 

and, if appropriate, through other appropriate officials, may, among other things— 

"(1) construct physical standards; 

"(2) test, calibrate, and certify standards and standard measuring apparatus; 

"(3) study and improve instruments, measurement methods, and industrial process control and quality as- surance techniques; 

"(4) cooperate with the States in securing uniformity in weights and measures laws and methods of inspection; 

"(5) cooperate with foreign scientific and technical institutions to understand technological developments 

in other countries better; 

"(6) prepare, certify, and sell standard reference materials for use in ensuring the accuracy of chemical 

analyses and measurements of physical and other properties of materials; 

"(7) in furtherance of the purposes of this Act, accept research associates, cash donations, and donated 

equipment from industry, and also engage with industry in research to develop new basic and generic technologies for traditional and new products and for improved production and manufacturing; 

"(8) study and develop fundamental scientific understanding and improved measurement, analysis, synthesis, processing, and fabrication methods for chemical substances and compounds, ferrous and nonferrous 

metals, and all traditional and advanced materials, including processes of degradation; 

"(9) investigate ionizing and nonionizing radiation and radioactive substances, their uses, and ways to protect people, structures, and equipment from their harmful effects; 

"(10) determine the atomic and molecular structure of matter, through analysis of spectra and other methods, to provide a basis for predicting chemical and physical structures and reactions and for designing new 

materials and chemical substances, including biologically active macromolecules; 

I I) perform research on electromagnetic waves, including optical waves, and on properties and perfor- mance of electrical, electronic, and electromagnetic devices and systems and their essential materials, 

develop and maintain related standards, and disseminate standard signals through broadcast and other means; 

"(12) develop and test standard interfaces, communication protocols, and data structures for computer and 

related telecommunications systems; 

"(13) study computer systems (as that term is defined in section 20(d) of this Act) and their use to control 

machinery and processes; 

"(14) perform research to develop standards and test methods to advance the effective use of computers 

and related systems and to protect the information stored, processed, and transmitted by such systems and to 

provide advice in support of policies affecting Federal computer and related telecommunications systems; 

"(15) determine properties of building materials and structural elements, and encourage their standardization and most effective use, including investigation of fire-resisting properties of building materials and con- ditions under which they may be most efficiently used, and the standardization of types of appliances for fire 

prevention; 

"(16) undertake such research in engineering, pure and applied mathematics, statistics, computer science, 

materials science, and the physical sciences as may be necessary to carry out and support the functions 

specified in this section; 

"(17) compile, evaluate, publish, and otherwise disseminate general, specific and technical data resulting 

from the performance of the functions specified in this section or from other sources when such data are 

important to science, engineering, or industry, or to the general public, and are not available elsewhere; 

18) collect, create, analyze, and maintain specimens of scientific value; 

"(19) operate national user facilities; 

"(20) evaluate promising inventions and other novel technical concepts submitted by inventors and small 

companies and work with other Federal agencies, States, and localities to provide appropriate technical assistance and support for those inventions which are found in the evaluation process to have commercial 

promise; 

"(21) demonstrate the results of the Institute's activities by exhibits or other methods of technology transfer, including the use of scientific or technical personnel of the Institute for part-time or intermittent teaching 

and training activities at educational institutions of higher learning as part of and incidental to their official 

duties; and 828 
"(22) undertake such other activities similar to those specified in this subsection as the Director determines 

appropriate." 

(b) OTHER FUNCTIONS OF SECRETARY. —The Secretary of Commerce is authorized to— 

(I) conduct research on all of the telecommunications sciences, including wave propagation and reception, 

the conditions which affect electromagnetic wave propagation and reception, electromagnetic noise and interference, radio system characteristics, operating techniques affecting the use of the electromagnetic spectrum, 

and methods for improving the use of the electromagnetic spectrum for telecommunications purposes; 

(2) prepare and issue predictions of electromagnetic wave propagation conditions and warnings of disturbances in such conditions; 

(3) investigate conditions which affect the transmission of radio waves from their source to a receiver and 

the compilation and distribution of information on such transmission of radio waves as a basis for choice of 

frequencies to be used in radio operations; 

(4) conduct research and analysis in the general field of telecommunications sciences in support of as- signed functions and in support of other Government agencies; 

(5) investigate nonionizing electromagnetic radiation and its uses, as well as methods and procedures for 

measuring and assessing electromagnetic environments, for the purpose of developing and coordinating policies and procedures affecting Federal Government use of the electromagnetic spectrum for telecommunications purposes; 

(6) compile, evaluate, publish, and otherwise disseminate general scientific and technical data resulting 

from the performance of the functions specified in this section or from other sources when such data are 

important to science, engineering, or industry, or to the general public, and are not available elsewhere; and 

(7) undertake such other activities similar to those specified in this subsection as the Secretary of Com- merce determines appropriate. 

(c) DIRECTOR OF INSTITUTE. —(I) Section 5 of the Act of March 3, 1901 (15 U.S.C. 274) is 

amended to read as follows: 

"SEc. 5. The Director shall be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the 

Senate. The Director shall have the general supervision of the Institute, its equipment, and the exercise of its 

functions. The Director shall make an annual report to the Secretary of Commerce. The Director may issue, 

when necessary, bulletins for public distribution, containing such information as may be of value to the 

public or facilitate the exercise of the functions of the Institute. The Director shall be compensated at the rate 

in effect for level IV of the Executive Schedule under section 5315 of title 5, United States Code. Until such 

time as the Director assumes office under this section, the most recent Director of the National Bureau of 

Standards shall serve as Director.". 

(2) Section 5315 of title 5, United States Code, is amended by striking "National Bureau of Standards" 

and inserting in lieu thereof "National institute of Standards and Technology". 

(d) ORGANIZATION PLAN. —(I) At least 60 days before its effective date and within 120 days after 

the date of the enactment of this Act, an initial organization plan for the National Institute of Standards and 

Technology (hereafter in this part referred to as the "Institute") shall be submitted by the Director of the 

Institute (hereafter in this part referred to as the "Director") after consultation with the Visiting Committee on Advanced Technology, to the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology of the House of Representatives and the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate. Such plan shall— 

(A) establish the major operating units of the Institute; 

(B) assign each of the activities listed in section 2(c) of the Act of March 3, 1901, and all other 

functions and activities of the Institute, to at least one of the major operating units established under subparagraph (A); 

(C) provide details of a 2-year program for the Institute, including the Advanced Technology Program; 

(D) provide details regarding how the Institute will expand and fund the Inventions program in accor- dance with section 27 of the Act of March 3, 1901; and 

(E) make no changes in the Center for Building Technology or the Center for Fire Research. 

(2) The Director may revise the organization plan. Any revision of the organization plan submitted under 

paragraph (I) shall be submitted to the appropriate committees of the House of Representatives and the 

Senate at least 60 days before the effective date of such revision. 

(3) Until the effective date of the organization plan, the major operating units of the Institute shall be the 

major operating units of the National Bureau of Standards that were in existence on the date of the enactment of this Act and the Advanced Technology Program. 

829 
SEC. 5113. REPEAL OF PROVISIONS. 

The second paragraph of the material relating to the Bureau of Standards in the first section of the Act of 

July 16, 1914 (15 U.S.C. 280), the last paragraph of the material relating to Contingent and Miscellaneous 

Expenses in the first section of the Act of March 4, 1913 (15 U.S.C. 281), and the first section of the Act of 

May 14, 1930 (15 U.S.C. 282) are repealed. SEC. 5114. REPORTS TO CONGRESS; STUDIES BY THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES OF ENGINEERING AND SCIENCES. 

The Act of March 3, 1901 (15 U.S.C. 271 et seq.) is amended— 

(I) by redesignating section 23 as section 31; and 

(2) by adding after section 22 the following new sections: 

"REPORTS TO CONGRESS 

"SEC. 23. 

"(a) The Director shall keep the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate 

and the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology of the House of Representatives fully and currently 

informed with regard to all of the activities of the Institute. 

"(b) The Director shall justify in writing all changes in policies regarding fees for standard reference 

materials and calibration services occurring after June 30, 1987, including a description of the anticipated 

impact of any proposed changes on demand for and anticipated revenues from the materials and services. 

Changes in policy and fees shall not be effective unless and until the Director has submitted the proposed 

schedule and justification to the Congress and 30 days on which both Houses of Congress are in session 

have elapsed since such submission, except that the requirement of this sentence shall not apply with respect to adjustments which are based solely on changes in the costs of raw materials or of producing and delivering standard reference materials or calibration services. 

"STUDIES BY THE NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL 

"SEC. 24. The Director may periodically contract with the National Research Council for advice and studies to assist the Institute to serve United States industry and science. The subjects of such advice and studies 

may include— 

"(I) the competitive position of the United States in key areas of manufacturing and emerging technologies and research activities which would enhance that competitiveness; 

"(2) potential activities of the Institute, in cooperation with industry and the States, to assist in the transfer 

and dissemination of new technologies for manufacturing and quality assurance; and 

"(3) identification and assessment of likely barriers to widespread use of advanced manufacturing technology by the United States workforce, including training and other initiatives which could lead to a higher 

percentage of manufacturing jobs of United States companies being located within the borders of our coun- try." -SEC. 5115. TECHNICAL AMENDMENTS. 

(a) AMENDMENTS TO ORGANIC ACT. — (1) Except as provided in paragraph (2), the Act of March 3, 1901 (15 U.S.C. 271 et seq.) is amended by 

striking "National Bureau of Standards", "Bureau" and "bureau" wherever they appear and inserting in lieu 

thereof "Institute". 

(2) Section 31 of such Act, as so redesignated by section 5114(1) of this part, is amended by striking 

"National Bureau of Standards" and inserting in lieu thereof "National Institute of Standards and Technology". 

(b) AMENDMENTS TO STE VENSON-WYDLER TECHNOLOGY INNOVATION ACT OF 1980. 

—( I) Section 8(b) of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980, as so redesignated by sec- tion 5122 of this part, is amended by striking "Director" and inserting in lieu thereof "Assistant Secretary". 

(2) Sections 11(e) and 17(d) and (e) of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980, as so redesignated by section 51 22(a)( 1) of this part, are amended— 

(A) by striking "National Bureau of Standards" wherever it appears and inserting in lieu thereof 

"National Institute of Standards and Technology"; and 

(B) by striking "Bureau" wherever it appears and inserting in lieu thereof "Institute". 

(c) AMENDMENTS TO OTHER LAWS. —References in any other Federal law to the National 

Bureau of Standards shall be deemed to refer to the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

830 
SUBPART B—TECHNOLOGY EXTENSION ACTIVITIES AND CLEARINGHOUSE ON STATE AND 

LOCAL INITIATIVES SEC. 5121. TECHNOLOGY EXTENSION ACTIVITIES. 

(a) TECHNOLOGY CENTERS AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE. —The Act of March 3, 1901, as amended by this part, is further amended by adding after section 24 the following new sections: 

"REGIONAL CENTERS FOR THE TRANSFER OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY 

"SEC. 25. (a) The Secretary, through the Director and, if appropriate, through other officials, shall provide 

assistance for the creation and support of Regional Centers for the Transfer of Manufacturing Technology 

(hereafter in this Act referred to as the 'Centers'). Such centers shall be affiliated with any United Statesbased nonprofit institution or organization, or group thereof, that applies for and is awarded financial assis- tance under this section in accordance with the description published by the Secretary in the Federal Register 

under subsection (c)(2). Individual awards shall be decided on the basis of merit review. The objective of the 

Centers is to enhance productivity and technological performance in United States manufacturing through— 

"(I) the transfer of manufacturing technology and techniques developed at the Institute to Centers and, 

through them, to manufacturing companies throughout the United States; 

"(2) the participation of individuals from industry, universities, State governments, other Federal agencies, 

and, when appropriate, the Institute in cooperative technology transfer activities; 

"(3) efforts to make new manufacturing technology and processes usable by United States-based smalland medium-sized companies; 

"(4) the active dissemination of scientific, engineering, technical, and management information about man- ufacturing to industrial firms, including small- and medium-sized manufacturing companies; and 

"(5) the utilization, when appropriate, of the expertise and capability that exists in Federal laboratories 

other than the Institute. 

"(b) The activities of the Centers shall include— 

"( I) the establishment of automated manufacturing systems and other advanced production technologies, 

based on research by the Institute, for the purpose of demonstrations and technology transfer; 

"(2) the active transfer and dissemination of research findings and Center expertise to a wide range of 

companies and enterprises, particularly small- and medium-sized manufacturers; and 

"(3) loans, on a selective, short-term basis, of items of advanced manufacturing equipment to small manu- facturing firms with less than 100 employees. 

"(c)(I) The Secretary may provide financial support to any Center created under subsection (a) for a period not to exceed six years. The Secretary may not provide to a Center more than 50 percent of the 

capital and annual operating and maintenance funds required to create and maintain such Center. 

"(2) The Secretary shall publish in the Federal Register, within 90 days after the date of the enactment of 

this section, a draft description of a program for establishing Centers, including— 

"(A) a description of the program; 

"(B) procedures to be followed by applicants; 

"(C) criteria for determining qualified applicants; 

"(D) criteria, including those listed under paragraph (4), for choosing recipients of financial assistance 

under this section from among the qualified applicants; and 

"(E) maximum support levels expected to be available to Centers under the program in the fourth 

through sixth years of assistance under this section. 

The Secretary shall publish a final description under this paragraph after the expiration of a 30-day comment period. 

"(3) Any nonprofit institution, or group thereof, or consortia of nonprofit institutions, including entities 

existing on the date of the enactment of this section, may submit to the Secretary an application for financial 

support under this subsection, in accordance with the procedures established by the Secretary and published 

in the Federal Register under paragraph (2). In order to receive assistance under this section, an applicant 

shall provide adequate assurances that it will contribute 50 percent or more of the proposed Center's capital 

and annual operating and maintenance costs for the first three years and an increasing share for each of the 

last three years. Each applicant shall also submit a proposal for the allocation of the legal rights associated 

with any invention which may result from the proposed Center's activities. 

831 
"(4) The Secretary shall subject each such application to merit review. In making a decision whether to 

approve such application and provide financial support under this subsection, the Secretary shall consider at a minimum (A) the merits of the application, particularly those portions of the application regarding technology transfer, training and education, and adaptation of manufacturing technologies to the needs of particular 

industrial sectors, (B) the quality of service to be provided, (C) geographical diversity and extent of service 

area, and (D) the percentage of funding and amount of in-kind commitment from other sources. "(5) Each Center which receives financial assistance under this section shall be evaluated during its third 

year of operation by an evaluation panel appointed by the Secretary. Each such evaluation panel shall be 

composed of private experts, none of whom shall be connected with the involved Center, and Federal officials. An official of the Institute shall chair the panel. Each evaluation panel shall measure the involved 

Center's performance against the objectives specified in this section. The Secretary shall not provide funding 

for the fourth through the sixth years of such Center's operation unless the evaluation is positive. If the 

evaluation is positive, the Secretary may provide continued funding through the sixth year at declining levels, which are designed to ensure that the Center no longer needs financial support from the Institute by the 

seventh year. In no event shall funding for a Center be provided by the Department of Commerce after the 

sixth year of the operation of a Center. 

"(6) The provisions of chapter 18 of title 35, United States Code, shall (to the extent not inconsistent with 

this section) apply to the promotion of technology from research by Centers under this section. 

"(d) There are authorized to be appropriated for the purposes of carrying out this section, a combined 

total of not to exceed $40,000,000 for fiscal years 1989 and 1990. Such sums shall remain available until 

expended. 

"ASSISTANCE TO STATE TECHNOLOGY PROGRAMS 

"SEC. 26. 

(a) In addition to the Centers program created under section 25, the Secretary, through the Director 

and, if appropriate, through other officials, shall provide technical assistance to State technology programs 

throughout the United States, in order to help those programs help businesses, particularly small- and 

medium-sized businesses, to enhance their competitiveness through the application of science and technology. 

"(b) Such assistance from the Institute to State technology programs shall include, but not be limited 

to- 

"(1) technical information and advice from Institute personnel; 

"(2) workshops and seminars for State officials interested in transferring Federal technology to businesses; 

and 

"(3) entering into cooperative agreements when authorized to do so under this or any other Act." 

(b) TECHNOLOGY EXTENSION SERVICES. —(I) The Secretary shall conduct a nationwide study 

of current State technology extension services. The study shall include— 

(A) a thorough description of each State program, including its duration, its annual budget, and the 

number and types of businesses it has aided; 

(B) a description of any anticipated expansion of each State program and its associated costs; 

(C) an evaluation of the success of the services in transferring technology, modernizing manufacturing 

processes, and improving the productivity and profitability of businesses; 

(D) an assessment of the degree to which State services make use of Federal programs, including the 

Small Business Innovative Research program and the programs of the Federal Laboratory Consortium, the 

National Technical Information Service, the National Science Foundation, the Office of Productivity, Technology, and Innovation, and the Small Business Administration; 

(E) a survey of what additional Federal information and technical assistance the services could utilize; 

and 

(F) an assessment of how the services could be more effective agents for the transfer of Federal scientific and technical information, including the results and application of Federal and federally funded research. 

The Secretary shall submit to the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology of the House of Representatives and the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate, at the time of submission of the organization plan for the Institute under section 5 II 2(d)( I), the results of the study and 

832 
an initial implementation plan for the programs under section 26 of the Act of March 3, 1901, and under this 

section. The implementation plan shall include methods of providing technical assistance to States and criteria for awarding financial assistance under this section. The Secretary may make use of contractors and 

experts for any or all of the studies and findings called for in this section. 

(2)(A) The Institute shall enter into cooperative agreements with State technology extension services to— 

(i) demonstrate methods by which the States can, in cooperation with Federal agencies, increase the use of Federal technology by businesses within their States to improve industrial competitiveness; or 

(ii) help businesses in their States take advantage of the services and information offered by the Regional Centers for the Transfer of Manufacturing Technology created under section 25 of the Act of March 

3, 1901. 

(B) Any State, for itself or for a consortium of States, may submit to the Secretary an application for a cooperative agreement under this subsection, in accordance with procedures established by the Secretary. To 

qualify for a cooperative agreement under this subsection, a State shall provide adequate assurances that it will increase its spending on technology extension services by an amount at least equal to the amount of 

Federal assistance. 

(C) In evaluating each application, the Secretary shall consider— 

(I) the number and types of additional businesses that will be assisted under the cooperative agreement; 

(ii) the extent to which the State extension service will demonstrate new methods to increase the use of Federal technology; 

(iii) geographic diversity; and 

(iv) the ability of the State to maintain the extension service after the cooperative agreement has 

expired. 

(D) States which are party to cooperative agreements under this subsection may provide services directly or may arrange for the provision of any or all of such services by institutions of higher education or other non-profit institutions or organizations. 

(3) In carrying out section 26 of the Act of March 3, 1901, and this subsection, the Secretary shall coordinate the activities with the Federal Laboratory Consortium; the National Technical Information Service; the 

National Science Foundation; the Office of Productivity, Technology, and Innovation; the Small Business 

Administration; and other appropriate Federal agencies. 

(4) There are authorized to be appropriated for the purposes of this subsection $2,000,000 for each of the 

fiscal years 1989, 1990, and 1991. 

(5) Cooperative agreements entered into under paragraph (2) shall terminate no later than September 30, 

1991. 

(c) FEDERAL TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ACT OF 1986. —Nothing in sections 25 or 26 of the 

Act of March 3, 1901, or in subsection (b) of this section shall be construed as limiting the authorities 

contained in the Federal Technology Transfer Act of 1986 (Public Law 99-502). 

(d) NON-ENERGY INVENTIONS PROGRAM. —The Act of March 3, 1901, as amended by this 

part, is further amended by adding after section 26 the following new section: 

"NON-ENERGY INVENTIONS PROGRAM 

"SEC. 27. In conjunction with the initial organization of the Institute, the Director shall establish a program 

for the evaluation of inventions that are not energy-related to complement but not replace the Energy-Related 

Inventions Program established under section 14 of the Federal Nonnuclear Energy Research and Development Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-577). The Director shall submit an initial implementation plan for this 

program to accompany the organization plan for the Institute. The implementation plan shall include specific 

cost estimates, implementation schedules, and mechanisms to help finance the development of technologies 

the program has determined to have potential. In the preparation of the plan, the Director shall consult with 

appropriate Federal agencies, including the Small Business Administration and the Department of Energy, 

State and local government organizations, university officials, and private sector organizations in order to obtain advice on how those agencies and organizations might cooperate with the expansion of this program 

of the Institute." 

833 
"SEC. 5122. CLEARINGHOUSE ON STATE AND LOCAL INITIATIVES. 

(a) CLEARINGHOUSE. —The Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980 (15 U.S.C. 

3701 et seq.) is amended— 

(I) by redesignating sections 6 through 19 as sections 7 through 20, respectively; and 

(2) by inserting after section 5 the following new section: 

"SEC. 6. CLEARINGHOUSE FOR STATE AND LOCAL INITIATIVES ON PRODUCTIVITY, 

TECHNOLOGY, AND INNOVATION. 

"(a) ESTABLISHMENT. —There is established within the Office of Productivity, Technology, and 

Innovation a Clearinghouse for State and Local Initiatives on Productivity, Technology, and Innovation. The 

Clearinghouse shall serve as a central repository of information on initiatives by State and local governments to enhance the competitiveness of American business through the stimulation of productivity, technology, 

and innovation and Federal efforts to assist State and local governments to enhance competitiveness. 

"(b) RESPONSIBILITIES. —The Clearinghouse may— 

"( I) establish relationships with State and local governments, and regional and multistate organizations of such governments, which carry out such initiatives; 

"(2) collect information on the nature, extent, and effects of such initiatives, particularly information useful to the Congress, Federal agencies, State and local governments, regional and multistate organizations of such governments, businesses, and the public throughout the United States; 

"(3) disseminate information collected under paragraph (2) through reports, directories, handbooks, 

conferences, and seminars; 

"(4) provide technical assistance and advice to such governments with respect to such initiatives, 

including assistance in determining sources of assistance from Federal agencies which may be available to support such initiatives; 

"(5) study ways in which Federal agencies, including Federal laboratories, are able to use their 

existing policies and programs to assist State and local governments, and regional and multistate organizations of such governments, to enhance the competitiveness of American business; 

"(6) make periodic recommendations to the Secretary, and to other Federal agencies upon their 

request, concerning modifications in Federal policies and programs which would improve Federal assistance to State and local technology and business assistance programs; 

"(7) develop methodologies to evaluate State and local programs, and, when requested, advise State 

and local governments, and regional and multistate organizations of such governments, as to which programs are most effective in enhancing the competitiveness of American business through the stimulation of productivity, technology, and innovation; and 

"(8) make use of, and disseminate, the nationwide study of State industrial extension programs 

conducted by the Secretary. 

"(c) CONTRACTS. —In carrying out subsection (b), the Secretary may enter into contracts for the 

purpose of collecting information on the nature, extent, and effects of initiatives. 

"(d) TRIENNIAL REPORT. —The Secretary shall prepare and transmit to the Congress once each 3 years a report on initiatives by State and local governments to enhance the competitiveness of American 

businesses through the stimulation of productivity, technology, and innovation. The report shall include recommendations to the President, the Congress, and to Federal agencies on the appropriate Federal role in 

stimulating State and local efforts in this area. The first of these reports shall be transmitted to the Congress 

before January 1, 1989.". 

(b) DEFINITION. —Section 4 of such Act is amended by adding at the end thereof the following 

new paragraph: 

"(13) 'Clearinghouse' means the Clearinghouse for State and Local Initiatives on Productivity, Technology, and Innovation established by section 6." 

(c) CONFORMING AMENDMENT. —Section 10(d) of such Act, as so redesignated by section 

5122(a)(I) of this part, is amended by striking "6,8, 10, 14, 16, or 17" and inserting in lieu thereof "7,9, 

II. IS, 17, or 18". 

834 
SUBPART C—ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM SEC. 5131. ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY. 

(a) ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM. —The Act of March 3, 1901, as amended by this 

part, is further amended by adding after section 27 the following new section: 

"ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM 

"SEC. 28. 

(a) There is established in the Institute an Advanced Technology Program (hereafter in this Act referred to as the 'Program') for the purpose of assisting United States businesses in creating and applying the 

generic technology and research results necessary to— 

"( I) commercialize significant new scientific discoveries and technologies rapidly; and 

"(2) refine manufacturing technologies. 

The Secretary, acting through the Director, shall assure that the Program focuses on improving the competitive position of the United States and its businesses, gives preference to discoveries and to technologies that 

have great economic potential, and avoids providing undue advantage to specific companies. 

"(b) Under the Program established in subsection (a), and consistent with the mission and policies of 

the Institute, the Secretary, acting through the Director, and subject to subsections (c) and (d), may— 

"( I) aid United States joint research and development ventures (hereafter in this section referred to as 'joint ventures') (which may also include universities and independent research organizations), including 

those involving collaborative technology demonstration projects which develop and test prototype equipment 

and processes, through— 

"(A) provision of organizational and technical advice; and 

"(B) participation in such joint ventures, if the Secretary, acting through the Director, determines participation to be appropriate, which may include (i) partial start-up funding, (ii) provision of a minority share of 

the cost of such joint ventures for up to 5 years, and (iii) making available equipment, facilities, and personnel, provided that emphasis is placed on areas where the Institute has scientific or technological expertise, on solving generic problems of specific industries, and on making those industries more competitive in world 

markets; 

"(2) enter into contracts and cooperative agreements with United States businesses, especially small 

businesses, and with independent research organizations, provided that emphasis is placed on applying the 

Institute's research, research techniques, and expertise to those organizations' research programs; 

"(3) involve the Federal laboratories in the Program, where appropriate, using among other authorities the cooperative research and development agreements provided for under section 12 of the StevensonWydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980; and 

"(4) carry out, in a manner consistent with the provisions of this section, such other cooperative 

research activities with joint ventures as may be authorized by law or assigned to the Program by the Secretary. 

"(c) The Secretary, acting through the Director, is authorized to take all actions necessary and appropriate to establish and operate the Program, including— 

"(I) publishing in the Federal Register draft criteria and, no later than six months after the date of 

the enactment of this section, following a public comment period, final criteria, for the selection of recipients 

of assistance under subsection (b) (I) and (2); 

"(2) monitoring how technologies developed in its research program are used, and reporting annually to the Congress on the extent of any overseas transfer of these technologies; 

"(3) establishing procedures regarding financial reporting and auditing to ensure that contracts and 

awards are used for the purposes specified in this section, are in accordance with sound accounting practices, 

and are not funding existing or planned research programs that would be conducted in the same time period 

in the absence of financial assistance under the Program; 

"(4) assuring that the advice of the Committee established under section 10 is considered routinely 

in carrying out the responsibilities of the Institute; and 

"(5) providing for appropriate dissemination of Program research results. 

"(d) When entering into contracts or making awards under subsection (b), the following shall apply: 

"(I) No contract or award may be made until the research project in question has been subject to a merit review, and has, in the opinion of the reviewers appointed by the Director and the Secretary, acting 

through the Director, been shown to have scientific and technical merit. 

835 
"(2) In the case of joint ventures, the Program shall not make an award unless, in the judgment of the 

Secretary, acting through the Director, Federal aid is needed if the industry in question is to form a joint 

venture quickly. 

"(3) No Federal contract or cooperative agreement under subsection (b)(2) shall exceed $2,000,000 over 3 years, or be for more than 3 years unless a full and complete explanation of such proposed award, including reasons for exceeding these limits, is submitted in writing by the Secretary to the Committee on Commerce, 

Science, and Transportation of the Senate and the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology of the 

House of Representatives. The proposed contract or cooperative agreement may be executed only after 30 

calendar days on which both Houses of Congress are in session have elapsed since such submission. Federal 

funds made available under subsection (b)(2) shall be used only for direct costs and not for indirect costs, 

profits, or management fees of the contractor. 

"(4) In determining whether to make an award to a particular joint venture, the Program shall consider 

whether the members of the joint venture have made provisions for the appropriate participation of small 

United States businesses in such joint venture. 

"(5) Section 552 of title 5, United States Code, shall not apply to the following information obtained by 

the Federal Government on a confidential basis in connection with the activities of any business or any joint 

venture receiving funding under the Program— 

"(A) information on the business operation of any member of the business or joint venture; and 

"(B) trade secrets possessed by any business or any member of the joint venture. 

"(6) Intellectual property owned and developed by any business or joint venture receiving funding or by 

any member of such a joint venture may not be disclosed by any officer or employee of the Federal Government except in accordance with a written agreement between the owner or developer and the Program. 

"(7) The Federal Government shall be entitled to a share of the licensing fees and royalty payments made 

to and retained by any business or joint venture to which it contributes under this section in an amount 

proportional to the Federal share of the costs incurred by the business or joint venture as determined by 

independent audit. 

"(8) If a business or joint venture fails before the completion of the period for which a contract or award 

has been made, after all allowable costs have been paid and appropriate audits conducted, the unspent bal- ance of the Federal funds shall be returned by the recipient to the Program. 

"(9) Upon dissolution of any joint venture or at the time otherwise agreed upon, the Federal Government 

shall be entitled to a share of the residual assets of the joint venture proportional to the Federal share of the costs of the joint venture as determined by independent audit. 

"(e) As used in this section, the term 'joint research and development venture' has the meaning given 

to such term in section 2(a)(6) of the National Cooperative Research Act of 1984 (15 U.S.C. 4301(a)(6))." 

(b) VISITING COMMITI'EE ON ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY. —Section 10 of the Act of March 

3, 1901, is amended to read as follows: 

"VISITING ON ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY "SEC. 10. (a) There is established within the Institute a Visiting Committee on Advanced Technology (hereafter 

in this Act referred to as the 'Committee'). The Committee shall consist of nine members appointed by the 

Director, at least five of whom shall be from United States industry. The Director shall appoint as original 

members of the Committee any final members of the National Bureau of Standards Visiting Committee who 

wish to serve in such capacity. In addition to any powers and functions otherwise granted to it by this Act, 

the Committee shall review and make recommendations regarding general policy for the Institute, its organization, its budget, and its programs within the framework of applicable national policies as set forth by the 

President and the Congress. 

"(b) The persons appointed as members of the Committee— 

"(1) shall be eminent in fields such as business, research, new product development, engineering, 

labor, education, management consulting, environment, and international relations; 

"(2) shall be selected solely on the basis of established records of distinguished service;. 

"(3) shall not be employees of the Federal Government; and 

"(4) shall be so selected as to provide representation of a cross-section of the traditional and 

emerging United States industries. 

836 
The Director is requested, in making appointments of persons as members of the Committee, to give due 

consideration to any recommendations which may be submitted to the Director by the national academies, 

professional societies, business associations, labor associations, and other appropriate organizations. 

"(c)(l) The term of office of each member of the Committee, other than the original members, shall 

be 3 years; except that any member appointed to fill a vacancy occurring prior to the expiration of the term 

for which his predecessor was appointed shall be appointed for the remainder of such term. Any person who 

has completed two consecutive full terms of service on the Committee shall thereafter be ineligible for appointment during the one-year period following the expiration of the second such term. "(2) The original members of the Committee shall be elected to three classes of three members each; one class shall have a term of one year, one a term of two years, and the other a term of three years. 

"(d) The Committee shall meet at least quarterly at the call of the Chairman or whenever one-third of 

the members so request in writing. A majority of the members of the Committee not having a conflict of 

interest in the matter being considered by the Committee shall constitute a quorum. Each member shall be 

given appropriate notice, whenever possible, not less than 15 days prior to any meeting, of the call of such 

meeting. 

"(e) The Committee shall have an executive committee, and may delegate to it or to the Secretary 

such of the powers and functions granted to the Committee by this Act as it deems appropriate. The Committee is authorized to appoint from among its members such other committees as it deems necessary, and to assign to committees so appointed such survey and advisory functions as the Committee deems appropriate to assist it in exercising its powers and functions under this Act. 

"(fl The election of the Chairman and Vice Chairman of the Committee shall take place at each 

annual meeting occurring in an even-numbered year. The Vice Chairman shall perform the duties of the 

Chairman in his absence. In case a vacancy occurs in the chairmanship or vice chairmanship, the Committee 

shall elect a member to fill such vacancy. 

"(g) The Committee may, with the concurrence of a majority of its members, permit the appointment 

of a staff consisting of not more than four professional staff members and such clerical staff members as may be necessary. Such staff shall be appointed by the Director, after consultation with the Chairman of the 

Committee, and assigned at the direction of the Committee. The professional members of such staff may be 

appointed without regard to the provisions of title 5, United States Code, governing appointments in the 

competitive service and the provisions of chapter 51 of title 5 of such Code relating to classification, and 

compensated at a rate not exceeding the appropriate rate provided for individuals in grade GSI8 of the General Schedule under section 5332 of title 5 of such Code, as may be necessary to provide for the perfor- mance of such duties as may be prescribed by the Committee in connection with the exercise of its powers 

and functions under this Act. 

"(h)(l) The Committee shall render an annual report to the Secretary for submission to the Congress on or before January 31 in each year. Such report shall deal essentially, though not necessarily exclusively, 

with policy issues or matters which affect the Institute, including the Program established under section 28, or with which the Committee in its official role as the private sector policy advisor of the Institute is con- cerned. Each such report shall identify areas of research and research techniques of the Institute of potential 

importance to the long-term competitiveness of United States industry, in which the Institute possesses special competence, which could be used to assist United States enterprises and United States industrial joint 

research and development ventures. 

"(2) The Committee shall render to the Secretary and the Congress such additional reports on specific 

policy matters as it deems appropriate." 

(c) NATIONAL ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES AND ENGINEERING STUDY OF 

GOVERNMENT-INDUSTRY COOPERATION IN CIVILIAN TECHNOLOGY.— 

(I) Within 90 days after the date of enactment of this Act, the Secretary of Commerce shall enter into 

contracts with the National Academies of Sciences and Engineering for a thorough review of the various 

types of arrangements under which the private sector in the United States and the Federal Government cooperate in civilian research and technology transfer, including activities to create or apply generic, nonproprietary technologies. The purpose of the review is to provide the Secretary and Congress with objective information regarding the uses, strengths, and limitations of the various types of cooperative technology 

arrangements that have been used in the United States. The review is to provide both an analysis of the ways 

837 
in which these arrangements can help improve the technological performance and international competitive- ness of United States industry, and also to provide the Academies' recommendations regarding ways to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of these types of cooperative arrangements. A special emphasis shall 

be placed on discussions of these subjects among industry leaders, labor leaders, and officials of the execu- tive branch and Congress. The Secretary is authorized to seek and accept funding for this study from both 

Federal agencies and private industry. 

(2) The members of the review panel shall be drawn from among industry and labor leaders, en- trepreneurs, former government officials with great experience in civilian research and technology, and scientific and technical experts, including experts with experience with Federal laboratories. 

(3) The review shall analyze the strengths and weaknesses of different types of Federal-industry cooperative arrangements in civilian technology, including but not limited to— 

(A) Federal programs which provide technical services and information to United States companies; 

(B) cooperation between Federal laboratories and United States companies, including activities under 

the Technology Share Program created by Executive order 12591; 

(C) Federal research and technology transfer arrangements with selected business sectors; 

(D) Federal encouragement of, and assistance to, private joint research and development ventures; and 

(E) such other mechanisms of Federal-industry cooperation as may be identified by the Secretary. 

(4) A report based on the findings and recommendations of the review panel shall be submitted to the 

Secretary, the President, and Congress within 18 months after the Secretary signs the contracts with the 

National Academies of Sciences and Engineering. 

SUBPART D—TECHNOLOGY REVIEWS SEC. 5141. REPORT OF PRESIDENT. 

The President shall, at the time of submission of the budget request for fiscal year 1990 to Congress, also 

submit to the Congress a report on— 

(I) the President's policies and budget proposals regarding Federal research in semiconductors and 

semiconductor manufacturing technology, including a discussion of the respective roles of the various Federal departments and agencies in such research; 

(2) the President's policies and budget proposals regarding Federal research and acquisition policies for 

fiber optics and optical-electronic technologies generally; 

(3) the President's policies and budget proposals, identified by agency, regarding superconducting materials, including descriptions of research priorities, the scientific and technical barriers to commercialization 

which such research is designed to overcome, steps taken to ensure coordination among Federal agencies 

conducting research on superconducting materials, and steps taken to consult with private United States industry and to ensure that no unnecessary duplication of research exists and that all important scientific and 

technical barriers to the commercialization of superconducting materials will be addressed; and 

(4) the President's policies and budget proposals, identified by agency, regarding Federal research to assist United States industry to develop and apply advanced manufacturing technologies for the production of 

durable and nondurable goods. SEC. 5142. SEMICONDUCTOR RESEARCH ANDDEVELOPMENT. 

(a) SHORT TITLE. —This section may be cited as the "National Advisory Committee on Semiconductor Research and Development Act of 1988". 

(b) FINDINGS AND PURPOSES. —(1) The Congress finds and declares that— 

(A) semiconductor technology is playing an ever-increasing role in United States industrial and commercial products and processes, making secure domestic sources of state-of-the-art semiconductors highly 

desirable; 

(B) modern weapons systems are highly dependent on leading edge semiconductor devices, and it is 

counter to the national security interest to be heavily dependent upon foreign sources for this technology; 

(C) governmental responsibilities related to the semiconductor industry are divided among many Federal 

departments and agencies; and 

(D) joint industry-government consideration of semiconductor industry problems is needed at this time. 

(2) The purposes of this section are— 

838 
(A) to establish the National Advisory Committee on Semiconductors; and 

(B) to assign to such Committee the responsibility for devising and promulgating a national semiconductor strategy, including research and development, the implementation of which will assure the continued 

leadership of the United States in semiconductor technology. 

(c) CREATION OF COMMITTEE. —There is hereby created in the executive branch of the Government an independent advisory body to be known as the National Advisory Committee on Semiconductors 

(hereafter in this section referred to as the "Committee"). 

(d) FUNCTIONS. —(I) The Committee shall— 

(A) collect and analyze information on the needs and capabilities of industry, the Federal Government, 

and the scientific and research communities related to semiconductor technology; 

(B) identify the components of a successful national semiconductor strategy in accordance with subsection (b)(2)(B); 

(C) analyze options, establish priorities, and recommend roles for participants in the national strategy; 

(D) assess the roles for government and national laboratories and other laboratories supported largely 

for government purposes in contributing to the semiconductor technology base of the Nation, as well as to access the effective use of the resources of United States private industry, United States universities, and 

private-public research and development efforts; and 

(E) provide results and recommendations to agencies of the Federal Government involved in legislative, 

policymaking, administrative, management, planning, and technology activities that affect or are part of a national semiconductor strategy, and to the industry and other nongovernmental groups or organizations affected by or contributing to that strategy. 

(2) In fulfilling this responsibility, the Committee shall— 

(A) monitor the competitiveness of the United States semiconductor technology base; 

(B) determine technical areas where United States semiconductor technology is deficient relative to international competition; 

(C) identify new or emerging semiconductor technologies that will impact the national defense or United States competitiveness or both; 

(D) develop research and development strategies, tactics, and plans whose execution will assure United 

States semiconductor competitiveness; and 

(E) recommend appropriate actions that support the national semiconductor strategy. 

(e) MEMBERSHIP AND PROCEDURES. — 

(I) (A) The Committee shall be composed of 13 members, 7 of whom shall constitute a quorum. 

(B) The Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of Commerce, the Secretary of Energy, the Director of the 

office of Science and Technology Policy, and the Director of the National Science Foundation, or their designees, shall serve as members of the Committee. 

(C) The President, acting through the Director of the office of Science and Technology Policy, shall 

appoint, as additional members of the Committee, 4 members from outside the Federal Government who are eminent in the semiconductor industry, and 4 members from outside the Federal Government who are emi- nent in the fields of technology, defense, and economic development. 

(D) One of the members appointed under subparagraph (C), as designated by the President at the time 

of appointment, shall be chairman of the Committee. 

(2) Funding and administrative support for the Committee shall be provided to the office of Science and 

Technology Policy through art arrangement with an appropriate agency or organization designated by the 

Committee, in accordance with a memorandum of understanding entered into between them. 

(3) Members of the Committee, other than full-time employees of the Federal Government, while attending meetings of the Committee or otherwise performing duties at the request of the Chairman while away 

from their homes or regular places of business, shall be allowed travel expenses in accordance with subchapter I of chapter 57 of title 5, United States Code. 

(4) The Chairman shall call the first meeting of the Committee not later than 90 days after the date of the 

enactment of this Act. 

(5) At the close of each fiscal year the Committee shall submit to the President and the Congress a report 

on its activities conducted during such year and its planned activities for the coming year, including specific 

findings and recommendations with respect to the national semiconductor strategy devised and promulgated 

under subsection (b)(2)(B). The first report shall include an analysis of those technical areas, including man- 839 
ufacturing, which are of importance to the United States semiconductor industry, and shall make specific 

recommendations regarding the appropriate Federal role in correcting any deficiencies identified by the analysis. Each report shall include an estimate of the length of time the Committee must continue before the 

achievement of its purposes and the issuance of its final report. 

(f) AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS. —There are authorized to be appropriated to carry Out the purposes of this section such sums as may be necessary for the fiscal years 1988, 1989, and 1990. 

SEc. 5143. REVIEW OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PRIORITIES IN SUPERCONDUCTORS. 

(a) NATIONAL COMMISSION ON SUPERCONDUCTIVITY. —The President shall appoint a National Commission on Superconductivity to review all major policy issues regarding United States applications of recent research advances in superconductors in order to assist the Congress in devising a national 

strategy, including research and development priorities, the development of which will assure United States 

leadership in the development and application of superconducting technologies. 

(b) MEMBERSHIP. —The membership of the National Commission on Superconductivity shall include representatives of— 

(I) the National Critical Materials Council, the National Academy of Sciences, the National 

Academy of Engineering, the National Science Foundation, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Department of Energy, the Department of Justice, the Department of Commerce (including the National Institute of Standards and Technology), the Department of Transportation, the Department of the Treasury, and the Department of Defense; 

(2) organizations whose membership is comprised of physicists, engineers, chemical scientists, or material scientists; arid 

(3) industries, universities, and national laboratories engaged in superconductivity research. 

(c) CHAIRMAN. —A representative of the private sector shall be designated as chairman of the 

Commission. 

(d) COORDINATION. —The National Critical Materials Council shall be the coordinating body of 

the National Commission on Superconductivity and shall provide staff support for the Commission. 

(e) REPORT. —Within 6 months after the date of the enactment of this Act, the National Commission on Superconductivity shall submit a report to the President and the Congress with recommendations 

regarding methods of enhancing the research, development, and implementation of improved superconductor 

technologies in all major applications. 

(f) SCOPE OF REVIEW. —In preparing the report required by subsection (e), the Commission shall 

consider addressing, but need not limit, its review to— 

(I) the state of United States competitiveness in the development of improved superconductors; 

(2) methods to improve and coordinate the collection and dissemination of research data relating to 

superconductivity; 

(3) methods to improve and coordinate funding of research and development of improved superconductors; 

(4) methods to improve and coordinate the development of viable commercial and military applications of improved superconductors; 

(5) foreign government activities designed to promote research, development, and commercial application of improved superconductors; 

(6) the need to provide increased Federal funding of research and development of improved superconductors; 

(7) the impact on the United States national security if the United States must rely on foreign 

producers of superconductors; 

(8) the benefit, if any, of granting private companies partial exemptions from United States an- titrust laws to allow them to coordinate research, development, and products containing improved superconductors; 

(9) options for providing income tax incentives for encouraging research, development, and production in the United States of products containing improved superconductors; and 

(10) methods to strengthen domestic patent and trademark laws to ensure that qualified superconductivity discoveries receive the fullest protection from infringement. 

(g) SUNSET. —The Commission shall disband within a year of its establishment. Thereafter the National Critical Materials Council may review and update the report required by subsection (e) and make 

further recommendations as it deems appropriate. 

840 
SUBPART E—AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS SEC. 5151. AUThORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS FOR TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITIES. 

(a) AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS. —There are authorized to be appropriated for fiscal 

year 1988 to the Secretary of Commerce to carry out activities performed by the Institute the sums set forth 

in the following line items: 

(I) Measurement Research and Technology: $41,939,000. 

(2) Engineering Measurements and Manufacturing: $40,287,000. 

(3) Materials Science and Engineering: $23,521,000. 

(4) Computer Science and Technology: $7,941,000. 

(5) Research Support Activities: $19,595,000. 

(6) Cold Neutron Source Facility: $6,500,000 (for a total authorization of $l3,000,000). 

(7) Programs established under sections 25, 26, and 27 of the Act of March 3, 1901 and section 

5121 of this part: $5,000,000. 

(b) LIMITATIONS. —Notwithstanding any other provision of this or any other Act— 

(I) of the total of the amounts authorized under subsection (a), $2,000,000 is authorized only for 

steel technology; 

(2) of the amount authorized under paragraph (I) of subsection (a) of this section, $3,550,000 is 

authorized only for the purpose of research in process and quality control; 

(3) of the amount authorized under paragraph (2) of subsection (a) of this section. $3.71 0.000 is authorized only for the Center for Building Technology, $5,662,000 is authorized only for the Center for Fire 

Research, and the two Centers shall not be merged; 

(4) of the amount authorized under paragraph (3) of subsection (a) of this section, $1,500,000 is 

authorized only for the purpose of research to improve high-performance composites; and 

(5) of the amount authorized under paragraph (5) of subsection (a) of this section, $7,371,000 is 

authorized only for technical competence fund projects in new areas of high technical importance. and 

$1 ,09 1,000 is authorized only for the Postdoctoral Research Associates Program and related new personnel. 

(c) TRANSFER. — 

(I) Funds may be transferred among the line items listed in subsection (a) of this section so long as the net funds transferred to or from any line item do not exceed 10 percent of the amount authorized for 

that line item in such subsection and the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate and the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology of the House of Representatives are notified in 

advance of any such transfer. 

(2) In addition, the Secretary of Commerce may propose transfers to or from any line item exceeding 10 percent of the amount authorized for the line item in subsection (a) of this section, but a full and 

complete explanation of any such proposed transfer and the reason for such transfer must be transmitted in 

writing to the President of the Senate, the Speaker of the House of Representatives, and the appropriate 

authorizing committees of the Senate and House of Representatives. The proposed transfer may be made 

only when 30 calendar days have passed after the transmission of such written explanation. 

(d) COLD NEUTRON SOURCE FACILITY. —In addition to any sums otherwise authorized by this 

part, there are authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary of Commerce for fiscal years 1988, 1989, and 

1990 such sums as were authorized but not appropriated for the Cold Neutron Source Facility for fiscal year 

1987. Furthermore, the Secretary may accept contributions for funds, to remain available until expended, for 

the design, construction, and equipment of the Cold Neutron Source Facility, notwithstanding the limitations 

of section 14 of the Act of March 3, 1901 (15 U.S.C. 278d). 

(e) EMPLOYEE BENEFIT ADJUSTMENTS. —In addition to any sums otherwise authorized by this 

part, there are authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary of Commerce for fiscal year 1988 such additional sums as may be necessary to make any adjustments in salary, pay, retirement, and other employee 

benefits which may be provided for by law. 

(f) AVAILABILITY. —Appropriations made under the authority provided in this section shall remain 

available for obligation, for expenditure, or for obligations and expenditure for periods specified in the Acts 

making such appropriations. 

841 
SEC. 5152. STE VENSON-WYDLER ACT AUTHORIZATIONS. 

Section 19 (a) and (b) of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980, as so redesignated by 

section 5122(a)(l) of this part, is amended to read as follows: 

"(a)( I) There is authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary for the purposes of carrying out sec- tions 5, 11(g), and 16 of this Act not to exceed $3,400,000 for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1988. 

"(2) of the amount authorized under paragraph (I) of this subsection, $2,400,000 is authorized only for 

the office of Productivity, Technology, and Innovation; $500,000 is authorized only for the purpose of carry. 

ing Out the requirements of the Japanese technical literature program established under section 5(d) of this 

act; and $500,000 is authorized only for the patent licensing activities of the National Technical Information 

Service. 

"(b) In addition to the authorization of appropriations provided under subsection (a) of this section, 

there is authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary for the purposes of carrying out section 6 of this Act not to exceed $500,000 for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1988, $1,000,000 for the fiscal year ending 

September 30, 1989, and $1,500,000 for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1990.". 

SUBPART F—MISCELLANEOUS TECHNOLOGY AND COMMERCE PROVISIONS SEC. 5161. SAVINGS PROVISION AND USER FEES. 

The Act of March 3, 1901 (15 U.S.C. 271 et seq.), as amended by this part, is further amended by adding 

after section 28 the following new sections: 

"SAVINGS PROVISION "SEC. 29. 

All rules and regulations, determinations, standards, contracts, certifications, authorizations, delegations, 

results and findings of investigations, or other actions duly issued, made, or taken by or pursuant to this Act, 

or under the authority of any other statutes which resulted in the assignment of functions or activities to the 

Secretary, the Department, the Director, or the Institute, as are in effect immediately before the date of en- actment of this section, and not suspended by the Secretary, the Director, the Institute or the courts, shall 

continue in full force and effect after the date of enactment of this section until modified or rescinded. 

"USER FEES 

"SEC. 30. 

The Institute shall not implement a policy of charging fees with respect to the use of Institute research 

facilities by research associates in the absence of express statutory authority to charge such fees." SEC. 5162. MISCELLANEOUS AMENDMENTS TO THE STEVENSON-WYDLER ACT. 

(a) INVENTION MANAGEMENT SERVICES. —The first sentence of section 1 4(a)(4) of the 

Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980. as so redesignated by section 5122(a)(I) of this part 

(IS U.S.C. 3710c) is amended by striking out "shall" and inserting in lieu thereof "may", and by striking ow "such invention performed at the request of the other agency or laboratory" and inserting in lieu thereof 

invention of the other agency". 

(b) FEDERAL LABORATORY CONSORTIUM. —Section 1 l(e)(7)(A) of the Stevenson-Wydler 

Technology Innovation act of 1980, as so redesignated by section 5l22(a)(l) of this part (IS U.S.C. 3710) is 

amended by striking out "0.005 percent of that portion of the research and development budget of each 

Federal agency that is to be utilized by" and inserting in lieu thereof "0.008 percent of the budget of each 

Federal agency from any Federal source, including related overhead, that is to be utilized by or on behalf 

of'. SEC. 5163. MISCELLANEOUS TECHNOLOGY AND COMMERCE PROVISIONS. 

(a) ASSESSMENT OF EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES. —The Board of Assessment of the National 

Institute of Standards and Technology shall include, as part of its annual review, an assessment of emerging 

technologies which are expected to require research in metrology to keep the Institute abreast of its mission, 

including process and quality control, engineering databases, advanced materials, electronics and fiber optics. 

bioprocess engineering, and advanced computing concepts. Such review shall include estimates of the cost ol 

the required effort, required staffing levels, appropriate interaction with industry, including technology transfer, and the period over which the research will be required. 

842 
(b) SMALL BUSINESS PLAN. —The Director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology shall prepare a plan detailing the manner in which the Institute will make small businesses more aware of the Institute's activities and research, and the manner in which the Institute will seek to increase the 

application by small businesses of the Institute's research, particularly in manufacturing. The plan shall be 

submitted to the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate and the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology of the House of Representatives not later than 120 days after the date of the 

enactment of this act. (c) NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE. —(I) Section II of the Stevenson-Wydler Tech(nology Innovation Act of 1980, as so redesignated by section 5 l22(a)(l) of this part, is amended 

by inserting at the end the following new subsection: 

"(h) None of the activities or functions of the National Technical Information Service which are not performed by contractors as of September 30, 1987, shall be contracted Out or otherwise transferred from the 

Federal Government unless such transfer is expressly authorized by statute, or unless the value of all work 

performed under the contract and related contracts in each fiscal year does not exceed $250,000." 

(2) The Secretary of Commerce shall report the Secretary's recommendations for improvements in the 

National Technical Information Service (including methods for automating document distribution and inventory control), and any statutory changes required to make such improvements, to the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate and the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology of 

the House of Representatives by January 31, 1989. 

(3) Section 11(d) of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980. as so redesignated by 

section 5122(a)(l) of this part, is amended— 

(A) by striking "and" at the end of paragraph (4); 

(B) by striking the period at the end of paragraph (5) and inserting in lieu thereof"; and"; and 

(C) by adding at the end thereof the following new paragraph: 

"(6) maintain a permanent archival repository and clearinghouse for the collection and dissemination of 

nonclassified scientific, technical, and engineering information." 

(d) FELLOWSHIP PROGRAM. —There is established within the Department of Commerce a Commerce, Science, and Technology Fellowship Program with the stated purpose of providing a select group of 

employees of the executive branch of the Government with the opportunity of learning how the legislative 

branch and other parts of the executive branch function through work experiences of up to one year. The 

Secretary of Commerce shall report to the Congress within six months after the date of enactment of this Act on the Department of Commerce's plans for implementing such Program by March 31, 1989. SEC. 5164. METRIC USAGE. 

(a) FINDINGS. —Section 2 of the Metric Conversion Act of 1975 is amended by adding at the end 

thereof the following new paragraphs: 

"(3) World trade is increasingly geared towards the metric system of measurement. 

"(4) Industry in the United States is often at a competitive disadvantage when dealing in international markets because of its nonstandard measurement system, and is sometimes excluded when it is unable to deliver goods which are measured in metric terms. 

"(5) The inherent simplicity of the metric system of measurement and standardization of weights 

and measures has led to major cost savings in certain industries which have converted to that system. 

"(6) The Federal Government has a responsibility to develop procedures and techniques to assist 

industry, especially small business, as it voluntarily converts to the metric system of measurement. 

"(7) The metric system of measurement can provide substantial advantages to the Federal Government in its own operations." 

(b) POLICY. —Section 3 of the Metric Conversion Act of 1975 is amended to read as follows: 

"SEC. 3. It is therefore the declared policy of the United States— 

"( I) to designate the metric system of measurement as the preferred system of weights and measures for 

United States trade and commerce; 

"(2) to require that each Federal agency, by a date certain and to the extent economically feasible by the 

end of the fiscal year 1992, use the metric system of measurement in its procurements, grants, and other 

business-related activities, except to the extent that such use is impractical or is likely to cause significant 

inefficiencies or loss of markets to United States firms, such as when foreign competitors are producing 

competing products in non-metric units; 

843 
"(3) to seek out ways to increase understanding of the metric system of measurement through educational 

information and guidance and in Government publications; and 

"(4) to permit the continued use of traditional systems of weights and measures in nonbusiness activities." 

(c) IMPLEMENTATION. —The Metric Conversion Act of 1975 is further amended by redesignating 

section 12 as section 13, and by inserting after section lIthe following new section: 

"SEC. 12. 

(a) As soon as possible after the date of the enactment of this section, each agency of the Federal 

Government shall establish guidelines to carry Out the policy set forth in section 3 (with particular emphasis 

upon the policy set forth in paragraph (2) of that section), and as part of its annual budget submission for 

each fiscal year beginning after such date shall report to the Congress on the actions which it has taken 

during the previous fiscal year, as well as the actions which it plans for the fiscal year involved, to implement fully the metric system of measurement in accordance with that policy. Such reporting shall cease for an agency in the fiscal year after it has fully implemented its efforts under section 3(2). As used in this 

section, the term 'agency of the Federal Government' means an Executive agency or military department as those terms as defined in chapter 1 of title 5, United States Code. 

"(b) At the end of the fiscal year 1992, the Comptroller General shall review the implementation of 

this Act, and upon completion of such review shall report his findings to the Congress along with any legislative recommendations he may have." 

October 24, 1988, 102 Stat. 2589 (Public Law lOO-5l9—-l00th Congress, 2d session) National Institute of 

Standards and Technology Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1989. 

Public Law 100-5 19 AN ACT 

To authorize appropriations to the Secretary of Commerce for the programs of the 

National Bureau of Standards for fiscal year 1989, and for other purposes. 

TITLE I—NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY 

AUTHORIZATION 

SECTION 101. SHORT TITLE. 

This title may be cited as the "National Institute of Standards and Technology Authorization Act for Fiscal 

Year 1989". SEC. 102. AUTHORiZATIONS FOR PROGRAM ACTIVITIES. 

(a) AUTHORIZATIONS. —There are authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary of Commerce 

(hereafter in this Act referred to as the "Secretary"), for fiscal year 1989, to carry out activities performed by 

the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the sums set forth in the following line items: 

(I) Measurement Research and Standards, $43,220,000. 

(2) Materials Science and Engineering, $24,054,000. 

(3) Engineering Measurements and Standards, $49,098,000. 

(4) Computer Science and Technology, $1 1,000,000. 

(5) Research Support Activities, $20,867,000. 

(6) Cold Neutron Source Facility, $6,500,000 (for a total authorization of $19,500,000). 

(7) Technology Services, $3,300,000. 

(b) LIMITATIONS. —Notwithstanding any other provision of this or any other Act— 

(I) of the total of the amounts authorized under subsection (a), $2,000,000 is authorized only for 

steel technology; 

(2) of the total amount authorized under paragraph (3) of subsection (a)— 

(A) $4,000,000 is authorized only for the Center for Building Technology, and 

(B) $6,000,000 is authorized only for the Center for Fire Research, and the two Centers shall not be 

merged; 

844 
(3) of the total amount authorized under paragraph (5) of subsection (a), $7,500,000 is authorized 

only for the technical competence fund; and 

(4) of the amount authorized under paragraph (7) of subsection (a)— 

(A) $3,000,000 is authorized only for the support of Regional Centers for the Transfer of Manufacturing 

Technology, and Assistance to State Technology Programs; 

(B) $300,000 is authorized only for the evaluation of nonenergy-related inventions and related technology extension activities; and 

(C) funds authorized under subparagraph (A) shall be used only to award, amend, or renew research 

cooperative agreements entered into pursuant to the competitive process established by the National Bureau 

of Standards for this program (53 Fed. Reg. 27060; July 18, 1988). 

(c) TRANSFERS. — (I) Funds may be transferred among the line items listed in subsection (a), so long as the net funds transferred to or from any line item do not exceed 10 percent of the amount authorized for that line item in such 

subsection and the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate and the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology of the House of Representatives are notified in advance of any such 

transfer. 

(2) In addition, the Secretary may propose transfers to or from any line item exceeding 10 percent of the 

amount authorized for the line item in subsection (a); but such proposed transfer may not be made— 

(A) unless a full and complete explanation of any such proposed transfer and the reason therefore are transmitted in writing to the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the President of the Senate, and the 

appropriate authorizing committees of the House of Representatives and the Senate, and 

(B) 30 calendar days have passed following the transmission of such written explanation. 

(d) PUBLICATION IN FEDERAL REGISTER. —The requirement of section 25(c)(2) of the Act of 

March 3, 1901, shall be considered to have been met by the publication made by the National Bureau of 

Standards on July 18, 1988 (53 Fed. Reg. 27060). SEC. 103. UNDER SECRETARY FOR TECHNOLOGY. 

In addition to any sums otherwise authorized by this title, there are authorized to be appropriated to the 

Secretary for fiscal year 1989— 

(I) $1 ,000,000 for the activities of the Office of the Under Secretary of Commerce for Technology, as established in section 201(a); and 

(2) $2,000,000 for the activities of the Office of Technology Policy, as established in such section. SEC. 104. JAPANESE TECHNICAL LITERATURE. 

In addition to any sums otherwise authorized by this title, there is authorized to be appropriated to the 

Secretary for fiscal year 1989 the sum of $1,090,000 to carry Out the purposes of the Japanese Technical 

Literature Act of 1986 (Public Law 99-382; 100 Stat. 811). SEC. 105. SALARY ADJUSTMENTS. 

In addition to any sums otherwise authorized by this title, there are authorized to be appropriated to the 

Secretary for fiscal year 1989 such additional sums as may be necessary to make any adjustments in salary, 

pay, retirement, and other employee benefits which may be provided for by law. SEC. 106. AVAILABILITY OF APPROPRIATIONS. 

Appropriations made under the authority provided in this title shall remain available for obligation, for 

expenditure, or for obligation and expenditure for periods specified in the Acts making such appropriations. SEC. 107. RESEARCH INFORMATION CENTER. 

The Research Information Center of the National Bureau of Standards shall be maintained as a governmental activity under the National Institute of Standards and Technology. SEC. 108. EVALUATED ENGINEERING DATA STUDY. 

Within 6 months after the date of the enactment of this Act, the Director of the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology shall conduct a study of needs within the private and public sectors for evaluated 

engineering data, and shall submit a report to the Congress making recommendations concerning the appro845 
pilate roles of the National Institute of Standards and Technology, other government agencies, professional 

societies, and trade associations in the collection, evaluation, and dissemination of such data. Such recommendations shall, among other things, address plans for the dissemination of the results of the study through 

data bases, and plans for incorporating high quality results from other countries. SEC. 109. TECHNOLOGY SERVICES. In addition to such other technology services and technology extension activities which may be mandated 

or authorized by law, and in order to help improve the use of technology by small and medium-sized industrial firms within the United States, the Director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology, as appropriate, shall— 

(I) work directly with States, local governments, and other appropriate organizations to provide for ex- tended distribution of Standard Reference Materials, Standard Reference Data, calibrations, and related technical services and to help transfer other expertise and technology to the States and to small businesses and 

other businesses within the States; 

(2) evaluate those inventions from small businesses or individuals which have a significant potential for 

improving competitiveness; 

(3) provide support for workshops on technical and entrepreneurial topics and share information developed 

through the Malcolm Baldrige Quality Award Program; and 

(4) work with other Federal agencies to provide technical and related assistance to the States and busi- nesses within the States. SEC. 110. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER. 

Within 6 months after the date of the enactment of this Act, the Director of the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology shall report to the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the 

Senate and the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology of the House of Representatives on domestic 

technology transfer accomplishments, trends, and plans since 1986 at the National Bureau of Standards and 

the National Institute of Standards and Technology. Such report shall describe with examples the types of 

technology transfer undertaken by the National Bureau of Standards or the National Institute of Standards 

and Technology, the amount of funds devoted to these efforts, and patent and licensing activities related to the National Bureau of Standards and the National Institute of Standards and Technology research results. 

The report shall describe the division of technology transfer activities between the Gaithersburg, Maryland, 

and Boulder, Colorado, sites of the National Institute of Standards and Technology. The merits of establishing a technology transfer office in Boulder or of giving the Boulder laboratories increased technology transfer responsibilities shall also be considered. SEC. Ill. 

ANNUAL BUDGET SUBMISSION. 

The National Institute of Standards and Technology shall annually submit to the Congress, at the time of the 

release of the President's budget, a three year budget estimate for the Institute, including funding estimates 

for each major account and new initiative. SEC. 112. 

INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS. 

(a) PROGRAM. —The Secretary, acting through the Director of the National Institute of Standards 

and Technology and other appropriate officials, shall seek funding for and establish, within 6 months after 

the date of the enactment of this Act, a program to assist other countries in the development of their domestic standards which are compatible with standards in general use in the United States. After the program is 

established, it shall be funded through voluntary contributions from the private sector to fully reimburse the 

United States for expenses incurred during fiscal years 1989 and 1990. The program shall begin on a pilot 

basis focusing on one or two countries or groups of countries which are major United States trading partners 

846 
and have expressed interest in such program. The Secretary shall ensure that contributions which are ear- marked by country are spent to assist the development of standards by that country or group of countries. 

(b) LONG-TERM PLAN. —No later than June 30, 1989, the Secretary shall submit to the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology of the House of Representatives and the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate a long-term plan for assistance under this section for each nation or group of nations which annually has imports of at least $1,000,000,000 from the United States (or has the 

potential for being a major importer from the United States) and which desires such assistance. The plan 

shall include a description of the resources needed to provide such assistance, the appropriate and likely sources of such funds, and the appropriate relationship between the program established under this section 

and private sector standards organizations. Special consideration is to be given to the feasibility of establishing a data base and other methods for making standards information developed in cooperation with one 

country available to other countries. 

TITLE 11—TECHNOLOGY ADMINISTRATION IN THE DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

SUBTITLE A—TECHNOLOGY ADMINISTRATION SEC. 201. TECHNOLOGY ADMINISTRATION. 

(a) ESTABLISHMENT. —Section 5(a) of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980 

(15 U.S.C. 3704(a)) is amended to read as follows: 

(a) ESTABLISHMENT. —There is established in the Department of Commerce a Technology Administration, which shall operate in accordance with the provisions, findings, and purposes of this Act. The 

Technology Administration shall include— 

"(I) the National Institute of Standards and Technology; 

"(2) the National Technical Information Service; and 

"(3) a policy analysis office, which shall be known as the Office of Technology Policy." 

(b) UNDER SECRETARY AND ASSISTANT SECRETARY. —Section 5(b) of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980 (15 U.S.C. 3704(b)) is amended to read as follows: 

(b) UNDER SECRETARY AND ASSISTANT SECRETARY. —The President shall appoint, by and 

with the advice and consent of the Senate, to the extent provided for in appropriations Acts— 

"(I) an Under Secretary of Commerce for Technology, who shall be compensated at the rate provided for 

level 111 of the Executive Schedule in section 5314 of title 5, United States Code; and 

"(2) an Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Technology Policy, who shall serve as policy analyst for the 

Under Secretary." 

(c) DUTIES. —Section 5(c) of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980 (15 U.S.C. 

3704(c)) is amended— 

(I) by redesignating paragraphs (I) through (10) as paragraphs (5) through (14), respectively; 

(2) by striking "Assistant Secretary, on a continuing basis, shall—" and inserting in lieu thereof "Under 

Secretary, as appropriate, shall— 

"(I) manage the Technology Administration and supervise its agencies, programs, and activities; 

"(2) conduct technology policy analyses to improve United States industrial productivity, technology, and innovation, and cooperate with United States industry in the improvement of its productivity, technology, and ability to compete successfully in world markets; 

"(3) carry out any functions formerly assigned to the Office of Productivity, Technology, and Innovation 

"(4) assist in the implementation of the Metric Conversion Act of 1975;" and 

(3) in paragraph (10), as redesignated by paragraph (I) of this subsection, by striking "Assistant Secretary" and inserting in lieu thereof "Under Secretary". 

(d) CONFORMING AMENDMENTS. — 

(I) Section 4 of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980 (15 U.S.C. 3703) is 

amended— 

(A) in paragraph (1), by striking "Productivity, Technology, and Innovation" and inserting in lieu 

thereof "Technology Policy"; and 

(B) by amending paragraph (3) to read as follows: 

847 
"(3) 'Under Secretary' means the Under Secretary of Commerce for Technology appointed under section 

5(b)(l).". 

(2) Section 5(d)(l) of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980 (15 U.S.C. 3704(d)(l)) is 

amended by striking "shall establish and, through the National Technical Information Service and" and inserting in lieu thereof "and the Under Secretary shall establish, and through the National Technical Information Service and with the cooperation of". 

(3) Section 1 l(g)(I) of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980 (15 U.S.C. 3710(g)(l)) 

is amended by inserting "through the Under Secretary, and" after "Secretary," 

(4) Section 5314 of title 5, United States Code, is amended by adding at the end the following item: 

"Under Secretary of Commerce for Technology." 

(e) TRANSITION. —The individual serving as the Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Productivity, 

Technology, and Innovation immediately before the date of enactment of this Act shall serve as Acting Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Technology Policy until the Assistant Secretary takes office. 

SUBTITLE B—NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE SEC. 211. 

SHORT TITLE. 

This subtitle may be cited as the "National Technical Information Act of 1988". SEC. 212. 

NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE. 

(a) POWERS. —(I) The Secretary of Commerce, acting through the Director of the National Technical Information Service (hereafter in this subtitle referred to as the "Director") is authorized to do the following: 

(A) Enter into such contracts, cooperative agreements, joint ventures, and other transactions, in accor- dance with all relevant provisions of Federal law applicable to such contracts and agreements, and under 

reasonable terms and conditions, as may be necessary in the conduct of the business of the National Technical Information Service (hereafter in this subtitle referred to as the "Service"). 

(B) In addition to the authority regarding fees contained in section 2 of the Act entitled "An Act to provide for the dissemination of technological, scientific, and engineering information to American business 

and industry, and for other purposes" enacted September 9, 1950 (15 U.S.C. 1152), retain and, subject to appropriations Acts, utilize its net revenues to the extent necessary to implement the plan submitted under 

subsection (f)(3)(D). 

(C) Enter into contracts for the performance of part or all of the functions performed by the Promotion 

Division of the Service prior to the date of the enactment of this Act. The details of any such contract, and a statement of its effect on the operations and personnel of the Service, shall be provided to the appropriate 

committees of the Congress 30 days in advance of the execution of such contract. 

(D) Employ such personnel as may be necessary to conduct the business of the Service. An increase or 

decrease in the personnel of the Service shall not affect or be affected by any ceilings on the number or grade of personnel. 

(2) The functions and activities of the Service specified in subsection (e) (I) through (6) are permanent 

Federal functions to be carried out by the Secretary through the Service and its employees, and shall not be 

transferred from the Service, by contract or otherwise, to the private sector on a permanent or temporary 

basis without express approval of the Congress. Functions or activities— 

(A) for the procurement of supplies, materials, and equipment by the Service; 

(B) referred to in paragraph (l)(C); or (C) to be performed through joint ventures or cooperative agreements which do not result in a reduction 

in the Federal workforce of the affected programs of the service, shall not be considered functions or activities for purposes of this paragraph. 

848 
(3) For the purposes of this subsection, the term "net revenues" means the excess of revenues and receipts 

from any source, other than royalties and other income described in section 1 3(a)(4) of the Stevenson-Wyiler Technology Innovation Act of 1980 (15 U.S.C. 3710c(a)(4)), over operating expenses. 

(4) Section 11(h) of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980 is repealed. 

(b) DIRECTOR OF THE SERVICE. —The management of the Service shall be vested in a Director 

who shall report to the Under Secretary of Commerce for Technology and the Secretary of Commerce. 

(c) ADVISORY BOARD. —(I) There is established the Advisory Board of the National Technical 

Information Service, which shall be composed of a chairman and four other members appointed by the Secretary. 

(2) In appointing members of the Advisory Board the Secretary shall solicit recommendations from the 

major users and beneficiaries of the Service's activities and shall select individuals experienced in providing or utilizing technical information. 

(3) The Advisory Board shall review the general policies and operations of the Service, including policies 

in connection with fees and charges for its services, and shall advise the Secretary and the Director with 

respect thereto. 

(4) The Advisory Board shall meet at the call of the Secretary, but not less often than once each six 

months. 

(d) AUDITS. —The Secretary of Commerce shall provide for annual independent audits of the Service's financial statements beginning with fiscal year 1988, to be conducted in accordance with generally 

accepted accounting principles. 

(e) FUNCTIONS. —The Secretary of Commerce, acting through the Service, shall— 

(1) establish and maintain a permanent repository of nonclassified scientific, technical, and engineering 

information; 

(2) cooperate and coordinate its operations with other Government scientific, technical, and engineering 

information programs; 

(3) make selected bibliographic information products available in a timely manner to depository libraries as part of the Depository Library Program of the Government Printing Office; 

(4) in conjunction with the private sector as appropriate, collect, translate into English, and disseminate 

unclassified foreign scientific, technical, and engineering information; 

(5) implement new methods or media for the dissemination of scientific, technical, and engineering information; and 

(6) carry out the functions and activities of the Secretary under the Act entitled "An Act to provide for the 

dissemination of technological, scientific, and engineering information to American business and industry, 

and for other purposes" enacted September 9, 1950, and the functions and activities of the Secretary performed through the National Technical Information Service as of the date of enactment of this Act under the 

Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980. 

(f) NOTIFICATION OF CONGRESS. — (I) The Secretary of Commerce and the Director shall keep the appropriate committees of Congress fully 

and currently informed about all activities related to the carrying out of the functions of the Service, including changes in fee policies. 

(2) Within 90 days after the date of the enactment of this Act, the Secretary of Commerce shall submit to the Congress a report on the current fee structure of the Service, including an explanation of the basis for the 

fees, taking into consideration all applicable costs, and the adequacy of the fees, along with reasons for the 

declining sales at the Service of scientific, technical, and engineering publications. Such report shall explain 

any actions planned or taken to increase such sales at reasonable fees. 

(3) The Secretary shall submit an annual report to the Congress which shall— 

(A) summarize the operations of the Service during the preceding year, including financial details and 

staff levels broken down by major activities; 

(B) detail the operating plan of the Service, including specific expense and staff needs, for the upcoming year; 

(C) set forth details of modernization progress made in the preceding year; 

(D) describe the long-term modernization plans of the Service; and 

(E) include the results of the most recent annual audit carried out under subsection (d). 

849 
(4) The Secretary shall also give the Congress detailed advance notice of not less than 30 calendar days 

of— 

(A) any proposed reduction-in-force; 

(B) any joint venture or cooperative agreement which involves a financial incentive to the joint venturer or contractor; and 

(C) any change in the operating plan submitted under paragraph (3)(B) which would result in a variation from such plan with respect to expense levels of more than 10 percent. 

TITLE 111—MISCELLANEOUS AMENDMENTS TO STE VENSON-WYDLER 

TECHNOLOGY INNOVATION ACT OF 1980 SEC. 301. COOPERATIVE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT AGREEMENTS. 

Section 12 of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980 (15 U.S.C. 3710a) is amended— 

(1) in subsection (a)(2), by striking "at the laboratory and other inventions" and inserting in lieu thereof 

"or other intellectual property developed at the laboratory and other inventions or other intellectual property"; and 

(2) in subsection (b)— 

(A) by striking "and" at the end of paragraphs (2) and (3); 

(B) by redesignating paragraph (4) as paragraph (5); and 

(C) by inserting after paragraph (3) the following new paragraph: 

"(4) determine rights in other intellectual property developed under an agreement entered into under subsection (a)(l); and". SEC. 302. REWARDS. 

Section 13(l) of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980 (15 U.S.C. 37l0b(l)) is 

amended by inserting "computer software", after "inventions, innovations," SEC. 303. DISTRIBUTION OF ROYALTIES. 

(a) Section 14(a)(l)(A) of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980 (15 U.S.C. 

3710c(a)(I)(A)) is amended— 

(I) in clause (i), by striking "was an employee of the agency at the time the invention was made" and 

inserting in lieu thereof "has assigned his or her rights in the invention to the United States"; and 

(2) in clause (ii), by striking "who were employed by the agency at the time the invention was made and 

whose names appear on licensed inventions" and inserting in lieu thereof "under clause (i)". 

(b) This section shall be effective as of October 20, 1986. 

TITLE IV—DRUG-FREE WORKPLACE SEC. 401. DRUG-FREE WORKPLACE. 

(a) No department, agency, or instrumentality of the United States receiving funds authorized to be 

appropriated under this Act for fiscal year 1989 or under any other Act authorizing appropriations for fiscal 

year 1989 for the National Institute of Standards and Technology (hereafter in this section referred to as the 

"Institute"), shall obligate or expend any such funds, unless the Institute has in place, and will continue to administer in good faith, a written policy designed to ensure that all of its workplaces are free from the 

illegal use, possession, or distribution of controlled substances (as defined in the Controlled Substances Act) 

by the officers and employees of the Institute. 

(b) No funds so authorized to be appropriated to the Institute for fiscal year 1989 shall be available 

for payment in connection with any grant, contract, or other agreement, unless the recipient of such grant, 

contractor, or party to such agreement, as the case may be, has in place and will continue to administer in 

good faith a written policy, adopted by such recipient, contractor, or party's board of directors or other 

governing authority, satisfactory to the Director of the Institute, designed to ensure that all of the workplaces 

of such recipient, Contractor, or party are free from the illegal use, possession, or distribution of controlled 

substances (as defined in the Controlled Substances Act) by the officers and employees of such recipient, 

contractor, or party. 

850 
November 17, 1988, 102 Stat. 4073 (Public Law 100-680—-tOOth Congress, 2d session) 

Steel and Aluminum Energy Conservation and Technology Competitiveness Act of 1988. 

Public Law 100-680 

AN ACT 

To promote energy conservation and technology competitiveness in the American steel and 

aluminum industries. SEC. 7. (102 Stat. 4076) The National Institute of Standards and Technology, through its Institute for Materials Science and Engineering and, as appropriate, in coordination with the Department of Energy and other 

Federal agencies, shall conduct an expanded program of steel and aluminum research to provide necessary 

instrumentation and measurement research and development in support of activities conducted under this 

Act. 

November 19, 1988, 102 Stat. 4613 (Public Law 100-697—-tOOth Congress, 2d session) National Superconductivity and Competitiveness Act of 1988. 

Public Law 100-697 

AN ACT 

To establish a national Federal program effort in close collaboration with the private sector to develop as rapidly as possible the applications of superconductivity to enhance 

the Nation's economic competitiveness and strategic well-being, and for other purposes. SEC. 5. (102 Stat. 4615) In pursuance of the goals of this Act, the National Institute of Standards and 

Technology shall promote fundamental research and materials standards to accelerate the use and application 

of the new superconducting materials, and shall utilize the Superconductivity Center Focusing on Electronic 

Applications at the National Institute of Standards and Technology in Boulder, Colorado. 

November 21, 1989, 103 Stat. 988 (Public Law l0l-l62—lolth Congress, 1st session) Departments of 

Commerce, Justice, and State, the Judiciary, and Related Agencies Appropriations act, 1990 Appropriations 

Act, 1990. 

Public Law 101-162 

AN ACT 

Making appropriations for the Departments of Commerce, Justice, and State, the Judiciary, 

and related agencies for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1990, and for other purposes. 

(103 Stat. 993) National Institute of Standards and Technology. Scientific and Technical Research and Services. For necessary expenses of the core programs of the National Institute of Standards and Technology, 

$144,809,000, to remain available until expended, of which not to exceed $3,430,000 may be transferred to the "Working Capital Fund"; and of which not to exceed $1,300,000 shall be available for construction of 

research facilities; and in addition for grants for regional centers for the transfer of manufacturing technology as authorized by section 5121 of the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988, $7,500,000, to re- main available until expended; and in addition for expenses of the Advanced Technology Program as authorized by section 5131 of the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988, $10,000,000, to remain available until expended; and in addition for technology transfer extension services pursuant to section 5 121 of 

the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988, $1,300,000, to remain available until expended. 

***** 

851 
December II, 1989, 103 Stat. 1859 (Public Law 101-218—lOith Congress, 1st session) Renewable Energy 

and Energy Efficiency Technology Competitiveness Act of 1989. 

Public Law 101-2 18 AN ACT 

To provide Federal assistance and leadership to a program of research, development, 

and demonstration of renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies, and for other purposes. 

Sec. 6. (3) (103 Stat. 1863) Advisory Committee. The Secretary shall establish an Advisory Committee on Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Joint Ventures.... to advise the Secretary on the development of 

the solicitation and evaluation criteria for joint ventures....The Secretary shall appoint members to the Advisory committee, including at least one member representing-....the National Institute of Standards and Technology. 

August 10, 1990, 104 Stat. 405 (Public Law 101-352—lOIth Congress, 2d session) Fire Safe Cigarette Act 

of 1990. 

Public Law 101-352 

AN ACT 

To direct the completion of the research recommended by the Technical Study Group on Cigarette and Little Cigar Fire Safety and to provide for an assessment of the practicality 

of a cigarette fire safety performance standard. SEC. 2 (a) (104 Stat. 405) Center for Fire Research.— 

At the request of the Consumer Product Safety Commission, the National Institute for Standards and 

Technology's Center for Fire Research shall— 

(I) develop a standard test method to determine cigarette ignition propensity, 

(2) compile performance data for cigarettes using the standard test method developed under paragraph (I), 

and 

(3) conduct laboratory studies on and computer modeling of ignition physics to develop valid, userfriendly predictive capability. SEC. 3. (a) (104 Stat. 406) Establishment.— 

There is established the Technical Advisory Group to advise and work with the Consumer Product Safety 

Commission and National Institute for Standards and Technology's Center for Fire Research on the implementation of this Act. SEC. 5. (a) (104 Stat. 406) In General.— 

Any information provided to the National Institute for Standards and Technology's Center for Fire Research...is designated as trade secret or confidential information... 

August 18, 1990, 104 Stat. 484 (Public Law 101-380——lOIth Congress, 2d session) Oil Pollution Act of 

1990. 

Public Law 101-380 

AN ACT 

To establish limitations on liability for damages resulting from oil pollution, to establish a fund for the payment of compensation for such damages, and for other purposes. 

Title VIt-Oil Pollution Research and Development Program. 

852 
SEC. 7001. 

(a) (104 Stat. 559) Interagency Coordinating Committee on Oil Pollution Research. 

(3) Membership.-The Interagency Committee shall include representatives from the Department of Com- merce (including the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the National Institute of Standards and Technology)... 

(b) Oil Pollution Research and Technology Plan.— 

(2) ... The National Institute of Standards and Technology shall provide the Interagency Committee with 

advice and guidance on issues relating to quality assurance and standards measurements relating to its activities under this section. 

November 5, 1990, 104 Stat. 1388 (Public Law l0l-508—-lolth Congress, 2d session) Omnibus Budget 

Reconciliation Act of 1990. 

Public Law 101-508 

AN ACT 

To provide for reconciliation pursuant to section 4 of the concurrent resolution on the budget 

for fiscal year 1991. SEC. 10205. (104 Stat. 1388-394) National Institute of Standards and Technology Cost Recovery Study. 

(a) The Secretary of Commerce shall undertake a study of current practices at, and any suggested 

improvements consistent with the mission of, the National Institute of Standards and Technology for recovering the costs of services and materials provided to private and nonprofit organizations, including services 

provided on a proprietary basis to users of Institute facilities. 

November 5, 1990, 104 Stat. 2101 (Public Law 101-515—-lOIth Congress, 2d session) Departments of 

Commerce, Justice, and State, the Judiciary, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 1991. 

Public Law 101-5 15 AN ACT 

Making appropriations for the Departments of Commerce, Justice, and State, the Judiciary, and 

related agencies for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1991, and for other purposes. 

(104 Stat. 2 106-7) National Institute of Standards and Technology. Scientific and Technical Research and 

Services. For necessary expenses of the National Institute of Standards and Technology, $166,228,000, to remain available until expended, of which not to exceed $9,772,000 may be transferred to the "Working 

Capital Fund"; and of which not to exceed $10,095,000 shall be available for construction of research facilities. Industrial Technology Services. For necessary expenses of the Regional Centers for the transfer of Manufactunng Technology, and the Advanced Technology and State Extension Services programs of the National Institute of Standards and Technology, $49,100,000, to remain available until expended. Sec. 105. (a) 

(104 Stat. 2108) Funds appropriated by this Act to the National Institute of Standards and Technology of the 

Department of Commerce for the Advanced Technology Program shall be available for award to companies or to joint ventures under the terms and conditions set forth in subsection (b) of this section, in addition to any terms and conditions established by rules issued by the Secretary of Commerce. 

853 
November 15, 1990, 104 Stat. 2399 (Public Law l01-549---—lOlst, Congress, 2d session) Clean Air Act, 

Amendments. 

Public Law 101-549 

AN ACT 

To amend the Clean Air Act to provide for attainment and maintenance of health protective 

national ambient air quality standards, and for other purposes. SEC. 901. (b) (104 Stat. 2701-2702) Title IX-Clean Air Research. 

"(A) The creation of an Interagency Task Force to coordinate such program. The Task Force shall include representatives of the ..., the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

November IS, 1990, 104 Stat. 2814 (Public Law l0l-574----lOlth Congress, 2d session) Small Business 

Administration Reauthorization and Amendments Act of 1990. 

Public Law 101-574 

AN ACT 

To amend the Small Business Act and the Small Business Investment Act of 1958, 

and for other purposes. SEC. 232. (104 Stat. 2824) Pilot Technology Access Program. 

(a) Establishment.-The Small Business Administration, in consultation with the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology and the National Technical Information Service, shall establish a Pilot Technology Access Program (hereafter in this Section referred to as the "Program"), for making grants under this 

section to a maximum of 5 States. 

November 16, 1990, 104 Stat. 2943 (Public Law 101-592—-lOith Congress, 2d session) Fastener Quality 

Act. 

Public Law 101-592 

AN ACT 

To require that certain fasteners sold in commerce conform to the specifications to which they are represented to be manufactured, to provide for accreditation of laboratories 

engaged in fastener testing, to require inspection, testing, and certification, in accordance with 

standardized methods, of fasteners used in critical applications to increase fastener quality and 

reduce the danger of fastener failure, and for other purposes. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, 

[*1] SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. 

This Act may be cited as the "Fastener Quality Act". 

[*3] SEC. 3. DEFINITIONS. 

854 
As used in this Act, the term— 

(4) "Director" means the Director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology; 

(8) "Institute" means the National Institute of Standard and Technology; 

(13) "Secretary" means the Secretary of Commerce; SEC. 6. LABORATORY ACCREDITATION. 

(a) ESTABLISHMENT OF ACCREDITATION PROGRAM. —(I) Within 180 days after the date of 

enactment of this Act, the Secretary, acting through the Director, shall issue regulations which shall include— 

(A) procedures and conditions, including sampling procedures referred to in section 5, for the accreditation by the Institute of laboratories engaged in the inspection and testing of fasteners under section 5; 

(B) procedures and conditions (which shall be consistent with the procedures and conditions established 

under subparagraph (A)), using to the extent practicable the requirements of national or international consen- sus documents intended to govern the operation of accreditation bodies, under which private entities may 

apply for approval by the Secretary to engage directly in the accreditation of laboratories in accordance with 

the requirements of this Act; and 

(C) conditions (which shall be consistent with the procedures and conditions established under subparagraph (A)), under which the accreditation of foreign laboratories by their governments or organizations rec- ognized by the Director shall be deemed to satisfy the laboratory accreditation requirements of this section. 

(2) Upon establishing a laboratory accreditation program under paragraph (I), the Secretary shall publish a notice in the Federal Register stating that the Secretary is prepared to accept applications for accreditation of 

such laboratories. 

(3) No accreditation provided under the terms of this subsection shall be effective for a period of greater 

than 3 years. 

(b) LABORATORY ACCREDITATION PROCEDURES. —Existing Institute accreditation procedures stated in part 7 of title 15, Code of Federal Regulations, as in effect on the date of enactment of this 

Act, supplemented as the Secretary considers necessary, shall be used to accredit laboratories under the accreditation program established under subsection (a). 

(c) ENSURING COMPLIANCE. —(I) The Secretary shall ensure that— 

(A) private entities accrediting laboratories under procedures and conditions established under subsection (a)(l)(B) comply with such procedures and conditions, and 

(B) laboratories accredited by such private entities, or by foreign governments pursuant to subsection 

(a)( I )(C), comply with the requirements for such accreditation. 

(2) The Secretary may require any such private entity or laboratory to provide all records and materials 

that may be necessary to allow the Secretary to carry out this subsection. 

(d) OPERATION OF LABORATORY ACCREDITATION PROGRAM. — 

(I) The Director may hire such contractors as are necessary to carry out the accreditation program established under subsection (a). 

(2) Costs to the Institute and to the Secretary for the establishment and operation of the accreditation 

program under this section shall be fully reimbursable to the Institute or to the Secretary, as appropriate, 

through fees or other charges for accreditation services under such program. 

(e) RECOMMENDATIONS TO CONSENSUS STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS. —The Director 

shall periodically transmit to appropriate consensus standards organizations any information or recommendations that may be useful in the establishment or application by such organizations of standards and specifications for fasteners. 

November 16, 1990, 104 Stat. 3231 (Public Law lOl-6l4--—-l0lth Congress, 2d session) National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program Reauthorization Act. 

Public Law 101-614 

AN ACT 

To authorize appropriations for the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977, and for other purposes. 

855 
SEC. 4. (I) (104 Stat. 3232) Definitions. ... "(7) The term 'Program agencies' means the Federal Emergency Management Agency, the United States Geological Survey, the National Science Foundation, and the 

National Institute of Standards and Technology." SEC. 5. (b)(2)(A) (104 Stat. 3233) "(iii) prepare and disseminate widely, with the assistance of the National 

Institute of Standards and Technology, other Federal agencies, and private sector groups, information on 

building codes and practices for structures and lifelines; SEC. 5. (b)(5) (104 Stat. 3236) National Institute of Standards and Technology.-The National Institute of 

Standards and Technology shall be responsible for carrying Out research and development to improve building codes and standards and practices for structures and lifelines. In carrying out this paragraph, the Director 

of the National Institute of Standards and Technology shall— 

(A) work closely with national standards and model building code organizations, in conjunction with the 

Agency, to promote the implementation of research results; 

(B) promote better building practices among architects and engineers; and 

(C) work closely with national standards organizations to develop seismic safety standards and practices 

for new and existing lifelines. SEC. 8. (a)(l) (104 Stat. 3237-8) Adoption of Standards. 

The President shall adopt, not later than December 1, 1994, standards for assessing and enhancing the 

seismic safety of existing buildings constructed for or leased by the Federal Government which were designed and constructed without adequate seismic design and construction standards. Such standards shall be 

developed by the Interagency Committee on Seismic Safety in Construction, whose chairman is the Director 

of the National Institute of Standards and Technology or his designee, and which shall work in consultation 

with appropriate private sector organizations. 

(b) Lifelines.-The Director of the Agency, in consultation with the Director of the National Institute 

of Standards and Technology, shall submit to the Congress, not later that June 30, 1992, a plan, including 

precise timetables and budget estimates, for developing and adopting, in consultation with appropriate private 

sector organizations, design and construction standards for lifelines. The plan shall include recommendations 

of ways Federal regulatory authority could be used to expedite the implementation of such standards." SEC. II. (104 Stat. 3239) Post-Earthquake Investigations Program. ... The Director of the Survey is authorized to utilize earthquake expertise from the Agency, the National Science Foundation, the National Institute 

of Standards and Technology, other Federal agencies, and private contractors, on a reimbursable basis, in the 

conduct of such earthquake investigations. At a minimum, investigations under this section shall include— 

(I) analysis by the National Science Foundation and the United States Geological Survey of the causes of 

the earthquake and the nature of the resulting ground motion; 

(2) analysis by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute of Standards and Technology of 

the behavior of structures and lifelines, both those that were damaged and those that were undamaged; and SEC. 14. (b) (104 Stat. 3242) Study on Improving Earthquake Mitigation.— ... The Director of the Federal 

Emergency Management Agency shall appoint, in consultation with the United States Geological Survey, the 

National Institute of Standards and Technology, and the National Science Foundation, a panel of experts in 

relevant fields and activities to undertake such study 

***** 

December 9, 1991, 105 Stat. 1594 (Public Law 102-194——-lO2nd Congress, 1st session) High-Performance 

Computing Act of 1991. 

Public Law 102-194 

AN ACT 

To provide for a coordinated Federal program to ensure continued United States leadership 

in high-performance computing. 

856 
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of Anzerica in Congress 

assembled, 

[*1] SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. 

This Act may be cited as the "High-Performance Computing Act of 1991". 

TITLE 11—AGENCY ACTIVITIES 

[*2041 SEC. 204. 

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE ACTIVITIES. 

(a) General Responsibilities. As part of the Program described in title 1— 

(I) the National Institute of Standards and Technology shall— 

(A) conduct basic and applied measurement research needed to support various high-performance computing systems and networks; 

(B) develop and propose standards and guidelines, and develop measurement techniques and test methods, for the interoperability of high-performance computing systems in networks and for common user interfaces to systems; and 

(C) be responsible for developing benchmark tests and standards for high-performance computing systems and software; and 

(2) the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration shall conduct basic and applied research in 

weather prediction and ocean sciences, particularly in development of new forecast models, in computational 

fluid dynamics, and in the incorporation of evolving computer architectures and networks into the systems 

that carry out agency missions. 

(b) High-Performance Computing and Network Security. Pursuant to the Computer Security Act of 

1987 (Public Law 100-235; 101 Stat. 1724), the National Institute of Standards and Technology shall be 

responsible for developing and proposing standards and guidelines needed to assure the cost-effective security and privacy of sensitive information in Federal computer systems. 

(c) Study of Impact of Federal Procurement Regulations. 

(1) The Secretary of Commerce shall conduct a study to— (A) evaluate the impact of Federal procurement regulations that require that contractors providing soft- ware to the Federal Government share the rights to proprietary software development tools that the contrac- tors use to develop the software; and 

(B) determine whether such regulations discourage development of improved software development 

tools and techniques. 

(2) The Secretary of Commerce shall, within one year after the date of enactment of this Act, report to the Congress regarding the results of the study conducted under paragraph (I). 

(d) Authorization of Appropriations. From sums otherwise authorized to be appropriated, there are authorized to be appropriated— 

(I) to the National Institute of Standards and Technology for the purposes of the Program $3,000,000 for 

fiscal year 1992; $4,000,000 for fiscal year 1993; $5,000,000 for fiscal year 1994; $6,000,000 for fiscal year 

1995; and $7,000,000 for fiscal year 1996; and 

(2) to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration for the purposes of the Program $2,500,000 

for fiscal year 1992; $3,000,000 for fiscal year 1993; $3,500,000 for fiscal year 1994; $4,000,000 for fiscal 

year 1995; and $4,500,000 for fiscal year 1996. year 1994; $6,500,000 for fiscal year 1995; and $7,000,000 

for fiscal year 1996. on $1,500,000 for fiscal year 1992; $1,700,000 for fiscal year 1993; $1,900,000 for 

fiscal year 1994; $2,100,000 for fiscal year 1995; and $2,300,000 for fiscal year 1996. 

857 
SEC. 208 FOSTERING UNITED STATES COMPETITIVENESS IN HIGH-PERFORMANCE COMPUTING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES. 

(c) Review of Supercomputer Agreement.— 

(I) Report. The Under Secretary for Technology Administration of the Department of Commerce (in this 

subsection referred to as the "Under Secretary") shall conduct a comprehensive study of the revised 

"Procedures to Introduce Supercomputers" and the accompanying exchange of letters between the United 

States and Japan dated June 15, 1990 (commonly referred to as the "Supercomputer Agreement") to determine whether the goals and objectives of such Agreement have been met and to analyze the effects of such 

Agreement on United States and Japanese supercomputer manufacturers. Within 180 days after the date of 

enactment of this Act, the Under Secretary shall submit a report to Congress containing the results of such 

study. 

(2) Consultation. In conducting the comprehensive study under this subsection, the Under Secretary shall 

consult with appropriate Federal agencies and departments and with United States manufacturers of supercomputers and other appropriate private sector entities. 

February 14, 1992, 106 Stat. 7 (Public Law l02-245—-lO2nd Congress, 2nd session) American Technology 

Preeminence Act of 1991. 

Public Law 102-245 

AN ACT 

To authorize appropriations for the National Institute of Standards and Technology and 

the Technology Administration of the Department of Commerce, and for other purposes. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, 

SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. 

This Act may be cited as the "American Technology Preeminence Act of 1991". 

TITLE I—DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY SEC. 101. 

SHORT TITLE. 

This title may be cited as the "Technology Administration Authorization Act of 1991". SEC. 102. STATEMENT OF POLICY. 

Congress finds that in order to help United States industries to speed the development of new products and 

processes so as to maintain the economic competitiveness of the Nation, it is necessary to strengthen the 

programs and activities of the Department of Commerce's Technology Administration and National Institute 

of Standards and Technology. SEC. 104. NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY. 

(a) Fiscal Year 1992. 

(I) There are authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary, to carry out the intramural scientific and 

technical research and services activities of the Institute, $210,000,000 for fiscal year 1992, which shall be 

available for the following line items: 

858 
(A) Electronics and Electrical Measurements, $33,700,000. 

(B) Manufacturing Engineering, $13,500,000. 

(C) Chemical Science and Technology, $22,000,000. 

(D) Physics, $27,000,000. 

(E) Materials Science and Engineering, $30,000,000. 

(F) Building and Fire Research, $12,300,000. 

(0) Computer Systems, $16,000,000. 

(H) Applied Mathematics and Scientific Computing, $6,500,000. 

(I) Technology Assistance, $1 1,000,000. 

(J) Research Support Activities, $38,000,000. 

(2) (A) Of the total of the amounts authorized under paragraph (I), $2,000,000 are authorized only for steel 

technology. 

(B) Of the amount authorized under paragraph (l)(l)— 

(i) $500,000 are authorized only for the evaluation of nonenergy-related inventions and related 

technology extension activities; 

(ii) $250,000 are authorized only for Institute participation in the pilot program established under 

subsection (e); and 

(iii) $2,700,000 are authorized only for the Institute's management of the extramural funding programs authorized under section 105. (C) Of the total amount authorized under paragraph (1 )(J), $7,565,000 are authorized only for the technical competence fund. 

(b) Fiscal Year 1993. (I) There are authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary, to carry out the 

intramural scientific and technical research and services activities of the Institute, $221,200,000 for fiscal 

year 1993, which shall be available for the following line items: 

(A) Electronics and Electrical Measurements, $36,000,000. 

(B) Manufacturing Engineering, $16,000,000. 

(C) Chemical Science and Technology, $22,500,000. 

(D) Physics, $28,700,000. 

(E) Materials Science and Engineering, $39,400,000. 

(F) Building and Fire Research, $12,000,000. 

(0) Computer Systems, $20,600,000. 

(H) Applied Mathematics and Scientific Computing, $6,300,000. 

(I) Technology Assistance, $10,800,000. 

(J) Research Support Activities, $25,000,000. 

(K) Pay Raise, $3,900,000 

(2) (A) Of the total of the amounts authorized under paragraph (I), $2,000,000 are authorized only for steel 

technology. 

(B) Of the amount authorized under paragraph (l)(l)— 

(i) $500,000 are authorized only for the evaluation of nonenergy-related inventions and related 

technology extension activities; 

(ii) $250,000 are authorized only for Institute participation in the pilot program established under 

subsection (e); and 

(iii) $5,000,000 are authorized only for the Institute's management of the extramural funding programs authorized under section 105. (C) Of the total amount authorized under paragraph (l)(J), $7,223,000 are authorized only for the technical competence fund. 

(3) In addition to the amounts authorized under paragraph (I), there are authorized to be appropriated to 

the Secretary for fiscal year 1993 $34,800,000 for the renovation and upgrading of the Institute's facilities. 

(c) Transfers. (I) Funds may be transferred among the line items listed in subsection (a)(l) and 

among the line items listed in subsection (b)(l), so long as the net funds transferred to or from any line item 

do not exceed 10 percent of the amount authorized for that line item in such subsection and the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate and the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology of the House of Representatives are notified in advance of any such transfer. 

859 
(2) The Secretary may propose transfers to or from any line item listed in subsection (a)( I) or subsection 

(b)( I) exceeding tO percent of the amount authorized for such line item, but such proposed transfer may not be made unless— 

(A) a full and complete explanation of any such proposed transfer and the reason therefor are transmitted in writing to the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the President of the Senate, and the appropri- ate authorizing Committees of the House of Representatives and the Senate, and 

(B) 30 calendar days have passed following the transmission of such written explanation. 

(d) Relation to Other Authorizations. Except for authorizations provided in the Omnibus Trade and 

Competitiveness Act of 1988 (Public Law 100-418; 102 Stat. 1448), the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act 

of 1977 (42 U.S.C. 7701 et seq.), and the Steel and Aluminum Energy Conservation and Technology Competitiveness Act of 1988 (15 U.S.C. 5101 et seq.), this Act contains the complete authorizations of appropriations for the Institute for fiscal years 1992 and 1993. This subsection shall not limit the authority of the 

Institute to accept funds appropriated to any other Federal agency or to perform work for others. 

(e) Pilot Program. Pursuant to the authorizations contained in subsections (a)(l)(l) and (b)(l)(I), the 

Secretary is authorized to pay the Federal share of the cost of establishing and carrying out a standards 

assistance pilot program under section 112 of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1989 (IS U.S.C. 272 note). The purpose of the pilot program is to assist a country 

or countries that have requested assistance from the United States in the development of comprehensive 

industrial standards by providing the continuous presence of United States personnel on-site for a period of 2 or more years to provide such assistance and by providing, as necessary, additional technical support from 

within the Institute. Such funds shall be made available for such purpose only to the extent that matching 

funds are received by the National Institute of Standards and Technology from sources outside the Federal 

Government. 

(f) Construction of Facilities. Section 14 of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Act 

(IS U.S.C. 278d) is amended by striking "herein:" and all that follows, and inserting in lieu thereof 

"herein.". 

(g) Fire and Building Programs. The fire research and building technology programs of the Institute 

may be combined for administrative purposes only, and separate budget accounts for fire research and building technology shall be maintained. No later than December 31, 1992, the Secretary, acting through the 

Director of the Institute, shall report to Congress on the results of the combination, on efforts to preserve the 

integrity of the fire research and building technology programs, on the long-range basic and applied research 

plans of the two programs, on procedures for receiving advice on fire and earthquake research priorities from 

constituencies concerned with public safety, and on the relation between the combined program at the Insti- tute and the United States Fire Administration. 

(h) Educational Programs. (1) Section 18 of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Act 

(15 U.S.C. 278g-l) is amended by striking the period at the end of the first sentence and inserting in lieu 

thereof ", and to United States citizens for research and technical activities on Institute programs.". 

(2) Section 17 of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Act (15 U.S.C. 278g) is amended by 

adding at the end the following new subsection: 

"(d) For any scientific and engineering disciplines for which there is a shortage of suitably qualified 

and available United States citizens and nationals, the Secretary is authorized to recruit and employ in scientific and engineering fields at the Institute foreign nationals who have been lawfully admitted to the United 

States for permanent residence under the Immigration and Nationality Act and who intend to become United 

States citizens. Employment of a person under this paragraph shall not be subject to the provisions of title 5, 

United States Code, governing employment in the competitive service, or to any prohibition in any other Act 

against the employment of aliens, or against the payment of compensation to them.". 

(i) Core Program Funding. It is the sense of the Congress that the intramural scientific and technical 

research and services activities of the National Institute of Standards and Technology should share fully in 

any funding increases provided to the Institute. 

860 
SEC. 105. EXTRAMURAL PROGRAMS OF THE INSTITUTE. 

(a) Fiscal Year 1992. In addition to any sums otherwise authorized under this Act, there are authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary, to carry out the extramural industrial technology services programs 

of the Institute created under sections 25, 26, and 28 of the National Institute of Standards and TechnologyAct (15 U.S.C. 278k, 2781, and 278n), $127,500,000 for fiscal year 1992, which shah be available for the 

following line items: 

(I) Regional Centers for the Transfer of Manufacturing Technology, $25,000,000. 

(2) State Technology Extension Program, $2,500,000. 

(3) Advanced Technology Program, $100,000,000. 

(b) Fiscal Year 1993. In addition to any sums otherwise authorized under this Act, there are authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary, to carry out the extramural industrial technology services programs 

of the Institute created under sections 25, 26, and 28 of the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Act (15 U.S.C. 278k, 2781, and 278n), $127,500,000 for fiscal year 1993, which shall be available for the 

following line items: 

(I) Regional Centers for the Transfer of Manufacturing Technology and Satellite Manufacturing Centers, 

$25,000,000. 

(2) State Technology Extension Program, $2,500,000. 

(3) Advanced Technology Program, $100,000,000. 

(c) Limitation. No funds are authorized under this section for any project under the extramural programs of the Institute which have not been competitively reviewed through the merit review processes re- quired by the National Institute of Standards and Technology Act (15 U.S.C. 271 et seq.). 

(d) Amendments to Extension Program. Section 5121(b) of the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness 

Act of 1988 (15 U.S.C. 2781 note) is amended by striking paragraph (5). 

(e) Amendments to Extension Activities. (I) Section 25(c)(6) of the National Institute of Standards 

and Technology Act (15 U.S.C. 278k(c)(6)) is amended by inserting before the period at the end the following: "except for contracts for such specific technology extension or transfer services as may be specified by 

statute or by the Director". 

(2) Section 25(d) of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Act (IS U.S.C. 278k(d)) is 

amended to read as follows: 

"(d) In addition to such sums as may be authorized and appropriated to the Secretary and Director to operate the Centers program, the Secretary and Director also may accept funds from other Federal departments and agencies for the purpose of providing Federal funds to support Centers. Any Center which is 

supported with funds which originally came from other Federal departments and agencies shall be selected 

and operated according to the provisions of this section." 

(f) Advisory Committee. Section 5142(f) of the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988 (15 

U.S.C. 4632(f)) is amended by striking "and 1990" and inserting in lieu thereof "1990, 1991, 1992, and 

1993". SEC. 110. REPORT ON FACILITIES NEEDS. 

By March 1, 1992, the Director of the Institute shall submit to the Committee on Commerce, Science, and 

Transportation of the Senate and the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology of the House of Representatives a report on what renovations and upgrades of Institute facilities are necessary over the next decade. The report shall include a ranking of facilities needs in order of priority, an estimate of costs, and 

the Director's plan for meeting these needs. 

TITLE Il—ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM AMENDMENTS SEC. 201. EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT. 

(a) Short Title. This title may be cited as the "Emerging Technologies and Advanced Technology 

Program Amendments Act of 1991". 

(b) Findings and Purposes. 

(I) The Congress finds that— 

(A) technological innovation and its profitable inclusion in commercial products are critical components 

of the ability of the United States to raise the living standards of Americans and to compete in world markets; 

861 
(B) maintaining viable United States-based high technology industries is vital to both the national secu- rity and the economic well-being of the United States; 

(C) the Department of Commerce has reported that the United States is losing or losing badly, relative 

to Japan and Europe. in many important emerging technologies and risks losing much of the 

$350,000,000,000 United States market and $l,000,000,000,000 world market expected to develop by the 

year 2000 for products based on emerging technologies; 

(D) it is in the national interest for the Federal Government to encourage and, in selected cases, provide 

limited financial assistance to industry-led private sector efforts to increase research and development in eco- nomically critical areas of technology; 

(E) joint ventures are a particularly effective and appropriate way to pool resources to conduct research 

that no single company is likely to undertake but which will create new generic technologies that will benefit an entire industry and the welfare of the Nation; 

(F) it is vital that industry within the United States attain a leadership role and capability in development, design, and manufacturing in fields such as high-resolution information systems, advanced manufacturing, and advanced materials; and 

(C) the Advanced Technology Program, established under section 28 of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Act (15 U.S.C. 278n), is the appropriate vehicle for the United States Government to 

provide limited assistance to joint development within the United States of new high technology capabilities 

in fields such as high-resolution information systems, advanced manufacturing technology, and advanced materials, and can help encourage United States industry to work together on problems of mutual concern. 

(2) The purposes of this section are— (A) to strengthen the Advanced Technology Program created under section 28 of the National Institute 

of Standards and Technology Act (15 U.S.C. 278n), and to provide improved guidelines for the allocation of 

Advanced Technology Program funds appropriated under the authorizations contained in section 105 of this 

Act; 

(B) to promote and assist in the development of advanced technologies and the generic application of 

such technologies to civilian products, processes, and services; 

(C) to improve the competitive position of United States industry by supporting industry-led research 

and development projects in areas of emerging technology which have substantial potential to advance the 

economic well-being and national security of the United States, such as high-resolution information systems, 

advanced manufacturing technology, and advanced materials; and 

(D) to support projects that range from idea exploration to prototype development and address longterm, high-risk areas of technological research, development, and application that are not otherwise being 

adequately developed by the private sector, but are likely to yield important benefits to the Nation. 

(c) Advanced Technology Program. (I) Section 28(a) of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Act (15 U.S.C. 278n(a)), is amended by adding at the end the following new sentence: "In operating 

the Program, the Secretary and Director shall, as appropriate, be guided by the findings and recommendations of the Biennial National Critical Technology Reports prepared pursuant to section 603 of the National 

Science and Technology Policy, Organization, and Priorities Act of 1976 (42 U.S.C. 6683)." 

(2) Section 28(b)(l) of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Act (IS U.S.C. 278n(b)( I)), is 

amended by inserting "industry-led" immediately after "aid". 

(3) Section 28(b)(I)(B) of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Act (15 U.S.C. 

278n(b)(l)(B)), is amended by inserting "by means of grants, cooperative agreements, or contracts" immediately after "such joint ventures". 

(4) Section 28(b)(2) of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Act (15 U.S.C. 278n(b)(2)), is 

amended to read as follows: 

"(2) provide grants to and enter into contracts and cooperative agreements with United States businesses 

(especially small businesses), provided that emphasis is placed on applying the Institute's research, research 

techniques, and expertise to those organizations' research programs;". 

(5) Section 28(d)(2) of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Act (IS U.S.C. 278n(d)(2)) is 

amended to read as follows: 

"(2) In the case of joint ventures, the Program shall not make an award unless the award will facilitate 

the formation of a joint venture or the initiation of a new research and development project by an existing 

joint venture.". 

862 
(6) Section 28(d) of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Act (15 U.S.C. 278n(d)(7)) is 

amended— 

(A) by striking paragraph (7); 

(B) by redesignating paragraphs (8) and (9) as paragraphs (7) and (8), respectively; and 

(C) by adding at the end the following new paragraphs: 

"(9) A company shall be eligible to receive financial assistance under this section only if— 

"(A) the Secretary finds that the company's participation in the Program would be in the economic 

interest of the United States, as evidenced by investments in the United States in research, development, and 

manufacturing (including, for example, the manufacture of major components or subassemblies in the United 

States); significant contributions to employment in the United States; and agreement with respect to any 

technology arising from assistance provided under this section to promote the manufacture within the United 

States of products resulting from that technology (taking into account the goals of promoting the competitiveness of United States industry), and to procure parts and materials from competitive suppliers; and 

"(B) either— 

"(i) the company is a United States-owned company; or 

"(ii) the Secretary finds that the company is incorporated in the United States and has a parent 

company which is incorporated in a country which affords to United States-owned companies opportunities, 

comparable to those afforded to any other company, to participate in any joint venture similar to those authorized under this Act; affords to United States-owned companies local investment opportunities comparable to those afforded to any other company; and affords adequate and effective protection for the intellectual property rights of United States-owned companies. 

"(10) Grants, contracts, and cooperative assignments under this section shall be designed to support 

projects which are high risk and which have the potential for eventual substantial widespread commercial 

application. In order to receive a grant, contract, or cooperative agreement under this section, a research and 

development entity shall demonstrate to the Secretary the requisite ability in research and technology development and management in the project area in which the grant, contract, or cooperative agreement is being 

sought. 

"(I l)(A) Title to any intellectual property arising from assistance provided under this section shall vest in a company or companies incorporated in the United States. The United States may reserve a nonexclusive, 

nontransferable, irrevocable paid-up license, to have practiced for or on behalf of the United States, in con- nection with any such intellectual property, but shall not, in the exercise of such license, publicly disclose 

proprietary information related to the license. Title to any such intellectual property shall not be transferred 

or passed, except to a company incorporated in the United States, until the expiration of the first patent 

obtained in connection with such intellectual property. 

"(B) For purposes of this paragraph, the term 'intellectual property' means an invention patentable un- der title 35, United States Code, or any patent on such an invention. 

"(C) Nothing in this paragraph shall be construed to prohibit the licensing to any company of intellectual property rights arising from assistance provided under this section." 

(7) Section 28(e) of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Act (15 U.S.C. 278n(e)) is 

amended to read as follows: 

"(e) The Secretary may, within 30 days after notice to Congress, suspend a company or joint venture 

from continued assistance under this section if the Secretary determines that the company, the country of 

incorporation of the company or a parent company, or the joint venture has failed to satisfy any of the 

criteria set forth in subsection (d)(9), and that it is in the national interest of the United States to do so." 

(8) Section 28 of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Act (15 U.S.C. 278n) is amended by 

adding at the end the following new subsections: 

"(f) When reviewing private sector requests for awards under the Program, and when monitoring the 

progress of assisted research projects, the Secretary and the Director shall, as appropriate, coordinate with the 

Secretary of Defense and other senior Federal officials to ensure cooperation and coordination in Federal 

technology programs and to avoid unnecessary duplication of effort. The Secretary and the Director are au- thorized to work with the Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy, the Secretary of Defense, 

and other appropriate Federal officials to form interagency working groups or special project offices to coor- dinate Federal technology activities. 

863 
"(g) In order to analyze the need for the value of joint ventures and other research projects in specific 

technical fields, to evaluate any proposal made by a joint venture or company requesting the Secretary's 

assistance, or to monitor the progress of any joint venture or any company research project which receives 

Federal funds under the Program, the Secretary, the Under Secretary of Commerce for Technology, and the 

Director may, notwithstanding any other provision of law, meet with such industry sources as they consider 

useful and appropriate. 

"(h) Up to 10 percent of the funds appropriated for carrying out this section may be used for standards 

development and technical activities by the Institute in support of the purposes of this section. 

"(i) In addition to such sums as may be authorized and appropriated to the Secretary and Director to operate the Program, the Secretary and Director also may accept funds from other Federal departments and 

agencies for the purpose of providing Federal funds to support awards under the Program. Any Program 

award which is supported with funds which originally came from other Federal departments and agencies 

shall be selected and carried out according to the provisions of this section. 

"(j) As used in this section— 

"( I) the term 'joint venture' means any group of activities, including attempting to make, making, or 

performing a contract, by two or more persons for the purpose of— 

"(A) theoretical analysis, experimentation, or systematic study of phenomena or observable facts; 

"(B) the development or testing of basic engineering techniques; 

"(C) the extension of investigative finding or theory of a scientific or technical nature into practical 

application for experimental and demonstration purposes, including the experimental production and testing 

of models, prototypes, equipment, materials, and processes; 

"(D) the collection, exchange, and analysis of research information; 

"(E) the production of any product, process, or service;- or "(F) any combination of the purposes specified in subparagraphs (A), (B), (C), (D), and (E), and may 

include the establishment and operation of facilities for the conducting of research, the conducting of such 

venture on a protected and proprietary basis, and the prosecuting of applications for patents and the granting 

of licenses for the results of such venture; and - "(2) the term 'United States-owned company' means a company that has majority ownership or control by 

individuals who are citizens of the United States." 

(d) Effective Date. The amendments in subsection (c) shall take effect immediately upon enactment; 

however, the amendments shall not apply to applications submitted before the date of enactment of this Act. 

(e) Management Costs. Section 2 of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Act (15 

U.S.C. 272) is amended by adding at the end thereof the following new subsection: 

"(d) In carrying out the extramural funding programs of the Institute, including the programs established 

under sections 25, 26, and 28 of this Act, the Secretary may retain reasonable amounts of any funds appropriated pursuant to authorizations for these programs in order to pay for the Institute's management of these 

programs." 

(t) Comprehensive Report. The Secretary shall, not later than 4 years after the date of enactment of this 

Act, submit to each House of the Congress and the President a comprehensive report on the results of the 

Advanced Technology Program established under section 28 of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Act (15 U.S.C. 278n), including any activities in the areas of high-resolution information systems, 

advanced manufacturing technology, and advanced materials. SEC. 303. RESEARCH EQUIPMENT. 

Section II of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980 (15 U.S.C. 3710) is amended by 

adding at the end the following new subsection: 

"(i) Research Equipment. The Director of a laboratory, or the head of any Federal agency or department, may give research equipment that is excess to the needs of the laboratory, agency, or department to an educational institution or nonprofit organization for the conduct of technical and scientific education and 

research activities. Title of ownership shall transfer with a gift under the section." 

864 
TITLE V—STUDIES AND REPORTS SEC. 507. NATIONAL QUALITY COUNCIL. 

(a) Establishment and Functions. There is established a National Quality Council (hereafter in this 

section referred to as the "Council")... 

(b) Membership. The Council shall consist of not less than 17 or more than 20 members, appointed 

by the Secretary. Members shall include 

(9) one representative from the National Institute of Standards and Technology; 

(12) one representative from the Foundation for the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award... 

October 26, 1992, 106 Stat. 3410 (Public Law 102-522-—-102 Congress, 2d session) Fire Administration 

Authorization Act of 1992. 

Public Law 102-522 

AN ACT 

To authorize appropriations for activities under the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974, 

and for other purposes. SEC. 106. (a) (106 Stat. 3416) Amendment.—-" 

(d) Regulations.— 

The Administrator of General Services, in cooperation with the United States Fire Administration, the 

National Institute of Standards and Technology, and the Department of Defense, within 2 years after the date 

of enactment of this section, shall promulgate regulations to further define the term 'equivalent level of 

safety', and shall, to the extent practicable, base those regulations on nationally recognized codes. 

865 
APPENDIX B 

HISTORIES OF THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS 

1. War Work of the Bureau of Standards. Miscellaneous Publication No. 46 

Anonymous 

US Government Printing Office,- 1921 

299 PP. - Table of Contents (There are no chapters, only topics listed in alphabetical order. No Bureau employees' names are mentioned.) 

Aeronautic instruments; Aeronautic power plants; Aircraft construction; Aircraft materials; Aircraft (miscellaneous); Airplane dopes; Balloon gases; Calibration of testing machines; Chemical investigations (miscellaneous); Chromatic camouflage and chromatically concealed insignia; Coke-oven investigations; Concrete and 

cement; Concrete ships; Electric batteries; Electric blasting apparatus; Electric tractors and trucks; Electrical 

inductance method for location of metal bodies; Gages, precision; Illuminating engineering; Inks and ink 

powders; Invisible signaling; Invisible writing, means for the detection of; Leather; Magnetic investigations; 

Manilla rope; Medical supplies; Metallurgical investigations; Physical tests of metals and metal structures; 

Natural-gas investigations; Optical glass and optical instruments; Ordnance; Paper; Photography; Protective 

coatings; Publications and information; Radio communications; Radiometry; Radium; Rope, manila; Rubber; 

Safety standards for military industrial establishments; Searchlights; Sound-ranging apparatus; Sounds transmitted through the earth; Submarine detection; Telephone problems; Testing machines, calibration of; Textiles; Timepieces; Toloul recovery; Wheels, investigation of artillery, truck, and airplane; X-rays. 

No Index was included with the text. 2. The Bureau of Standards: Its History, Activities, and Organization 

Gustavus A. Weber 

Johns Hopkins Press, 1925 

299 pp. 

Table of Contents 1. History (70 pp.) 

2. Activities (120 pp.) 

3. Organization (20 pp.) 

Appendices 1. Outline of Organization (15 pp.) 

2. Classification of Activities (4 pp.) 

3. Publications (4 pp.) 

4. Equipment (2 pp.) 

5. Laws (16 pp.) 6. Financial Statement (12 pp.) 

7. Bibliography (12 pp.) 

Index 

867 
3. NBS War Research—The National Bureau of Standards in World War II 

Lyman J. Briggs, Director Emeritus, NBS 

U.S. Government Printing Office, September 1949 

187 pp. 

Table of Contents 

I. The Overall Program (5 pp.) 

2. The Atomic Bomb (9 pp.) 

3. The Air Burst Proximity.Fuze (13 pp.) 

4. Guided Missiles (4 pp.) 

5. Radio Propagation, Radio, Radar (9 pp.) 

6. Quartz Crystals (5 pp.) 

7. Electricity (10 pp.) 

8. Aerodynamic and Aircraft Problems (12 pp.) 

9. Fuels aiid Lubricants (8 pp.) 10. Mechanics, Structural Engineering, Hydraulics (14 pp.) 

II. Optics, Color, Light (15 pp.) 12. High Polymers (21 pp.) 13. Ceramics, Metals, Alloys (22 pp.) 14. Standards, Materials, Tools, Conservation (15 pp.) 

IS. Scientific Services and Consultation (10 pp.) 

Appendix 

Scientific and Technical Divisions and Sections (2 pp.) 

No Index was included with the text. 

4. The Story of Standards 

John Perry 

Funk & Wagnalls, 1955 

271 pp. 

Table of Contents 

I. Too Many Feet (15 pp.) 

2. The Artful Chiselers (14 pp.) 

3. Great Vexation of the King's Subjects (Il pp.) 

4. Art Into Science (13 pp.) 

5. Mr. Hassler's Standards (17 pp.) 

6. The Great Metric Controversy (20 pp.) 

7. Measuring the Invisible (18 pp.) 

8. The Sun Is Obsolete (12 pp.) 

9. The Meaning of Standards (16 pp.) 10. The Electrical Century (14 pp.) 

II. For Consumers and Citizens (16 pp.) 12. The Indispensable Warrior (16 pp.) 13. The Crisis in Science (24 pp.) 

14. New Standards (19 pp.) 15. Machines With Memories (23 pp.) 16. Uniform, Permanent, Universal (12 pp.) 

Index 

868 
5. Measures For Progress: A History of the National Bureau of Standards 

Rexmond C. Cochrane 

NBS Miscellaneous Publication 275, US Government Printing Office, 1966. 

703 pp. 

Table of Contents 

I. At the Turn of the Century (48 pp.) 2. Founding the NBS (1901-1910) (55 pp.) 3. Electricity, Railroads, and Radio (1911-1916) (56 pp.) 4. The War Years (1917-1919) (62 pp.) 5. The Tide of Commerce and Industry (1920-1930) (78 pp.) 6. The Time of the Great Depression (1931-1940) (66 pp.) 7. World War 11 Research (1941-1945) (62 pp.) 

8. The New World of Science (1946-1951) (68 pp.) 

The Crucial Decade—An Envoi (20 pp.) 

Appendices 

A. F. A. Hassler, First Superintendent of the Coast Survey and of Weights and Measures (12 pp.) 

B. The Metric System in the US (10 pp.) 

C. Basic Legislation Relating to the NBS (18 pp.) 

D. U.S. Presidents, Department Secretaries, and NBS Directors (2 pp.) 

E. Members of the Visiting Committee (2 pp.) 

F. NBS Support, 1902-55 (2 pp.) 

C. NBS Special Appropriations, 1910-1935 (2 pp.) 

H. NBS Authorized Personnel (2 pp.) 1. Types of Staff Publications (4 pp.) J. Division and Section Chiefs as of July 1, 1905; Sept 1, 1910; July I, 1915; Jan 1, 1920; Feb 1, 1925; 

Apr 1, 1930; Nov 15, 1934; May 1, 1940; July 1, 1945; Mar 1, 1950; Oct I, 1954; Dec 1, 1960. 

(1st WW) Wartime projects as of Sept I, 1918 (62 pp.) 

K. NBS Publications Representing Research Highlights, 1901-1951 (18 pp.) 

L. Land Purchases at Van Ness Site (2 pp.) 

M. S. W. Stratton, First Director, NBS (12 pp.) 

N. Books By NBS Staff, 1912-1960 (6 pp.) 

0. Buildings & Structures on Van Ness Site (4 pp.) 

Bibliography (10 pp.) 

Index 

6. Achievement in Radio: Seventy Years of Radio Science, Technology, 

Standards, and Measurement at the National Bureau of Standards 

Wilbert F. Snyder and Charles L. Bragaw 

NBS Special Publication 555, US Government Printing Office, October 1986 

842 pp. 

Table of Contents 

I. Man's Quest to Communicate Through Space (28 pp.) 

II. The Early Years of Radio at NBS (20 pp.) 

Ill. Fighting a War With Hertzian Waves (20 pp.) 

IV. The Bureau of Standards Lends a Hand (30 pp.) 

V. Applying the Measuring Stick (16 pp.) 

VI. Antennas, Instruments, and Systems in Development (56 pp.) 

869 
VII. Probing the Ionosphere (72 pp.) 

VIII. In the Domains of Time and Frequency (72 pp.) 

IX. NBS Faces a Second World War (27 pp.) 

X. A New World of Standards and Measurements (61 pp.) 

XI. The World as a Laboratory (108 pp.) 

XII. Radio Waves in the Lower Atmosphere (44 pp.) 

XIII. Engineering for Radio Propagation (40 pp.) 

XIV. Beyond the Ionosphere (24 pp.) 

XV. Exit Radio Standards Physics—Enter Quantum and Plasma Physics (24 pp.) 

XVI. In a Consultant Capacity (14 pp.) 

XVII. On the International Scene (22 pp.) 

XVIII. The Precursor Roles (24 pp.) 

XIX. "Go West Young Man" (30 pp.) 

XX. L'Envoi (6 pp.) 

App. A—To Ch.XVI. National Committee Memberships, 1946-75 (10 pp.) 

App. B—To Ch.XVII. International Committee Memberships, 1946-75 (8 pp.) 

App. C. Radio Standards Organization Within NBS (24 pp.) 

App. D. John Howard Dellinger (16 pp.) 

App. E. Patents (6 pp.) 

App. F. Bibliographic Sources (4 pp.) 

App. G. Commentary on a Radio Transmission Publication (2 pp.) 

Index 

7. A Unique Institution: The National Bureau of Standards, 1950-1969 

Elio Passaglia, with Karma A. Beal 

NBS Special Publication 925, US Government Printing Office, 1999 

822 pp. 

Table of Contents 

I. NBS at Mid-Century (70 pp.) 2. Testing Can Be Troublesome (66 pp.) 3. Divestiture and Reaffirmation, 1950-1957 (150 pp.) 4. Reorientation and Reconstitution, 1958-1964 (166 pp.) 5. Technological Triumph: Social Turmoil, 1964-1969 (148 pp.) 

Appendices 

A. Tables (2 pp.) 

B. Acronyms Dictionary (4 pp.) 

C. Legislation Relating to the Organization, Functions, and Activities of NBS (52 pp.) 

D. NBS in the Federal Administration (2 pp.) E. Appropriations and Expenditures Charts (4 pp.) 

F. NIBS Visiting Committee Membership (4 pp.) 

G. NBS Authorized Personnel Chart (2 pp.) 

H. NBS/NIST Publications (18 pp.) 

I. NBS Organizational Levels (88 pp.) J. Gaithersburg and Boulder Site Maps (6 pp.) 

Bibliography 

Index 

870 
APPENDIX C 

NBSINIST IN THE FEDERAL ADMINISTRATION 

Supervisory Chain Above NBS. In this appendix, we list Executive departmental officials who ex- arcised supervisory authority over NBS/NIST. Beginning with the appointment of Craig R. Scheaffer as Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Domestic Affairs under Sinclair Weeks, the Secretary of commerce frequently appointed a subordinate who bore such a responsibility. 

The dates of service of NBS/NIST directors include periods served as Acting Director by Briggs, 

Ambler, and Kammer. 

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENTAL NBS/NIST 

PRESIDENTS OFFICIALS DIRECTORS 

William McKinley Lyman J. Gage 1897-1901 Secretary of the Treasury 1897-1902 Leslie M. Shaw 

Secretary of the Treasury 1902-1907 George B. Cortelyou 

Secretary of Commerce and Labor Theodore Roosevelt 19o3-19o4 1901-1909 Victor H. Metcalf 

Secretary of Commerce and Labor 1904-1906 Oscar S. Strauss 

Secretary of Commerce Samuel W. Stratton and Labor 1901-1922 1906-1909 William H. Taft Charles Nagel 1909-1913 Secretary of Commerce and Labor 1909-19 13 f 

William C. Redfield 

Secretary of Commerce 

Woodrow Wilson 1913-1919 191 3-1 921 Joshua W. Alexander 

Secretary of Commerce 191 9-1921 Warren G. Harding Herbert C. Hoover 1921-1923 Secretary of Commerce 1921-1 928 Calvin Coolidge George K. Burgess 1923-1929 1928-1929 1923-1932 I 

Rotert p. Lamont 

Secretary of Commerce Herbert C. Hoover 1929-1932 1929-1933 Roy D. Chapin 

Secretary of Commerce 1932-1933 I 

Daniel C. Roper 

Secretary of Commerce 1933-1938 Lyman J. Briggs 

Har L. Hopkins 1932-1945 Franklin D. Roosevelt of Commerce 1933-1945 1938-1940 Jesse H. Jones 

Secretary of Commerce 1940-1945 Henry A. Wallace 

Secretary of Commerce 1945-46 871 
UNITED STATES 

PRESIDENTS 

Harry S Truman 1945-1953 

Dwight D. Eisenhower 1953-1961 

{ 

DEPARTMENTAL 

OFFICIALS 

Henry A. Wallace 

Secretary of Commerce 1945-1 946 W. Averell Harriman 

Secretary of Commerce 1946-1948 Charles W. Sawyer 

Secretary of Commerce 1948-1953 Sinclair Weeks 

Secretary of Commerce 1953-1958 Craig R. Scheaffer 

Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Domestic Affairs 1953 James C. Worthy 

Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Domestic Affairs 1953 Lewis L. Strauss 

Secretary of Commerce 1958-1959 Frederick H. Mueller 

Secretary of Commerce 1959-1961 Carl F. Oechsle 

Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Domestic Affairs 1960 

NBS/NIST 

DIRECTORS 

Edward U. Condon 1945-1951 

John F. Kennedy 1961-1 963 

Lyndon B. Johnson 

1963-1969 

Luther H. Hodges 

Secretary of Commerce 

196 1-1965 Hickman Price, Jr. Assistant Secretary 

of Commerce for Domestic Affairs 1961 J. Herbert Hollomon Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Science and Technology 1962-1967 John T. Connor 

Secretary of Commerce 

1965-1 967 J. Herbert Hollomon 

Assistant Secretary 

of Commerce for Science and Technology 1962-1967 Alexander B. Trowbridge 

Secretary of Commerce 1967-1968 John S. Kincaid 

Assistant Secretary 

L 

of Commerce for Science and Technology 1967-1968 Cyrus R. Smith 

Secretary of Commerce 1968-1 969 Maurice H. Stans 

Secretary of Commerce 1969-1972 

I 

r Allen V. Astin 1951-1969 

872 
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENTAL NBS/NIST 

PRESIDENTS OFFICIALS DIRECTORS 

Maurice 

H. Stans 

Secretary of Commerce 1969-1972 Myron Tribus 

Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Science and Technology 1969-1970 Rocco C. Siciliano 

Under Secretary of Commerce 1970-1971 Richard M. Nixon James H. Wakelin, Jr. Lewis M. Branscomb 1969-1974 Assistant Secretary 1969-1972 

of 

Commerce for Science and Technology 1971-1972 Peter G. Peterson 

Secretary of Commerce 1972-1973 James H. Wakelin, Jr. 

Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Science and Technology 197 1-1972 Frederick B. Dent 

Secretary of Commerce 

1973-1975 

Betsy Ancker-Johnson Assistant Secretary Richard W. Roberts 

Science and Technology 1973-1975 1973-1977 Rogers C. B. Morton 

Secretary of Commerce 1975-1976 James A. Baker, Ill 

Under Secretary of Commerce 1975-1976 Gerald P. Ford Assen1 1974-1977 of Commerce for Science and Technology 1973-1977 Elliot L. Richardson Ernest Ambler 

Secretary of Commerce 1975-1989 1976-1977 Edward 0. Vetter 

Under Secretary of Commerce 1976-1977 Betsy Ancker-Johnson 

Assistant Secretary L of Commerce for 

Science and Technology 1973-1977 

873 
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENTAL NBS/NIST 

PRESIDENTS OFFICIALS DIRECTORS 

Juanita Kreps 

Secretary of Commerce 1977-1979 Under Secretary of Commerce 1977- 1978 

Jimmy Carter 

Sidney Harman 

Jordan J. Baruch Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Science and Technology 1977- 1980 Luther H. Hodges, Jr. 

Under Secretary of Commerce 1977-198 1 1979 Philip M. Klutznick Ernest Ambler Secretary of Commerce 1980-1981 Luther H. Hodges, Jr. 

Deouly Secretary of tommerce 1980 Jordan J. BaruCh 

Assistant Secretary 

Ronald W. Reagan 

Secretary of Commerce 

of Commerce for Productivity, Technology, and Innovation 

1975-1989 

1980 Malcolm Baldrige 1981-1987 C. William Verity, Jr. 198 1-1989 Secretary of Commerce 1987-1989 Secretary of Commerce 1989-1992 Barbara H. Franklin 

Secretary of Commerce 1992-1993 

Robert A. Mosbacher 

George W. Bush 

Under Secretary } 

John W. Lyons 

Robert M. White 1990-1993 1989-1993 of Commerce for Technology 199 1-1993 Ronald H. Brown 

Secretary of Commerce 1993-1996 Mary L. Good 

Under Secretary of Commerce for Technology 1993-1997 Arati Prabhakar 

Michael Kantor 1993-1997 Secretary of Commerce 1996-1997 William J. Clinton Mary L. Good 

Under Secretary 1993-2001 of Commerce for Technology 1993-1997 William M. Daley 1997- Cheryl L. Shavers 

Under Secretary 

Secretary of Commerce 

Raymond G. Kammer of Commerce for 1997- Technology 1999- 

874 
APPENDIX D 

SITE INFORMATION AND MAPS 

GAITHERSBURG AND BOULDER 

875 
CONSTRUCTION SCHEDULE FOR BUILDINGS AND SERVICE 

STRUCTURES ON THE,NBS/NIST GAITHERSBURG SITE AS OF 1990 

Building Building Date Date Date 

Number Name Begun Completed Occupied** Areas 101 Administration 6-18-62 7-12-65 7-12-65 202.4 

102 Gate House 5-1-69 3-1-70 2-19-70 .1 202 Engineering Mechanics 7-19-61 10-1-63 6-1-63 46.1 

205 Fire Research 10-1-73 10-1-75 4-15-74 12.5 

206 Concreting Materials 3-1-66 3-1-68 3-1-68 5.4 

220 Metrology 8-21-63 2-14-66 2-14-66 109.1 

221 Physics 8-21-63 3-28-66 3-28-66 1115 

222 Chemistry 8-21-63 2-28-66 2-28-66 79.5 

223 Materials 8-21-63 4-27-66 4-27-66 78.1 

224 Polymers 8-21-63 6-6-66 6-6-66 78.6 

225 Instrumentation 8-21-63 8-3-66 8-3-66 104.6 

226 Building Research 8-21-63 10-3-66 9-8-66 64.4 

230 Fluid Mechanics 6-1-67 6-1-69 6-1-69 50.1 

231 Industrial 2-8-66 2-8-68 2-8-68 40.6 

233 Sound 9-20-65 2-27-68 2-27-68 212 

235 Reactor 4-25-63 8-23-65 8-23-65 61.1 

236 Hazards 4-15-66 4-15-68 5-15-68 6.5 

237, 238 Non-Magnetic 6-3-64 2-14-68 2-14-68 4.4 

245 Radiation 6-18-62 8-20-65 4-15-64 88.1 

301 Supply and Plant 6-18-62 10-15-64 10-15-64 103.8 

302 Steam and Chilled Water 

Generating Plant 7-19-61 7-21-64 4-1-63 27.6 

303 Service 6-18-62 5-4-64 5-4-64 123 

304 Instrument 6-18-62 12-4-64 12-4-64 53.6 

305 CoolingTower 7-19-61 7-21-64 

306 Electrical Substation 7-19-61 1-2-64 4-1-63 

307 Chemical Waste 12-1-70 5-1-71 1-6-72 .3 308 Bowman House —1952 —1953 5-15-69 3.8 

309 Grounds 10-1-74 10-1-76 4-24-75 8.9 

310 Hazardous Materials Storage 10-1-86 1-1-87 

411 Temporary Relocatable Facility 1-1-8? 2-1-90 9-1-89 8.0 

Total available area* 1,382.5 

Area, Main Gaithersburg site 575 acres. Acquired 1958 to 1970. 

Area, Nike site— 13.7 acres. Acquired 1975. 

Notes: Dates are coded month-day-year. 

*Units: Thousands of square feet. 

**Date occupied by NBS scientists. 

Source: Plant Division, NIST, February 6, 1990 

876 
NIST GROUNDS 

W.st. 307 

(13 206 

H.zvds 236 

Rssis'th FacIty 205 

237 

4 

— 

r———- 

Maclanics 202 

I I 

230 

0,4 I St.wi Chad Water 

Ptty9ca 245 - Ott. D 

House 306 302 

o c - - 

- 

- — Grotsids 309 

411 -. Servjce 303 

PhysIcs 221 5(6611 and PWtt 301 Mseobgy - - 

231 

- ----Shogs3O4 

226 

______________________ 

225 

Ar II 7 

(Cicppst Road) 

At 124 Qfcfwd 

00 

4.,, 

"p0 

2-SIeamS*7at 

Boannan Drive Sound To To Fredencli 
BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES OF THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS 

BOULDER, COLORADO 

1970 

Date Assignable 

Building* Name (in operation) Square Feet 

131 Radio Building: Library, Auditorium, 

Center Spine, Wing 1, Wing 2, Wing 3, Wing 4 1954 200,257 131 Wing 5 1962 77,928 

BI Wing 6 1959 26,000 

B2 Cryogenics, South and North Half 1952 45,702 132 Cryogenics, Wing "B" 1962 9,800 133 Liquefier 1952 20,024 

B4 Camco 1951 15,403 

B5 Heavy Equipment 1951 2,850 

B8 Cryogenic Mesa Test Site 1953 2,400 

B9 Gas Meter 1958 312 1310 Green Mountain Antenna Building 1958-1973 209 1311 Vertical Incidence 1958 408 

B14 Field Strength Calibration 1958 278 

B17 Hydrogen Storage Tanks B 18 Tube Tanks (Hydrogen) Storage 1321 Maintenance Garage 1963 3,968 

B22 Warehouse 1964 17,280 

B23 Cooling Tower 1957-1989 312 

B24 Plasma Physics' 1967 27,328 

B25 North Shop 1966 3,200 

826 Ground Scanner Site 

B27 High Frequency Field Site 

B28 Microwave Antenna Range 

TOTAL 453,659 

* Building numbers appear on site map, next page 

Main Site Land: 217 acres Date Acquired: June 14, 1950 

Used by the Environmental Science Services Administration. 

878 
879 

-N- 
APPENDIX E 

NBS/NIST STAFF, 1901-1999 

The accompanying graph shows the growth (and decline!) of the staff of NBS/NIST over the first century 

of its existence. The personnel statistic most readily available over that period was "total staff," a term that 

often, but not always, included the following types of workers: • Full-time permanent employees of NBS/NIST. • Part-time paid employees, including summer students and other student-program paid personnel, 

intermittent employees, and temporary employees. • Postdoctoral Research Associates. • Paid consultants. • Industrial Research Associates. • Guest Workers, both American and foreign. 

The chart shows three major peaks in NBS employment, and three declines as well. The peaks reflected 

intense participation by the Bureau in technical work connected with World War I (1914-1919), World War 

11(1939-1945), and the Cold War that followed WW II. Declines in NBS employment occurred during 

the Great Depression of 1929-1939, as a result of transferring to the Department of Defense in 1954 the 

wartime Bureau programs in proximity fuze research and guided missile research, and, from 1965 to 1985, 

accompanying a nation-wide weakening in support for scientific research. 

It is clear that, despite the many changes wrought in 1988 by Public Law 100-418, the transition from 

NBS to NIST had no substantial impact on the overall staffing level of the agency. 

Available data on full-time permanent employment at NBS/NIST are shown by the lower curves on the 

chart. In June 1968, a fairly typical year, NBS Special Publication 308 contained the following breakdown of 

NBS staff: • Full-time permanent, Gaithersburg, including postdoctorals: 2,939. • Full-time permanent, Boulder, including postdoctorals: 580. • Other paid staff, Gaithersburg: 305. 

• Other paid staff, Boulder: 48. • Research associates and guest workers, Gaithersburg: 131. • Research associates and guest workers, Boulder: 16. 

Physicists comprised the largest single component of the Bureau professional staff in 1968, numbering 

509. Chemists and engineers numbered 279 and 261, respectively. There were 56 mathematicians and 133 

professionals of other types. The total number of staff members holding post-graduate degrees—I ,238—represented nearly one-third of the total paid staff of NBS. 

Also indicated on the graph are the periods of service of the 11 Directors of NBS/NIST and the dates of 

historical events that had significant impacts on the agency. 

Sources: Susan Makar, Office of Information Services. Gail K. Ehrlich, Program Office. 

881 
5000 

4000 

QO QO 

3000 

2000 

1000 

0 

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 

NBSINIST STAFF 1901-1999 
APPENDIX F 

NBSINIST POSTDOCTORAL RESEARCH ASSOCIATES, 1968-1993 

Associates were selected by panels of the National Academy of Science and the National Academy of 

Engineering. The program was administered by the National Research Council. 

University 

1968 

Donald W. Alderman 

Michael J. Bielefeld 

Edith F. Bone 

Arnold M. Denenstein 

Gabriel L. Epstein 

Benjamin Gibson 

Roger A. Hegstrom 

John W. Knoeck 

Hassell M. Ledbetter 

William R. Ott 

Stephen J. Pierce 

LeRoy W. Schroeder 

Stuart K. Searles 

Stanley E. Stokowski 

Donald D. Thornton 

Edward F. Zalewski 

Cornell U. 

U. of Pennsylvania 

U. of North Carolina 

U. of Pennsylvania 

U. of California/Berkeley 

Stanford U. 

Harvard U. 

Iowa State U. 

U. of Illinois 

U. of Pittsburgh 

U. of California/Santa Barbara 

Northwestern U. 

U. of Alberta, Canada 

Stanford U. 

Syracuse U. 

U. of Chicago 

Robert J. Mahier 

Jon Spijkerman 

Leonard Maximon 

Chester H. Page 

Joseph Reader 

Michael Danos 

Jon H. Shirley and 

Richard P. Reed 

John K. Taylor 

Richard P. Reed 

Wolfgang L. Wiese 

Morris Newman 

John J. Rush 

Pierre Ausloos 

Ludwig H. Grabner 

Billy W. Mangum 

Richard A. Keller 

1969 

Gordon W. Day 

William L. Greer 

Larry Handy 

Max A. Haney 

William M. Haynes 

Elizabeth J. Jacob 

Paul S. Julienne 

Ernest G. Kessler 

Carl A. Kocher 

David E. Kranbuehl 

Michael J. Kurylo, III 

Russell L. Merris 

William C. Mitchell 

Rogers W. Redding 

Gregory J. Rosasco 

Isaac C. Sanchez 

Carl C. Semmelroth 

Kenneth G. Sharp 

Selden L. Stewart 

U. of Illinois 

U. of Chicago 

U. of Wisconsin 

Rice U. 

U. of Virginia 

U. of Michigan 

U. of North Carolina 

U. of Wisconsin 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

U. of Wisconsin 

Catholic U. of America 

U. of California/Santa Barbara 

Washington University 

Vanderbilt U. 

Fordham U. 

U. of Delaware 

U. of Michigan 

Rice U. 

U. of Texas 

Lawrence M. Matarrese 

Robert J. Rubin 

Frederick E. Brinckman 

Thomas C. Farrar 

Dwain E. Diller 

David R. Lide, Jr. 

Frederick H. Mies 

William C. Martin 

Richard H. Kropschot 

Peter H. Verdier 

Walter Braun 

Morris Newman 

Baldwin Robertson 

Jon T. Hougen 

Hans P.R. Frederikse 

Edmund A. DiMarzio 

Isadore Nimeroff 

Thomas D. Coyle 

Stephen J. Tauber 

1970 

Gerald B. Cohen 

Nordulf W.G. Debye 

Carnegie Mellon U. 

Cornell U. 

883 

F. Cecil Brenner 

James R. Devoe and Melvin Linzer 

Name NBS/NIST Advisor 
Douglas L. Franzen 

John W. Gramlich 

William M. Haynes 

Elizabeth J. Jacob 

Andrew Kaldor 

George E. Kelly 

Donald R. Lehman 

Frank J. Lovas 

Michael A. Marchetti 

Bruce W. Morrissey 

Donald W. Regula 

Michael W. Schuyler 

Mark E. Sheingorn 

Carroll A. Shelton 

Siegfried Treu 

U. of Minnesota 

U. of Hawaii 

U. of Virginia 

U. of Michigan 

Cornell U. 

Northwestern U. 

George Washington U. 

U. of California/Berkeley 

Georgetown U. 

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 

Wayne State U. 

Indiana U. 

U. of Wisconsin 

U. of Pittsburgh 

U. of Pittsburgh 

Harold S. Boyne 

I. Lynus Barnes 

Dwain E. Diller 

David R. Lide, Jr. 

Arthur G. Maki, Jr. 

Max Klein and 

Johanna M. H. Levelt Sengers 

Michael Danos 

David R. Lide, Jr. 

Frederick H. Mies 

Robert R. Stromberg 

Gershon Kuhn 

Richard A. Keller 

Morris Newman 

Stanley Block 

Charles T. Meadow and 

Thomas N. Pyke 

1971 

John H. Albers 

George H. Atkinson 

Frank P. Billingsley 

Marvin Bishop 

Harry S. Camarda 

James F. Ely 

Clark A. Hamilton 

Camden R. Hubbard 

Charles E. Hughes 

Joel F. Liebman 

James J. Murphy 

Robert C. Reno 

Raymond C. Sansing 

Emil Simiu 

Michael B. Simmonds 

Arthur D. Yaghjian 

Gerald A. Zerdy 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Indiana U. 

U. of Virginia 

Columbia U. 

Columbia U. 

Indiana U. 

U. of Rochester 

Iowa State U. 

Pennsylvania State U. 

Princeton U. 

U. of Illinois 

Brandeis U. 

Southern Methodist U. 

Princeton U. 

U. of California/Irvine 

Brown U. 

U. of Maryland 

Raymond D. Mountain 

Richard A. Keller 

Morris Krauss 

Edmund A. DiMarzio 

Harry H. Landon 

Dwain E. Diller 

Robert A. Kamper and 

Kenneth M. Evenson 

Floyd A. Mauer 

Charles T. Meadow 

Thomas D. Coyle 

William R. Dodge 

Lawrence H. Bennett 

Joan R. Rosenblatt 

Edward 0. Pfrang 

James E. Zimmerman 

David M. Kerns 

Martin Greerispan 

1972 

Robert E. Berger 

William J. Boettinger 

Lawrence S. Cardman 

Richard S. Davis 

John R. Eyler 

James C. Holste 

Charles R. Johnson 

James R. Lyerla, Jr. 

George W. Mulholland 

Edwin R. Naimon 

Charles A. Nelson 

Dale E. Newbury 

James D. Olson 

Michael G. Reimer 

Johns Hopkins U. 

Johns Hopkins U. 

Yale U. 

U. of Maryland 

Stanford U. 

Iowa State U. 

California Institute of Technolgy 

U. of Utah 

Cornell U. 

U. of Illinois 

U. of Maryland 

U. of Oxford, England 

Michigan State U. 

U. of Pennsylvania 

884 

Melvin R. Meyerson 

Robert L. Parker 

Samuel Penner 

Barry N. Taylor and 

Vincent E. Bower 

L. Wayne Sieck 

Ray Radebaugh 

Morris Newman 

Dennis A. Torchia 

Raymond W. Mountain 

Richard P. Reed 

Sydney Meshkov 

Harvey Yakowitz 

Howard J.M. Hanley 

Philip D. Lafleur 
Michael S. Sorem 

Carl F. Stubenrauch 

Daniel M. Sweger 

Stanford U. 

U. of Michigan 

American U. 

Donald A. Jennings 

Ramon C. Baird 

John C. Travis and 

James J. Rhyne 

E. Clayton Teague 

Tommy C. Tong 

James C. Tsang 

North Texas State U. 

U. of Michigan 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Russell D. Young 

David M. Kerns 

Hans P. R. Frederikse 

1973 

Edwin D. Cehelnik 

Frank 0. Clark 

Harry J. Dewey 

Robert E. Drullinger 

John W. Ekin 

Barry L. Farmer 

John P. Ferraris 

Edwin R. Fuller, Jr. 

Robert J. Hocken 

David E. Laughlin 

Larry L. Lucas 

Jon J. McCarthy 

Evelyn M. Rockar 

Douglas R. Shier 

Allen R. Siedle 

James J. Snyder 

Marjorie L. Stein 

Pennsylvania State U. 

U. of Virginia 

U. of Utah 

Columbia U. 

Cornell U. 

Case Western Reserve U. 

John Hopkins U. 

U. of Illinois 

State U. of New York/Stony Brook 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

U. of California/Davis 

Iowa State U. 

U. of California/Riverside 

U. of London, England 

Indiana U. 

State U. of New York/Stony Brook 

Princeton U. 

Oscar Menis 

Donald R. Johnson 

Richard D. Deslattes 

Earl W. Smith 

Robert L. Powell 

Ronald K. Eby 

Martin 0. Broadhurst 

Sheldon M. Wiederhorn 

Johanna M. H. Levelt Sengers 

Robert L. Parker 

Wilfnd B. Mann 

Evans V. Hayward 

Herbert S. Bennett 

and Richard A. Forman 

Alan J. Goldman 

Thomas D. Coyle 

Peter L. Bender 

Burton H. Colvin and 

Roger L. Stockbauer 

Nicholas Vagelatos 

Bernard A. Weinstein 

William F. Weston 

John T. Yue 

U. of Chicago 

U. of Michigan 

Brown U. 

U. of Illinois 

Stanford U. 

Alan J. Goldman 

Henry M. Rosenstock 

John J. Rush 

Richard A. Forman 

Richard P. Reed 

J. William Gadzuk 

1974 

Robert S. Butler 

Ilan S. Chabay 

Robert B. Feinberg 

Ronald F. Fleming 

Robert B. Green 

Joseph W. Haus, Jr. 

Jan F. l-Ierbst 

Warren W. Johnson 

Nell D. Lerner 

Rodney A. McKee 

Eric B. Miller 

Harry Morgan 

John A. Mucha 

George E. Parris 

Richard J. Pearson, Jr. 

Bruce J. Pletka 

David T. Read 

William L. Rowan 

Pennsylvania State U. 

U. of Chicago 

U. of Wisconsin 

U. of Michigan 

Ohio U. 

Catholic U. of America 

Cornell U. 

Rutgers U. 

Brown U. 

U. of Texas 

Duke U. 

Howard U. 

U. of Pittsburgh 

Georgia Institute of Technology 

Harvard U. 

Case Western Reserve U. 

U. of Illinois 

U. of Texas 

885 

Paul F. Roth 

Wayne A. Cassatt, Jr. 

Morris Newman 

Ivan G. Schroder 

John C. Travis 

Harold J. Raveche 

J. William Gadzuk 

Michael C. Jones 

Martin Greenspan 

John R. Manning 

Kenneth A. Evenson 

Frederick E. Brinckman 

Frank J. Lovas 

Sheldon M. Wiederhorn 

Richard P. Reed 

Wolfgang L. Wiese 
Peter J. Slater 

Samuel R. Stein 

John B. West 

U. of Iowa 

Stanford U. 

U. of California/Santa Barbara 

Alan J. Goldman 

Helmut Heliwig 

Jerry P. Eaton 

1975 

Dennis M. Breiter 

Jason Gait 

Karla L. Hoffman 

Duane R. Kirklin 

William F. Koch 

David S. Malkus 

Ronald G. Manning 

Herbert A. Robinson 

Paul M. Skarstad 

Richard D. Suenram 

U. of Maryland 

Weslayan U. 

George Washington U. 

U. of Maryland 

Iowa State U. 

Boston U. 

U. of California/Davis 

U. of California/Santa Barbara 

Cornell U. 

U. of Kansas 

Kurt F. J. Heinrich 

Hans J. Oser 

Alan J. Goldman 

Stanley Abramowitz 

Robert J. Cutkosky 

Jeffrey T. Fong 

John T. Herron 

Morris Newman 

Robert S. Roth 

Donald R. Johnson 

1976 

Bruce J. Ackerson 

Dennis R. Dietz 

Edward T. Dressier 

Pashang Esfandiari 

David 0. Evans 

Robert M. Garvey 

David W. Goodman 

Robert R. Greenberg 

Dane L. Harwood 

Robert H. Havemann 

Frank P. Higgins 

Richard L. Kautz 

Marvin D. Kemple 

Eric C. Kintner 

Donald C. Knauss 

John R. Long 

Richard 1. Martinez 

Gregory 13. McKenna 

Ronald G. Munro 

Robert S. Polvani 

John F. Rabolt 

James C. Rainwater 

Garry L. Ritter 

David M. Shold 

John A. Small 

Terry R. Todd 

William N. Unerti 

1977 

James E. Bond 

Brian M. Ditchek 

Flonnie Dowell 

Michael C. Drake 

Brett I. Dunlap 

William L. Earl 

Richard J. Fields 

Gordon E. Fish 

U. of Colorado 

Washington U. 

American U. 

Catholic U. of America 

Harvard U. 

Duke U. 

U. of Texas 

U. of Maryland 

U. of California/Los Angeles 

U. of Colorado 

U. of Denver 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

U. of Illinois 

U. of Edinburgh, Scotland 

Northern Illinois U. 

Ohio State U. 

U. of California/Los Angeles 

U. of Utah 

U. of Oregon 

U. of Connecticut 

Southern Illinois U. 

U. of Colorado 

U. of North Carolina 

U. of Chicago 

U. of Maryland 

Pennsylvania State U. 

U. of Wisconsin 

Yale U 

Northwestern U. 

Georgetown U. 

Pennsylvania State U. 

Johns Hopkins U. 

U. of California/Berkeley 

U. of Cambridge, England 

U. of Illinois 

886 

Gerald C. Straty 

Melvin Linzer 

James S. O'Connell 

Johanna M. H. Levelt Sengers 

Clayton Huggett 

Helmut Hellwig 

John T. Yates, Jr. 

Philip D. Lafleur 

Edward B. Magrab 

Robert J. Phelan, Jr. 

Melvin Linzer 

Donald G. McDonald 

Billy W. Mangum 

Thomas D. Coyle 

John T. Herron 

Elliott Kearsley 

Herbert S. Bennett 

Arthur W. Ruff 

Bruno Fanconi 

Howard J.M. Hanley 

Lloyd A. Currie 

Pierre Ausloos 

Wayne A. Cassatt, Jr. 

William B. Olson 

Robert J. Celotta and 

Daniel T. Pierce 

Charles D. Bowman 

Arthur W. Ruff 

Edmund A. DiMarzio 

John W. Hastie J. William Gadzuk 

David L. VanderHart 

Jeffrey T. Fong 

Lydon J. Swartzendruber 
;teven W. Haan 

H. Kagann 

Steven B. Kaplan 

:3eorge M. Keiser 

Edward F. Kelley 

James F. Lawrence 

Joanne L. Murray 

David R. Myers 

Stephen J. Norton 

Timothy A. Reinhold 

Peter Roitman 

Richard J. Saykally 

Stephan J. Weeks 

U. of Maryland 

U. of Colorado 

U. of Pennsylvania 

Duke U. 

Montana State U. 

U. of Washington 

U. of Maryland 

U. of Illinois 

Stanford U. 

Virginia Polytechnic Institute 

Princeton U. 

U. of Wisconsin 

U. of Florida 

Raymond D. Mountain 

Merrill M. Hessel 

James E. Zimmerman 

James E. Faller 

Robert E. Hebner 

Alan J. Goldman 

Donald H. Tsai 

W. Murray Bullis 

George Birnbaum 

Robert A. Crist, Jr. 

W. Murray Bullis 

Kenneth M. Evenson 

John C. Travis 

1978 

Martin E. Batts 

Steven L. Baughcum 

James C. Bergquist 

Stephen E. Bialkowski 

Robert J. Cava 

Richard R. Cavanagh 

Lawrence M. Doane 

Theodore D. Doiron 

Keith R. Eberhardt 

James T. Hall 

John C. Hamilton 

Gary G. Hembree 

Jeffrey A. Hinkley 

John B. Ings 

David J. Lohse 

Jay F. Marchiando 

Duane P. Matthees 

John E. Orban 

Anastasi Papathanasis 

John C. Schaefer 

Alexander Scheeline 

Charles F. Scnbner 

Richard D. Starr 

Stephen M. Younger 

1979 

John G. Abbott 

James R. Bethin 

Robert E. Botto 

Michael W. Cromar 

Michael J. Dipirro 

Charles Fenimore 

Vincent J. Fratello 

Ronald B. Goldfarb 

John E. Goldsmith 

Ronald L. Greene 

Gregory L. Griffin 

Arthur J. Grimley 

Stephen J. Grotzinger 

Virginia K. Hardman 

U. of Michigan 

Harvard U. 

U. of Colorado 

U. of Utah 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Harvard U. 

U. of Connecticut 

Duke U. 

Johns Hopkins U. 

U. of California/Santa Barbara 

Cornell U. 

Arizona State U. 

U. of Wisconsin 

Rutgers U. 

U. of Illinois 

Iowa State U. 

U. of Maryland 

Ohio State U. 

U. of California/Davis 

U. of Chicago 

U. of Wisconsin 

U. of Michigan 

U. of Illinois 

U. of Maryland 

Duke U. 

U. of Illinois 

Michigan State U. 

U. of Oregon 

State U. of New York/Buffalo 

U. of California/Berkeley 

Harvard U. 

Colorado State U. 

Stanford U. 

U. of Colorado 

Princeton U. 

Cornell U. 

Rensselaer Polytechnic U. 

U. of Missouri 

887 

Emil Simiu 

Stephen R. Leone 

Richard L. Barger 

John C. Stephenson 

Robert S. Roth 

John T. Yates, Jr. 

Richard A. Durst 

Sandra C. Greer 

Joan R. Rosenblatt 

Robert J. Soulen, Jr. 

Daniel T. Pierce 

Dennis A. Swyt 

Donald M. Novotny 

Geoffrey Frohnsdorff 

Isaac C. Sanchez 

Dennis A. Swyt 

Robert Schaffer 

Joan R. Rosenblatt 

Harold E. Marshall 

James R. Devoe 

Edgar V. Leyendecker 

Evans V. Hayward 

Andrew W. Weiss 

Melvin Linzer 

Alan D. Franklin 

Bruce Coxon 

Donald B. Sullivan 

Craig T. Van Degrift 

Ronald G. Rehm 

Charles Tilford 

Frederick R. Fickett 

Stephen J. Smith 

Larry J. Roszman 

John T. Yates, Jr. 

John C. Stephenson 

Christoph J. Witzgall 

James J. Rhyne 
Wayne M. Itano Harvard U. David J. Wineland 

Harold D. Ladouceur Purdue U. Jon T. Hougen 

Frank Magnotta U. of California/Berkeley Stephen R. Leone 

Terry A. Michaiske Alfred U. Sheldon M. Wiederhorn 

Gregory J. Olson Montana State U. Warren P. Iverson 

Ronald W. Rendell U. of California/Santa Barbara David R. Penn 

Thomas M. Shay Colorado State U. James J. Snyder 

David A. Vanbaak Harvard U. John L. Hall 

Deborah Van Vechten U. of Maryland Robert J. Soulen, Jr. 

Richard F. Wormsbecher U. of California/Santa Barbara Frank J. Lovas 

1980 

Garnett W. Bryant Indiana U. J. William Gadzuk 

Eldon D. Case Iowa State U. Edwin R. Fuller, Jr. 

Robert M. Davidson U. of California/San Francisco Bruce Coxon 

Robert W. Gerlach U. of Washington Lloyd A. Cume 

David A. Goodman U. of California/Berkeley John R. Cuthill 

Richard E. Hanig Purdue U. Robert B. Schwartz 

George J. Havrilla West Virginia U. John C. Travis 

Wendell T. Hill Ill Stanford U. Thomas B. Lucatorto 

William C. Johnson Michigan Technological U. John W. Cahn 

Douglas W. Jones U. of Arizona Wolfgang L. Wiese 

Ronald D. Kriz Virginia Polytech Institute Maurice B. Kasen 

Kathryn A. Lee City College of New York Donald R. Durst 

Gabriel G. Lombardi Harvard U. James R. Roberts 

Michael Martinka Pennsylvania State U. Alan J. Melmed 

John H. Miller U. of Virginia Kermit C. Smyth 

Boyce M. Morrison, Jr. Pennsylvania State U. John T. Herron 

Paul M. Nachman U. of Chicago John L. Hall 

Clifford R. Pollock Rice U. Kenneth M. Evenson 

John S. Provan Cornell U. Christoph J. Witzgall 

Dorothy A. Reed Princeton U. Emil Simiu 

Wade T. Rogers U. of Colorado Robert J. Celotta 

Stephen Semancik Brown U. Theodore E. Madey 

Robert Stahlbush Cornell U. Richard A. Forman 

Carl S. Weiss Washington State U. Frederick E. Brinckman 

1981 

Eric J. Amis U. of Wisconsin Charles C. Han 

Tim D. Andreadis U. of Maryland Joseph Fine 

Michael R. Berman U. of California/Berkeley John C. Stephenson 

Joseph A. Blazy U. of Chicago John C. Stephenson 

Thomas J. Bruno Georgetown U. Howard J.M. Hanley 

Charles W. Clark U. of Chicago Andrew W. Weiss 

Dale L. Doering Washington State U. Theodore E. Madey 

David A. Dolson Indiana U. Stephen R. Leone 

Robert 0. Downing U. of Missouri Dale E. Newbury 

Michael A. Duncan Rice U. Stephen R. Leone 

Jeffrey R. Fox Cornell U. Robert D. McCarty 

Michael H. Kelley U. of Texas Robert J. Celotta 

Walter R. Lampert U. of Utah Alfons Weber 

Timothy P. Lodge U. of Wisconsin Charles C. Han 

Joseph V. Minervini Massachusetts Institute of Technology Donald B. Sullivan 

888 
Donald R. Myers 

David J. Nesbitt 

Steven R. Nutt 

John V. Prodan 

Steven R. Ray 

Mark A. Zumberge 

Drexel U. 

U. of Colorado 

U. of Virginia 

Colorado State U. 

Princeton U. 

U. of Colorado 

James S. Albus 

John L. Hall 

Arthur W. Ruff 

William D. Phillips 

Hratch G. Semerjian 

Judah Levine 

1982 

John J. Bollinger 

Daniel G. Friend 

Vicky L. Himes 

Anna E. McHale 

Andrew K. Persily 

Kenneth W. Pratt 

Gregory A. Reynolds 

Stephen B. Sears 

Stephen H. Southworth 

Brian R. Stallard 

Harvard U. 

U. of Colorado 

Catholic U. of America 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Princeton U. 

Iowa State U. 

Virginia Polytechnic Institute - U. of North Carolina 

U. of California/Berkeley 

Cornell U. 

David J. Wineland 

James C. Rainwater 

Antonio Santoro 

Robert S. Roth 

Richard A. Grot 

William F. Koch 

Baldwin Robertson 

Frederick H. Mies 

Albert C. Parr 

Stanley L. Shapiro 

1983 

Robert F. Berg 

John E. Blendell 

Benjamin P. Burton 

Michael P. Casassa 

Christopher L. Cromer 

Robert A. Dragoset 

Charles S. Feigerle 

William E. Fogle 

Joe P. Foley 

Katherine G. Frase 

John J. Horvath 

John K. Hoskins 

Eugene A. lmhoff 

George J. Jelatis 

George R. Jones 

Richard L. Kurtz 

Pui K. Lam 

Martin K. Ligare 

Thomas P. Lockhart 

William F. Manders 

David A. Mantell 

Ronald H. Ono 

Neal D. Shinn 

Terrence J. Udovic 

Michael J. Wax 

Indrek S. Wichman 

Perry F. Wilson 

Lawrence A. Woltz 

U. of Florida 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

State U. of New York/Stony Brook 

California Institute of Technology 

U. of Southern California 

U. of Virginia 

U. of Colorado 

U. of California/Berkeley 

U. of Florida 

U. of Pennsylvania 

U. of Florida 

U. of California/Irvine 

Cornell U. 

Pennsylvania State U. 

U. of Virginia 

Yale U. 

U. of California/Berkeley 

Columbia U. 

California Institute of Technology 

U. of Maryland 

Yale U. 

State U. of New York/Stony Brook 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

U. of Wisconsin 

U. of California/Berkeley 

Princeton U. 

U. of Colorado 

U. of Florida 

Michael R. Moldover 

Taki Negas 

Taki Negas 

Richard C. Cavanagh 

Thomas B. Lucatorto 

E. Clayton Teague 

Robert J. Celotta 

Robert J. Soulen, Jr. 

Willie E. May 

Taki Negas 

Hratch G. Semerjian 

James E. Faller 

Michael I. Bell 

Michael R. Moldover 

Edwin R. Williams 

Roger L. Stockbauer 

Steven M. Girvin 

Daniel E. Kelleher 

Frederick E. Brinckman 

David L. VanderHart 

Richard R. Cavanagh 

Richard E. Harris 

Theodore E. Madey 

Theodore E. Madey 

Theodore E. Madey 

Takashi Kashiwagi 

Mark 1. Ma 

Larry J. Roszman 

1984 

Regina E. Bonanno 

Charles E. Bouldin 

Robert M. Briber 

David F. Cox 

U. of Maryland 

U. of Washington 

U. of Massachusetts 

U. of Florida 

889 

Thomas B. Lucatorto 

Richard A. Forman 

Fred A. Khoury 

Stephen Semancik 
Brian E. Eaton 

Carol A. Handwerker 

Jonathan E. Hardis 

Edwin J. Heilweil 

Paul G. Jasien 

John W. Keller 

Kenneth R. Leopold 

Joe W. Magee 

Howard 1. Mayfield 

Alan L. Migdall 

Bruce R. Miller 

John M. Moreland 

Barry F. Muhlfelder 

Glen C. Nielson 

Richard E. Preston 

Phillip D. Szuromi 

Philip H. Taylor 

George A. Thompson 

R.M. Verkouteren 

Karna J. Wahlstrand 

Anne M. Woodward 

Timothy J. Wozniak 

U. of Colorado 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

U. of Chicago 

U. of Pennsylvania 

U. of Illinois 

U. of Maryland 

Harvard U. 

Rice U. 

U. of Alabama 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

U. of Texas 

U. of California/Santa Barbara 

U. of Rochester 

U. of Chicago 

Princeton U. 

California Institute of Technology 

Pennsylvania State U. 

New York City Technical College 

Purdue U. 

Harvard U. 

Yale U. 

Indiana U. 

James F. Ely 

John R. Manning 

Albert C. Parr 

John C. Stephenson 

Walter J. Stevens 

Robert P. Madden 

Kenneth M. Evenson 

Thomas M. Flynn 

Stephen N. Chesler 

William D. Phillips 

Andre Deprit 

John W. Ekin 

Donald G. McDonald 

Harold J. Raveche 

Hratch 0. Semerjian 

Theodore E. Madey 

Kermit C. Smyth 

Alfons Weber 

Lloyd A. Cume 

Martin 0. Broadhurst 

John C. Stephenson 

Harry S. Hertz 

1985 

Penrose C. Albright 

Jacques G. Amar 

Michael 0. Ambrose 

Donald R. Burgess, Jr. 

Thomas W. Coyle 

Paula M. Davidson 

Jon W. Erickson 

Ross W. Erwin 

Gerald T. Fraser 

Sarah L. Gilbert 

Stephen A. Hackney 

Robert W. Harrison 

Marcia L. Huber 

Randall G. Hulet 

Bettye C. Johnson 

Russell 0. Johnson 

Robert K. Jones 

Leonard E. Kiebanoff 

Lindsay B. Lloyd 

Jeffrey A. Marqusee 

David L. Moffat 

David H. Roach 

Craig A. Rottman 

Joseph V. Rutkowski 

Damian Shea 

Daniel A. Steigerwald 

Peter L. Swanson 

Richard J. Walker 

U. of Maryland 

Temple U. 

Cleveland State U. 

Northwestern U. 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

State U. of New York/Stony Brook 

Brown U. 

U. of Maryland 

Harvard U. 

U. of Michigan 

U. of Virginia 

Yale U. 

Colorado School of Mines 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Harvard U. 

U. of Minnesota 

Indiana U. 

U. of California/Berkeley 

U. of Utah 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

U. of Wisconsin 

Case Western Reserve U. 

U. of Illinois 

Dartmouth College 

U. of Maryland 

Carnegie Mellon U. 

U. of Colorado 

State U. of New York/Stony Brook 

890 

Johanna M. H. Levelt Sengers 

Harold J. Raveche 

Bruce Coxon 

Richard C. Cavanagh 

Sheldon M. Wiederhorn 

John W. Hastie 

Stephen Semancik 

James J. Rhyne 

Alan S. Pine 

David J. Wineland 

John W. Cahn 

Alexander Wlodawer 

James F. Ely 

David J. Wineland 

Thomas B. Lucatorto 

Jeffrey W. Hudgens 

Robert J. Celotta 

Daniel T. Pierce 

Alan Fried 

Isaac C. Sanchez 

Joanne L. Murray 

Brian R. Lawn 

John W. Cahn 

Richard C. Gann 

William A. MacCrehan 

William F. Egelhoff, Jr. 

Stephen W. Freiman 

Larry J. Moore 
1986 

Richard T. Brundage 

Diane S. Bushee 

John C. Clark 

James P. Cline 

Michael J. Deweert 

Teresa B. Fryberger 

Phillip L. Gould 

Allen L. Johnson 

John H. Shibata 

David M. Sonnenfroth 

U. of Wisconsin 

Northeastern U. 

U. of Minnesota 

Alfred U. 

U. of Notre Dame 

Northwestern U. 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

U. of California/Berkeley 

U. of Washington 

U. of Rochester 

Michael 1. Bell 

Paul J. Paulsen 

Charles C. Han 

Camden R. Hubbard 

Steven M. Girvin 

Stephen Semancik 

William D. Phillips 

Theodore E. Madey 

Francis W. Wang 

Stephen R. Leone 

1987 

Steven A. Buntin 

Laurence D. Coyne 

Jack F. Douglas 

Phillip N. First 

Dale W. Fitting 

Bernard R. Foy 

David R. Garmer 

Mark W. Hart 

Stephen A. Joyce 

Susan T. Krueger 

Alan I. Nakatani 

David D. Nelson 

Vicki 0. Niesen 

Margo D. Palmieri 

Stephen M. Penn 

Joseph E. Sauvageau 

Thomas W. Stafford, Jr. 

Richard N. Watts 

Christoph I. Westbrook 

U. of Minnesota 

U. of Massachusetts 

U. of Chicago 

U. of Illinois 

U. of Tennessee 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Pennsylvania State U. 

Rice U. 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

U. of Maryland 

U. of Connecticut 

Harvard U. 

Colorado School of Mines 

Iowa State U. 

U. of Wisconsin 

State U. of New York/Stony Brook 

U. of Arizona 

U. of Michigan 

U. of Michigan 

Richard R. Cavanagh 

Wen-Li Wu 

Charles C. Han 

Robert J. Celotta 

Ronald D. Kriz 

John C. Stephenson 

Walter J. Stevens 

Daniel 1. Pierce 

Theodore E. Madey 

Gregory J. Olson 

Charles C. Han 

David J. Nesbitt 

Lloyd A. Weber 

William F. Koch 

Stephen R. Leone 

Donald G. McDonald 

Lloyd A. Currie 

William D. Phillips 

William D. Phillips 

1988 

Muhammad Arif 

John D. Beckerle 

Lucien N. Brush 

David V. Dearden 

Richard L. Dubs 

Roger A. Edberg 

Stephen J. Fischer 

John D. Gillaspy 

Allan H. Harvey 

Daniel J. Heinzen 

Martin E. Huber 

Catheryn L. Jackson 

Gregg M. Jankowski 

Peter J. Martin 

Christopher W. Meyer 

Paul J. Miller 

Bruce T. Murray 

Lee J. Richter 

Jamal A. Sandarusi 

U. of Missouri 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Carnegie Mellon U. 

California Institute of Technology 

California Institute of Technology 

Australian National U. 

Washington State U. 

Harvard U. 

U. of California/Berkeley 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Stanford U. 

U. of Connecticut 

Michigan Technical U. 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

U. of California/Santa Barbara 

Yale U. 

U. of Arizona 

Cornell U. 

Colorado School of Mines 

891 

Geoffrey L. Greene 

Richard R. Cavanagh 

Geoffrey B. McFadden 

Jeffrey W. Hudgens 

Paul S. Julienne 

Howard J.M. Hanley 

Bernard J. McCaffrey 

Daniel E. Kelleher 

Johanna M. H. Levelt Sengers 

James C. Bergquist 

Michael W. Cromar 

Gregory B. McKenna 

Richard J. Fields 

John L. Hall 

Michael R. Moldover 

Stephen R. Leone 

Geoffrey B. McFadden 

Richard R. Cavanagh 

William M. Haynes 
Mark A. Sobolewski 

Carol E. Tanner 

Thomas J. Walsh 

Lloyd J. Whitman 

Joseph C. Woicik 

Stanford U. 

U. of California/Berkeley 

U. of Oregon 

Cornell U. 

Stanford U. 

Stephen Semancik 

William D. Phillips 

Richard E. Hams 

Theodore E. Madey 

Michael I. Bell 

1989 

Stephen A. Angel 

Julie A. Borchers 

W.C. Carter 

Edith S. Grabbe 

Dennis W. Hair 

Steven R. Lorentz 

Christopher M. Lovejoy 

James P. Moran 

Thomas S. Norton 

Mark 0. Raizen 

Allison C Sandlin 

Weston L. Tew, Jr. 

Dean A. Waldow 

James R. Zurio 

U. of Colorado 

U. of Illinois 

U. of California/Berkeley 

U. of North Carolina 

U. of Southern California 

U. of Oklahoma 

U. of Colorado 

U. of Virginia 

Princeton U. 

U. of Texas 

U. of Alabama 

U. of Colorado 

U. of Wisconsin 

Carnegie Mellon U. 

John C. Stephenson 

James J. Rhyne 

Edwin R. Fuller, Jr. 

Dennis J. Reeder 

Charles C. Han 

Michael H. Kelley 

Stephen R. Leone 

Dale A. Meyn 

Kermit C. Smyth 

David J. Wineland 

Robert J. Schaefer 

Edwin R. Williams 

Charles C. Han 

Cary Presser 

1990 

Michael R. Frey 

David T. Gallagher 

Alexis Grabbe 

Kristian P. Helmerson 

Joanne R. Hetzler 

Erik K. Hobbie 

David C. Humm 

John A. Kramar 

Curtis G. Lindsay 

Robert D. McMichael 

Nhan V. Nguyen 

Eric C. Palm 

Cecilia D. Richards 

Stephen E. Russek 

Deborah G. Sauder 

William M. Snow 

Kevin A. Sparks 

Paul G. Strupp 

Lorraine E. Twerdok 

Barry J. Wythoff 

Gregory A. Zimmerli 

U. of North Carolina 

U. of Texas 

U. of North Carolina 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

U. of Minnesota 

U. of Illinois 

California Institute of Technology 

Virginia Polytechnic Institute 

Ohio State U. 

Pennsylvania State U. 

Texas A&M U. 

U. of Californiallrvine 

Cornell U. 

Johns Hopkins U. 

Harvard U. 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Northwestern U. 

Johns Hopkins U. 

U. of New Hampshire 

Pennsylvania State U. 

James J. Filiben 

Gary L. Gilliland 

Brian R. Lawn 

William D. Phillips 

David S. King 

Charles C. Han 

Charles W. Clark 

E. Clayton Teague 

Robert S. Roth 

Lawrence H. Bennett 

David G. Seiler 

Craig T. Van Degrift 

William M. Pitts 

John W. Ekin 

John C. Stephenson 

Geoffrey L. Greene 

James F. Ely 

Stephen R. Leone 

Michael G. Simic 

Lloyd A. Currie 

Richard E. Harris 

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David S. Alavi 

Richard J. Braun 

Michael J. Chester 

Neil D. Clarke 

Mark D. Dadmun 

Thomas P. Dougherty 

Edward A. Early 

U. of Pittsburgh 

Northwestern U. 

U. of Pennsylvania 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

U. of Massachusetts 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

U. of California/San Diego 

892 

Michael P. Casassa 

Geoffrey B. McFadden 

Terrence J. Jach 

Gary L. Gilliland 

Charles C. Han 

Edwin J. Heilweil 

Alan F. Clark 

Ray E. Snyder Stanford U. Hratch 0. Semerjian 
Ofodike A. Ezekoye 

Timothy J. Foecke 

Jonathan M. Gilligan 

Lon S. Goidner 

Joel E. Harrington 

Cynthia D. Holcomb 

Karl K. Irikura 

Mark 1. Kief 

William E. Luecke 

Kevin B. McGrattan 

Thomas H. McWaid 

Thomas R. O'Brian 

William J. Orts 

Brooks H. Pate 

Gregory E. Poirier 

Martin E. Poitzsch 

Jack L. Robertson 

Peter A. Rosenthal 

Russell V. Smilgys 

Michael R. Winchester 

U. of California/Berkeley 

U. of Minnesota 

Yale U. 

U. of California/Santa Barbara 

U. of Wisconsin 

Cornell U. 

California Institute of Technology 

Pennsylvania State U. 

Cornell U. 

New York U. 

U. of California/Santa Barbara 

U. of Wisconsin 

U. of Toronto, Canada 

Princeton U. 

U. of Texas 

Harvard U. 

U. of Houston 

Stanford U. 

U. of Colorado Clemson U. 

Howard R. Baum 

Robb M. Thomson 

David J. Wineland 

William D. Phillips 

Kermit C. Smyth 

William M. Haynes 

Jeffrey W. Hudgens 

William F. Egelhoff, Jr. 

Sheldon M. Wiederhorn 

Ronald G. Rehm 

Theodore V. Vorburger 

Thomas B. Lucatorto 

Wen-Li Wu 

Gerald T. Fraser 

Stephen Semancik 

John J. Bollinger 

John J. Rush 

Ronald H. Ono 

Richard L. Kurtz 

Gregory C. Turk 

1992 

Carmela C. Amato 

Anne M. Andrews 

John R. Berger 

Jeffrey L. Brum 

David M. Bunk 

Mun Y. Choi 

Mark W. Coffee 

Michael Collison 

Andrew D. Gavrin 

James A. Given 

Steven R. Jefferts 

Alan T. Johnson 

Daniel Josell 

John J. Kasianowicz 

Christopher R. Monroe 

Janet F. Morrison 

Warren L. Nachlis 

Steven H. Page 

David F. Plusquellic 

Laura P. Ratliff 

Joseph P. Rice 

Jonathan M. Richardson 

Barbara A. Sanborn 

Thaddeus Tarpey 

John H. Van Zanten 

Roger D. Van Zce 

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 

U. of Michigan 

U. of Maryland 

Tulane U. 

Texas A&M U. 

Princeton U. 

New York U. 

U. of Michigan 

Johns Hopkins U. 

Boston U. 

U. of Colorado 

Harvard U. 

Harvard U. 

State U. of New York/Stony Brook 

U. of Colorado 

American U. 

U. of Massachusetts 

Brigham Young U. 

U. of Pittsburgh 

U. of Virginia 

U. of Illinois 

Harvard U. 

State U. of New York/Stony Brook 

Indiana U. 

U. of California/Los Angeles 

U. of California/Berkeley 

Michael R. Zachariah 

Gerald T. Fraser 

David T. Read 

Jeffrey W. Hudgens 

Michael J. Welch 

Anthony Hamins 

Ronald B. Goldfarb 

Michael J. Tarlov 

Michael H. Kelley 

Johanna M. H. Levelt Sengers 

David J. Wineland 

John M. Martinis 

Carol A. Handwerker 

Baldwin Robertson 

James C. Bergquist 

William A. MacCrehan 

Charles C. Han 

Stephen A. Wise 

David J. Nesbitt 

Paul D. Lett 

David A. Rudman 

Geoffrey L. Greene 

Herbert S. Bennett 

Dominic F. Vecchia 

Wen-Li Wu 

John C. Stephenson 

1993 

Levent Acar 

David T. Anderson 

Philip J. Austin 

Amy S. Barton 

Ohio State U. 

Dartmouth College 

U. of Michigan 

Princeton U. 

893 

James S. Albus 

David J. Nesbitt 

Takashi Kashiwagi 

David J. Wineland 
Dennis E. Brown 

Gregg P. Bryant 

Jeffrey W. Bullard 

Brent D. Butler 

Sean M. Casey 

Kevin W. Cassel 

Lance D. Cooley 

Donald C. Degroot 

Ivan H. Deutsch 

Joseph A. Dura 

Sharon C. Glotzer 

William T. Grubbs 

Leonard A. Hayden 

Lowell P. Howard 

Arthur W. Johnson 

Robert R. Keller 

William D. Lee 

Mary L. Lewis 

James E. Maslar 

Brian K. McMillin 

Eric S. Meyer 

Dniitry Reznik 

Curt A. Richter 

Andrew R. Roosen 

Peter N. Saeta 

Christopher R. Shaddix 

Ping-Shine Shaw 

Mark G. Vangel 

Elizabeth Widom 

Dennis C. Winkler 

Brian D. Wladkowski 

Sources: 

Stanford U. 

Purdue U. 

U. of California/Berkeley 

Northwestern U. 

U. of Minnesota 

Lehigh U. 

U. of Wisconsin 

Northwestern U. 

U. of California/Berkeley 

U. of Illinois 

Boston U. 

Duke U. 

Oregon State U. 

U. of Warwick, England 

Yale U. 

U. of Minnesota 

U. of Texas 

U. of Wyoming 

U. of Illinois 

Stanford U. 

Harvard U. 

U. of Illinois 

Yale U. 

Rutgers U. 

Harvard U. 

Princeton U. 

Columbia U. 

Harvard U. 

U. of California/Santa Cruz 

U. of Maryland 

Stanford U. 

David M. Gilliam 

David S. King 

Edward J. Garboczi 

Howard J.M. Hanley 

Stephen R. Leone 

Ronald 0. Rehm 

Robert N. Goldberg 

David A. Rudman 

William D. Phillips 

Charles F. Majkrzak 

Edmund A. DiMarzio 

Edwin J. Heilweil 

Roger B. Marks 

E. Clayton Teague 

William M. Pitts 

David T. Read 

Robert E. Drullinger 

Anne L. Plant 

Michael R. Zachariah 

Michael R. Zachariah 

Wolfgang L. Wiese 

Daniel A. Neumann 

David 0. Seiler 

John W. Cahn 

Alan C. Gallagher 

Kermit C. Smyth 

Richard D. Deslattes 

Keith R. Eberhardt 

Robert D. Vocke, Jr. 

Dale E. Newbury 

Walter J. Stevens 

I. National Research Council Directory of Resident Research Associates, 1959-1995, (Washington, DC: 

National Academy Press, 1996), 740 pp. [Author's note: Some of the information in this source was 

incomplete or inaccurate.] 2. NBS Standard (Official employee bulletin). 

3. NBS Technical News Bulletin and NBS Dimensions. 4. Personal inquiry by Diane Cunningham, NIST Reference Librarian. 

894 
APPENDIX G 

SCIENTIFIC AWARDS GIVEN BY THE DEPARTMENT 

OF COMMERCE AND NBSINIST TO STAFF MEMBERS, 

1968-1993 

The Arthur S. Flemming Award, established in 1948, honored unusually meritorious work in either 

science or administration by federal employees under the age of 40. The award was sponsored by the 

Washington Junior Chamber of Commerce. 

The Gold Medal, established in 1949, was the highest honor conferred upon an employee by the 

Department of Commerce. It was bestowed for distinguished achievements of major significance to the 

Department or to the Nation. 

The Federal Woman's Award, established in 1961, honored outstanding contributions by female Federal 

employees to major government programs, and recognized unusual examples of personal leadership, 

judgment, integrity, and dedication. 

The Samuel Wesley Stratton Award was created by NBS in 1962 to recognize unusually significant 

research contributions to science or engineering that merited the acclaim of the scientific world and 

supported NBS/NIST objectives. 

The Edward Bennett Rosa Award, established by NBS in 1964, recognized outstanding achievements in 

the development of meaningful and significant standards of practice in the measurement field. 

The Edward Uhler Condon Award was given by NBS, beginning in 1974, to recognize distinguished 

achievements in written exposition in science or technology. 

The Applied Research Award, established by NBS in 1975, recognized superior achievement in the 

practical application of the results of scientific or engineering research. 

The Measurement Services Award was established by NBS in 1980 to recognize outstanding achievement in calibration and related measurement areas by NBS employees. 

The Allen V. Astin Measurement Science Award, first given by NBS in 1984, recognized outstanding 

achievement in the advancement of measurement science or in the delivery of measurement services. 

The William P. Slichter Award, established by NIST in 1992, recognized outstanding achievements 

by NIST staff in building or strengthening ties between NIST and industry. The award was named as a memorial to William P. Slichter, Executive Director, Materials Science and Engineering Division, AT&T 

Bell Laboratories, who served on the first NIST Visiting Committee for Advanced Technology. 

1968 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Louis Costrell 

Henry J. Kostkowski 

Lawrence M. Kushner 

David R. Lide, Jr. 

Kurt E. Shuler 

Group: 

Carl 0. Muehlhause, Harry H. Landon, Jr., Robert S. Carter. 

Stratton Award—David R. Lide, Jr. 

Rosa Award—W. Wayne Meinke 

National Civil Service League, Career Service Award—Lewis M. Branscomb 

895 
1969 

Flemming Award—Richard D. Deslattes 

Gold Medal Awards— 

John A. Bennett 

Daniel V. DeSimone 

Vernon H. Dibleler 

John L. Hall 

Samuel Penner 

Bourdon F. Scribner 

1970 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Alan D. Franklin 

Joseph Hilsenrath 

Donald A. Jennings 

Malcolm W. Jensen 

Walter Koidan 

Group: 

Marilyn E. Jacox and Dolphus E. Milligan 

Group: 

Gordon H. Dunn, Lee J. Kieffer, Stephen J. Smith. 

Stratton Award—Robert P. Madden 

Rosa Award—Paul R. Achenbach 

International Astronomical Union, Special Award; naming of moon craters after NBS scientists—William W. 

Coblentz (1873-1962; tenure at NBS, 1905-45); J. Howard Dellinger (1886-1962; tenure at NBS, 1907-48); 

Hugh L. Dryden (1898-1965; tenure at NBS, 1918-47); Nicholas E. Golovin (1912-69; tenure at NBS 

1949-58); William F. Meggers (1888-1966; tenure at NBS 1914-58); Paul W. Merrill (1887-1961; tenure at NBS, 1916-18). 1971 Gold Medal Awards— 

Lawrence H. Bennett 

Martin J. Berger 

Bascom W. Birmingham 

Arthur A. Maryott 

W. Wayne Meinke 

John B. Wachtman 

Wolfgang L. Wiese 

Group: 

Everett G. Fuller, Evans V. Hayward 

Federal Woman's Award—Joan R. Rosenblatt 

Stratton Awards— 

Group: 

Richard L. Barger, John L. Hall 

Group: 

John 1. Lauritzen, Elio Passaglia, Edmund DiMarzio. 

Rosa Award—Judson C. French 

896 
1972 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Ruth M. Davis 

Myron G. Domsitz 

Jerome Kruger 

James R. McNesby 

Lewis V. Spencer 

Federal Woman's Award—Ruth M. Davis 

Stratton Award—Kenneth M. Evenson 

Rosa Award—Emanuel Horowitz 

1973 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Wolfgang K. Hailer 

David M. Kerns 

John I. Lauritzen 

John Mandel 

Hideo Okabe 

Federal Woman's Award—Marilyn E. Jacox 

Stratton Award— 

Group: 

Marilyn E. Jacox and Dolphus E. Milligan 

Rosa Award—Henry J. Kostkowski 

Rockefeller Public Service Award—Ruth M. Davis 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Special Awards— 

NASA Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal for Apollo missions Il, 14, 15—James E. Faller 

NASA Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal for Lunar Ranging Experiment— 

Group: 

James E. Faller, Peter L. Bender 

1974 

Flemming Award—David 0. Hummer 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Ernest M. Levin 

James E. Skillington, Jr. 

Group; 

Stanley Block, Gasper J. Piermarini. 

Group: 

Richard L. Barger, Bruce L. Danielson, Gordon W. Day, Kenneth M. Evenson, John L. Hall, 

F. Russell Petersen, Joseph S. Wells. 

Stratton Award—Richard D. Deslattes 

Rosa Award—John K. Taylor 

Condon Award—Russell D. Young 

897 
1975 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Paul R. Achenbach 

James A. Barnes 

Gerhard M. Brauer 

Donald G. Fletcher 

Emanuel Horowitz 

Philip S. Klebanoff 

Melvin R. Meyerson 

Edward J. Prosen 

John A. Simpson F. Karl Willenbrock 

James R. Wright 

Group; 

Robert A. Kamper, James E. Zimmerman. 

Stratton Award—John B. Wachtman, Jr. 

Rosa Award—William C. Cullen 

Condon Award—Johanna M.H. Levelt Sengers 

Applied Research Award—Dicky D. Davis 

1976 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Pierre J. Ausloos J. Paul Cali 

James M. Cassel 

Alan J. Goldman 

Alexander F. Robertson 

Joan R. Rosenblatt 

Group: 

Glenn F. Engen, Cletus A. Hoer 

Federal Woman's Award—Evans V. Hayward 

Stratton Award— 

Group: 

James W. Lightbody, Samuel Penner. 

Rosa Award—J. Paul Cali 

Condon Award— 

Group: 

Ralph P. Hudson, Harvey Marshak, Robert J. Soulen, Jr., Donald B. Utton. 

Applied Research Award—Gregory J. Rosasco 

898 
1977 

Flemming Award—Donald R. Johnson 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Margarete Ehrlich 

Alan C. Gallagher 

John T. Hall 

Melvin Linzer 

John W. Lyons 

Donald D. Wagman 

Group: 

Donald R. Johnson, Frank J. Lovas. 

Stratton Award—Sheldon M. Wiederhorn 

Rosa Award—Wilfrid B. Mann 

Condon Award—Robert A. Kamper 

Applied Research Award—Anthony J. Barbera 

President's Award for Distinguished Federal Civilian Service—Ernest Ambler 

National Civil Service League, Career Service Award—Ruth M. Davis 

1978 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Walter Braun 

Thomas D. Coyle 

Judson C. French 

Kurt F.J. Heinrich 

Johanna M.H. Levelt Sengers 

Stratton Award— 

Group: 

Theodore E. Madey, John T. Yates, Jr. 

Rosa Award—Alexander F. Robertson 

Condon Award—Roy G. Saitman 

Applied Research Award—Melvin Linzer 

899 
1979 

Flemming Award—i. William Gadzuk 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Martin G. Broadhurst 

Randall S. Caswell 

Richard D. Deslattes 

George G. Harman, Jr. 

Morris Krauss 

Philip D. LaFleur 

William L. McLaughlin 

Group: 

lames F. Schooley, Robert J. Soulen, Jr. 

Stratton Award—James E. Zimmerman 

Rosa Award—Louis Costrell 

Condon Award— 

Group: 

Kenneth M. Evenson, David J. Wineland, Helmut Hellwig, John L. Hall. 

Applied Research Award—Marshall D. Abrams 

1980 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Dennis K. Branstad 

Frederick E. Brinckman, Jr. 

Lucy M. Cavallo 

Ared Cezairliyan 

William C. Cullen 

Jon T. Hougen 

Tamami Kusuda 

Arthur G. Maki, Jr. 

Robert E. Michaelis 

Group: 

Robert E. Edsinger, Leslie A. Guildner 

Stratton Award—Evans V. Hayward 

Rosa Award—W. Murray Bullis 

Condon Award— 

Group: 

Robert J. Celotta, Daniel T. Pierce. 

Applied Research Award— 

Group: 

John A. Simpson, Robert J. Hocken, William C. Haight. 

900 
1981 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Burton H. Colvin 

Robert D. Cutkosky 

J. William Gadzuk 

Ernest E. Hughes 

Harry H. Ku 

Theodore E. Madey 

William C. Martin 

John T. Yates, Jr. 

Stratton Award— 

Group: 

David M. Kerns, Allen C. Newell 

Rosa Award—James A. Grundl 

Condon Award—Donald G. McDonald 

Applied Research Award— 

Group: 

C. McKay AlIred, Glenn F. Engen, Cletus A. Hoer, Manly P. Weidman 

Measurement Services Awards— 

Woodward G. Eicke, Jr. 

Robert R. Jones 

1982 

Hemming Award—Jon C. Geist 

Gold Medal Awards— 

John W. Cahn 

Judah Levine 

Sheldon M. Wiederhorn 

Richard N: Wright 

Group: 

Richard D. Marshall, Edward 0. Pfrang 

Stratton Award—Jerome Kruger 

Rosa Award—Elmer H. Eisenhower 

Condon Award—Theodore E. Madey 

Applied Research Award—Donald G. Eitzen 

Measurement Services Award— 

Group: 

Robert W. Peterson, Linwood Jenkins. 

901 
1983 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Robert P. Blanc 

David Garvin 

Clark A. Hamilton 

Raymond G. Kammer 

Raymond D. Mountain 

Richard P. Reed 

Group: 

James L. Blue, Charles L. Wilson. 

Group: J. Michael Rowe, John J. Rush. 

Stratton Award—Martin G. Broadhurst 

Rosa Award—Robert L. Scace 

Condon Award—Isaac C. Sanchez 

Applied Research Award— 

Group: 

David W. Allan, Alvin J.D. Clements, Davis, Marc A. Weiss. 

Measurement Services Awards— 

Gerald J. Harris 

Jacquelyn A. Wise 

1984 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Michael Danos 

James J. Filliben 

Peter L.M. Heydemann 

Stephen R. Leone 

Stratton Award—Morris Krauss 

Rosa Awards— 

John F. Heafner 

Bradford M. Smith 

Condon Award—Brian R. Lawn 

Applied Research Award—Karla L. Hoffman 

Astin Award— 

Group: 

Karl G. Kessler, John A. Simpson 

902 
1985 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Pierre J. Ausloos 

Howard J.M. Hanley 

Sharon G. Lias 

John C. Stephenson 

Group: 

Howard R. Baum, Ronald 0. Rehm 

Group: 

James C. Bergquist, John J. Bollinger, Wayne M. Itano, David J. Wineland. 

Stratton Award— 

Group: 

Richard L. Kautz, Donald B. Sullivan. 

Rosa Award—Robert Schaffer 

Condon Award—David J. Wineland 

Applied Research Award—William L. McLaughlin 

Astin Award—Albert D. Tholen 

1986 

Flemming Awards— 

Stephen R. Leone 

Harry S. Hertz 

Gold Medal Awards— 

James S. Albus 

Deprit 

Charles C. Han 

Robert J. Hocken 

Dale E. Newbury 

Cedric J. Powell 

Robert S. Roth 

Mabel V. Vickers 

Stratton Award—John W. Cahn 

Rosa Award—George A. Uriano 

Condon Award—John W. Lyons 

Applied Research Award— 

Group: 

Ronald F. Fleming, Robert G. Downing. 

Astin Award—Norman B. Belecki 

903 
1987 

Flemming Awards— 

Willie E. May 

Dale E. Newbury 

Gold Medal Awards— 

David A. Didion 

Steve R. Domen 

Michael R. Moldover 

Raymond T. Moore 

Philip N. Nanzetta 

James J. Rhyne 

Jack E. Snell 

Francis E. Sullivan 

Robb M. Thomson 

Wing Tsang 

Group: 

Robert J. Celotta, Daniel T. Pierce. 

Stratton Award—William D. Phillips 

Rosa Award—Daniel Gross 

Condon Award—Kermit C. Smyth 

Applied Research Award—David A. Didion 

Astin Award—Roger E. Beehler 

1988 

Flemming Award—William D. Phillips 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Robert J. Carpenter 

Douglas L. Franzen 

Arnold H. Kahn 

Curt W. Reimann 

Stephen E. Stein 

Stratton Award—Michael R. Moldover 

Rosa Award—Samuel J. Schneider, Jr. 

Condon Award— 

Group 

David A. Didion, Mark 0. McLinden. 

Applied Research Award—Douglas L. Franzen 

Astin Award—William C. Daywitt 

904 
1989 

Gold Medal Awards— 

George Bimbaum 

Lloyd A. Currie 

Harold E. Nelson 

Joseph Reader 

Emil Simiu 

Group: 

D. Wayne Hanson, David A. Howe, James L. Jesperson. 

Group: 

James A. Beall, Clark A. Hamilton, Richard E. Harris, Richard L. Kautz, Frances L. Lloyd. 

Group: 

Marvin E. Cage, Ronald F. Dziuba, P. Thomas Olsen, John Q. Shields, Barry N. Taylor, Edwin R. 

Williams. 

Stratton Award— 

Group 

James C. Bergquist, John J. Bollinger, Wayne M. Itano, David J. Wineland. 

Condon Award—Gregory B. McKenna 

Rosa Award—Leonard Mordfin 

Applied Research Award—James S. Albus 

Astin Award—Mary C. Croarkin 

1990 

Flemming Award—Geoffrey B. McFadden 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Richard R. Cavanagh 

James E. Faller 

Katherine B. Gebbie 

Oskars Petersons 

Walter J. Stevens 

Stratton Award—Charles C. Han 

Rosa Award—Frank F. Oettinger 

Condon Award-George G. Harman, Jr. 

Applied Research Award—Howard M. Kingston 

Astin Award—Group; Robert J. Carpenter, Alan Mink, George G. Nacht, John W. Roberts. 

905 
1991 

Flemming Award—David J. Nesbitt 

Gold Medal Awards— 

David S. King 

Billy W. Mangum 

Geoffrey B. McFadden 

Edward Prince 

Tawfik M. Raby 

Stratton Award— 

Group: 

Michael P. Casassa, Richard R. Cavanagh, Edwin J. Heilweil, David S. King, John C. Stephenson. 

Rosa Award—Randall S. Caswell 

Condon Award—Dale E. Newbury 

Applied Research Award—Takashi Kashiwagi 

Astin Award—Ronald F. Dziuba 

1992 

Flemming Award—Eric B. Steel 

Gold Medal Awards— 

Willie E. May 

George A. Uriano 

Wen-Li Wu 

Stratton Award—Stephen R. Leone 

Rosa Award—Vytenis Babrauskas 

Applied Research Award— 

Group: 

Mark 0. McLinden, Graham Morrison. 

Astin Award—William C. Martin 

Slichter Award— 

Group: 

Robert J. Celotta, Daniel 1. Pierce. 

1993 

Gold Medal Awards— 

William D. Phillips 

Group: 

Robert E. Drullinger, David J. Glaze, John P. Lowe. 

Group: 

High-Temperature Superconducting Electronics Team. 

906 
Stratton Award— 

Group: 

J. Michael Rowe, John J. Rush. 

Condon Award—Charles R. Tilford 

Rosa Award— 

Group: 

Dennis J. Reeder, Kristy L. Richie. 

Applied Research Award— 

Group: 

Laurie Locasio-Brown, Steven J. Choquette. 

Astin Award— 

Group: 

W. Tyler Estler, Yun Hsia Queen. 

Slichter Award— 

Group: 

Stephen A. Osella, Theodore V. Vorburger, Pedro I. Espina, George E. Mattingly, Francis S. 

Biancaniello, Paul A. Boyer, Robert L. Parke, Stephen D. Ridder, H. Thomas Yolken. 

Sources: 

1968-1973 NBS Standard. 

1974-1993 NBS/NIST Award Brochure Collection. 

907 
APPENDIX H 

MEMBERS OF THE VISITING COMMITTEE FOR NBS 

AND THE VISITING COMMITTEE 

ON ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY FOR NIST 

Public Law 56-177, which established the National Bureau of Standards as an agency of the Department of 

the Treasury on March 3, 1901, directed the creation of a Visiting Committee of five members, "men prominent 

in the various interests involved", to be appointed by the Secretary of the Treasury, to visit NBS at least annually, 

and to report to the secretary upon the efficiency of its scientific work and the condition of its equipment. Despite 

the transfer of NBS to the Department of Commerce and Labor in 1903 and the creation in 1913 of a separate 

Department of Commerce, the procedures of the Visiting Committee remained unchanged until 1988. 

The text of Public Law 100-418, August 23, 1988, replaced the earlier Visiting Committee by a Visiting 

Committee on Advanced Technology (VCAT). The new committee, to be appointed by the NIST Director, was 

to be composed of nine members, at least five of whom were to be from U.S. industry. The VCAT was to meet at least quarterly and to provide an annual report on NIST, to be submitted to Congress through the Secretary 

of Commerce. 

Visiting Committee, National Bureau of Standards 

Albert Ladd Colby 1901-1907 

Consulting engineer in metallurgy, South Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and secretary, 

Association of American Steel Manufacturers. 

Elihu Thomson 1901-1918 

Electrical engineer, General Electric Company, Lynn, Massachusetts. 

Ira Remsen 1901-1909 

Director of Chemical Laboratory and President, John Hopkins University. 

Henry S. Pritchett 1901-1910 

President, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; later, President, Carnegie 

Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. 

Edward L. Nichols 1901-1911 

Professor of physics, Cornell University. 

Robert S. Woodward 1908-1912 

President, Carnegie Institution of Washington. 

Henry M. Howe 1909-1914 

Professor of metallurgy, Columbia University. 

Arthur G. Webster 1910-1915 

Director, Physics Laboratory, Clark University. 

John F. Hayford 1912-1921 

Director, College of Engineering, Northwestern University. 

Arthur E. Kennelly 1912-1917 

Professor of electrical engineering, Harvard University. 

909 
John R. Freeman 1915-1924; 1926-1931 

Consulting engineer, Providence, Rhode Island. 

William A. Noyes 19151920 

Director, Chemical Laboratory, University of Illinois. 

Joseph S. Ames 1917-1922 

Director, Physical Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University. 

Wilder D. Bancroft 1920-1925 

Professor of physical chemistry, Cornell University. 

Fred W. McNair 1921-1923 

President, Michigan College of Mines (1921-23). 

Ambrose Swasey 1921-1926 

Chairman of the Board, Warner & Swasey Company, Cleveland, Ohio. 

Samuel W. Stratton 1923-1931 

President, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 

Gano Dunn 1923-1948 

President, J.G. White Engineering Corporation, New York. 

William F. Durand 1924-1929 

Professor of mechanical engineering, Leland Stanford University. 

Willis R. Whitney 1925-1930 

Director, General Electric Research Laboratory, Schenectady, New York. 

Charles F. Kettering 1929-1934; 1947-1952 

Director of Research and Vice President, General Motors Corporation. 

Charles L. Reese 1930-1935 

Consulting chemist to E.l. du Pont de Nemours & Company. - Morris E. Leeds 1931-1941 

President, Leeds & Northrup Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 

Karl T. Compton 1931-1947 

President, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 

William D. Coolidge 1935-1949 

Vice President and Director of Research, General Electric Company. 

Frank B. Jewett I935-1945 

Vice President for Research & Development, American Telephone & Telegraph Co.; 

President, National Academy of Sciences. 

Vannevar Bush 1942-1946 

President, Carnegie Institution of Washington; Director, Office of Scientific Research 

and Development. 

910 
Harold C. Urey 1945-1950 

Research Professor of chemistry, University of Chicago. 

Eugene P. Wigner 1946-1951 

Metallurgical Laboratory, University of Chicago; Director of Research, Clinton Laboratories, Oak 

Ridge, Tennessee. 

Robert F. Mehl 1948-1953 

Director, Metals Research Laboratory, Carnegie Institute of Technology. 

Donald H. Menzel 1949-1954 

Chairman, Department of astronomy, Harvard University; Associate Director, Harvard Observatory. 

Detlev W. Bronk 1950-1960 

President, Johns Hopkins University. 

John H. Van Vleck 195 1-1956 

Dean, Division of Applied Science, Harvard University. 

Mervin J. Kelly 1952-1962 

President, Bell Telephone Laboratories. 

Clyde E. Williams 1953-1958 

Director, Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio. 

Crawford H. Greenewalt 1954-1964 

President, E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company. 

Frederick Seitz 1956-1961 

Chairman, Department of Physics, University of Illinois. 

Lloyd V. Berkner 1958-1965 

President, Associated Universities, New York; President, Southwest Graduate 

Research Center. 

Charles H. Townes 1960-1965 

Professor, Department of physics, Columbia University; consultant, Brookhaven 

National Laboratories. 

Emanuel R. Piore 1962-1972 

Vice President and Chief Scientist, International Business Machines Corporation. 

Elmer W. Engstrom 1963-1971 

President, Radio Corporation of America. 

Paul C. Cross 1964- 1969 

President, Mellon Institute. 

Norman F. Ramsey 1965-70; 1982-1987 

Professor, Department of physics, Harvard University. 

Robert L. Sproull 1966-1971 

Vice President, University of Rochester. 

911 
Jack E. Goldman 1969-1974 

Senior Vice President for Research and Development, Xerox Corporation. 

James C. Fletcher 1970-1971 

President, University of Utah. 

H. Guyford Stever 1971-1976 

President, Carnegie Mellon University. 

Milton Harris 1971-1973 

President, Harris Research Laboratories, Incorporated. 

Arthur M. Bueche 1971-1975 

Vice-President for Research and Development, General Electric Company. 

John G. Truxall 1972-1976 

Dean, College of Engineering, State University of New York at Stony Brook. 

Charles E. Peck 1973-1977 

Vice-President, Construction Group, Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corporation. 

Edwin A. Gee 1973-1978 

Senior Vice President, E.l. du Pont de Nemours & Company; International Paper Corporation. 

Robert H. Dicke 1974-1979 

Professor of physics, Princeton University. 

W. Dale Compton 1975-1981 

Vice-President for Research, Ford Motor Company. 

William D. Carey l976-198l 

Executive Officer, American Association for the Advancement of Science. 

William K. Linvill 1978-1982 

Department of engineering economics, Stanford University. 

Dorothy M. Simon 1978-1983 

Vice-President for Research, AVCO Corporation. 

Walter H. Stockmayer 1979-1984 

Department of chemistry, Dartmouth College. 

G. King Walters 1980-1982; 1992-1994 

Dean, Physics Department, Rice University. 

Russell G. Meyerand, Jr. 1980-1985 

Vice-President for Technology, United Technologies Corporation. 

Bernard M. Oliver 1982-1986 

Vice-President, Hewlett Packard Company. 

Robert H. Pry 1983-1987 

Center for Innovative Technology; Consultant, Gould Incorporated. 

912 
William D. Manly 1984-1989 

Senior Vice-President, Cabot Corporation; Consultant, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 

Arden L. Bement 1985-1991 

Vice-President, Technical Resources, Science & Technology Department, TRW Incorporated. 

The Visiting Committee on Advanced Technology, National Institute of 

Standards and Technology 

William D. Manly 1988-l989 

Senior Vice-President, Cabot Corporation; Consultant, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 

Arden L. Bement 1988-1991 

Vice-President, Technical Resources, Science & Technology Department, TRW Incorporated. 

John 0. Bollinger 1988-1991 

Dean, College of Engineering, University of Wisconsin. 

John P. McTague 1988-1990 

Vice-President for Research, Ford Motor Company. 

Nolen M. Ellison 1988-1989 

President, Cuyahoga Community College. 

Jeanette 0. Grasselli 1988-1991 

Director of Research Enhancement, Ohio University. 

William J. Spencer 1988-1989 

Vice-President for Corporate Research, Xerox Corporation. 

William P. Slichter l988-1990 

Executive Director, Materials Science and Engineering Division, AT&T Bell Laboratories. 

William 0. Howard Jr. 1988-1993 

Senior Fellow, National Academy of Engineering. 

Edward C. Heffron 1990-1993 

Director, Food Division, Michigan Department of Agriculture. 

Albert R.C. Westwood 1990-l995 

Vice-President for Research and Technology, Martin Marietta Corporation. 

Richard S. Nicholson l990-l992 

Executive Officer, American Association for the Advancement of Science. 

Nam P. Suh 1990-1993 

Professor of manufacturing and of mechanical engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 

Robert W. Lucky 199 1-1994 

Vice-President for Applied Research, Bellcore Corporation. 

913 
Robert J. Hermann 1992-1998 

Senior Vice President for Science and Technology, United Technologies Corporation. 

Edward M. Chait 1992-1994 

Vice-President for Business Development, Intergen Company. 

Maxine L. Savitz 1993-1999 

General Manager for Ceramic Components, Allied Signal, Incorporated. 

Fred W. Kittler Jr. 1994-2000 

Vice President, J. P. Morgan Investment Management Company. 

Robert J. Saldich 1994-2000 

President, Raychem Corporation. 

George M. Whitesides 1994-1997 

Professor of chemistry, Harvard University. 

Craig 1. Fields 1995-2001 

Vice Chairman, Alliance Gaming Corporation. 

James C. McGroddy 1995-2001 

Senior Vice President, IBM Corporation. 

Howard D. Samuel 1995-2000 

Senior Fellow, Council on Competitiveness. 

David L. Tennenhouse 1996-1997 

Principal Research Scientist, MIT Laboratory for Computer Science. 

Duane A. Adams 1996-1999 

Vice Provost for Research, Carnegie Mellon University. 

Dwight D. Carlson 1996-1999 

Vice Chairman, Perceptron, Incoporated. 

Victoria F. Haynes 1996-1999 

Vice President for Research & Development, The B.F. Goodrich Company. 

Lynn R. Williams 1996-2000 

President (Retired), United Steel Workers of America. 

Milton M. Chang 1996- 

Chairman, New Focus, Incorporated. 

(Dates indicate term(s) of appointments.) 

Source: 

Carolyn J. Stull, NIST Visiting Committee Office. 

914 
APPENDIX I 

NBSINIST ACTUAL OBLIGATIONS, 1967-1999 

On the following page is presented, in graphical form, a representation of monies spent by NBS/NIST during 

the period 1967-1999. Four categories of expenditure are indicated: • Congressionally appropriated funds earmarked for NBS/NIST Research and Technical Services (RTS) 

or Scientific and Technical Research and Services (SRTS). During the stated period, these funds— 

used primarily to support scientists engaged in traditional NBS work—grew from $30 M per year to $280 M per year. • Funds obtained principally from other government agencies for research services rendered, from the 

sale of Standard Reference Materials, and from calibration services (Reimbursables). Funds received 

from these sources grew from $25 M per year to just over $70 M per year during 1967-1999. • Congressionally appropriated funds earmarked for support of the Advanced Technology Program and 

the Manufacturing Extension Partnership (ITS Approp). Existing only after the change of NBS to NIST, these funds reached peak levels above $400 M per year during 1995 and 1996. • Congressionally appropriated funds earmarked for new construction and major renovations of NIST 

facilities (Construction Approps). These funds reached peak levels above $70 M during 1995 and 

1996. 

Source: Janet B. Miller, Chief, Formulation and Financial Management Section, NIST Budget Division. 

915 
C' 

900 

800 700 600 

500 200 — 

100 

1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 

Year 

U RTS/ STRS Approp D U U Const ruction Approps 

NBS/NIST Actual Obligations 

400'-- 300 
APPENDIX J 

NBSINIST PUBLICATIONS 

This appendix contains a listing of both periodical and non-periodical publications from NBS/NIST. 

Many of the publications enjoyed only a limited life, then were superseded or stopped. 

Besides the publications listed here, NBS/NIST scientists and engineers wrote numerous books and 

book chapters, edited many technical conference proceedings, and published many archival technical papers 

in non-NBS/NIST journals. References to these publications can be found in NBS Circular 460 and its 

supplement (for the years 1901-1957); in NBS Miscellaneous Publication 240 and its supplement 

(1957-1966); and NBS/NIST Special Publication 305 and its many supplements (1966--present). 

In 1991, total NIST Publications numbered over 1,700 separate items. 

Following each entry is its NIST Office of Information Services call number. 

Aeronautic Instruments Circulars 

TL589.U47 

No. 1-51 (1918-1921) 

These technical circulars discussed the principles involved in the various aeronautic instruments and the 

methods of testing employed by the Aeronautic Instruments Section. The confidential reports were duplicated 

for temporary use and served to make the results immediately available for the instruction of the experts 

engaged in aviation work in the technical divisions of the Army and Navy. They were not for publication. 

Aeronautic Power Plants Reports 

TLS21.A33 

No. 3-53 (1918-1919) 

These technical reports were results of investigations by the NBS Airplane Power Plant Section for the 

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. The reports were confidential for use by the Army, Navy, and 

authorized civilians. 

Annual Reports 

QCIOO.U55 

Fiscal Year 1902—Fiscal Year 1985 

The title varies and includes: 

Annual Report of the Director of the National Bureau of Standards for the Fiscal Year Ended... 

(June 30, 1902—June 30, 1903) 

Annual Report of the Director of the Bureau of Standards to the Secretary of Commerce and for 

the Fiscal Year Ended... (June 30, 1904—June 30, 1912) 

Annual Report of the Director, Bureau of Standards to the Secretary of Commerce for the Fiscal Year 

Ended... (June 30, 1913—June 30, 1921) 

Annual Report of the Director of the Bureau of Standards to the Secretary of Commerce for the Fiscal 

Year Ended... (June 30, 1922 —June 30, 1932) 

Reprinted from the Annual Report of the Secretary of Commerce. Bureau of Standards. (1933) 

Reprinted from the Annual Report of the Secretary of Commerce. National Bureau of Standards. 

(1934-1942) 

The Annual Reports of the National Bureau of Standards for the fiscal years 1943, 1944, and 1945 were not published because of economy measures taken during World War II. The manuscripts for these annual 

reports were submitted to the secretary of commerce in typewritten form. 

Annual Report of the National Bureau of Standards. Reprinted from the Annual Report of the Secretary 

of Commerce. (1946-1948) 

917 
Annual Report. . . National Bureau of Standards. (1949-1952) 

Biennial Report 1953 and 1954, National Bureau of Standards. From the Preface: At the scheduled time for the preparation and release of the 1953 report the Bureau was undergoing comprehensive survey by an Ad Hoc Committee [Kelly Committee] appointed by the secretary of commerce to "evaluate the present functions and operation of the NBS in relation to present national needs." A 

number of important changes affecting the over-all Bureau program were made as a result of this 

survey. It was considered more appropriate to delay the report for a year in order to include the 

complete recommendations of the Ad Hoc Committee rather than to report on them partially. 

Annual Report. . . National Bureau of Standards. (1955-1957) 

Research Highlights of the National Bureau of Standards. Annual Report, Fiscal Year... (1958-1963) 

Technical Highlights of the National Bureau of Standards. Annual Report, Fiscal Year... (1964-1970) 

NBS 1971 Annual Report. Special Publication (SP) 397 June 1972 

National Bureau of Standards, NBS. (1972) SP-367 Oct 1972 

National Bureau of Standards, NBS. [1973] SP-397 June 1974 

NBS Annual Report Fiscal Year /974. SP-4l 8 March 1975 

National Bureau of Standards Annual Report FY 1975. SP-437 Dec 1975 

National Bureau of Standards, Perspectives on Standards. (1976) SP-467 March 1977 

Science on it's Way to Work, Activities of the National Bureau of Standards. 

[1977] SP-498 April 1978 

National Bureau of Standards, A National Resource for Science and Technology, Fiscal Year 1978. 

SP-538 July 1979 

1979 was not published. 

National Bureau of Standards 1980. SP-600 Jan 1981 

National Bureau of Standards 1982. [covered fiscal years 1981 and 1982] SP-643 Feb 1983 

National Bureau of Standards. [1983] SP-679 July 1984 

National Bureau of Standards. [1985] SP-679 July 1984, revised April 1986. 

The last annual report in this series was published in 1986 as a revision of the previous report. The 

two publications differ in all but a few minor areas. Descriptions of the technical activities of the major organizational units of NBS/NIST—but without overall personnel or financial information—were published in a series of Special Publication documents during 

the period 1984 to the present. Prominent among these were the following series: 

N/ST Research Reports 1984-1987; 

N/ST Research Reports 1988-1991; and 

Guide to N/ST 1993- present. 

Applied Mathematics Series 

QA3.U5 

No. 1-63 (1948-1973) 

This series contains mathematical tables, manuals and studies of special interest to physicists, engineers, 

chemists, biologists, mathematicians and others engaged in scientific and technical work. Some of the publications are reissues of the Mathematical Tables prepared by members of the Project for the Computation of 

Mathematical Tables. This series is inactive as none have been published since 1973. BASIC RADIO PROPAGATION PREDICTIONS SERIES This monthly series was prepared by the Interservice Radio Propagation Laboratory (IRPL) which was 

set up during WWll by the United States Joint Communications Board at NBS. The series succeeded "Radio 

Propagation Conditions," also prepared by the IRPL. The predictions series was initially restricted and available only to the military as a basic supplement to the IRPL's "Radio Propagation Handbook" issued by the 

military. Predictions were made three months in advance. May 1, 1946, the wartime IRPL ceased to exist 

and its duties and functions were assumed by the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory (CRPL) of the 

National Bureau of Standards. In July 1946 the series was made available by annual subscription to those 

concerned with radio communication in determining the best sky-wave frequencies over any path at any time 

of day for average conditions. In September 1947, various maps, charts, diagrams, and nomograms needed to 

make practical application of the world-contour charts were added with examples of their use. 918 
Basic Radio Propagation Predictions, IRPL Series D 

TK6570.B7U47 

No. 1-22 (1944-June 1946) 

Continued by: Basic Radio Propagation Predictions, CRPL Series D 

Basic Radio Propagation Predictions, CRPL Series D 

TK6570.B7U47 

No. 23-220 (July 1946-1962) 

Continues: Basic Radio Propagation Predictions, IRPL Series D 

Superseded by: Ionospheric Predictions 

Building and Housing 

TH 1 .U4 

No. 1-18 (1923-1932) 

This series contained reports of the work of the Building and Housing Division that included gathering 

and distributing scientific, practical, statistical, and other information tending to reduce costs, and encourage 

and improve construction and housing. It covered investigations for use in framing local building and plumbing codes, and a study of problems connected with city zoning. Information on the prices, production, consumption, and stocks of building materials, and on building activity was collected, analyzed, and distributed. 

Special attention was paid to factors bearing on the housing problem. The work included studies of building 

practices, and cooperative efforts to reduce seasonal operations arid otherwise eliminate waste in the con- struction industries. 

Building Materials and Structures Reports 

TA4IO.U48 

No. 1-152 (1938-1959) 

This series reported the results of Bureau investigations on the properties and suitability of new materials and new methods of construction. The program was carried out with the cooperation and advice of the 

housing agencies of the Government. The objective was to furnish the Government, the building industry, 

and the public with technical information that would be useful with particular reference to low-cost housing. 

This series was discontinued in July 1959 and papers on building technology were then published in the 

Journal of Research—usually Section C. Engineering and Instrumentation—or the Monograph series. 

Building Science Series see NIST Building Science Series 

Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards see Journal of Research 

Circulars see National Bureau of Standards Circular 

Commercial Standards 

QCIOO.U5553 

Nos. 0-274 (1928-1966) 

Commercial standards were voluntary, recorded standards agreed upon by producers, distributors, and 

consumers, covering terminology, types, classifications, grades, sizes, and use characteristics of manufactured 

products as a basis for better understanding between buyers and sellers. They generally included standard 

methods of test, rating, certification, and labeling, and provided a uniform basis for fair competition. Each 

standard included a list of members of the standing committee, a history of the project, and list of acceptors. 

After 1966 as Commercial Standards were revised, they became Product Standards and in 1969, Voluntary 

Product Standards. 

Commercial Standards Monthly 

HD62.U3 

Vol. [11-9 (l925-l933) 

This periodical was a review of progress in commercial simplification and standardization. It covered 

the national movement initiated by President Hoover for the reduction of needless sizes and varieties of 

products and the promotion of voluntary commercial standardization by industry. 

919 
Consumer Information Series 

TX335.A I U6 

No. 1-10 (1970-1978) 

This series contained practical information, based on NBS research and experience, covering areas of 

interest to the consumer. Easily understandable language and illustrations provide useful background knowledge for shopping in today's technological marketplace. This series is inactive as none have been published 

since 1978. 

CRPL Report 

QC503.U5 

No. 1-I— 9-10 (July 1946-1950) 

Supersedes: IRPL Report 

Reports prepared by the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory at NBS. 

CRPL-F, PART A: IONOSPHERIC DATA These bulletins represent a variety of data collected by IRPL, later CRPL, in the course of its research 

and service activities. The data were made available for use in research on radio propagation and the ionosphere, and in other geophysical applications. 

Ionospheric Data, IRPL-F 

QC503.U5 

No. 1-22 (1944— June 1946) 

Continued by: Ionospheric Data, CRPL-F 

Ionospheric Data, CRPL-F 

QC503.U5 

No. 23-134 (July 1946-1955) 

Continues: Ionospheric Data, IRPL-F 

Split into two parts: CRPL-F, Part A and CRPL-F, Part B CRPL-F, Part A: Ionospheric Data 

QC503.U5 

No. 135-256 (1955-1965) 

Continues in part: Ionospheric Data, CRPL-F 

Continued as U.S. Environmental Science Services Administration. Institute for Telecommunication 

Sciences. CRPL-FA: Ionospheric Data 

CRPL-F, Part B: Solar-Geophysical Data 

QC503.U5 I No. 135-256 (1955-1965) 

Continues in part: Ionospheric Data, CRPL-F 

Continued as U.S. Environmental Science Services Administration. Institute for Telecommunication 

Sciences. CRPL-FB: Solar-Geophysical Data DIMENSIONS During World War I the Bureau originally issued the Confidential Bulletin as an information bulletin for 

the military of ordnance work done by the Bureau. The name was changed to Technical News Bulletin 

(TNB) and the first issue, no. 26, June 20, 1919, was also issued as ConJldential Bulletin no. 26, June 20, 

1919. These two publications were the same except for information items concerning ordnance that were 

blanked out of the TNB. 

920 
The Technical News Bulletin, available by annual subscription, summarized the current research, development, and test activities of the Bureau. The articles were brief, with emphasis on the results of research 

and their significance, chosen for their importance to other scientists, engineers, and to industry. Resumes of 

longer research reports, important national and international conferences on fundamental science in which the 

Bureau represented the Nation, and a bibliography of all publications by members of the staff as published 

were included. The Bulletin was designed to give a succinct account of the current work of the Bureau. 

Dimensions continued the TNB in a popular magazine format to inform scientists, engineers, businessmen, industry, teachers, students, and consumers of the latest advances in science and technology, with primary emphasis on the work at NBS. It highlighted and reviewed such issues as energy research, fire protection, building technology, metric conversion, pollution abatement, health and safety, and consumer product 

performance in addition to Bureau programs in measurement standards and techniques, properties of matter 

and materials, engineering standards and services, instrumentation, and automatic data processing. 

Confidential Bulletin 

Tl.U45 

No. 1-26 (Dec. 15, 1917—June 20, 1919) Continued by: Technical News Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards 

Technical News Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards 

TI .U45 

No. 26-204 (1919-1934) 

Continued by: Technical News Bulletin of the National Bureau of Standards 

Technical News Bulletin of the National Bureau of Standards 

Tl.U45 

No. 205— Vol. 57 no. 7 (May 1934—July 1973) 

(after no. 356, Dec. 1946, changed to volume numbering with Vol. 31 no. 1, Jan. 1947) 

Continues: Technical News Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards 

Continued by: Dimensions: the Magazine of the National Bureau of Standards Dimensions: the Magazine of the National Bureau of Standards 

Tl.U45 

Vol. 57 no. 8—Vol. 65 no. 8 (Aug. 1973—Oct. 1981) 

Continues: Technical News Bulletin of the National Bureau of Standards 

Additional title: Dimensions/NBS 

Federal Information Processing Standards Publications 

JK468.A8A3 

No. 0 (1968)—present 

This series is the official publication relating to standards and guidelines developed for Federal com- puter systems by the National Institute of Standards and Technology and promulgated under the Federal 

Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949, Section 111(d). as amended by the Computer Security 

Act of 1987, Public Law 100-235 (101 Stat. 1724) January 8, 1988. 

Federal Specifications 

The Bureau developed specifications for the purchase of supplies (other than foods and drugs) for the 

Federal Government. These specifications were generally recognized as dependable guides by many large 

organizations and purchasing agencies in achieving purchasing economy. The Bureau endorsed these specifications and published them for distribution. The first one published by the Bureau was Circular 13, Standard 

Specifications for the Purchase of Carbon-Filament incandescent Lamps, in 1907. The first official U.S. 

Government specification, authorized by Presidential order, was published as Bureau Circular C33, United 

States Government Specification for Portland Cement, in 1912. Specifications were published in the Circular 

and Miscellaneous Publications series. 

921 
In 1921 The Federal Specifications Board was created by the Bureau of the Budget to unify specifications already available to government agencies. Bureau specifications accepted by the Board became official 

standards and were binding on all departments of the Federal Government. 

Gage Section Communications 

TJI 166.U5 

1919-1920 

The various communications of the Gage Section of the Weights and Measures Division contained 

information about the practical problems of gauges and gauging methods including work carried Out with the 

National Screw Thread Commission. 

Handbooks see NIST Handbooks 

Hydraulic Laboratory. Bulletin. Series B: Hydraulic Laboratories in the United States 

TC I .U5 

(1933 and 1935, 1st rev.) 

This series updated Hydraulic Laboratories in the United States of America, giving descriptions of 47 

hydraulic laboratories in the United States. HYDRAULIC RESEARCH IN THE UNITED STATES 

These reports represented a cooperative attempt on the part of the hydraulic laboratories in the United 

States to bring about the effective interchange of information relating to research projects being carried out 

in these laboratories. NBS served as a central agency to compile, publish and distribute information related to current hydraulic laboratory research. 

Hydraulic Laboratory. Bulletin. Series A: Current Hydraulic Laboratory Research in the United States 

TCI.U5l 

No. 1-10 (1933-1942) 

Continued by: Hydraulic Research in the United States 

Hydraulic Research in the United States 

TCI.U5l 

Vol. 11-14(1947-1950) 

Continues: Hydraulic Laboratory. Bulletin. Series A: Current Hydraulic Laboratory Research in the 

United States 

In 1951 Hydraulic Research in the United States became part of the Miscellaneous Publications series, 

and an annual issue was published, keeping the title Hydraulic Research in the United States. In 1969 the 

series name changed to Special Publications and the frequency of publication of Hydraulic Research became 

biennial. In 1972 the title changed to Hydraulic Research in the United States and Canada. Publication of 

this title ended in 1978. 

Miscellaneous Publications 201, 205, 208, 210, 215, 218, 221, 224, 227, 231, 238, 245, 249, 261, 270, 280 

Special Publications 316, 346, 382, 443, 497, 583 

International Aircraft Standards 

TL671.1.U5 

(19 17-1918) 

International Aircraft Standards, adopted by the International Aircraft Standards Board, were specifications that resulted from testing done at NBS. The classification of specifications covered general inspection 

and testing instructions, raw materials, fabricated material, and fabricated parts. 

922 
Ionospheric Predictions 

TK6570.B7U47 

No. 1-36 (1963-1965) 

Supersedes: Basic Radio Propagation Predictions, CRPL Series D 

The CRPL Ionospheric Predictions were issued monthly as an aid in determining the best sky-wave 

frequencies over any transmission path, at any time of day, for average conditions for the month. Issued 

three months in advance, each issue provided tables of numerical coefficients that defined the functions describing the predicted worldwide distribution of foF2 and M(3000)F2 and maps for each even hour of Universal Time of MUF(Aero)F2 and MUF(4000)F2. 

IRPL Report 

TK6540.U5 

No. 1-35 (1943-June 1946) 

Superseded by: CRPL Report 

Reports prepared by the Interservice Radio Propagation Laboratory at NBS. 

Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data 

Q199.J65 

Vol. 1 (1972)— present 

This journal provides critically evaluated physical and chemical property data and critical reviews of 

measurement techniques. It is not an outlet for original experimental measurements or for review articles of a descriptive or primarily theoretical nature. The National Standard Reference Data System is one source of 

contributions to the Journal. JPCRD is published by the American Chemical Society and the American Institute of Physics for NIST. 

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH Results of research in science and technology were reported in the Scientific Papers. The first 14 vol- umes of the Scientific Papers were issued as the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards and the separate papers were called "Reprints." Results of investigations of materials and methods of testing were reported in the 

Technologic Papers. In July 1928 the Scientific Papers and Technologic Papers were combined and issued 

under the title Bureau of Standards Journal of Research. 

Complete scientific reports of the Bureau's research and development, both experimental and theoretical, in physics, chemistry, and engineering and the results of test and instrumentation activities in these fields were printed in the Journal of Research. The subject matter of the reports embraced all fields of work con- ducted at the Bureau. Research Papers were reprints of individual articles appearing in the monthly issues of 

the Journal of Research. They were made available in this form to serve the need of research workers, 

technical groups, and others for the separate papers relating to the particular subjects in which they cooperated or were interested. In July 1959 the Bureau began publishing the Journal in four separate sections, A, B, 

C, and D, and the Research Papers were discontinued. Issued six times a year. 

Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards, Section A. Physics and Chemistry was of 

interest primarily to scientists working in these fields. It covered a broad range of physical and chemical 

research, with major emphasis on standards of physical measurement, fundamental constants, and properties 

of matter. Issued six times a year. 

923 
Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards, Section B. Mathematics and Mathematical 

Physics presented studies and compilations designed mainly for the mathematician and the theoretical physicist. Topics in mathematical statistics, theory of experiment design, numerical analysis, theoretical physics 

and chemistry, logical design and programing of computers and computer systems were covered, together 

with short numerical tables. In 1967 Mathematics and Mathematical Physics changed to Mathematical Sciences. Issued quarterly. 

Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards, Section C. Engineering and Instrumentation 

reported research and development results of interest chiefly to the engineer and the applied scientist. It 

included many of the new developments in instrumentation resulting from the Bureau's work in physical 

measurement, data processing, and development of test methods. It also covered some of the work in acous- tics, applied mechanics, building research, and cryogenic engineering. Issued quarterly. Ceased publication at end of 1972. 

Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards, Section D. Radio Propagation reported re- search in radio propagation, communications, and upper atmospheric physics. Topics covered included propagation in ionized media, scattering by turbulence, effect of irregular terrain on propagation, diffraction and 

scattering by solid obstacles, propagation through time-varying media, surface waves, and antennas. In January 1964, Radio Propagation changed to Radio Science. Issued six times a year. 

Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards, Section D. Radio Science was published 

monthly by the National Bureau of Standards in cooperation with the U.S. National Committee of the International Scientific Radio Union (URSI). It served as the principal publication outlet for the research of the 

NBS Central Radio Propagation Laboratory and the scientific activities of the USNC of URSI; it also carried 

selected papers from the NBS Radio Standards Laboratory. Radio Science presented research papers, as well as occasional survey articles, in radio propagation, communications, and radio science generally. Beginning 

with the January 1966 issue, Radio Science was published by the Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA) after the transfer of the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory from NBS to ESSA. The scope 

and coverage remained the same. It continued to be cosponsored by the U.S. National Committee of the 

International Scientific Radio Union. The title of the journal was changed to simply Radio Science with new volume numbering. 

In July 1977 Sections A and B were combined under its former title Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards and issued six times a year. 

As of August 23, 1988, the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) became the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology (NIST) when the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act was signed into law. 

The title was changed to Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology with the 

Volume 93, no. 6 (November-December 1988) issue to reflect the organizational name change. 

Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards 

QCI.U5 

Vol. 1-14 (1904-1919) 

Scientific Papers of the Bureau of Standards 

QC I .U572 

Vol. 15-22 (19 19-1928) 

Merged with: Technologic Papers of the Bureau of Standards, to form: Bureau of Standards Journal 

of Research 

Technologic Papers of the Bureau of Standards 

Tl.U4 

Vol. 1-22 (1910-1928) 

Merged with: Scientific Papers of the Bureau of Standards, to form: Bureau of Standards Journal of 

Research 

924 
Bureau of Standards Journal of Research 

QCI.U52 

Vol. 1-12 (1928-1934) 

Formed by the union of: Scientific Papers of the Bureau of Standards, and Technologic Papers of the 

Bureau of Standards 

Continued by: Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards 

Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards 

QCI.U52 

Vol. 13-62 (1934-1959) 

Continues: Bureau of Standards Journal of Research 

Split into four parts and continued by Sections A, B, C, and D 

Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. Section A: Physics and Chemistry 

QC I .U522 

Vol. 63A-81A (1959-1977) 

Continues in part: Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards 

Merged with: Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. Section B, to form: Journal of 

Research of the National Bureau of Standards 

Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. Section B: Mathematics and Mathematical Physics 

QAI.U57 

Vol. 63B-71B (1959-1967) 

Continues in part: Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards 

Continued by: Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. Section B: Mathematical Sciences 

Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. Section B: Mathematical Sciences 

QAI.U57 

Vol. 72B-81B (1968-1977) 

Continues: Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. Section B: Mathematics and 

Mathematical Physics 

Merged with: Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. Section A, to form: Journal of 

Research of the National Bureau of Standards 

Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. Section C: Engineering and Instrumentation 

QCI OO.U5554 

Vol. 63C-76C (1959-1972) 

Continues in part: Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards 

Ceased publication in 1972. 

Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. Section D: Radio Propagation 

QC973.U46 

Vol. 63D-67D (1959-1963) 

Continues in part: Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards 

Continued by: Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. Section D: Radio Science 

Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. Section D: Radio Science 

QC973.U46 

Vol. 68D-69D (1964-1965) 

Continues: Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. Section D: Radio Propagation 

Ceased publication by NBS in 1965. 

925 
Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards 

QC I .U524 

Vol. 82-93 no. 5 (1977.1988) 

Formed by the union of its Sections A and B Continued by: Journal of Research at the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

QC I .U524 

Vol. 93 no. 6 (1988)—present 

Continues: Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards 

LEVIER CIRCULARS 

Letter Circulars 1-1040 are mimeographed, irregularly published listsof Bureau publications and references, and general information concerning specific subjects on which popular interest had been demonstrated 

by inquiries addressed to the Bureau. With no. 1041 (1966) the Letter Circulars changed from a report 

format to that of brochures, booklets, and charts. They are still an informal series and not subject to a review 

process. 

Letter Circular of the Bureau of Standards 

QC lOO.U5775 

No. 1-411 (1921-1934) 

Letter Circular of the National Bureau of Standards 

QC l00.U5775 

No. 412—1040 (1934-1962) 

No. 1041—1134 (1966-1984). 

Letter Circular of the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

QC lOO.U5775 

No. 1135 (1988) — present. 

Limitation of Variety Recommendations 

No. I (September I, 1924) 

Apparently only one "Elimination of Waste—Limitation of Variety Recommendation" was published (listed 

in "Publications of the Bureau of Standards, 1901—June 30, 1925," 7th ed. final, pg. 215. Circular no. 24) No 

mention of this series is made in the "Supplementary List of Publications of the Bureau of Standards. (July 

I, 1925, to December 31, 1931)" or any thereafter. 

Mathematical Tables Series 

QA47.U5 I No. 1-37 (1939-1946) 

The tables (with the exception of MT1 5) were prepared by the Mathematical Tables Project for the com- putation of mathematical tables. The project, conducted by the Federal Works Agency, Work Projects 

Administration (WPA) for the city of New York, was under the sponsorship of, and tables made available 

through, the National Bureau of Standards. Selected for tabulation were functions of fundamental importance 

in pure and applied mathematics in the most useful range and interval of the argument. They are of special 

interest to physicists, engineers, chemists, biologists, mathematicians and others engaged in scientific and 

technical work. 

In 1943 the project was administratively transferred from the WPA to the Bureau, but it remained in 

New York. When the National Applied Mathematics Laboratories was established at NBS in July 1947, the 

Mathematical Tables Project moved from New York to Washington, DC and became a part of the NAML's 

Computation Laboratory. 

926 
MT-18, MT-30, and MT-37 were originally printed as part of the series in the "Bulletin of the Ameri- can Mathematical Society". 

MT-19—MT-29, and MT-31—MT-36 were originally printed as part of the series in the "Journal of 

Mathematics and Physics". 

Miscellaneous Publications see NIST Special Publications 

Monographs see Monographs NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS CLRCULARS Circulars were compilations of information on various subjects related to the Bureau's scientific, technical, and engineering activities. They included not only the results of Bureau studies, but give data of general 

interest from other sources. This series also contained Recommended Specifications, United States Government Specifications, and 

United States Government Master Specifications formerly issued by the Bureau. These bore a specification number in addition to the Bureau Circular number, but all of these specifications were can- celed or superseded by Federal Specifications, now formulated by the Federal Specifications Board. The 

series was discontinued in June 1959 and "circular" material was directed to the Journal of Research and the 

Monograph series. 

Circular of Information of the National Bureau of Standards 

QCIOO.U554 

No. 1-4(1902-1903) 

Continued by: Bureau Circular—Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Standards 

Bureau Circular—Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Standards 

QC lOO.U555 

No. 1-20 (1903-1909) 

Continues: Circular of Information of the National Bureau of Standards 

Continued by: Circular of the Bureau of Standards 

Circular of the Bureau of Standards 

QC lOO.U555 

No. 21-404 (1910-1934) 

Continues: Bureau Circular—Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Standards 

Continued by: Circular of the National Bureau of Standards 

Circular of the National Bureau of Standards 

QC l0O.U555 

No. 405-459 (1934-1948) 

Continues: Circular of the Bureau of Standards 

Continued by: National Bureau of Standards Circular 

National Bureau of Standards Circular 

QC lOO.U555 

No. 460-603 (1947-1959) 

Continues: Circular of the National Bureau of Standards 

Superseded by: NBS Monograph 

927 
National Bureau of Standards Reports 

Nos. 1000-10,987 (1951-1975) 

These were usually preliminary or progress accounting documents intended for use within the government. Before material in the reports was formally published, it was subjected to additional evaluation and 

review. The reports were often called "graybacks" because of their gray covers. 

NBS-GCR Reports 

QC I 00.U6N25 

70-I to 88-550 (1970-1988). 

NBS-GCR Reports 

QC I 00.U6N25 

88-551 to present. 

Grantee/Contractor reports are prepared by non-NIST persons or organizations working under grant or 

Contract from NIST. 

NBS-GCR-ETIP Reports 

73-01—82-101 (1973-1982) 

Grantee/Contractor reports prepared by non-NBS persons or organizations working under grant or con- tract from NBS on subjects specifically for the Experimental Technology Incentives Program. 

NBS Standard 

TI.U44 Vol. I—vol. 26, no. 15 (October 1955-July 22, 1981) 

This publication was the official NBS employee newsletter. All department of commerce individual 

agency newsletters were discontinued in 1981 as part of the secretary of commerce's goal to develop a more unified and cohesive department. The assistant secretary for administration established an employee newsletter to cover the entire Department of Commerce. 

NIST BUILDING SCIENCE SERIES This series disseminates technical information developed at NIST on building materials, components, 

systems, and whole structures. The series contains research results, test methods, and performance criteria 

related to the structural and environmental functions and the durability and safety characteristics of building 

elements and systems. 

Building Science Series 

TA435.U58 

No. 0-49 (1965-1974) 

Continued by: NBS Building Science Series 

NBS Building Science Series 

TA435.U58 

No. 50-165 (1974-1987) 

Continues: Building Science Series 

Continued by: NIST Building Science Series 

NIST Building Science Series 

TA435.U58 

No. 166 (1989)—present 

Continues: NBS Building Science Series 

928 
MST HANDBOOKS These are recommended codes of engineering and industrial practice, including safety codes, developed 

in cooperation with the national organizations and others concerned. In many cases the recommended 

requirements are given official status through their incorporation in local ordinances by State and municipal 

regulatory bodies. 

Handbook of the Bureau of Standards 

QC I .U5 I No. 1-18 (1918-1934) 

Continued by: NBS Handbook 

NBS Handbook 

QC I .U5 I No. 19-145 (1934-1986) 

Continues: Handbook of the Bureau of Standards 

Continued by: NIST Handbook 

NIST Handbook 

QCI.U51 

No. 146 (1989)—present 

Continues: NBS Handbook 

NIST MONOGRAPHS 

Monographs are usually contributions to the technical literature which are too lengthy for publication in 

the Journal of Research. They often provide extensive compilations of information on subjects related to the 

Bureau's technical program. Until July 1959 most of this type of material was published in the Circular 

series. 

NBS Monograph 

QC lOO.U556 

No. 1-174(1959-1986) 

Supersedes: National Bureau of Standards Circular 

Continued by: NIST Monograph 

NIST Monograph 

QC lOO.U556 

No. 175 (Approved 1990)—present. 

Continues: NBS Monograph 

NIST SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS The Miscellaneous Publications series included material, which, because of its character or because of 

its size, did not fit into any of the other regular publication series. Some of these were charts, administrative 

pamphlets, directories of specifications, annual reports, weights and measures conference reports, and other 

subjects appropriate to this series. In 1968, the series title changed to Special Publication. 

Miscellaneous Publication—Bureau of Standards 

QC lOO.U57 

No. 1-132 (1918-1933) 

Continued by: Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication 

929 
Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication 

QCIOO.U57 

No. 133-144(1932-1934) 

Continues: Miscellaneous Publication—Bureau of Standards 

Continued by: Miscellaneous Publication—National Bureau of Standards 

Miscellaneous Publication—National Bureau of Standards 

QCIOO.U57 

No. 145-294 (1934-1967) 

Continues: Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication 

Continued by: NBS Special Publication 

NBS Special Publication 

QCIOO.U57 

No. 295-749 (1968-1988) 

Continues: Miscellaneous Publication—National Bureau of Standards 

Continued by: NIST Special Publication 

NIST Special Publication 

QCIOO.U57 

No. 750 (1988)—present 

Continues: NBS Special Publication 

NIST TECHNICAL NOTES 

This series was initiated in 1959 to supplement the Bureau's regular publications program. Technical 

Notes provide a means for making available scientific data that are of transient or limited interest. 

NBS Technical Note 

QC lOO.U5753 

No. 1-1321 (l959-l988) 

Continued by: NIST Technical Note 

Nos. 1250-1299, 1310, 1318 published as NIST Technical Notes. 

NIST Technical Note 

QCIOO.U5753 

No. 1250 (1988)—present 

Continues: NBS Technical Note 

Nos. 1300-1309, 1311-1317, 1319-1321 published as NBS Technical Notes. 

NISTIR 

This is a special series of interim or final reports on work performed by NIST for outside sponsors 

(both government and nongovernment). 

NBSIR 

QC lOO.U56 

No. 73-101—88-3836 (1973-1988) 

NISTIR 

QCIOO.U56 

NO. 88-3837 (l988)—present 

930 
NSRDS-MST 

The National Standard Reference Data Series provides quantitative data on the physical and chemical 

properties of materials, compiled from the world's literature and critically evaluated. It was developed under a worldwide program coordinated by NBS, under authority of the National Standard Data Act (Public Law 

90-396). This series supplements the Journal of Physical and Chemical Refrrence Data. 

NSRDS-NBS 

QC l00.U573 

No. 1-73 (1964-1987) 

Continued by: NSRDS-NIST 

NSRDS-NIST 

QC lOO.U573 

As of 7/7/99, nothing has been published in the NSRDS-NIST series. 

Continues: NSRDS-NBS 

Photographic Laboratory Circulars 

TR395 .U5 

No. 1-2 (????-l920) 

These were confidential reports of NBS tests for government agencies that were done in the Photographic Laboratory. 

Planning Report 

QCI 00.U5P5 

No. I (1980)— present 

These are internal reports but shared with government or private agencies. The reports are prepared by 

the NBS/NIST Program Office or by private contractors. 

Product Standards see Voluntary Product Standards 

PROJECTS AND PUBLICATIONS OF THE APPLIED MATHEMATICS DIVISION: A QUARTERLY REPORT 

These were reports on the research and services of Division 11, the National Applied Mathematics Division. 

Activities in Applied Mathematics 

QA27.U5A3 1 (1946-1947) 

Continued by: Projects and Publications, of the National Applied Mathematics Laboratories: a Quarterly Report 

Projects and Publications of the National Applied Mathematics Laboratories: a Quarterly Report 

QA27.U5A32 

(1947-1954) 

Continues: Activities in Applied Mathematics 

Continued by: Projects and Publications of the Applied Mathematics Division: a Quarterly Report 

931 
Projects and Publications of the Applied Mathematics Division: a Quarterly Report 

QA27.U5A32 

(1954-1964) 

Continues: Projects and Publications of the National Applied Mathematics Laboratories: a Quarterly Report 

REFERENCE DATA REPORTS 

This was an informal communication of the National Standard Reference Data System (NSRDS) for the 

exchange of news and ideas about data centers, publications, meetings, and other activities related to data 

evaluation and dissemination. It ceased publication in April 1983. 

NSRDS News 

QCIOO.U57315 

Issues for June 1966-May 1973 were originally published in the Technical News Bulletin; not published 

Nov. 1974-Apr. 1975, Mar., June-Aug. 1976 

June l973—NoviDec. 1976 

Superseded by: Reference Data Report 

Reference Data Report 

QCIOO.U573l5 

Vol. 1-7 (1977-April 1983) 

Other title: NSRDS Reference Data Report 

Supersedes: NSRDS News 

Reports see National Bureau of Standards Reports 

Scientific Papers of the Bureau of Standards see Journal of Research 

Simplified Practice Recommendations 

QC I 00.U564 

No. 1-80 (1922-1928) 

(1928-1966) 

"Simplified Practice," in this series, meant reduction of excessive variety of manufactured products, or of methods. Simplified Practice Recommendations were records of stock items retained after superfluous 

variety had been eliminated. These recommendations were developed by voluntary cooperation among manufacturers, distributors, consumers, and others interested, through a regular procedure of the National Bureau 

of Standards established for that purpose—a procedure designed to insure not only the initial success of a program, but also its continued adjustment to meet changing industrial conditions. 

Each printed booklet contained not only the specific recommendation itself, but also its history and 

development, the names of trade associations, firms, individuals, and others that approved the recommendation, and the personnel of the standing committee in charge of its maintenance and revisions as needed to 

keep them current with developments. The date from which each recommendation was effective was given. 

Beginning in 1966 as they were revised, Simplified Practice Recommendations changed to Product Standards 

and later to Voluntary Product Standards. 

932 
Standards Yearbook 

QC I 00.U576 

(1927-1933) 

This publication gave a summary of progress in the field of standardization in agencies, both governmental and private, throughout the world. The yearbook was originally designed as a companion volume to "Commerce Yearbook." The seven volumes were published as Miscellaneous Publications 77, 83, 91, 106, 

119, 133, 139 but titled Standards Yearbook. 

Technical Information on Building Materials for Use in the Design of Low Cost Housing 

TH I .U5 

No. 1-61 (1936-1938) 

These releases presented, very briefly, essential facts developed through research work at NBS and refer to longer publications where methods of investigation and results obtained given in greater detail. They were prepared principally for the guidance of architectural and engineering of federal agencies in the 

selection of materials for use in low-cost housing. 

Technical Notes see NIST Technical Notes 

Technologic Papers of the Bureau of Standards see Journal of Research VOLUNTARY PRODUCT STANDARDS This series provides requirements for sizes, types, quality and methods for testing various industrial 

products. These standards are developed cooperatively with interested government and industry groups, 

provide the basis for common understanding of product characteristics for both buyers and sellers, and are used voluntarily. Voluntary Product Standards include Commercial Standards (material requirements and 

quality criteria) and Simplified Practice Recommendations (sizes, models, and dimensions of commonly 

stocked items) revised since 1966. They are developed under procedures published by the Department of 

Commerce in Part 10, Title 15, of the "Code of Federal Regulations." The purpose of these standards is to establish nationally recognized requirements for products, and to provide all concerned interests with a basis 

for common understanding of the characteristics of the products. The National Institute of Standards and 

Technology administers the Voluntary Product Standards program as a supplement to the activities of the 

private sector standardizing organizations. In 1979, private standards-writing organizations were encouraged by the Department of Commerce to develop voluntary product standards and it announced the withdrawal of all Voluntary Product Standards 

sponsored by NBS. Sponsorship of the standards was transferred to other institutions or private standardswriting organizations, or the standards were withdrawn. As of September 1997, three Voluntary Product 

Standards are still sponsored by NIST, but on a cost-reimbursable basis by private organizations. 

Product Standards 

QC l00.U563 

No. 0-13 (1966-1969) 

Continued by: Voluntary Product Standards 

Voluntary Product Standards 

QC l00.U563 

No. 14 (1969)—present 

Continues: Product Standards 

933 
APPENDIX K 

STRUCTURE AND LEADERSHIP OF NBSINIST 

- C 

70 

Jc 

.2. lgo3d / 

/ / 7V' 

/ 

•5o 

'f 

One of the first official payrolls of NBS, July 1901. 

935 

Substantial changes in the NBS/NIST administrative structure occurred over the years 1901-1991. These 

changes are illustrated here by selections from the organizational charts for the years 1905, 1920, 1930, 

1940, 1950, 1954, 1964, 1978, and 1991. 

R. 0 L L. Wø, 10 kwe GEO. A. opposite rolpenti::e f(41 of our in (ho Oftk.e of 

for the 1901.. 

= 

o 00 

/ 
The Bureau structure on July I, 1905 showed the rapid progress made by Director Samuel Stratton in 

creating a core structure for NBS. 

JULY 1, 1905 

DIREcToR Dr. Samuel W. Stratton 

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Louis A. Fischer 

Comparison of Capacities Roy Y. Femer 

Weights and Measures Assistant Arthur T. Pienkowsky 

HEAT AND THERMOMETRY Dr. Charles W. Waidner 

Low Temperature Investigations Dr. Charles W. Waidner 

High Temperature Investigations Dr. George K. Burgess 

Comparison of Thermometers Dr. Hobart C. Dickinson 

Heat and Thermometry Assistant Eugene F. Mueller 

LIGHT AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS Dr. Samuel W. Stratton 

Spectroscopy Dr. Perley G. Nutting 

Magneto-Optics Frederick J. Bates 

Computer Dr. William W. Coblentz 

ENGINEERING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS Charles F. Sponsler 

Engineering Instruments and Materials Assistants Albert S. Merrill 

Oscar 0. Lange 

ELECTRICITY Dr. Edward B. Rosa 

Inductance and Capacity Dr. Edward B. Rosa 

Dr. Frederick W. Grover 

Magnetism and Absolute Measurements of Current Dr. Karl E. Guthe 

Electrical Measuring Instruments Herbert B. Brooks 

Dr. Morton G. Lloyd 

Clarence E. Reid 

Photometry Dr. Edward P. Hyde 

Electrical Resistance and Electromotive Force Dr. Frank A. Wolff 

Dr. George W. Middlekauff 

Electricity Assistants Francis E. Cady 

Franklin S. Durston 

Dr. N. Ernest Dorsey 

Maynard P. Shoemaker 

Naval Radio Research Laboratory Dr. Louis W. Austin 

Army Signal Service Radio Laboratory E.R. Cramm 

CHEMISTRY Dr. William A. Noyes 

Chemistry Assistants Dr. Henry N. Stokes 

Dr. John R. Cain 

Campbell E. Waters 

936 
The Bureau structure on January 1, 1920 showed the increased breadth of its program near the end of Samuel Stratton's tenure and after strenuous contributions to military technology during World War I. 

JANUARY 1, 1920 

DIRECTOR Dr. Samuel W. Stratton 

Technical Assistant to the Director Dr. Fay C. Brown 

I. ELECTRICAL Dr. Edward B. Rosa 

Standards of Resistance Dr. Frank Wenner 

Inductance and Capacity Dr. Harvey L. Curtis 

Electrical Measuring Instruments Dr. Herbert B. Brooks 

Magnetic Measurements Raymond L. Sanford 

Photometry and Illuminating Engineering Dr. A. Hadley Taylor 

Radio Research and Testing Dr. J. Howard Dellinger 

Radio Development Frederick A. Koister 

Electrolysis Prevention Burton McCollum 

Safety Engineering Dr. Morton G. Lloyd 

Gas Engineering Russell S. McBride 

Electrical Service Standards Dr. J. Franklin Meyer 

Telephone Service Standards Dr. Frank A. Wolff 

Electrochemistry Dr. George W. Vinal 

Radioactivity and X-ray Measurements Dr. N. Ernest Dorsey 

II. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Louis A. Fischer 

Length Dr. Lewis V. Judson 

Mass Dr. Arthur T. Pienkowsky 

Time Arthur F. Beal 

Capacity and Density Elmer L. Peffer 

Gas Measuring Instruments Marcus H. Stillman 

Thermal Expansivity Dr. Wilmer Souder 

Weights and Measures Laws and Administration Fay S. Holbrook 

Investigation and Testing of Scales Fay S. Holbrook 

Gages Henry W. Bearce 

III. HEAT AND THERMOMETRY Dr. Charles W. Waidner 

Thermometry Robert M. Wilhelm 

Pyrometry Dr. Paul D. Foote 

Heat Measurements Eugene F. Mueller 

Thermodynamics Dr. Edgar Buckingham 

Cryogenic Laboratory Clarence W. Kanolt 

Fire Resistance Simon H. lngberg 

Airplane and Automotive Power Plant Dr. Hobart C. Dickinson 

IV. LIGHT AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS Dr. Clarence A. Skinner 

Spectroscopy Dr. William F. Meggers 

Polarimetry Frederick J. Bates 

Calorimetry Irwin G. Priest 

Refractometry and Optical Instruments Harry I. Schultz 

Radiometry Dr. William W. Coblentz 

Dispersoids Dr. Philip V. Wells 

Photographic Technology Planned 

Interferometry Chauncey G. Peters 

Searchlight Investigations Enoch Karrer 

937 
V. Chemistry 

Physical Chemistry 

Electrochemistry 

Metallurgical Chemistry 

Gas Chemistry 

Reagents and Apparatus 

Analytical Methods, Standard Samples 

Oils, Rubber, Paper, etc. Metals, Cement, Bituminous Materials 

Paint, Varnish, Soap 

VI. Engineering Physics 

Mechanical Appliances 

Engineering Instruments 

Aviation Instruments 

Aviation Physics 

Special Investigations (Sound) 

VII. Engineering, Structural, and Miscellaneous Materials 

Metal Structures 

Cement, Sand, Stone, etc. Rubber, Leather, etc. Textiles 

Paper 

Lubricating Oils 

Lime, Gypsum, Sand, Brick 

VIII. Metallurgy 

Microscopy of Metals 

Heat Treatment and Thermal Analysis 

Physical Properties of Metals 

Chemical Metallurgy 

Foundry and Mechanical Plant 

IX. Ceramics 

Clay Products 

Optical Glass 

Refractones 

Enameled Metal Products 

X. Miscellaneous (Sound) 

By April 1, 1930, George K. Burgess had further expanded the 

building construction. 

APRiL 1, 1930 

DIRECTOR 

Assistant Director for Research and Testing 

Assistant Director for Commercial Standardization 

I. Electrical 

Resistance Measurements 

Inductance and Capacitance 

Electrical Instruments 

938 

Dr. William F. Hillebrand 

Dr. Cyril S. Taylor 

Dr. William Blum 

Dr. John R. Cain 

Elmer R. Weaver 

Frederick W. Smither 

Dr. Gustave E.F. Lundell 

Campbell E. Waters 

Samuel S. Voorhees 

Dr. Percy H. Walker 

Dr. Samuel W. Stratton 

Philip L. Wormeley 

Walter F. Stutz 

Dr. Mayo D. Hersey 

Dr. Lyman J. Briggs 

John F. Hayford 

Dr. Samuel W. Stratton 

Herbert L. Whittemore 

Joseph C. Pearson 

Philip L. Wormeley 

Frank R. McGowan 

Frederick A. Curtis 

Dr. Winslow H. Herschel 

Warren E. Emley 

Dr. George K. Burgess 

Dr. Henry S. Rawdon 

Herbert J. French 

Dr. George K. Burgess 

Dr. John R. Cain 

Carydon P. Karr 

Dr. Albert V. Bleininger 

Dr. Albert V. Bleininger 

William H. Taylor 

Homer F. Staley 

Homer F. Staley 

Dr. Englehardt A. Eckhardt 

Bureau's horizon, particularly in the area of 

Dr. George K. Burgess 

Dr. Lyman J. Briggs 

Dr. Addams S. McAllister 

Dr. Eugene C. Crittendon 

Dr. Frank Wenner 

Dr. Harvey L. Curtis 

Dr. Herbert B. Brooks 
Magnetic Measurements Raymond L. Sanford 

Photometry Dr. .1. Franklin Meyer 

Radio Dr. J. Howard Dellinger 

Underground Corrosion Kirk H. Logan 

Safety Standards Dr. Morton G. Lloyd 

Electrochemistry Dr. George W. Vinal 

Telephone Standards Dr. Frank A. Wolff 

II. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Fay S. Holbrook and 

Henry W. Bearce 

Length Dr. Lewis V. Judson 

Mass Dr. Arthur T. Pienkowsky 

Time Ralph E. Gould 

Capacity and Density Elmer L. Peffer 

Gas Measuring Instruments Howard S. Bean 

Thermal Expansivity Dr. Wilmer Souder 

Weights and Measures Laws and Administration Ralph W. Smith 

Railroad Scales and Test Cars Fay S. Holbrook 

Gages David R. Miller 

III. HEAT AND POWER Dr. Hobart C. Dickinson 

Thermometry Johanna Busse 

Pyrometry Dr. Henry T. Wensel 

Heat Measurements Eugene F. Mueller 

Heat Transfer Dr. Milton S. VanDusen 

Cryogenic Laboratory Dr. Ferdinand G. Bnckwedde 

Fire Resistance Simon H. lngberg 

Automotive Power Plant Herbert K. Cummings 

Friction and Lubrication Dr. Mayo D. Hersey 

IV. OPTIcS Dr. Clarence A. Skinner 

Spectroscopy Dr. William F. Meggers 

Polarimetry Frederick J. Bates 

Colorimetry Irwin G. Priest 

Optical Instruments Dr. Irvine C. Gardner 

Radiometry Dr. William W. Coblentz 

Atomic Physics, Radium, X-Rays Dr. Fred L. Mohler 

Photographic Technology Raymond Davis 

Interferometry Chauncey G. Peters V. CHEMISTRY Dr. Edward W. Washburn 

Physico-Chemical Research Dr. Edward W. Washburn 

Paints, Varnish, Bituminous Materials Dr. Percy H. Walker 

Detergents, Cement, Corrosion Frederick W. Smither 

Rubber, Lubricants, Textiles Campbell E. Waters 

Metal and Ore Analysis, Standard Samples Dr. Gustave E. F. Lundell 

Reagents and Platinum Metals Dr. Edward Wichers 

Electrochemistry Dr. William Blum 

Gas Chemistry Elmer R. Weaver 

939 
VI. MECHANiCS SouND 

Engineering Instruments and Mechanical Appliances 

Sound 

Aeronautic Instruments 

Aerodynamic Physics 

Engineering Mechanics 

Hydraulic Laboratory 

VII. ORGANIC AND FIBROUS MATERIALS Rubber 

Textiles 

Paper 

Leather 

VIII. METALLURGY 

Optical Metallurgy 

Thermal Metallurgy 

Mechanical Metallurgy 

Chemical Metallurgy 

Experimental Foundry 

IX. CLAY AND SILICATE PRODUCTS Wh iteware 

Glass 

Refractories 

Enamels 

Heavy Clay Products 

Cement and Concrete Materials 

Masonry Construction 

Lime and Gypsum 

Stone 

X. SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE 

Stone, Clay, and Glass 

Wood, Textiles, and Paper 

Metal Products and Construction Materials 

Containers 

Promotion and Adherence 

XI. BUILDING AND HOUSING Building Codes 

Building Practice and Homebuilders' Problems 

City Planning and Zoning 

Construction Economics 

Mechanics Liens 

XII. SPECIFICATIONS Certification: Producer Contacts 

Labeling: Consumer Contacts 

Directory of Specifications 

Encyclopedia of Specifications 

940 

Dr. Lyman J. Briggs 

Walter F. Stutz 

Dr. Paul R. Heyl 

Dr. William G. Brombacher 

Dr. Hugh L. Dryden 

Herbert L. Whittemore 

Herbert N. Eaton 

Warren E. Emley 

Philip L. Wormeley 

William D. Appel 

Bourdon W. Scnbner 

Roy C. Bowker 

Dr. Henry S. Rawdon 

Dr. Henry S. Rawdon 

Dr. Ralph L. Dowdell 

William H. Swanger 

Louis Jordan 

Charles M. Saeger, Jr. 

Phaon H. Bates 

Roman F. Geller 

Alfred N. Finn 

Raymond A. Heindl 

William N. Harrison 

Ray T. Stull 

John Tucker, Jr. 

Douglas E. Parsons 

James A. Murray 

Daniel W. Kessler 

Edwin W. Ely 

Herbert R. Coiwell 

George Schuster 

Peter H. H. Dunn 

William E. Braithwaite 

Alexander B. Gait 

James S. Taylor 

George N. Thompson 

Vincent B. Phelan 

James S. Taylor 

Dr. John R. Riggleman 

Daniel H. Wheeler 

Dr. Addams S. McAllister 

Robert A. Martino 

Dr. Addams S. McAllister 

Clarence W. Ingels 

George A. Wardlaw 
XIII. TRADE STANDARDS Wood Products, Paper, Rubber, etc. Metal Products 

Textiles and Garments 

Ceramic Products and Cement 

Ihler J. Fairchild 

Harry H. Steidle 

Ihler J. Fairchild 

Ihler J. Fairchild 

George W. Wray 

By May I, 1940, dental research and field stations had become part of the NBS technical program. 

MAY 1, 1940 

DIRECTOR 

Assistant to the Director 

Assistant Director for Research and Testing 

Assistant Director for Commercial Standardization 

I. ELECTRICITY 

Resistance Measurements 

Inductance and Capacitance 

Electrical Instruments 

Magnetic Measurements 

Photometry 

Radio 

Underground Corrosion 

Electrochemistry 

Telephone Standards 

II. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Length 

Mass 

Time 

Capacity and Density 

Gas Measuring Instruments 

Thermal Expansion, Dental Research 

Weights and Measures Laws and Administration 

Large-Capacity Scales 

Gages 

III. HEAT AND POWER Thermometry 

Pyrometry 

Heat Measurements 

Heat Transfer 

Cryogenic Laboratory 

Fire Resistance 

Automotive Power Plants 

Lubrication and Liquid Fuels 

Aviation Engines and Accessories 

941 

Dr. Lyman J. Briggs 

Henry D. Hubbard 

Dr. Eugene C. Crittendon 

Dr. Addams S. McAllister 

Dr. Eugene C. Crittendon 

Dr. Frank Wenner 

Dr. Harvey L. Curtis 

Dr. Francis B. Silsbee 

Raymond L. Sanford 

Dr. J. Franklin Meyer 

Dr. J. Howard Dellinger 

Kirk H. Logan 

Dr. George W. Vinal 

Dr. Frank A. Wolff 

Henry W. Bearce 

Dr. Lewis V. Judson 

Dr. Arthur T. Pienkowsky 

Ralph E. Gould 

Elmer L. Peffer 

Howard S. Bean 

Dr. Wilmer Souder 

Ralph W. Smith 

Ralph W. Smith 

David R. Miller 

Dr. Hobart C. Dickinson 

Johanna Busse 

Dr. Henry T. Wensel 

Eugene F. Mueller 

Dr. Milton S. VanDusen 

Dr. Ferdinand G. Brickwedde 

Simon H. lngberg 

Herbert K. Cummings 

Dr. Oscar C. Bridgeman 

Melville F. Peters 
IV. OpTics 

Spectroscopy 

Polarimetry 

Colorimetry and Spectrophotometry 

Optical Instruments 

Radiometry 

Atomic Physics, Radium, X-Rays 

Photographic Technology 

Interferometry Chauncey V. CHEMISTRY Paints, Varnishes, etc. Detergents, Cement, etc. Organic Chemistry 

Metal and Ore Analysis, Standard Samples 

Reagents and Platinum Metals 

Electrochemistry (Plating) 

Gas Chemistry 

Physical Chemistry 

Thermochemistry and Constitution of Petroleum 

VI. MECHANICS AND SouND 

Engineering Instruments 

Sound 

Aeronautical Instruments 

Aerodynamic Physics 

Engineering Mechanics 

Hydraulics 

VII. ORGANIC AND FIBROUS MATERIALS Rubber 

Textiles 

Paper 

Leather 

Testing and Specifications 

Fiber Structure 

Organic Plastics 

VIII. METALLURGY Optical Metallurgy 

Thermal Metallurgy 

Mechanical Metallurgy 

Chemical Metallurgy 

Experimental Foundry 

942 

Dr. Clarence A. Skinner 

Dr. William F. Meggers 

Frederick J. Bates 

Dr. Kasson S. Gibson 

Dr. Irvine C. Gardner 

Dr. William W. Coblentz 

Dr. Fred L. Mohler 

Raymond Davis 

0. Peters 

Dr. Gustave E.F. Lundell 

Eugene F. Hickson 

Frederick W. Smither 

Campbell C. Waters 

Harry A. Bright 

Dr. Edward Wichers 

Dr. William Blum 

Elmer R. Weaver 

Dr. Edgar R. Smith 

Dr. Frederick D. Rossini 

Dr. Hugh L. Dryden 

Walter F. Stutz 

Dr. Paul R. Heyl 

Dr. William G. Brombacher 

Dr. Hugh L. Dryden 

Herbert L. Whittemore 

Herbert N. Eaton 

Warren E. Emley 

Dr. Archibald T. McPherson 

William D. Appel 

Bourdon W. Scribner 

Roy C. Bowker 

Philip L. Wormeley 

Dr. Solomon F. Acree 

Dr. Gordon M. Kline 

Dr. Henry S. Rawdon 

Dr. Henry S. Rawdon 

Dr. Dunlop J. McAdam, Jr. 

William H. Swanger 

Dr. John 0. Thompson 

Charles M. Saeger, Jr. 
IX. CLAY AND SILICATE PRODUCTS Phaon H. Bates 

Whiteware Roman F. Geller 

Glass Alfred N. Finn 

Refractories Raymond A. Heindl 

Enameled Metals William N. Harrison 

Heavy Clay Products Ray T. Stull 

Cement and Concrete Materials John Tucker, Jr. 

Masonry Construction Douglas E. Parsons 

Lime and Gypsum Dr. Lansing S. Wells 

Stone Daniel W. Kessler 

X. SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE Edwin W. Ely 

Wood, Textiles, and Paper George Schuster 

Metal Products and Construction Materials George Schuster 

Containers and Miscellaneous Products William E. Braithwaite 

Materials Handling Equipment and Ceramics Edwin W. Ely 

XI. TRADE STANDARDS Ihler J. Fairchild 

Wood, Wood Products, etc. James W. Medley 

Metal Products lhler J. Fairchild 

Textiles Herbert A. Ehrman 

Apparel Lovic R. Gilbert 

Petroleum, Chemicals, Rubber Floyd W. Reynolds 

Export Standards Milton E. Countryman 

XII. CODES AND SPECIFICATIONS Dr. Addams S. McAllister 

Safety Codes Dr. Morton G. Lloyd 

Building Codes George N. Thompson 

Building Practice and Specifications Vincent B. Phelan 

Producer Contracts and Certification George W. Wray 

Consumer Contracts and Labeling Robert A. Martino 

Field Stations 

Allentown, Pa. (Cement and Concrete Materials) William N. Moyer 

Riverside, Calif. (Cement and Concrete Materials) Donald N. Evans 

San Francisco, Calif. (Cement and Concrete Materials) I. Furlong 

Denver, Cob. (Cement and Concrete Materials) Orson H. Cox 

Seattle, Wash. (Cement and Concrete Materials) Elmer T. Carlson 

Clearing, Ill. (Large-capacity Scale Testing) C. L. Richard 

San Jose, Calif. (Cement and Concrete Materials) Bruce E. Foster 

Beltsville, Md. (Radio Transmitting Station) William D. George 

Meadows, Md. (Radio Sending Station) Samuel S. Kirby 

943 
By March 1, 1950, the demands on NBS of World War 11 and the introduction of computers were evident in 

the Bureau structure. 

MARCH 1, 1950 

DIRECTOR'S OFFICE 

Director 

Assistant to the Director 

Assistant to the Director 

Associate Director 

Associate Director 

OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS 

.1 Library 

.2 Technical Reports 

.3 Publications 

Dr. Edward U. Condon 

Hugh Odishaw 

Nicholas E. Golovin 

Dr. Eugene C. Crittenden 

Dr. Wallace R. Brode 

Hugh Odishaw 

Sarah Ann Jones 

W. Reeves Tilley 

Jesse L. Mathusa 

OFFICE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Assistant Chief 

ELECTRICITY AND OYrICS 

Assistant Chief 

.1 Resistance Measurements 

.2 Inductance and Capacitance 

.3 Electrical Instruments 

.4 Magnetic Measurements 

.5 Photometry and Colorimetry 

.6 Optical Instruments 

.7 Photographic Technology 

.8 Electrochemistry 2 METROLOGY Assistant Chief 

.1 Length 

.2 Mass 

.3 Time 

.4 Capacity, Density and Fluid Meters 

.6 Thermal Expansion 

.7 Dental Materials 

.8 Scales 

.9 Gages 

3 HEAT AND POWER 

.1 Temperature Measurements 

.2 Thermodynamics 

.3 Cryogenics 

.4 Engines and Lubrication 

.5 Engine Fuels 

.6 Combustion 

944 

Ralph W. Smith 

William S. Bussey 

Dr. Francis B. Silsbee 

Dr. Kasson S. Gibson 

Dr. James L. Thomas 

Dr. Charles Moon 

Dr. Francis M. Defandorf 

Raymond L. Sanford 

Dr. Kasson S. Gibson 

Dr. Irvine C. Gardner 

Raymond Davis 

Dr. George W. Vinal 

Dr. Wilmer Souder 

David R. Miller 

Dr. Lewis V. Judson 

Lloyd B. Macurdy 

Horace A. Bowman (Acting) 

Howard S. Bean 

Dr. Peter Hidnert 

Dr. In C. Schoonover 

H. Haig Russell 

David R. Miller 

Dr. Ferdinand G. Bnickwedde 

Dr. Raymond E. Wilson 

Dr. Ferdinand 0. Brickwedde 

Russell B. Scott 

Samuel A. McKee 

Dr. Frank L. Howard (Acting) 

Dr. Ernest F. Fiock 
4 ATOMIC AND RADIATION PHYSICS Assistant Chief 

Radioactivity Consultant 

• Stable Tracers Consultant 

4A Atomic Physics Laboratory 

• I Spectroscopy 

.2 Radiometry 

.3 Mass Spectrometry 

.4 Physical Electronics 

.5 Electron Physics 

.6 Atomic Physics 

.7 Neutron Measurements 

4R Radiation Physics Laboratory 

.8 Nuclear Physics 

.9 Radioactivity 

.10 X-Rays 

.11 Betatron 

.12 Nucleonic Instrumentation 

.13 Radiological Equipment 

5 CHEMISTRY 

Assistant Chief 

.1 Paint, Varnish and Lacquer 

.2 Surface Chemistry 

.3 Organic Chemistry 

.4 Analytical Chemistry 

.5 Platinum Metals and Pure Substances 

.6 Electrodeposition 

.7 Gas Chemistry 

.8 Physical Chemistry 

.9 Thermochemistry and Hydrocarbons 

.10 Spectrochemistry 6 MECHANICS 

.1 Sound 

.2 Mechanical Instruments 

.3 Aerodynamics 

.4 Engineering Mechanics 

.5 Hydraulics 

7 ORGANIC AND FIBROUS MATERIALS Assistant Chief 

Consultant 

.1 Rubber 

.2 Textiles 

.3 Paper 

.4 Leather 

.5 Testing and Specifications 

.7 Organic Plastics 

8 METALLURGY 

Assistant Chief 

.1 Optical Metallurgy 

.2 Thermal Metallurgy 

945 

Dr. Robert D. Huntoon 

Lauriston S. Taylor 

Dr. Leon F. Curtiss 

Dr. Fred L. Mohler 

Dr. Robert D. Huntoon 

Dr. William F. Meggers 

Dr. Curtis J. Humphreys 

Dr. Fred L. Mohler 

Dr. Willard H. Bennett 

Dr. Ladislaus L. Marton 

Dr. John A. Hipple 

Dr. Leon F. Curtiss 

Launston S. Taylor 

Dr. Ugo Fano 

Lauriston S. Taylor (Acting) 

Harold 0. Wyckoff 

Herman W. Koch 

Harold 0. Wyckoff (Acting) 

Dr. Scott W. Smith 

Dr. Edward W. Wichers 

Dr. William Blum 

Eugene F. Hickson 

Dr. James 1. Hoffman 

W. Harold Smith 

Harry A. Bright 

Dr. Raleigh Gilchrist 

Dr. William Blum 

Elmer R. Weaver 

Dr. Edgar R. Smith 

Dr. Frederick D. Rossini 

Bourdon F. Scribner 

Dr. Walter Ramberg 

Dr. Richard K. Cook 

Dr. William G. Brombacher 

Dr. Galen B. Schubauer 

Bruce L. Wilson 

Herbert N. Eaton 

Dr. Archibald T. McPherson 

Dr. Gordon M. Kline 

Dr. Robert Simha 

Dr. Lawrence A. Wood 

William D. Appel 

Bourdon W. Scribner 

Everett L. Wallace 

Dr. Robert D. Stiehler 

Dr. Gordon M. Kline 

Dr. John G. Thompson 

William F. Roeser 

George A. Ellinger 

Thomas G. Digges 
.3 Mechanical Metallurgy 

.4 Chemical Metallurgy 

.5 Experimental Foundry 

.6 Underground Corrosion 

9 MINERAL PRODUCTS 

.1 Porcelain and Pottery 

.2 Glass 

.3 Refractories 

.4 Enameled Metals 

.5 Building Stone 

.6 Concreting Materials 

.7 Constitution and Microstnicture 

.8 Chemistry of Mineral Products 

10 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY Assistant Chief 

.1 Structural Engineering 

.2 Fire Protection 

.3 Heating and Air Conditioning 

.4 Exterior and Interior Covering 

.5 Codes and Specifications 11 APPLIED MATHEMATICS 

Assistant Chief 

.1 Numerical Analysis 

.2 Computation 

.3 Statistical Engineering 

.4 Machine Development 

William F. Roeser 

Harold E. Cleaves 

Alexander I. Krynitsky 

Dr. Irving A. Denison 

Dr. Herbert Insley 

Roman F. Geller 

Clarence H. Hahner 

Raymond A. Heindl 

William N. Harrison 

Daniel W. Kessler 

Raymond L. Blame 

Howard F. McMurdie 

Dr. Lansing S. Wells 

Douglas E. Parsons 

George N. Thompson 

Douglas E. Parsons 

Nolan D. Mitchell 

Richard S. Dill 

Hubert R. Snoke 

George N. Thompson 

Dr. John H. Curtiss 

Dr. Edward W. Cannon 

Dr. J. Berkley Rosser (UCLA) 

Dr. Franz L. Alt (Acting) 

Dr. Churchill Eisenhart 

Dr. Edward W. Cannon (Acting) 

12 COMMODITY STANDARDS Assistant Chief 

.1 Metal and Ceramic Products 

.2 Textiles and Apparel 

.3 Mechanical Equipment 

.4 Packaging 

.5 Chemical Products 

Edwin W. Ely 

Floyd W. Reynolds 

George Schuster 

Herbert A. Ehrman 

James W. Medley 

William E. Braithwaite 

Floyd W. Reynolds 

13 ELECTRONICS AND ORDNANCE Assistant Chief for Ordnance 

Assistant Chief for Aerophysics 

Electronics Consultant 

Electronics Consultant 

Technical Aide 

Electronic Standards Laboratory 

.1 Engineering Electronics 

.2 Electron Tubes 

.3 Electronic Computers 

Ordnance Development Laboratory 

.4 Ordnance Research 

.5 Ordnance Mechanics 

.6 Ordnance Electronics 

.7 Ordnance Engineering 

.8 Ordnance Tests 

946 

Dr. Allen V. Astin 

Wilbur S. Hinman, Jr. 

Dr. Harold K. Skramstad 

Dr. Robert D. Huntoon 

Dr. Chester H. Page 

Robert S. Walleigh 

(Vacant) 

Joseph G. Reid, Jr. 

Dr. John E. White 

Dr. Samuel N. Alexander 

Wilbur S. Hinman, Jr. 

Dr. Harold Goldberg 

Jacob Rabinow 

P. Anthony Guarino 

Myron G. Domsitz 

Theodore B. Godfrey 
Guided Missile Branch 

.9 Missile Dynamics 

.10 Missile Intelligence 

.11 Missile Engineering 

.12 Missile Instrumentation 

.13 Technical Services 

14 CENTRAL RADIO PROPAGATION LABORATORY Assistant Chief 

Assistant Chief 

Microwave Research Consultant 

Ionospheric Research Laboratory 

I Upper Atmosphere Research 

.5 ionospheric Research 

.7 Field Operations 

Systems Research Laboratory 

.3 Regular Propagation Services 

.4 Frequency Utilization Research 

.6 Tropospheric Propagation Research 

Measurement Standards Laboratory 

.8 High Frequency Standards 

.9 Microwave Standards 

Ralph A. Lamm 

Dr. Harold K. Skramstad 

Dr. Fred S. Atchison 

Ralph A. Lamm 

William A. Wildhack 

James D. McLean (Acting) 

Dr. Newbern Smith 

Alvin G. McNish 

Kenneth A. Norton 

Dr. Thomas J. Carroll, Jr. 

Alvin G. McNish 

Ross Bateman 

Henry P. Hutchinson 

Walter B. Chadwick 

Kenneth A. Norton 

Jack W. i-lerbstreit (Acting) 

William D. George 

Dr. Harold Lyons 

M BUDGET AND MANAGEMENT Budget 

Management Planning 

Procurement 

Property Management 

Records and Communications 

.6 Accounting 

.7 Special Services 

P PERSONNEL Assistant Chief 

.1 Recruitment and Placement 

.2 Operations 

.3 Classification 

.4 Medical Office 

.5 Education and Training 

E PLANT Assistant Chief 

.1 Power Plant 

.2 Electrical Shop 

.3 Piping Shop 

.4 Carpenter Shop 

.5 Paint Shop 

.6 General Service 

Garage 

Guard 

Grounds 

Janitorial 

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 

Administrative and Engineering Office 

Herbert E. Weifenbach 

Edward E. Upperman 

Wilbur W. Bolton, Jr. 

Charles B. Kipps 

George B. Kefover 

Robert W. Lamberson 

Clinton G. Hall 

Frank D. Moncure (Acting) 

Raymond L. Randall 

William C. Fewell 

Raymond L. Randall 

Jessie B. Berkley 

Lawrence L. Epperson 

Dr. William Frank 

Joseph Hilsenrath 

William J. Ellenberger 

Oscar L. Britt 

Grover F. Hamby 

George V. Hail 

Raymond A. Watson 

Paul J. Robinson 

Raymond E. Mothershead 

Frank A. Peters 

Harry C. Magruder 

Herman B. Burke 

William R. David 

Adeeb J. Neam 

Elridge 0. Burke 

(Vacant) 

.2 

.3 

.4 

.5 

.7 

.8 .9 

.10 

.11 .12 

947 
S SHOPS Paul S. Ballif 

Assistant Chief Winfield L. Drissel 

Shop Superintendent John L. Hutton 

.1 Design and Drafting Richardi. Hanrahan 

.2 Instrument Shop No. I Henry N. Philo 

.3 Instrument Shop No. 2 George A. Rheinbold 

.4 Instrument Shop No. 3 George W. Bicking, Jr. 

.5 Instrument Shop No. 4 Charles W. Hyder 

.6 Instrument Shop No. 5 Andrew J. Altman 

.7 Welding and Sheet Metal Shop Edward G. Clark 

.8 Woodworking Shop Paul D. Huntley 

.9 Shop Tools Lewis H. Brigham 

.10 Maintenance Winfield L. Drissel 

.11 Glassblowing Shop Leonardo Testa 

.12 Metals Storeroom James E. Mallory FIELD STATIONS ELEcTRICITY AND OPTIcs 

Lamp Inspector, Brookline, MA 

George Schnitzler 2 METROLOCY Master Scale Depot, Clearing, IL 

H. Haig Russell, Chief 

9 MINERAL PRODUCTS 

Cement Testing and Inspection Station, Allentown, PA 

William N. Moyer, Chief 

Cement Testing and Inspection Station, Riverside Cement Co., Riverside, CA 

Donald N. Evans, Chief 

Cement Testing and Inspection Station, Permanente Cement Co., Permanente, CA 

Martin Defore, Chief 

Cement Testing and Inspection Station, Sanitary Engineering Building, University of Washington, 

Seattle, WA 

Frank N. Winblade, Chief 

Cement and Concrete Materials Testing Station, Denver, CO 

Orson H. Cox, Chief 

Materials Testing Station, San Francisco, CA 

Otto C. Marek (Acting) Chief 11 APPLIED MATHEMATICS 

Institute for Numerical Analysis, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 

Dr. J. Berkley Rosser (Acting) Chief 

13 ELECTRONICS Blossom Point Proving Ground, La Plata, MD 

Adrian P. Sutton, Chief 

Warren Grove Test Field, Warren Grove, Tuckerton, NJ 

William A. Wildhack, Chief 

948 
14 CENTRAL RADIO PROPAGATION LABORATORY Radio Propagation Field Station, Anchorage, AK 

Vernon H. Goerke, Chief 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Point Barrow, AK 

Lloyd A. Lohr, Chief 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Island of Guam 

Herschel C. Carmichael, Chief 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Puunene, Maui, Territory of Hawaii 

Leo W. Honea, Chief 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Palmyra Island, Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii 

Stephen S. Barnes, Chief (Acting) 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Ramey Air Force Base, Puerto Rico 

Theodore R. Gilliland, Chief 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Trinidad, B. W. I. Richard F. Carle, Chief 

Radio Propagation Field Station, White Sands Proving Ground, Las Cruces, NM 

Earl E. Ferguson, Chief 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Ft. Belvoir, VA 

Edward J. Wiewara, Chief 

Radio Propagation Laboratory, Sterling, VA 

Victor C. Pineo, Chief 

Radio Transmitting Station, Beltsville, MD 

Gordon H. Lester, Chief 

949 
The divestiture of the World War II military research groups—electronic standards laboratory, ordnance 

development laboratory, and guided missile branch—had been accomplished by October I, 1954, under 

Director Allen Astin. By then, too, new laboratories had been created in Boulder, Colorado. 

OCTOBER 1, 1954 

DIRECTOR'S OrncE 

Director 

Associate Director for Chemistry 

Associate Director for Physics 

Associate Director for Testing 

Associate Director for Administration 

Director, Boulder Laboratories 

Consultant to the Director 

Consultant to the Director 

Consultant to the Director 

Consultant to the Director 

Consultant to the Director 

Security Officer 

Program Records Officer 

OFFIcE OF ScIENTIFIc PUBLICATIONS 

.1 Library 

.2 Technical Reports 

.3 Publications 

OFFICE OF WEIGHTS AND Assistant Chief 

Consultant 

OFFICE OF BASIC INSTRUMENTATION Assistant to the Chief 

ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS 

Assistant Chief for Electronics 

.1 Resistance and Reactance 

.2 Electron Tubes 

.3 Electrical Instruments 

.4 Magnetic Measurements 

.5 Process Technology 

.6 Engineering Electronics 

.7 Electronic Instrumentation 

.8 Electrochemistry 

2 OvnCs AND METROLOGY 

Assistant Chief 

Assistant to the Chief 

.1 Photometry and Colonmetry 

.2 Optical Instruments 

.3 Photographic Technology 

Length 

Engineering Metrology 

Dr. Allen V. Astin 

Dr. Wallace R. Brode 

Dr. Robert D. Huntoon 

Dr. Archibald T. McPherson 

Nicholas E. Golovin 

Dr. Frederick W. Brown (Boulder) 

Dr. Eugene C. Crittenden 

Dr. Leon F. Curtiss 

Dr. Chester H. Page 

Dr. Wilmer Souder 

Alvin G. McNish 

Dr. Robert D. Huntoon 

Clarence N. Coates 

Dr. Wallace R. Brode 

Sarah Ann Jones 

W. Reeves Tilley 

Jesse L. Mathusa 

William S. Bussey 

Malcolm W. Jensen 

Ralph W. Smith 

William A. Wildhack 

(Vacant) 

Dr. Francis B. Silsbee 

Carroll Stansbury 

Dr. James L. Thomas 

Charles P. Marsden, Jr. 

Dr. Francis M. Defandorf 

Irvin L. Cooter (Acting) 

Lucien P. Tuckerman 

Dr. Paul J. Selgin 

Carroll Stansbury 

Dr. Walter J. Hamer 

Dr. Irvine C. Gardner 

Dr. Kasson S. Gibson 

Leroy W. Tilton 

Dr. Kasson S. Gibson 

Dr. Francis E. Washer 

Raymond Davis 

Dr. Lewis V. Judson 

Irvin H. Fulimer 

.4 

.5 950 
3 HEAT AND POWER 

.1 Temperature Measurements 

.2 Thermodynamics 

.3 Cryogenics 

.4 Engines and Lubrication 

.5 Engine Fuels 

4 AToMIc AND RADIATION PHYSICS 4A Atomic Physics Laboratory 

• I Spectroscopy 

.2 Radiometry 

.3 Mass Spectrometry 

.4 Solid State Physics 

.5 Electron Physics 

.6 Atomic Physics 

4R Radiation Physics Laboratory 

.8 Nuclear Physics 

.9 Radioactivity 

.10 X-Rays 

.11 Betatron 

.12 Nucleonic Instrumentation 

.13 Radiological Equipment 

.14 Radiation Instruments Branch, 

Atomic Energy Commission 

5 CHEMISTRY 

Assistant Chief 

.1 Organic Coatings 

.2 Surface Chemistry 

.3 Organic Chemistry 

.4 Analytical Chemistry 

.5 Inorganic Chemistry 

.6 Electrodeposition 

.7 Gas Chemistry 

.8 Physical Chemistry 

.9 Thermochemistry 

.10 Spectrochemistry 

.11 Pure Substances 

Consultant 

.1 Sound 

.2 Mechanical Instruments 

.3 Fluid Mechanics 

.4 Engineering Mechanics 

.6 

.7 

.8 Combustion Controls 

Dr. Ferdinand G. Brickwedde 

Dr. Ferdinand G. Brickwedde (Acting) 

Dr. Charles W. Beckett 

Dr. Ralph P. Hudson (Acting) 

James F. Swindells (Acting) 

Dr. Frank L. Howard 

Dr. Lauriston S. Taylor 

Dr. William F. Meggers 

Dr. Earle K. Plyler 

Dr. Fred L. Mohler 

Dr. Robert G. Breckenridge 

Dr. Ladislaus L. Marton 

Dr. Lewis M. Branscomb (Acting) 

Dr. Harold 0. Wyckoff 

Dr. Ugo Fano 

Dr. Wilfrid B. Mann 

Dr. Harold 0. Wyckoff 

Dr. Herman W. Koch 

Louis Costrell 

Dr. Scott W. Smith 

Robert L. Butenhoff 

Dr. Edward Wichers 

Dr. James I. Hoffman 

Paul T. Howard 

Dr. James I. Hoffman 

W. Harold Smith 

Harry A. Bright 

Dr. Raleigh Gilchrist 

Dr. Abner Brenner 

Elmer R. Weaver 

Dr. Edgar R. Smith 

Edward J. Prosen 

Bourdon F. Scribner 

Dr. Charles P. Saylor 

Dr. Walter Ramberg 

Dr. Wilmer Souder 

Dr. Richard K. Cook 

Edward C. Lloyd 

Dr. Galen B. Schubauer 

Bruce L. Wilson 

Douglas R. Tate 

Howard S. Bean 

Dr. Ernest F. Fiock 

6 MECHANICS 

Mass and Scale 

Capacity, Density and Fluid Meters 

951 
7 ORGANIC AND FIBROUS MATERIALS Assistant Chief 

.1 Rubber 

.2 Textiles 

.3 Paper 

.4 

.5 .6 

.7 

.8 

Leather 

Testing and Specifications 

Polymer Structure 

Organic Plastics 

Dental Research 

8 METALLURGY 

.1 Thermal Metallurgy 

.2 Chemical Metallurgy 

.3 Mechanical Metallurgy 

.4 Corrosion 

9 MINERAL PRODUCTS Assistant Chief 

.1 Porcelain and Pottery 

.2 Glass 

.3 Refractories 

.4 Enameled Metals 

.6 Concreting Materials 

.7 Constitution and Microstructure 

10 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY Assistant Chief 

Consultant 

Consultant 

.1 Structural Engineering 

.2 Fire Protection 

.3 Heating and Air Conditioning 

.4 Floor, Roof and Wall Coverings 

.5 Codes and Specifications 11 APPLIED MATHEMATICS 

Assistant Chief 

.1 Numerical Analysis 

.2 Computation 

.3 Statistical Engineering 

.4 Machine Development 

12 DATA PROCESSING SYSTEMS Assistant Chief for Systems 

.1 Components and Techniques 

.2 Digital Circuitry 

.3 Digital Systems 

.4 Analog Systems 

952 

Dr. Gordon M. Kline 

William D. Appel 

Dr. Lawrence A. Wood 

William D. Appel 

Dr. Robert B. Hobbs 

Everett L. Wallace 

Dr. Robert D. Stiehler 

Dr. Norman P. Bekkedahl 

Frank W. Reinhart 

William T. Sweeney 

Dr. John G. Thompson 

Thomas G. Digges 

Leroy L. Wyman 

John A. Bennett 

George A. Ellinger 

Dr. In C. Schoonover 

Clarence H. Hahner 

Roman F. Geller 

Clarence H. Hahner 

Raymond A. Heindl 

William N. Harrison 

Raymond L. Blame 

Howard F. McMurdie 

Douglas E. Parsons 

George N. Thompson 

William F. Roeser 

John W. McBumey 

Douglas E. Parsons 

Dr. Alexander F. Robertson 

Richard S. Dill 

Dr. Hubert R. Snoke 

George N. Thompson 

Dr. Franz L. Alt (Acting) 

Dr. Edward W. Cannon 

John Todd 

Dr. Milton Abramowithz (Acting) 

Dr. Churchill Eisenhart 

Dr. Edward W. Cannon 

Samuel N. Alexander 

Dr. Harold K. Skramstad 

Arthur W. Holt 

Robert D. Elboum 

Alan L. Leiner 

Dr. Harold K. Sknamstad (Acting) 
40 ACCOUNTING Deputy Chief 

.1 Accounts and Reports 

.2 Classification 

Tabulation 

Voucher Examination 

.5 Billing and Collection 

.6 Payroll 

41 PERSONNEL Assistant Chief 

.1 Board of Civil Service Examiners 

.2 Recruitment and Placement 

.3 Classification 

.4 Employee Relations 

.5 Operations and Procedures 

.6 Medical Office 

42 ADMINISTRATIvE SERVICES Assistant Chief 

Assistant for Safety and Civil Defense 

.1 Records and Communications 

.2 Special Services 

.3 Janitorial Services 

.4 Guard Services 

.5 Transportation Services, Garage 

.6 Security Officer 

.7 Test Administration 

43 SHOPS Assistant Chief 

.1 Instrument Shop No. 1 .2 Instrument Shop No. 2 

.3 Instrument Shop No. 3 .4 Instrument Shop No. 4 

.5 Instrument Shop No. 5 .6 Instrument Shop No. 6 

.7 Welding and Sheet Metal Shop 

.9 Tool Crib 

.10 Maintenance 

.11 Glassblowing Shop 

44 SUPPLY 

.3 Procurement 

.4 Property Management 

Gordon D. Horsburgh 

Willard K. Duckworth 

Margaret L. Spiess 

Pearl E. Miller 

John P. Lafon 

Matilda Udoff 

Doris J. Lothrop 

Kathryn L. Rock 

George R. Porter 

Frankie R. Keyser 

Edith N. Fimple 

Frankie R. Keyser 

Charles V. Ramey 

Ruth B. Armsby 

Helen V. Courtney 

Dr. Charles P. Waite 

Harry P. Dalzell 

Karl L. Hafen 

Leo W. Scott 

Joseph L. Shulman (Acting) 

Gird M. Tolley, Jr. (Acting) 

Robert C. Howey 

Capt. William R. Allen 

Charles W. Anderson 

Harry P. Dalzell 

Randolph K. Artz 

Frank P. Brown 

Winfield L. Drissel 

David G. Kennedy 

George A. Rheinbold 

George A. Rheinbold 

Norman C. Pines 

Robert E. Ward 

Andrew J. Altman 

Terrell C. Freemon 

Lewis H. Brigham 

Winfield L. Drissel 

Leonardo Testa 

George B. Kefover 

Charles B. Kipps 

Harold G. Nicholas (Acting) 

45 MANAGEMENT PLANNING STAFF Ivan Asay 

46 BUDGET STAFF Deputy Budget Officer 

47 INTERNAL AUDIT 

953 

Wilbur W. Bolton, Jr. 

William E. Lilly 

Paul McClenon 

.3 .4 
50 PLANT Assistant Chief 

.1 Power Plant 

.2 Electric Shop 

.3 Piping Shop 

.4 Construction Shop 

.5 Paint Shop 

.6 Labor Services 

.7 Metal Shop 

.8 Special Laboratory Service 

.9 Grounds 

.11 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 

Boulder Laboratories* 

Director 

Administration 

.1 Washington Liaison Office 

.3 Personnel 

.4 General Services 

.5 Engineering Services 

81 Cryogenic Engineering* 

.1 Cryogenic Equipment 

.2 Cryogenic Processes 

.3 Properties of Materials 

.4 Gas Liquefaction 

82 Radio Propagation Physics* 

I Upper Atmosphere Research 

.2 Ionospheric Research 

.3 Regular Propagation Services 

83 Radio Propagation Engineering* 

.4 Frequency Utilization Research 

.6 Tropospheric Propagation Research 

84 Radio Standards* 

Assistant Chief for Research 

84A High Frequency Standards Branch 

.1 High Frequency Electrical Standards 

.2 Radio Broadcast Service 

.3 HF Impedance Standard 

84B Microwave Standards Branch 

.6 Extreme High-Frequency and Noise 

.7 Microwave Frequency and Spectroscopy 

.8 Microwave Circuit Standard 

* Laboratories located in Boulder, Colorado. 

954 

Charles A. Dieman 

Clarence B. Crane 

Arthur C. Ramm 

George V. Hall 

Raymond A. Watson 

John A. King 

Howell C. Walker 

Roy B. Powell 

Charles Needham 

Donald J. Leweck (Acting) 

William R. Stevenson (Acting) 

James S. Powers 

Dr. Frederick W. Brown 

S.W.J. Welch 

Roswell C. Peavey 

Roy W. Stockwell, Jr. 

Barton F. Betts 

Paul S. Ballif 

Russell B. Scott 

Bascom W. Birmingham (Acting) 

Peter C. Vander Arend (Acting) 

Martin M. Reynolds (Acting) 

Victor J. Johnson (Acting) 

Dr. Ralph J. Slutz 

Thomas N. Gautier, Jr. 

Ross Bateman 

Walter B. Chadwick 

Kenneth A. Norton 

Kenneth A. Norton (Acting) 

Jack W. Herbstreit 

H. A. Thomas 

Dr. Harold Lyons 

William D. George 

Myron C. Selby 

A. H. Moran (Acting) 

(Vacant) 

Dr. Harold Lyons 

Dr. David M. Kerns (Acting) 

George Birnbaum 

Robert W. Beatty (Acting) 
FIELD STATIONS 2 Ovrics AND METROLOGY 

Lamp Inspector, Brookline, MA 

Visual Landing Aids Field Laboratory, Arcata Airport, Arcata, Humboldt County, CA 

6 MECHANICS NBS Master Railway Track Scale Depot, Clearing, IL 

9 MINERAL PRODUCTS 9.6 Concreting Materials 

Allentown, PA 

Denver, CO 

Kansas City, MO 

San Francisco, CA 

Seattle, WA 

80 CENTRAL RADIO PROPAGATION LABORATORY 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Anchorage, AK 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Point Barrow, AK 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Bluie West-I, Greenland 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Guam Island 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Puunene, Maui, Territory of Hawaii 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Ramey Air Force Base, Puerto Rico 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Fort Gulick, Panama Canal Zone 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Ft. Belvoir, VA 

Cheyenne Mountain Field Station, Colorado Springs, CO 

Radio Propagation Laboratory, Sterling, VA 

Radio Transmitting Station, Beltsville, MD 

Radio Noise Recording Station, Front Royal, VA 

955 
During 1964, Director Allen V. Astin created a new management structure based upon Institutes for basic 

standards, for materials research, and for applied technology. 

July 1, 1964 

100 OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR 

Director 

Deputy Director 

Assistant to the Director 

Assistant to the Director 

Assistant to the Director, Automatic Data Processing 

Senior Research Fellow 

Senior Research Fellow 

Senior Research Fellow 

102 OFFICE OF PUBLIC INFORMATION 

Dr. Allen V. Astin 

Dr. Irl C. Schoonover 

George E. Auman 

Clarence N. Coates 

W. Howard Gammon 

Dr. Churchill Eisenhart 

Dr. Ugo Fano 

Dr. James R. Wait 

A. Victor Gentilini 

103 TECHNICAL ANALYSIS GROUP (Vacant) 

104 OFFICE OF PROGRAM PLANNING AND EVALUATION Associate Director for Resources Planning 

120 ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR FOR ADMINISTRATION 

Associate Director 

Patent Advisor 

121 ACCOUNTING Deputy Chief 

.01 Reports and Billing 

.02 Classification 

.03 Tabulation 

.04 Voucher Examination 

.05 Payroll 

122 ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICES Assistant Chief 

.01 Records and Communications 

.02 Special Services 

.03 Janitorial Services 

.04 Guard Services 

.05 Transportation Services 

.06 Security Office 

123 BUDGET AND MANAGEMENT 

.01 Budget 

.02 Management Analysis 

124 INTERNAL AUDIT 

956 

Dr. Shirleigh Silverman 

Robert S. Walleigh 

David Robbins 

Jacob Seidenberg 

Homer Mcintyre 

Pearl E. Miller 

Edgar H. MacArthur 

Frederick I. Baum (Acting) 

Matilda Udoff 

Kathryn L. Rock 

Harry P. Dalzell 

Karl L. Hafen 

Howard L. Sampson 

Walter J. Rabbitt 

Robert C. Howey 

Capt. William J. Kane 

Charles W. Anderson 

Harry P. Dalzell 

Dr. James E. Skillington, Jr. 

Eugene C. Denne 

John B. Tallerico 

Harold F. Whittington 
125 PERSONNEL George R. Porter 

Assistant Chief Henry C. Bothe 

.01 Board of Civil Service Examiners Warren J. Barker 

.02 Recruitment and Placement Henry C. Bothe 

.03 Salary and Wage Administration Charles V. Ramey 

.04 Employee Relations and Training Ruth B. Armsby 

.05 Operations and Procedures Edith C. Lewis 

.06 Medical Office Dr. A. S. Cross 

126 PLANT M. Bernard Goetz (Acting) 

Assistant Chief M. Bernard Goetz 

.01 Steam-Chilled Water Generation James S. Powers 

.02 Electric Shop Robert W. Miller 

.03 Piping Gerard John Finan 

.04 Construction Shop John A. King 

.05 Gaithersburg Plant Services Berkley E. Wigglesworth 

.06 Labor Services Roy B. Powell 

.07 Metal Shop Donald I. Thompson 

.08 Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Dominick M. Giampietro 

.09 Grounds William R. Stevenson 

127 SUPPLY George B. Kefover 

Deputy Chief Arthur L. Longwell 

.01 Storeroom Walter C. Bonner (Acting) 

.02 General Services Fred H. Johncox (Acting) 

.03 Procurement Charles B. Kipps 

.04 Property Management Harold G. Nicholas 

140 ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR FOR TECHNICAL SUPPORT 

Associate Director Dr. Lauriston S. Taylor 

Scientific Assistant W. R. Ney 

International Relations Ladislaus L. Marton 

141 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS W. Reeves Tilley 

Assistant Chief William K. Gautier 

.01 Information Robert T. Cook (Acting) 

.02 Editorial William K. Gautier 

.03 Publications John E. Carpenter 

.04 Photographic Services Warren P. Richardson 

.05 Graphic Arts Conrad F. Peters 

142 RESEARCH INFORMATION Dr. Lauriston S. Taylor (Acting) 

.01 Library Sarah Ann Jones 

143 RADIATION SAFETY Dr. Lauriston S. Taylor (Acting) 

.01 Health Physics Dr. Abraham Schwebel 

144 PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Vacant 

957 
154 INSTRUMENT SHOPS Frank P. Brown 

*160 MANAGER, BOULDER LABORATORIES 

OFFICE OF THE MANAGER, BOULDER LABORATORIES Manager 

Consultant — Statistics 

Consultant—Math Group and Computation Facility 

Consultant— Mathematical Physics * 161 ADMINISTRATIVE, BOULDER LABORATORIES 

.01 Consultant— Engineering 

.10 Management Planning 

.20 Personnel 

.30 Fiscal 

.40 Supply 

.50 Office Services 

.60 Plant Engineering 

.70 Shops 

200 INSTITUTE FOR BASIC STANDARDS 

Director 

Associate Director, Measurement Services 

201 OFFICE OF STANDARD REFERENCE DATA 

Thermodynamics and Transport Data 

Chemical Kinetics 

Information Systems 

205 APPLIED MATHEMATICS 

Consultant 

Consultant 

Consultant 

.01 Numerical Analysis 

.02 Computation 

.03 Statistical Engineering 

.04 Mathematical Physics 

.05 Operations Research 

958 

Russell B. Scott 

Dr. Edwin L. Crow 

Dr. John J. Sopka 

H. E. Brown 

Samuel W. J. Welch 

Paul S. Ballif J. Berkley 

Roy W. Stockwell 

Herbert D. Stansell 

Barton F. Betts 

Richard G. Bulgin 

Edgar A. Yuzwiak 

John L. Hutton 

Dr. Robert D. Huntoon 

William A. Wildhack 

Dr. Edward L. Brady 

Dr. Everett R. Johnson 

Dr. Stephen A. Rossmassler 

Dr. Franz L. Alt 

Dr. Edward W. Cannon 

Dr. Hansjorg Oser 

Ida Rhodes 

Dr. William J. Youden 

Dr. Morris Newman 

Dr. Don I. Mittleman 

Joseph M. Cameron 

Dr. William H. Pell 

Dr. Alan J. Goldman 

Assistant Chief Winfield L. Drissel 

.01 Instrument Shop #1 John R. Hettenhouser 

.02 Instrument Shop #2 Walter A. Koepper 

.03 Instrument Shop #3 Charles E. Taylor 

.04 Instrument Shop #4 Philip Pfaff, Jr. 

.05 Instrument Shop #5 Philip Pfaff, Jr. 

.06 Glassblowing Enrico Deleonibus 

.07 Welding and Sheet Metal Shop Harold E. Brown 

.08 Optical Shop Stanley W. Gerner 

.09 Tool Crib Lewis H. Brigham 
211 ELECTRICITY 

.01 Resistance and Reactance 

.02 Electrochemistry 

.03 Electrical Instruments 

.04 Magnetic Measurements 

.05 Dielectrics 

.06 High Voltage 

.07 Absolute Electrical Measurements 

212 METROLOGY 

Assistant Chief 

.11 Photometry and Colorimetry 

.12 Refractometry 

.13 Photographic Research 

.21 Length 

.22 Engineering Metrology 

.31 Mass and Volume 

Dr. Chester H. Page 

Chester Peterson 

Dr. Walter J. Hamer 

Francis L. Hermach 

Irvin L. Cooter 

Dr. Arnold H. Scott 

Dr. F. Ralph Kotter 

Dr. Forest K. Harris 

Alvin G. McNish 

Dr. Deane B. Judd 

Louis E. Barbrow 

Dr. Francis E. Washer 

Calvin S. McCamy 

Theodore R. Young 

Irvin H. Fullmer 

Paul E. Pontius 

213 MECHANICS Consultant 

Consultant 

.01 Sound 

.02 Pressure and Vacuum 

.03 Fluid Mechanics 

.04 Engineering Mechanics 

.05 Rheology 

.06 Combustion Controls 

Bruce L. Wilson 

Dr. John M. Frankland 

Edward C. Lloyd 

Dr. Richard K. Cook 

Dr. Daniel P. Johnson 

Dr. Galen B. Schubauer 

Lafayette K. Irwin 

Dr. Robert S. Marvin 

Frank R. Caldwell 

221 HEAT 

Assistant Chief, Thermodynamics 

.01 Temperature Physics 

.02 Heat Measurements 

.03 Cryogenic Physics 

.04 Equation of State 

.05 Statistical Physics 

222 AToMIc PHYSICS 

.01 Spectroscopy 

.02 Infrared and Microwave Spectroscopy 

.03 Far Ultraviolet Physics 

.04 Solid State Physics 

.05 Electron Physics 

.06 Atomic Physics 

.07 Plasma Spectroscopy 

223 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY Consultant 

Consultant 

.01 .02 

.21 

.31 

.41 

.51 .52 

.53 

Chemical Kinetics Information Center 

Theoretical Chemistry 

Thermochemistry 

Surface Chemistry 

Organic Chemistry 

Molecular Spectroscopy 

Elementary Processes 

Mass Spectrometry 

Photo Chemistry and Radiation Chemistry 

959 

Dr. Ralph P. Hudson 

Dr. Charles W. Beckett 

James F. Swindells 

Dr. Defoe C. Ginnings 

Dr. Ernest Ambler 

Joseph Hilsenrath 

Dr. Melville S. Green 

Dr. Karl 0. Kessler 

Dr. William C. Martin, Jr. 

Dr. David R. Lide, Jr. 

Dr. Robert P. Madden 

Dr. Hans P. R. Frederikse 

Dr. John A. Simpson 

Dr. Harold S. Boyne 

Dr. Wolfgang L. Wiese 

Dr. Merrill B. Wallenstein 

Dr. William L. Clinton 

Edward J. Prosen 

Dr. Ransom B. Parlin 

Dr. Morris Krauss 

Donald D. Wagman 

Dr. Ralph Klein 

Dr. Horace S. Isbell 

Dr. David E. Mann 

Dr. Robert E. Ferguson 

Dr. Harry M. Rosenstock 

Dr. James R. McNesby 
*224 LABORATORY ASTROPHYSICS Dr. Lewis M. Branscomb 

231 RADIATION PHYSICS 

.01 Radiation Theory 

Dr. Herman W. Koch 

Dr. Haakon A. Olsen RADIOLOGICAL PHYSICS BRANCH 

.11 X-ray Physics 

.12 Dosimetry 

.13 X-ray Standards NUCLEAR PHYSICS BRANCH 

.21 Radioactivity 

.22 Neutron Physics 

.23 Photonuclear Physics 

.24 Nuclear Spectroscopy 

Accelerator Branch 

.31 Accelerator Engineering 

.32 Radiation Physics Instrumentation 

.33 Accelerator Physics 

*250 RADIO STANDARDS LABORATORY Scientific Consultant 

*251 RADIO STANDARDS PHYSICS Assistant Chief 

Consultant 

.01 Frequency-Time Dissemination Research 

.02 Frequency-Time Broadcast Services 

.03 Radio and Microwave Materials 

.04 Atomic Frequency and Time Interval Standards 

.06 Radio Plasma 

.07 Microwave Physics 

*252 RADIO STANDARDS ENGINEERING Consultant 

Dr. J. W. Motz 

Dr. J. W. Motz 

Dr. Scott W. Smith 

Dr. Harold 0. Wyckoff 

Dr. Herman W. Koch 

Dr. Wilfrid B. Mann 

Dr. Randall S. Caswell 

Dr. Everett G. Fuller 

Dr. Raymond W. Hayward 

Dr. James E. Leiss 

Dr. James E. Leiss 

Louis Costrell 

Dr. James E. Leiss 

Dr. John M. Richardson 

Dr. David M. Kems 

Dr. L. Yardley Beers 

Dr. George E. Hudson 

Dr. Paul F. Wacker 

Alvin H. Morgan 

David H. Andrews 

John L. Dalke 

Dr. Richard C. Mockler 

Dr. Karl B. Persson 

Dr. Robert W. Zimmerer (Acting) 

Dr. George E. Schafer 

Robert W. Beatty 

Myron C. Selby 

Frank D. Weaver (Acting) 

Dr. K. R. Wendt 

Charles M. Allred 

Robert C. Powell 

Roy E. Larson 

Dr. Maurice B. Hall 

300 INSTITUTE FOR MATERIALS RESEARCH 

Director 

Deputy Director 

302 OFFICE OF STANDARD REFERENCE MATERIALS 

960 

Dr. Irl C. Schoonover (Acting) 

Dr. Harry C. Allen Jr. 

Dr. W. Wayne Meinke 

Consultant 

.11 Low Frequency Calibration Services 

.21 HF Calibration Services 

.22 HF Electrical Standards 

.23 HF Impedance Standards 

.31 Microwave Calibration Services 

.32 Microwave Circuit Standards 
310 ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY Assistant Chief 

.01 Radiochemical Analysis 

.02 Spectrochemical Analysis 

.03 Electrochemical Analysis 

.04 Quantitative Separations 

.05 Analysis and Purification 

311 POLYMERS 

Consultant 

Consultant on Polymers 

Consultant on Rubber 

.01 Macromolecules, Synthesis and Structure 

.02 Polymer Chemistry 

.03 Polymer Physics 

.04 Polymer Characterization 

.05 Dental Research 

.10 Federal Standards and Specification Laboratory 

Consultant on Leather 

Consultant on Mathematical Statistics 

Consultant on Paper 

Consultant on Textiles 

.11 Product Evaluation and Testing 

.12 Procurement Systems 

.13 Evaluation Criteria 

.14 Performance Research 

Dr. W. Wayne Meinke 

Dr. Roger G. Bates 

Dr. James R. DeVoe 

Bourdon F. Scribner 

Dr. Roger G. Bates 

Roif A. Paulson (Acting) 

Dr. John K. Taylor 

Dr. John D. Hoffman 

Dr. John I. Lauritzen, Jr. 

Dr. Samuel G. Weissberg 

Dr. Lawrence A. Wood 

Dr. Donald McIntyre 

Dr. Leo A. Wall 

Dr. Elio Passaglia 

Dr. Norman P. Bekkedahl 

William T. Sweeney 

Dr. Robert B. Hobbs (Acting) 

Dr. Joseph R. Kanagy 

John Mandel 

Jack L. Harvey (Acting) 

Dr. Herbert F. Schiefer 

Vacant 

Vacant 

Dr. Robert D. Stiehler 

Vacant 

312 METALLURGY 

Assistant Chief 

Consultant 

.01 Engineering Metallurgy 

.02 Alloy Physics 

.03 Lattice Defects and Microstructures 

.04 Corrosion 

.05 Metal Physics 

.06 Electrolysis and Metal Deposition 

.07 Crystallization of Metals 

Dr. Lawrence M. Kushner 

George A. Ellinger 

Leroy L. Wyman 

Samuel J. Rosenberg 

Dr. Lawrence H. Bennett 

Dr. A. William Ruff, Jr. 

George A. Ellinger 

Dr. Robert E. Howard 

Dr. Abner Brenner 

Dr. Robert L. Parker 

313 INORGANIC MATERIALS Consultant 

Consultant 

.01 Inorganic Chemistry 

.02 Glass 

.03 High Temperature Chemistry 

.04 Crystal Chemistry 

Physical Properties 

Crystallography 

314 REACTOR RADIATIONS 

Dr. Harry C. Allen, Jr. 

Dr. Gilbert Gordon 

Dr. Ellis R. Lippincott 

Dr. Thomas D. Coyle 

Clarence H. Hahner 

Vacant 

H. Steffen Peiser 

Dr. John B. Wachtman, Jr. 

Howard F. McMurdie 

Dr. Carl 0. Muehlhause 

.05 

.06 

961 
Cryogenic Technical Services 

Cryogenic Data Center 

Cryogenic Properties of Solids 

Properties of Cryogenic Fluids 

Cryogenic Systems 

Cryogenic Metrology 

Cryogenic Fluid Transport Processes 

Bascom W. Birmingham 

Dr. R. Joseph Corruccini 

Alan F. Schmidt 

William A. Wilson 

Victor J. Johnson 

Dr. Richard H. Kropschot 

Dr. R. Joseph Corruccini 

Dudley B. Chelton 

Dr. Thomas M. Flynn 

Raymond V. Smith 

400 INSTITUTE FOR APPLIEDTECHNOLOGY 

Director 

Deputy Director 

Consultant 

Assistant to the Director, International Standards 

.01 Pilot Projects and Programs 

.02 Invention and Innovation 

.03 Domestic Technology Information 

.04 AID Technology Information 

402 OFFICE OF TECHNICAL SERVICES 403 OFFICE OF INDUSTRIAL SERVICES 404 OFFICE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 

Dr. Donald A. Schon 

John P. Eberhard 

Joseph L. Swedock 

Dr. Archibald T. McPherson 

Vacant 

Daniel V. DeSimone 

Eric A. Tietz 

Vacant 

Dr. Donald A. Schon 

Robert L. Stem 

Malcolm W. Jensen 

405 OFFICE OF ENGINEERING STANDARDS Commodity Standards 

Technical Standards Coordination 

Vacant 

Alfred S. Best 

Joan Hartman 

410 TECHNICAL DOCUMENTATION CENTER 

.10 Document Management Branch 

.20 Document Analysis and Reference Branch 

.30 Automated Systems and Services Branch 

.40 Customer Relations Branch 

.50 Plans and Development Branch 

.60 Administrative Services Branch 

.70 Joint Publications Research Service 

421 BUILDING RESEARCH 

.01 Structural Engineering 

.02 Fire Research 

.03 Mechanical Systems 

.04 Organic Building Materials 

.05 Codes and Safety Standards 

.06 Heat Transfer 

.07 Inorganic Building Materials 

.08 Metallic Building Materials 

Bernard M. Fry 

Paul W. Larsen 

Lillian A. Hamrick 

Vacant 

James E. Wheat 

Jeremiah F. Harrington 

John L. Demarest 

Thomas W. Miller 

Dr. Allan A. Bates 

David Watstein 

Dr. Alexander F. Robertson 

Paul R. Achenbach 

Dr. William W. Walton 

Dr. Allan A. Bates (Acting) 

Henry E. Robinson 

Dr. Bruce E. Foster 

Dwight 0. Moore 

422 INDUSTRIAL EQUIPMENT TECHNOLOGY 

962 

Vacant 

*315 CRYOGENICS Assistant Chief 

Consultant 

.01 .02 

.03 

.04 

.05 

.06 

.07 
423 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY PILOT 

.01 Components and Techniques 

.02 Computer Technology 

.03 Measurements Automation 

.04 Engineering Applications 

.05 Systems Analysis 

Samuel N. Alexander 

James P. Nigro 

Robert D. Elbourn 

James A. Cunningham 

Raymond T. Moore 

James P. Nigro 

Samuel N. Alexander (Acting) 

424 PERFORMANCE TEST DEVELOPMENT Vacant 

425 INSTRUMENTATION 

.01 Engineering Electronics 

.02 Electron Devices 

.03 Electronic Instrumentation 

.04 Mechanical Instruments 

.05 Basic Instrumentation 

426 TRANSPORT SYSTEMS 427 TEXTILES AND APPAREL TECHNOLOGY CENTER 

Consultant 

Mathematician 

Industrial Specialist 

Consultant 

Consultant 

.01 Contract Research Program 

.02 Technical Support Program 

*500 CENTRAL RADIO PROPAGATION LABORATORY 

Director 

Deputy Director 

Senior Research Fellow 

Consultant 

Consultant 

Consultant 

CRPL Liaison and Program Development 

Consultant Radio Wave Propagation 

*582 IONOSPHERE RESEARCH AND PROPAGATION Assistant Chief 

Consultant 

Consultant 

.05 Ultra Low Frequency Research 

.10 LF and VLF Research 

.20 Ionosphere Research 

.30 Prediction Services 

.40 Sun-Earth Relationships 

.50 Field Engineering 

.60 Radio Warning Services 

.70 Vertical Soundings Research 

963 

G. Franklin Montgomery 

Gustave Shapiro 

Charles P. Marsden 

G. Franklin Montgomery (Acting) 

Arnold Wexler 

Joshua Stern 

Dr. Siegfried M. Breuning 

Robert L. Stern (Acting) 

Gary K. Stonebraker 

Jerome A. Yurow 

Gary C. McKay 

Robert H. Ramsey 

Ernest R. Kaswell 

Vacant 

Vacant 

Dr. C. Gordon Little 

Jack W. Herbstreit 

Dr. James R. Wait 

Kenneth A. Norton 

Roger M. Gallet 

A. Glenn Jean, Jr. 

Alan H. Shapley 

Dr. James R. Wait 

Robert W. Knecht 

Thomas N. Gautier 

Dr. Lawrence R. Megill 

Dr. H. Herbert Howe 

Dr. Wallace H. Campbell 

Douglass D. Crombie 

Dr. Kenneth Davies 

Margo Leftin 

Dr. Thomas E. VanZandt 

Harry G. Sellery 

J. Virginia Lincoln 

John W. Wright 
*583 TROPOSPHERE AND SPACE TELECOMMUNICATIONS Consultant 

Consultant, Terminal Equipment 

.10 Data Reduction Instrumentation 

.40 Radio Noise 

.50 Tropospheric Measurements 

.60 Tropospheric Analysis 

.70 Spectrum Utilization Research 

.80 Radio Meteorology 

.90 Lower Atmosphere Physics 

*585 RADIO SYSTEMS Assistant Chief 

Assistant Chief 

Consultant 

.10 Applied Electromagnetic Theory 

.20 HF and VHF Research 

.30 Frequency Utilization 

.40 Modulation Research 

.50 Antenna Research 

.60 Radiodetermination 

*587 UPPER ATMOSPHERE AND SPACE PHYSICS Assistant Chief 

Consultant 

Consultant 

Consultant 

.10 Upper Atmosphere and Plasma Physics 

.20 High Latitude Ionospheric Physics 

.30 Atmospheric Collision Processes 

.50 Ionosphere and Exosphere Scatter 

.70 Airglow and Aurora 

.80 Ionospheric Radio Astronomy 

*Laboratories located in Boulder, Colorado. 

FIELD STATIONS 

212 METROLOGY 

Visual Aids Field Laboratory, Arcata, CA 

Master Railway Track Scale Depot, Clearing, IL 

Robert S. Kirby (Acting) 

Dr. David M. Gates 

Edwin F. florman 

Walter E. Johnson 

William Q. Crichlow 

Martin T. Decker 

Philip L. Rice 

Albrecht P. Barsis 

Bradford R. Bean 

Dr. Moody C. Thompson, Jr. 

Richard C. Kirby 

Donald W. Patterson 

William F. Utlaut 

George W. Haydon 

J. Ralph Johler 

Lowell H. Tveten 

George W. Haydon 

Clark C. Watterson 

Herman V. Cottony 

Gifford Hefley 

Dr. Ernest K. Smith, Jr. 

Dr. Floyd L. Taylor 

Dana K. Bailey 

Dr. George C. Reid 

Dr. Ralph J. Slutz 

Vacant 

Dr. Hugh J. A. Chivers 

Dr. Eldon E. Ferguson 

Dr. Kenneth L. Bowles 

Dr. Franklin E. Roach 

Robert S. Lawrence 

410.70 TECHNICAL DOCUMENTATION CENTER, JOINT PUBLICATIONS RESEARCH SERVICE San Francisco, CA 

New York, NY 

421.07 BUILDING RESEARCH, INORGANIC BUILDING MATERIALS 

San Francisco, CA 

Denver, CO 

Seattle, WA 

964 
500 CENTRAL RADIO PROPAGATION LABORATORY Radio Propagation Field Station, Anchorage, AK 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Barrow, AK 

lonosonde and Conjugate Points Station, Byrd Station, Antarctica 

Radio Noise Station, USNS ElTanin, Antarctica 

Conjugate Points Station, Charlevoix, Quebec 

Western Test Range, Lompoc (Point Arguello), CA 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Akron, CO 

Boulder Magnetic Observatory, Boulder, CO 

Cheyenne Mountain Radio Propagation Station, Colorado Springs, CO 

HF/VHF Research Section Radio Propagation Transmissions Site, Erie, CO 

Standard Frequency Stations WWVB/WWVL, For Collins, CO 

Antenna Research Test Site, Green Mountain Mesa, CO 

Radio Meteorological Field Site, Radio Noise Station and Telemetry 

Recording Station, Gun Barrel Hill, CO 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Haswell, CO 

Ionosphere Research Field Station, KoIb, CO 

VLF/ELF Propagation Station, Lafayette, CO 

Fritz Peak Observatory, Aurora and Airgiow Station, Rollinsville, CO 

Radio Propagation Research Station, Table Mesa, CO 

Radio Noise Recording Station, Koloa, Kauai, HA 

Radio Propagation and Standard Frequency Station WWVH, Puunene, Maui, HA 

Radio Propagation Transmissions Station, Havana, IL 

Standard Frequency Station WWV, Greenbelt, MD 

Radio Noise Recording Station, Warrensburg, MO 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Mangum, OK 

Jicamarca Radar Observatory, Lima, Peru 

Radio Propagation Field Station, Ft. Belvoir, VA 

Radio Noise Station, Front Royal, VA 

Ionosphere Sounding Station, Wallops Island, VA 

Bill Radio Noise Recording Station, Douglas, WY 

The July, 1978 organizational chart reflects Director Ernest Ambler's creation of a laboratory structure. 

July 1, 1978 

100 Office of the Director 

Director Dr. Ernest Ambler 

Deputy Director Dr. Thomas A. Dillon 

Legal Advisor Allen J. Farrar 

Congressional Affairs Officer Esther C. Cassidy 

Equal Employment Opportunity Coordinator Dwight F. Doxey, Acting 

Technology Advisor Dr. Howard E. Sorrows 

Visiting Committee/Evaluation Panels Kay J. Byerly 

Presentations Donald V. Baker 

Industrial Liaison Peter R. DeBruyn 

State and Local Governments James M. Wyckoff 

Associate Director for International Affairs Dr. Edward L. Brady 

Office of International Relations H. Steffen Peiser 

965 
110 Associate Director for Programs, Budget, and Finance 

Associate Director Raymond G. Kammer 

111 Program Office 

Chief Raymond 0. Kammer 

Program Analyst Dr. Harvey Yakowitz 

Analyst, NML Dr. Peter L. Heydemann 

Dr. Gregory J. Rosasco 

Analyst, NEL Dr. Richard D. Marshall 

Judith F. Gilsinn 

Analyst, ICST Dr. Seldon L. Stewart 

Analyst, DAIS Stephen L. Damours 

112 Budget Office 

Chief Thomas A. Gary 

Senior Analyst—Budget Formulation Joseph E. Fones 

Senior Analyst—Budget Justification Janet B. Miller 

113 Office of the Comptroller 

Comptroller Larry D. Stout 

Deputy Comptroller David B. Shreve 

Special Projects Edgar H. MacArthur 

General Accounting John C. McGuffin 

Operations Henry L. Kenno 

Accounts Payable Eleanor W. Filban 

114 Planning Office 

Chief Raymond G. Kammer, Acting 

320 Director of Administrative and Information Systems 

Director Richard P. Bartlett, Jr. 

Program Coordinator Joseph C. Aubele 

321 Public Information Division 

Chief Richard S. Franzen 

Audio/Visual Information Ronald E. Meininger 

Media Liaison Madeleine S. Jacobs 

Special Activities Sara R. Torrence 

322 Personnel Division 

Chief Mati Tammaru 

Deputy Sharon April 

Labor/Management Relations John L. O'Neill 

Personnel Operations/Boulder James H. Spencer 

Employee Development John C. Collins 

Classification Walter R. Scheltema 

Operations and Procedures Marlene 0. Posey 

966 
323 Management and Organization Division 

Chief Roger A. Dixon 

Consultive Services Wayne B. Davis 

Directives Management Sharon B. Weeks 

Organization Design Marguerite R. Hubanks 

Management Systems Roger A. Dixon 

340 Center for Information Systems 

Chief John T. Hall 

341 Computing Systems Design Division 

Chief Eugene I. Grunby 

Advanced Systems Edward J. Barkmeyer 

Administrative Systems Design Robert E. Stant 

Administrative Systems Applications Lucille E. Sithens 

342 Library Division 

Chief Patricia W. Berger 

Information Services K. J. Patrias 

Resources Development Marvin A. Bond 

343 Office Management Division 

Chief Richard de Ia Menardiere, Acting 

Office Support Coordinator Frances V. Gary 

DoC Procurement Liaison R. Keith Chandler 

Procurement Virgella Randolph 

Forms Management 0. Fenney 

Records Management Philip V. Proulx 

Conference Facilities Omar K. Halmat 

Printing and Duplicating Aaron J. Lucas 

Visual Arts James V. Schick 

344 Technical Information and Publications Division 

Chief W. Reeves Tilley 

Executive Secretary, WERB Dr. Robert F. Blunt 

Inquiry Service Norma E. Redstone 

Publication Production John J. Rochford 

Electronic Typesetting Rebecca J. Morehouse 

345 Computer Services Division 

Chief Martin R. Shaver 

Deputy Leroy M. Allison 

Customer Support Ralph A. Palladino 

Operations Andrew Selepak 

Technical Services George A. Dines 

Systems Software John A. Coffey 

Hardware Maintenance Donald C. Jensen 

350 Center for Facilities Management 

Director Karl E. Bell 

Program Coordinator Iris M. Lloyd 

967 
351 Plant Division 

Chief John N. Brewer, Jr. 

Deputy Edmund H. Keranen 

Special Projects DeForest Z. Rathbone, Jr. 

Contract Administration Julius C. Chieppa 

Industrial Planning 0. D. Scullen 

Maintenance Engineering Anthony A. White 

Design Engineering T. B. McKneely 

Apprentice Programs Robert W. Miller 

Steam & Chilled Water Generation Leslie E. Wachter 

Electric Shop Robert W. Miller 

Piping Shop Kenneth L. Lowe 

Construction Shop David W. Hughes 

Paint Shop James M. Marlett, Sr. 

Sheet Metal Shop Donald I. Thompson 

Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Dominick M. Giampietro 

Grounds Dale C. Sullivan 

352 Instrument Shops Division 

Chief David S. Bettwy 

Assistant James N. Strohlein 

Production Control Ralph L. Whalen, Jr. 

Engineering Design James N. Strohlein 

Scientific Instrument Shop Stanley W. Gerner 

Optical Shop Edward P. Muth 

Numerically Controlled Machines Robert E. Lach 

Specialty Shop John R. Pidgeon 

Glass Blowing Shop Enrico N. DeLeonibus 

Welding and Sheet Metal Shop Harold E. Brown 

353 Facilities Services Division 

Chief Walter J. Rabbiu 

Consultants Supply John F. Kennedy 

Walter C. Bonner, Jr. 

Fire Protection Services Chief Charles 0. Baker 

Janitorial Services Henry J. Pulver, Acting 

Mail Margie E. Kaszuba 

Materiel Support Charles W. Castle 

Physical Security Capt. Frank Langston 

Property and Stores Mary L. Davison 

SRM Support George R. Fairchild 

Telecommunications Larry J. Loveland 

Traffic Manager Robert J. Lewis 

Transportation Services Harvey E. McCoy 

354 Occupational Health and Safety Division 

Chief Lyman E. Pevey, Acting 

Safety Lyman E. Pevey 

Health Physics Dr. Abraham Schwebel 

Medical Office Dr. George Sharpe 

Workers' Compensation Janet C. Wilt 

968 
360 Boulder Executive Office 

Executive Officer Arthur R. Hauler 

Financial Systems Thomas M. Rizzi 

Staff Services Rudolf F. Meyers 

Safety Winston W. Scott, Jr. 

Personnel Security Ann B. Hamilton 

Communications Alden E. Clifford, Ill 

Physical Security William W. Fabing 

Program Information Ralph F. Desch 

Visual Information Darwin B. Miner 

361 Boulder Supply Services Division 

Chief Johannes S. Roettenbacher 

Deputy Merle V. Gibson 

Property Records Carl B. Diechman 

Property Utilization William Kellett 

Shipping and Receiving 0. Russell Dallman 

Mail Ted C. Fahrenholtz 

Stores Robert C. Damiana 

Travel Dolly A. Quate 

362 Boulder Instrument Shops Division 

Chief William A. Wilson 

Production Control Kenneth L. Nuss 

Mechanical Design Victor Lecinski 

Measurements Lloyd M. Kneebone 

Glass Shop Jerry G. Shepherd 

Scientific Instruments Philip F. Biddle 

Apprentice Program Michael P. Cawley 

Tool Crib Ernest L. Rooks 

Numerical Machines Herbert H. Garing 

Welding, Sheet Metal, Plating William F. Decker 

363 Boulder Plant Division 

Chief Vacant 

Training Administration Gordon W. DeKrey 

Plant Engineer Gary W. Johnson 

Operations Manager Kenneth B. Martin 

Building Maintenance Donald D. Rice 

Roads and Grounds Wilmer L. Schweikert 

Custodial Leslie C. Chance 

410 Director, NBS/Boulder Laboratories 

Chief Bascom W. Birmingham 

Program Coordination Robert D. Harrington 

969 
500 National Measurement Laboratory 

Director 

Deputy Director for Resources and Operations 

Associate Director for Long-Range Planning 

Deputy Director for Programs 

Executive Officer. 

Administrative Officer 

Senior Science Advisor 

Scientific Assistants 

Statistical Consultant 

501 Office of Nondestructive Evaluation 

Chief 

Dr. John D. Hoffman 

Dr. Emanuel Horowitz 

Dr. David T. Goldman (Acting) 

Dr. Donald R. Johnson 

Ronald B. Johnson 

Robert F. Martin 

Dr. Hans J. Oser 

Dr. Ian R. Bartky 

Dr. Wayne A. Cassatt 

Dr. Lucy B. Hagan 

Dr. Ruth A. Haines 

Lottie T. McClendon 

Dr. Gilbert M. Ugiansky 

Dr. John Mandel 

Harry Berger 

502 Office of Environmental Measurements 

Chief 

Air Programs 

Water Programs 

503 Office of Standard Reference Materials 

Chief 

Deputy 

Chief Standards Coordinator 

Standards Coordinators 

Technical Representative 

Marketing 

504 Office of Standard Reference Data 

Chief 

Technical Liaison 

Data Systems Design 

Energy and Environmental 

Industrial Processes 

Materials Utilization 

Physical Sciences Data 

505 Office of Measurements for Nuclear Safeguards 

Dr. Cary Gravatt (Acting) 

Vacant 

Dr. Bruce W. Morrissey 

J. Paul Cali 

George A. Uriano 

Robert E. Michaelis 

Robert Alvarez 

R. Keith Kirby 

William P. Reed 

Richard W. Seward 

Ruth H. Meyer 

Dr. David R. Lide, Jr. 

Dr. Sherman P. Fivozinsky 

Dr. David R. Lide, Jr. 

Dr. Lewis H. Gevantman 

Dr. Howard J. White, Jr. 

Dr. Steven A. Rossmassler 

Dr. David R. Lide, Jr. 

Chief Dr. H. Thomas Yolken 

506 Office of Recycled Materials 

Chief 

510 Associate Director for Measurement Services, NML 

Associate Director 

970 

Dr. Donald R. Johnson, Acting 

Dr. Arthur 0. McCoubrey, Acting 
511 Office of Weights and Measures 

Chief 

512 Office of Measurement Services 

Chief 

513 Office of Domestic and International Measurement Standards 

Chief 

Albert D. Tholen, Acting 

Dr. Brian C. Belanger 

David E. Edgerly 

520 Center for Absolute Physical Quantities 

Director 

Deputy Director 

Assistant to the Director 

Quantum Metrology Group Leader, Senior Research Fellow 

521 Electrical Measurements and Standards Division 

Chief 

522 Temperature Measurements and Standards Division 

Chief 

523 Length and Mass Measurements and Standards Division 

Chief 

524 Time and Frequency Division, Boulder 

Chief 

525 Quantum Physics Division, Boulder 

Chief 

Dr. Karl 0. Kessler 

Dr. Ralph P. Hudson 

Dr. W. Gary Schweitzer, Jr. 

Dr. Richard D. Deslattes 

Dr. Barry N. Taylor 

Dr. James F. Schooley 

Dr. Ralph P. Hudson, Acting 

Dr. James A. Barnes 

Dr. Gordon H. Dunn 

530 Center for Radiation Research 

Director 

Deputy 

Assistant to the Director 

Radiation Measurements 

531 Atomic and Plasma Radiation Division 

Chief 

532 Nuclear Radiation Division 

Chief 

533 Radiation Physics Division 

Chief 

534 Radiometric Physics Division 

Chief 

535 Radiation Source and Instrumentation Division 

Chief 

971 

Dr. James E. Leiss 

Dr. James A. O'Connell, Acting 

James A. Hormuth 

Elmer H. Eisenhower 

Dr. Wolfgang L. Wiese, Acting 

Dr. Randall S. Caswell, Acting 

Dr. Christopher E. Kuyatt 

Dr. Jack L. Tech 

Dr. Samuel Penner, Acting 
540 Center for Thermodynamics and Molecular Science 

Director Dr. Milton D. Scheer 

Deputy Director Dr. William H. Kirchhoff 

541 Surface Science Division 

Chief Dr. Cedric J. Powell 

542 Chemical Kinetics Division 

Chief Dr. Wing Tsang 

543 Chemical Thermodynamics Division 

Chief Dr. David Garvin 

544 Thermophysics Division 

Chief Dr. Harold J. Raveche 

545 Molecular Spectroscopy Division 

Chief Dr. Merrill M. Hessel 

550 Center for Analytical Chemistry 

Director Dr. Philip D. LaFleur 

Deputy Dr. Curt W. Reimann 

Scientific Assistant to the Director Dr. Richard A. Durst 

Service Analysis Coordinator Dr. Robert W. Burke 

Instrument Development Group Dr. James R. DeVoe 

551 Inorganic Analytical Research Division 

Chief Dr. I. Lynus Barnes 

552 Organic Analytical Research Division 

Chief Dr. Harry S. Hertz 

553 Gas and Particulate Science Division 

Chief Dr. John K. Taylor 

560 Center for Materials Science 

Director Dr. John B. Wachtman, Jr. 

Deputy Director Dr. Elio Passaglia, Acting 

Assistant for Planning Dr. Bruce W. Steiner 

Assistant for Other Agency Programs Samuel J. Schneider 

Center Scientists Dr. John W. Cahn 

Dr. Robb M. Thomson 

Signal Processing and Imaging Dr. Melvin Linzer 

Fibrous Systems Donald 0. Fletcher 

561 Chemical Stability and Corrosion Division 

Chief Dr. Thomas D. Coyle 

562 Fracture and Deformation Division 

Chief Dr. Sheldon M. Wiederhom 

972 
563 Polymer Science and Standards Divison 

Chief 

564 Metal Science and Standards Division - Chief 

565 Ceramics, Class, and Solid State Science Division 

Chief 

566 Reactor Radiation Division 

Chief 

600 Institute for Computer Sciences and Technoloeg 

Dr. Ronald K. Eby 

Dr. A. William Ruff, Jr., Acting 

Dr. Hans P.R. Frederikse 

Dr. Robert S. Carter 

Director 

Deputy Director 

Associate Director for Telecommunications 

Senior Scientist for Computer Science 

Assistant for Computer Utilization 

Assistant for Technical Communications 

Manager, Pattern Recognition Program 

Executive Officer 

Automatic Data Processing Standards 

640 Systems and Software Division 

Chief 

Systems Architecture 

Computer Science• 

Applied Automatic Data Processing Technology 

650 Computer Systems Engineering Division 

Chief 

Computer Systems 

Computer Networking 

Data Acquisition and Storage 

660 Information Technology Division 

Chief 

700 National Engineering Laboratory 

M. Zane Thornton, Acting 

M. Zane Thornton 

Edwin J. Istvan 

Dr. Joseph 0. Harrison, Jr. 

Robert P. Blanc 

Grace G. Bums 

Joseph H. Wegstein 

Ben C. Tate, Jr. 

Harry S. White 

Madeleine M. Henderson 

Seymour Jeffrey 

Dr. Thomas C. Lowe 

Dr. Dennis W. Fife 

John F. Wood 

Thomas N. Pyke, Jr. 

Raymond T. Moore 

Dr. Stephen R. Kimbleton 

George E. Clark 

M. Zane Thornton, Acting 

Director 

Deputy Director 

Associate Director for Programs 

Associate Director for Planning 

Associate Director for Technical Evaluation 

Executive Officer 

Administrative Officer 

710 Center for Applied Mathematics 

Director 

Deputy 

973 

Dr. John W. Lyons 

Dr. James R. Wright 

Samuel Kramer, Acting 

Vacant 

Dr. George A. Sinnott, Acting 

D. Michael Stogsdill 

John M. Smith 

Dr. Burton H. Colvin 

Dr. Joan R. Rosenblatt, Acting 
711 Mathematical Analysis Division 

Chief 

712 Operations Research Division 

Chief 

713 Scientific Computing Division 

Chief 

714 Statistical Engineering Division 

Chief 

Dr. Frederick C. Johnson, Acting 

Dr. Alan J. Goldman 

Dr. Burton H. Colvin, Acting 

Dr. Harry H. Ku, Acting 

720 Center for Electronics and Electrical Engineering 

Director 

Deputy 

721 Electron Devices Division 

Chief 

722 Electrosystems Division 

Chief 

723 Electromagnetic Fields Division, Boulder 

Chief 

724 Electromagnetic Technology Division, Boulder 

Chief 

Judson C. French 

Director Dr. Alvin H. Sher 

Dr. W. Murray Bullis 

Dr. Oskars Petersons, Acting 

Dr. Harold S. Boyne 

Dr. Robert A. Kamper, Acting 

730 Center for Mechanical Engineering and Process Technology 

Director 

Deputy Director 

731 Mechanical Processes Division 

Chief 

732 Fluid Engineering Division 

Chief 

733 Thermal Processes Division 

Chief 

734 Industrial Engineering Division 

Chief 

735 Acoustical Engineering Division 

Chief 

736 hermophysical Properties Division, Boulder 

Chief 

Dr. John A. Simpson 

Dr. John M. Evans 

Dr. Russell D. Young, Acting 

Dr. George E. Mattingly 

Dr. Kenneth G. Kreider. Acting 

Vacant 

Dr. David S. Pallett 

Dr. Richard H. Kropschot 

740 Center for Building Technology 

Director 

Deputy 

741 Structures and Materials Division 

Chief 

742 Building Thermal and Service Systems Division 

Chief 

974 

Dr. Richard N. Wright 

Director Harry E. Thompson 

Dr. Edward 0. Pfrang 

Dr. Preston E. McNall 
743 Environmental Design Research Division 

Chief 

744 Building Economics and Regulatory Technology Division 

Chief 

Dr. Francis T. Ventre 

James G. Gross, Acting 

750 Center for Fire Research 

Director 

Deputy Director 

751 Fire Science Division 

Chief 

752 Fire Safety Engineering Division 

Chief 

Dr. Frederic B. Clarke, III, Acting 

Dr. Frederic B. Clarke, Ill 

Dr. Robert S. Levine 

Irwin A. Benjamin 

760 Center for Consumer Product Technology 

Director 

Deputy Director 

761 Consumer Sciences Division 

Chief 

762 Product Performance Engineering Division 

Chief 

763 Product Safety Technology Division 

Chief 

770 Center for Field Methods 

Director 

780 Office of Engineering Standards 

Director 

Deputy 

781 Office of Standards Development 

Chief 

782 Office of Testing Laboratory Technology 

Chief 

783 Office of International Engineering Standards 

Chief 

790 Office of Energy Programs 

Director 

791 Office of Energy-Related Inventions 

Chief 

975 

Dr. Stanley I. Warshaw 

John L. Donaldson, Acting 

Dr. Harold P. Van Cott 

Dr. Andrew J. Fowell 

Walter G. Leight 

Richard T. Penn, Acting 

Gene A. Rowland 

William C. Cullen 

Dr. Lawrence D. Eicher 

Dr. Norman F. Somes 

William E. Andrus, Jr. 

Dr. Jack E. Snell 

George P. Lewett 

210 Office of Standards Services 

Director 

Deputy Director 

211 Standards Code and Information Program 

Chief 

212 Standards Management Program 

Chief 

213 Weights and Measures Program 

Chief 

Laws, Regulations, and Commodities 

Device Technology 

220 Office of Technology Commercialization 

Director 

221 Research and Technology Applications Program 

Chief 

222 Technology Development and Small Business Program 

Chief 

230 Office of Measurement Services 

Director 

231 Standard Reference Data Program 

Chief 

Data Systems Development 

232 Standard Reference Materials Program 

Chief 

Production and Certification 

233 Physical Measurement Services Program 

Chief 

234 Laboratory Accreditation Program 

Chief 

240 Office of Technology Evaluation and Assessment 

Director 

Deputy Director 

241 Energy-Related Inventions Program 

Chief 

977 

Dr. Stanley I. Warshaw 

Walter G. Leight 

John L. Donaldson 

Dr. Samuel E. Chappell 

Albert D. Tholen 

Dr. Carol S. Bnckenkamp 

Henry V. Oppermann 

Dr. Cary Gravatt 

Joseph G. Berke 

B. E. Mattson 

Stanley D. Rasberry 

Dr. Malcolm W. Chase 

Phoebe Fagan 

Stanley D. Rasberry, Acting 

Thomas E. Gills 

Dr. Joseph D. Simmons 

Nancy M. Trahey 

George P. Lewett 

Dr. Jaromir J. Ulbrecht 

George P. Lewett, Acting 
242 Non-Energy-Related Inventions Program 

Chief George P. Lewett, Acting 

250 Office of Information Services 

Director Patricia W. Berger 

Information Systems Marvin Bond 

Research Resources Development Mary Lynn Kingston 

Research Information Services Sami W. Klein 

Publications Production Donald R. Harris, Acting 

WERB Secretary Rolfe C. MacCullough 

320 Office of the Director of Administration 

Director Guy W. Chamberlain, Jr. 

Deputy Director Karl E. Bell 

Systems Analyst David K. Wise 

322 Management and Organization Division 

Chief Sharon E. Bisco 

Management Analysis Sharon E. Bisco 

Forms and Records Management Sue C. Cox 

330 Office of the Comptroller 

Comptroller John C. McGuffin 

Cost Accounting Kendra S. Walker 

Document Control Velma K. Cope, Acting 

Cost Control Carol A. Abramson 

Accounts Payable Maurine M. Steel 

Advances and Reimbursements John W. Wisner 

Systems John A. Marrazzo 

Billing and Collections Katie M. Mooney, Acting 

Accounting and Reports Harry W. Fnzzell 

346 Public Affairs Division 

Chief Matthew Heyman 

Media and General Communications Matthew Heyman, Acting 

General Publications Sharon A. Shaffer 

Special Activities Sara R. Torrence 

Audiovisual Communications Ronald E. Meininger 

351 Plant Division 

Chief Jorge R. Urrutia 

Steam and Chilled Water Generation Allen M. Federline 

Electric Shop Donald L. Bruchey 

Pipe Shop Kenneth W. Wean 

Construction Shop Richard L. Lantz 

Grounds and Service Support Robert P. Holland 

Planning and Engineering Christopher G. Conley 

Operations and Maintenance John P. Manning 

Administrative Office James M. Smith 

Project Management Robert F. Moore 

Construction Contracts Robert E. Henry 

General Foreman Al. C. Fox 

HVAC Shop George A. Garvis 

978 
353 Facilities Services Division 

Chief Walter J. Rabbitt 

Mail and Distribution Donna J. Aller 

Janitorial Services Patricia A. Lynch 

Physical Security Capt. Thomas Shackelford 

Transportation William Cook 

Fire Protection Chief James T. Ridgley 

Reprographics William N. Welsh 

Conference Facilities Omar K. Halmat 

354 Occupational Health and Safety Division 

Chief Lyman E. Pevey 

Safety Office Lyman E. Pevey 

Health Physics Thomas G. Hobbs 

Health Unit Lyman E. Pevey 

357 Acquisition and Assistance Division 

Chief Richard E. de Ia Menardiere 

Procurement Data Base R. Keith Chandler 

Contracts Office Eli R. Arbaiza 

Grants Office Sharon D. Green 

Purchasing Office J. Douglas Atkins 

Supply Charles F. Shawver 

360 Boulder Executive Office 

Executive Officer Paige L. Gilbert 

Financial Information William D. Walters 

EEO Sheila R. Aaker 

Publications Shirley G. Deeg 

CARE, Tours, and Exhibits Mary Elizabeth Brunner 

Special Services Deborah Ann Putnam 

361 Boulder Technical Services Division 

Chief Henry W. Tyler 

Engineering Hubert W. Margetts 

Operations Stephen S. Salber 

Instrument Shops James L. Boyd 

810 Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory 

Director Judson C. French 

Deputy Director Dr. Robert E. Hebner 

Office of Microelectronics Programs Robert I. Scace 

Office of Law Enforcement Standards Lawrence K. Eliason 

811 Electricity Division 

Chief Dr. Oskars Petersons 

Applied Electrical Measurements Dr. William E. Anderson 

Electronic Instrumentation and Metrology Barry A. Bell 

Electrical Reference Standards Norman B. Belecki 

Fundamental Electrical Measurements Dr. Alan F. Clark 

979 
812 Semiconductor Electronics Division 

Chief 

Materials Technology 

Device Technology 

Integrated Circuits Technology 

813 Electromagnetic Fields Division, Boulder 

Chief 

Microwave Metrology 

Broadband Microwave Metrology 

Fields and Interference Metrology 

Antenna Metrology 

814 Electromagnetic Technology Division, Boulder 

Chief 

Optical Electronic Metrology 

Cryoelectronic Metrology 

Superconductors and Magnetic Measurements 

820 Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory 

Frank F. Oettinger 

Dr. David G. Seiler 

Dr. Herbert S. Bennett 

Loren W. Linholm 

Dr. Ramon C. Baird 

David H. Russell 

Dr. William A. Kissick 

Dr. Motohisa Kanda 

Allen C. Newell 

Dr. Robert A. Kamper 

Aaron A. Sanders 

Dr. Richard E. Hams 

Dr. Frederick R. Fickett 

Director 

Deputy Director 

Manager, Manufacturing Programs 

Manager, Industrial Relations 

821 Precision Engineering Division 

Chief 

Dimensional Metrology 

Machine Metrology 

Micrometrology 

Microelectronics Dimensional Metrology 

Surface and Particle Metrology 

822 Automated Production Technology Division 

Chief 

Mass 

Ultrasonic Standards 

Sound and Vibration 

Sensor Systems 

Sensor Integration 

Force 

823 Robot Systems Division 

Chief 

Intelligent Machines Programs 

Performance Measures 

Intelligent Controls 

Systems Integration 

Sensory Intelligence 

Unmanned Systems 

980 

Dr. John A. Simpson 

Dr. Richard H.F. Jackson 

Dr. Philip N. Nanzetta 

Dr. Merrill M. Hessel 

Dr. Dennis A. Swyt 

Ralph C. Veale 

Dr. W. Tyler Estler 

Dr. E. Clayton Teague 

Dr. Robert D. Larrabee 

Dr. Theodore V. Vorburger 

Donald S. Blomquist 

Donald S. Blomquist, Acting 

Dr. Donald G. Eitzen 

Donald S. Blomquist, Acting 

Dr. M. Alkan Donmez 

Kang Lee 

Dr. Simone Yaniv 

Dr. James S. Albus 

Roger D. Kilmer 

Kenneth R. Goodwin 

Dr. Ronald Lumia 

Mans Juberts 

Dr. Martin Herman 

Richard Quintero 
824 Factory Automation Systems Division 

Chief 

IGES/PDES!STEP Projects 

CALS/PDES Project 

Production Management Systems 

Product Data Engineering 

Integrated Systems 

Machine Intelligence 

825 Fabrication Technology Division 

Chief 

Apprentice Program 

Glassblowing 

Grinding and EDM Shop 

Special Shops 

Optical Shop 

Planning and Estimating 

Tool Crib 

Metal Storeroom 

Main Shop 

Sheet Metal and Welding Shops 

Howard M. Bloom 

Vacant 

Charles R. McLean 

Mark E. Luce 

Cita M. Furlani 

Dr. Selden L. Stewart 

Dr. Theodore H. Hopp 

Adrian W. Moll 

Charles Summers 

Sherman Reeder 

Jeffrey Kelley 

Sherman Reeder 

Sherman Reeder 

Kenneth Wiltshire 

Kenneth Wiltshire 

Kenneth Wiltshire 

Jeffrey Kelley 

Jeffrey Kelley 

830 Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory 

Director 

Deputy Director for Operations 

Deputy Director for Programs 

Associate Director for Boulder Operations 

Senior Management Advisor 

831 Biotechnology Division 

Chief 

Biochemical Measurements 

Biophysical Measurements 

Advanced Research in Biotechnology 

832 Chemical Engineering Division, Boulder 

Chief 

Transport Processes 

Systems Dynamics 

Properties of Solids 

833 Chemical Kinetics and Thermodynamics Division 

Chief 

Experimental Chemical Kinetics 

Reference Data Centers 

Chemical Thermodynamics 

834 Inorganic Analytical Research Division 

Chief 

Analytical Mass Spectrometry 

Electroanalytical Research 

Atomic and Molecular Spectrometry 

Nuclear Methods 

981 

Dr. Harry S. Hertz 

Barry I. Diamondstone 

Dr. Ruth A. Haines 

Dr. James F. Ely 

Robert F. Martin 

Dr. Lura J. Powell 

Dr. Dennis J. Reeder 

Dr. Stanley Abramowitz 

Dr. Walter J. Stevens 

Lawrence L. Sparks 

Dr. Michael C. Jones 

James A. Brennan 

Dr. Ray Radebaugh 

Dr. Sharon Lias 

Dr. Pierre J. Ausloos 

Dr. John T. Herron 

Dr. Eugene S. Domalski 

Dr. James R. DeVoe 

Dr. John D. Fassett 

Dr. Howard M. Kingston 

Dr. John C. Travis, Acting 

Dr. Robert R. Greenberg 
835 Organic Analytical Research Division 

Chief 

Analytical Sensors and Automation 

Gas Metrology Research 

Organic Mass Spectrometry 

Separation Science 

836 Process Measurements Division 

Chief 

Fluid Flow 

High Temperature Processes 

Reacting Flows 

Process Sensing 

Thermometry 

837 Surface and Microanalysis Science Division 

Chief 

Atmospheric Chemistry 

Microanalysis Research 

Surface Dynamical Processes 

Surface Spectroscopies and Standards 

838 Thermophysics Division, Gaithersburg and Boulder 

Chief 

Theory of Fluids 

Properties of Fluids 

Fluid Science 

Pressure 

Vacuum 

Subsecond Thermophysics 

840 Physics Laboratory 

Dr. Willie E. May 

Dr. William A. MacCrehan 

William D. Dorko 

Dr. Michael J. Welch 

Dr. Stephen A. Wise 

Dr. Hratch G. Semerjian 

Dr. George E. Mattingly 

Dr. Andrej Macek 

Dr. Gregory J. Rosasco 

Dr. James R. Whetstone 

Dr. Billy W. Mangum 

Dr. Rance A. Velapoldi 

Dr. Lloyd A. Cume 

Dr. Dale E. Newbury 

Dr. Richard Cavanagh 

Dr. Cedric Powell 

Dr. Richard F. Kayser 

Dr. James F. Ely 

Dr. William M. Haynes 

Dr. Michael R. Moldover 

Dr. Charles D. Ehrlich 

Dr. Charles R. Tilford 

Dr. Ared Cezairliyan 

Director 

Deputy Director 

841 Electron and Optical Physics Division 

Chief 

Photon Physics 

Far Ultraviolet Physics 

Electron Physics 

842 Atomic Physics Division 

Chief 

Atomic Spectroscopy 

Atomic Radiation Data 

Plasma Radiation 

Laser Cooled and Trapped Atoms 

843 Molecular Physics Division 

Chief 

High Resolution Spectroscopy 

Molecular Dynamics 

Molecular Theory 

982 

Dr. Katherine B. Gebbie 

Dr. William R. Ott 

Dr. Charles W. Clark 

Dr. Thomas B. Lucatorto 

Dr. Robert P. Madden 

Dr. Robert J. Celotta 

Dr. Wolfgang L. Wiese 

Dr. William C. Martin 

Dr. Yong-Ki Kim 

Dr. James R. Roberts 

Dr. William D. Phillips 

Dr. Alfons Weber 

Dr. Alfons Weber 

Dr. Alfons Weber 

Dr. Alfons Weber 
844 Radiometric Physics Division 

Chief 

Spectral Radiometry 

Spectrophotometry 

Thermal Radiometry 

845 Quantum Metrology Division 

Chief 

X-Ray Spectroscopy 

Synchrotron X-Ray Physics 

846 Ionizing Radiation Division 

Chief 

Radiation Measurements 

Radiation Interactions and Dosimetry 

Neutron Interactions and Dosimetry 

Radioactivity 

847 Time and Frequency Division, Boulder 

Chief 

Fort Collins Station 

Hawaii Station 

Ion Storage 

Atomic Beam Standards 

Phase Noise Measurements 

Time and Frequency Services 

Time Scale and Coordination 

Laser Spectroscopy 

Geophysical Measurements 

Optical Frequency Measurements 

848 Quantum Physics Division, Boulder 

Chief 

Fundamental and Precision Measurements 

Chemical Physics 

Atomic and Molecular Collisions 

Astrophysics Measurements 

849 Radiation Source and Instrumentation Division 

Chief 

Accelerator Research 

Free-Electron Laser Development 

Electronics Instrumentation 

Mechanical Instrumentation 

Dr. Klaus D. Mielenz 

Dr. Albert C. Parr 

Dr. Jack J. Hsia 

Robert D. Saunders 

Dr. Richard D. Deslattes 

Dr. Richard D. Deslattes 

Dr. Richard D. Deslattes 

Dr. Randall S. Caswell 

Dr. Bert M. Coursey, Acting 

Dr. Bert M. Coursey 

Dr. James A. Grundl 

Dr. Dale D. Hoppes 

Dr. Donald B. Sullivan 

James C. Maxton 

Noboru Hironaki 

Dr. David J. Wineland 

Dr. Robert E. Drullinger 

Dr. Fred L. Walls 

D. Wayne Hanson 

David W. Allan 

Dr. Kenneth M. Evenson 

Dr. Judah Levine 

Dr. Leo Holberg 

Dr. David W. Norcross 

Dr. David W. Norcross 

Dr. David W. Norcross 

Dr. David W. Norcross 

Dr. David W. Norcross 

Dr. Philip H. Debenham 

Dr. Mark A. Wilson 

Dr. Ronald G. Johnson 

Julian K. Whittaker 

David L. Mohr 

850 Materials Science and Engineering Laboratory 

Director 

Deputy Director 

Scientific Advisors to the Director 

983 

Dr. Lyle H. Schwartz 

Dr. Harry L. Rook 

Dr. Daniel B. Butrymowicz 

Dr. James G. Early 

Samuel J. Schneider 

Dr. Bruce W. Steiner 
851 Office of Nondestructive Evaluation 

Chief Dr. H. Thomas Yolken 

852 Ceramics Division 

Chief Dr. Stephen M. Hsu 

Powder Synthesis and Characterization Dr. Subhaschandra G. Malghan 

Mechanical Properties Dr. David C. Cranmer 

Tribology Dr. Said Jahanmir 

Electronic Materials Dr. Stephen Freiman 

Optical Materials Dr. Albert Feldman 

Materials Microstructural Characterization Dr. Gabnelle G. Long 

853 Materials Reliability Division, Boulder 

Chief Dr. Harry I. McHenry 

Cryogenic Materials Dr. Harry I. McHenry, Acting 

Nondestructive Evaluation Dr. Alfred V. Clark 

Welding Dr. Thomas A. Siewart 

854 Polymers Division 

Chief Dr. Leslie E. Smith 

Specialty Polymers Dr. G. Thomas Davis 

Chemical Performance Dr. Francis W. Wang 

Mechanical Performance Dr. Bruno M. Fanconi 

Polymer Composites Dr. Donald L. Hunston 

Polymer Blends and Solutions Dr. Charles C. Han 

Dental and Medical Materials Dr. John A. Tesk 

855 Metallurgy Division 

Chief Dr. E. Neville Pugh 

Magnetic Materials Dr. Lawrence H. Bennett 

Metallurgical Processing Dr. John R. Manning 

High-Temperature Materials Chemistry Dr. John W. Hastie 

Mechanical Properties and Performance Dr. Leonard Mordfin 

Corrosion Dr. Richard E. Ricker 

Electrodeposition Dr. David S. Lashmore 

Metallurgical Sensing and Modeling Dr. H. Thomas Yolken, Acting 

856 Reactor Radiation Division 

Chief Dr. J. Michael Rowe 

Reactor Operations and Engineering Tawfik M. Raby 

Neutron-Condensed Matter Science Dr. John J. Rush 

Cold Neutron Project Dr. J. Michael Rowe 

860 Building and Fire Research Laboratory 

Director Dr. Richard N. Wright 

Deputy Director Dr. Jack E. Snell 

Assistant Director James G. Gross 

Office of Technology Transfer Richard W. Bukowski 

984 
861 Structures Division 

Chief 

Structural Evaluation 

Earthquake Engineering 

Dr. Hal S. Lew 

Dr. Hai S. Lew 

Dr. Hai S. Lew 

862 Building Materials Division 

Chief 

Organic Building Materials 

Inorganic Building Materials 

Construction Materials Reference Laboratories 

863 Building Environment Division 

Chief 

Thermal Machinery 

Mechanical Systems and Controls 

Heat Transfer 

Computer Integrated Construction 

Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation 

Lighting 

Dr. Geoffrey J. Frohnsdorff 

Lawrence W. Masters 

Dr. James R. Clifton 

James H. Pielert 

Dr. James E. Hill 

Dr. David A. Didion 

Dr. George E. Kelly 

Dr. A. Hunter Fanney 

Dr. Kent A. Reed 

Dr. Andrew K. Persily 

Dr. Belinda L. Collins 

864 Fire Science and Engineering Division 

Chief 

Building Fire Physics 

Combustion and Flammability 

Fire Dynamics 

865 Fire Measurement and Research Division 

Chief 

Smoke Dynamics Research 

Fire Toxicity Measurement 

Fire Hazard Analysis 

Fire Suppression Research 

870 Computer Systems Laboratory 

Dr. Andrew J. Fowell 

Dr. John H. Klote 

Dr. Takashi Kashiwagi 

Dr. Henri E. Mitler 

Dr. Richard G. Gann 

Dr. William M. Pitts 

Dr. Vytenis Babrauskas 

Dr. Walter W. Jones 

Dr. David D. Evans 

Director 

Associate Director for Computer Security 

Voluntary Standards Liaison 

Program Coordination and Support 

Standards Processing Coordinator 

Senior Management Advisor 

871 Information Systems Engineering Division 

Chief 

Database and Graphics 

Data Administration 

Graphics Software 

Software Standards Validation 

872 Systems and Software Technology Division 

Chief 

Software Engineering 

Office Systems Engineering 

985 

James H. Burrows 

F. Lynn McNulty 

Robert Rountree, Jr. 

Shirley M. Radack 

Barbara L. Blickenstaff 

Judith L. Lyons 

Dr. David K. Jefferson 

Joseph C. Collica 

Bruce K. Rosen 

Mark W. Skall 

L. Arnold Johnson 

Allen L. Hankinson 

Roger J. Martin 

Lawrence A. Welsch 
873 Computer Security Division 

Chief 

Computer Security Management and Evaluation 

Security Technology 

Protocol Security 

Computer Security Planning and Assistance 

874 Systems and Network Architecture Division 

Chief 

Network Applications 

Automated Protocol Methods 

Network Management 

Network Protocols 

875 Advanced Systems Division 

Chief 

Speech Recognition 

Parallel Processing 

Data Storage 

Distributed Systems 

Image Recognition 

Advanced Communications 

Dr. Stuart W. Katske 

Dennis D. Steinauer 

Miles E. Smid 

Robert Rosenthal 

Eugene F. Troy 

Kevin L. Mills 

Gerard F. Mulvenna 

Kevin L. Mills, Acting 

Frances H. Nielsen 

Richard P. Colella 

Shukri A. Wakid 

David S. Pallett 

Robert J. Carpenter 

Dana S. Grubb 

Wayne McCoy 

Dr. Charles L. Wilson 

David H. Su 

880 Computing and Applied Mathematics Laboratory 

Director 

Deputy Director 

Assistant Director for Boulder 

Associate Director for Computing 

Assistant Director for Management Information Technology 

Office of Applied Economics 

881 Applied and Computational Mathematics Division 

Chief 

Mathematical Modeling and Software-Gaithersburg 

Mathematical Modeling and Software-Boulder 

Microprocessor 

Numerical Optimization 

882 Statistical Engineering Division 

Chief 

Statistical Engineering-Boulder 

986 

Dr. Francis E. Sullivan 

Dr. Joan R. Rosenblatt 

Dr. John A. Brown 

Dr. Frederick C. Johnson 

Dr. Alvin H. Sher 

Dr. Harold E. Marshall 

Dr. Paul T. Boggs 

Dr. James L. Blue 

Dr. John M. Gary 

Dr. David K. Kahaner, Acting 

Dr. Paul 1. Boggs 

Dr. Robert J. Lundegard 

Dr. Dominic F. Vecchia 
883 Scientific Computing Environments Division 

Chief 

User and Software Support 

Advanced Distributed Computing Systems 

Scientific Visualization 

884 Computer Services Division 

Chief 

Assistant Chief for Boulder Operations 

Gaithersburg Operations 

Communications and Engineering 

Scientific Systems Software 

Technical Services 

User Service and Systems Support-Boulder 

885 Computer Systems and Communications Division 

Chief 

Network Engineering-Gaithersburg 

Telecommunications-Gaithersburg 

Network Engineering-Boulder 

Telecommunications-Boulder 

886 Information Systems Division 

Chief 

PC Assistance and Maintenance 

User Information and Database 

Systems Design and Programming 

*** 

987 

Dr. Sally E. Howe 

Dr. Sally E. Howe, Acting 

Robert J. Crosson 

Dr. Howland A. Fowler 

Martin R. Shaver 

Robert Wang 

Paul M. Johnson 

Jack L. Newmeyer 

John A. Coffey 

George A. Dines 

Mary E. McClanahan 

Stephen White 

Craig W. Hunt 

Lawrence J. Loveland 

F. Michael Maish 

Judith V. Sorg 

Patsy B. Saunders 

Patsy B. Saunders 

Robert Lee 

Gordon B. Gipe 
INDEX 

This index is arranged word by word. Letters and numbers are sorted up to the end of the first word or 

comma, and then stop. All other characters are sorted as a space. The second and following words are sorted 

only when two or more entries begin with the same word. Bold page numbers indicate photographs. 

A 

Abramowitz, Milton, 285 

Abramowitz, Stanley, 93, 96 

Abrishamian, Azizollah, 625 

Achenbach, Paul R., 392, 414 

Accounting Division, 75 

acid rain, 406 

Acoustical Engineering, 454 

acoustics, 89, 375, 411 

acoustic thermometry, 708 

activation analysis, 116 

Acquista, Nicolo, 93 

Adler, Jonathan, 350 

Administrative Services Division, 75 

Boulder, 100 

air traffic modeling, 287 

Alaskan pipeline, 563 

Albus, James S., 621, 622 photo, 684 

Allan, David, 57, 104, 105, 735 

Alired, C. McKay, 101, 102 

Alpenn, Harvey A., 468 

Alt, Franz L., 81 alternative fuels, 417, 421 

Altschuler, Helmut M., 102 

Alvarez, Luis W., 264 

Ambler, Ernest, 207, 344, 398, 450, 459, 620, 635 

acting director, NBS, 441, 449-457 

biography 50, 449 

director, National Bureau of Standards, 

458-479 

energy crisis, 458 

executive board, 170 

ERPI agreement, 462 

oversight hearings, 194, 463 

reorganization, 452-457 

research, 93 

Advanced Technology Program, 632-633, 656-660 

advisory committees, 60 

AD-X2 battery additive, 17, 27-29 

Astin remembers, 157 

aerodynamics laboratory, 230 

aerosols, 407, 579 

air pollution, 406, 579 

Ambrose, John R., 405 

American Chemical Society, 262 

first annual Calorimetry Conference, 486-488 

American Dental Association (ADA), 55 1-552 

American Iron and Steel Institute, 516 

American Metrological Society, 8 American Society for Heating, Refrigeration, and 

Air-Conditioning Engineering, 509 

American Society for Testing and Materials, 292, 

395, 499, 547 

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 412 

American Trucking Association, 409 

Analytical Chemistry Division, 113-117, 255, 262, 

390 

Anderson, William, 419 

anomalous water, "polywater," 249, 253 

antenna measurements, 674-675 

Antonucci, Joseph M., 552 

Anzenberger, Michael, 778 

Applied Mathematics Division, 80, 284, 286, 390 

Applied Radiation Division, 145, 297-298 

Apollo missions, 23 1-242 

argon-krypton ion laser, 580 

Armstrong, George T., 127, 413, 490 

Arthur S. Hemming Award, 165, 576 

arson, 517 

assembly language, 138 

Associate Director of NBS for Programs, 170 

Astin, Allen, 

AD X2 affair, 27-29 

awards, 57, 147 

career, 147-149 

director, National Bureau of Standards, 25-29, 

26, 41, 243 

editorial policy, 65 

EEO policy, 52-53 

metric system, 206 

retirement, 147-149 

Atkinson, George H., 426 

atomic beams, 584 

Atomic Energy Commission, 35, 292 

Atomic Physics Division, 97, 161, 720 

989 
atomic spectroscopy, 97, 721 

ATS-3 satellite, 310 

Ausloos, Pierre J., 127, 482, 503, 560 

Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1981 and 1982, 

470 

Automated Manufacturing Research Facility, 607, 

62 1-624, 628, 681 

Automated Production Technology Division, 620, 

683 

Automated Test Facility, 589 

automobile safety, 268-273 

automatic data acquisition, 116 

automatic test equipment, 527 

awards in 1968, 55-59 

Ayres, T. R., 401 

B 

Babrauskas, Vytenis, 499, 500, 505 

Bagwill, Robert, 776 

Bain, Robert F., 52 

Baird, Paul G., 264 

Baker, William 0., 458 

Baldrige, Malcolm, Jr., 447 

Baldrige Quality Award, 474, 653, 661 

Ballard, David B., 241, 256, 256 

Barbera, Anthony J., 621, 623, 625 

Barbrow, Louis E., 85, 209, 214 

Bardeen, John, member, White House Federal 

Lab. Review Panel, 466 

Barger, Richard L., 363, 365 

Barnes, 1. Lynus, 242, 481 

Barnes, James A., 104, 105, 382 

Bartlett, Richard P., Jr., 452 

Baruch, Jordan J., 463 

Bass, Arnold M., 387 

Bassin, Martin, 410 

Bateman, Blame R., 649 

Bates, A. Allan, 71, 392 

Bates, RogerG., 113, 116 

Bay, Zoltan, 369, 371 

Beal, Karma A., 17 Beam, Alfred E., 79 

Beaty, Earl C., 163, 164 

Becker, Donald A., 116, 603 

Beckett, Charles W., 67, 96, 289, 402, 489 

Beers, John S., 85 

Belanger, Brian C., 526 

Belecki, Norman B., 667, 668 

Bell, Karl E., 52, 178 

Bender, Peter, 163, 231, 164 

Benjamin, Irwin A., 226, 492, 504, 507 

Bennett, Herbert S., 295 

Bennett, Lawrence H., 296, 403, 406, 406, 563, 602 

Berger, Harry, 565, 566 

Berger, Martin J., 299 

Berning, David W., 589, 590 

Betts, Barton F., 100 

Biancaniello, Frank S., 576, 578 

Bigge, William R., 533 

biotechnology, 686-689 

bipolar power transistors, 570 

Birkhoff, Garrett, 458 

Birky, Merritt M., 492, 504 

Birmingham, Bascom, 37, 99, 170, 264 

blackouts, electrical, 417 

Block, Stanley, 287-289, 289, 600 

Blomquist, Donald S., 683 

body armor, 356 

Boettinger, William J., 567, 576 

Boggs, Paul T., 638, 781 

Bond, Marvin A., 650 

Borchardt, Bruce R., 618 

Boulder, CO, NBS Site, 34-40 

cryogenics laboratory, 37-38 

thermonuclear weaponry, 35-36 

Bowen, Ray, 551 

Bower, Vincent, 83 

Bowman House, 180-181 

Bowman, Charles D., 582 

Bowman, Horace A., 381 

Boyd, Marjorie E., 92 

Boyne, Harold 5., 100, 587 

Brady, Edward, 52, 66, 76, 170, 326, 344 

Bragaw, Charles L., 17, 100 

990 

Branscomb, Lewis McAdory, 158, 164 

acting chief, Atomic Physics Section, 160 

awards, 57 

biography, 158-198 

chairman, JILA, 163 

director, National Bureau of Standards, 

166-203 

influence on NBS, 202-203 

Laboratory Astrophysics Division, 105 

research, 106, 158-160 

resignation, 201-202, 324-325 

technology development, 617 

Brauer, Gerhard, 552 

Braun, Emil, 504 

Braun, Walter, 128, 560 

Bray, Steven L., 602 

Brennan, James, 265 

Brickwedde, Ferdinand G., 37, 264, 488 

Bridges, J. Mervyn, 308 

Briggs, Lyman J. 

director, National Bureau of Standards, 21-23, 

22, 41 

/ 
Bright, Richard G., 492 

Broadhurst, Martin, 118, 571 

Broida, Herbert P., 100, 258, 370 

Brooks Act (Public Law 89-306), 273 

Brown, Frank P., 73 

Brown, George E., Jr., Congressman, 398, 464 

Brown, Paul, 548 

Brown, Paul J., 130, 266 

Brown, Walter, 552 

Budget Division, 75, 182 

budget hearings, 182-187 

budgeting methods, 60-64, 195 

Budnick, Edward K., 522 

Buehler, M. 0., 589 

Building Environments Division, 764 

Building and Fire Research Laboratory, 648, 

757-772 

Building Materials Division, 762 

Building Research Division, I 12, 132, 280-282 

Building Science Series, 392 

Building Technology Division, 392 

Bukowski, Richard W., 507 

Bulick, Charles, 549 

Bullis, W. Murray, 135, 437 

Burdette, Harold E., 567 

Burgess, George Kimball 

director, National Bureau of Standards, 19-21, 

19, 20 

burn experiments, 225 

Burrows, James H., 456, 472 

Bush, President George H. W., 446, 641-642 

C 

Cahn, John W., 576-577, 578 

Cali, J. Paul, 390, 483 

calibration services, 100, 102, 104, 124, 141 Callanan, Jane E., 490 

calorimetry, 127, 225, 383, 486-490 

Calorimetry Conference, 486-488 

CAMAC, 437 

Cameron, Joseph M., 76, 80, 84, 86 

Cannon, Edward W., 80 

capacitance, 84 

carbon-filament lamp, 94 

Carino, Nicholas, 546-547, 758, 763 

Carpenter, B. Stephen, 242, 581-582, 638 

Carpenter, Robert J., 591 

Carroll, C. Leon, 381 

Carter, James E., President, 444-446 

Carter, Robert S., 142, 243, 244, 243, 244 

Carver,. Gary, 589 

Casella, Russell C., 602 

991 

Case, W. E., 594 

Cassatt, Wayne A., 579 

Cassel, James M., 556 

Cassidy, Esther, 96, 177, 3t6, 343, 398, 458 

Caswell, Randall S., 730 

Cataland, George, 92 

Catanzaro, Edward J., 115 

Celotta, Robert J., 559, 717-7 18 Center for Absolute Physical Quantities, 455 

Center for Advanced Research in Biotechnology, 

687-689 

Center for Analytical Chemistry, 455 

Center for Applied Mathematics, 456, 781 

Center for Building Technology, 392, 414, 454, 

456, 542-549 

Center for Chemical Engineering, 454 

Center for Chemical Physics, 456, 503 

Center for Computer Sciences and Technology, 

136, 175 

Center for Consumer Product Technology, 454 

Center for Electronics and Electrical Engineering, 

454, 590 

Center for Fire Research, 341, 352, 453, 456, 491, 

507 

Center for Manufacturing Engineering, 454 

Center for Materials Science, 455 

Center for Mechanical Engineering and Process 

Technology, 454 

Center for Radiation Research, 44, 50, 139, 173, 

297-300, 455 

Central Radio Propagation Laboratory (CRPL), 34, 

48 

ceramics, 126, 362, 384, 743 

Cezairliyan, Ared, 97, 289, 290, 535 

Chabay, Ilan, 500, 502 

Chamberlain, George, 163, 164, 588 

Chapman, Arthur, 245 

Chelton, Dudley, 37, 107, 108, 264 

chemical constants, 116 

chemical kinetics, 692-694 

Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory, 

647, 686-7 16 child care program, 181 Childs, Gregory E., 107 

Chu, Steven, 584 

Churney, Kenneth, 413, 307 

chlorofluorocarbons, 559 

Clark, Alan F., 555 

Clark, Charles W., 717 

Clark, Joseph E., 493-494 

Clark, Roy •E., 209 

Clarke, Frederic B., 504 

Clean Air Act of 1965, 2 
Clean Air Act, Amendments of 1977, 470 cooled ions, 583 

Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966, 2 Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical 

Information, 33, 130, 174 

Clifton, James R., 548 

clinical chemistry standards, 388 

Clinton, William J., President, 656 

closed captioning, 577 

Coates, Clarence N., 57 

Cochrane, Rexmond C., 16 Codling, Keith, 98 

Cohen-Tannoudji, Claude, 584 

Cold Neutron Research Facility, 584 

Collard, Jared J., 354 

Collier, Ivy M., 243 

Collins, R. E., 571 

color, 87 

Colvin, Burton H., 469 

CoIwell, Jack H., 92, .93, 559 

Coiwell, Rita R., 559, 560 

combustibility, 504, 511 

Commerce Science and Technology Fellowship, 

235 

Committee on Data for Science and Technology 

(CODATA), 369, 374 

Committee on Thermal Data for the Chemical 

Industry, 486 

Committee on Un-American Activities, 25, 153 

communications equipment, 354 

Compressed Gas Association, 264 

Compton, W. Dale, 464 

computer aided design (CAD), 592 

Computer Sciences Division, 138, 431 

computer security, 774-775 

Computer Systems Laboratory, 772-780 

Computing and Applied Mathematics Laboratory, 

780-783 

Condon, Edward Uhler 

Applied Mathematics Division, 80 

director, National Bureau of Standards, 

23-25, 24 

Handbook of Physics, 87 

Cones, Harold N., 316 

Congressional Oversight Hearings, 1971, 189-200 

Congressional Research Service, 190 

Congressional reviews, 1959-1968, 190 

Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), 

340, 498 

consumer protection, 266.273, 402-413 

contact resistance, 591 

Convention of the Meter, 376-379 

Cook, A. R., 595 

Cook, Herbert D., 87 

992 

Corliss, Charles H., 97-98 

Cornog, June R., 210 

Coriell, Samuel R., 12!, 576 

corrosion, 121, 358-360, 563 

Corruccini, Robert J., 107 

Costrell, Louis, 57, 437 

Council for Optical Radiation Measurements, 427 

Cram, Stuart, 563, 565 

Cramp, Philip A., 418 

Crebs, Albert W., 245 

Crigler, Albert, 594 

Crissman, John M., 572 

critical behavior of gases, 386-387 

Crombie, Douglas D., 66 

Cromer, Chris L., 727 

cryogenic apparatus design, 109 

cryogenic fluid flow, 109, 691 

cryogenic fluids, 37, 264 

cryogenic physics, 92 

Cryogenic Data Center, 107 

Cryogenics Division, 107 

Cryogenics Laboratory 

Boulder, 37-38, 264-265 

Washington, 37 

crystal studies, 117, 121, 124, 287-289, 570 

response to shock waves, 429 

Cullen, William C., 57, 392 

Curl, R. F., Jr., 372 

Curry, Lloyd A., 116, 390 

Cushen, Walter E., 136 

Cuthill, John R., 57, 294, 295 

Cutkosky, Robert D., 57, 84, 535, 537 

D 

Daney, David E., 108 

Danielson, Bruce L., 363, 365, 588 

data centers, 79, 145 

data compilations, 77, 135 

data encryption, 434 

data retrieval, 81 David, Richard M., 58 

Davis, Dicky D., 309, 577 

Davis, 0. Thomas, 570-571 

Davis, Harry A., 559 

Davis Richard s., 83 

Davis, Ruth M., 175, 194, 344 

Day, Gordon, 588, 595, 363, 365 

Daywitt, William C., 537 

deep-ocean sampler, 559 

Deming, W. Edwards, 474 

density, 375, 381 
dental research, 120, 301-303, 551-552 

Department of Energy, 549 

DeReggi, Aime S., 566, 571 

Deslattes, Richard D., 97, 98, 728 

Dc Simone, Daniel, 130, 209-220 

detector development in Reactor Radiation, 144 

Detector Response Intercompanson and Transfer 

(DRIT), 597 

Devey, 0. B., 553 

DeVoe, James R., 57, 113, 116, 390, 695 

Dewey, Harry J., 480 

Diamond, Jacob J., 267 

Dickson, George, 301 

Didion, David A., 421 

differential micrometer, 580 

Dikkers, Robert D., 281 

Dillard, George, 49 

DiMarzio, Edmund A., 300, 304 

dimethyl sulfone diimine, 246 

dioxirane, 562 

Diplomatic Conference on the Meter, 1875, 9 

Dobbyn, Ronald C., 356 

Domalski, Eugene S., 127, 413, 490, 605 

Domsitz, Myron G., 135 

Douglas, Charles A., 85, 94 

Douglas, Thomas B., 96, 402 

Dowd, Ellen M., 649 

Dunfee, Bernadine L., 317 

Dunn, Gordon H., 163 

Dziuba, Ronald F., 83, 317, 530 

E 

Earl, William L., 501 

Earth Terminal Measurement System (EMTS), 536 

Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977, 470 

earthquakes, 280-282, 519, 544 

Eberhard, John P., 397 

Eckerle, Kenneth L., 423 

Edelman, Seymour, 566, 571 

Ederer, David L., 98, 303 

Edmonds, John R., 67 

Edsinger, Robert E., 532 

Edward Bennett Rosa Award, 59 

Ehrlich, Charles, 715 

Ehrstein, James R., 438 

Eicke, Woodward G., 84 

Eisenhart, Churchill, 80 

Eisenhower, Dwight David, President, 28, 153 

Ekin, Jack W., 601-602, 679 

Elbourn, Robert, 287 

electric charge, 83 

993 

electric fields, 316 

electrical currents, stabilization of, 671 

Electricity Division, 82 

Electric Power Research Institute, 462 

electrochemical cell calibrations, 667 

Electromagnetics Division, 354 

electromagnetic studies, 101, 103, 375, 540 

Electromagnetic Technology Division, 235, 291 

electromagnetic units, 382 

Electron and Optical Physics Division, 717-720 

Electron Devices Division, 454 

electron interactions and detection, 146 

electron microprobe, 241, 254-255 

electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis, 254 

Electron Stimulated Desorption Ion Angular 

Distributions, 575 

electron tunneling, 575 

electronic devices, 439 

etectronic printing, 138 

Electronic Technology Division, 135, 235 

Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory, 

647, 666-68 I Electronics Industry Association, 588 

Electrosystems Division, 454 

Eliason, Lawrence K., 354 

Elmquist, R. E., 530 

energy crisis, 331, 413 

Energy Conservation and Production Act, 470 

Energy Policy and Conservation Act, 469, 603 

Energy Related Inventions, 606 

Energy Research and Development Administration, 345, 458 

engineering metrology, 85 

Engstrom, Elmer W., 60 

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and 

Automatic Computer), 467 

Environmental Design Research Division, 454 

Environmental Protection Act, 2 

Environmental Protection Agency, 173, 484 

Environmental Science Services Administration 

(ESSA), 49 

Equal Employment Opportunity, 52, 176-181 

equipment expenditure, 197 

ethylene, role in smog, 562 

Etz, Edgar 5., 579, 582 

Evans, A. G., 362 

Evans, David D., 520 

Evans, John P., 319 

Evans, William H., 413 

Evenson, Kenneth M., 100, 363, 364, 365 

excitable chemical species, 482 

Executive Board, 170 
executive branch reviews, 192 Experimental Technology Incentives Program 

(ETIP), 187, 227-229, 341, 348-350, 557 

Eyring, Henry, 458 

F 

Fabrication Technology Division, 456 

Falge, Raymond L., 354 

factory automation, 685 

Faller, James E., 231, 581 

Fanconi, Bruno, 649 

Fanney, A. Hunter, 564 

Fatiadi, Alexander J., 115 

Federal Bureau of Investigation, 324, 444 

Federal Communications Commission, 526 

Federal Conference on Commercial Applications 

of Superconductivity, 598 

Federal Council for Science and Technology, 430 

Federal Emergency Management Act, 471 

Federal Energy Administration, 414 

Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act, 341, 351, 

453, 470 

Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS), 

274, 593 

Federal Mine Safety and Health Amendments Act 

of 1977, 470 

Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard, 270 

Federal Trade Commission, 549 

Ferguson, Robert, 170 

field-emission microscopy, 122 

Filla, B. James, 60 

Filliben, James, 286, 390, 543 

fingerprint identification, 139 

tire data compilation, 521 

tire education. 510 

fire modeling, 521 

Fire Protection Engineering Handbook, 510 

Fire Research Information Service, 521 

Fire Research and Safety Act of 1968, 63, 222, 

225, 351 

fire-retardant, 505 

Fire Safety Engineering Division, 492, 507, 767 

fire science, 491-525, 769 

fire statistics, 522 

fire studies, 134, 22 1-227 

fiscal year, 461 

Fischer, Larry, 475 

Fitzgerald, Mary L., 621, 625 

Fivozinski, Sherman P., 586 

Flach, Donald R., 589 

flame spectroscopy, 257 

994 

flammability rate, 514 

flammability standards, 224, 498 

Flammable Fabrics Act, 63, 169, 222-225, 497 

Flanigan, Peter, 167 

Flemming Award, 165 576 

Fletcher, Donald G., 52 

flicker noise, 105 

flowmeters, 714 

Fluid Engineering Division, 454 

fluid flow, 90, 107, 109 

food contaminants, 482 

Food and Drug Administration, 390 

force measurement, 91, 236-241, 283-284, 375 

Ford, Gerald R., President, 

biography, 333-335 

economic problems, 442-444 

Vietnam War, 442 

FORTRAN, 434, 593 

forensic standards, 356 

Fowell, Andrew J.,513, 767 

Fowler, Howland A., 277 

Fowler, Joel B., 597 

Fox, Margaret R., 137 

Fraker, Anna C., 404 

Franklin, Alan D., 295 

Franklin, Philip J., 132 

Franzen, Douglas, 588 

Frederickson, Donald S., 466 

Frederikse, Hans P. R., 93, 420 

Freiman, Stephen, 649 

French, Judson C., 297, 647 

Freedom of Information Act, 599 

Freeman, David H., 113, 316 

Freeman, George A., 264 

free radicals, 424 

Frenkiel, Francois N., 90 

Frohnsdorff, Geoffrey J., 762 

Frolen, Lois J., 571 

fuel economy, 482 

Fuhr, Jeffrey R., 722 

fundamental constants, 374 

Fung, Francis C., 514 

Furukawa, George T., 78, 490, 533 

Fussell, william B., 427 

G 

Gadzuk, J. William, 424, 575, 576 

Gallagher, John S., 491 

Gaithersburg, MD, NBS Site, 40-47 

Gallawa, Robert, 588 

Gann, Richard G., 504, 769 
Gans, William L., 476 

Garfinkel, Samuel B., 57 

Garing, Herbert H., 58 

Gamer, Ernest L., 115, 242, 582 

Garrett, Donald A., 567 

Garvin, David, 79 

gas thermometry, 705 

Gaur, Umesh, 573 

Gebbie, Katharine B., 106, 234, 648 

Geist, Jon, 96, 425, 594 

Geltman, Sydney, 163, 164 

General Conference on Weights and Measures, 

104 

General Services Administration, 41 Gentilini, A. Victor, 71 

geological dating, 115 

Gevantman, Lewis H., 77 

Gifford, W. E., 37 

Gilliland, gary, 689 

Gilsinn, Judith, 286, 287 

Ginnings, Defoe C., 91, 595 

Gladden, Warren, 597 

Glasgow, Lois, 483 

Glaze, David J., 738 

Goddard Space Flight Center, 400 

Goddard, William F., 264 

Goldfarb Ronald, 602 

Goldman, Alan J., 80, 81 Goldman, David T., 77 

Goldstein, J. I., 241 

Goodrich, Loren F., 602, 680 

Goodwin, R. D., 409 

Gordon, George 5., 70 

Grace, J. Peter, 466 

graduate school program, 56 

Graham, Hylton, 75 

Gramlich, John W., 481 

Grant, Warren, 250-254, 252 

Gravatt, Cary, 407, 408 

gravimeter, 578 

gravity, 91 

Great Depression, 21 Green, Melville S., 91, 96, 386 

Greenberg, Joseph, 416 

Greenspan, Martin, 88 

Greer, Sandra C., 389, 389 

Grosch, Herbert R. J., 136, 170 

Gross, Daniel, 492, 521 

Gross, James G., 416 

Gross, John L., 564 

Grundl, James A., 248 

guest workers, 53, 607 

Guildner, Leslie A., 321, 321, 532 

Haar, Lester, 78, 92, 491 

Hahn, Mahn Hee, 394 

half-life, 435 

Halford, Donald W., 104, 105 

Hall, John L., 106, 163, 164, 365, 538 

Hall, John T., 75 

Hall, L. A., 107-108 

Hamer, Walter J., 78, 82, 83 

Hamilton, Clark A., 595, 672 

Handbook of Fire Protection, 509 

Handbook of Mathematical Functions, 285 

Hankinson, Allen L., 774 

Hanks, Thomas, 545 

Hanley, Howard J. M., 107 

Harman, George G., 437 

harmonic generation, 372 

Harris, Forrest 82, 277, 317-3 18 Harris, William P., 120 

Harrison, Joseph 0., 137 

Hartman, Arie W., 574 

Hassler, Ferdinand, 5-8 

Hastie, John W., 499, 501 

Hatos, Stephen L., 210 

Hartzel,L.G.,5l4 

Hatwell, Roberta, 177 

Haynes, Len, 625 

Heat Division, 9 1-97, 425-429, 489-490, 594 

Heat and Power Division, 490 

heat transfer, 225 

Heinrich, Kurt F. J., 57, 115, 241, 254-255 

Hellwig, Helmut, 382 

Hembree, Gary G., 574 

Henley, Elizabeth L. M., 58 

Hermach, Francis L., 82, 83, 541, 542 

Herron, John T., 562 

Hertz, Harry S., 563-564, 647, 649 

Hester, James, 58 

Hewlett-Packard Co., 105, 254 

Heydemann, Peter L. M., 90 

Heyl, Paul R., 580 

Hicho, George E., 564 

Hieronymus, James, 780 

high-density plastics, 572 

High Polymer Physics Prize, 300 

High-Precision Measurement and Test Equipment 

Program, 526 

high-pressure studies, 287-288 

high-speed measurements, 96, 289-291 

high-temperature materials, 289-291 

high-voltage calibration service, 540 

Hill, James E., 395, 398, 421, 764 

H 

995 
Hillhouse, David L., 59! 

Hilsenrath, Joseph, 77, 79, 80 

Histories of NBS, 14 

Hirshfeld, Alan T., 24.8 Hocken, Robert J., 618, 620 

Hoer, Cletus A., 102 

Hoffman, James 1., 83 

Hoffman, John D. 

Director of IMR, 50, 110 

shares High-polymer Physics Prize, 300, 302, 

research, 570-57 1 Director of NML, 452 

Hogben, David, 79 

Holloman Air Force Base, 269 

Hollomon, J. Herbert, 204 

Honian, Donald N., 103 

Hogben, David, 475 

Hoppes, Dale, 462 

Hord, Jesse L., 456, 504 

Horton, Avery, 53, 178, 179, 354 

Hosler, William R., 93, 291, 420 

Houck, Allan M., 73 

Hougen, Jon T., 57, 372 

House Science and Technology Committee, 465 

Housing and Urban Development, Department of 

cooperation with, 172 

"Project Breakthrough," 282 

Houston, Jeanne M., 727 

Howe, Sally E., 638, 782 

Hsia, Jack J., 428 

Hsu, Stephen M., 743 

Hubble Space Telescope, 740 

Hudson, Ralph P., 91, 92, 293, 294 

Huff, Michael, 624 

Huffman, Hugh M., 486, 488 

Huggett, Clayton, 505 

Hughes, Ernest E., 69 

Huie, Robert E., 562 

humidity, 90 

Hummer, David 0., 106, 233, 401 

Humphrey, Hubert, 48 

Hunt, E. Howard, 323 

Huntoon, Robert D., 71, 170, 209, 375 

Hydro, John, Jr., 58 

hydrocarbons, 504 

hydrogen bubble chamber, 264 

hydroxide thermodynamics, 694 

Hyland, Richard, 715 

I 

ignition rate, 514 

incinerators, 412 

Information Processing Technology Division, 139 

Information Systems Engineering, 773 

information theory, 81 infrared thermography, 558 

Ingram, Glenn R., 469 

Initial Graphics Exchange Specification, 592 

inorganic analysis, 695 

Inorganic Materials Division, 124-126, 499 

Institute for Applied Technology (IAT), 50, 

129-130 176 

Institute for Basic Standards (IBS), 50, 76, 342 

Institute for Computer Science and Technology, 

433, 456-457, 459, 621 

Institute for Materials Research (IMR), 50, 110 

Institute for Numerical Analysis, 33 

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, 

541 

instrumentation, 134 

Instrument Shop, 175 

Instrument Shops Division, 73, 175 

Instrument Society of America, 541 

Interagency Transducer Project, 235 

International Association for the Properties of 

Steam, 491 

International Bureau of Time (BIH), 378 

International Bureau of Weights and Measures 

(BIPM), 10, 236 

International Committee for Weights and Measures 

(CIPM), 10 

International Conference on Low-Temperature 

Physics, 107 

International Conference on Precision Measurements and Fundamental Constants, 242 

International System of Units, 236 

international temperature scales, 92, 94, 3 18-320, 

531-535, 556, 701 

International Union of Pure and Applied 

Chemistry (IUPAC), 489 

inventors, 429 

ion exchange beads, 316 

ion exchange chromatography, 697 

ionizing radiation, 435, 730 

irradiation of foods, 142 

Irwin, Lafayette K., 88 

Isler, Marshall, 267 

344 

996 
isotopic characterization, 115, 256-257 

isotopic enrichment, 479 

Istvan, Edwin J., 228 

Itano, Wayne M., 737 

Iverson, Warren P., 259 

J 

Jackson, Richard H. F., 637 

Jacobs, Robert B., 37 

Jacox, Marilyn E., 258-259, 260 

Jason, Nora H., 521 

Jefferson, David K., 773 

Jennings, Donald A., 99, 100, 106, 307 

Jensen, Malcolm W., 57, 129 

Jerke, John M., 438 

Jesperson, James, 309, 577 

Johnson. Daniel P., 90 

Johnson, Donald R., 400, 475, 482, 624, 627, 657 

Johnson, Frederick C., 638 

Johnson, Lyndon, President, 151-152 

Johnson, Victor, 38, 107, 264 

Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics (JILA), 

33, 105, 160-165 

Jones, Janice Breedon, 570 

Jones, Walter W., 523 

Josephson, Brian, 276, 528, 669 

Josephson effect, 276-280 

Journal of Research of the National Bureau of 

Standards, 67 

Judd, Deane B., 87 

K 

Kalonji, Gretchen L., 576 

Kamas, George, 309, 577 

Kammer, Raymond G., 181, 467, 635 

advanced technology program, 646 

acting director, NIST, 634 

Kamper, Robert A., 278, 675 

Katzke, Stuart W., 774 

Kashiwagi, Takashi, 500, 505, 520 

Kayser, Richard F., 711 

Kearstey, Elliott A., 312-314, 313 

Kefover, George B., 75 

Kell, George S., 491 

Keller, Richard A., 480 

Kelley, Richard D., 261 

Kennedy, John, President, 151 Kenney, James, 571 

Kerman, Arthur K., 466 

Kerns, David M., 66 

Kessler, Herbert, 292 

997 

Kessler, Karl 0., 97, 99 

Khoury, Freddy A., 461, 572 

Kieffer, Lee J., 163, 164, 574 

Kilmer, Roger, 625 

Kilday, Martha, 383 

Kirby, R. Keith, 88 

Kirchoff, William H., 400 

Kirklin, Duane R,, 605 

Kirsch, Russell A., 81 Kiebanoff, Philip, 90, 539 

Klein, Max, 91, 559, 560 

Klein, Ralph, 261, 263 

Kiote, John H., 509 

Kneissi, Gerhart J., 95, 95 

Knox, George W., 75 

Kobal, Michael T., 410 

Koldewyn, William A., 579, 581 

Kotter, F. Ralph, 82 

Kostowski, Henry J., 57, 91, 598 

Kramer, Samuel, 392, 649 

Krasny, John, 499 

Krauss, Morris, 128 

Kreider, Kenneth G., 558 

Kreps, Juanita, 526 

Kropschot, Richard H., 107, 164 

Kruger, Jerome, 563 

Ku, Richard, 286 

Kullback, S., 81 Kuriyama, Masao, 567, 569 

Kurylo, Michael J., 560 

Kurtz, Richard, 600 

Kushner, Lawrence M., 50, 148, 285, 325-326 

Kusuda, Tamami, 393 

Kuyatt, Chris E., 559 

L 

laboratory accreditation, 664 

Laboratory Astrophysics Division, 105-106 

La Fleur, Philip D., 113 

Lamotte, Michel, 480 

Land and Water Act of 1964, 2 Landon, Harry H., 145, 243, 244 

Langley Research Center, NASA, 492 

Lantz, Harman L., 58 

Larsen, E. B., 540 

Larsen, Sigurd Y., 92 

laser calorimetry, 307 

laser Doppler anemometer (LDA), 539 

laser frequency, 366 

laser magnetic resonance, 371 

laser spectroscopy, 100 

laser stablization, 366 

laser technology, 100, 106, 306, 363, 407 
laser wavelength calibrations, 86, 368 

Laufer, A. H., 387 

Lau, Suk-fai, 573 

Lauritzen, John I., 118, 300-301, 301, 571 

Law Enforcement Assistance Administration 

(LEAA), 266 

Law Enforcement Standards Laboratory, 266-267, 

353-358 

Lawson, Randall, 512 

Lazar,JohnW.,6l8 

lead, isotopic standards (SRM 981, 982, 983), 112 

Leake, Steve, 625 

leap seconds, 314 

Ledbetter, Hassell M., 55, 600 

Lederer, Grace S., 58 

Lederer, Paul, 137 

Ledford, Albert E., 58, 485, 485 

Lee, Kang, 624 

Lee, Richard D., 94 

Lee, Siu Au, 538 

Leete, Charles 0., 357, 357 

Leiss, James E., 144, 173 

length metrology, 85 

Leone, Stephen R., 486 

Lesage, David, 457 

Lettieri, Thomas R., 574 

Levin, Barbara, 516 

Levin, Bernard M., 517 

Levin, Ernest M., 384, 385 

Levine, Judah, 373.374 

Levine, Robert S., 492 

Lew, Hai S., 281, 638, 757, 258 

Lewis, Ernest, Jr., 94 

Lewis, Jordan, 341, 349 

Leyendecker, Edgar V., 281, 545 

Lias, Sharon 0., 127, 482, 503, 692 

Library Division, 73 

Lide, David R., Jr., 59, 97, 400, 586-587 

Linac Radiation Division, 144, 297 

Lind, Michael A., 597 

line standards, 87 

Linsky, Jesse L., 401 

Lintens, Gregory T., 506 

Linzer, Melvin, 553 

liquid cryogens, 37-38, 264 

liquid sodium, 257 

liquefied natural gas (LNG), 619 

Lloyd, Edward C., 88 

load-cell mass comparator, 539 

local area networks (LAN), 593 

Long, William F., 659 

Lovas, Frank J., 562, 400 

Low, Samuel R., 240 

998 

low-velocity airflow facility, 539 

Lucatorto, Thomas B., 303 

lunar ranging, 230-233 

Lundegard, Robert J., 781 

Lunsford, Katherine S., 58 

Luther, Gabriel 0., 369, 370 

Lutz, George G., 369, 370 

Lyons, John W. 

biography, 643-645, 644 

oversight by National Research Council, 1992, 

653-655 

service prior to becoming Director, 341, 353, 

457, 469, 492, 624, 628 

taking charge as Director, 645-651 

M 

MacDonald, Rosemary A., 428, 429 

Machlan, Lawrence A., 582 

Mackay, Donald R., 129 

Mabie, Curtis, 552 

Madden, Robert P., 97, 98, 303, 611 

Madey, Theodore E., 574 

Madrzykowski, Daniel, 520 

magnetic resonance, use of lasers in, 370 

Magnetic Surfaces Laboratory, 274 

magnetoencephalography, 550-551 

magnetohydrodynamics, 419 

Mahler, Robert J., 100, 370 

Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award, 474 

Mallinger, Arnold J., 89, 237 

Management & Organizational Division, 75 

Mangan, Walter J., 419 

Mangum, Billy W., 92, 534, 556 

Mann, Douglas B., 107, 264 

Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory, 647 

Manufacturing Technology Centers, 662 

Marmenko, Ryna B., 174 

Mark, Egon, 574 

Markovitz, Paul, 778 

Marshak, Harvey, 58, 532-533 

Marshall, Richard D., 760 

Marshall Space Flight Center, 573 

Martin, John E., 595 

Martin, William C., 58, 97 

Martinez, Richard 1., 562 

Marton, Ladislaus L., 72 

Maruyama, Xavier K., 586 

Marvin, Robert 5., 88 

mass measurement, 86, 316, 380, 48! mass spectrometry, 489 

Massey, Robert G., 358 

Mason, Henry, 76 
materials properties, 95-96, 100-101, 107-108, 

123, 133-134, 287-291 

materials reliability, 746 

Materials Science and Engineering Laboratory, 

642, 741-756 

mathematical modeling, 286, 287 

matrix management, 51-52 

Mattis, Richard L., 438 

Maximon, Leonard C., 436 

Maxwell, Emanuel, 37 

May, Willie E., 564, 697 

Mayers, Susan B., 58 

McCamy, Calvin S., 85 

McCarter, Robert J., 505 

McCarthy, Joseph, 153 

McCarty, Robert D., 107 

McCoubrey, Arthur 0., 342, 344 

McCrackin, Frank L., 58 

McHenry, Harry I., 746 

McKenny, Keith, 690 

McKinney, John, 571 

McLinden, Mark, 713 

McMurdie, Howard F., 386, 386 

McNesby, James R., 126, 128, 172-173, 258 

McNish, Alvin, 207 

McSparron, Donald A., 426, 427 

Meadow, Charles T., 138 

measurement assurance programs, 606 

Measurement Engineering Division, 74 

measurement techniques, 103, 119, 135-136 

Measurements and Standards for Recycled Oil, 

603 

Measures for Air Quality, 172-173 

Mechanical Failures Prevention Group, 361 

Mechanical Processes Division, 454 

mechanical properties, 123 

Mechanics Division, 88 

Meggers, William F., 97-98, 98, 584 

Meinke, W. Wayne, 52, 57, 110, 113 

Melmed, Allan J., 122 

membrane diffusion, 714 

Menis, Oscar, 113, 257 

Menke, John, 475 

Menzer, James P., 75 

mercury monitor, 554 

metallurgy, 752 

Metallurgy Division, 121, 255 

Metcalf, Harold, 583 

Methods and Standards for Environmental 

Measurement, 459 

Metric Conversion Act of 1975, 469 

metric system, 8-10, 169, 206-220 

Metric System Study Act, 208 

999 

metrification, 206, 212 

Metrology Division, 85 

Meyerson, Melvin R., 56, 339 

Mexico City earthquake, 545 

Michalak, John L., 58 

microanalysis, 115, 241 

Microbeam Analysis Society, 708 

microcomputers, 431 

microfilm storage, 87 

microscopy, 254-256 

microscopy resolution test charts (SRM 1010), 113 

microwave attenuation, 104 

Mielczarek, Stanley R., 68, 559 

Mielenz, Klaus D., 86, 99, 423, 726 

Milligan, Dolphus E., 258-259, 261 

millimeter-wave devices, 675 

Mills, Kevin L., 777 

Mills, Robert, 267, 354 

minicomputers, 431 

Misakian, Martin, 540, 541 

mission of NBS, 195 

Mitchell, Richard A., 91 

mobile homes, 394 

Moldover, Michael R., 576 

molecular impurities, 579 

molecular physics, 723 

Molina, Mario, 560 

Molino, John A., 411 

molybdenum, 290-291 

Montgomery, 0. Franklin, 67, 74 

moon rocks, 241-242 

Moore-Sitterly, Charlotte E., 78, 97 

Mopsik, Fred, 571 

Moran, M. M., Jr., 372 

Morrison, Graham, 713 

Morrison, Richard B., 267 

Morse, Malcolm 5., 535 

Mössbauer Effect, 123 

Motz, Joseph W., 145 

Moulder, John L., 555 

Mountain, Raymond D., 96 

Muelhause, Carl 0., 50, 148, 174, 243 

Mulholland, George W., 508 

Mulvenna, Jerry, 778 

Murphy, Thomas J., 115, 421 

Mushroom Apparel Flammability Test, 498 

Muskie, Edmund, 152 

nanolithography, 674 

Nanzetta, Philip, 637 

Nashman, Marilyn, 621 

N 
National Academy of Engineering, 616 

National Academy of Sciences, 467, 553 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA), 108, 135, 231, 236, 409, 520, 526 

National Association of Dental Laboratories, 551 

National Bureau of Fire Prevention, 493 

National Bureau of Standards 

budget, 60-64, 182-187 

Directors, 17-29, 158-198, 335-348, 441-479 

facilities, 30-47 

field stations, 3 1-33 

histories, 14-17 

legilative authority, 3, 12, 14, 63, 469-471, 

614 

origin, 2-12 

organization & staffing, 48-60, 188, 472 

publications, 64-69 

responsibilities, 12-14 

signs of coming change, 1-2, 452-457, 477- 

479, 605 

transformed to NIST, 6 13-640 

National Cancer Institute, 403 

National Commission on Fire Prevention and 

Control, 226 

National Conference of States on Building Codes, 

283 

National Conference on Weights and Measures, 

459 

National Engineering Laboratory, 453, 626 

National Fire Protection Association, 515 

National Institute for Law Enforcement and 

Criminal Justice (NILECJ), 266 

National Institute of Occupational Safety and 

Health (NIOSH), 554 

National Institute of Standards and Technology, 

479, 6 15-640, 783-787 

National Institutes of Health, 513 

National Inventors Council (NIH), 430 

National Materials and Minerals Policy, Research, 

and Development Act of 1980, 471 

National Measurement Laboratory, 84, 453, 455 

National Measurement System, 375 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

526, 563 

National Physical Laboratory, England, 363 

National Radio Astronomy Observatory, 400 

National Science and Technology Policy, Organization, and Priorities Act of 1976, 470 

National Standard Reference Data Series 

(NSRDS), 78 

National Technical Information Service, 174- 175 

natural gas, 407, 421 

Naval Ordnance Laboratory, 247 

Naval Research Laboratory, 247 

1000 

Neill, Arthur H., 308, 308 

Nelson, Harold E., 492, 519 

networks, computer, 431 

Network Protocol Testing Facility, 457 

neutron cross sections, 144 

neutron diffraction, 246-248 

neutron penetration, 298 

Newell, Allen C., 649 

Newman, Morris, 80 

Newman, Sanford B., 131 Nichols, George C., 228 

Nigro, James P., 139 

Nimeroff, Isadore, 85, 88 

Nixon, Richard Milhous, 152-156, 323-324 - domestic policy, 155-156 

economic policy, 156, 330 

energy crisis, 331 

foreign policy, 154-155 

presidential message on science and technology, 333 

resignation, 328 

science funding, 332 

second term, 327 

Vietnam War, 151, 154, 329-330 

"Watergate," 323, 328 

Nobel Prize, 264, 584, 669 

Norcross, David W., 739 

Nordic Institute of Theoretical Atomic Physics, 

Copenhagen, 576 

Notarianni, Kathy A., 513 

nuclear explosions, 373 

nuclear orientation thermometry, 532 

nuclear physics, 434 

nuclear radiation, 375 

Nuclear Radiation Division, 145, 248, 298 

nuclear reactor, 243-248 

nucleon-field interactions, 145 

0 

Oberholizer, Betty L., 65 

observatories, 231 

O'Connell, James 5., 436 

Occupational Health and Safety Act, 2 Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 

394 

Odom, Jeffrey V., 210, 217 

Oettinger, Frank F., 673 

Office of Academic Liaison, 71 Office of Air and Water Management, 340 

Office of the Associate Director for Administration, 

50, 74 

Office of the Deputy Director, 72-73 

lBS-Boulder, 99 
Office of the Director, 70 

Office of Energy Conservation, 414 

Office of Emergency Preparedness, White House, 

281 

Office of Energy-Related Inventions (OERI), 340 

Office of Engineering Standards Liaison, 71 

Office of Engineering Standards Services, 129 

Office of Housing Technology, 416 

Office of Industrial Services, 70 

Office for Information Processing Standards, 137 

Office of Intelligent Processing of Materials, 742 

Office of International Relations, 72 

Office of Invention and Innovation, 130 

Office of Management and Budget, 464, 526 

Office of Measurement Services, 526 

Office of Naval Research, 467 

Office of Personnel Management, 465 

Office of Public Information, 71 Office of Program Development and Evaluation, 71 Office of Recycled Materials, 604 

Office of Standard Reference Data, 51, 75-80, 

173, 586 

Office of Standard Reference Materials, 50, 110- 

113, 173 

Office for Technical Information Exchange, 137 

Office of Technical Information and Publication, 

72 

Office of Vehicle Systems Research, 130 

Office of Weights and Measures, 5, 7, 130, 213 

Ogburn, Fielding, 121 O'Hare, Patrick A. G., 489 

oil disposal, 509 

Okabe, Hideo, 484, 487 

olefin reactions, 260 

Oliver, Frank W., 67 

Olsen, Karen, 776 

Olsen, P. Thomas, 277, 524 

Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act, 614— 637, 646 

Ono, Ronald H., 601 

OPEC (Oil Producing and Exporting Countries), 

331 

open house, 338, 458-459 

operating goals (Branscomb), 195 

optical fibers, 587 

optical properties, 94-96, 99 

Optical Physics Division, 248, 303-306, 400 

Optical Radiation 

calibration service, 376 

measurements, 425 

optics, 305, 375 

Organic Act, 12, 14, 473 

1001 

organic analysis, 697 

organizational charts, NBS, 70, 631 

oscillator strengths, 308 

Oser, Hans J., 58, 80 

Ott, William R., 55, 305, 420 

oversight hearings, 189-200, 463-465 

oxygen consumption, 505 

ozone layer, 559, 562 

P 

Paffenbarger, George, 302, 551 

Page, Chester H., 66, 82, 382 

Pallett, David 5., 780 

papers, light-sensitive standard (SRM bIb), 112 

paramagnetism, 293 

Parker, Robert L., 563 

Parker, Vivian, 413 

Parker, William, 505 

Parr, Albert C., 649 

Parsons, Douglas E., 392 

part-time employees, 53 

Passaglia, Elio, 17, 99, 112, 118, 303, 563 

Patent Advisor, 75 

Paulsen, Paul. J., 256 

Peacock, Richard D., 518 

Pearson, Cornelius, 58 

Peiser, H. Steffen, 72, 124, 481 

Pelander, Carl, 164 

Pellam, John R., 37, 258 

Penn, Richard T., 469 

Penn, Robert W., 312 

Penner, Samuel, 586 

performance standards, 282, 396 

Perlis, Alan, 458 

Pemll, R. 5., tOO Perry, John, 16 Persensky, Julius, 475 

Personnel Division, 75 

Petersen, F. Russell, 363, 365 

Petersen, Stephen R., 414 

Peterson, Robert L., 602, 680 

Peterson, Ruth L., 58 

Petersons, Oskars, 667 

petroleum, 421 

Pfrang, Edward 0., 392, 416 

Phan, Long T., 760 

phase diagrams, 384 

Phelan, Robert J., 595, 596 

Phillips, William D., 583-584, 585 

photodetachment, 106 

photodiodes, silicon, 597 

photodisintegration, 145 
photoelectric radiometer, 290 

photolysis, 127 

photometry, 375 

photon-proton scattering, 436 

photometry, 85 

Photonuclear Data Center, 145 Physical Chemistry Division, 126, 261 

Physics Laboratory, 648, 716-741 

Peirce, Charles, 5, 8 Pierce, Stephen J., 55 

Piermarini, Gasper J., 288, 600 

Piezoelectric translator, 580 

Pilione, Lawrence J., 582 

Pittman, Arthur, 58 

Pitts, William M., 511 

Plant Division, 75 

plasma, 698 

platinum, high-purity and doped SRM 680 and SRM 

681,112 

Platinum Resistance Thermometer Calibration 

Laboratory, 322 

platinum resistance thermometry, 319 

Plumb, Harmon H., 91, 92 

Plummer, E. Ward, 424, 575, 576 

polycrylic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), 503 

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), 504 

Polymers Division, 112, 117-12 1, 749 

polymer physics, 118, 300-303 

polyvinylchloride, 572 

polywater, 248-254 

Pontius, Paul, 85 

Porter, George R., 75 

Portland cement, surface area of (SRM 114L), 112 

Postdoctoral Research Associates program, 54-55, 

607 

potassium cyanide, 247 

Powell, Frank J., 550 

Powell, Lura J., 481, 686 

Powell, Robert L., 109, 264 

power measurement, 315 

power transistors, thermal impedence of, 439 

Prabhakar, Arati, 656 

Precision Measurement Grants, 242 

pressure, 90 

Preston, John, 271 

Prince, Edward, 246, 468 

Prodan, John V., 584 

Product Evaluation Division, 131 Programmatic Center for Consumer Product Safety, 

339 

Program Office, 170 

Program Planning and Budgeting. 51 Prosen, Edward, 383, 489 

prosthetic devices, 402, 556, 566 

1002 

proton gyromagnetic ratio, 524 

publications, 64-69 

Public Building Service, GSA, 282 

Pugh, E. Neville, 752 

Purtell, Patrick, 539 

Q 

quality control, 482 

quantum-based resistance standards, 670 

quantum electrodynamics, 524 

Quantum Elecronics Section, 106, 375, 490 

quantum metrology, 728 

Quantum Physics Division, 486, 739 

R 

Rabinow, Jacob, 339-340, 429-431, 432 

racial discrimination, 157, 178 

Radebaugh, Ray, 109,278 

radiance measurements, 705 

radiation detectors, 292 

radiation exposure standards, 435 

radiation, high-frequency, "Josephson," 280 

Radiation Physics Division, 161 radiation theory, 142 

radiation thermometry, 94, 535 

radioactive species, 435 

radio antennas, 536 

radioactivity doses, 297-298 

radionuclide metrology, 436 

Radio Standards Engineering Division, 102, 315 

Radio Standards Physics Division, lOO-10t 

radiolysis, 127 

radiometric physics, 94, 375, 425. 594, 726 

Radlinsky, Richard 270 

Ramsay, W. B., 138 

Ramsey, Norman, 60, 458 

Rasberry, Stanley D., 574 

Rasmussen, A. L., 101, 594 

reaction rate constants, 387 

reactive molecules, 258-262, 482 

Reactor Radiation Division, 142, 244, 754 

Reagan, Ronald W., President, 

biography, 446-448 

political record, 447 

Strategic Defense Initiative, 448 

Rebbert, Richard E., 127, 483, 560 

recreational activities, 59-60 

recycled oil program, 604 

Reed, William P., 582 

Reeder, Joseph, 98 

Reeve, Charles P., 618 
refrigerated trucks, cooling loads of, 133 

refuse derived fuel, 605 

Reilly, Martin L., 78, 413, 595 

Reimann, Curt, 474, 563, 646 

Reneker, Darrell H., 566 

reorganization of NBS, 452-457 

Research Associates, 54, 606 

resistance bridge, 535 

resistance standards, 527 

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976, 

470, 604 

Rhodes, Dallas, 272 

Richardson, Elliott, 458, 462 

Richmond, Joseph C., 95, 355 

Ries, Francis X., 540 

Rinkinen, William J., 515 

Ritter, Joseph J., 480 

rocket technology, 402 

Rockett, John, 351 

Robbins, David, 75 

Roberts, Richard William 

biography, 335, 336, 338, 343, 344, 398 

director, NBS, 326, 336 

energy agreement, 458 

executive board, 339 

impact on NBS, 347-348 

management style, 337-342 

resignation, 345-346 

Robertson, Alex, 227, 351, 505, 521 

Robinson, Butch, 74 

Robinson, Robert A., 116 

robot systems, 684 

Rockett, John A., 492 

Roder, Hans M., 107 

Roe, J. W., 582 

Rogers, John H., 102 

Romanoff, Melvin, 360 

Rosasco, Gregory J., 500, 579, 582, 650 

Rosenblatt, Joan, 80, 286, 650 

Rosenstock, Stephen A., 79 

Rosenthal, Robert A., 591 

Ross, Gaylon, 571 

Rossini, Frederick D., 413, 488-489 

Rossmassler, Stephen A., 77 

Roth, Steve, 571 

Roth, Robert, 600 

Rousseau, D. L., 253 

Rowe, J. Michael, 638, 754 

Rowen, John W., 505 

Rowland, Gene A., 392, 475 

Rowland, Sherwood, 560 

Ruegg, Fillmer W., 88 

Ruëgg, Rosalie T., 358 

Runyan, C. C., 555 

1003 

Ruff, Arthur W., 563 

Rupp, Nelson, 551 

Russell, Raymond, 237 

Ruthberg, Stanley, 88 

Rydberg Constant, 733 

Sanders, Dorian, 269 

Sansalone, Mary, 546 

Santoro, Robert J., 773 

S 

Saunders, James B., 306 

Saunders, Patsy B., 638 

Sauter, Hubert E., 130 

Sawyer, Charles, 25 

Sawyer, David E., 589, 590 

scanning electron microscope, 255-256 

scattering, 145 

Schaefer, A. Robert, 426, 427 

Schaefer, Robert J., 578 

Schaffer, Robert, 113, 338, 390 

Schafft, Harry A., 135, 438 

Scheaffer, Craig R., 28 

Scheer, Milton D., 261 

Schenck, Peter, 501 

Schiede, Eugene P., 554, 555 

Schima, Frank J., 248 

Schmidt, L. B., 594 

Schneider, Lawrence, 58 

Schneider, Samuel J., 419, 420 

Schooley, James F., 57, 91, 93, 278, 532 

Schoonover, Irl C., 70, 72-74, 243 

Schoonover, Randall M., 72, 381, 539 

Schrack, Roald A., 582 

Schramm, Raymond E., 748 

Schroder, Ivan G., 248, 582 

Schroeder, LeRoy W., 552 

Scire, Frederic E., 423-424 

Schwartz, Lyle H., 648, 742 

Scientific Computing Environments, 782 

Scott, Russell B., 37, 264,488 

Scnbner, Bourdon F., 113 

Scroger, Margaret G., 381 

Seamans, Robert C., 459 

Searles, Stuart K., 55 

seat belts, testing, 269 

security systems, 356 

Selby, Myron C., 103 

Selective Service System, 286 

Semerjian, Hratch 0., 649, 699, 773 

semiconductor measurements, 135-136, 291, 673 

Sengers, Jan V., 96, 387 

Sengers, Johanna M. H. L., 96, 388 

Shaver, Martin R., 456 
Sher, Alvin H., 438 

Shields, William R., 58, 113, 115 

Shives, T. Robert, 564 

Sher, Alvin H., 659 

Sherwood, Gerda B., 77 

Shih, Arnold, 263 

shock, 375 

shock tube studies, 489 

shock waves, 428 

Shuler, Kurt E., 57 

Siegwarth, James D., 59, 278 

silicon, 439 

Silverman, Shirleigh, 71 Simiu, Emil, 543 

Simpson, John Arol, 68, 97, 99, 618, 619, 647 

Siu, Chock In, 549, 550 

skid-resistance, 271 Skillington, James E., Jr., 75 

Smith, Bradford M., 592 

Smith, Gilbert W., 116 

Smith, John H., 564 

Smith, Larry, 245 

Smith, Leslie E., 749 

Smith, Richard L., 520 

Smith, Stephen J., 78, 106, 163 

smoke detectors, 507 

Smyth, Kermit, 503 

Snell, Jack, 414, 516 

Snyder, Wilbert F., 17, 58, 100 

sodium cyanide, 247 

soft x-ray spectrometer, 294 

Sokol, Joseph, Jr., 591 Solar Heating and Cooling Act of 1974, 629 

solar power, 395, 589 

solid state physics, 287 

Somes, Norman F.. 281 

soot formation, 503 

Sorrows, Howard E., 170-171, 344, 635 

Souder, Wilmer S., 301, 551 

Souders, T. Michael, 589 

Soulen. Robert J., 278 

sound, 409 

space beads, 573 

Space Science and Technology Panel, 170 

space shuttle, 506 

Sparks, Lawrence J., 109, 689 

Special Publication 300, 83, 91 Special Publication 400, 437-438 

spectrophotometry, 85, 375, 423 

spectroscopy, 489 

speed of light, 363, 368-370 

Spiegel, Valentine, Jr., 298, 299, 435 

spin-lattice relaxation, 125 sprinkler systems, 513 

Sproull, Robert, 60 

Sputnik I, 42 

stable lasers, 363 

staffing levels, 196 

Stair, Ralph, 94 

Standards Electronic Automatic Computer 

(SEAC), 273, 468 

59 

steel, 482 

Stegun, Irene A., 285 

Steiler, Robert D., 56, 210 

Stein, Philip G., 275 

Steiner, Bruce W., 427, 595 

stellar modeling, 401 

stellar properties, 106, 233, 400 

Stenbakken, Gerard N., 591 

Stevenson-Wydler Technology 

1980, 471 Stimson, Harold F., 571 

Stockbauer, Roger L., 600 

Stokowski, Stanley E., 55 

Stone, William C., 545 

stopping power, 146 

Strang. Arthur G., 85 

Stratton, Samuel Wesley 

director, National Bureau 

Stein, Philip G., 618 

stress-wave analysis, 546 

Stromberg, Robert R., 117, 250-254, 252 

Strouse, Kathleen, 625 

Structure and Materials Division, 391, 454 

structural disasters, 543-544 

Structures Division, 757 

Subcommittee on Science, Research, and 

Technology, 463 

Suenram, Richard D., 562, 650 112 

Standard Reference Data (SRD), 51, 606 

Standard Reference Data Act, 63 

Standard Reference Materials, 5 1-52, ill-I 13, 

274, 322, 482, 606, 665 

Standards Committee for Women, 18 I Standards, definition, 11 Standards Employees Benefit Association (SEBA), 

Standards Information Service, 606 

State Technology Extension Programs (STEP), 

663 

Statistical Engineering Laboratory (SEL), 286 

statistical mechanics, 489 

Innovation Act of 

of Standards, 18, 18 

sulfur in residual fuel oil (SRM 1621 and 1622), 

Sullivan, Donald B., 733 

Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices 

(SQUID), 279-280 

1004 
superconducting voltage standard, 276-277, 383 

superconductivity, 276-280, 598, 599, 719 

Supply Division, 75 

surface effects, 125, 129, 574 

Swartzendruber, Lydon J., 123 

Swindells, James F., 91 

Swyt, Dennis A., 637, 681 

Systems Research and Development Division, 138 

Systems and Network Architecture, 777 

Systems and Software Technology, 774 

T 

Tabor, Paul 5., 559, 561 

Tang, Deborah, 778 

Tate, Douglas R., 91 

Tate, Elizabeth L., 73 

Taylor, Barry N., 242-243, 276-277, 374, 529 

Taylor. John K., 113, 114, 263, 554, 555 

Taylor, Lauriston S., 553 

league, E. Clayton, 424 

Tech, Jack L.. 97 

Technical Analysis Division, 136 

Technical News Bulletin (TNB), 67 

Technology Competitiveness Act, 626, 629 

technology incentives, 227-229 

Technology Services, 662-666 

Telecommunications Industry Association, 588 

Teller, Edward, 458, 466 

temperature, measurement, 91, 94, 375 

Tew, Weston L., 671 

Thermal Conductivity Conference, 134 

thermal insulation, 549 

Thermal Processes Division, 454 

thermal properties, 88, 96, 107, 124, 133, 250 

thermocouples, 379 

thermodynamic data, 96, 127, 489, 491, 692 

thermometry, 277 

fixed points, 105, 106. 234 

thermocouples, 109, 379 

radiation, 94 

with superconductors, 277 

Thermophysical Properties Division, 454 

thermophysics, 711 

Tholen, Albert D., 664 

Thomas, James L., 670 

Thomas, Richard N., 105, 106 

Thompson, Harry E., 392 

Thornton, Donald D., 534, 556 

Thornton, Zane, 464 

Thurber, W. Robert, 93 

tides, 373 

lilley, W. Reeves, 58, 72 

time, 375 

Time and Frequency Division, 104-105, 309-3 12, 

382, 733 

time and frequency standards, 104, 105, 309-312. 

314-315, 363-370, 382, 583 

Tipson, Robert S., 262 

tire grading system, 272-273 

topografiner, 423 

toxicology, 504 

Toxic Substances Control Act, 2 Trade Agreements Act of 1979, 470 

transport-property calculations, 107 

Treado, Marshall J., 267, 354 

Treat, Charles F., 210 

Trower, W. P., 586 

Tsai, Donald H., 428, 429, 430 

tungsten-filament lamp, 94 

Twilley, William H., 500, 505 

ultrasound, 553 

U 

ultraviolet radiation, 303, 375 

UNIVAC Computer, 273 

Universal Testing Machine, 237 

University of California Radiation Laboratory, 264 

U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific Research, 289 

U.S. Department of Defense, 136 

U.S. Department of Energy, 549 

U.S. Department of Transportation, 40 

U.S. Fire Academy, 515 

U.S. Fire Administration, 515 

U.S. General Accounting Office, 526 

U.S. Geological Survey, 519 

U.S. Naval Ammunition Depot, 135 

U.S. Patent Office, 590 

U.S. Postal Service, 526 

Uriano, George A., 482, 484, 646, 657 

Used Oil Recycling Act of 1980, 471 

V 

vacuum, 375 

Van der Arend, Peter C., 264 

VanderHart, David L., 501, 503, 566 

vapor-liquid equilibrium, 714 

Vanan Associates, 105 

Vassallo, Paul, 650 

Vehicle Systems Research, 268-272 

Velapoldi, Rance A., 638 

Venable, William H., Jr., 428 

very-long baseline interferometry, 233 

vibration, 89 

1005 
vibrational chemiluminescence, 4.86 viscosity, 250, 312-3 14 

Visiting Committee on Advanced Technology, 

633, 651 

visitors, 53-54 

Vogt, Jack, 526 

voltage standards, 84-85, 276, 317, 527-530, 540 

volume, 375 

w 

Wachtman, John B., Jr., 124, 419 

Wagman, Donald D., 67, 413 

Wakid, Shukri A., 777 

Walgren, Douglas, 473 

Wallace, Michael, 778 

Walleigh, Robert, 40, 50, 74, 170, 194, 441 

WaIters, 0. King, 227 

Walton, William D., 58, 519 

Ward, David K., 422 

Ward, John F., 423, 558 

Wasserman, Craig, 457 

water, 248 

Waterstrat, Richard, 552 

Watson, Thomas W., 550 

wavefront-shearing interferometer, 306 

Waxman, Meyer, 559 

Weber, Alfons, 723 

Weber, Gustavus A., 16 Weisman, Herman M., 77 

Weisman, Irwin D., 403 

Weiss, Andrew W., 58 

Welge, Karl H., 128 

Wellington, Joan D., 592 

Wells, Joseph S:, 100, 363, 365 

Wells, William, 398 

West, E. Dale, 307, 490, 594 

Westinghouse Research Laboratories, 601 

Wexler, Arnold,.88, 90 

Wheelon, AlbertD., 466 

White, Hobart 5., 312 

White, Howard.J., 77 

White, John A., 369 

White, Stephen, 469 

Wiederhorn, SheldOn M., 362 

Wiese, Wolfgang L., 97, 308, 420, 720, 722 

Willenbrock, F. Karl, 176, 177, 344 

Williams, Earl S.,' 58, 85 

Williams, Edwin R.,524, 671 

Williams, Morgan L, 57 

Williamson, S. E., 586 

wind loads, 542 

Wineland, David J., 583 

Winderlich, Bernhard, 573 

WoIf-Rayet stars, 106 

Wollen, Harold F., 58 

Wood, Laurence A., 558 

Wood, Sharill, 320, 320 

Workman, John L., 476 

Wright, James R.; 132, 172, 392, 396 

Wright, Richard N., 398, 564 

Wu, C. S., 462 

Wunderlich, Brent B., 573 

Wydler Technology Act, 633 

Xiheng, He, 472 

Xiurong, Pan, 472 

x-ray 

absorption, 674 

analysis, 696 

diffraction techniques, single crystal, 246 

magnifier, 567 

Optics Characterization Facility, 719 

powder patterns, 126 

spectrum, 255 

standards, 554 

wavelengths, 383 

Y 

Yakowitz, Harvey, 241, 563 

Yates, John T., 574 

Yokel, Felix Y., 545, 564 

Yolken, H. Thomas, 742 

Youden, William J., 80 

Young, Matt, 588 

Young, Russell D., 423-425, 426, 575 

Young, Theodore R., 85 

yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO), 601 

Yuzwiak, E. A., 100 

1006 

z 

Zalewski, Edward F., 55, 426, 427597 

Zeeman effect, 98 

Zimmerman, James, E., 278, 279, 550, 601