NUREG/CR-3735

LA-10079-MS

RZ

Accident-Induced Flow and Material Transport

in Nuclear Facilities-A Literature Review

J. W. Bolstad

W. S. Gregory

R. A. Martin

P. K. Tang

R. G. Merryman

J. Novat

H. L. Whitmore

Manuscript submitted: March 1984

Date published: April 1984

Prepared for

Division of Risk Analysis

Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research

US Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Washington, DC 20555

NRC FIN No. A7029

Los Alamos National Laboratory

Los Alamos,New Mexico 87545
ABSTRACT ...............................................................

I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 1

II. ACCIDENT-INDUCED MATERIAL TRANSPORT WITHIN STRUCTURES ................... 2

A. General Theory ...................................................... 3

B. Concentration Equation Concepts ..... ,..... . 5

C. Single-Particle Tracking Concepts..................6

D. Assessment of Literature ........................................ 7

III. ACCIDENT-INDUCED FLOW DYNAMICS WITHIN STRUCTURES ........................ 9

A. Existing Computer Codes . . .. ...................................... 9

B. Explosion-Induced Flow Dynamics ..................................... 10

C. Fire-Induced Flow Dynamics .. ...................................... 11

1. Experimental Investigations ..................................... 11

2. Analytical Investigations ....................................... 14

IV. REENTRAINMENT/DEPOSITION .............................. e ................. 18

A. General Theory ... . ........................... " 18

B. Reentrainment ....................................................... 18.

C. Deposition ............... ...... ............................... 21

D. Aerosol Measurements ................................................. 23

E. Particle Characteristics in Fuel Cycle Facilities .................. 24

V. SUMMARY ........................ .............................. 24

REFERENCES ................................................. ................. 25

iv
ACCIDENT-INDUCED FLOW AND MATERIAL

TRANSPORT IN NUCLEAR FACILITIES--A LITERATURE REVIEW

by

J. W. Bolstad, W. S. Gregory, R. A. Martin,

P. K. Tang, R. G. Merryman, J. Novat, and H. L. Whitmore

ABSTRACT

The reported investigation is part of a program that

was established for deriving radiological, source terms at

a nuclear facility's atmospheric boundaries under postulated accident conditions. The overall program consists

of three parts: (1) accident delineation and survey,

(2) internal source term characterization and release,

and (3) induced flow and material transport. This report

is an outline of pertinent induced-flow and material

transport literature. Our objectives are to develop

analytical techniques and data that will permit prediction

of accident-induced transport of airborne material to a.

plant's atmospheric boundaries.

Prediction of material transport requires investiga-

.tion of .the areas of flow dynamics and reentrainment/deposition. A review of material transport, fluid dynamics,

and reentrainment/deposition literature is discussed. In

particular, those references dealing, with model development are discussed with special emphasis on application

to a facility's interconnected ventilation system.

I. INTRODUCTION

Nuclear facilities must be designed to protect the general public from the

consequences of accidents that could result in a release of radioactive material

to the environment. Regulatory agencies are reponsible for reviewing proposed

facility designs to that end. The degree of conservatism and the related risk

also must be evaluated for these accident conditions. Designers and analysts

must have methods and data that permit a systematic approach to estimating accident effects.

1
Assessment of the environmental •consequences of an accident requires an..,

estimate of release rate, which is basic to calculating the radioactive dos to.

the public. Much uncertainty lies in the estimate of release rate. Therefore,

we are undertaking a program to provide more realistic estimates of accidentinduced release rate and to better characterize source terms. The program to

obtain and process data is divided into three major research areas: (1) accident

delineation and survey of literature, (2) source-term and release characterization, and (3) material transport.

Battelle Pacific Northwest, Laboratories (PNL) and Oak Ridge National

Laboratory (ORNL) share responsibility for research areas (1) and (2), and the

Los Alamos National Laboratory is responsible for research area (3). Tasks in

research areas .(1) and (2) involve identifying the :accidents to be studied and

the primary source-term data -to be *used in *the transport models. Los Alamos

will study transport of.the released material through the nuclear facility. The

objective is to develop mathematical models and computer codes that will predict

material transport through a complex of rooms,.gloveboxes, ductwork,-filtration

systems, and other components commonly found in ventilation systems.

In this report we review some. material transport models that may be applicable to modeling material 'transport within nuclear facilities. Work in the

supporting areas of. accident-induced flow dynamics and reentrainment/deposition

also is reviewed. In flow dynamics, existing one- and multidimensional models

are discussed. We believe that these models-will provide the basis for computer

codes tailored to predict accident-induced phenomena.

II. ACCIDENT-INDUCED MATERIAL TRANSPORT WITHIN STRUCTURES.

This section is an outline of a review of the literature and approaches for

developing material transport models to be used in analyzing the effects. of accidents within nuclear facilities. ,We.have identified.significant parameters

and effects that must be considered for one-, two-, and three-dimensional mate-

.rial transport models.

A review of literature pertainingito material transport is priesented-below.

This survey is sufficient-to describe material transport for nuclear facilities.

.Discussed -in some detail, are articles that are especially relevant to our approach in model development. The discussion is organized under the divisions:of

2
general theory, concentration equation concepts,- and single-particle tracking

concepts.

A. General Theory

Several texts that describe the theory of aerosol transport were

reviewed. Although we did not attempt to discuss all of the many

references concerning material transport, we will discuss several of the better

texts that outline the fundamentals of particle transport and important parameters to be considered.

One of the more useful articles selected for review is a reference by

R. Dennis, Chap. 3, "Dynamic Behavior of Aerosols," by C. E. Billings and

R. A. Gussman, which provides a review of the phenomena producing particle

motion. These phenomena have been divided and categorized by the authors as

interfacial phenomena '(evaporation, condensation, nucleation, and adhesion) and

aerosol dynamics (settling, impaction, diffusion, coagulation, electrostatics,

and filtration). The authors state that analysis of aerosol behavior requires

simultaneous consideration of t'•e following phenomena:

a interaction of particles with gas constituents,

* interaction of particles with other suspended particles,

* motion of individual particles or clouds in a defined flow fieldl under

the influence of one or more forces, and

0 motion of particles with respect to immersed obstacles or flow

boundaries.

The authors also list important. characteristics that must be known about

the particles in addition to the characteristics of the flow field that contains

the suspended particles. In later sections, the authors point out the difficulties associated with mathematical modeling systems where flow, coagulation, settling, and diffusion effects are interacting. They state that a completely satisfactory model has not been developed yet. However, empirical formulas and

equations describing material transport are given.

Billings and Gussman describe formulations that' can be used with the

time-dependent concentration equation given below.

(Tt- dc = S+ - S_ ,(1

3
where

c = material concentration,

t =time,

S+ = source of material, and

S *= sink of material.

The formulations outlined by the authors allow approximations for settling,

coagulation, or other aerosol dynamics phenomena to be Used for the terms S+

and S

Other references reviewed offer a more rigorous approach to the theory of

material transport. These approaches are described in texts by S. L. Soo, 2

H. E. Hesketh, 3 and R. G. Boothroyd.4 Basically, they attempt to consider

the forces acting on an individual aerosol particle and write equations of

motion that allow calculation of particle velocity and trajectory. The basic

equation used in these approaches is written as

dv

m p F. (2)

where

m = particle mass,

v = velocity of the particle, P

t =,time, and

F .= forces acting on the particle.

In. addition to boundary and multiparticle effects, the effect of the flow field

is discussed in the referenced texts. Also, these analyses assume that the particle concentration is dilute enough so that the particle has little effect on,

the-flow field. Clearly, many approximations are necessary in these approaches,.

particularly when interpartic~le interactions are considered.

4
.B. Concentration Equation Concepts.

The need to predict the fate of -accidentally released aerosolsý within

reactor containments has led to the development of several material transport

5. models. The HAA-3 code has been used extensively in the past. This code

was developed to simulate liquid-metal fast-breeder reactor (LMFBR) accidents

but has been' applied to other containment volumes. 6 The HAA-3 code simulates

the changes in size distribution and concentration of a well-mixed, log-normally

distributed aerosol with time. The code uses a time-dependent concentration

equation similar to Eq. (l) to describe aerosol motion within a large cylindrical container. The. influence of gravity or particle deposition and coll'isions

between particles (agglomeration) are considered. The model can account for

wall interactions (such as p:lating) in addition to providing for leakage removalmechanisms. A uniform mixture is assumed, with Wall plating, agglomeration,

and gravity being the predominant phenomena. However, when agglomeration

proceeds to a point where the size distribution is no longer log-normal, the

calculative method is changed to a stirred settling model where only settling

and leakage are considered. The empirical constants needed for the code Were

developed using experimental data from Atomics International.

H. Jordon andC. Sack have developed a code called PARDISEKO that issimilar

to HAA-3. 7 This code is used extensively in the Federal Republic of Germany's

fast breeder reactor safety programs.

F. Gelbard has developed a computer code called AEROSOL that simulates size

distribution dynamics -for a spatially homogeneous aerosol. 8 The code assumes

a single volume containing the aerosol mixture, and it appears to be similar to

HAA-3 in applicability. That is, the code places special emphasis on coagulation and agglomeration mechanisms.

A. K. Postma, P. C. Owczarski, and D. L. Lessor have developed a computer

code called CORRAL to simulate material transport behavior in reactor containments following a postulated accident. 9 The code provides removal mechanisms

for fission products in the form of elemental- iodine, methyl iodide, and solid

particles. The authors have structured the code to predict internalmovement of

the aerosol material to a reactor's atmospheric boundary. As in HAA-3, a timedependent'concentration equation is used to describe the aerosol behavior within

the reactor containment. A well-mixed volume is assumed with empirical terms

added to the concentration equation that account for particle removal by

5
filters, sprays, deposition onto surfaces-, and-gravitational settling.- In contrast to other aerosol models that were reviewed, CORRAL includes' capabilities

for simulating transport through several internal subcompartments within the

general containment system. The multicompartment feature was.,developed specifically to model transport in a boiling water reactor (BWR) containment system.

. A two-dimensional, time-dependent computer program that models chemically

reactive mixtures has been reported by Rivard, Farmer, and Butler. 10 A

concentration or species equation is used for aerosol transport in this code.

It has been applied to flows within chemical lasers, but there seems to be no

reason why it could not be applied to the containment problems outlined above.

However, it does not include capabilities for predicting agglomeration or wall

plateout, and it is not suitable for multiple-volume analysis.

R. J. Fluke has.reported the use of a computer code call, FISSCON to simulate

the-movement of fission products inside the containment of a Canadian-reactor

system under accident conditions. He:reports that transport of fission products can-be calculated to determine filtration, wall plating,,and water absorption. ,-.Personal communication with-the author indicates that the code is a modification -and extension of the CORRAL computer code.

C. Single-Particle Tracking Concepts

Another body of literature involves calculative methods that simulate

material transport phenomena by solving the .equations of motion for. individual

particles. That is, given the f.low .field, the velocity of a single particle

can be calculated while accounting fortforces such. as gravity, drag, buoyancy,

and inertia. The equations solved are similar to Eq. (2).. The turbulent diffusion of an individual particle also has been included, but very little in the

way of interparticle forces or wall surface forces has been modeled. However,

the essential .point, is that the species or concentration equation is solved by

tracking many thousands, of particles to simulate movement of material. The

particlesicanbe tracked throughout a system byý using a large number of particles of varying sizes and densities.

Particle tracking schemes to simulate material.transport-have been advanced

primarily, by the fluid dynamics group at Los Alamos. R. S. ýHotchkiss and

C. W. Hirt explained the principles of the technique-with reference to the.species or concentration equation method that has been.discussed above. 1 2 The

ý6
technique discussed by the authors.was applied to atmospheric dispersion.: in- a

highly distorted flow field where the flow. field was .calculated using theSOLA-3D code.

C. W. Hirt and L. R. Stein have. reported application of the above method to

aerosol transport-within rooms. 1 3 In this case, the normal ventilation airflow

for. a room in the Los Alamos plutoni~um handling facility was calculated using

SOLA-3D. Particles then were injected into the room, and their -movement. was

observed to locate dead zones ýand areas of high aerosol concentration within

rooms. -

Other applications of the technique have been-reported by J. R. Zurewicz and

14

D. E. Stock at Washington State University. Their application was for modeling aerosol transport 'in an electrostatic 'precipitator-.'. A term that calculates. the force on a particle from an electric field was. added to the equation

of motion for the par~ticles. Their numerical calculations compared quite Well

with experimental data.

Calculation of gas/droplet flows that allow the particles to be liquid drop1.5 lets also has been reported.. In this two-dimensionalapplication, the droplet

size history,.. temperature, and trajectory were calculated. The authors used the

.technique to simulate spray drying systems. Similar calculations have been reported by C. T. Crowe of Lawrence Livermore Nati'onal Laboratory (LLNL). 1 6

Applications of. the HAA-3. code using the time-dependent- concentration

equation and. a SOLA code using particle-tracking methods were reported by

D.. H. Mitchell. 7 The codes were used to, predict aerosol behavior in gloveboxes. Mitchell notes that although HAA-3 appears to be limited, it was useful

to indicate the relative importance of agglomeration, which was not. taken into

account by the SOLA code. No direct comparison of material transport calculations for the two codes was reported.

D. Assessment of Literature

In this section we will discuss our assessment of the -articles reviewed.

Also, plausible approaches will be discussed with particular reference to how

they can guide our development of one-, and multidimensional material transport

models for nuclear facilities.

Although the literature review presented here is relatively limited, we believe thattwo basic approaches .to predicting material transport have been outlined in the selected references. The methods vary from those using the

7
conventional concentration equationý for a system ::to-those that involve calcu-

-lating the movement of individual aerosol particles.

We did not find any codes or models that described the transport of combustion products in our literature-review. However, in our review of fire-induced

flow dynamics, several researchers noted.that this type of work needed to be

done or was in progress. Combustion products are made up ýof solids, liquids,

and gases with a range of physical properties. The characteristics of some combustion products may be too complex to approximate very well with the most

simple models. Researchers have tried to model both solid and liquid movement,

and their work may providesome insight into the problem of modeling. combustion

product movement.. Some of this workis discussed below.

The established aerosol transport codes- have been specia-lly tailored to

model LMFBR or light-water reactor (LWR) containments. All but one of these

codes are: applicable only to single-volume conditions and do not have provisions

for large convective effects that could be expected in accident situations. The

only exception is the CORRAL code, which allows for-multiple volumes and convective .flux between these volumes., However, the CORRAL code and associated empirical relationships also. are tailored to simulate BWR conditions rather than the

more arbitrary conditions that may be found in many nuclear facilities, particularly fuel cycle facilities. None of these codes include the effect of multiple

blowers or. fans that move air through interconnected compartments. Therefore,

we believe that the traditional and established aer•osol codes are not suited

totally for' our: application in their current. form. However, there are many

desirable, or-essential elements in these codes that should be'retained and used.

Using the time-dependent species or concentration equation contained in the

established aerosol codes offers a logical and straightforward approach to-developing a material, transport code. Little difficulty would be encountered in

coupling the required set of concentration equations to existing lumpedparameter or quasi-one-dimensional ventilation network codes. JIncertainareas,

single volume aspects of the aerosol codes would be essential for proper development" of quasi-two-dimensional aspects -of the material transport code. Also,

the application- of these codes to modeling multidimensional effects in single

volumes may offer the only practical approach that also provides correlations

with other types of-codes.

The particle-tracking approach being developed and used by. sdme researchers

is especially promis-ing for modeling multidimensional movement -of material.

8
The major drawback of this approach is the lack of. interparticle effects. This

*method would be' unsatisfactory for modeling material transport very near the

accident source. However, in regions farther away from the material source

.where particle concentration is sufficiently dilute, this approach maybe very

useful. In the past, researchers have neglected this concept because it

required vast computer storage and run time to account for the movement of

individual particles. However, recent advances in computer systems now allow

consideration of this approach. -

III., ACCIDENT-INDUCED FLOW DYNAMICS WI.THIN STRUCTURES

This section of the report is a review of analytical models that are

applicable to flow induced by postulated fire, explosion, or other accidents

within nuclear facilities. Lumped-parameter and multidimensional models are

considered, with emphasis on existing computer codes that can provide a basis

for developing models of accident-induced flow dynamics.,

A. Existing Computer Codes

A Los Alamos report by F. H. Harlow and A. A. Amsden provides a discussion

of '18" of basic physical fluid dynamics. In this report, general solutions to

fluid phenomena. are considered with an introduction to numerical techniques

-using high-speed computers.

The earliest and most well-known fluid dynamic codes using numerical

techniques are the MAC and SMAC codes developed at Los Alamos. 1 9 ' 2 0 ' These

codes solve the Navier-Stokes equations and the continuity equation using

finite differences for two-dimensional, transient, incompressible flow. A

series of computer codes, called SOLA has evolved from the early MAC and SMAC

codes. These codes are simplified' versions for the less experienced user. The

SOLA-ICE code 2 1 has the capabilities outlined above but also is capable of

handling compressible flow.

In England, D. P. Spalding developed multidimensional 'codes called GENMIX

that '22,23 and CHAMPION that may be. applicable. '23They will handle two-dimensional

parabolic and elliptical compressible flows. GENMIX also has particle transport

modeling capability.

9
The computer codes *discussed above are -primarily multidimensional,, but

SOLA-ICE can be used to simulate one-dimensional phenomena. Characteristically,

ventilation systems in nuclear facilities are essentially one-dimensional with

many branching and looping ducts. Therefore, simulation of accidentt-induced

"flow phenomena within ventilation systems- requires a computer code that can

simulate one-dimensional effects. Furthermore, the most cost-effective approach

in analyzing accident-induced flows is to first perform an analysis with fast,

one-dimensional computer codes and then follow up with more detailed analyses if

required.

The TVENT computer code is designed specifically for nuclear facility

24 ventilation systems. The code was developed to predict the effect of

tornado-induced depressurization within such systems. TVENT. features useroriented input/output, portability, and applicability to a large number of

ventilation systems. In addition to the one-dimensional simulation, assumptions

include incompressible and isothermal flow, system components treated as lumped

parameters, and compressibility allowed at rooms or gloveboxes. Inertia and

shock effects are neglected. TVENT's use in safety analysis has been demonstrated in addition to its coupling with the SOLA-ICE code.25

B. Explosion-Induced Flow Dynamics

" TVENT has been extended to predict propagation of explosively driven

transients within a ventilation system. 2 6 As the explosion code evolved from

the TVENT code, the basic input/output format and the steady-state portions of

the code were retained. However, the transient analysis portion of the code was

modified extensively. The transient analysis is subdivided into two major

categories, the near field and the far field, and these categories apply to

regions of the ventilation system that are near to or far away from the explosive event.

Depending on the characteristics of the explosive event, a deflagration,

detonation, or transition to detonation will take place in the near field: The

far-field analysis is treated as a gas-dynamics problem with the explosion

modeled parametrically. This ..analysis is particularly suitable when the flow

dynamics are relatively insensitive to the explosive event or when there. is

little detailed information about 'the explosion conditions. The far-field

version of the code has been used on several simple problems.,, The results

compare well with experimental results.

10
Some experimental data can be found in Ref. 27, which describes the discharge of high-pressure gas (air) from a vessel to the atmosphere. It also

describes the pressurization of a vessel by a high-pressure air supply reservoir. These are interesting cases for initial tests of an explosion computer

code, especially in the areas of mass and energy conservation, orifice flow

relations, and choked flow conditions. The effect of dissipation during choked

flow is shown in Ref. 28.

-C. Fire-Induced Flow Dynamics

This section describes selected works (both experimental and analytical)

that have a bearing on an approach for a fire-induced flow dynamics code. The

main emphasis is placed on analytical models developed and used by others to

predict fire effects. However, because fire modeling is so difficult, we find

that many of-the models rely on or reduce to correlations of experimental data.

Therefore, we will discuss various sets of available experimental data as well.

The results of the literature survey are divided into the general

categories of experimental and analytical investigations. These references

summarize previous work that has been performed in areas related to the subject

of interest. This review of the literature is not exhaustive but rather is an

overview of the state of the art as itrelates to facility fires.

1. Experimental Investigations.

a. Enclosure Fires. There are many references in the literature to

measurements of parameters in enclosure fires. These experiments are typically

performed for both full-scale and scale-model rooms or enclosures. The geometry

of the test typically involves a room containing a fire source near one end and

a doorway at the other end. Variations in the tests consider doorway size,

magnitude of heat source, types of combustible materials present, and scale.

McCaffrey and Rockett 2 9 show measurements of ceiling and floor temperatures

and pressures for both full-size and scale-model rooms. Steady-state measurements are given using an adjustable number of gas burners as the heat source.

Gross and Robertson present experimental measurements of burning rates,

temperatures, and gas compositions in model enclosures of three sizes. Again

interest was confined to the fully developed period of burning. They found that

the burning rate Was dependent on the size and shape of the ventilation opening.

Thus, they showed that the gas-dynamics effects are coupled intimately to the

11.
heat release rate of the combustible material. Further, the major portion of

the generated heat is transferred by radiation from the flames and glowing fuel.

Parker and Lee 3 1 have studied the transient nature of the fire build-up

process in a room. Heat transfer from conduction and radiation as well as

temperature, air, velocity, fuel supply rate, and oxygen concentration were

measured in the transient mode.. The tests showed that a large fraction of the

heat generated in the fire was lost through conduction and radiation.even 5 min

after initiation of the tests. The heat absorbed by the air and carried out the

doorway was only about 56% of the heat generated in the fire. These tests also

demonstrated a two-layer effect (a layer of hot gas near the ceiling and a layer

of cold gas near the floor).

32 b. Duct Fires. McCaffrey and Quintiere report that the flow patterns

for fire-induced flows in corridors may be as complicated as those for enclosures. Their tests were performed with a 1/7-scale and a full-scale corridor. Detailed measurements indicate a complex, recirculating, three-dimensional

flow field with a four-layer flow pattern. Furthermore, the flow field and

temperature were strongly influenced by the size of the corridor doorway.

Two sets of experiments on fires in ducts indicate that modeling this

physical situation poses equally severe problems. Roberts and Clough3 3

experimentally studied the propagation of fires along a duct lined with wood.

Their experiments indicated a strong coupling between the fire'.growth rate and

the airflow rate; that is, the growth of a fire affects the ventilation, and

conversely the growth of the fire is strongly dependent on the ventilation rate.

Their experiments also show that in the early stages, the heat release' rate is

determined by the fuel supply, whereas the heat release rate is controlled by

the supply of oxygen later on. Further, the heat release rate, can differ by a

factor of 10 or more between these two conditions.

Chai.ken et al.34 experimentally investigated the nature of coal mine fires

in a 23-cm2 duct under the influence of. a forced-ventilation airflow. The

experiments showed that the fire passed through both stages described by Roberts

and Clough. Furthermore, the experiments indicated stratification and reverse

flow in the upper level upstream of the fire zone. Also, the reverse flow in

the upper portion of the duct is greater than the forward flow in the lower

portion of the duct for several time periods.

c. Combustion Experiments. Many experiments have been performed in which

the rate of burning ,of cellulosic fuel in a controlled environment was studied.

12
Parker35 performed basic studies in which he showed, that oxygen deple"tion

measured* in an exhaust duct downstream from a fire correlated with the total

rate of heat production of the specimens. This basic correlation has been used

by others to obtain the heat release rate for"burning materials for experiments

in which this quantity could not be measured directly.

The burning mechanism for fully developed fires in, a ventilation-controlled

compartment has been studied by Harmathy. 3 6 Data are shown for the results of

over 250 full-scale and scale-model tests performed by others. A fully developed combustion model that correlates with the multitude of experimental

findings for cellulosic fuels with reasonable accuracy is derived. The model

probably is not applicable to other fuel types.

The difference in burning rates between wood cribs and some synthetic

37 polymers under forced-ventilation conditions also was studied by HarmAthy.

The experiments showed that the burning rate of the polymers was not affected

significantly by the ventilation rate. In contrast, the burning rate of the

wood cribs showed a definite dependence on the ventilation rate.

The determination of the size distribution and mass concentrations of the

.:products of combustion is important in the prediction of fire effects. The

mass concentration. and size distribution for soot particles is given by

Prado et al. 3 8 as a function of a number of variables for both kerosene and

benzene. The experimental device was a turbulent continuous flow combustor.

Additional information on the size distribution of combustion aerosols is given

by Pourprix et al. 3 9 and Alvares et al. 4 0 Alvares shows the size and mass

distribution of smoke aerosols at the exit of a test cell for a variety of

combustible materials. As discussed in this reference, it is difficult toobtain these type of -data, and the accuracy is not good because of the many

processes that cause the aerosol. to change its character during the sampling

.and measurement procedures.

d. Component Response. The effects of smoke aerosols on high-efficiency

particulate .air (HEPA) filters have been reported by Gaskill et al. 41 and by

Beason and' Alvares. 4 2 A series of experiments were performed in *the LLNL

Full-Scale Fire Test Facility. The facility has a full-sized test apparatus

with a complete ventilation system, including a HEPA filter. The fires were

located in a room upstream from the filter. Some important observations about

fire' effects in ventilation systems were noted. First, an almost immediate

overpressurization of the fire compartment was observed.. This implies that the

13
ventilation system is compromised because air leakage from the room or flow

reversal through the intake c an occur. Second, because of the large quantities

of smoke partic'ulates, filter plugging and a subsequent decrease in the. ventilation rate were observed.

The above experiments. were performed to determine the lifetime of HEPA

filters exposed to fire-generated aerosols. Additional information was reported •'40

by Alvares et al. on various methods used to reduce the aerosol exposure by

installing engineering countermeasures in the duct between the filters and the

fire source. These countermeasures included water scrubbing sprays, rolling

prefiltration systems, and sprinkler systems.

The duct spray techniques did not increase the filter lifetimes appreciably; rather, they tended to enhance the condensation of volatile aerosols, which

made filter plugging more likely. The'rolling prefiltration system showed the

most promise because it enhanced filtration and it extended HEPA filter lifetimes by a factor of 2 or more at the same time..

2. Analytical Investigations.

a. Enclosure Fires. Several methods are used to predict the effects of

fire in enclosed spaces analytically. The first of these is the simplest, and.

much is assumed about the geometry of the., enclosure and the fully developed

f ow patterns in the enclosure. In this method (two-layer model), the gas in

the enclosure is assumed to be stably stratified with a layer of hot gas above

and a layer of cool ambient air below. We usually assume that air enters the

room (cold layer) from an opening in one wall and approaches the fire, where it

is entrained in the gas -plume. Hot gas enters the upper layer, where it flows

out the upper part of the wall opening'. A review of the models, assumptions,

43 and state of the art in this type of fire modeling is given by Rockett. In

its simplest form, such a model is amenable to hand calculations.

As more effects are included in such a model (especially time-dependent

effects), we eventually have to solve the resulting equations with a computer.

The most encompassing and sophisticated model along these lines (that is, twolayer models) that we are aware of is the Harvard Computer Fire Code.44 Even

so, it has drawbacks with regard to the current application. The model is

limited to the prediction of the development of a fire ignited on a horizontal

surface in a rectangular enclosure with open doors or windows. The fire must

be. away from the walls for the model to work well. Because of the complexity

of combustion phenomena, the burning rate and fire growth are not. predicited

14
f rom first principles, but.the code uses empirical correlations obtained, from

open burn tests carried out over a limited time.

,Another approach to the problem is to derive and solve *the fundamental

equations that govern the gas dynamics in an arbitrary three-dimensional system

,explicitly. Such equations are presented by Rehm and Baum. 4 5 The equations

are ttailored -explicitly to the prediction of gas flows caused by" fires.

'46 47 Caretta et al. and. Patankar and Spalding7 present several techniques for the*

solution of such equations.' These equations and techniques are not tailored

necessarily to fire-induced flows. As pointed out by Hjertager and Magnussen,

although computational procedures for flow have been available for some-"time,

there have beenrelatively few applications to ventilation systems-. Hjertager'

and Magnussen 4 8 do apply the Patankar' and Spalding algorithm to "flows in

ventilated rooms with good agreement for some problems (not fire-induced flow).

An'other' recently developed analytical model that. shows promise for fireinduced flows is presented, by Doria. 4 9 A compilation of results obtained

using ' this model is given by Doria and Ku. 5 0 A number of two-dimensional

problems were calculated, and excellent agreement with existing analytical and

..experimental results was obtained.

This method eventually became the basis for the' UNDSAFE-1 -computer

code, 5 1 which predicts .the flow, temperature,' and pressure fields in a twodimensional rectangular enclosure that result from a 'volumetric' heat source.

An improved version of the code with additional physical models has 'been

released. 5 2 This code has been found to be suited- to applications-to the fire

problem in enclosures. The fire source itself is not modeled, but the code is

useful for. predicting temperatures away from- it. Applications' of the code to

experiments, performed Sat the National -'Bureau of Standards and Notre Dame

University show a consistency between the experiments and code predictions. 5 3

Tanaka. presents a model that attempts to deal with more than a single

54 enclosure. This' model is a computer simulation of the movement throughout

a building of hot, gas and .smoke' caused by a fire source in an arbitrary room.

This model shows how it may be possible .to incorporate some of the specific

models treated here into a more general code that can handle networks and

ventilation systems,.of increasing complexity.

b. Duct Fires. Much work has been reported on the analytical' modeling

of .fuel-rich fires spreading within ventilated -fuel-lined ducts. These works

generally are concerned with fires in mine shafts', tunnels, and air spaces

15
between stored materi-als.. An early example .of. this is shown in, the work:, of

De Ris 5 5 in an analytical treatment of fuel-rich duct fires., The theory is

in general agreement with. experimental data for duct fires that do not-exhibit

reverse or stratified flow.

A .one-dimensional model is- not adequate to describe duct fires in which

reverse stratified flow takes place.. Under these conditions, smoke may form a

layer near ,the.-ceiling. and flow in the opposite direction of the ventilation

flow. .Hwang .et al .56 developed a two-dimensional. mathematical model of. the

phenomenon :to gain some understanding of it. The detailed behavior of gas

plumes . and ;stratified layers can be studied with this model. Hwang : and

Chaiken5 7 applied this theory to mine-related; ventilation systems that use an

exhaust fan to supply forced ventilation. The coupling between the fire and the

ventilation airflow was analyzed to. relate the air velocity in normal operation

tothe air velocity during a fire-for a single entry duct. By combining Hwang's

and Chaiken's theory,. we ,can calculate critical flow velocities that will preventreverse .stratified flow in the event of a duct fi-re. The resulting theory

-agrees with.experimental results available from small-scaletunnel fires.

References 55--57 (discussed above) deal with the fully developed (steadystate), condition., Edwards .et al. 5 8 analyzed .. the time-dependent, problem of

fire spread ,al.ong the walls of a ventilation duct using a two-dimensional

model.. The-model. applies during the initial stages of a fire build-up during

which the flame. spread is governed by energy transport rather than the later

stationary state controlled by. the air supply. During this initial. stage,

reverse stratified flow is not encountered.

c. Combustion Theory. The theory of combustion, has been studied, and

models have been suggested for the free Lburning .of particles or. gaseous elements in controlled conditions. . For example, Lowe, et al. 5 9 model a large

pulverized coal furnace with data for single char particles and an~ass.umed gas

flow, pattern to predict local combustion heat release rates. of the furnace.

Magnussen -and .Hjertager.60 developed a mathematical model that predicts the

rate of combustion,and soot formation. ofreacting species in turbulent flames.

Roberts 6 1 shows that deriving an analytic model for the. burning of, a

larger, solid, such as a. piece of wood, is much ,more complicated. He states

that the problem is not so much computational but is rather in the formulation

of amathematical modelifrom the complex chemical and physical processes occurring and.in the availability of data for use.in a mathematical model.. ýBlock6 2

16 .
reports on the more complicated problem of developing models for ý.the freeburning behavior of piles.(cribs) of wood. The crude model developed is guided

by quantitative and qualitative experimental observations. Here he notes that

the crib model could..be greatly improved if a model that could, predict the

ýburning rate of asing-le pieceof wood could be.developed.

d. Component Behavior. Liu 6 3 has reported, on a theoretical and experi-

.mental investigation to evaluate. the effects of a corridor sprinkler system on

the cooling. and suppression of a fire in an adjacent compartment. connected by

an open doorway. A simplified, one-dimensional mathematical mode;l is .presented

to predict the net reduction of the corridor' ceiling hot gas temperature by

evaporative cooling.. The effect of the spray droplet size on. the cooling and

suppression of fire is discussed.

Fuel cycle facility ventilation systems include components designed, to

mitigate the effects of postulated accident conditions (for. example, HEPA

filters, water-spray heat exchangers, and mist and debris eliminators.). If the

operation of this equipment affects the transport. of material,, then thi-s equipment must be simulated under accident conditions along with the more obv~ious

components such as ducts and blowers. So far, we have not found existing models

to predict the behavior of this type of equipment under accident conditions.

The degree to which such models are required depends to a great extent on the

detailed accident definition for a particular facility.

, There is a scarcity of information about analytical models that predict

the interaction of combustion phenomena with the flow field. A good review, of

the state of the art of modeling of fire-flow fields has been reported by

Emmons. 64 He states that the understanding of the basic elements of the combustion process presents insurmountable difficulties in analytical modeling

where turbulent. flow is encountered. This is because. the performance of the

system is -controlled as much or more by the way gases move about before and

after combustion as by the combustion process itself, and solutions for turbulent flow fields may not be obtained. Emmons.adds that the key to our predictive understanding of turbulent combustion is the correlation of experimental

data, and although some model studies have been made, in no case are these

adequate.

17
IV. -REENTRAINMENT/DEPOSITI'ON

.A. General Theory

This section presents 'the. results to date of'our literature survey in 'the

areas of reentrainment' and deposition and literature cited in the areas of

aerosol measurements (including techniques, devices, and data •analysis) and

particle characteristics in fuel cycle facilities. The survey is performed to

assure that previous work is .used to the fullest-extent possible. We"have found

monographs, journal articles, and technical reports in the areas of fluid me-

.chanics,- multiphase flow, aerosol* science, nuclear safety, ceramics and power

metallurgy, health physics, atmospheric science, soil science, and space•science

(geophysical aspects). A number of key articles that are being studied will be

identified!," but the survey is not exhaustive.

In fuel cycle safety assessment, we are interested ultimately in defining

the radioactive :aerosol flux at the atmospheric boundaries of a. plant under:

accident conditions. This means that we must be able to estimate material

tra'nsport through.the ventilation system or other pathways. However,. before .any

material is transported, it must somehow be made airborne. 'One mechanism for

aerosolizing particles from a surface is aerodynamic stress;' that is,- if the

air -velocity impinging on 'a bed -or -pile of particles is sufficiently high

because of an explosion, fire, or tornado, some of the particles may be

entrained or reentrained. -'These are the particles that.are made available for

possible transport and deposition.

B. Reentrainment

Over a p:eriod of more than 30 yr, Bagnold has produced an important series.

of65-68 adacsic69 of papers aclassic monograph, on this subject. His-work includes

analysis of the requirements for motion of dust and sand. He has performed many

experiments with dust and sand particles under both cohesive and' cohesionless

conditions. Bagnold has shown us how to collapse experimental particle threshold speed data with Variations in. particle size and density onto a single curve.

(We emphasize the importance of this procedure.) This similitude approach is

extremely valuable in understanding the physics of small, heavy particle reentrainment.and development of a mathematical formulation for the process. If the

18
exper-imental data ýcan be, represented wi th a single curve, this curve :can be

used to describe material movement for a wide range of material sizes and

weights. This suggests that we bracket the materials of interest, such as

PuO2 or U02 . Bagnold has been concerned primarily with dust-, sand-,. or

soil-type materials.

Raudkivi 7 0 has summarized ideas on the transport of solids by fluids,

including threshold of particle transport in a single volume. Halow71 has

done .a number of experiments to measure rolling, sliding, and suspension of

particles in turbulent airflow in pipes. He has developed expressions for

initiation fluid velocities for a number of material sizes and densities.. However, his data for heavy particles are limited to very large .size (2700 Pm *or

greater).

Lyles and Krauss 7 2 have-performed experiments to investigate the effects

of turbulence intensity in a wind tunnel- boundary-layer on soil particle movement, threshold friction speed, and mean flow speed. For a given particle size,

the threshold mean windspeed decreased with increasing turbulence intensity.

This paper '-demonstrates the importance of flow conditions on. reentrainment,

whereas Wasan et al. 7 3 discuss the effects of particle charge. Additional

experiments to determine particle movement and reentrainment.criteria for soiltype particles in air were.carried out by Punjrath and Heldman 74 and earlier

by Zingg. 75 White 7 6 measured threshold conditions in water.

A very- important series of experiments and similitude analyses has been

underway for the past several years at Iowa State University (ISU) and at the

77-81 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) AmesResearch Center.

The team conducting these experiments is *associated with J. D. Iversen at ISU.

This team has studied a wider range of particle sizes and dens.ities than Bagnold

and the other experimenters cited above, and it has collapsed the data successfully. However, the. data are sparse for small, heavy particles, and the team

has not considered the effect of varying bed thickness (light loadings)..

Iversen and his colleagues have been correlating particle erosion rate (reentrainment) and horizontal flux (material transport). They also have made predictions of the air speeds required for particle motion and reentrainment from

their data.

Another ongoing experimental and analytical program is being conducted at

the National Center for Atmospheric Research at Boulder, Colorado, by Gillette

19
and his co-workers. 8 2 8 7 Although Gillette's measurements have been restricted to soil-type particles under atmospheric boundary-layer conditions,

his theoretical analyses have included development of semi-empirical corre-

.lations of vertical aerosol flux (reentrainment) as well as horizont~al aerosol.

flux (material transport). An older but important sequence of experiments was

performed by Chepil 88-91 at the Wind Erosion Laboratory at Manhattan, Kansas.

Chepil observed a quantitative correlation between material in suspension with

surface horizontal flux. For dry soils, he found that the horizontal flux of

particles 5varied directly as the cube of the threshold friction speed 9 2 as

Bagnold found earlier for desert sand. 6 9 Gillette8 6 later modified this

relationship to include the difference between the local friction speed and the

threshold friction speed. These semi-empirical erosion rate (transport)

functions are summarized by Iversen et al. 78

An important symposium devoted to the atmosphere-surface .exchange of particles by dry deposition and resuspension was held at Richland, Washington, in

September 1974.93 One contribution to this symposium was a paper by Travis 94

detailing a computer model he developed to describe the reentrainment, transport, and. deposition of soil-contaminant mixtures.. Travis' model is based on

conserving mass within a matrix of control volumes with reentrainment close to

the surface governed by a combination of the semiempirical formula tions of

Bagnold and Chepil for horizontal flux and Gillette for vertical flux. Other

noteworthy contributions to the symposium in the area of reentrainment are

Refs. 94-•97 . Horst98-100 has developed a model for estimating atmospheric

aerosol concentrations accounting for resuspension, diffusion, :and deposition...

Mills and Olson1 0 l have modeled suspension and atmospheric transport.

We cite two. references that treat the subject of calculating individual

particle, trajectories. 1 0 2 ' 1 0 3 These .two papers, as well as the three important works that follow, 104 106 deal with concepts necessary for the.calculation of individual particle trajectories in shear flow. Thus, in contrast to

the semi.empirical approach to reentrainment, one. can calculate individual particl.e trajectories through the boundary layer (by integrating the equations of

motion) if the initiation phenomena are, known from experiment or are assumed.

102 The Morsi and Alexander paper gives particle drag coefficients as a function

of the.Reynolds number up to 50 000. The Saffman paper103 formulates the lift

force generated in shear. fl~ow as being proportional to the square root of the

vertical velocity gradient.

20
Corn has produced a. number of articles dealing with particle-surface

phenomena. 1 0 7 1 1 1 In Ref. 107 he makes an important 'distinction between cohesive bonds between. particles and adhesive bonds between individual particles

and a surface. He points out many factors that influence the'strength 'of the

bonds. References'108-111 report the results of Corn's experiments to determine

the nature and magnitude of adhesive force.

The Symposium on Surface Contamination held at Gatlinburg, Tennessee, in

112-118 June 1964 resulted in a number of pertinent papers1with many measurements of resuspension factors for normal nuclear facility conditions.

C. Deposition

Many forces- can contribute to mass transport across a surface boundary

layer, including eddy diffusion, velocity gradients, turbulence gradi'ents,

gravity, impaction, irregular surfaces, .Brownian motion, diffusiophoresis,

thermophoresis, interception, electrostatic effects, and shear-flow-induced lift

forces. These mechanisms are discussed in detail in Refs. 3, 119, and 120.

Dve119 .121 :.and Billings and Gussman12 present deposition equations for specific

5 situat-ions,:- such as diffusion through a turbulent boundary layer, inertial

deposition from turbulent flow, and deposition of aerosol from turbulent pipe.

flow.

122 Liu and Agarwal have performed aerosol deposition studies for liquid

particles ranging in size from 1.4 to 21 pm in vertical turbulent pipe-flow.

They found the predominant mechanism- to be an inertial effect resulting from

the particle mass being acted on by the fluid* turbulence for this flow. This

hrelne by bensgete-er" an 123. had been suggested earlier by Fridlander and Johnstone, who ran experiments in a similar test setup using fine metal powders (iron and aluminum). The

preceeding two papers expound the "diffusion free-flight" model in 'which the

particle diffusivity in the boundary layer is assumed equal: to the eddy

momentum-diffusivity of the flow up to very near the surface. Near the surface,

the particles are assumed to "free-flight" to the wall. Reference122 describes

12 previous experiments on turbulent deposition in tubes and channels and

compares the results with theory.

An important series of papers by Sehmel1 2 4 1 2 8 presents equations for and

experimental determinations of aerosol particle eddy diffusivities. These

equations and experiments will be useful in calculating particle removal rates

21
from turbulent air to vertical and horizontal surfaces. Clough! 2 9 has conducted experiments that have supported Sehmel's theory.1 2 4

Slinn, Sehmel and Hodgson, and Horst discussed problems and predictive

modeling of deposition in the atmosphere in their 1974 Atmosphere-Surface

Exchange of Particulate and Gaseous Pollutants Symposium papers.1 30 132

Gillette and Porch1 3 3 recently reported their experimental results on the

effects on dust deposition of velocity fluctuations and particle concentration

in the atmosphere.

134 Cleaver and Yates have studied the influence of particle removal on

deposition rate. They identify wall shear stress (friction velocity) as the

,..controlling parameter for deposition when reentrainment is occurring simultane-

-ously. The works by Fuchs135 and Soo 2 are classic treatises dealing with many

ý,-aspects of the mechanics (and dynamics.) of multiphase systems, including aerosol deposition. After studying these books, one cannot help but appreciate the

breadth of scope of two-ph'ase systems. In general, these two volumes provide

rigorous background material, which is a necessary foundation for practical

applications. Chapter 8 in Brodkey's book1 3 6 also should be mentioned because

it provides a good review of ,laminar viscous flow (which, 'by virtue of small

particle size or slow flow speed and therefore low Reynolds number, is often

*the case for aerosols). Stokes' drag. formula for spheres and the resulting

terminal velocity expression for a nonaccelerating particle are derived here.

The modifications to Stokes' law, such as those of Oseen and. Cunningham, are

discussed here and elsewhere.

137-139 The book Surface Contamination contains several articles dealing

with the concept of deposition velocity (analyses and measurements are

included). Van der Hoven 14 0 has presented deposition velocity results from

field experiments using radioisotopes.

Koontz has developed a computer code (HAA-3) that calculates suspended

<,mass concentration, mass of fallout material, mass of wall plateout material,

and median size by volume of the particle distribution-as functions of time for

sodium or uranium oxide aerosols in a vessel of a given size. HAA-3 solves an

integro-differential equation that models aerosol coagulation or agglomeration

with removal and source terms. The removal processes are leakage (input as a

table), fallout, and plating. A source rate can be input as a table. When the

aerosol concentration decreases to the point where agglomeration is no. longer

important, the program uses a stirred-settling model .(Stokes' -corrected).

22
HAA-3 neglects resuspension. It uses a log-normal aerosol number concentration

during agglomeration, and the particle density is assumed to be 1/4 of the

theoretical density. A wall plating factor must be determined experimentally.

The HAA-3 code does not account for changing flow velocity, material transport

(other than settling and plate-out in a vessel), or initiaal mass (that is, it

will not calculate reentrainment under flow conditions). Parametric studies

using the code allowed comparison with experimental data.

Castleman et al.14 1 have produced a code similar to HAA-3 to predict the

vertical (downward) transport of radioactive aerosols (PuO 2 and U02 ). Again,

both theoretical and experimental results are presented..

Deposition phenomena. in turbulent bQundary flows are very complex, as

Sehmel's work will attest. 12 4 -

1 28 Of course, eddy diffusivitites are dependent

on a particular flow configuration and must be assumed or measured experimentally. Although complex, aerosol concentration reduction phenomena have been

modeled successfully in the past, as in HAA-3. 5 One noticeable area where

experimental data are lacking is in deposition of small, heavy particles from

accident-induced flows in ducts.

D. Aerosol Measurements

A number of references concerning aerosol measurement devices and techniques are reviewed in this section. The Davies, 1 4 2 Mercer 143, and Hesketh3

books are helpful for properties, size classification, and sampling of aerosols.

Reference 144 and the notes on the course on aerosol measurement 1 4 5 are particularly useful for understanding the limitations of aerosol measuring devices and

their selection. References 146-148 deal specifically with optical devices.

Sehmel 1 4 9 1 5 2 has written several articles on the errors and pitfalls that await

the experimenter in acquiring samples of aerosols isokinetically through nozzles

and probes. He discusses his work on sampling of aerosols on wires (by impaction) in Ref. 152. Two chapers in the book Handbook on Aerosols are pertinent,

153_ 5 .Sampling and Particle Size Measurement and Aerosol Generation.1 5 4 We have a

number of books that are helpful in understanding the statistics of aerosol size

anaysis.155-159 Reference 160-162 are reports that deal with aspects of size

distribution determination, and Refs. 163-165 deal with various aspects of

aerosol measurement.

23
E. Particle Characteristics in Fuel Cycle Facilities

References 166-176 compose a partial list of articles that concern reentrainment, transport, and deposition for selected materials. These papers and

reports, as well as a long list of others obtained from a computer search, are

being studied to gain information on powder and dust in fuel cycle facilities.

The computer search was based on the following descriptors and authors.

Descriptors Authors

Fuel reprocessing plants G. A. Schmel

Reprocessing T. W. Horst

Radioactive aerosols C. N. Davies

Aerosols T. T. Mercer

Radioactive effluents M. Corn

Plumes

Particle size

Particle resuspension

We are interested primarily in the potentially hazardous powders PuO2 and

UO2. However, we also are interested in characterizing combustion products. In

Sec. III, we emphasized the need for and lack of available data characterizing

combustion products from fires, except in the area of fire detection, which

emphasizes relatively young and therefore small particles (d p< i1m).

V. SUMMARY

A program to determine the effect of postulated accident source terms on a

,.,nuclear facility's confinement system has been established by the NRC. The

program consists of three investigative areas: (1) accident delineation,

(2) internal source term characterization at point of origin, and (3) transport

through the ventilation system or other pathway to a facility's atmospheric

boundary. Three contractors have responsibility for undertaking this program;

Los Alamos is responsible for the area of transport. In this report, we

described our initial review of the literature, including experimental data that

24
w.il.l permit character ization of accident-induced source ý,_terms af ter passing

through 'a facility's confinement system.

REFERENCES

1. R. Dennis, "Handbook5 on Aerosols," Energy Research Development

Administration Technical"Information Center report Noý TID-26608 (1976).

2. S. L. Soo, "Impaction of Particles with Surfaces," in Fluid Dynamics of

Multiphase Systems (Blaisdell, Publishing Co., Waltham, Massachusetts,

.1967), p. 191.

3. H. E. Hesketh, Fine.Partlicles. in Gaseous Media (Ann Arbor. Science, Ann

Arbor, 1977).

4. R. G. Boothroyd, Flowing Gas-Solids Suspensions (Chapman and Hall Ltd.,

London, 1970)..

5. R. S. Hubner, E. U. Vaugham, and L. Baurmash, "HAA-3 User Report," Atomics

International Division of North American Rockwell International report

AI-AEC-13038 (1973-).

6. R. L. Koontz "Aerosol Modeling *of Hypothetical LMFBR Accident," Atomics.

International Division of North American Rockwell report. AI-AEC-12977

(August 1970).

7. H. Jordan and C. Sack, "A Computer Program for Determining the Behavior of

Contained Nuclear' Aerosols," US-EURATOM Fast Reactor Exchange Program

report EUR-FNR-126B (1975).

8., F. Gelbard,. "AEROSOL--User's Manual," Sandia National Laboratories,

Albuquerque, report SAND80-0403, NUREG/CR-1367 (March'1981).

9. A. K. Postma, P. C. Owczarski, and D. L. Lessor, "Transport and Deposition

of Airborne Fission Products in Conta'inment Systems of Water Cooled

.Reactors Following Postulated. Accidents," Appendix J of: Appendix .7 in

A"Reactor Safety Study," Nuclear Regulatory Commission report NUREG-75/014.

10. W. C. Rivard, 0. A. Farmer, and T. D. Butler, "RICE: A-Computer Program

for Multicomponent Chemically Reactive Flows at All Speeds," Los Alamos

.Scientific Laboratory report LA-5812 (1975).

25
11. R. J. Fluke and J. D. Jefford, "Darlington NGS--A Emergency Filtered Air

Discharge and Containment System," presented at Restricted Specialists'

Meeting o n Behavior of Off-Gas and Ventilation Systems under Accident

Situations, Karlshruhe, Germany, October 1979.

12. R. S. Hotchkiss and C. W. Hirt, "Particulate Transport in Highly Distorted

Three-Dimensional Flow Fields," Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory report

LA-DC-72-364 (no date).

13. C. W. Hirt and L. R. Stein, "Computer Studies for Aerosol Surveillance

Systems," Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory Weapons Quarterly Report

(January-April 1978).

14. J. T. Zurewicz and D. E. Stock, "A Numerical Model for Turbulent Diffusion

in Gas-Particle Flows," American Society of Mechanical. Engineers

publication 76-WA/FE-33 (1977).

15. C. T. Crowe, M. P. Sharma, and D. E. Stock, "The Particle-Source-ln-Cell

(PSI-CELL) Model for Gas-Droplet Flows," American Society of Mechanical

Engineers publication 75-WA/HT-25 (1976).

16. C. T. Crowe, "Vapor-Droplet Flow Equations," Lawrence Livermore Laboratory

report UCRL-51877 (1975).

17. D. H.-Mitchell, "Considerations in theýBehavior of Aerosols in Gloveboxes,

I. Models," Battelle Pacific.Northwest Laboratory report BNWL-2382, US-41

(1977).

18. F. H. Harlow and A. A. Amsden, "Fluid Dynamics," Los Alamos Scientific

Laboratory report LA-4700 (June 1971).

19. J. Welch, F. H. Harlow, J. P. Shannon, and B. J. Daley, "The MAC Method:

A Computing Technique for Solving Viscous, Incompressible, Transient Fluid

Flow Problems Involving Free Surfaces," Los, Alamos Scientific Laboratory

report LA-3425 (1966).

.20. A. A. Amsden and F. H. Harlow, "The SMAC Method: A Numerical Technique

for Calculating Incompressible Fluid Flows," Los Alamos Scientific

Laboratory report LA-4370 (May 1970).

21. L. D. Cloutman, C. W. Hirt, and N. C. Romero, "SOLA-ICE: A Numerical

Solution Algorithm for Transient Compressible Fluid Flows," Los Alamos

Scientific Laboratory report LA-6236 (July 1976).

26
22.0D. B. Spaiding, "Genmix: A. Program for Two-Dimensional ;Parabolic

Phenomena," Imperial College of- Science. and Technology report- HTS/77/9

(February 1977).

23,lW. M. Pun and D. B. Spalding, - "A General Computer Program for

Two-Dimensional Elliptic. Flows," Imperial College of Science and

Technology report HTS/76/2 (September 1976).

24. K. H. Duerre, R. W. Andrae, and W. S. Gregory, "TVENT, A Computer Program

for Analysis of Tornado-Induced Transients in Ventilation Systems," Los

•Alamos Scientific Laboratory report LA-7397-M (July 1978).

25. R. W. Andrae, R. A. Martin, and W. S. Gregory, "Analysis of Nuclear ..Facilities .for Tornado-Induced,. Flow and Reentrainment,." Los. Alamos

.. Scientific Laboratory'report.LA-7571-MS, NUREG/CR'-0521 (January-1979.).

26. W. S. Gregory, P. R. Smith, ..J. W. Bolstad, and K. H. Duerre, ",Analysis of

Ventilation Systems Subjected to !Explosive Transients, .Initial Analysis

and Proposed Approach,'.' Los Alamos Scientific*Laboratory report LA-7964-MS

(August 1979).

,27. A. L. Addy and. B. J. Walker, "Rapid .Discharging of a .-Vessel Through a

Nozzle or. an Orifice," ASME -Paper 72-FE-40, Gas Turbineý and Fluids

Engineering Conference and Product Show, San Francisco, California, March

26-30, 1972.

28. A. H. Shapiro, The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible.Fluid Flow, Vol. I (Ronald Press, New York, 1953).

•29.- B. J. McCaffrey. and J. A. Rockett, "Static .. Pressure Measurements of

Enclosure Fires," Jour. of Res.! of the National Bureau of Standards 82,

107-117 (September--October 1977).

30. .D. Gross and A. F. Robertson, "Experimental Fires in Enclosures," Proc. of .Tenth,.International.: Symposium on Combustion (The Combustion Institute,

Pittsburgh,'Pennsylvania, 1965), pp. 931-942.

31. W. J. Parker and B. T. Lee, "Fire Build-Up in Reduced Size Enclosures," in

National Bureau of Standards 'Special Publication 411, Fire Safety

Research, Proc. Symp. NBS, Gaithersburg, Maryland, 'August 22, 1973

(November 1974), pp. 139-153.

32. B. J. McCaffrey and J. G. Quintiere, "Buoyancy Driven Countercurrent Flows

Generated by a Fire Source,". in Heat Transfer and ýTurbulent Buoyant

.27
.Convection, Vol. II., D. B. Spalding and N. Afgan, Eds., (Hemisphere

Publishing Corp., Washington, 1977), pp. 457-472.

33. A. F. Roberts and G. Clough, "The Propagation of Fires in Passages Lined

with Flammable Material," Combustion and Flame 11, 365-376 (October 1976).

34. R. F. Chaiken, J. M. Singer, and C. R. Lee, "Model Coal Tunnel Fires in

Ventilation Flow," United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of

Mines report 8355 (1979).

35. W. J. Parker, "An Investigation of the Fire Environment in the ASTM E 84

Tunnel Test," National Bureau of Standards report NBS-TN-945 (August 1977).

#36. T. Z. Harmathy, "Mechanisms of Burning of Fully Developed Compartment

Fires," Combustion and Flame 31, 265-273 (1978).

37. T. Z. Harmathy, "Experimental Study on the Effect of Ventilation on the

Burning of Piles of Solid Fuels," Combustion and Flame 31, 259-264 (1978).

38. G. P. Prado, M. L. Lee, R. A. Hites, D. P. Hoult, and J. B. Howard, "Soot

and -Hydrocarbon Formation in a Turbulent Diffusion Flame," 16th Intl.

Symp. on Combustion,, Cambridge, Massachusetts, August 15-21, 1976 (The

Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1977),.pp. 649-661.

39. M. Pourprix, D. Bouland, A. Kecever, and G. Madelaine, "Size Distribution

of Combustion Aerosols," GAF (Vienna, Austria, September 1978).

40. N. J. Alvares, D. G. Beason, and H. W. Ford, "In-Duct Countermeasures for

Reducing -Fire-Generated-Smoke-Aerosol Exposure to HEPA Filters," Lawrence

Livermore Laboratory report UCRL-80789 (1978).

41. J. R. Gaskill, N. J. Alvares, D. G. Beason,. and H. W. Ford, Jr.,

"Preliminary Results of HEPA-Filter Smoke Plugging Tests using the LLL

.Full-Scale Fire Test Facility," *Proc. of the Fourteenth ERDA Air Cleaning

Conference, Sun Valley, Idaho, August 2-4, 1976, CONF-760822, Vol. 1, pp.

134-170.

42. D. G. Beason and N. J. Alvares, "Variations in the Burning Characteristics

of Low Porosity Cribs," Lawrence Livermore Laboratory report UCRL-79369

(1977).

.43. J. A. Rockett, "Fire Induced Gas Flow in an Enclosure," Combustion Science

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28
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Radionuclide Releases Sept. 6-9, 1977, Gatlinburg, Tennessee (DOE report

Conf.-770901, DOE Technical Information Center, Oak Ridge, Tennessee,

April 1978).

40
DISTRIBUTION

Copies

Nuclear Regulatory Commission, RZ, Bethesda, Maryland 198

Technical Information Center, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 2

Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 50

250

41
NRC FORM 335 U S NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION I REPORT NUMBER lAssigned by TIOC. add Vol No. if any)

6f13

NUREG/CR-3735

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET LA-10079-MS

2 Leave blank

3 TITLE ANO SUBTITLE 4 RECIPIENT'S.ACCESSION NUMBER

Accident-Induced Flow and Material Transport in Nuclear

Facilities--A Literature Review 5 DATE REPORT COMPLETED

MONTH IYEAR

March 1984

6. AUTHOR(S) 7. DATE REPORT ISSUED

J. W. Bolstad, W. S. Gregory, R. A. Martin, P. K. Tang, MONTH .. IYEAR

R. G. Merryman, J. Novat, H. L. Whitmore April 1984 9 PROJECT/TASK/WORK UNIT NUMBER

P PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND MAILING ADDRESS (Include Zip Code)

Los Alamos National Laboratory

Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545 10. FIN NUMBER

A7029

11 SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND MAILING ADDRESS (include Zi, Code) 12a TYPE OF REPORT

Division of Risk Analysis Informal

Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission 12b PERIOD COVERED (nclusive dares)

Washington, DC 20555

13 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

14 ABSTRACT (200 words or less)

The reported investigation is part of a program that was established for deriving radiological source terms at a nuclear facility's atmospheric boundaries under postulated

accident conditions. The overall program consists of three parts: (1) acc.ident delineation and survey, (2) internal source term characterization and release, and (3) induced

flow and material transport. This report is an outline of pertinent induced-flow and

material transport literature. Our objectives are to develop analytical techniques and

data that will permit prediction of accident-induced transport of airborne material to a

plant's atmospheric boundaries.

Prediction of material transport requires investigation of the areas of flow dynamics and

reentrainment/deposition. A review of material transport, fluid dynamics, and

reentrainment/deposition literature is discussed. In particular, those references

dealing with model development are discussed with special emphasis on application to a

facility's interconnected ventilation system.

15. KE Y WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS 15b, DESCRIPTORS

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