National Cancer Institute

What You Need 

To Know About TM

Cancer

of the

Uterus

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF 

HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

National Institutes of Health
National Cancer Institute Services

This is only one of many free booklets for

people with cancer.

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your family, and your doctor.

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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF

HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

National Institutes of Health

National Cancer Institute

Contents

About This Booklet 1

The Uterus 2

Cancer Cells 3

Risk Factors 5

Symptoms 6

Diagnosis 7

Staging 9

Treatment 11

Second Opinion 20

Nutrition 22

Follow-up Care 22

Sources of Support 23

Taking Part in Cancer Research 25

Dictionary 27

National Cancer Institute Publications 37
About This Booklet

This National Cancer Institute (NCI) booklet is

about cancer* that starts in the uterus. Other names for

this disease are uterine cancer and endometrial cancer.

Each year in the United States, more than 43,000

women learn they have uterine cancer. Most are over

55 years old.

Learning about medical care for uterine cancer can

help you take an active part in making choices about

your care. This booklet tells about:

• Diagnosis and staging

• Treatment and follow-up care

• Taking part in research studies

This booklet has lists of questions that you may

want to ask your doctor. Many people find it helpful to

take a list of questions to a doctor visit. To help

remember what your doctor says, you can take notes.

You may also want to have a family member or friend

go with you when you talk with the doctor—to take

notes, ask questions, or just listen. 

For the latest information about uterine cancer,

visit NCI’s Web site at http://www.cancer.gov/

cancertopics/types/endometrial.

Also, NCI’s Cancer Information Service can

answer your questions about cancer. We can also

send you NCI booklets and fact sheets. Call

1–800–4–CANCER (1–800–422–6237). Or chat

using LiveHelp, NCI’s instant messaging service, at

http://www.cancer.gov/livehelp.

1

*Words in italics are in the Dictionary on page 27. The Dictionary

explains these terms. It also shows how to pronounce them.
This booklet is not about uterine sarcoma. Uterine

sarcoma is a different type of cancer. Women with

sarcoma have different treatment options. For the latest

information about uterine sarcoma, visit NCI’s Web

site at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/types/

uterinesarcoma or contact NCI’s Cancer Information

Service.

Also, this booklet is not about cancer that begins in

the cervix. For the latest information about cervical

cancer, visit NCI’s Web site at http://www.cancer.gov/

cancertopics/types/cervical or contact NCI’s Cancer

Information Service.

The Uterus

The uterus is part of a woman’s reproductive system.

It’s a hollow organ in the pelvis.

The uterus has three parts:

• Top: The top (fundus) of your uterus is shaped like a

dome. From the top of your uterus, the fallopian

tubes extend to the ovaries.

• Middle: The middle part of your uterus is the body

(corpus). This is where a baby grows.

• Bottom: The narrow, lower part of your uterus is the

cervix. The cervix is a passageway to the vagina.

The wall of the uterus has two layers of tissue:

• Inner layer: The inner layer (lining) of the uterus is

the endometrium. In women of childbearing age, the

lining grows and thickens each month to prepare for

pregnancy. If a woman does not become pregnant,

the thick, bloody lining flows out of the body. This

flow is a menstrual period.

• Outer layer: The outer layer of muscle tissue is the

myometrium.

2
Cancer Cells

Cancer begins in cells, the building blocks that make

up tissues. Tissues make up the uterus and the other

organs of the body.

Normal cells grow and divide to form new cells as

the body needs them. When normal cells grow old or

get damaged, they die, and new cells take their place. 

Sometimes, this process goes wrong. New cells

form when the body doesn’t need them, and old or

damaged cells don’t die as they should. The buildup of

extra cells often forms a mass of tissue called a growth

or tumor.

3

Fallopian tube

Ovary

Vagina

Endometrium

Fallopian tube

Cervix Myometrium

Uterus

Ovary

This picture shows the uterus and nearby tissues.

© 2009 Terese WinslowU.S. Govt. has certain rights
Tumors in the uterus can be benign (not cancer) or

malignant (cancer). Benign tumors are not as harmful

as malignant tumors:

• Benign tumors (such as a fibroid, a polyp, or

endometriosis): 

—are usually not a threat to life

—can be treated or removed and usually don’t grow

back

—don’t invade the tissues around them

—don’t spread to other parts of the body

• Malignant growths: 

—may be a threat to life

—usually can be removed but can grow back

—can invade and damage nearby tissues and organs

(such as the vagina)

—can spread to other parts of the body

Cancer cells can spread by breaking away from the

uterine tumor. They can travel through lymph vessels to

nearby lymph nodes. Also, cancer cells can spread

through the blood vessels to the lung, liver, bone, or

brain. After spreading, cancer cells may attach to other

tissues and grow to form new tumors that may damage

those tissues. See the Staging section on page 9 for

information about uterine cancer that has spread.

4
Risk Factors

When you get a diagnosis of uterine cancer, it’s

natural to wonder what may have caused the disease.

Doctors usually can’t explain why one woman gets

uterine cancer and another doesn’t.

However, we do know that women with certain risk

factors may be more likely than others to develop

uterine cancer. A risk factor is something that may

increase the chance of getting a disease.

Studies have found the following risk factors for

uterine cancer:

• Abnormal overgrowth of the endometrium

(endometrial hyperplasia): An abnormal increase in

the number of cells in the lining of the uterus is a

risk factor for uterine cancer. Hyperplasia is not

cancer, but sometimes it develops into cancer.

Common symptoms of this condition are heavy

menstrual periods, bleeding between periods, and

bleeding after menopause. Hyperplasia is most

common after age 40.

To prevent endometrial hyperplasia from developing

into cancer, the doctor may recommend surgery to

remove the uterus (hysterectomy) or hormone

therapy with progesterone and regular follow-up

exams.

• Obesity: Women who are obese have a greater

chance of developing uterine cancer.

• Reproductive and menstrual history: Women are

at increased risk of uterine cancer if at least one of

the following apply:

—Have never had children

—Had their first menstrual period before age 12

—Went through menopause after age 55

5
• History of taking estrogen alone: The risk of

uterine cancer is higher among women who used

estrogen alone (without progesterone) for

menopausal hormone therapy for many years.

• History of taking tamoxifen: Women who took the

drug tamoxifen to prevent or treat breast cancer are

at increased risk of uterine cancer.

• History of having radiation therapy to the pelvis:

Women who had radiation therapy to the pelvis are

at increased risk of uterine cancer.

• Family health history: Women with a mother,

sister, or daughter with uterine cancer are at

increased risk of developing the disease. Also,

women in families that have an inherited form of

colorectal cancer (known as Lynch syndrome) are at

increased risk of uterine cancer.

Many women who get uterine cancer have none of

these risk factors, and many women who have known

risk factors don’t develop the disease.

Symptoms

The most common symptom of uterine cancer is

abnormal vaginal bleeding. It may start as a watery,

blood-streaked flow that gradually contains more

blood. After menopause, any vaginal bleeding is

abnormal.

These are common symptoms of uterine cancer:

• Abnormal vaginal bleeding, spotting, or discharge 

• Pain or difficulty when emptying the bladder

• Pain during sex

• Pain in the pelvic area 

6
These symptoms may be caused by uterine cancer

or by other health problems. Women with these

symptoms should tell their doctor so that any problem

can be diagnosed and treated as early as possible.

Diagnosis

If you have symptoms that suggest uterine cancer,

your doctor will try to find out what’s causing the

problems.

You may have a physical exam and blood tests.

Also, you may have one or more of the following tests:

• Pelvic exam: Your doctor can check your uterus,

vagina, and nearby tissues for any lumps or changes

in shape or size.

• Ultrasound: An ultrasound device uses sound waves

that can’t be heard by humans. The sound waves

make a pattern of echoes as they bounce off organs

inside the pelvis. The echoes create a picture of your

uterus and nearby tissues. The picture can show a

uterine tumor. For a better view of the uterus, the

device may be inserted into the vagina (transvaginal

ultrasound).

• Biopsy: The removal of tissue to look for cancer

cells is a biopsy. A thin tube is inserted through the

vagina into your uterus. Your doctor uses gentle

scraping and suction to remove samples of tissue. A

pathologist examines the tissue under a microscope

to check for cancer cells. In most cases, a biopsy is

the only sure way to tell whether cancer is present.

7
You may want to ask the doctor these

questions before having a biopsy:

• Why do I need a biopsy? 

• How long will it take? Will I be awake? Will it

hurt?

• What is the chance of infection or bleeding

after the biopsy? Are there any other risks?

• How soon will I know the results? How do I

get a copy of the pathology report?

• If I do have cancer, who will talk with me

about treatment? When?

Grade

If cancer is found, the pathologist studies tissue

samples from the uterus under a microscope to learn

the grade of the tumor. The grade tells how much the

tumor tissue differs from normal uterine tissue. It may

suggest how fast the tumor is likely to grow.

Tumors with higher grades tend to grow faster than

those with lower grades. Tumors with higher grades

are also more likely to spread. Doctors use tumor grade

along with other factors to suggest treatment options.

8
9

Staging

If uterine cancer is diagnosed, your doctor needs to

learn the extent (stage) of the disease to help you

choose the best treatment. The stage is based on

whether the cancer has invaded nearby tissues or spread

to other parts of the body.

When cancer spreads from its original place to

another part of the body, the new tumor has the same

kind of abnormal cells and the same name as the

primary (original) tumor. For example, if uterine cancer

spreads to the lung, the cancer cells in the lung are

actually uterine cancer cells. The disease is metastatic

uterine cancer, not lung cancer. It’s treated as uterine

cancer, not as lung cancer. Doctors sometimes call the

new tumor “distant” disease.
To learn whether uterine cancer has spread, your

doctor may order one or more tests:

• Lab tests: A Pap test can show whether cancer cells

have spread to the cervix, and blood tests can show

how well the liver and kidneys are working. Also,

your doctor may order a blood test for a substance

known as CA-125. Cancer may cause a high level of

CA-125.

• Chest x-ray: An x-ray of the chest can show a

tumor in the lung.

• CT scan: An x-ray machine linked to a computer

takes a series of detailed pictures of your pelvis,

abdomen, or chest. You may receive an injection of

contrast material so your lymph nodes and other

tissues show up clearly in the pictures. A CT scan

can show cancer in the uterus, lymph nodes, lungs,

or elsewhere.

• MRI: A large machine with a strong magnet linked

to a computer is used to make detailed pictures of

your uterus and lymph nodes. You may receive an

injection of contrast material. MRI can show cancer

in the uterus, lymph nodes, or other tissues in the

abdomen.

In most cases, surgery is needed to learn the stage of

uterine cancer. The surgeon removes the uterus and

may take tissue samples from the pelvis and abdomen.

After the uterus is removed, it is checked to see how

deeply the tumor has grown. Also, the other tissue

samples are checked for cancer cells.

10
11

These are the stages of uterine cancer:

• Stage 0: The abnormal cells are found only on the

surface of the inner lining of the uterus. The doctor

may call this carcinoma in situ.

• Stage I: The tumor has grown through the inner

lining of the uterus to the endometrium. It may have

invaded the myometrium.

• Stage II: The tumor has invaded the cervix. 

• Stage III: The tumor has grown through the uterus

to reach nearby tissues, such as the vagina or a

lymph node.

• Stage IV: The tumor has invaded the bladder or

intestine. Or, cancer cells have spread to parts of the

body far away from the uterus, such as the liver,

lungs, or bones.

Treatment

Treatment options for people with uterine cancer are

surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and

hormone therapy. You may receive more than one type

of treatment.

The treatment that’s right for you depends mainly on

the following:

• Whether the tumor has invaded the muscle layer of

the uterus

• Whether the tumor has invaded tissues outside the

uterus

• Whether the tumor has spread to other parts of the

body

• The grade of the tumor

• Your age and general health
12

You may have a team of specialists to help plan

your treatment. Your doctor may refer you to a

specialist, or you may ask for a referral. Specialists

who treat uterine cancer include gynecologists,

gynecologic oncologists (doctors who specialize in

treating female cancers), medical oncologists, and

radiation oncologists. Your health care team may also

include an oncology nurse and a registered dietitian.

Your health care team can describe your treatment

choices, the expected results of each, and the possible

side effects. Because cancer therapy often damages

healthy cells and tissues, side effects are common.

Before treatment starts, ask your health care team

about possible side effects and how treatment may

change your normal activities. You and your health

care team can work together to develop a treatment

plan that meets your needs.

At any stage of disease, supportive care is available

to control pain and other symptoms, to relieve the side

effects of treatment, and to ease emotional concerns.

Information about such care is available on NCI’s Web

site at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/coping.

Also, NCI’s Cancer Information Service can answer

your questions about supportive care. Call

1–800–4–CANCER (1–800–422–6237). Or chat

using LiveHelp, NCI’s instant messaging service, at

http://www.cancer.gov/livehelp.

You may want to talk with your doctor about taking

part in a clinical trial. Clinical trials are research

studies testing new treatments. They are an important

option for people with all stages of uterine cancer. See

the Taking Part in Cancer Research section on page 25.
13

You may want to ask your doctor these

questions before you begin treatment:

• What is the grade of the tumor? What is the

stage of the disease? Has the tumor invaded

the muscle layer of the uterus or spread to

other organs? 

• What are my treatment choices? Which do you

suggest for me? Why?

• What are the expected benefits of each kind of

treatment?

• What can I do to prepare for treatment?

• Will I need to stay in the hospital? If so, for

how long?

• What are the risks and possible side effects of

each treatment? How can side effects be

managed?

• What is the treatment likely to cost? Will my

insurance cover it?

• How will treatment affect my normal

activities?

• Would a research study (clinical trial) be a

good choice for me?

• Can you recommend other doctors who could

give me a second opinion about my treatment

options?

• How often should I have checkups?
Surgery

Surgery is the most common treatment for women

with uterine cancer. You and your surgeon can talk

about the types of surgery (hysterectomy) and which

may be right for you.

The surgeon usually removes the uterus, cervix, and

nearby tissues. The nearby tissues may include: 

• Ovaries

• Fallopian tubes

• Nearby lymph nodes

• Part of the vagina

The time it takes to heal after surgery is different for

each woman. After a hysterectomy, most women go

home in a couple days, but some women leave the

hospital the same day. You’ll probably return to your

normal activities within 4 to 8 weeks after surgery.

You may have pain or discomfort for the first few

days. Medicine can help control your pain. Before

surgery, you should discuss the plan for pain relief with

your doctor or nurse. After surgery, your doctor can

adjust the plan if you need more pain control.

It’s common to feel tired or weak for a while. You

may have nausea and vomiting. Some women are

constipated after surgery or lose control of their

bladder. These effects are usually temporary.

If you haven’t gone through menopause yet, you’ll

stop having menstrual periods after surgery, and you

won’t be able to become pregnant. Also, you may have

hot flashes, vaginal dryness, and night sweats. These

symptoms are caused by the sudden loss of female

hormones. Talk with your doctor or nurse about your

symptoms so that you can develop a treatment plan

together. There are drugs and lifestyle changes that can

help, and most symptoms go away or lessen with time.

14
15

Surgery to remove lymph nodes may cause

lymphedema (swelling) in one or both legs. Your health

care team can tell you how to prevent or relieve

lymphedema.

For some women, a hysterectomy can affect sexual

intimacy. You may have feelings of loss that make

intimacy difficult. Sharing these feelings with your

partner may be helpful. Sometimes couples talk with a

counselor to help them express their concerns.

You may want to ask your doctor these

questions before having surgery:

• What type of surgery do you recommend for

me? Why?

• Will lymph nodes and other tissues be

removed? Why?

• How will I feel after surgery? If I have pain,

how can it be controlled?

• How long will I be in the hospital?

• When will I be able to return to normal

activities?

• What are the long-term effects of the surgery?

• How will the surgery affect my sex life?

Radiation Therapy

Radiation therapy is an option for women with all

stages of uterine cancer. It may be used before or after

surgery. For women who can’t have surgery for other

medical reasons, radiation therapy may be used instead

to destroy cancer cells in the uterus. Women with

cancer that invades tissue beyond the uterus may have

radiation therapy and chemotherapy.
Radiation therapy uses high-energy rays to kill

cancer cells. It affects cells in the treated area only.

Doctors use two types of radiation therapy to treat

uterine cancer. Some women receive both types:

• External radiation therapy: A large machine directs

radiation at your pelvis or other areas with cancer.

The treatment is usually given in a hospital or clinic.

You may receive external radiation 5 days a week

for several weeks. Each session takes only a few

minutes.

• Internal radiation therapy (also called

brachytherapy): A narrow cylinder is placed inside

your vagina, and a radioactive substance is loaded

into the cylinder. Usually, a treatment session lasts

only a few minutes and you can go home afterward.

This common method of brachytherapy may be

repeated two or more times over several weeks.

Once the radioactive substance is removed, no

radioactivity is left in the body.

Side effects depend mainly on which type of

radiation therapy is used, how much radiation is given,

and which part of your body is treated. External

radiation to the abdomen and pelvis may cause nausea,

vomiting, diarrhea, or urinary problems. You may lose

hair in your genital area. Also, your skin in the treated

area may become red, dry, and tender. 

You are likely to become tired during external

radiation therapy, especially in the later weeks of

treatment. Resting is important, but doctors usually

advise patients to try to stay as active as they can.

For women who have not had surgery to remove the

ovaries, external radiation aimed at the pelvic area can

harm the ovaries. Menstrual periods usually stop, and

women may have hot flashes and other symptoms of

menopause. Menstrual periods are more likely to return

for younger women.

16
After either type of radiation therapy, you may have

dryness, itching, or burning in your vagina. Your

doctor may advise you to wait to have sex until a few

weeks after radiation therapy ends.

Also, radiation therapy may make the vagina

narrower. A narrow vagina can make sex or follow-up

exams difficult. There are ways to prevent this

problem. If it does occur, however, your health care

team can tell you about ways to expand the vagina.

Although the side effects of radiation therapy can be

upsetting, they can usually be treated or controlled.

Talk with your doctor or nurse about ways to relieve

discomfort.

You may find it helpful to read the NCI booklet

Radiation Therapy and You. 

17

You may want to ask your doctor these

questions about radiation therapy:

• Why do I need this treatment?

• Which type of radiation therapy do you

suggest for me?

• When will the treatments begin? When will

they end?

• Will I need to stay in the hospital?

• How will I feel during treatment?

• How will radiation therapy affect my sex life?

• How will we know if the radiation treatment is

working?

• Will I have any long-term side effects?
Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells. It may

be used after surgery to treat uterine cancer that has an

increased risk of returning after treatment. For

example, uterine cancer that is a high grade or is 

Stage II, III, or IV may be more likely to return. Also,

chemotherapy may be given to women whose uterine

cancer can’t be completely removed by surgery. For

advanced cancer, it may be used alone or with

radiation therapy.

Chemotherapy for uterine cancer is usually given by

vein (intravenous). It’s usually given in cycles. Each

cycle has a treatment period followed by a rest period.

You may have your treatment in an outpatient part

of the hospital, at the doctor’s office, or at home. Some

women may need to stay in the hospital during

treatment.

The side effects depend mainly on which drugs are

given and how much. Chemotherapy kills fast-growing

cancer cells, but the drugs can also harm normal cells

that divide rapidly:

• Blood cells: When drugs lower the levels of healthy

blood cells, you’re more likely to get infections,

bruise or bleed easily, and feel very weak and tired.

Your health care team will check for low levels of

blood cells. If your levels are low, your health care

team may stop the chemotherapy for a while or

reduce the dose of the drug. There are also

medicines that can help your body make new blood

cells.

18
• Cells in hair roots: Chemotherapy may cause hair

loss. If you lose your hair, it will grow back after

treatment, but the color and texture may be changed.

• Cells that line the digestive system: Chemotherapy

can cause a poor appetite, nausea and vomiting,

diarrhea, or mouth and lip sores. Your health care

team can give you medicines and suggest other

ways to help with these problems. They usually go

away when treatment ends.

Other possible side effects include skin rash,

tingling or numbness in your hands and feet, hearing

problems, loss of balance, joint pain, or swollen legs

and feet. Your health care team can suggest ways to

control many of these problems. Most go away when

treatment ends.

You may wish to read the NCI booklet

Chemotherapy and You.

Hormone Therapy 

Some uterine tumors need hormones to grow. These

tumors have hormone receptors for the hormones

estrogen, progesterone, or both. If lab tests show that

the tumor in your uterus has these receptors, then

hormone therapy may be an option.

Hormone therapy may be used for women with

advanced uterine cancer. Also, some women with 

Stage I uterine cancer who want to get pregnant and

have children choose hormone therapy instead of

surgery.

The most common drug used for hormone therapy is

progesterone tablets. Possible side effects include

weight gain, swelling, and breast tenderness.

19
Second Opinion

Before starting treatment, you may want a second

opinion about your diagnosis, stage of cancer, and

treatment plan. Some people worry that the doctor will

be offended if they ask for a second opinion. Usually

the opposite is true. Most doctors welcome a second

opinion. And many health insurance companies will

pay for a second opinion if you or your doctor requests

it. Some companies require a second opinion.

If you get a second opinion, the second doctor may

agree with your first doctor’s diagnosis and treatment

plan. Or the second doctor may suggest another

approach. Either way, you have more information and

perhaps a greater sense of control. You can feel more

confident about the decisions you make, knowing that

you’ve looked at all of your options. 

It may take some time and effort to gather your

medical records and see another doctor. In most cases,

it’s not a problem to take several weeks to get a second

20

You may want to ask your doctor these

questions about chemotherapy or hormone

therapy:

• Why do I need this treatment?

• Which drug or drugs will I have?

• How do the drugs work?

• When will treatment start? When will it end?

• How will I feel during treatment? What are the

side effects? Are there any lasting side effects?

What can I do about them?
opinion. The delay in starting treatment usually will

not make treatment less effective. To make sure, you

should discuss this delay with your doctor.

There are many ways to find a doctor for a second

opinion. You can ask your doctor, a local or state

medical society, a nearby hospital, or a medical school

for names of specialists.

Also, you can get information about treatment centers

near you from NCI’s Cancer Information Service. Call

1–800–4–CANCER (1–800–422–6237).

Or chat using LiveHelp, NCI’s instant messaging

service, at http://www.cancer.gov/livehelp.

Other sources can be found in the NCI fact sheet

How To Find a Doctor or Treatment Facility If You

Have Cancer.

21
Nutrition 

It’s important for you to take very good care of

yourself before, during, and after cancer treatment.

Taking care of yourself includes eating well so that you

get the right amount of calories to maintain a good

weight. You also need enough protein to keep up your

strength. Eating well may help you feel better and have

more energy.

Sometimes, especially during or soon after

treatment, you may not feel like eating. You may be

uncomfortable or tired. You may find that foods don’t

taste as good as they used to. In addition, the side

effects of treatment (such as poor appetite, nausea,

vomiting, or mouth blisters) can make it hard to eat

well.

Your doctor, a registered dietitian, or another health

care provider can suggest ways to help you meet your

nutrition needs. Also, the NCI booklet Eating Hints has

many useful ideas and recipes.

Follow-up Care

You’ll need regular checkups (such as every 3 to 6

months) after treatment for uterine cancer. Checkups

help ensure that any changes in your health are noted

and treated if needed.

You should contact your doctor if you have any of

the following health problems between checkups:

• Bleeding from your vagina, bladder, or rectum

• Bloated abdomen or swollen legs

• Pain in the abdomen or pelvis

• Shortness of breath or cough

• Loss of appetite or weight for no known reason

22
Uterine cancer may come back after treatment. Your

doctor will check for return of cancer. Checkups may

include a pelvic exam, lab tests (such as for CA-125), a

chest x-ray, a CT scan, or an MRI.

NCI has publications to help answer questions about

follow-up care and other concerns. You may find it

helpful to read the NCI booklet Facing Forward: Life

After Cancer Treatment. You may also want to read the

NCI fact sheet Follow-up Care After Cancer

Treatment.

Sources of Support 

Learning that you have uterine cancer can change

your life and the lives of those close to you. These

changes can be hard to handle. It’s normal for you,

your family, and your friends to need help coping with

the feelings that a diagnosis of cancer can bring.

Concerns about treatments and managing side

effects, hospital stays, and medical bills are common.

You may also worry about caring for your family,

keeping your job, or continuing daily activities.

Here’s where you can go for support:

• Doctors, nurses, and other members of your health

care team can answer questions about treatment,

working, or other activities.

• Social workers, counselors, or members of the

clergy can be helpful if you want to talk about your

feelings or concerns. Often, social workers can

suggest resources for financial aid, transportation,

home care, or emotional support.

23
• Support groups also can help. In these groups,

patients or their family members meet with other

patients or their families to share what they have

learned about coping with cancer and the effects of

treatment. Groups may offer support in person, over

the telephone, or on the Internet. You may want to

talk with a member of your health care team about

finding a support group.

• NCI’s Cancer Information Service can help you

locate programs and services for people with cancer.

Call 1–800–4–CANCER (1–800–422–6237). Or

chat using LiveHelp, NCI’s instant messaging

service, at http://www.cancer.gov/livehelp.

24
• Your doctor or a sex counselor may be helpful if

you and your partner are concerned about the effects

of uterine cancer on your sex life. Ask your doctor

about possible treatment of side effects and whether

these effects are likely to last. Whatever the outlook,

you and your partner may find it helps to discuss

your concerns.

For tips on coping, you may want to read the NCI

booklet Taking Time: Support for People With Cancer.

Taking Part in Cancer Research

Doctors all over the world are conducting many

types of clinical trials (research studies in which people

volunteer to take part). Clinical trials are designed to

find out whether new treatments are safe and effective.

Even if the people in a trial do not benefit directly

from a treatment, they may still make an important

contribution by helping doctors learn more about

uterine cancer and how to control it. Although clinical

trials may pose some risks, doctors do all they can to

protect their patients.

Doctors are studying new ways to use surgery,

chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and hormone therapy

for treatment of uterine cancer.

NCI is sponsoring many studies with women who

have uterine cancer:

• Surgery: Doctors are studying whether

lymphedema develops after a woman has one of

three types of surgery to remove the uterus and

nearby lymph nodes:

—The surgeon makes a large incision to remove the

uterus and lymph nodes.

25
—The surgeon makes small incisions for a

laparoscope. A laparoscope is a thin, lighted tube

with a lens for viewing. The surgeon uses a tool

on the laparoscope to remove the uterus and

lymph nodes (laparoscopic surgery).

—The surgeon removes the uterus through the

vagina and makes small incisions so that a

laparoscope may be used to remove the lymph

nodes.

• Radiation therapy and chemotherapy:

—For women who have had surgery, doctors are

comparing the effectiveness of external beam

radiation therapy with that of brachytherapy

followed by chemotherapy.

—Doctors are comparing chemotherapy alone with

the combination of chemotherapy, external beam

radiation therapy, and brachytherapy.

If you’re interested in being part of a clinical trial,

talk with your doctor. You may want to read the NCI

booklet Taking Part in Cancer Treatment Research

Studies. It describes how treatment studies are carried

out and explains their possible benefits and risks.

NCI’s Web site includes a section on clinical trials at

http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials. It has general

information about clinical trials as well as detailed

information about specific ongoing studies of uterine

cancer.

Also, NCI’s Cancer Information Service can

provide information about clinical trials. Call

1–800–4–CANCER (1–800–422–6237). Or chat

using LiveHelp, NCI’s instant messaging service, at

http://www.cancer.gov/livehelp.

26
Dictionary 

Definitions of thousands of terms are on NCI’s Web

site in NCI’s Dictionary of Cancer Terms. You can

access it at http://www.cancer.gov/dictionary.

Benign (beh-NINE): Not cancerous. Benign tumors

may grow larger but do not spread to other parts of the

body. Also called nonmalignant.

Biopsy (BY-op-see): The removal of cells or tissues for

examination by a pathologist. The pathologist may

study the tissue under a microscope or perform other

tests on the cells or tissue.

Blood vessel: A tube through which the blood

circulates in the body. Blood vessels include a network

of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins.

Brachytherapy (BRAY-kee-THAYR-uh-pee): A type

of radiation therapy in which radioactive material

sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters is placed

directly into or near a tumor. Also called implant

radiation therapy and internal radiation therapy.

CA-125: A substance that may be found in high

amounts in the blood of patients with certain types of

cancer, including ovarian cancer. CA-125 levels may

also help monitor how well cancer treatments are

working or if cancer has come back. Also called cancer

antigen 125.

Cancer (KAN-ser): A term for diseases in which

abnormal cells divide without control and can invade

nearby tissues. Cancer cells can also spread to other

parts of the body through the blood and lymph

systems.

Carcinoma in situ (KAR-sih-NOH-muh in SY-too): A

group of abnormal cells that remain in the place where

they first formed. They have not spread. These

abnormal cells may become cancer and spread into

nearby normal tissue. Also called stage 0 disease.

27
Cell (sel): The individual unit that makes up the tissues

of the body. All living things are made up of one or

more cells.

Cervix (SER-vix): The lower, narrow end of the uterus

that forms a canal between the uterus and vagina.

Chemotherapy (KEE-moh-THAYR-uh-pee):

Treatment with drugs that kill cancer cells.

Clinical trial (KLIH-nih-kul TRY-ul): A type of

research study that tests how well new medical

approaches work in people. These studies test new

methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or

treatment of a disease. Also called clinical study.

Colorectal cancer (KOH-loh-REK-tul KAN-ser):

Cancer that develops in the colon (the longest part of

the large intestine) and/or the rectum (the last several

inches of the large intestine before the anus).

Contrast material: A dye or other substance that helps

show abnormal areas inside the body. It is given by

injection into a vein, by enema, or by mouth. Contrast

material may be used with x-rays, CT scans, MRI, or

other imaging tests.

Corpus: The body of the uterus.

CT scan: A series of detailed pictures of areas inside

the body taken from different angles. The pictures are

created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. Also

called CAT scan, computed tomography scan,

computerized axial tomography scan, and

computerized tomography.

Endometrial (EN-doh-MEE-tree-ul): Having to do

with the endometrium (the layer of tissue that lines the

uterus).

Endometriosis (EN-doh-MEE-tree-OH-sis): A benign

condition in which tissue that looks like endometrial

tissue grows in abnormal places in the abdomen.

28
Endometrium (en-doh-MEE-tree-um): The layer of

tissue that lines the uterus.

Estrogen (ES-truh-jin): A type of hormone made by

the body that helps develop and maintain female sex

characteristics and the growth of long bones. Estrogens

can also be made in the laboratory. They may be used

as a type of birth control and to treat symptoms of

menopause, menstrual disorders, osteoporosis, and

other conditions.

External radiation therapy (RAY-dee-AY-shun

THAYR-uh-pee): A type of radiation therapy that uses

a machine to aim high-energy rays at the cancer from

outside of the body. Also called external-beam

radiation therapy.

Fallopian tube (fuh-LOH-pee-in): A slender tube

through which eggs pass from an ovary to the uterus.

In the female reproductive tract, there is one ovary and

one fallopian tube on each side of the uterus.

Fibroid (FY-broyd): A benign smooth-muscle tumor,

usually in the uterus or gastrointestinal tract. Also

called leiomyoma.

Fundus: The larger part of a hollow organ that is

farthest away from the organ’s opening. The bladder,

gallbladder, stomach, uterus, eye, and cavity of the

middle ear all have a fundus.

Gynecologic oncologist (GY-neh-kuh-LAH-jik onKAH-loh-jist): A doctor who specializes in treating

cancers of the female reproductive organs.

Gynecologist (GY-neh-KAH-loh-jist): A doctor who

specializes in treating diseases of the female

reproductive organs.

Hormone receptor (HOR-mone reh-SEP-ter): A cell

protein that binds a specific hormone. The hormone

receptor may be on the surface of the cell or inside the

cell. Many changes take place in a cell after a hormone

binds to its receptor.

29
Hormone therapy (HOR-mone THAYR-uh-pee):

Treatment that adds, blocks, or removes hormones. For

certain conditions (such as diabetes or menopause),

hormones are given to adjust low hormone levels. To

slow or stop the growth of certain cancers (such as

prostate and breast cancer), synthetic hormones or

other drugs may be given to block the body’s natural

hormones. Sometimes surgery is needed to remove the

gland that makes a certain hormone. Also called

endocrine therapy, hormonal therapy, and hormone

treatment.

Hyperplasia (HY-per-PLAY-zhuh): An abnormal

increase in the number of normal cells in an organ or

tissue.

Hysterectomy (HIS-teh-REK-toh-mee): Surgery to

remove the uterus and, sometimes, the cervix. When

the uterus and the cervix are removed, it is called a

total hysterectomy. When only the uterus is removed, it

is called a partial hysterectomy.

Incision (in-SIH-zhun): A cut made in the body to

perform surgery.

Internal radiation therapy (in-TER-nul RAY-dee-AYshun THAYR-uh-pee): A type of radiation therapy in

which radioactive material sealed in needles, seeds,

wires, or catheters is placed directly into or near a

tumor. Also called brachytherapy, implant radiation

therapy, and radiation brachytherapy.

Intravenous (IN-truh-VEE-nus): Into or within a vein.

Intravenous usually refers to a way of giving a drug or

other substance through a needle or tube inserted into a

vein. Also called IV.

Laparoscope (LA-puh-ruh-SKOPE): A thin, tube-like

instrument used to look at tissues and organs inside the

abdomen. A laparoscope has a light and a lens for

viewing and may have a tool to remove tissue.

30
Laparoscopic surgery (LA-puh-ruh-SKAH-pik SERjuh-ree): Surgery done with the aid of a laparoscope. A

laparoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light

and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to

remove tissue to be checked under a microscope for

signs of disease. Also called laparoscopic-assisted

resection.

Lymph node (limf node): A rounded mass of

lymphatic tissue that is surrounded by a capsule of

connective tissue. Lymph nodes filter lymph

(lymphatic fluid), and they store lymphocytes (white

blood cells). They are located along lymphatic vessels.

Also called lymph gland.

Lymph vessel (limf): A thin tube that carries lymph

(lymphatic fluid) and white blood cells through the

lymphatic system. Also called lymphatic vessel.

Lymphedema (LIM-fuh-DEE-muh): A condition in

which extra lymph fluid builds up in tissues and causes

swelling. It may occur in an arm or leg if lymph

vessels are blocked, damaged, or removed by surgery.

Lynch syndrome: An inherited disorder in which

affected individuals have a higher-than-normal chance

of developing colorectal cancer and certain other types

of cancer, often before the age of 50. Also called

hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer and HNPCC.

Malignant (muh-LIG-nunt): Cancerous. Malignant

tumors can invade and destroy nearby tissue and

spread to other parts of the body.

Medical oncologist (MEH-dih-kul on-KAH-loh-jist):

A doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating

cancer using chemotherapy, hormonal therapy,

biological therapy, and targeted therapy. A medical

oncologist often is the main health care provider for

someone who has cancer. A medical oncologist also

gives supportive care and may coordinate treatment

given by other specialists.

31
Menopausal hormone therapy (MEH-nuh-PAW-zul

HOR-mone THAYR-uh-pee): Hormones (estrogen,

progesterone, or both) given to women after

menopause to replace the hormones no longer

produced by the ovaries. Also called hormone

replacement therapy and HRT.

Menopause (MEH-nuh-PAWZ): The time of life when

a woman’s ovaries stop producing hormones and

menstrual periods stop. Natural menopause usually

occurs around age 50. A woman is said to be in

menopause when she hasn’t had a period for 12

months in a row. Symptoms of menopause include hot

flashes, mood swings, night sweats, vaginal dryness,

trouble concentrating, and infertility.

Menstrual period (MEN-stroo-al PEER-ee-od): The

periodic discharge of blood and tissue from the uterus.

From puberty until menopause, menstruation occurs

about every 28 days, but does not occur during

pregnancy.

Metastatic (meh-tuh-STA-tik): Having to do with

metastasis, which is the spread of cancer from the

primary site (place where it started) to other places in

the body.

MRI: A procedure in which radio waves and a

powerful magnet linked to a computer are used to

create detailed pictures of areas inside the body. These

pictures can show the difference between normal and

diseased tissue. MRI makes better images of organs

and soft tissue than other scanning techniques, such as

computed tomography (CT) or x-ray. MRI is especially

useful for imaging the brain, the spine, the soft tissue

of joints, and the inside of bones. Also called magnetic

resonance imaging, NMRI, and nuclear magnetic

resonance imaging.

Myometrium (my-oh-MEE-tree-um): The muscular

outer layer of the uterus.

32
Oncology nurse (on-KAH-loh-jee): A nurse who

specializes in treating and caring for people who have

cancer.

Organ: A part of the body that performs a specific

function. For example, the heart is an organ.

Ovary (OH-vuh-ree): One of a pair of female

reproductive glands in which the ova, or eggs, are

formed. The ovaries are located in the pelvis, one on

each side of the uterus.

Pap test: A procedure in which cells are scraped from

the cervix for examination under a microscope. It is

used to detect cancer and changes that may lead to

cancer. A Pap test can also show conditions, such as

infection or inflammation, that are not cancer. Also

called Pap smear and Papanicolaou test.

Pathologist (puh-THAH-loh-jist): A doctor who

identifies diseases by studying cells and tissues under a

microscope.

Pelvic exam (PEL-vik): A physical exam in which the

health care professional will feel for lumps or changes

in the shape of the vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian

tubes, ovaries, and rectum. The health care professional

will also use a speculum to open the vagina to look at

the cervix and take samples for a Pap test.

Pelvis (PEL-vus): The lower part of the abdomen,

located between the hip bones.

Polyp (PAH-lip): A growth that protrudes from a

mucous membrane.

Progesterone (proh-JES-tuh-RONE): A type of

hormone made by the body that plays a role in the

menstrual cycle and pregnancy. Progesterone can also

be made in the laboratory. It may be used as a type of

birth control and to treat menstrual disorders, infertility,

symptoms of menopause, and other conditions.

33
Radiation oncologist (RAY-dee-AY-shun on-KAHloh-jist): A doctor who specializes in using radiation to

treat cancer.

Radiation therapy (RAY-dee-AY-shun THAYR-uhpee): The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays,

gamma rays, neutrons, protons, and other sources to

kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may

come from a machine outside the body (external-beam

radiation therapy), or it may come from radioactive

material placed in the body near cancer cells (internal

radiation therapy). Systemic radiation therapy uses a

radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled

monoclonal antibody, that travels in the blood to

tissues throughout the body. Also called irradiation and

radiotherapy.

Radioactive (RAY-dee-oh-AK-tiv): Giving off

radiation.

Registered dietitian (dy-eh-TIH-shun): A health

professional with special training in the use of diet and

nutrition to keep the body healthy. A registered

dietitian may help the medical team improve the

nutritional health of a patient.

Reproductive system (REE-proh-DUK-tiv SIS-tem):

The organs involved in producing offspring. In women,

this system includes the ovaries, the fallopian tubes, the

uterus, the cervix, and the vagina. In men, it includes

the prostate, the testes, and the penis.

Risk factor: Something that increases the chance of

developing a disease. Some examples of risk factors

for cancer are age, a family history of certain cancers,

use of tobacco products, being exposed to radiation or

certain chemicals, infection with certain viruses or

bacteria, and certain genetic changes.

Sarcoma (sar-KOH-muh): A cancer of the bone,

cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, or other

connective or supportive tissue.

34
Side effect: A problem that occurs when treatment

affects healthy tissues or organs. Some common side

effects of cancer treatment are fatigue, pain, nausea,

vomiting, decreased blood cell counts, hair loss, and

mouth sores.

Supportive care: Care given to improve the quality of

life of patients who have a serious or life-threatening

disease. The goal of supportive care is to prevent or

treat as early as possible the symptoms of a disease,

side effects caused by treatment of a disease, and

psychological, social, and spiritual problems related to

a disease or its treatment. Also called comfort care,

palliative care, and symptom management.

Surgeon: A doctor who removes or repairs a part of

the body by operating on the patient.

Surgery (SER-juh-ree): A procedure to remove or

repair a part of the body or to find out whether disease

is present. An operation.

Tamoxifen (tuh-MOK-sih-FEN): A drug used to treat

certain types of breast cancer. It is also used to prevent

breast cancer in women who have had ductal

carcinoma in situ (abnormal cells in the ducts of the

breast) and in women who are at a high risk of

developing breast cancer. Tamoxifen blocks the effects

of the hormone estrogen in the breast.

Tissue (TISH-oo): A group or layer of cells that work

together to perform a specific function.

Transvaginal ultrasound (tranz-VA-jih-nul UL-truhSOWND): A procedure used to examine the vagina,

uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and bladder. An

instrument is inserted into the vagina that causes sound

waves to bounce off organs inside the pelvis. These

sound waves create echoes that are sent to a computer,

which creates a picture called a sonogram. Also called

transvaginal sonography and TVS.

35
Tumor (TOO-mer): An abnormal mass of tissue that

results when cells divide more than they should or do

not die when they should. Tumors may be benign (not

cancer), or malignant (cancer). Also called neoplasm.

Ultrasound (UL-truh-SOWND): A procedure in which

high-energy sound waves are bounced off internal

tissues or organs and make echoes. The echo patterns

are shown on the screen of an ultrasound machine,

forming a picture of body tissues called a sonogram.

Also called ultrasonography.

Uterine cancer (YOO-teh-rin KAN-ser): Cancer that

forms in tissues of the uterus (the small, hollow, pearshaped organ in a woman’s pelvis in which a fetus

develops). Two types of uterine cancer are endometrial

cancer (cancer that begins in cells lining the uterus)

and uterine sarcoma (a rare cancer that begins in

muscle or other tissues in the uterus).

Uterus (YOO-ter-us): The small, hollow, pear-shaped

organ in a woman’s pelvis. This is the organ in which a

fetus develops. Also called womb.

Vagina (vuh-JY-nuh): The muscular canal extending

from the uterus to the exterior of the body. Also called

birth canal.

X-ray: A type of high-energy radiation. In low doses,

x-rays are used to diagnose diseases by making

pictures of the inside of the body. In high doses, x-rays

are used to treat cancer.

36
National Cancer Institute Publications

NCI provides publications about cancer, including

the booklets and fact sheets mentioned in this booklet.

Many are available in both English and Spanish.

You may read these publications online and print

your own copy. Also, people in the United States and

its territories may order NCI publications:

• By telephone: People in the United States and its

territories may order these and other NCI 

publications by calling NCI’s Cancer Information

Service at 1–800–4–CANCER

(1–800–422–6237).

• On the Internet: Many NCI publications may be

viewed, downloaded, and ordered from 

http://www.cancer.gov/publications. This Web site

also explains how people outside the United States

can mail or fax their requests for NCI booklets.

Cancer Treatment and Supportive Care

• How To Find a Doctor or Treatment Facility If You

Have Cancer (also in Spanish)

• Radiation Therapy and You (also in Spanish)

• Chemotherapy and You (also in Spanish)

• Pain Control (also in Spanish)

• Eating Hints (also in Spanish)

Coping with Cancer

• Taking Time: Support for People with Cancer 

Advanced or Recurrent Cancer

• Coping With Advanced Cancer

• When Cancer Returns

37
Life After Cancer Treatment

• Facing Forward: Life After Cancer Treatment (also

in Spanish)

• Follow-up Care After Cancer Treatment

• Facing Forward: Ways You Can Make a Difference

in Cancer

Complementary Medicine

• Thinking about Complementary & Alternative

Medicine

Caregivers

• When Someone You Love Is Being Treated for

Cancer: Support for Caregivers

• When Someone You Love Has Advanced Cancer:

Support for Caregivers

• Facing Forward: When Someone You Love Has

Completed Cancer Treatment

• Caring for the Caregiver: Support for Cancer

Caregivers

Research Studies

• Taking Part in Cancer Treatment Research Studies

• Providing Your Tissue for Research: What You Need

To Know

• Donating Tissue for Cancer Research: Biospecimens

and Biorepositories

38
The National Cancer Institute 

The National Cancer Institute (NCI), part of the

National Institutes of Health, is the Federal

Government’s principal agency for cancer research

and training. NCI conducts and supports basic and

clinical research to find better ways to prevent,

diagnose, and treat cancer. The Institute also supports

education and training for cancer research and

treatment programs. In addition, NCI is responsible

for communicating its research findings to the

medical community and the public.

Copyright permission

You must have permission to use or reproduce the

artwork in this booklet for other purposes. The

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but they may require a credit line and/or usage fees.

To inquire about permission to reproduce NCI

artwork, please write to: 

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You do not need our permission to reproduce or

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appreciate a credit line and a copy of your translation

of this NCI booklet.
NIH Publication No.10-1562

Revised August 2010

Printed September 2010