The Voynich Manuscript: 

An. Elegant. Enigma 

Contents 

Page 

l Tbt Knorm Foe& .................................................................... 

1.1 The bnuseript As Fwnd ............................................................ 1.2 'rhcIbmnHutwyoftbeMPndpt ................................................ 

2 Awnusl of Atuck m-the fmbkm: ASwy ................................................ 2.1 Conjaetm Concarning rhr H.m of the Manuscript ................................ 25 Autkwrhipand hrp~ ................................................................. 22.1 AHw.eForgery.wN~~~t~? ...................................................... 21.2 Who Wmtr ft . md Why? ........................................................... 

3.3 R-rvmi.net md Cindtrlyiving language .................................... 

3 Avmusr of Attatk: The Dtawings ...................................-.........-- 3.1 Rrlrtionlhip of thc Ihmwings to tbt Text ..................................................... 3.2 Nature md Cbatrcteristics of the Drswinp .................................................. 

3.2.1 Rwraicm and Style ....................................................................... 3.22 Pighents nnd Inh ........................................................................ 323 Rctatimhipr to Swaa 0th Ululvatcd Wanumipts .............................................. a3 ~ancratd~~ifie~.rmof~ ............................................................ 3A 1 Herbrl Ihrwkys ......................................................................... 3.3.2 Wumrrmtid Drawinp .......................................................... 

36.3 htdaghd .ad As~onmicrl Ihmwinp .............................................. 

3.3.1 Cmmological or Medagial Drawings ............................................. 

3.3.5 Drawinn FmwringHuman Figurn ...................................................... 3.3.6 Networkof httcs . Fob 85-88 ........................................................... 3.3.7 Small Mugiml Mi ................................................................. 3.4 Meanmg of h Co1l.ctim d hwinp 4s a Whale .................. .l.. ...... ..I ....................... 

4 Avtnua of Atuck: TheTmrt ....................................................................... 

4.1 Xanuc md Cb~ttiiaim of the Voynich Script ................................................. 

1.1.1 Rovrnimn and St* ..................................................................... 4.1.2 Relationships to Known Scriptsad Character Sets ........................................... 4.1.3 Attempts to hmpw the Symbols into Elements ........................................... 4.1.4 Variant md Embrlhbad Fmns of SymU .... .'. .............-..-.......................... 4.2 0th Seripud Hamb ..................................................................... 

4.3 Limu Saqwaers thmt Laolr Lit "Keys" ....................................................... 

4.4 Cryptanalytic md Stylistic Attacks an the Tat ........................ 1........................ 4.4.1 Phenomena in the Text Which Must k Aeeounttd for by Any Theory ........................... 

5 Mmja Claimraf Dcciphermmt .......................................................................... 33 

5.1 Sewbold ........................................................................................ 33 

5.1. r The Latin Text Cipk .......................................................................... 3 

5.1.2 The Shhmd Cipher .......................................................................... 3 

5.2 Fwly ............................................................................................ $5 

5.3 Strong .......................................................................................... 36 

s-4 BNmbmUfh ...................................................................................... . 3: -' 

6 Hhtory of Other Substantlrl Analpic Effionr ............................................................ 39 

6.1 The Fwma in Which the Manureripr h Bsan Studitd ................................................ 39 

... 

Ill 


Foreword 

Tk hiswy of my conneon lwirh the Vqntch m~owript is as fdlows: in 195 I Mr. With F. Friedman introduced 

me lo fhc manttsrripr md I rpent my spc rime in stuely~np thc combinations of thr masr cmmtmlv ormrrinp s~mbols. I 

urea a rrpwr of my work for Mr. Friedman. I should mention that the only pn of the mnnuscrcripr which was avaiiable to 

me at the ame was the wary pages at k md which cmtain nu illurpadons. In fact he delibcrnlv used me as J 

mud-ht wld me nothing dm than rfie infamation about the manuscrip contained in the bck Thr Gpk of Roarr 

&con by Nrwbold. On the strength of this dg I came to the rather definite conclusion thar the text could not hvst kn 

mid u mly by rhr htlluon of single sfmbotr 6w kers wlunwr the lanpuagc involved. 

Subwqumdy .born m1w yari ~po I red a pper ro the hitimate Bibliophiles cwcring the historv of the manasmpt 

ad mine of die at#mpr so decipher it. This pnprr. a1- unaimed. was pnd in an imd office journal. 

In rht fall of 1975 I red a pap om therubim-ma pup ofVcdlcapu~ k thu occasion waa rather widely advertid 

wihin the organization. it stud quite a large audience and rht attention of some of thwr who attended was drawn to the 

srudy ofthe manuscrtp. 

Frm the rimt when Mr. Frirdntan's bcaIth kpn to fail. I have acted as a sort of unofficiaI cwrdinator of the work nt 

romr d c)lc pcopk who have km whine on the"problem. and when Miss Mary D'Impcrio told me oi her rnlnclr. I 

~ugpttd ha1 she Add assume chis mnpmibiliry. 

Sk wrim a far morc compsthmrivt and mac vhdarly survey of chr probltm than mine and it ~111. 1 believe. 

kcomr the defiaitiw barkground of fume work in this field. 

To my knwkdgc thm haw btrn thm rather txttwive aoalvm of the mipt of the mmurcrip~. bv Mr. Friedman. br 

mt. and h Clpain frcs~~lrr Crrrrier. Of t)mr. f Miwe Capn Cnrrkr's to k fnr tht most cornpine. All three have 

-Id rimilar cmdusions st any me in lomt ~rpmr. and I Fad mpif quite umMc to accept any sup~crred mlution unless 

it mke mat of these urolp. 

John H. Tiitman 
Introduction 

Tk reader ma? wtl wonder. "Why still anher pper on the Vqnich manumipr!" So much har ken wrimn alrcadv 

on thtt mart died. mart curious. and mart mysscriow manuscript upon which so many r-rchm haw exhausted their 

dadn in vain. PethPp~ a few words of +amtion mipht be in &np the wngc for the reader. and in pramring the 

morirrtion for this monopirph. 

As a etiativelv recent newcomer to the ranks of Vwch manuxript mdcno. I have unwittinplv rtuaced rhe ncps ~i aI1 

m: prtd-5. tcdimrwrinp rhcir lourca, repring heir exprimmrr. prowing excited ovtr the same promising leads that 

cuwrd hem. and learning onlq Lota that all the things bad ahdy kn tried ad had failed. ohn several times. I have 

M wish to impIy that I rcgrrr any of my efforts. In fm I little nupd. when I was first ~ntroduced ro the proMem of the 

. . Vech ,-nuscrip at &qadi? -. Tilmn's . . iernve in Novcmkr 1971. that I wwld sped dl mv rp~rtime for chr next 

ear an an inrclle-1 and sparinul but& rprnning rn many immries and raneiq over so mnv of an. hirrorr. 

philosophy. and phi-y. I hove &oroughlv enjoyed mrv mmenr of my invcsripouons. and would not pivc rhrm up or anr 

pcc. 

Thc fact mains hat, in +re of nU the that orhtrs haw written about the rnanumipr. there is. to mr know. ledge. 

no rornptc smv of aII the apprmches. id=. kkpraund information and analvric studies that have ~mrnulactd VWCI the 

nmrip hhy-fiw vmrr Jim the manuscript war dixovtrd by Wilfrid M. Vopnich in 1912. Mar of the papers have ken 

witten 4th~~ to schrnMc or m ~fua a prticulnr thy. providing in pnrslng a brief planer at others' cfforu. prnari1v tr~ 

sweep rhem our of the way. Some prneatauonr pde pd tmunmu of me orp~n of the problem. norably rho= br 

Vo)nich ( 1921 ),1Yeuhld ( 19281. Tiltman ~1968l. and Krirc)#r ( 1969). Much vital information. howcm. is to be found 

only in unpubiishd naris and papar inamuibie to mosr mh. I have felt that it would k useful to pdl together all the 

inhmmtion I could dmin from J he #num 1 haw emmud. ad to prrscnr it in an ofdcrly fahim. I hope char the 

&Icing SUM? will prwide a firm basis upon which aher &a my buikl their work. whether they seek m decipher the 

mt or simply to I- mare abut the probkm. 

This m~tograph mi1 k arranged in h main xctions. Firu. I will pre~nt a survey of all the basic facts of the probkm: 

the "giveM'*. u ir were. M. f will ap rn cover all the pri~v avenues of mock and the informarion relevant ro each; 

. the wnal chwaEaridrs of the manumipi id, the drawings. and rh* rexr. Third. I will sum the maim daims of 

decipherment and Mhrr substantial analyzic work carried out by varw mearchers. Fourth. I will prandc a rapd sketch of 

mflararl d background topia whh rrmr likely to k uurrhl. An -ive bihi yraNv is included. compnsinp bwks and 

.. p~on the Voynich mawripc ioelf and on a varier? of relared wpu. 

I wish to rrprw my apprao~rim for be gmmuur aid of John H. Tiltman, without wh& enrourapcmmt this monopa* would never have hen rwaplrrtd. I wisb rlso to hank Stuart Buck. Edwin S. Spiegdtbl. ad Stuart Mlintock. 

who proofrd my mnusaipr and offeral mon y helpful criticism and ntpons. 
Chapter 1 

The Known Facts 

It seems impwcsnt firu of all to distinpuish clearly the givens-the incomrwtrti blt facts avallabk to all SVJ~~JS 

of the mmruaip-and the lush vth of coniKfure Chat has accumulated mund the few meagre rertarntlcs we hart. .A 

ch pbyUcP1 Wipuon of the &ex iaclf is providrd by metal authars. Tk rnv in the cmlogue of H. f. Kraur 

(nnaquahn bookdcakr pad owner OF the mrnmipt for a numb- of ym) provides an ntcrllear. rompact sketch IK~ 

fipe 11. In kef b mystmiom m&pmmiswir a-sd- q~prtp durn. with leav~ of vawinp size but of on averape 

nine by ix urchtr. me multiply fcllded. Morr psdn contain. in addition to copious wxt in the unknlrwn Icript I which 1 will 

d the "V~pich mipt" thrwpht hs ppcrb. &red pime of conridt~abk varic, whwc mcaninp ir up ru 

conicrtute. Mw alppeor w tepre#nr plants. amdogid Qr mdogicd moraial. and phatmarmcical recipes. while a irw 

show hu.- figurn rurroundtd by bizam objects in ,nnes of udmrminrd import. The tat and drawinps will: k stadtd 

in derrMr derail in Chapters 3 and 4. 

The mamm~pt hr rw mr; he fi pap contains only four kief paragraphs of wxt withous pictures. but w~th an 

apparent de *nrmpl at rubrication by rncana oCmlargod and crnklfhhtd initil choranar in red ink. The tasr pap shwr 

a few Lims of mitiug near the tap. in a diht scrip or mixture of miprr than the hulk of the text. along with a few 

srmhls from the Voych ~cript. ad a mnering of sketchy drawinpr of airmls. people. ad otk unidentifmblc hem in 

he oppr left mmr. Some krrr in the body oFcht mwript ah win mings Ihplv iUcpiLk) in mipa md hands 

.ppnrrndy difiirrg from dse majority ofhe ten. Thcv otppicrl scraps of wid* wit! he ddt with more fullr below. 

We hart une bit of conrrrrr data 10 mplail: a Jetm. hrd hn the pap of the mnumipr bv Willrid 

Voynich. Fium 2 sbows rhrs h. and figure 3 provides irs tranrlrum frm LPcin u prepad for Vomich and published 

bv him ( 1921. p. 27). T hc ktar was wrim bq Jmnnus Marcus Maru in Rapuc to nccompanv his pift of the manuxripr to 

Arhanasius Ki~her. 5. I.. in Rome. The letter 45 rhe following did faas to our bledpc i as flrshcd out bc the mearch 

of Vwnich. which he dmrik in interesting derail in the work cited ahel : 

Tbe mnnurcripr was in he haads of Jmnnus Mucus Marci (A.D. 1595- 1667 I, official physician to Empcror Rudolph I I 

of Bohemia (AD. 1352-16121.inrhc yr 1665 or 1a6. 

- It had prevlourlv bttn in the @on of ontar more Mtm prrm. mhcrwise unidmcifid. probablv associaled w~rh rhr 

court of Rudolpd~ f I. 

it pfed fmm he porra~ion of hfarci to ArbaMsiur Kirchcr in 1665 or 1666. and remained in his hands for an 

unkaown pad of rime. 

It had brm old to Rudolph an unidentified perm a1 rn unwalrd rime fm the larpe sum of M)O ducats. according to 

infwmanon provided m Marci bp. a Dr. Raphael Miww~kv (AD. 1580-1644). who was a hmiliar rr rhe mns oi 

Rudolph and hL succcwm. 

haher nueptr of inkmalion wu wmPrd from the tnigmatic pap of he manuscript iutlf as a mult of a fortunate 

accident. A mishap during pharopphic rcprwlmion of the maawcript rmaled a partially td sipnature on the first 

page. Examined under infra-red lighr. him ripmarc was found m bt "Jacob; ?i Tcpcte", that of a man identified bv 

VOW PJJPCO~S Hw~lcky de Tcpencn Id. 16221, Thu mm wu dirmor of Rudolph's hnirai pardens and alchcm~cal 

Iabonterv. He dd mot quire the ptent of nobiliq with he ride "dc Tcprcz" until ah 1608. Thus. wc have one 

ddiuonal fau: he manuscript was in the hands of anolhcr familiar or Rudolph's court at me time during he period from 

1608 to 1622. 

Tht Lou ht of concrete mdmcc we haw is the whmc the manuscrip wol found bv Veich in I91 2; this source 

was kepr secret for some ~cprs. in the emtion that Voynuh mipht wish to murn ad purchase more rnanusrriptr there. It 

was ultimanlp revealed lo bt rht Villa Modnponc. in Italv not far from Rome. The foliowing is a @cis of informanon 

conraning Mondraponc, parherd bv John Tilmn: 

". . . .A rib m Fr-ri new Rome. burl, k cardinal hitrmpl rbr 1770. In 1582 ~upc re par XIII rrrd horn hl,lrmdr&mt thr 

bull rcfwm~ryr sht cakndaf. The *ilia a-Ir rvrmnllcd In tht Almnp lamilc. as In lhll! A lam mtmkr bcqucarhrd Fhr Mtlndrdamr 

liku* atht Vancan Likan. la 1&5 ttu will& kame a Jnwr Ulry which was fin*Hv cld rn 109; lTiltrnYn 1%. p :. 
~.tbtn.isdrrcrdFk#ruforccrtriaobodt~tnipluticcodcx: wbor~ntstudcaph~vcsenmrhrlxmk 

d.radthekmrrthrraamprwad icwh had. LSofursI~~.ao~tacifirdyohutrkindbmrbcm 

artid at oa rhe i&. pip-. a puc)rmcar; d &a attempt hU been ade ra armim drt pages udct rpceial liphr fat 

ldda~ wridng.) Up thk mngrr foundaim of faa an impo~rng edifia of dcducrion ad pssworlr hu km ad 

ttvoryh errreirc tercuch ad pamsxem dddq. fitrt by Willrid Voynieh. ad dxn by a rrvarrion d Lnm nudenu. 

t#r~oasdtbirppawilldtrlin~~wiph~~~~frhieh~rPdlSodnadd~

*rl~rnhtlrrrlfPeearr~fr&~ 

A wt of solid kaci~ enarks an k mmbkd Erom the mrcu ddkd above. ad summarized as fdldws: 

~~~rrrintbehadrohr#m~pr#m~brotyhtitroR~s~~amr6mtkfar1608. 

hwuindte~dJltObllldeTepcacrtfm~omtamePfda ~~rad~hirdc#h in 1622. 

It~kkibrol#timtb~.aocbcrpnon; rho wilted it to $-nus Muarr Muci rowdm bcSwc 1665 

a 1666. 

it wu ~nt bp hduci h Prague. dmrinp i665 or 1666. rn his old mtr, ALhanuitls Kire)Hr. in Rome. 

It did am th )br mmr hod his- unril it was did by Wilfrd Vo?nich at the Vilh Mondrrponc. FTPK~II. 

Iuloin I912. 

k rbr dnrh ob Vopnich in 1930. tht mpndpt remained in tbc tuur of his dm (author of a dl-k-n nouei. 

Tb-, which caprwI grmt miy in tk him Unioa). Mrs. Voymich died in July 1960. Miss A. M. Nill. a 

Cmadurdr~of~.~~~~,arS.wrs~~~~dfhtm~ 

1trupdi8drnJoly 12.1961.bytirnrP. Knw.NwYork raciqwirnkkdkt. fwS24.W. 

bus rrld tk mm&p n $100,000, aid Lur at $160,OMI; hl tried rrpldlp to find a bu~ far it at time prim. 

Find?, in 1960. br it to he Beinceke he Bodr Libruy dYde Unimdry. where it now mnritu. camlopucd as 

me 808. ad nld at $125.000 ar $500.000. .rrordiv w dih mum. finki~~uaa mamninp Phe modern 

modhe rmn&pruokri~~cd fromKImm 1%8mdfromunpllWnaakcpbr MkNiIlfor Mfand for 

Mr. ad *. vm.1 
Chapter 2 

Avenues of Attack on the Problem: A Survey 

In lhir thapr I will mmpr m rwn u much as &Me of tk gnat variety of conjecture. rcasoniq, research. and 

inwtipon that has brm unicd out by a wide nngc of xhOlPTs. from Vqnich down ro those of recent rears. I have 

arranged this material udn r Ma of toplcr rdq ro impormt charmerisria of rite mmuscripr. ria provtnlewe. 

date. arigi~l knguage. aurborrhip. ctc.1. wh&~ haw excited the curiosity and exercised rhe inpenuir~ of all its manr 

mrdenrs. I cm la J claim to r hddpc of only n smdl put of he mrk rhar mtv noar k in progress or that map hare been 

doat in the meat pan; many Popet have undoukdlp carried on tkr wrk done, and their idtar and results haw hcome 

knwn only to rhclr immedb~&yn d.s&a~snror~ Any day now. a .m PMOUnCCmCnt of success could break 

upon the wald from one of thne &u. I hopc that tht pc~cnr summary, horvmr iacompkot. may Ecrve.rn carhcr 

tgcthcr more informuon hut rht manuscript d in rae~chcrs than has hithmo been a~ilak in one place. 

2.1 Conjectures Concerning $be History of tbe ICIunusc~ipt 

~UKI afm his diwr d the manuscript. Vwnich udcrtwk a rcrr uumpcanc and thurr~ugh invrsric~trtm its h1 ~rilr.. 

He rvrned up a mrlrh of internring dam. and dcd in pitcinp toflethrr a plausible squmcr of events to fill in mos1 cri 

the bMr rpo~ kwm th known kachm9tks. Ht tncrd the oripin of the manwript ro Rqcr Bacon 1 12 1 4)- 1191! I. A 

knrd Froncircrn vholat ad philwopher. rcnowncd in her timer For hu occult powers. Of Ropr Bacm much more will 

k said Llow [see Scaions 2.2.2. 5.1 and Chapwr 7). Voynich mtcd rhat he had fastened upon Bacon as the most Iikelr 

cnadidnte f# au~bDCfhip by a pmccu oi dimimtioa, wing, as he did. a thirrcmth mwy dm for he mnuWpt mn 

kfwe he saw the lmcr h Mara mcnrioaing the similar bdief held by wmeont or the court of Rudolph 11. Vovnrch's 

rrnammt of his mwning whik -mining the muscrip at the castle whm ht found it is wmh quoting in full. 

"Em a dv brief alraimamm of+vellum up which it wan dm. ihecrlliyrphr. th kawlrrps and the plnmmtr supnnwd trb 

me as thr dam of IU mpn dw hmr prr dthr th~mmh m. 'b dramap lhrd n ou k rn rn~rluprdu wwk un nmrai-phllrnophr. I hlv *mudacd the qu- uf pouik.awh#ship of Ebt rwk rd tilt lum ulaalr rwa thlrlcmrh anturr uhdarr uhta rrd 

hawe wrmn un luch a vv of ul- oroursd w mr: hrrr. Albrmu M~nur whom I M mix dimmmud fmm canvderatlam br~~ux 

b mhuacal ad pditinl paidoa PI swh dw it rwld noc have km mmtln for him m mr t*i has wrtunm rn r~phrr. &nC 

dv. tk FraKi~ln Frhr. Rw Bama an infvriulr gram W, who had km prstcursd on mnt d hir ananrr ~nd wtuw 

dfir dtromcr~ts hd km rn~m u bhtk +t. w. fa' mar ears' hr hd kin Wrn~br~ hu nrdn tit *na. 

adheh~mrelf~~nb~bwrt#~rfdh~&n~h~~#ererr~nrrphu." 11921,pp.415416.] 

-'It was m unf~lme ameakr Pncmrlluraipun#~mcl~ &dnchmr 1 ftrddwhcm kwlnprt#brr lbe5 dur 1Mu1.. rsh~rfi 

was whrd m he front ewrr. bust of IU kc dur 1 hd rcprkd ir nr dm ronwqmcr. ad thrrefmt arelad rt durtnr rhc ttrrt 

Lxarmntnm &the mmpmip." I P. 4 16.1 

He must have km ~rifitd id& to find his wfimural adbution of the mmuarip to bn thus dmmaucalir- 

~orroborrnfed. 

Nac. Voynich turd his attention m teasing as much additional information as he eould from he faas at his disposal. Hc . 

uacovcred a quantity of fdnating &ad cone#ning the prxmges mentioned in rhe icercr and ochcrwife suJpmtd to have 

bnn rrwrd rrith the mmruaipt. my of them familiars of Rddph I1 and mrmh of his court The suhm of 

Rudolph. rhe scimtif~ and pudm-dc m~~~m~llll char pw up mud him. and aswnishiq kk of Icimciw. 

rpia. ChPrlPLPILI. ad aka flamimyanl ~~llver~td upon Piape during Rudolph'a reign. is in ituIf a 

vPluable area for study. The work published on chis topic by Bolum (19041 is quite out of bet. ad while enjoyable reading. 

fails to do juJtiee to the subject in the light oftday's ~hhrrhtp. Ewns 11973) prwidts a led. upto.&rr pmmnrion 

on Rudolph ad rht ehlmrm and idg culture surrounding )us cow Evrar makes i udizinglv brief mention of the 

Voynich tn~umip. but docr na add anything m wr kwwttdgt of ia origin. 

Hae. in brief, u my ehmnologiii wtiinc of the ttypahews VoyniDh PC farward m fill he Rap in the known hinwv ofhe manuraipt. and ta sugpt hvttrtr Encs of invcsripntion to compltte the picture loll informs& in the outline blow is 

from Vwnich 1921 ). 
LDttcr half of the thirteenth century. The msnmik was penned by Rap Bacon. as r r-d of his sMer di~ovcrie~ of 

Kience or magic. 

-15)8? Thr maurcripr d in some rnoMJtic Library in England vn~il he didurioa of the reiigiwr horn at the 

rime ofrhe Refwmorioa: tius d#awtKln brpn in 1538. 

-t 547 Many Baca~ mmwp (me say .r many u I200 a11 tdd) were eolkeoed bv Dr. John Dm. ElizabnhPn 

mal)lermrPti&n d ~rmkgcr (of whom rnore will k nid kku in Cbapar 8). He obtoined rherc. Voynieh 

rhra~gb his dm wilh John DM*. Duke d Nmhumkrlond. who uaMKd I large fwnrne throllgh the raws 

+adon of rdipb houses during tiu Ilefornutim. Our mnuxript touM have aomr into Dn's hands as earl* u 1147. 

dinp m Vgaich. Whik it rolr in Dee's 7, )It de viv aramptl m dedphtr it. u d b a mnork in 

a much lam kffff (dad 1673) quoting Arthur Dtc, John Dee's ron. m dw effect fbu bt hod ~tn his farher spedinp 

muetrumrovern~"~in~trogiyphi~'(on~smrmr.rerPlPo~8.9k~l. 

1584-1588. fodm Dee. failing in )rb mnnp w ddpk it. crrrird the mrdp op Pqpe on one of his visio to 

Rdph'r oourt kcwrm 1384 tad 1588. It WU. then. rn Ikc a skme tepre#nting bim that Rudolph pid the 600 

ducats which wu his prirr fm the mrep. It wu p'oboblj ah Ikt who Ewwid Rtldoiph or orhm at the court d 

Roger Bocon'r authonhtp; he wu m a cwuidmble kgree with BQL#I dtmqhwt r brgc @on of his life. ud 

hsd r large part in drrreminteing knorvl+ of h's wak and mfwbirhiq rhr npmmm of zhr rhi-th-mturv friar. 

mndemntd bv th: Church d his comcmporork to mtuA d mgk. Dee c#n claimed to k a ddmr of Bamn 

[whose real name. Dtt chimed. hd km "David Drt" and m ltopa Bsron pt dl). 

- 1608' Rudolph made various rntmpu #I get the mnnurpipr d+ by his ~t~blr of KhQIPIs ad expens. In rhir 

endeavor. hr may hart committed the rmnbpt for wrlriry prpam. im dte kteping of J& & T cpmm. whose 

namr was mimn am t. and who my b.vt krp it lfPer Rudolph's obdidoa in 161 1 ad the rubqucnr lootin# and 

diswludoa of the Emprror'r emarivc murcum ad dmh~t Siw dt Tcpnm wu en& in 1608. he auld not haw 

mitanhirrwneoathrm*nwipin&fOtm~~ebeBOctrhrt&~. 

- 1622. dt Tepeu did in 1622. ad we hre no mid- for tbe him of rht maaluaip between LhPf wmt and iu 

rppmnnct in the hands of io nm koown ow=. Mud. 

-16443 According m rhr Mua. kacr, rhr ma-p ru in the prrdm of an unknown owner. mutual friend of 

Marci and Kuehcr. fmr lamc ubn pid; iadak it my hvt prsed rhmuph m.1 hdr during that time. It mu* 

haw e~mc intu Mads p#shn dine kfart 1644. since Marci was able to di it with Dr. Raphael. wh died in 

char ?a. Vqnich suggests (p. 419) thrr "med~ into tht Bohtmka Sme Archim will ltd to the diKovcry" of tht 

andmaw frlend of Marci and llso of Ki* wb hd tht monuswipr meen 1622 and 16-44. 

-166516. During rhr time krmn 1644 aad 1665 or 1666. wearc re~wnnbly caroin that the manuscrip was in rht 

of J-anus Mucur Mua ad that it dm pad ilwo eht hads of -u~ Kkck. What Muci ad IGrcher 

didwi&itwiikduyhad hrcdonolknorr. 

- 191 2. Vwnich saqs. "my own imprtrrioa is bt Kk&a kfi tk umndpr m wmeo~c n the corn of Puma. whcrt 

hc hod pocronr and hiends. and it probrbly rtmhd in Pbe won of o mankr of the Earn= family until. wirh other 

mnwip, it rr~~ d ro rhe edlreriaa in which I hind L*' ip. 430.) 

kwr rcltprtha~ hwe rddcd dg a h Wh to &is chtawbgy #I inguiidy M out by Vgnich. Brumhu#h 

( 1975. p. H7) Suggmr th.1 K~dff bimwlf -7 hrvc dcpDsvced eht mnbp dhly inw the Vib at hdondrap. 

john Mndy (1921b, p. 188) &mr that "it u dar dur hdtrd did noe dw nuntrraip in 1640, wb I# wu with 

Kitdm in he". 6aee hr would mtudy h.ve ~irm i to Mer dwm. Ht ab mpu thrr Mud. in the prcfrcr of a 

work cndrkd "hm 0-m Ida". meationr u his mdia-in-hw oat W. &ughm of Dhiriur MLmaa~e. 

who bmmt dirmm of Ruddpb'r Impcrbl Mo#um. Manly implies tht Mkrone mld have bm tbe unknown fried 

wh bequedd the nuniucrip to Marci. FiarUy, Manly provider the i-g bit of iaformk rbt the 600 durn, 

Rddph's pFmr far d# mnnuzaip, wwld be dw equiviknr of S14.000 in 1921, ad he cwraibllan lbmr nrw data 

repudiug de Tw: rtrir seirndrt ru &id ID fk thc-ooonuy during disnrhnm tbu plrct in 1618. and ma! 

well have paned with the musuipl &m. sine it rppvmtly &ad in Pngue. 

Robm Smle. an eminent hifforinn ad Boeonira ,ddu wtro h did many of Ro~cr Bum's rwrkr (Bacon 

1904-1940). mmn with Voynieh in ~mmccdng tht mannmip wid^ John Dee. He mw "Mr. Voynirh is, we klievt. 

right in hrs conjecture hat it was Iold by Dct m the Em- Rudolpb at rhe dad of the shenth century. attributing it to 

Roger hm. and that it wm +b4y 'dw hk mmining mthillp hut hirroprlyphicr' of which Dtt's mn rpoke to Sir. 

Thus. Browns." (Sack 1928b. p. 543.) 
2.2 Authorship and Purpose 

my studem have hod. ar tirnn. m uncomhble suspicion that tht mysreriwr codex upon whrh so much fruirlesr 

rfh bd bnn ipnr might k a frbrie~rian. io text reprc#ntlag nothine m&yful or orderly enolgh w bt capable of 

deciw and rtparlnrioa. WiIfrid Voynich sctim w have felt hat the mandpl was mqutstionably a pcnuinr 

@adon of a rhvcetnth-ccnsurp ad^^. and rpcihilv of Roger Barn. Dr. Alkt H. Cmer (one time technical 

hirwrian ofthe Armv kmriry -I -the opinion shad bv mou studma who have grappled with rht elcpon~ puzzle 

when he SF, "So much rime ad ~o much ap- in vellum of aecUmt quality went into it. ir cannor be a hoax. . . It 15 

metivrbly the work of a wnlthy ad Icprrrtd. if dermgad. pm. bur not r hoax" ! 194. p. I 1. In an ear1r. repwr. John 

Tiltman, one of the most faithful ad rtiwoughgoinp of the rnanwipt's studemu. e*prrsscr his considered confidmcc In 1s 

aprhcnticiry: "I do not Idkc cht mlnvlcripc is cwnpleaiy muningks. t4e ravings or dowllingr of a lmaac, nor do 1 

beli~ it ir just a h-K is m clabanw ad coariamt for richer. . . . Abwrt tht worst chi* ir can k is a deliberate 

fwm'h &@in. . . . 1 regard this as ratha impoMk:..--." (195 1; p. 1 ). - 

In a rnm mnrr pmeararioa. Tiltman mteram eh#e judgements, refwtnp to accept ssppwions that the manmcrlpr 

conmicu ody "mcpninglers -lings". He mtinurs. "There is mare senst to the idea that the work is a forgery. Thu I 

think is highlv unlikely, spaally if Capn Currk'r k art correct." (Tiitmn 1975; the refmnce to Captain Cgrrier 

anmw his findings of muluple "bnds" in rhe rcr~ b which ree Mion 6.8 below.) Erw~n Panofskv. a prominent ~holdr 

of medinal and Renaiupilrr ~CI. dad the welpht of his tmning w his vicw: "I should like to reiterate mr upin~un 

that rbr Vuynich inandpt. whichcwr im place of &gin. date and purm. is cmolnlv a perfectly nlthmtic docgmtnt" 

(1954, p. 3). Fdly. EIirnkcb FriadmPn. wife of Willwn Friedman Ipromintnt ayprohglst and srldent uf the 

mpnrurripr) ad r distingturhcd xhoiar and a~proiogist in hrr orm right. aprclKs a similar opinian: '-All xholars 

cmnpmat to judge the manuscrip . . . wm-ad rdU arc-agreed hat it is defiaidy ncu a hoPx or rhc doodling5 oi 3 

psych but is a hwaogctmw. aeruvc wwk of r Kfiw hdar who had mething rrr convey" 11462 1. 

At tcrrt oat rcam h spoken out in fpWr of an mng vicw, -ring hr rht manuscript is in fact a forpm.. 

and may contain a conridcrak qmnuty of mtaninplerr "dummy" tm intmdcd mm1y ro fit1 it out to an imprcrsivc Iepth. 

Rok Brumburgh (1974, 1973. 1976) claims hot dw book wm cxpmrly ad cakulatedly dcripcd bv some sixteenth. 

ceanrry oppmnin in or& t~ fod the Emperor Rudolph into parting with the large sum of money rhat he did. mdd. 

qmd to okPin it. To rhrr ad, the mt wu provided with a mtrh of apparrmr~ nsy "kqs". and just enough cnsilv dcripherabk matetinl on the kt page ro cmvinct Rudoiph's cxp ht it would prwc m be rdable with the expendi~ure oi 

a dk mount of ek. Fakd "evidence" was ah pl~d on the ht pge. -ding ro Btumhugh. m prsociatc the 

KEfn book cldy m Roger Bacon-that ewciung ad rnysmious pos~~un of imprcrriw Kimtifir and occalt wen in 

whomJohn Dec M kn busily taisinginttrt~t to a fd pi& at Rddph's cwn. 

In spirt of aII this. Bromhugh sham r)sc vim that thr manuxrlpt is not mlly meaninpla. He mys. "There is an 

mderlpiup tm . . . and mncr ar lam. by dlborotirr work, it will k read. There is no way of pndictinp whit it will sav: 

it could k anfhing f om a standard botany textbook ao fmrnulae for tlw Elixir of Life deriving from Roger hm" I 1975. 

p. 334). Fdcr Thcodon C. Permrn, moth= dediaced bng-arm mdmt of the monwripr who porscrsed a wide 

hckp~nd oflearain$ in history and philology. qmucs his view thus: "Thm is agmment that the ccxt of the Vovnich 

manWpl obtyr uniform nrks which ue ronrwt ad unchawing throughat the whole 246 want quarto papel of 

witing-indicating that tk seti p contained an imlligi ble mcania~ for irs writer" ( 195 3. p. I 1. 

NewW. F-Iy, and Svonp. drc rhm other pnnaprrl clnrmnu (btridcs Brumbaegfi) ca lome dcprce of success in 

deciphering the manuscript. dl it as a gmuinc and serious prduetion itha of the thinecnrh or the ixttenrh 

ccnturr. Wiiliam Friedman ah. whik not m my knowlcdpc haring the mansscript with anr retic author. repardcd n 

as a valid document with romt content mpWe of king deciphered and d. 

Some dmn of the manuxript. and others who didaim my inarcrr in it. ham dvad rht view that its content can 

have no value for ricnce ar fm the mdy of hum thaugkc. filman. in his euly rep^ to Friedman. says. "I do nor in anv 

case iqine rhcre is anvlhing hiswiafly or KiePtjfually irnpmnt mtaincd in rhe mmusaipr" (195 I. p. 1 ): this. in spire 

of his cktp and long-mriautd i- in dw problem and his firm Won of the rhewy dmt rk mandpt is cmplctelv 

rntaninfilcss w fraudulent. Eliztkth Friadmn indicates that the lack of miow interest in the mnmaipt on he pan of 

scholars was. on at least me e. a cause ofdisappwnent to her husband in his rncarch: "It apprs to k pibbcrish to 

mmy mious.mindd ac?demicr. who arc apt m =off rr rht id= rht its mlutim would k of an! value ta, ~ence -w +. 

leornin~-as did a pt foundation to which Friedman once applied far a gronr for the dmiled study of the manrmpt. in 

the opinion of the board. a sd~tim would not advance haman krwwledfc. Tht rnanuJaipr prohbly contains on17 uivia. the 

board said." (1962) - 

J 
I must mnk that 1 can scc lidc justire in the r-np of hoar "academia" who dismiss the Varnich manamipt WJI tit 

had. Itm wht cpn anlq k rhr ma1 superficial aennrion. Even if it is. in h. a fabiurbn adand wih the cow ui 

R~I1.~~of*rbono#kirrpusyfmonc8o.11~rhaofR+'rfrraib~adrhtprrcitpb~ 

inPbt~~d~dpobaerIrai*id#.rPryoeiatbo#timerdpro*cmkd~~.In 

~~d~ub~rbt~nrki~drdthitmrclenrodoiopirctwkbina~~o

ercncrdmcmi~Ifehtmr#oeripira~on.horcrcr"~a~.dtPwnfromt.tlirrmp~id. 

dehrmial, a -14. it hu at I- u much inainsie i- md "lcirntitu imp h he huccrrr of Wrrarn 

hqbt u do arha rimihr mndp which uc rrsdrbk. d ro~mn only om oDpic li-e.. tk arc eiober uu~cal. or 

rlchemiepl. # mdd). llepttLbk oebdur rpprnndy #cao d6mr in dyiq "w* mun&prr ofhs n-pc. 

dm*Eprnd~oFrbrkli*erro#erpkd. 

ThrV~mraorcriplppcaorrbtdiDtb~heombianina#~nlo*#6audi~tdirrrddircipiim. 

~~wi&~~oo~tkemimr~~.I€dita~uidprondtahi@yimcrrrriq~coia 

or donrim inarrela~fl rU dKIC disdplines. u ,kosr in dw kUth.m prrriccr 06- individual a KW. Finallr. 

~ifobrranirsatny~lyle~r~a~~ttultracmr#rmr~rrdilrrt).).rdeeiphamcluof~tminwlmt 

6dapdtatt€w~-suipwasrhwxaifqem: 1 nri@r.+.ocephprnractofalur~-tddummvorfilItr 

text. W pd out the lmprh of rht hmmr or m rn SA "eorrtr" mr within which a rhaocr wpc is Wen. 1 cannut. 

hm. set any iuRifiutIon for dbmirnl oh rhr mdp *r ttivirl or uammh? of artful ad ndc nudr. We can 

~iaPrlotfOC~~~a~~b#ceDdka~lcurkPr#dpuimralarm#erbwrit. 

Rqm Bacon (AD. 1214-129223 u Au*. Vornich, u we have ~ccn bt. r~ crrPin of Bscon's authorship from 

rht~fid~.#~1SeariwLl)d~bc~h. WhR.N&.tixihwwld 

btdedpbermtdu~bodr. ' -Irbm~~kaa~of.o*eIrrimrikreKufbnosocnprobkrork 

~brrrrb.Hr~rbt~.~m~&.krbb.#i#~~erbrpomeoekrrdiviplrwffknd. 

pondralt the raipmt rich m arl subqm loR. Tk 6m chap of tkt W &scribing Nmbold's findings 

an eralkru Aeuh d Bqer Ws tik writings. d dwqln. indicating rht hr tud dc a thorough studr ol 

the ~~amuty friar ad b wah ( 19fB. gp. 1-28 L 1. MaMm Bud 1 192 1 1 acpu Nmbold'r deriphmmmt. d 

r&ImikctioaooBoma,in6~drhichhr~a@tbyj~ 

kh~wgOLbCr~rad~qmtrrbrn~~rbmiraocoododre~rpia~~a~nn

rorhashipdh~~b?.~(rhnhaukinhiraoogrrph~arrprrrmorl.Qcro~p?dbirwork).JohnM. 

Maall 1- li#nrt Kbdu l.ra tefvoed MrrWr rollldaa) r*pr#rcd lais opinioo &us in m mlg ammmt: 

"Thn rhr murerip is Bacmr'r. M wen thrr u dotu Erom he chimenth awry. annor thm k prown by doeumenr~rr 

e*idtlwc.ku~irmnidmot~thucnditio~d~~Ofdlt~ipliPKlfdmri~. . ." rt921.p. 

1891.T~~rirhdrirvirr:'~brs~noIolidcridraee~t~~~irwrbp~B.crm.ora 

o~pgd~rakb*bim"I1%8.p131.Anomberd~~Jr)vlb..wrrprd.i~h.ild.ritfimfhusium. 

NMs d.im m have pnvm thu 8.apa ru tbc andw (Cmm 1929 Gilwn 1928). Fa inha hrrion of &IS 

quertion.~Qloper7klorv. 

~IkopnN~rhcAt#hor.~~ueio#tmph.ckin~~ofBocon~uthtIcribeorcm~butorof 

mnvo~a~tluin~au~pTbr~ea#ardromt~~tbeir~ofmarl~durh~bodr.adlc.. lppum~m~&iturlrarre~p*d~rr#ls.~~opinionrdatparr&tilyr~emmnu~p 

Muad 1MQ.d~mlPcbpwtormbmbtcarrwrSr~Bvoaor~ue(llikd~wh.r*bemr~~mancopicroi 

~rworluduttrPrt~~~l~hm111.1~~~~mehcfarroaarhadfi~aotltrin~.Sdlloebrrr~~~(Boe

auhnhip mt, 8-7. in #end. bpt &mllr u r pan of their anphadr rejcaion of hlmbold's hphcrment and 

hsrmil#lcionoftbc~pm~rl#ICriphJUEh~~~claivirinuthtiavdaaoftk 

eoarpollrd~d~~rad~orroo~macrrrirbiaafrrl#ofrrfat#croaa*lvhpro 

BooPa'~timcr.~~vbustrprd~yrbot"Tht~~lheorrbinmvopiionarv~widrrllr)K 

avrikbk b ad hrr becn eomiadqly dispmed by Mr. lir. in Mv's articles dmsoWllnp NewM's 

ehrorin) (1954-p. 21. Dr.thultrSinp.cmiuenr miu!of&na. saidin a her wfhman 112 Novcmk. I957\:*'1 

am m the cm~lusim rhnt all sm of A bkdp of he Inpin reftftiq NmWs deciphermeat J 
was simplr nonsma." Fimllr, Lvnn Thorndike has. wrth charncteriruc rmphuis. stated his optnion that "There is hard!% 

one chance In fih that Ro~cr Bacon had an! connection with the prwlucrion of the Vomich manuscript.:' 1 1929. p. 5 191. 

Anrhonv Askham as Aurhor. Dr. Leone11 C. Stronp Iwbwe claim# to n decipherment of the mnnuscripr arc discussed in 

Smwn 5.3 below). insisted that the aurhor was a sixtmrh-mmry physician ~mcd Anthonv &ham (or A~haml. who 

had pubiiuhcd #vwd almanacs. udogical works. ad an hehl. 1Tikman has fmd out rchm to a numk of these. 

as arty pritd bOdCS: ftt Askham 1 WBP. I948b. 1550. 1552. ad 1553.) Strme chimed. further. ro have deciphered 

Askham's name on folio 93 of the manuscript. No otkr dmt has ampred this thv, and Srranp-s ppcd rcadinpr ui 

thc rat have bnn empharicallr tcjmrd. 

0th- Gtmfrl Suwrims Rcpudinp Authmhip. Dr. Cam claimed to ~c evidence of "a copvi~r 31 a-wl;" 11946. p. 

1 r. Ht mcnrions duplicarim among thc zdioc diapramr. there kinp in fan two leaves binp [he Ram. Aries. and 

showing the bull. Taurus. [These diagrams arc. in mlity. quift dikcn~ whm examined cartfullr. and the apparmr 

"duphcptions" an onlv superficial; the poiring of diapams fw these m zdw ipns cknrlv bad samr dcfin~tr purpose 

known only to he author of the mmuzrrip49r. Singer. in n Ma to Ti16 I 1 2 November. 1 95 7 I expresses rhe opinion 

hat rhr origin of rhe mrnuJcrip was mmchow rthd m Rudolph's court and m J&n Dre. Whiie he docs nor iurrher 

~pecifp. rk mmte of rht mnmion. one pinr the imprerrion h he maq have had in mind an idea similar to Brurnhu~h's 

discussed ah. Panohkv Rprer t)tc followiop virw: "Mp idea alwap was char the manuscript ws written bv a dmor or 

quck rtqinp to impm what ht conridefed Kcra knowldpe to his son w heir" { 1954. p. 2). 

2.3 Pmvenknce and Utrderlying Lunguage 

Eagknd. Meal Latin. Voyaich. as we haw sen. meed rhc manuscrip ro Roger Bacon. in the England of the ktc 

thimnth cmtuq. Ht prohMy ah. thmk. assumed the underlying "phnmt" to be the medieval bun of the Schools. 

urrd by h in all his surviving works. NrwW (1928. p. 44) ah gigiv eJ thcmnnusmipt m English mipin. claiming to resr 

his opinioa an "he judpmcnt of am" not funher identified. bad am rhr parchment. ink and sryle of the drawings. His 

propwed dtEiphermmt produced r form ddd Lacin. ffic Ian- which Falp (1 943) chimed to hmve discwertd in 

chr manusaipi was dm Lotin. but in a system of ahhwiatcd forms not midaed ~~ept~Mc b!: 0th- scholars. who 

u~nirnoudp rejected his ?dings of the tntt. 

En~hnd. Medieval En~lish. Ltomll Strong (19451 maintained tbat ht hd dtaphmd the text a5 medieval Enplirh; as 

we wit1 see in Smm 5.3 klow. orha dmn have rejmed his theory and drr plain- be produced. both as valid 

mdimal English and as a cwrect deciphament of the V@ch nxt. 

Unrpeutitd Eruqmn. bun. Ebitckth Friedman (19621 stam that her hhd. William Friedmu. ~prred with orher 

qualified cxpm that "tk orru~cry of migin is definitely European; it might k Engtnd. Fronct, Irah. or whar is now 

German?." She &, further. ehPr "tk aexr is bd up a wriam language rhac L probablv brin. the lanpuapc of all 

le~rncd and scientific diwoutscs of that pctlod, but nu7 k nwdiwal EapEsh. French. Idinn. or Teutonic." Thnc v~ews 

mm ar leave us with n dimwaginply wide choice. indicpring that che "apertr" could fix upon no &finire cvidence to 

narrow the am of chclr search. 

It~iy. Hellmut Lrhmnm-Haup BiMiogmphid Consult~ot lo H. P. Kraus (own- of Che manulcript hen 1962 and 

19691, suggested in n lmcr toJohn Tiltman ducd 1 Nortmbct. 1963 chat Italy was a likely country of oripin. Ht states. 

"Whik bmh pdmgraphidly and hmidly JprPking. Idp is as likely a pkc of wigin as any ocher country of Eur~. 

rhm is no evidrnee chat rhc maep mun hwc ken m*de in Venice. or *hat in Northern Itale. The vbility tbat 

it comes from Central or Southera Imlv h s6ll opcn. and rhir mild very well mean exposure m the Arab world." He propo~cs 

that Arabic should be mdmd as r cadidote for the uadertyiq Iqogc. Etokrt Smle su~gesu that me of he writinp 

on the lur page my bt "perhap in a Norrh ImIian hand" (1928b. p. 564). Brumkugh draws evidence from dcrails in 

of the drawings for his of a relauvciy late &tc and a Etuopn prdcncc. Thus, in one of the rodiac-like 

arcukr diagram. he says "Sn@mrius mars a fifiemth~cenn~ry Fhtine archer's hnr in his dillion (thwph it 1s 

mouchrd ovtr the monrh nome)" [ 1975, p. 349). 

Germany or Em Europc. Chades Sioger. in a lecrer m Tilunan dated 12 Nowmber, 1957. states his feeling that rht 

manudpt is "of Germanic orifin", and "md rich John Dce and that rcrn of mwemtnt." He givm a somewhat fuller 

~f~m~t d this view in marher kmtr to Dr. G. M. J. Fkmming. undated ht okwrly wrinm or abwc the same time: 

"The iudgement that I ford upon the mumipr ms that it w*l Of the sixtetnrh century. of South German work and -- pdblg rehted to Pnpe and John Dct." Singer aim sugp that Czech. P&A. w some other East-Cmttal European 
1- cholrld k carriderrd m kltc rhc #n. Fmullltely for itku of fht mnurcriprs. who^ difficultirr are alrcadv 

sufwf burknwme. ht anrikn Magym "hifl~ unlikly." 

M Siqm tio obe kmrarFhmiq1 d Pamhky 11954. p 2). mmtioa a diq ofloiar IEuared ph= on the 

kpyuH~~;thisrrdilyr*rpopwsd.rppueatlyiaapri~clommuniclcion.h BiehrdSobmoadf 

m-T)r.b~vrrlrnm0b~a~~~1j0nddl~mh1-dl~jpMkd:"soaiar@[11& 

0.". a wdinnl -pion m#nimg "(If nrcfi d suda a coadirioa pmrih). then rPkt pt's milk or . . ." 

fbir"pnoiprim".rlriehbrrrkrotfismia-rclllrrs~r.~~muEoariaroorrirbcbrprrcbdiop~onchrliar.He 

~~~~~a~in~iIPofOCdnbrief.rordrkPadoafdio~.atnafip~damsnI~apoa)ursbrrkas 

if6dtaderdd~~~~nlsm~~~er~odr~lanpl"dermwocil".~nprrr~hc&ip~~

tador#acdr*ripbbOILsCbdd@smkrh9rhnd'sdruh. 

nnedl#FoaracnrhC*neurf.Vgaich tI92t*p.435)~tbrrmanur;am~IPe#;h~lfoftbc~~ 

~.urrb.rr-~Ncrbda~~"btbt~d~."r~dpPrdrmmrink.rlda~led 

dnriryr pbad ebr ma- in pbe rbiro#nrh aaauy. (3928. p. 441. P- syr. "I rpcc wirh Mr. Tiltman that the 

iu~onofa~w~~Lirdd~tlbler~hrrr~rfrirl~~dur~t&m*~p.

durPawb mmw manurerip d Sz. Hid of 8iqm rbaw dmwiqs ibng dte iaflut~t of the hnvmlr Mics 

ad r'dj d r#otr up tk wgmarr .ad mimror Lk of tbe turh. The -Ltr cmm mrn~rcrrpa Variran 

1906 hu lomrwhn dmibr urronomial dmwiw" (1953. p. 2). Saedr pmvidcr t& Bdbrnap -n# ~ommrnrr. with 

tk bmcfir of trir bkdp ad Clmiliviv wirh dd nmnlrvripf tiad in pCticuhr I)lt works of Ropcr 

BBcoa~:"Theonulr#rbodrof&ngr~pf.il~;Phr~erruaock~~rdl~mir~oomBDrebe 

thid~llt~1~r.b9t1#t~,~inlrb+~~dK~tcmriadorringtothcir~lcrr~of 

~Lht~oi~irh~.Lir~~Pbt&ofanwa~hwoocwapiePdyaeopaddmad#upl 

QC inflrcafe" 119tsb. p 563). 

fikmh w. Hqh O'Ndll. a F.Amrrian baa&. plMM m Mda ofcmnia plonr drawings as 

Nrr Wwld we: "m rturliy dmdhh . .r~ fdio 93. which is q& p&id? dn - runflorcr. 

Wiambw huur L. Si* bataim b*e Ppccd with me on this drrcrmih fbir immcdi.otly dlr At dare 1493. 

~bm*dd~plrarrer*h~mEtuoph~fimlimIbgblumboroahir~nfromhirdw*apr~. 

~~olOlv~adnrilywbiebd#Jaoc~m~prti*cEompaain;t.bm~phralv~m.a 

~rPinly~inari@n.~iaEvapr~afm&rh dta.... It--ytodrhrs 

ma- u h*ing km mitam Jprr 1493" I1944 p. 126). Otkcr rlylhrr horrw. mmplmh *at O'NeiII's -. ~ofcberunaDlver.ndpcppaphm,drrrrr~drintkird.imthu-ofh~pimrrd-inthr 

rmarraipt arc of New Waid w@a Hbt Wm-hp 1bi-#uul caarPltPw #r H. P. b) Iwsd in a icl#r 

m'I*id.oed 1-. I%3,ehu"thtrtnrwrr~mrbtdrorofIbtCMIImroorctip*~d.~ra 

litdrriar. tk pr 1400." 

Sixararhtrrmuy.Rnofiiryddrbir*oia~lortre#~alrotdoaCorrbtori~nof~m~mdcr:"W~h 

aor60rtbtlPaflwcrImidearifid~D'~ri~/ ... 1~hwrbolyhr~itrru~d8litdr~~m~~bour 1470. 

Horcra.riaCedw~doht~ilyrbfrirlypr~mwrmrhtkar&lr,~~h~d~~ 

~,waJdnorr#mmbr~I~n#pbrm~~~~1&1~~~aoia0#a#oFrhtI&r

Brarirl*act~irrridcl#.Tke~hir~mt&c~oftbtsaiprthe~leofdrawingmdmluch~umcr 

urrrinnidcnotmocrerinpyr.6prmFd,SpliO72r#t0[probabl~ndariryoot&~maindK~ 

rcpmcaorioarj." (1954. p. I). Ekektb Fdmm ~rt#r tht of erpn opirdon ar the time u follows: 

"Pwpbic agree Ltur h ainve of hr dn- she Miry, tbe id ad dm. ca.. iadiaa ht tbc 

rmolaaipbd~ofbar~ebrsltbrohiroamph~.Tk~fi~Spr~t.~e~~tfbri~Cormr 

-cobthat pud butotrofa tm.rad. pcnod.*~-rtru tk~epridin which it was 

rim- 1500.plusamiaurnrc#lrmm"(l%Z). 

AH. ridarmof Wipr Hill la frid ofk Vqrricb wbo him whm he 

rnmtnsd t& uuaurcrip in (19461: '7k -4th drr- -ally rbtm*tarioar ofdu Liiwdramnp in rhc 

-~m&JI~~~pc~~.fhittbtman~hhhfblll~~Ob~~~Ian& 

Thrrrir~'GadriE'~aagulrrrbolarhcm.T~~fudmnrdd~iarheirrtpkrhrinflvmaofrhe 
rcalirm of a later perid. The coloring of he illustrations may well supprt a later dare than the rhirrcenth cenru?'' I 1946. 

p. a,. 

hnmg ioac agnnng on a sixtenth-century date for the manuscript is Dr. Charles Singer. who xam in tur Inter to John 

Tihn ( 12 Nwmrkr. 19571, "The dm of the mnnusmipl would. in my optnioll. bt mewhat in the aeip h borhwd of 

1520 oa pahaps a tinle ha. . . ." We hw akdy =a rhar he onn near the migin of the rnanudpr wirhlohn Dee and 

Prague. LCOlKU bong m*kn an mag luggution, thu 'The fmrmr and use of -in prmlirr symk (mirror ;mopes . 

of che lerlian d at di and el. resprerivdy) ore evidmca that the author wu probably hmi1iu with rhe manuscript of 

Lronudo & Villtj'~ 'Ammy' Iwtiften abut 1510)" t1%5. p. 6081. Saon~'s idcntifiatim of hhnr Askham as 

aurhor of du manuraipr ah his him m place it in d~c simtnrh century. since Uham's knaarn wwks wrre publirhd 

fmm 152Son. 

Bokn humbough prnmn perhp the mm Med and spccif~ midcncc for a sixteenth-mrury date: ". . .it seemed 

plnur to me from he oumt hat thia is not a thiith ccv manuxrip, and I hbd Wer Rudolph I1 or mv d his 

nrpcnr em bPd ~~it.~r.ia.wwpph.*~~k.by Roc Bncon. DcePil afm deuil poid m a btcr date dm m IIOO 

ohan 1300. . . Sagittarius wears a fiftenh-aatury Flaenrine prcba's ha in his med~llion {though it ir mouchrd wcr the 

mmch rum). A dodr. tuckal away in fdio 8Sr. hu a h hour d long minute hd, a sryle nor dcvelopcd until the 

fifmhth century. . . .fa shm. ths mnureript is pt crrlint a compilation of abwr 1500" (1975. p. 349). (A numbtr of the 

poim B~imkugh cmplop rn bol#tr his argummt dew upon his own detipbtrmt and assmind vcific idenrifications 

of he sy:nbols with numerals. erc.; 1 have omd tit&. reraining only his mwe objmively hd commcnrs, Fw further 

dimusion of fht "dd'. m 3.3.6.) 

Finrll~. Jdhy Kfischa hind. in rhe of his much. tk opinions of a number of cwpcra at Mard Univmttr 

conaraing ohr dare ad +cocc of the manusaipt Im Seaion 6.7). Ht rrpwu thrit jdgcmem as folhs: 

"PmtPr# Gila toarPbk I- of Mdid hf, hwd Uai*miq). I. ovcr -a d tbr rmwmpl. dud rht 

avmrrnprur*ormdr aaaydu~gptdthrrkwny ehr kr km dpumtrbw~mori*tadbf thrdcwrt m kreprwh~ 

~ful~fromrbc~l~Sritaotia&~~drrplmrod~dif~~mrrthe~auwnpuindccd&d

phm ad rd wdagd -.rkm dak lim ofnuoning u quim~mplbk. Ttsc due of the mnumipt was apaln plrrd 

la'* cm~ Mr. R* Dmnir (mem of mrawriprr in mm tibrm of the Hmud bUcp bkurr. Mr Prnnlr 

ldmrilicd mp to k in dK yk d the ammtth mruw humrain scrip. A& duinl: of tk manulmpr rru dw to Dr. Frankbn 

Luddm. Dr. bdkn dmrmind dw dur =I king m tbc plod 147'1 m 1'150. His -hod ofdatiq IS bod up^ lnrlvz~nr the wte Di the 

dmwltqa: Itw htnra of thr nudefiLuta: rl# wifilm ofrk h-l drviryr." 1Knuhrr 1%9. pp. 3 1-52.) 

In mnridmtion of this dew of many pmnwmmenu mode by ~holnn and cxpatr. 1: haw mode a rough "box score" 

~umrmriring tbr opniwrs. It is uudc. hn it my aid the mder in bringing me wder out of thr rnulriplici~ of 

judgollcnfs hr, hvt acnrmuhtcd over he pars during whih the mymrlous m~nuxripr has ktn studied. In the ~allr 

shown kiw. I hbve ~biwrtity assigned a rn of "2" to ruch $s "in the judvt of apern'.. or "the 

consmuus of opinion". Pad I lcorr d " 1" oo the aplnion ofa in& wirer. richour ampang to weight them in any prcam 

dcuil. 

dr m m 

12561399 5 

la-1550 12 

To mv mid. this rummsry of rrpm oplnim don. in fact. lead consjdernblr weight m a mlntivcly hu date for the 

mmuutipt. 

mmndpc). In SKwn 3.2.3 1 wit1 di-u Jomt other mmulcrip that have ken mmdd as poliblv comprrablr to the 

Vopuh mrauuripr. 

7berbmrrrrmymirnprrrriwrofhdq&ofohemoa&p: nwiHrrtbthwhDrv yrmeolhcr ~udenu 

brwdo~it. 

-e.dSw 

VWdr mnmmhws his imprtlsi- of a~a~r~ bmrrn &is mmwip ad Ibt ak. mote n-ptcal mcd&al 

xi. 

rirbwkhirprr Bwad: "Irmr~m~yd~~prsdwithrt#othcrmnwrrips.wirhthtitri~ 

pld ad oda rbu my i- d u -" (1921. p 415)- Dr. trnt +ma dcuikd 

~dpbr~~~e@mbmd#~ppi~,ad+; bisprn#lrlrrorr~on ir 

uSdJPm:'Ihrill~arcdonerithgcrt~,mrithaamtimwprwidiapa~iagpin~rebutnthcrrnth 

#eoneg of dad. we. u Wirt Nil1.e out. Ihr kid of drminp that a 1Ekntix would mk fa 

w.1r#~drri@m~rtKbtl~~d*w'11446.p. 1). 

~~m~~m~~dI&~n~porm~ofet~irippucm~

Tberra300~~(#rcaupiti~)h~r&~.Toromt.dK?.mpklrtq;#r&r. 

thcg ~ffm hy. ad chitdirk Am am- amdm in Sdmsik AAmrriaa trker r mitical ad mnmproour vim: 

"The pcmra uc dy drawn in by a palan who ohiouslg rar #mewbat htkinp in rreirric abiliw, evm for i 

rhm-enwy seribt" L1921, p. 4321. Apin.drtlli# aoth# -a 6mihropmm r fm phm: "The Klik 

~n#a~~1~111~,brscFB#rrJomccimmrrmiadlud~crudr~rrr+ia~ryupona 

**~rrr#dkowwr~~b"(~.4~).~~.bbirIrmmJ&TiImua. 12Nacmkr1957. 

aprroa.imibr~htbr~diCCiEdC~dbphOl~m:*T&~rcrof~orroa 

boroaicllurlihtofthe~ado#~~doodlilyadwehildfmmkd~no." 

ArriIlrlrokdintl#d~of~lrripbaar141.1).~~~rrudtna~brietiymmt#nrtdtheuyleof 

t&hrily~mrWiarhdrj-opaemiqtt~Q#d-ofPbrIllrauoeript.aontofr&mpavlk 

"~fd~~~~op~nmulu~r~rrdanam"crpm'*r#harbcr~ficd.~rtbrrrwmrbove. 

-rmurrkr."hbarryah.rthed-dhlrcro-~nerpddmsdir*rl.dBrmirrrnetiafl-" 

(t92Bb. p. 563). Clmr (1946) den rn tkc "w of& h~mrrr tigum and eht kk of "Godric" nrtt u +vjk 

foradowIr#rthradKthim~n~horf#vr#ruhrcnnuier.~aaofik~ t1914.~. 1)-chr~leofhdtaai~~"birlv 

~';k*srpperhchrrekaonideaerofhtl#arrfromaheIh~qk.hrum.itapp~uif~, 

~brJ~abmeffed8mll~~d~.mmprn-d~r&~k0fehrV~ch 

~drr~~~~~praB*Iriorrr~rd~drrd~oor#ofolrrqp#dms. 

3.22 Pip- d fn&s, 

3Z3 Re&#'d#s to Some 0th I- Msuwrnm~ 

W~ro~rashr~dir;rppoi~~ylinkto~mPhirPopic.OarprimItnimprtsrioa.rh~jdyaaot.I1L~t~~zirre 

qwlity af the pie~trr~ ad the difficulty of idcntif?iry with any what they poruay, lw cad most %hd.ws . funiliuwi~m#ttonr*ndanrlmrbrrrlrmauwri~m~uprharh.adrin~rf#rtbcmwr~glr#r.Thr 

"~'pictltraof~~dtht~~rrweirmdrirb~~tiynsofkr~ip
the most immcdlatc ptomtv for cornprim5 to orhcr herhi or asrrological drawinpr. Panofskv I199-i. p. 1 I addresses the 

problem as fo1lw.s: "Mnnu~pe in phin lpnpuape remotely comp~rnbte w rhe Vornich manu~ript arc. unforruwttiv. of ~t 

kaa~ four kinds: first. herbals: mad. ctnrndepicnl ad astrolo~i~l trearjses; third. medical trcatiscs in the narrow sense oi 

the mm; founh. pribiv. waiw on alchemy." He sugprs rhar rht mystical drawinps of a thimenth.~cnturr monk. 

Opinnus 6 Canisrrir. may be wrrth mining as comparable amolopiat and mmdopial works. Father Pcrtrsm 1 1953. 

p. 2). mmtionr the visio~ip mianps and drawlnps of St. Hildepudc of Binpen as pwdblv comparable. and he rccmmends 

the fouromrh.cmurr Vaticpn manuscript 1906 as simkr ro me of rht as~onwninl drawinps. 

Tihman sates his &nridmd opinion: "To rhe kt of mr kowledpe no one has kn oblr to find anr pint dcunnrn~on 

with aslv other medimal manuwripr w early printed bwk. This is all the stranger bug the range of wricin!: ~nd 

lllu~iar~on om the subjm d tht plant wald from the early Middle Apes right rhrwph into rht slxmnth and even 

~vtntwnrh ccoturia is vtrv limid indgal" 11968. p. 1 t l. ELinh Friedman trpmscs kr own and William Fricdman~~ 

views wka she notes flady; "50 far ;u is knoarn, Ihm is no . . . km or crib." [ f 962) [For those unhmihar with the term rs 

used bv rrvpnalvru a "rrib" is a pnlkl oa comprablr tar in a known hnm that can k used to break into an 

unknown text as rht three pamllcl inskipons in different saiprs on the Rmttta Stone were cmplod in the declphcrmtnt oi 

fptprian hier@+. A crib can ah roke the form of a pa as to the subject matr. or individual words that might bt 

found at dn places in an unknown text.) 

Opicinu~ dr enismis (AD. 1296-~a. 1 336). R. Sobmon t 1936 I dexrik rht v~siorur~ and mrstrcal dr~a-1np5 oi th13 

monk on: &ows mmrivt illuscraaons of them. Born iwPavia. Itnlr. Dpic~nus had a diff~lrcult md unh~ppr. liie: he jell anz 

injured his head PI a child, a mishap which may haw hd a central pur in rhr iarcr cplsode of illness ad nsionr ah1r.h he 

dcd in thc nmrrrkabk book ofdrawings died bv hbmm, The draftmanship is rtrv dciical~ and beautiful. wth JO 

artifo'c quaiiq torolly different from that oi tl~c Vwnich manuscript. The desl~ns are txmme1v dense and intricate. wth 

msnv conceillric circles. tntrrJminp arcs ad lines. and bands klv packed with tinr sets of numbers and Imas. Manr of 

thtm show arcfulty-drawn human figures with wdldrafd map of the wald and mhcr. smaller hurnan figures inside 

them or iaterlockiup with hi mdina. 

Map and archi~m~ral pans arc a prominent feature of Opianur' productions. as are Biblical symbols such as animab 

smndinp for the Four Gospclr. and the rip of the zdioc. One drawiii shows his entire aumbivgraphv. from his binh up to 

the vtnr 1335 w 1336 lwhm he drew the pimml. all pack& onto onc pnpc, Thy arc dl closdv rn-rwnttcn with Lcln 

text. in ve finv, neat lertcn: the rexr is prtmarily ahuf wcinus himwlf I his kiinp. his sinfulness and unwotthincss. 

~nts m hi5 life. ac.1 rcpresentcd in srmboIic ways inwrmwm with rciipiwlr srrnhliun ad quotntlonr from the Bible and 

pawistic wirings. The only real similaricr a, the VwnKh manuscript drowinp is rhc encvcbpcdic qualin. in curnbimnp set 

manv disparate elemmts rymbdicallv within a muaural and smmtic unit. The apprance and rwk of Opiciausprdumons are mdl? at vrrirnm with thcx of our manusaipt: Opiciaus was a maid mist and draftsman. and had 

produd an &rEcr bodr of beattufui arrhirectural dmwinps of hi5 native town. Pavia. as well as a numkr oidcvutimul 

rt1ipiws tracts. 

Sr. HiIdeprdc k Binpcn t A.D. 1098-1 179). St. Hildegarde. rkr da c&vear in Gcrmv, was pihed with pn-cn of 

prophecv and rnrrciml vision. Sht produced ma1 books dncriknp ad illumdnp rhue viuons. as well or a book about the 

cauws and cum of disease. Her drowinps appnr ~ansid~ablp more like those in QW manuscript on the fPce of it; thtr. arc 

relatiwly "provincial" d "crude." and haw none of the delican. and prohional quality of Opicinus' drawings. 

Hildegarde's drawings hove some of the rpmc svrnbdk. "conr~trd" quafn as thwr in the Vwntch manuscript Ther 

how ratha different drmem of content. h-: animal heads ad mmgnizablt fipum of Christ and the Virpan. for 

nample. he dtht drawtap appr to have banks drays. Us. m hme~ Ijmih ro thOde on Jome Vopnich rnanusalpt 

folios. 

There is 5tdt or no tmt or IokUinp within anv of the illustratim I have sccn of Hildeparde's works; heir meaninp rs 

c*plifltd in conncctad mt elsewkt in the bookr. Thar nrmhlurn. u wid chert. is rnurcIy Blb1ic;il and Chrisuan r a 

sun-like ball of flamt re- Uuist's burning lour: thm mdkr uus above it arr the Trinitr; hcd rpwtrnp vapors arc 

peopk prcschin~ the G-1 ar using ds to do the wcrrk of che hl. m.1. Thc designs have a hiphlr. s~merrical. 

ahact ~UP~R similar ro many Vovnich ptctum. ard me how similar manpclnenzs of smail ah or mdiatinp liner in 

bands around a circle. It is amusinp to m. ah all the poncifitPtions of clcpmr about "raund" fipurrr ad the absence of 

"Gochic" Fh in the Vovnich muscript. hat Hildegarde's wlfth-ctnturr hum figures ate wil-fi1lcd-0~1. vivac~our. 

plump. and livclv. (For a pood di~wrion of Hiidcpadc's wotks md rcpductionr of many drawinps m Sinper .19->. pp. 

1-58.) 
Ac~rirLof~~redar.Irinpirootbt~ppur#cdtbrr'~iarpmckPilinrbt~orinp 

~:k~-ibwr~kor,~mravd~~h~orianiaobirplpa.d~au~l 

~m~rt.&w~wmc~ot~oollpmrooJKtcdawbo~okrin~~~a~ofthr 

~orrrip.Noncdrbc#lurar~)rPvedicdhuwo#dadm~i~t~ummmo~obthwd~mr.ordi~uswd rkr 

in my my, nr#pcn~ For r b mag dm ddcuil5 on thu m dut fdio which Jomt student happed to find 

u#fPIaqg=:hu,in~witbapmePlrrrbcor~ dk.~wn.Thmfm. 1 hoprobtrnhrwillkuwirh me 

~~tbe~wmerrtru~y~didvid~sl'~iadm~~ptoclm~piprrrithrfi

rpcik~ddCpit~iprr4proridcr.nomrirwdetudfiatimoft~eMior.mordi~mb~t1u~ 

m. 

3.31 Hrrb.IMqs. 

At first ghce. thr no- iUm of rrhde plum, dly .eeomp.aied by onc a mwt pagfaphr of #wr, rcrm 

m&tbekbopcofa~l.ccrdron~be~.OtharadeaEIbrvrkat:rbeifcf6#trvi~ytothtnskd 

~~.a~oftbaedn~lo~~oimill~inorber~rithmkrebucrad

&&Wudism@min&-d~ DLcbertr FrdmaammmrrimtkmoaIpbddIfride~tifih 

.mempoufdhc "-a rdl*leaam- Dr. HrybO'NcilLkliemtbt brbuidencikdm 

Amaiaaph#irr~~~loolhcr~hroprmb#roedrhir.d~rb#aoaedo&plPnu~d u 

i~mAmerie*.Si*o#a~.~.hu~i~y~uEor~~ehr~Durr

W.ThtrrmPinder~~pori~:in..tbrm#~bebaproaae~~rbe2#m~wanorhcr.rhehvtrud 

fbmn op rdlI aha A few dww i-ty rm a Flarrtr smmurer." ( 1362) Uhndy, sins Mr. Friedma's aniclt * 

rpparsd inr~pr.LtrmwuaoeiptionofthrrefmancoHoira's~ubwnriddiwovrrieJ. I&veaot.wfu.boriabk 

0rrrrtn!op8~rolrrahchir' ' PecPrmlppernmbmobPiasdrdrPilsdIirrufHdm'rikatif~ 

from~l~e#~m.d##daunfdtbtmoahh~hrpire$~n.Wr~d~q~ 

ofHdm'sfiadraphrerrriarnrPebuT~IL~19751&~~tm+rreqrEbelarrra~montiarlrtuathortof 

O'W 

~#hdrrrmmoo~D'NeiD's~~dthtJrafiacr~anfdio93r11P44p- 126I.Ian 

1#@nrpws,rba5#~hir"~'orpppr~~.t&pic~lrriarold,mfdio100r,ir 

wnq the dl. skhy hwi~ unllgcd in tom wn #I a "phraucendal jar", possibly npmanriag a rrcipe fa an 

khl mimuc. (Fa a dirorrrion of the# "33mnx~dmt" drawings, w Scrr#n 3.3.2 kbw. 1 Tk obi- O'Ntill ~er 

peppcrbuiPcaldw~kkr~dn~~or,~ePriarbbdrl~WIdopeedbytbrJPibcd 

*~~ookdirarrsedfitrcba~.Tbir~ir~1~bfclre6rccQ~tlrefutdorad~cta.daor 

~-Tk"pppnm'~ru~~~nghbbirdeeipbera#Pt; k~thutkcdai~dahe 

"pppr"~t*rbertbud~anrvorrdddibm#~11414,p.~).~rtodtaabtrr~r~*r 

idmd~thrpbnr~~m~Ebr~dordy-mdieddt.~iatk,aun~fbrLbrdpL1# 

idcarifierrioaro#npilrdbt.PcarrainkiriHdDMwripia-krarikmcsoo&.dMn.V@. 

O'Ndl. ad Hdm IPnaren 1966). 

Atrbir poiru. I roPldiiht toprwca kid-aoaarniry tk-kn ofayk innuny pl.ntnrumrer 

lhownh~betbrlfolios.Fawht~urr#tb.Irillpm*ium~ownrobjeerirr.ddrrddlypnwaP1.&~,in . chthaprtlrrt~mrv~~cpbtrrm~nttht#dn~morrd~ddrbtitmn~nr.fhtplurt 

pm~y~rt~avioPrW.~.~nboir.rith.a.barm-k-madsd~hrd& 

mrrhanical. in hnrmunr with the architmonic qualrr~exhibioed eiscwhae. Thrr qualitr is present even In the tlwtrs or *. - truits" thr prow from these strnnpc "molded-phuc" plants; the flower on tblio Mv 1. tbr example. larks like J wr rlt 

merol spikn. riffidlv fixed +her: hwcrs in foiios 3v. 6r. 5C. Wr2. ad 9br look like the hoods uf vmt-pipes rct i~gurt 

8,. (Again. rwnc Jrrikinp prallth will k mmtimtd in the alchemical manmpr discussed in Staion 8.111. 

The prim in this omion of the monucript show rows of sd. ske~ht phnu or plant pans. which mrn to rmphs~xctnt 

smn4- or hw-a the cxpw of the remsindcr. They are so abbrrviamf as to appear rlmtr~t Iikr mnenlrlnic ut 

sWmd s~h rcfmiap to phm aMr iiluswated mart fully in 0th fdiw. or to plants &erwise bmilirr ro the 

saik ad his eoYqucs. A drtcrmid effort bv wvtrnl dents m date thw skrtehcs'to rht hcrbaI drawin-m has nor km 

var su~~errful. b~wrvcr. 

The orhtr wiient fafun of h p~ is the pence of ob- that have kn said w re~mble phnrrn~uucal jars or 

$rue mimeis. On SWIW fdim it.p.. 99r and 102~21. he jars are "kkllcd" with phrases or wads in the Voraich ~rtpt. 

uafatumtely ahm~ illcpik in rhc phmmpy a mv kawc the piemcnr fiIlinp the Uv of the jars in manc cam 

DD ohtt tht wndnp. In orhcr m. a "tpkl" mms to appr near the jar whd~ probablr relates to ~t. or to rhc 

"rctjp" it dr for. A similar "lhl" appcan nar each sdl @ant skd~ inrht rows; it hard to tell. In mt cases. 

whh of scmd ;eiphhinp pltmr is means bv each "hbtl". Qnt Or more prapraphs of tm are prewnt heen thr nm r 

of piaum. The iu ir urw1l~ at tht left marpin ofeach such row. urerkiblp rupg&np rhar the plants in char mw were to be 

~d to make up cbr compund prestrip~l~ ~vmbdizcd bv that b. The kipn of Phi jars n urn wmcc ad florid. w~rh 

mar fitted cylindrical ltrrioru had b gmmmic dcupns. fam emkUlshrntnu around tfie dp. curlr feet. and 

elaborate finials w hrdb on the top f mine of tht &net membliae. w the irrrvcrent modern eve. Ehc ccnd ornamenu on 

an al~rrmobik hd): ree fi~urr 15. The wmmmmtion and the "pip-smim"Srruerure is similar in style to that of the 

"rmr" from wh~& wne fillures em- on asmhopiul folios Isee kb. 3.3.3 1 ad m some of chr fancp piatiorm vr ppr 

mcrurtr in the idtar ficaturing bumn fip IMC 3.3.5 1. 

Promimt a-the drawinps are a mies of cimbr desips appmrlv dmrlv dared to the months of the rear. and 

each provided with a cemal mrddion showiq n zodiac srmhl. A reeopnirnbit. if ddl)-.lpllcd. month name &s kcn 

written in what mm rrudcncs agm is n different and Iacrr hand thn hat of he Vw hpt. Fipure 10 shows details of 

these monch mama The pop for Januarv and Ftkuarp ~Aquuiu and Capricorn) is miring. having bnn rcmowd Wort 

the manuscript WPI found bv Voynich. The uudtat'r first hope of pne rn~k rfimph the known asswiation with 

moths or diar Jipns is smn disappiatcd. since rhm is AappPrdy lidc else in the dhpramz thot can k remocelv 

hated wirh crrmvcnriwrpi arpdgical diaprpms ad -. 

Mart of rk diapms haw rpproximuelv rhi~ female 6pm shn ammd the prriphcw in om. m. or rhm rows: 

some of the kutrs arc fm-standinp. while ochers appr ro emcr~c from vlnicll or horizontal abiects Eke cans w tubes. 

=me of which are drraated with a variety of hmjdic-hkin~ dcrims. Somc of riu @maw nude. bur whcrr arc pnial1r 

or fullv clorhed: the cfothinp visible ~lme of thr fipra inelukr wiL. ham mar. and draptricr of considerabk 

claboratim. which should be wambk to a pniculnt pkc and umr with a Me -A. A fm of the fipwcr . pr nared br 

henen on his hand annxripu. may well bt mak rahr thpn female. A mrefu1 study of Lhc app.dy inantionalr 

distinctin doipns on their "mas" may pide a clue OD ickndficntiom of dte kinpr. ar pcrmit erorr.marchinp some of them 

on different diaprams. he of he "cpnr" haw mncltnoru like tuele bdmmm. Figure 11 shows an anal?i5 of the 

numbs of figurn an he different rows in cad diagram: thue arrmpnmu mar romrpond to some dosrifirauon of the 

davr of rhe month import~nt for dim1 pocricc: for nample, he "Emm daw" or "aiual day". 

The moathi of April ad May with rdiac sigm Aria ad Taurus. sund wr in romrur m chr RSK in har htv each have 

two circular drlliolr~ I folios 70~1. 7 Ir. 7 lv. and 72r 11. and each tw ody fib fipm u if he two dhpmmr for the 

Jpmt mmth were intended somehow to cornpkmmr toch aha. an idea sum by rhe fin thar the bull w run is liphtcdwd in one ~PX ad dark-colOtCd in the other. An amusing matter for -1 nm is the her rflnr the animal in cnrh CPK 

is mwnp a meal: her ir &nine wirh cvident relish on rhr leaves of a small shrub. md Taurus is appiyinp bimwlf with 

equal demmimrim to he mtenu of a sm of manpcr or fndbox errefull? ad rdisridv piad at his dispsal. These - his. in my vim. suppn a horticutturd. medicat. or qricubml ronmt rat& than a magiat or mwtinl one ~dthouph 
this can be odc an ~mprcrsionj. At Jn! rare. 1 find ir a pleasing indication of the scribes prapmatlc ~nd doan-tn-catrh 

apprcach to hn subjrn matur. wharmer IG mcaninp may one day prove co bc. 

A number of ocher drawinps in which the sun. moon. and rrors art prwnintndr featured mar. bt prm~bon;lllv chsstiird AS 

vmmierl. 1 will mmpt to prcsent. in he foIlowi'iq pra~raphr. a sketch of the principal stfurnual tlcmenm in each oi 

th. since ir is impiblc to reproduce mat of hm in this pap. Fipurc 12 providn a summrrv of the numkrs oi major 

eb~ in &= &-pins &ng wih the "Klsnmolopicat" bagrams KI k di& in tht mt ~~ction. 

Fda 67rl shows a central face. pbablv represmanp the m. surrounded bq a melw-pid star: one sde of each 

nr ir decorated arich uprs. he oh filled in wirh solid pigment. In rhc cominurdon of he pair of ~pmenrs containint each 

tav. sin# wotds or phra~rs in the VVN& %rip altanare with proup of one or twr small Kars. Thrrc concentric rlnc5 oi 

trnr sumwd & w-. with a mrka idicaonp what mar k a starting powtion. Folirb 67rI ts based on J 

~omewhpt rimihi Wn. sbmiap a wid el^-smilinp sun face in he enter of a srmm of seventeen double raw in rh~ch 

phrases of text alter- with proups of from or# to four small m. A single oum rinp of rcxr is inarrpcrud with decurac~ve 

. ~~S. 

Fdo 67r2 is a mplcx tircular drsipn bad on twelvemajwdivisions.-In in cmm is an eight-pnd mr. surrounded 

bv a nnp of eiphr words. A dashed lint ind~cnru a srartiq point t ih. Twclvc moon kn. all faring to the right. occup~ tht 

nea ring outride he rmtral area: each is acrompnicd h a text strinp. Twelve pie-shaped ~pmmts extend oumard. nnr 

from carh of he wive mm focesi. hmi of these conrain Pdditionnl wrds. and a11 contain paracraphs of t-r. Each 

Kpmmt conrPins a pha. apprmmtlr wri~en in darkmpr heavier farhion. in its wm mmmlrr. A pdrapraph mnsisttnc $ti 

th li~rs. lof wkh the mddlr one apprs to k in heavier ink I. is ~m bcncath the rirruiar dcsipn. 

Fdio b&l shows a rouphlv circular field of stars. arith word5 or @ram in the Vmnich hpt wrim kidt each. Ar thc 

lop is a larger circular m+dalli~n with a sun face. surrounded @ a riw of ttxr; a similar. klaknp circle conraining J mwn 

ha. ah ~rmnded bv tar. apvr at rhe boaom. Thm ate at lcur tmmv-eipht -tan with labels me mar hvt been 

cut off in the phmpy). he dthe mrs dm xem larv or difirmcly.mbd rhon orlmr. a disrinction which mar have 

some sipnifieonct in the docvine of tbt suik. Folio 6812 ws m how a related or cornpaion diaprarn. apaln on A 

circular field d sun; in thh case. h-, only the twe~fmw I~PU in a mtrai duster art labelled. The sun face is at tht 

kmm. the moon face at rhr top of the star field in this diagram. Ammptr w cross-match the riap of mt around sun and 

moon. or the lpbelr of individual -1 on rhe two folios haw so far been fruida. Fdio 68v I shows r ccnral face. perhaps r 

sun. with a diadem or headband, rurroundtd by small flames w rays. A set of Jxrrm lar~ double ravs emerges frum the - 

cmunl fur. onc side dark and the ocher filled with srnall scars, This Kerns similar in form m folio 67r I. and mar. bt related 

m it in rbr run-moon pirinp that wmr to form a basic the& in the ~mmalopical or alchemical doctrine invdved in the 

manuzcripr. The continua* of the thirt!..rwo ~ptate scpmcrrts conmininp the rays contain almate phrarcs of text and 

fidh d $dl WS. TW wm riags of rm surround the whole. wirb starring pwltionr indicated bv vertical lina. 

Flo 68~2 shows an ei~ht-poind. sun-like mnmr surrounded bv tieht -1-3- ran: bwod this art four sermcnrr 

bv four rmtrifqal lincr of rat The is a further subdivision inm eiphr scpmmtr. ~parPtsd br iour more 

cmuifupat tm lines emerging from rhc poinrs of the cmd "pcralr." Four fwMs of small stars arc inmsperxd among thc 

qmenu. A rinplc axt tin$ surrwnds the whole. is starting pnt shmn bv a mid line. 

Finallv. folio 63r3 displae a moon face wichia a setem of eight major pie.shapd rdiatinp scpmcnts con~ainirtg iour 

altcr~unp fitU d small rmrs Pad mtrifupal linn of tern. sepnmted bv imk subidiaw lines of m. in n plan similar ro 

that of 68v2 irur dcxribtd. A Itngk tine of text surrouadr tbe periphery. in which no slorrinp marker can be discerned. 

It shld be npprrcnt hr thm is a syffcm~rit maat of ~m# wrr in tht~ dlo~rams, f t mar relare ro conaad hurs oi 

nigh[ and CY- rim= or evenu pavemcd by dib rl;urtr of san. or efkcP of the run and moon on the humors. elements. 

warn. ages of ma. winds. dircaions. crc. (m name me of thc raarics hat ate proupd bv "fours" in medieval ~osmolopr 

and medicinel. A group of men dl ~lprs to@ in one qmmr of 68r3 !as rmred dm bv aher student~l. could well 

RpPmnf the Plkade~ Surclv a ariful and dtrrrmincd analysis of rhis mlch of strumred mnmr in ronjuncnon with J 

study of medieval d-ins should rum up lomethin? of urc to us in int+rpreriryt rhe meaning of the diaprams. 

There remain manv brprrrnr bad on a hadammtniiy ciKUlPr pkn which show rdiating scpmenu. pipe-like w cell-like 

ekmenn, clorrd and wpr dusters. ad a rrmnl star-like or sun-like medallion. Text wards and single lmrrs are placed in or 

wrimn alone many of the nlls ad rayr. and in mncmmc wdar bnds aronnd them. with surunp polnu indicated. in .. 

some cas~~. k dl lines rn decorativt marktrs. Fipum 12 h a urmy of the numbers of rmjw dements in rhtse and 

the artronomical diagram. 11 seems likriy that a sysmnauc antmpt to mlare numkrs of related obienr mar turn up -me 
in- mag LIM. ~II 17. ~mbr in imdf had a supmi n(rru6~- in mrh 

~~~~,.+?~@~ia~d#rriats.Mtdicroi~ol~~*o**

drb#ut p& of -mmrpoade#l#" c#npririnp of &-amkd diqs dw cmld k omn@ in WOS. 

threa, fows. rp m dcr*nr ad trelves. In tht P- phhophl of d or +al nu-. ~YC numkn four. 

-, fin*. d metvs wut conriknd rrpoarlty impomcu. fipe 14 slmws ~omc #cl of &menu emacted from mbkr in 

Apipp 11910); 33 impDmm ia ~IC Clhlr (rt Scaion 8.71.4 34 rOnrr vlkl 

hoiWiroaPGmkcdncO+qariou~~ima~1~~~~m~n-8b21.~d*~~a

m~?~py)~~eerml~h~orto~rded~'bwr~~~~rcdmarirb

~ndi~rrprd~pl.a-~~ceadsrrn.'lhirhinaun~~a~of~Jbped~

h hr- figurn my k -; &csr 6pm ~cem kiy m tcpreftnt t child. a b. r rmn. ad an btat faward 

~b~~~verrhe&dderchfi~ir~eopi~rpli.~ofonec.~behrmria~~KPfirr

'' ariqdom.drcnu*e~boeLinro~ rpoood*rpor~bltq~.maua~-aFu!w 

~~ckicadwpoiwd~.~h~~~lihl?.~bcd~.d*b-rbrfarapd 

m*nobttoorh-~.u~ia~34;klppeur~~~~ploridcs~~dorwltir#otht 

anwidwlirrsolrr~ 

The -1 plan of tbt "four ah" dhpm joa kikd is hi~hIr tcmiuiraat of r fig= ftom rh Anglo-Saxon 

mc- mb?ii&- II . p. . n#m-bmxon dim smr fmr spm hll m.udr,"~&~A~~ ad did ir ina, 

kotiawAd#parlcir&skorahmfiprrcririal:Pbt&afbcrtrpolriwrrirhr 

~d~mb~~diUimtDeW~kin~adAnoo~ariyd=#qIbtwhok 

dd~~Lrinsca~lrr."~h~~ploaliq-*m~ipcorpaa 

fiE~."Oneitkr~of~T#lr~fi~~mrcLnnrrordr.loa#dkgibk.~hi~b#rmt~trkrtorht 

humarr. ptoprtia. d tkcm ["& &," "alidu*" "&-," "-b," =mePlidur." "humidru": i!. "fripk." ..hwnrdr:''* ..-,.. "kyik" "ica"). Fi of Pbir ~cm we wy o~mrnon in mcdi-1 urroigial d medral 

mlaoseripcr.radnfam~QllPil~060&"~m~"oarrll~~'drbrhllmulkiqe.ehoopfitlad~or 

~~in~b~taa~ofehrIrr~*ni*rr+~"~"Thrtplulfamofloch 

brgmrr~a~afiCrrrrrrithiivrrmarrriqirr~ritborbrr4apiratm~mstrdSwforter 

rfSseriaptkcmirbrm~+mc. Id- 1915 ad 1927; Bokr 19481. 

An* ueff mnwhbk diygrm oa Mo 67v2 skm to d in dur dl h melf. unlike andinp in arher 

mtaureripcl. It ruw a m-id rhunt. bad m four mior diviria ttw mav bt rht waranr. Four puffs of vapor 

rolhinhhfooro#n#s.hJf~la.prtrrpr.~~bLthwmwppo~lfwolp~mdm~. 

~Nmbdd~oneamorroftbne~.rt"~~.")~domdlkc#rabiarrrdwrbr~hmtht 

~m*~LfLperbrpri~qtbt~poiarobt&chroadqnm~+~roaridrrpitrltr~iarider~ 

~chrotnra.Mm*~pa~@oolaPrifPplt*bcrwemtht~opepoa#iadlimdocrnrrr~.kaR 

~~0oboPh~r~d9.rbe~olloa~aarue~pid~mu@~citcrrluutangemcnrroffPcc-LiLe. 

Uh-shapd obi- mag rkrry pipr w budr to Swm simple. I&. pm&c fipwcr (an "X". n "4". m. I. One of 

tha#6#au.inthrbwerkfr#1t~~tOf~py.rhws~b3lo~a.fPc#ina~-~e~opnin~ot~~op. 

Jltpaimpoad~rdroltritb~3qmcaoodondk~rtcea.Padrcd;.rwrrill#~bdow.rhbPipvrireatwluf~ 

-~ia*1~~~llsdar~tcprrra~rooll~nupdtbe~~mr~.~").fbeoalo 

iat-ch#-dSprb-fiCCvcrb~derochl-of~hneu.aaa@"llpr- 

~."~ritbphefoor-~~isdl.~oEaua.acPbaim--iachem~~ 

daminr baq crpwadd in &is taim wwk fht rairyinp of &lu a dw lrhhoufh NH fitnl alm~ lines in 

#mrneuiaI rrmnpernmu is rrm in Pi& (Elifltr ad Phr 19621. wbc the iamt is to "star pmres" or 

~o(umkcmptolrsdi~mrpldrburaar~~&4).Som*wburirniQrchu#aer~a~dr~ofdorracirdc~~tlr~ 

aaIt#uesnn:a~~lmrluauripm~uin#rmt~~<~#)8.8d9.4.dfi~41md42~. 

*luriq~di.pM.h57v.~k~drdnd~cnrirba~~nrm-rturi~poirwar 

~llp~etffiIn~~mm.rr~h~iikm.riromdrorar&~pp;i#brrdrofltxrdira~~l~udkrrem 

thrfilCoraharraarf~~~nd~m#e~~~l~~~~~~fi~si

their raid hds em to point at. psp. oc sum h. The mncture of eight hds of ltra in ma emup of four euh is b imilar to d~t of many other dirpms in drt mrnurcript fhir. too. diqmm rkrl camaim ~qu- of -- ' 
cnip~ltir -bols rrpod four tim d rhe =and of in conaamic rrxr rinp It is one of vm fw cases of rrul~callr. 

rep.dly: ~ucrm~baria~hr~urd hukm~u~sardmmuchanenrioa~uudmrsa~a pk"km" t~rr fipe 241. 

~dio~3bthtdrrrioprefrmdmb?bbddua"+~"Aanrrnldrdtisd~habaitoornliim 

~~emar;e&mppcrhlf~olc*ifiW~rIhKfromropm~.fhirplratrrcmkrhercribbled~c 

C~in~~offolioB-84*3(hwhich~cckbr). Aword~pbnocurrrimenindoFthellpprhll*tr.ada 

~pnsnpbiarhth#mPcPdt.Ati~of#n~rhirfi~.wirhodngpoimrhornbvamrkrr. Four 

mpt mm arc scptrrtd bv gracefully-cwriap hndr of pas: *in these arc wamv a ww outlines. definjnp 

ficidr c#wiainp curvinp row of ws om the wmt spml plan. Frmh the mp mm of each wavr olltlilpe. fwr smaller curved 

mhd~ +ollmrkinhtnmcphnof~o~~ffm~~ have ~ctnsofrbqurdvinaherdiapramr. An 

olmcr oi am larrolladr rht whole. irr m dearly multed by a m*c sip This dcripn. wih k hdoufwr 

m~ & rrfa ro Iht ap, bmm, a r& like. Ir rsly ah luvt a -1 irnficarion. I~MC 

& ~o~v~~in~~~u~Samd~mbdic~ofrbt~*

~dio 7[hl -:r-h-pantcd b. poi=. It is ~p,madtd by r curiour riap of fihcigh arefulll-drawn dl-like obicas. altcmrrrlg empl ad orr~pwd bv pits of k .nd a rrag of tm. r V' II1C. waw- OC 

folrm.like wts emmw from a warcry fa ~urroundinp he imcr rirek. Nine buds of tm arc written rdiallv outward 

from the inmstim of th~ waves. Thm -triC rinfr of w surround he whok. There is little to aid ur ~ra 

uadmtdinp chis drawing ahcr dun a pdbk focus q w8m as anekmnt a moirrure as a propurr.. with their ciirctr on 

h&. ad dx n& & nine. d fify4@1. 

Fd#~oho~ar*nmlrix-poiared~tu;h~kehr~d~d~urfldbmctnthepo~noA 

ring Of ma ~~fir~umb &is mural m. &load rrr hpfk pip-like. &qad ra~ daacly podted KO+. with 

htrrirrlk@np~inoo~~d~.rrsdrhm~.Tcmhnnorrwr~r&U!:r~wentvoneafrher~.ndlhrrrirariq&an~~rll.W69rir~trimih. wthaaacralcight.pointrdsur 

haw unrll'aprs hwcn iu poinca Tv-ei* pip.likt thiw m~fp rdie from the m. with a tcxt word or - 

phrue wrim ak the mod of trcb or thw~h &in# from it. Th rinp of text run arwad thr wwr pcriphcry. 

A d moon fpce ormpks the crrr~rl field of hh 85-86r4; five frothy a bubbly cmcenaic rings ob nk dl+ w 

vrvla~~uollad~~.fhrbtdr..rmr.radrhoPldmofdoorbumrafi~rirrfwmthemiddler1ap~1hma~1. 

~~rm~~miwd. ad Jric Wur~i~ubhdkobjscuo#o~rbirhmrv kacrm. Fmtlimsoftcxt 

surroPsdtbrrhok.rith~Cbdl~~~~#~ntht~ 

Foko85-86~3 aDmPinsawrymn~dmmqdanridbyfour~wapkx~Jhrpd rouphlvlikeind cones 

cmcl~iaph~t~nmd~~dr*mdmpinrudwmrd~anrrr.Ihrupprlcftc~ntlooltsWrcac~urtrr

pp. doudr mr ds: from ie up. did mwd rk cmm, r rpun of mne sub issues. with I)# head and hd of a 

human figure cmcqinp fmm rhe durn We it. The uppr ripht ~~umvr is like i broad cuk mode up of sales or scallop 

w in m~irt ro+r: from K P h~f~ #d~ 06-par QT wid mp tow4 rhr am. and within (his a brd is flrinp 

~v.~rrob.rer~urmorr~inbamd~#moobtmodeopoflr~of~~fibersw

~#cmrrriretorrofallr.Oat~forchr~iadlpdaWr~araimrimrdiamthra~d~t~

rirh8h~~l*r~d.rifperia(lrolldonr~ofPhe~dfi~~olrra~~dhpkaw

ooaarrrttsdriphthiad.f&~op#. iuckhrimeorna. cmioao~ofvap. bwd ha bird seated 

onitrrpnt.~ifmam:brndiapmtrthtJtPoadbirdortrhmbnch-likt~aonEulkr.Four~tpuapnphs - 

~rhrfortrJid~drlltpl~rbermnthr~~u.dolifJlpvyraphirpl#*diarheuppcr~~~~m. 

. It seems p'ble thpt thr hr ps my nprtsmt the Four Winds cmwpnp upon the torth. ad that ths diapram. like 

4 ah of thb kan. my k eoaaraed wirh & ltuonr and he wcuha. The nestinp btrd. md the wher. possiblr 

mipr#ing. bird would k expliabk -din rbir 6nmr of rrfaearr. A dbbkd &pm of I ride with rhree rubwcrionr 

. like chle in idio 68~3. dm adrrwirt q of dx pr(r; aart lo it .ad ~nwlcd lanu ;t is o 

diradcrtrlaiWLi~thutnrrnbkr~~-~Arrbi~rrriprfhirdbbltirda#t~fimikprrdin theha 

~apmofCdio66r.+hrrri~~ramsookrs#illlrdrirhad~-fan#d~#~i~prc.1~~21 fordtrPiL 

of*lctiW phrrsrr.1 

fidu. fnb ?Or2 rhmrs 8 matd hrc. wv 8 zon. SUrTmndd bv tqh! krp ~c~rnents eollElinrap petal.likr ravs. A 

mall rinp of- row mund rhr amcr. ud h mar lincr of art surround the whole. 7hc oum liorr mppnr to be in mo 

pn: the OPO~~ pit has a COmmOcl ItPniq point idid b a double miaL whik the inner pur hra a different common 

wrtJbornbyain@eM. Apuopnphdomorr#nprlriaohtdcsi~oontheupperti~rmarrolthepopa - . .. fbrrbmrr~-hsdll~bKampleDtdi~~OSOnofthr#ia#r*uiryc~&~mcanbrao~nrdo I 

~mrherrnooatdi~~*rihbkm~hrht&rd~mrcaadrorhtm~rupmr~indho 
wrcful and rrmmatic cw~rnimriun. I bclitrv it has been rou rdilr dssumed br mmr students that the ctr~ulncl an the 

Vomich rnanwipt were tm "weird" and ndcal to warrant rh~s atrenttun. The research must rwt the ttirwn ~tr 

mumnc who has access 4 PI 1 do wt have) to a larpe number of medicval manumipn. or brs~milt copes cti thew. .+ 

rhwough iaveuleauan. punuiap some of the sttiking icono~mphiral elmma in the drawinps, miphr rum up some uwtul 

pardkk that could provide an u&standinp of the text. 

3.3.5 hwimgs F~atmi'ag Human Fipwcs. 

Tbr dnwinpr on h[ior 75r and v and f6r fhruuph 84; arc pbablv th~ must rnritcrious dnd bir~rrt ,ti JII the 

enipmns with whih I)le Vwnich manumipr mftmts us. Tk show squenm of human iipurcr. alrnwt inr rr~~bl~ nucrc 

and female. Plld (as ha betn VCI)' hqmlv ad mmmbr mhtr med bv =her nudents r quite plump and mtrimlr In 

farm. Most of hem haw discen& Pbdomtns and bulpnp hips; they mainle do m present an aworance of volupruaus 

buy rn the modrm Ammican ere, Thr. impnrslon .is rather one of agncuhtaI ftrulitv, maarnal ftcundirr rnd 

nourishment. or wnhinp on a similar pnpmalic plane. Many of he figures mm to haw long hair. crowns. w ehbrrr~te 

dlr in spitt of their OChemise complete lack of chhinp. f heir per arc lively. expressive. and varied. 

Tbe femak &urn arc shown vuiodv rimq. ondinp. L?ia#. or &mist disposed in or on curiour objem like tubs. 

tuk. pipes. COP!-mala. pitpin. pods. or plprformr. Thc~ obi- art drawn In chc same chunky. LIockr stvlc ot 

architectonic #rl .liy as was noted above in ammion wirh thr planrr. In fan. romc of them look quite a ht like the fruits. 

sd pods. ad roar or mm structures of these *trv plant drawinps. Nwe. for example. the mo ruikanp werid obrecrs. 

-hat mmrbtinp mi- or hh blinp fum crmd on blia 83v; lo mv eve. thtv ckir resemble the rwin fru~t~ i I 

cm ohe plant in folio 90r 1. A mumre on Mio 79v of thm pipts surrounding a lorpa ccnud mk -mblu the rm crmn 

d & me plomon folio %I. Simikrly. r Pipvtrtc smmurr on folio 77v de up of dame nest- or &it-like swcllinps 

eonnreard by pipcr. with the tukr-Wre &em hawing from the ernad swlliqp. lodrr to mc like he rmt crown of a plant 

with h mrin stmscod by rnderpmund nok (w fipe 15 for exrmpln1. 

Some of the frmrk fipw wrm to trt holding rpindk-bpd obj#rs that cwld k fruiu or sted pods. Thr pipe-like 

mpetpm that ail uound che fi~ura (d illco whreh. or from which. &ev appcPr w k uammtrtinp wmt rnwmiour 

or hquidl cod wrll repmmt plant pm such u m or urm in KhemPEic fam. Ah to k remarked upon arc chd*likt 

clulrcrr, puffs ad sprarr of vapor emerffinp horn rht aummr vtnu oi rhm pp, and rht suhontial.lwking rubs of 

liquid in which pup of ftmak fiputs smn m be riming. drip. or mwiap &UL Some farm of humor. crsence. 

rnoisnrrr. M sap ~cm~ m be of prtmory imporclnee in the dbnc e*prclacd bv [hex pictures. In some fdros (e-p.. '5r. ro 

the kfr d a ddinp Iinc of figures; 82v. at tpp rifit ud ah two mac klou. center 1. arc-tikt strumurn seem to span 

openings in some of the litlle ~mcs. Thue Iodr a pttpt dnl like rainbows, dthoulrf! without seeing the original colors one 

can only m: mm of the arm ~ctm K, k four ar iive scparsa cmccnuic xpnrncr with a darker band or the top. r For a 

di~eurrian oC an ahmid drawing conraining a ppr with rnuhpic vcarr rmiinp vapor. in a style rimiLr to the ppcs on 

h folios. ser Won 8.81. 

Another impwrtnr .detail to k k in smud of the drrwinps of thls section is a dI aorr with one low arm t for 

ma+. rr the mp of Ma 7%. minp u a locw for dimfiq rays: m 75v to the ri~hr wiha a field of nvs and clouds: on 

78r rt he foeus of a Rnpr- or cloud-likedwrcr at lrpper kfr; ad on 7%. mp. at the focusof a frilly canup? of ravr wcr the 

head of a figure who al~o hddr a mu in hrr badl. Tk symbdr arc quite rd and unokrusivt. but usudv Kern to 

fwm a Ctntflll focus OT mipin for raw -np upon chc hak fipurcr. The obriolu ia#rpmoum is ant of Divine 

itlumimdon or inflmm pmmodnp tk hndrrinp. nounrhiap. or hew vim= ob the humors mtrollcd bv. or 

reptncnrcd bv rhe hale figure. The aosm pmdc .a uamirukaMy Chrbhn frame of rekcace for nht domine King 

nrpwndcd bv he vrih of the mmuaipr-a polnt am fprcifdy mnukd opoa by &er studem ro my kmwlcdpe. 

Wkt arc we w make of b mng drawinpi A porkbiltly rhu idotly -s m me is &at rhey may relatc chc 

bin= of Gak humoral mcdieine. with itr four "digaimma" d various byprodurn at dffmnt rtaees. to he 

nourishinp or curative properriu of the plan= or pn~nproonr of thr kbol and phPrmccudai fdiw. Anather +bilirv is 

a rm of thrrapuac baths; this wu a mmmon fraturc of medrevol &dm; warmth ad moinure wm sue to k, 

in ihmntk. heaEnp form. h is musing m - in this manmion that Rogcr Bum. in his mcbl wmk De Reurdaurmr 

Acrsdmtium Smed (Baron 1928al. mommmdr pcrfumcd orlr. warm efh. ad rhr applicuron of prmou~ 

"o~~ulta" such as lip-ah. "hem bone of a m$." ad viper's flesh. ITh msdical work was a mpmnt and complete 

compihon of diet medical mica such as Gdnr. Pdo-Arraatk. and numerous Arabic writers. ad was plapiarmd 

and npkited bv Ian phy~icianr; link in it. -, vpr ariginal with h.) 
Brumbauph ( I975 I has sen in there piaurc~ a recipe for the "Elixir of Lfe." dmipned to look tikt Roper Bacon.5 work 

t Bacon's medical tmtl~t. ha work tncitltd Eprs~uh & Irii~abiIi Portslate Artii et kturae. and some garbled or doubtiul 

rn& of hu Pkhnnical writings were the only frapmcatr of his writinps wctl-known in the sixtenth centurrl. Panofikr 

flM4. p. r). ruppw that the human figures may rcpnsrnf "uud qmriu" tranmitdnp the influences radiated from the 

stan ina plsats and dm Living things. Singer. in his lma ~o Tilunm. 12 Novrmkr 1957. prs fornard a diffment. 

though relami. suefcscion: "My own fcchnp-apain very va~ur-abut tht little iipurn of nude men and women in the 

wpm of tht body ir hat rhtv art con& with the "PIC&" of the Poracelsan or Spapvric Schwl. f his would 

fit in 4 wnh my suppcaion rbout)ohn Dee ad Bohemia." Nore that Snprr ses tubts. pulpits. and pipes in which the 

fipm lit u "arpanr of [he body." rathrr than as the plant parrs rhey recat1 to me. Fipurc 13 shows an ~nalrris ni the 

numbm ad ~roupiq of female and male fipurcr on rhc folios of this smion. 

This elaham ariPV'of Circular rnedalhms~nr~-d~~men~ of a large. multiplv-folded pp. It has received Iialc vr 

no srudv or maon bv jtudmts; this may k pnlv kcaust tu compiexit~ ad bizarre character bqgjcl the mind alredl 

ovcrburdrncd bv the "qummr" m the modern eve d so much tbc in Iht mnusaipt. The failure of ~nnc students to pr. 

much anearion to thCK kpns is ah p~ohbtv due 10 the pow quality of the phoKKopv available m us for these pares The 

photompr mnde from Fatha kcrun's wrpnal qv is 50 dark. and the numerous maps of rnrt WfiKtn be are there ~rr rl 

hard ro mad. that it is almost unuu#e. 

A pblorwmric mpv which I recentlv obtained from the Bumke Library MIS rhe dttnils of &is rtmnrkaMc drasinc 

my clcrrly. Thae are nim elaborate cirmhr hp. in thm rows of three cnch. The central dnipn in rhe ddlc tow IS 

lorp dun rhe ahas. and caneaim six pharmaceuacd "jars" amaged in an ma1 panern with stars in the ccntcr. Beta-ten 

he mrdollionr art veils of dl-likr or fihs ~apmrru that link each circle to iu imdhtc neiphs. Oat medallion 

shows a suuntur like a dt and orhcr small hl+ omund irs ppky; rht castle has a h~h. mmllartd waH and a 

rail mwal torrer. The mm of this figure cmdw a circular 6dd of sws and a spiral maagemenr of rext. Nearby. in rhr 

oum ram of tk pop. is a small rirdr maininp n dapam with Voynich #xr "words" within in segments. in che 

oppmiw mm of thc page is &c mlI "rkk.h" mmtiod h Brumbaugh (abut which more will k said klo= 1. In 

the other mo corners are sun fa- swmundcd by wavv rays. Some of dre mcdaCwu hue petal-like rrranpcmtnts of Tars 

fiUd with smr~ mlhn~ features of the ~osmd~cal ad monomical folim did prmadv. Manv mcdaIIionr rrt 

provided with curious nrumm like bundle of piper w pnMs d-d aroud the pmphtry of [heir outer cirrutrr 

mtiiotr. This assemblage of symbol5 dtKms far more anentjon dun it hu so far mid. in mv oplnlm. sinrr ~t 

could provide mc enIiphmsinp sywhesis or frame of rehence fa individual diaprams ehhm in rhe manuscript. 

A mention should bt mode here of Brurnbrugh'~ identification of a "ddt kt" among rhese diagrams. There is a rinr 

circk. surrourtdcd riphrl') dmp vaguely raembliq Roman numerrk and what may be a small riap of text. on the 

extreme left side of he smmre. la the cmta of his arch is a uianguhr omnpemcnt of rwo inarrminp lines with three 

s~ll spkm strung on them. rr heit free dr ad at their intemction. Whik it is atx that rhis circular kipn karl mme 

supficial resemblance to a ckk fm. if smns pubic ra me that it mar a110 CePrtKnt a -'sw pitrure.. like rhore rri Prwtrt.\ 

ad rhc limihr Prmical charanerr mentioned be won 3.3.4. The two "hands" Id eo me as if hev are ~nrcndtd to 

be of equnl hprh. ad the "hands" am aot centered on the "clock face" as one would ewptcr. but ratfm arranged so that the ,. 

entire trkn&ulnr suumte is nnd in the circle. An adv similar triaa#dar strnbl with thret bails srrunp on it wcurs 

frrqucntIv arnonp the star spelis of Piwrix. and was used by al~htmlst~ to man arsrnlc. orpirnenr. or push I Gtslrn~n 

1922. Tables IV. XXXXIII. XXXXV). 

3.3.7 Small Margindl Designs. 

kc are mall drawings of Me. arum&. and other Inr easily-identifiable objem on some ppprr, Folio 661. as hrr 

already ken noted, conrains a drawing of a man Ipng on his back clutching his stomach ru if sick or dead. and surrounded 

bv M~~WJ indeterminate smd obiem. The last pap. 116~. has ma1 sketches of people. animals. and ather mvsrrrlous 

hap in its upp left corner. Most of the pap filled with tm (folios 103 and fdlowinp) haw single wrs. some provided 

wtth mnsions like tails. to the left of tach parapaph. Thue paragraphs. a has bnn pmntcd our bv Tiltman I I975 I. 

probaMv comprid approxim~telv 365 mipinnily. thercbv providing one "smr rmpc" for each dav of the !tar. psiblv a.wt-- 

of nsvolgical prcdicdwrr or prescriptions. 
3.4 M eani~g of tbe Coliecfioa of k wings as Whole 

VqaiEbdhirimprcraonmfir#~t&rmn~p~"ebrdr..nlyrindIeacditm~m~arorkon 

uanl p!!j' (1921. p 1). EW Fried- mp: 'The *- ad hqe~ scth of tk moaoJerip (115 

~)irprobrblT~inehrrrm.dhrm.llwripm~CIllDdtOOerbnn~ElUsda~11%21. 

Plaoidr~prorikruorbcrk-rmrf:"SohuaabemdtmrkfarerhemrnPreriphPrbrtn~.~e~nrmr 

4 cornpk: k a pd pbibphy nrplaiainp the mrdicrl of #rrerrrirl obian. puricuhrlr 

plmr. by mhal id- ma-id by wool ndirtiwl PIXI chose 'spiria' w)urh were kqvmdg klid w arumit the 

oaultporcrrob~~tarsmthecurh;seoond.aJLidofbcrblldcrerihngrbt~lulpl.md~medirinnland 

'dl?. nngd p~tpwer; thrd. a &scrim of md~ mupad as ma7 k pdwed b? mbirrryt idkidwl *no In 

rrtiaurrry" (1954.p. 1). Htbthat &uudkrn~ra~~~pr*Ud~~nltrllofchae 

doarian~a#a#apabooit.m#*rae.in~~~ob~~~~ofrmap.*drtm~rebar 

dr~~mitr~d~:mobrioor~~mmn-ro~btbtrarkofh~

-of--) 

pro*idm r similar vim of the mndp u a whak "fbt ilius&aths in the roanu~rrpl make ir appc~r all ht 

mrPin ehrr the tm dtatr with msdiciall ptauu d their use in rndk.1 media. The drawings of fdior 67-86 #em w 

Uu~aur urrolog td mum. ad poPribiv tht mdmd d vital wits fmnp u animate kings I represented bv 

dl audt 6prmP.. .. Mtpht not rk 324 spra sbrt porrp8phs a I- 103-1161 comuin r sm of' 

1pbie~inkraoblrofcw~arrrorhdrcriprl"(lm3.p. 11 &rrmk~~cerEbe~urmakaacbt"Elirir 

ofliC*".~coia~theE~~II~aforCIarhorPLbsdm&u.ppnrmk~workd~ 

b. An " ~~~~tof~.~~opmp~fmmarrnecyofrulicr~~pa.ir~

~llat=fatnriqn&~~llurdal.Bmmhghtbintr wida:'lhcb@yd~duction. 

dx d prlthic macamrcion. a d~ wd rppheraon of the W'. 1 1415. pp. 348-3491. 

In dying ck Mngs in dtt difh #flims of& mlrwreripc, 1 haw eome w fed -fly rhu they invdr* a highlv 

s~.urifiei.l.darnvm~~cormormonic"lrayr(tr"thuwcrphc~rcprrrcaruionsorCormro 

dl lo mird ptknh kq m diliamr fdk ad in wiarr . . witb me urafwr. Thu pophic 

".~'a~~mmIrm.rdR#tFri&iairr~Pmb~~df&Vo+ 

laipImbr*ripbbCh.PBCT4).j;Q&1~11011.1:bdk*t~&taOTCf01.~~.rad~ariadedd~dall 

*~lyr~rbdr~tmphic~~.sd~~dlthrhm~fitrcpr~chetffa

imolred.Aa~oriapmodcmmapllocrCLlTorrmi~~grpk~~uwp#fam~ranl~wouldk 

&bile. if E*rricd our rirhin a dlv-reuwcd fnmm#k (i.e.. to pur~c and i&pw purmhr 

prmoluly ddopbd br tk sdmt Fonmning mtraiapful ttbms rmonp the forms). Mm will bc mid in Sccaon 

6.9 rcpuding the u# of cornput mchniqua in dyiq d# rrunuvrtpt 
Chapter 4 

Avenues of Attack: The Text 

4.1 Natm and Cbar~ctPristics of tbs Vopicb Set 

Homwr mmpk and intdng the drawings arc. the Jcript in which rht bulk of the manuscript IS written is 

undouboedly the mm intripuiq part of the clcgsnr migma. Ir hor a dmprivrly flowin$. rhythmic qualiry that suggats lung 

practice ad fPmiliPTity m the pmrt of Phe scrik a scriks. fhe scrip ~ms likc n rrssonablc. workable. well-construcrcd 

~lvnem of wrhinp. with a look of ad natural flow. On cboer impoh rhe surhce appearance of imphcitv vanishes, 

ad a nit1 mwt sedudvt.ad capuwillg&waamaaps,intht.h of an intricate but ~srucruraliv bpiul srstcrn of 

Iigrturiq or compounding of JmpIe form m build up more complex oudina. Wbrcver else may k allcped conmninp the 

value of he manusmipt as r whok ro science. I am muid that an uidemding of the ronstruction of chis writing system 

cnnnot fail m be of gear in me^ in he stlldv of human hupbt. It appears to be a mar hfbnv of trtiwrv and inpenuttr. 

Uafanannrrly. dtimugh manv mdcarz mrnrton the style. callipraphp. and aprance of the saipr as a tamr in thetr 

judgmrcnts d rhc dam lad origin of he m~nurcript pi& link real midmcc or derail to back up their cla~rnr. 

Nwhrre omoap the wm I b*vr exoarid have I m aay redly hctu~l or complete discussion of the mamr. Somt 

mrm mmrim. in pag. he pnbk derivation of ttK VoyniEh symbdr from "Roman minuxulc charanerr.*' McKaig 

(d.1 PP~ dttt "the is mimen in a hutifully symmtviEPI Icript that Pphdy rrrcmMn writiap used in ftaly in the 

1500's" (p. 481. ' 

4.1.2 Rchtionsh~ps to Know Sm>b md Cbarartar Sets, 

Amp ro link the origin of rhc Voynich symbols ar other aystemr dwririn~ how ktn manv and br-mnpinp. A diligent 

study of known dphrPbcric. syllabic. or ideographic Jcripcs has turned up nolhing rmlv similar. thouph various indivldunl 

svmhis have distant pmlkh in wrat cwnpmdir. Sewral rvmbolr rc~rnblc cmrlv fam~ d Arabic numd; this has been 

pold out by more than one student of the manuspipt, FW example, bv A. W. Exell (of the bnical Libraru. British 

Naturd Hisor? Museum). in a her ro Tiha, 30 Auprr 1957, ad by Robtn Brumbaupk ( 1974. t975 9. Figutr i 6 

shows a eomprism of me Voynich symW and varim form of early Amkc numeral^ mraeDcd ham tak in Hill 

119151 thrl look similar in mp opinion. [See ah &nion 8.10 for a dissim of dpt histay d Arabic numerals in Europc. J 

Some form of subrion apk my br involved. of mum; thus. the fPer hot a gim Vovnich s~mbol Ids like an arlr 

farm of "7" or "4". for hamplt. nd m imply that ir maly Jtondr for that number in tht mrt. Earlv form of Arablc 

numcral~ wert often emplortd in a wide variety of codn and ciphers. as we will see in Chapter 9. 

Similarides arc ah clrarly apmc ktvrm me Vqnich sjmbdr ad certain btin abbmirtions an use at various 

tima during he Mtddle Agm. Thew relrtianships have bcm indgad ad rxpIoitd by ma1 mkntr, norably Petersen - 

and kdv. Figure 17 &OW a rek of b6n &&ations txtramd ftom GppcNi ( 1949) and some Vovnicb symbols 

that ramble rhtm in my qinion. A penet.1 limilrtlry wu Wenr to me, and was dm md. indcpcndentlv and enrlia. 

by Tilmn, brmm mrain comrrtonty-mmhg looped rymk ding ibwt the lint and tht dmtive cmnsions of 

letten with tali rrrms in the cap Line of a m~nusuip illruttad in Cappelti ITabk 1V). Somc artificial wrianp qmms of 

various kinds bat might throw some liphr on the Vwnich xtipt will k discuucd in Chapter 9. 

It has been concluded by most rtuhu that the VoyaiEh script inrludcs at kP1~ me corn@ symblr. Various atrcmpts 

have km made ro wive at a ratide to *lain the lig~currs and rdw hem conrisrtnrly into component elemnu. Some 

nudenu haw propscd th thc ~Ws may hr*t km built up fmm ehmt~rv coolrts in a manner similar to rhe method 

up which they suppod that the Chinese wriufig system was bad. Tiltma suggmtd tha~ misshnarin viiiung ihe'fai' 

East. wh had =died the Ulincre srnem. mipht haw brought kk a dncrtpaon of it which hen mighr have inspired some 

fihrh- ar lixtrmch.renturv sddar to deign rhr Vopirh scrip iunpubli8td mtrrl. A. W. Extll. in his letrtr to 
Tilrmm. 30 Aupun 1957. &s 10 a rtrmrv I not further spmfied 1 Wt tarlv Arabic numerals arrt built up hum one. mt3. 

thm. four a rnm mkn in a similar Or~earal manna; hr urpgcsn a sk~hr and incomplete mrerpondcncc bermeen 

V- d rlonp thgc liner. No ant hr. rn mr kmkdp. worked wr a '.wdrt'' rhhKl 

dttlis~im~offideatdrrriltomtiromuablpabtrir. 

~&~~~~OL[~~~t~BKOllpcOrjdcd~xomsiwinform3tionconmni~t)#F~

hrpblf Mne: #6aa of rhc + #r d the customs of T#tlpl psopkr. He sates tkr chat he bd 

qucnioned -1 rnkioiwies and waurlk, rdv mmed from vuiu to hie h-awry -5. His dt~r~prioru oi 

map kw#n popkr ad curroms orc cMy vnitrbk. nbh me pre hb ad dutEHd. ?I miph h expd. 

A chr of &Iddhiff mankr ronhip. crca iadmdilyr o p& variwr of "Om mam podme hum'.. rr 

~y~.f&~irbir~of~inChiar:'~~inechn~to&ewrriaarhtht 

minrmrarclurrirhrbi&pli~pi~~moarchuocar~dkrrcn.aFhpoup~tiapa~. Br 

chis mnhod Ehvlcarr m ford with ,wy intm mgdwr. when= nuodk md rural charoer#r bvt km camped 

of kacn. ud have the mclaitq ofmteaen.'' (Bacon 19hb. p. 389.1 

fhr c#npooad VqriEk srmbdr ur sor &I oo "ak rpn" in my muiscrm ad unimbiv war; Ehn- art rr*l 

smo#hhrkdtdmiamr ~kfbwiqamliat.Fiplur 18~~omeerrm~af~d~compoundfamr.aad wmr 

wgpxhs rrfrrdinp heir -ti- Srmc rrmbdr rhieh appr to k hpk ax fint ipbr mot in fact rlw b* 

 omp pard: ior nunplt. "a*. mv k m& up 6" C" and '--- ". and " 4 " mv k a mknatmn ui -' C ~nd 

" 9'. Mv own frclrnp is that we nd na po u far afield a5 the Orient ;a explain rhtx complex outlines: rhc vnmi 111' 

lain IbbmrPrimu in rommon use thtarpht tk Uk ApJ has dw same chpncat. An rbkcrrPrsd twm nprdlt 

prrrarrsonror~llr~lmenofrradrad&ar#ahim~tb~ai~Yl~~~~lll~Ehar~ 

Somrddup.md~a~dormmsydwnkpurullp.dirmMKRdddin~ . . dak. parriallr 

JimiEu~.fhedirarr#dmd~dlarproCrr#dr~d~colnbised+irbomfieer.sop~cbstrran.laop. 

trilr. and slant which mark dn form u m &Mom. or sad fot a sm of miwing knm. Each of thew rtrurnual 

h~~m hrr a anrateqm in the Vop& Ictipt: r hmd wdce wrmr to ronnm many rvrnh; r cammr. a hook-like 

~afaarppwrrbo*ecerain~mbdr.de&roc~crr~fnqrracftsbltrndinp.bavrorin~hrmidnof&~ 

iafbrnas~:~trihrwvr~tpa~rhhhatdwmdrdddliacr. 

~tbmrfalitlrroburrd~Imk~t&~oftdnibbrrvi.rioar.fmdliu~alku,dmoloithchirddit 

ward &uwsmtm chroumt Ev. m&ud wirh arb farms of Hc numerals ad me mmm alchem~cal and 

mkkl vmbdr. to fid he inrpintlon fa the dtripn of he Vwrrich icripr. L'nfarunaed~ for the student. the desipncr 

hutxbih#daerrJ~rrrrurlsoblri~inbkadinFoad~ag~dcmcntr~ufo~ktof~onmtim~rnrarririrym-m~ i-duddie frrmmyofirrm.so~h*rour r~i~ofrirnilulutsm 

~~mbokhr~~or~o~tfn~~06tkesaip.1tuin#rernapoonae~chat~echnc#rsrh~ha~lt

lupcrfifcr a ink rixh orha Ligmd rbrnarn mq Jco oee~r aaa m them in ordiauy qwnce: the cxplicir and nmMy *a Iiwrt muu *. prwidc smudiszinnekmcnr d meaning. (For atunplt. is "m " ahe =me u '- C C "! 

~~b"~"dilf~from"~~"?b"&"~oirrkntm"~~ ''a-mcr~"orntithcrr~ 

klosr apprmolrderllysrwnwdsdsnmdrbr mmr.rriphmvtpt~efhinw*nrl~hqhr vtiprd 

*ennrponpm~awo~~pdoa~hl~~tk~d~din.Vuiatr

dopma~h~~~~drk~~ekmcnrr.PadchcidcaciChofvrri*atiorms 

d 8 U* +. Some. & Th d che firrt Vw hdv 6~. urircd It mhd*tlq dl alekt 0i 

hric symbols. qudiap dl cbe rcu u eompoondr. 15r Ehc orher cxmme. Cum-. Krirck. and the StcRnd Srdv 

Grwp id* a nu* of ob*iorr roraparadr in rbcir war- .lahrber to &we r edv lin of scmbds. 

C~s~mdrkorbrnWooit~~rbegrboPt~sfmboi" ~"adiu~~inppnpofonc. 

w. a h immedirndy pd@ ccmia qdds (''fi.. . " 7--, ad "fl").~~ an alphabet 

induda an .t#mp lo allor fw mnc rdmivdj rare lim eknxrm in dditim to tharr in the commoner mpounds. 

Fieure 19 shows m1 diftmnt ularniwon rlphrko, ' 

Whikrllhw*~~tanhd~ad~wrc.~unongeemiPfuailiesdrimiklr.~spm~aukncr 

biw dad ettcm dif6crcndy dcpcrdinp on their ehearia nprrdiry: rbt act nuotc of che kinships rrec fmrr 191. 

*able in- iur mand oa the four looprd s*rnW' ", . w. "that art all found as infix6 br ' 

sumortrrhcemM"C1 "as wellask. hinm~brof~idnn&tbrhriqd~'adm' ..(ad 

hur.br.ubt*.drahnF'~'ad't(~~urrlll.auyh~onldio17r.rhn.a#po~d~qm~ir 
-and four rimer around a circular band. It is lo rare to find an! sequence in the Voynich manuscripr repcaring all LW wmr 

portion of itsdf thrt this example is almost unique. Figure 24 shows the four rcpeaud qments arranged in prrallel; rn m-o 

inrunm. the symbol '' $ .-. rib only a. Imp. =curs in rhr ninth place. whir in the ocher wo. we uc " '' with two 

clear loops ~n the cmcspondinp ption. Sincc a11 the ha svmbdr appear identid. the conclusion rems inexapblr rhnt 

the single. and doubk-loopsd forms are fun-lly the same. Counttrvailinp apainst this conclusion is the her hat the 

ymbals are always made quite clarlv and di~nctly. with either one or rwo hps: there arc rarelr if cwr aar aanrit~onal or 

rnmfinal forms with vesupiol or cueierrlq-formed lwp. In my case. thae is an obvious family relationship of some ktrd 

among the four lo& rvmbds. ar shown br their similarin of form. their entering into similar constructiuns. tnd thrrr 

orrumnp a similar function and piions in the structure of ~txr words. 

Emkilirhmm& ate mhtivelr few in the Vovnich text. Fipurr 20 shows some variant and dtcorativr forms oisrmh~ls a+ 

varims s~udmtr have ttnulrvdy identified them: many of the assumed idenaficnuon~ ate mr own opinions. Some oi the 

d~ar~uvc nremsions and flourish ntt quite a&rc in a bixarrr and idiosmcraric way. Small dm inride loops. prallcl 

hnuhinp*im~~lincl. dou mn+in tom:tnd.-uion w.proIwpauon ol loops we frequent ornamentat dwiccr. The 

mkllishmma are. fot he most ppft. hipbl~ restrained. and not at all the emavapant. disordaly ovcrprmth one mipht 

expm of a deranpcd mind. Ir should bt wed also the oraarn~l extcruians rarely, if tvtr. impinge on w intcrtcrt 

with writing ar drawings mbv. and ht it is rare in ptncral for writing or draa-inps to crm one anmher anvwhert in thr 

rm. except in a controlled and orckrtr manner. 

Thc mriout e?bcllshmmn apprr ro exhibit the uA rhythm.. papmatic. and romparc darner rr IS cvllitnr in srhcr 

Y~~XS d syle rhrouphout the manuscripr. A pamcularlr norablr and omustap decorarivc tourirh is the JppArenr 

dirconncctiq of the wo bps of he character " W ". w, thrt one stem ad hop is translated horizontallr in~u 4 

neighkin? word. Jwnnimcs with weral iatemninp curlicue; figure 20 prwidn a numkr of examples. It 1s possible tht. 

in mime am. the inrent my bt ro combine fw~qsarau ocEurrcnccr of" '' into one desorative tlourish: rhm mar rlnb 

k Iomt ehcnt 0fmn:ap in the p&. dmh it k ecdv frequent mouph. qxciailv in lines orher than initial lines 

of parq~aphr. to suppn ~uch a condorion. 

4.2 Other Scripts.gnd Hands 

On main pager of he manuserip are found imlatd pha~ and stnmm in %rip$ and hands judged br most students ti 1 

k different from. and pddh hrtr &an. the bulk of the ten ralthouph nom of the murces I have studied present ;lnr 

definitive miden= supenp a different dart or authorship for thnc saarrad text strrnps t. Petersen repom rhar Miss Sil! 

(a friend of Mrs. Vovnidr) had made a boti@~ winotion of all the apparently extrarums prrapcs in the manuscript: 

"Miss Nill . . . has listed all words or Ppuapes which to k wrkren rn diffcrmt ink hum that used unilormlt. for the 

mr md the drawinp throughout the manPxript (She d also chat the original text mrns to show nor a sinele erasure 

and mectim anyhere.) Me Nitl dcdnrcJ thnt the Inu page is wnmn in the same ink as the bulk of the rnanuscrlpt" 

( 1953. p. 1). Unhnnalv. no copv d Milr NiII's lirt has survived in the rrutcr~al to which I have accms- I offer the 

follminp summary hwn my own e*nmimauon of the photo~opv available to me. 

Folio Ir. Thm arc very bint and harely legible maces of aLph&m Kqumcer in rhe lefr and ripht marpins. Thne arc nut 

viiMe ar a11 in he photwopy 1 haw studied. bur Pctcrsm sham them clrnriy in his hand transcript. The lnrers Kern to be . tho= of rht whnuv "ABC". with tr h~kphdy dud a Jd form. The two squenm appr to be paralki; in thnr 

frugrnentary mm. it is hard to all whdxr hey are consistmtfy dared with the lim of Voynich mt occuptlnp the 

nnm dthe ppe. 

Folio 17r. A lint of wrian4 in a wry smaI1. mbkd hand croue~ the top C~M ofthe page. It is very hard to make out: to 

my tgt. rht ltm memblt Grak synhls. The writing hmcs fainrcr and hadm to rd toward the fight side and finall? 

fades out complculy. In thc uppcr riphr corner. there is a faint. scrtbblcd symbol like a shield or a crude @r dt IVJ. criscrowd with liats. Ir is inwrcniag to nae thatJohn Ikt liked ro use Gmk letters to concnl comments in English in hrr 

perma1 diary; thr qmbolr on th pap. however. do not scem ro rpetl anyrhing thnt mipht br an English word. 

Folio Mr. A smli scatterin8 of obkrtcrs. which wain Id to me like Grcck svmbolr. art to be found in tht lower left 

corner al he page near a rmall picture of a man lying on bs back. he the "Grrrk" Imas is a suinp of words in the 

Votnich dp. Prof. Richard Solomon of Kenyon Cdltpt hnr ruppmcd a Hiph G-man interpretacim of thr extraneous 

svmboL. chiming that they mad for "der muw dd". w "the murrteil", rehnp ra an oMipatw)- bequest ef household.. 

poah born a man to his ark. 
Folio 66v. In the lower half of his papc (which &ow$ a plant drawing wcompid bv three texr parapraphr~ there is J 

mibbk or doodle hat slanu doanward coward the Iefr. A rwph oblonp figure sics to the riphr and ah the scrawl. The 

marhngs hm mrmbk a simibr scribble in the mm of folio 85-86~3 4 see klow); some portims of tbc doodle have the 

a- of Arabic rcript. 

Folio 85-86~3. In the rram of rhis cownolopal drognm thst ir antrthcr ddk similar to that in tolio Mv. A crude 

cirdt is by r horuonml lint. and he upprr halfbiwrcsd spin a prpndnrlar; a tine of indecipherable mibbiinp 

~Iik+AtPbicZCri~~pwtdthrsciKkand&torheMofir. 

Fdio 87r. To the kft of the harcr leavca of the plant dmwi y is a uudc rmr-like Me of inrenceein~ lines. 

Folro 116v. TL ma1 lints of #xt in o mimve of wmbh on che hu pape of the manuscript have been txtensiveIr 

ded b* many re~nrchets as a porrrbk "key" m the m. Figm 23 show metal manreripurn ofrhir mamrral made h 

dibt dtno ah$ with o reproduetion (admidlp poor1 of he pbwwopy at my disporol. The wmbols are verv rrmll. 

a~kd. and faint. It is in- to mce tbe difkentes among difk rtadmo' inrerpremrioa of these tnipm~tic linn. 

Tht numerous rmbiguicim ad hrides hive nu p"md ,merai dtm from bwng txtc&rr thm on their own 

ratk nrbumry rdiw of the tiny. did ltrrcrs. 

Fdio ppd#ringr. In the h mrnas of dn pap arc numbers added in what oppcus to be o different ink and hand. 

fhnr numk cornspond roughly tu sea of ei~ht pp. Tk di~emriblr in the photocopv I haw studred art shown tn 

firm 22. with the pap nembcr with each. ,The numerals am inmdng in themselves. exfiiht~np lemt archa* 

fmm: they art accompanied bv symbdr for Latin a~auonr. one of which. " 9 " for ".us". rr~ctlv resembles A 

common wmhI in the V@ smipt. 

fda numkring. ~omt @nt d~ring the dnl hismy of this manurcrip. swmonc added nurnbcr~ in the upper r~pht 

had corn= of the pgm. fhcrc numb lgree rich the pmms order of the pap. and shm pap wkr -in pp have 

appunulp km la# fi~c thrnurnkring was h but kfwe the finding of the mnnsuip by Voyntch. Some rrudena have 

dad chc fdio numben to rht rimmth w -th mmry; they map wdl haw km dtd by somcone at Rudolph's 

coua The fwms of the numbcn do IW differ sipifiandy from modern kffmr. 

Mmlh nomn in .nroiogkl dhgtrmr. The nune of a month hu km wAm into the central medallion of cach circular 

diaprn ?Mad with a -nhble diac ip. Thae mmh namn m mnridered by most students to h mimn in a 

hfht ink and hand rhm. that of the main mt. Figure 70 Bows dmilr of these medalhns and month names. A srnplc 

word in he Voynich IEfipt iS seen next to the two mly firha of the Pism rndaliion Ifolio 70~21; amp to idcnrlfv this 

word wirh rhc manth name w rodilc sign have so far km Fruitkxr. No om has made an? proprcrr. or even. appnrrndv. anr 

cktesarincd ammp. to idratifv the Innguap or prcwmiencc of the mmth anm#. desprtc the fan that rher are monp the 

few chrlv rcoopnizak and comprehensible hu of artt in dre entk manwipr. 

Srvcrrl paps of the manuscrip arc pdcd with dutnas a evdn of siqk symbols or rhm .vordr hat mm co br 

arranged in o war Kqumce rhpr my k an indcx a key. humhuph h mtd hue qumar exrcnrivclv in his zhmrv 

of decipherment Im Section 5.4): according to him, the muldpliaty of "h". rlchoub awaiated with a delikrarc 

attempt at myuifiwion on dK pn of the urik. ill provide some valid and useful idormadon oht the cipher. Below is a 

lia of hue. insofar u I can iknfy thna; some of the "kcv" req- am ah mentioned above undm Senm 4.2. 

Fdio Ir. The two prdel dphrkric ocquutcts in tk left ad right mqru. ddkd ah. haw btcn thoupht to 

funmion as keys: a r~spinon mtm mp mind. hwrm. that they arc chr tcsuk of lome htu wou1d.k kphmr's urrrkmps. 

It is surprising. msidcring the numb of ppk who must hawe anem@ m red he manuscript ar Ruddph's court and 

eircrrhwc. Chat thee arc nm far more doodled numk htm, and lines on ia pyn. 

Folio 4%. A klv diKerniWt dal lisr of rwcav-six Vgnich symbols runs down the lcft wpln of the tat 

accompanying o porricularly decurative "hrrbml" folio shouing a qrbatm.liltr piPnr. Figure 24 shovr rhr Kqumce, which 

nrhibiu a pmal rep660n in thm cyclts. 

Folio 57v. symbolr. some quite mpln or und in form. ur repccd fwr tim around cht mend 

conccnuic circle frwn the oueide in o cormotoghl diagram. Thc bru rrqumrrs arc shown in pdd an fipe 24. This IS a 

rare inruncc of qumm rrprrdng almost exactlv in the manuscript; in fan. I kiim it is he onlr such imam. 

Folio 66r. In tk left mugin is r rather mmplr* squcnee of single symblr *meted wirh irolrrcd rhwr words and, the 

lines of a ttxr prrqraph. aU in the Vq~luch script. Brumbough empiwed dmc ~qumcm or "qua-' expressing a 

cormpondtncr ktwm the Ict~rn and rht wwd~ (see 5.4 below). As is frequmtly he case in ths mpausuipr. however. the 
hrironc91 asLociatian of the xanacd lcitcrs and singk words is nor vte amrare. and neither n cleaffr and conasrentlr. 

related m the linn of the pap@. 

MID 69r. Brrwwn the pln of a m~aI mt arc six Voynich symbdr. 

Folio 76r. A saiog af nine Voynirh symboh is seen in the u~ irlt marpin. spaced our vertically in muph asrociation 

with dn limr of a art pryrraph. 

To my knorvkdge. no one orher than BPumLugh has &rcctrd much rmnrion w cht~ wqutnct~ No coruisttnt alphabmc 

at numcric order cm be d ftom one ro the am. Thcy may bt mvmrianal ibird~ns standing for sequences of ideas 

or +KU knm ro dae bk or mibcs. Thar prmencc as a alirnr fcorure of xk rcrr indicam rfirr the wtirinp svsrcm was 

capable of employiw sin~lc rymu or pnv~ of spmhls ro d for mmc rerr of mncrpa. Srr figure 24 for mamples oi 

many of thne "key" scqwuc~. 

4.4 Ctyptanalyric road Stylistic At&cks on tbe Text 

Srudmtr who haw appcmehed tkr Voyaich awr from the pot of vim of the profcssid aypnalyst have been led on 

at first by r rkcepvc surbct appnnna of Jimpliaty. aniy to bog down mom a ,later in an exasperating quagrnirr of 

prrradom ad enigmas thu meal themdm oat by me u analysts peed. Elirebcrh Friedman has provided 3 clear. 

eonci# -.ummprr of thc frusuPciaas awaitinp thc cr~pmlyt in the Vovnich monusrript. I canna irnprwe on [he clrrirv. 

rompln~nrss. ad succinctmss of htr remarks. and IO rwill'quort them at length in the following parapraphs. 

"Whr is -all! the initial don of a pdnsioasl ciphrr mpt m the rmnuwnp? Ar 6rn rk. K lmkr as dwtah Ir Bi~cLd h 

w euv tv Arc. hu~ IBe 'm~' mms PD be In wwd kqd~s ad wd Itnnd wt clenrlr un prartmllr. rmr ppr. 

"A ai@ kq- mble mald br rmde nr ma d a of -mt'. iua n Par did ia the 'Gdd Bug', Bur to 6, t&c necerlrirts 

&dial1 )m m&nv diffam rrmW Ehm ue r dw rmaurcript. d rhir tr dt&r simpk wr cur. For whar seem& 41 firm ubm tcr k A 

~~k~bp!~apprnrnbtampopamdeupofprr~~orthrrr~~b. 

-'If a mbk u mde 6pr a pae d m rmovnting w rboor SQO 'wds' Iwhich come m aht ITW ch-s~. ~t 

prcvntt rbt chmwik 'qh' 7 af r hrqwmr aMr 6a 1 limplr mhimrion etphrr. A fcu nnklls bvc a vmv htuh 

hum: P k haw I w kl fqq: chr mt are of miry but dium tcqrmria. kdt tht mar rcputams ni vnplt cruds-. 

~wrirormn~~quamudmo.rhm.lamtat~rads. 

"Tbr h imprr*um. tktke. is thm ke u a rmpk rubrawmu a#m. Howmw. the kclphmr i~ dmed to ctw ti~rum~m when 

rtn durn hd m uwh a thawr id. Trids In ktin. Gmk. Csmn. Italian ar.. veld rw~hinq at all. 50 mark tr s ntir s~mplt 

mbn~rnnm. 

"&n hen rhr p#ribiliru of traqmitiun. uf mb#wd wbuimiun-my. w of rrmlnpk-dp&k wkrtut~rm me hr rrltJ our 

h the thmt the is en?- tm meh rcplitloh Wt fid thauPndr of rrprttirnr d' thm-. itrur-. md hru-lma raud, 

. rbrcnyhPutlhem~ , 

"Fa rrpmplc. in ni- Iran ui w*t. &.ma thmshnnner povp awn rinrix timer. hd in rrpird m rrpatltm d r~rmplnt 

'nwdr', tk rhok rrunuxripr ~squia brw; dw 'dl- in aU dons am vrrr much dike. 

"ldd. -im. ad MU rm ndv. am lindl Ehe nmr 'rad' appnt#rp tfuct nrm im w&m. pudunnv vrmnhrnp s~rnliar ~II 

Gmtrrk ha's 'A mm is A rwr ir torr.. .- Ah. n hds of M in whach ruo '-8' of fwr. rive. w mctrt hracrmr 

difk hn rrrh mk b* mlv mu rhuamr. u an EapltrB. eht 41 '&kc' .Id '~trdrt. 'urn' ad -stmk'"l IW2. I 

Thm have btrn ml amp to amlm rhe Voynich mt ulinp computers. Unfortunateiv. for a varittv of realons. 

hde pmprrrs has resulted from these tffom. rrrth he sole cxceprion (to mv knowlbdgr) of the rcsrrrches of Prtm Currier 

(WC Smon 6.8). tryptPnalpc dim have indudd monoguphic. dipphic. and mpnphic frequcncv counts throuphout 

rsmplu of Wtim sku, bued m mat dinemu trandption alphak. Rmrw alphakc lorrs haw bren made to nudv 

"todimp" of 4, and *wrd udtxn have providd m adqrir of dihnt accurrenm of the 'same' word and a 

compum of heir can-. The difficulties of rrriviap u an Irphakr. manscribing a ~uffieiinflv krpt sample of tea. and 

puniag access to rnwph mrnpum time have hpmd denu in heir rffosu over the years. Mort of the propscd 

rwnpm dies were ncvrr umcd far emu& to rault in any did pain in knowltdpt. More nil be said in Chapter 6 

wd~np dn refir -urn Kudies and Jomt rn~iml coluidcndanr rrlating to the urr of computers In 

K==d 

WhQ rtlPsrvely few hare had xfcu 10 mmputers. mav stdm &w mode Wvt hand sdia of the tmr. Tiitman 

first hibed thr appnrmt "prmdence order'* of chuamrs within wod. ad demonurated the preference of certain 

symbols. in -in eombimrimr. for the kpinninp. middle. or mdinp pons af words Pcterrrn made an elaborate and 

compdm manual cowatdam of the mt. and audied oKurrenm of Iqawrcd ad compound fwms of srmbds. . . - 
4.4.1 Pknomcna in !be Text W'bicb .\lust br Accour~ted~or Any Theory. 

The fo110win~ lin of characrcriics to be explained bv anr pd cnpnalrtic thcwr sumrrwrizer the iidincs tut sever~l 

mearcherr. rsmably the Friedmans and Tiitman; it inclub also wmr obsmrrionr which I have added from mv uwn ~udr 

of the =I. 

f 11 Ihe basic alp& of frquendr.occurrinp symbols is small ins few us 6hn aawdinp to swat ~rudcnts. and 

pbablr. no nwpt &an mmty.fiwr. 

t 2 1 The hasic hs orc compounded w Sprcurrd to cream a isrpe varim of camplex svm~s. 

(31 The srmbols are proupd into "words" stpara& bv spmm lolthouph ~omc mearchas have cwprnred dtlubt5 

about the cauistenm of this sprcinp r . 

L41 The numkrof&ffcrcnr "wards" -5 rurprijinplr Limioed. 

(31 Iht "wwdr" are shm. averaging wound four or firt svmbols in let@; mds over wen or eiphr srmbt)ls long 

ur rare. or we olro words cunsisunp of a angle symbol. Em two.lemr wwds arc nlanvtlv unromm. i It shnuld bt 

panted out that ad EnpIirh ma also vn m overape .Pord.lcnph of about five chums; in Enplish tat. howcvtr. 

rtrtn are manv ow- and m.lener wdr. and r pt many wmds of m to fifmn clliracrm in lenqrh. provad~ng a %err 

different pmrn from thar seea in the Vvnich tat. I 

(6) The same "word" is frqucnrl~ repeated two. thm. CT mm time in immcdiprc succcsrion. 

ft! Manr ' words" differ from tach orher bv dy one or two ynbols. and such "wwds" oh mcur In irnnluji;lte 

lucmrion.' 

t81 Cmia svmbob orcut chanmriicdy ar rhr kgininps. middles. and ds ~i "words". and tn cerrarn preirrred 

qucnns. 

(9) Cmin symbdr appr very rarelq. d oalr on -in pap. indicatinp ~lm+ 3-1 hmon or mean in^. 

( 101 b arc my few doublar (reptition of the me krrrr mce in surrmim~, and €hue invdve primarilt the 

Ivmboh " C " " , b ", -dl, & " j ". "d ", "0 ". 

11 1 Vnv irr symbols ormr silyly lu oae.Lmrr "xord.") in running rm: rhnr arc primnril! '' 3 -' and '+ 9 ". 

(12) "Prtfix".lilrt elements are tacked in front of amin "ds" that also occur cammodr withour hem: such 

prefidclemenunrr..% .....O...nnd.. 9 '.. 

1 13 f he r?mbol"+' Mcun almost invariably foIlovrd bv " 9 ". and janed to rr bv an nnmsion of the crorsbar ut 

the ''4 ': che radeinp compound symbol is rarttv seen &where than ar the kpinninp of words. 

1141 On mwt herhl folior. he frst line of the first potapaph kptnr with a very small wr of srmbols. pr~marilr -. ". " fl "* " .,, .. .*: these we uulll immdiatrlv follad br '' CL '+. -. . '' 0 . - 9 ". 

'' ou3 ". or '-69 ". NO P.CC an te fwd of the dphabenciw hat would k apntd if the khl papapbr began 

with tfrc namcs.at plmnn in alphobnicol order or was usual in many early hethls. 

( 15 1 Sinpk "ds" o~currlnp p~ laklr m*r m smrs. "&up conuincrr". phm skmh. or mhcr picroriol thtnts In 

varims dronnps verv *od~ kpin with the four hpcd rvmbols; inroead. thtv often rrnn aruh " O ". " 8 '-. " 9 ". 

and otu~ionnIIv " *' and " ". 

In rhe Vomich mnnwipt. wt are mhnd by a druation rib man? unkmm. In *re of the dilipmt and tireless 

effm of many mknred ~cks am rhcMf-ct- inee io diwwrry. we All haw my h definim fa- to reduce 

the large area of uncertainty dcfid by these unkmwu~ We rdH arc ignocpnt of the undul+np laapuay: we ha* lirtle or 

no clue to the MCUR of tfn cipher. code. a wririnp spem; we do na knm when. whm. or bv whom the manudpt was 

wrimn; we cannot evcn k muin of tbt su&t maw. w rhr prrpo~c for which it war cornpled. In the followinp 

prrpraphs. I wilI ammp to list, ps romplml~ as pouibie, the thu a ~ndous cwpcarr~l~ might entmntn 

repardinp he rumre of the Vovaich rex~ In somc cucr. information turned up bp marchers cnn ar lart pnlv rule out 

rornr of thne hypolhtsrr. as Elixtbcth Ftiadmrn has s~td in the passap qud above. Somc rhmies =rn more 

caprbk thrn aks of explaining the ptrmomm obKmd in the tern. A rmtk mnrihtion of all the pasibifiries will 

--- 

'on h rlt roprucd wauds. a rtlIkrput hu pad rwr ar mt ht twn w ti~- rep- in qwm uf tht wmr svLI~bk 4rC.mN - unummtm tm Ihmnc. mJ In whn. umibr E-n Ianruupn f hts 1% due am pm ur ehr lark of the "iunmun vords" such AS drt ~uxal~anti. 

prrpuam* m~ks. cor.. In thm herum. nd an prt a* rnethwh oiwd bualdany ad ccmpundinu. 
~rvc as il pobd foundation for the di~urrion ol soiution atttmpu in Chapters 5 and 6. Such a surw: will aho ~rovidc J v~rid 

pirturc the true magnitude of the pblcm which this empmaric monurcripr presents fa rhe m~pnalvsr. 

The rnprr~lvtic pouibilitits to bc dealt with are related to three prindpl fo~tors. which I will dmipnatt br caplul 

I-: P, he mrure of rhe dalriap @in ten: E. he corrrspondmcc or subnimtion krwetn elements of pbin tar and vd dpt tinmap; ad T. atfitr ~mf~marions that mirhr have bctn carried our on the plain text in addition to 

suhbon of Vvnich svmbols. In the SoIlorviq pqrapfis, ICVCrPl possibilities will bt listed under each of these barv 

Encrcrr: ewh surh idividual hrpolhesir will k designated by be letter (P. E. or T) followed bv an Arabic numeral- I will 

nsrvme that rht rtadtr is hrniiiar with Ferrain basic tcmrindrrpy and coaccpo of crvplopy. such u the dirtinctim kwttn 

rodr gnd cipher. rnbstition trtnrpwrrion. fhc~ cwrcepa haw &en drsrlv &fined and explarnrd In many eas11~ 

obwinablr general works an crvpnalrru. 

P. The Nature of tbe Plmn Text. 

P.1 Noml Lsrin mu. 

P.2 Normal ta in me arhcr*nrrurdh$wp&.%. . . . 

P.3 Code m svathedr hnpw wirh a mixture of ideographic ad natural lanpapt charancriKics 1c.e.. prammmrc~l 

endinp adkd ro code svmbdr i. 

P.4 A prdy idcopnphic 5- Like pictographs. with vimallv no feature3 of natural Lwunpe preserved. 

E. The Nature of rhe Subrtiturion. 

li. 1 One plan texl symbol is replaced br am Vo?nich symbol. 

E.2 Om @n mr rrmbd is replaced bv two (due) V~njch symMs. but always by the ume number ot' svmbols. 

E.3 f wo (thm). but aIwavs rhe rome numkr of plain mr svmbok are rtplaccd bv olrc Vornich svrnbl. 

E.4 Two (three) pliin text svmboL arc tepbccd bv two (thteel Vqnich symbols. 

E.5 Mired lcnprh units (1.r. ow. two. ad three-ktttr strinprl are invdvcd in citha or borh plain tat and Vornich 

mipt. 

f .6 LsEh plain mr unit hu a set of varirnr ar rltmnarivr Voynich svmbol cwnmpnm. fram which the scribe could 

cjtane at will. 

E.7 Whir words or mnceprs are rrpmcntcdby single Vovnich symbols or bv mixed-leprh Vovnith strings {as tn 

rhoahand ) . Ed Polva$bbtttc suhtution. or d# dic usc of a reria of suhsutution alphok aawdinp to some rule. 

T. Transformations Other Than Suhritution. 

T. 1 No plain w*r kncrr droppad. added. or mod. 

T.2 Vmk dropped. 

T.3 Wurds arbittarily. and rvnted only bp rtMn krrcrs. 

T.4 "Dummy" chPwrtn. at "nullr" id imo the t~t.' 

T .5 w qlhk utarpwed within wds i*i in Pig btin). 

T.6 kwn aqammcd or a~arpd over loycr mtches af mt. 

T.7 Plain ttxc manled in a much Ianp "dummy" or "cwcr" mt. most of which is meaninglers. 

f.8 A Tdemim or BPcoruPn system. inwkiap rue of romc binarv or minary characrcristic tcld or open 

Imm: milr up w m~b dawn: lipring or hck of it: ac..r u dw rmt ~~e.curyiap ic~orre in a monnrr similar to the 

"dots" and "duhn" oh Ma cwk. applred m a "ewcr" text or "camcr" mt which is mesninelers in itself. 

As will k shown in C)llpar 9. dl of she rbovt ptmibifitiw wrrt known urd wed bp early prrrnitionm Jtcrel wririnp. wtll within tht fibh and imrmth -rim. Ilo~ Barn mentions a numkr of hem in an ofrcn-Eirod psroy in his 

wffk entitled "lk ~irabili P-te Areis et Name" (Boron 18'59). The mrrhods he lias include mldt-up alphnbecs. 

pmmic figam mbinsd with h. I)tObfhand ("an 11000Cia" or TvPOniPn Hadl. ad hpptnp vowels from the 

ph-. in dhmy ua- amihtcd w him. Bacon is rbo &ought by me to have employed aqamminp. simple 

~ubiururion (om plun rexr cham- w one cipher drrmcm). ad mmdment of a short rna~ within a much Ionpes 

meaningless "cam" ttxt. 

Urinp rhr xheme of individual hypotbms dnipmted by lms ad aumkrs mnd ah. we mn wt up a larpc 

numkt of cwnp~urd hvpochnrr cmbad~inp varioru &oh in vnriw~ mmbinatim. I wilt not amp to list aII of verr 

- -.- 

' In md MI~ Nik CWpnm of Mn- Vdh- sit~ Rpaa thw J Jn hianlv hd crw hlr opram~n in a kmr 11, Mr.. V~~rryrh Jdtd 

Mprrh 10. IYN. that the mr uf the mamrrnpr qmau r simple riphcr dkguutd br pht use of nulls. In amhn kmr m VS'iUlm R. Nrr-blid rr 

ah rht mmr date. Manlr wlsd racrord~n~ w Yk NiiL I that frqmncr cwmr he hd ma&. bad on nphr pprr trfmr. h-d --A cclmpr3tl~etr 

implr c~phm diyulsd br mmsiwt ure of nulls-'. 
Isr@rctobposribilicics;imrrrod. Idmrntiooakwth8tseemmknrled mtbvt&evideaa.orrukm~rtlnou1r 

~.rrda~oQen~1oemmorrccm;n*ar.riphwh#~k1101dtbt~PDddl01m0rt~~dfPftber~~. 

Hw Ra&d UnlElrdy by the Evidtnoe. 

Simpk Subiktk aa in Ohmk Undm&M#wrI Longwge Tao. Ar Ehekd~ Fridmon md -5 have 

abrerrrd.rbtmt~dona#rrgr#rm~L#inor~aha~LuyorCtcenripberrd~simplconr-~~ . . ~dVg.ieb~6#i~kmerrI~bmsrrnrrofolurchtaw.P.laP3d&l radT.l).Tksh~ 

r#dr,tbr~~rcprridosl.tbtn~oforr-~~lr~kaerrard*tbr~afdoPbleoldootJedktmrrr~.1II 

milit.Ayriarriraple-*oa.Sorbobdrr~~~dpnlklcoacrla~difkrrruomurencrrdehr 

"ume" wd u shk wad A. la rbr mrrdr of4 fe#uehar. "tk tm jtw d#m't oer like natt~ralanpuapc". 

An~a~~~.h&r&oeberm.r~invd*iqoruk~P.4(a 

pdydeog.phicawq~lrm,mao-dndiop.b ~gDtmkor~dtkt~umd 

~~)iraqofny~y.~~brolsda~t&lrlicot~.~adcDd

demorand by Ti md iwt -.-The prcfix.like mddw *rirniiuiticr kwem wds 

rto indime dw there is sme dqre oflraloy-fke m. iadvtag unim #nrllor dun whde rrcrdr or idur. in the 

Vgaicb#rr. -. ~H~i~E~Iobrcydkprralre*cnld&em~~~p 

m='dmudbrEMFI*danakrrIdrlbrrrLhra.dd~mhr-. 

Polydphaktk sfrumr. lib the weU-bn Vipk &. am Wicidy desigd tu rht nunv patams and 

f@k in m rrhich pow& hdpfnl --in *no for tk 4-k dmpkw. Tk frrqucnq cwnu of 

~dVgaiebchi.eren~a~ofcmrrtrlloow"~4k~ebrrarPcn~tnfrrgucnt. 

*rbik#haJrrrqWr~qrcrar.rldrh~.rkhio~~Pendrmm-flurm 

on"ehrhq~dirtribforthtoe*rrrrrrhok. 

f ma Syatmr. SI#cmr iavahng urrgnmtniu~ or uarrrpwiq leaars over ubirnty rrqwnera of mr IT .61 are 

m. 

rordru#dulrbrlratlpioar:iad~15#di~~~r~d~.dlad~dorrehmethodrkwlupodumeof 

a*t tom with tbe difhiq of- ad daipkb~ what rru probrblv A * work lo k consulted br more 

dua#wprrwn. 

~on#~~po~haawaPbldf-~~lrrnarsddw&Ld-tb~rslksomtaf& 

~u~~.maoronceorrr~catrmra6aaoaoerariaabar~#tmmort~ag.Iw#Jdlibe.Grrr.e 

~~~corrtidrrrtioarht.ppartdmmmrhr~ofttrt~~intbeVqraishua. Whrtevu 

mcthodofr##talntentwsswdropJd hvrhd~krrlirinlg~ipampbydmm~.~~~umrofom 

~eairmmdu~O.000churam)nriticlln~~drbon#~~poarrrwh~thrpopo#d~Ncw~. 

fhr-rad-.odbewj*rprrrlkld**rbomrrr;.#qlrdioord*rspot#eof 

ead~mpardanrIPoku.of~.re.sru#~t&~~bdbemcopsd ~mdkaiginrl). 

The~rrrcsrebofPr#oa~ImSsedon&8br~)tdicunqrrirrd#rlgdutthmwrre~I#umdiff#cnt 

rcribcrar#holsrswbw#kdoa~~~drbt~~tbtsi~tbrrthr~kdmb,~mmpnmir 

icrpiffluse~~puma-a~imptmmbitof' ' Asbu~bem~widwsqu~ 

brraoorI1Pde#r.DbtOaiprrr.Imo#~~~icCtmr~;lhiru~~tbrd#ltrire~aad 

~h~.chrpramocddryhar*kfr.~slrarof~rtid~.roodEirdec.d~~td 

linrrolrrp~.FinrUy.irrnrmrruonrbleoo~~hrt~mu#hrveka#t#rdocummuwrirPminfbirKlip.adnC 

oaeam#codrMa&hbrrqpbtrmJL~~dcrkJvt~~t&~.Mis 

~1~rbuspCharroeri.lrillarn1lp~*rn~l~mt~~011&~rm;hrinr~* 

~mdrbub~Ibolrcc&kbrriord~iatbrrrra,~b~brkr#rar~~~mwtWtclv 

mnprv hntm idpeioa. 

bun T= With Vd Dropprd. wag wwdr from Ltia prod- oatr &viq q diffaent chrrraerircia from 

dro#dnorsllLrinTm.SingleLotiakFanmr?be~bsirykVg.icbqmbdr.ar.r#rreW~.bmirpsd- 

~Paiu;~~li~..~cbdndmaee&ao#Vo*.kb~mlPadkr~na~n~bd~.

iachrdrd.uduaolLIdumm~.~haarrhorm~~dwrdIhernrcir*rd tnrer#dkrquhtl~ 

tfuoqhmt tk -1. Such r codat system my k rrprmmcd in out rhnnc ofh-s rs tP.l ad T.2 and (E:I 

w E.5) ad pwribl? ako E.6 ud T -41. k dad opermh CopM dl bt eur#d opt dy. aravrly. ad n@y b? r 
mibt ah me practice and familiarity with be wstem. The raultinp text would k vet! difficult to decipher h orrnvone 

uafunrliar with the mahod. and rtlarivrly CPJy for chr iniriacr. A problem arises in drbppinp rowel4 frwn Latin. in that 

many impmnt sdl words like "dc" and "ad". "a" ad "ut", "rk" and "crt" kcomt indirunpishabk. and some words 

misting only of a Jinglt vowel dkppr entirely. This might nor be a serious probkm for redas ad writers who kncawhat tbt tm war kt ad were rlortlp fuailhr with it. 

Abkvinred L.Lin Wordr. Cmdonrl ktin abbroriatims. revred bv mixed-length Vovnich character strings ur 

cde-like mtitia. pwsiblv with Jlc add& complications of wrionu ad nulls. prerenls amhtr likely possibilitr. L P. 1 and T. .; 

and E.5 or E.7 ; opdmllv oh E.6 and f A). This. loo. would h tarv w learn ad to remember. and taw tu read tor rhr 

tnitiatc within the scmt citck. but hiphly difficult for anvonc wuide it to penetrate. 

Mn Text. Enciphmd bv Simple Submtuwon. Ceakd in a Longer Dummv Message. This hrpothesir I P- 1 and E. 1 

ad T.7) woukl erpiPin he many mange repccicions ofhghly sirnilor words in ck succesrion: om d the wwds rrpiesena 

a pan of fie mud messaee. while the mt arc aansmw ~quentcs made up. like meaninples babblinp. and in~crtcd w 

concnl the uuc ciphcr string. The wik. fad with the tad of thinking up a brpc numb of surh dummv scqucnrcs. 

would naturdlp md to repar pnm of ntiphbonn~ arin~s with various smatl changes and addisms to fill out the line until 

the next messppe.hnp word or phra~. Tbb theory would also wain rhr frcqumr i1lqimliw and Iack of conriscnt 

squmtial structure in stretches of text which has m frwmd mdmrs. 

A !,qnlhctic bnpuap or Ck tP.3 and E.7; opcipnrllv rho E.5 and E.6 and T.41. The mlnt likelr hrpthests In Inr 

opnil;m involm P impk rode bad on a sma11 phu of a few hundred lain words rtlattd to phnts. medront. 

Prtmmv. weather. and ocher topin of in- to he mik of tht mnwipf. The rmt or bax forms wnuld br 

qwmcntcd bv om, two. a three V@ Symbdr standin& for a ppe numkr or column numhr on a pap. or im J 

philosophical suhjm caotpv as wu usuI in tuiy universal or anifid1 LPngu~pes. (See SKnon 9.3. r Endinps or 

pammaticrl fomu could Ehcn br rcpmcaccd by he mi* of symldr in main prrfrsrcd wdas wad br Tiltman and 

othm at the mds of wordr.Thii. wo. was a common feature of early s?ndrnic languages. The addinan of mixed-bnprh 

variano for b Pad affixes. and the idon of nub. all common prdm in early coda d by the Catholic Church. 

would proride a complex ~hmhent qs#m exmdinplv hard m pmctrarr for the outsik. whik still wrv tasv for the 

initiate w u~. With some pnrrtcr, it d be mwmd almost like a natural knpurpe. cspmrilr if iu hsic vocabularr 

. was as mll as mmr likely from the tvidmce. 

A snrem of &IS kd would require om w rnm copits of o code hk or dinionarr to bt consulted br users ot the 

~DW. In Section 9.2. an early Vatican codt (Sihcsm 1526) which exadv fits rhe abwe description will k discussed In 

wmr detail. Curria's findinps concerning he difhnca in certain character frquencicr ad combinariaus bemen urnpiel 

of in -0 different "Ms" arc highly significaat in this regard. A pauible cxpla~uon is that one scribc ud cmarn 

varionu in prcfmnc* to &err. or cmploycd the gym of *'edinps" a Iirrlc diffcrentiv: in -wan to the practln of anocher 

smik. fhtrc and orher hypwhcsr~ will be di& funk from variws poinrs of vim in Chapen 5.6. and 9. 
Chapter 5 

Major Claims of Deciphermenr 

The sumy 10 k pr#enrcd here will k quirt brief. twept In the cast of the most rmnt durn. bv Robm S. Brumbaueh clt 

Yale Unirmirv. The soiurionr put forw~rd bv Nmbold. Fctlv. and Srronp haw bcm thorouphlv at wth br other writers. 

in trcaanenm publidtd in darivdv rcce#hk-~~will~ide dr a rapd skttch of the main pnu repardine rhmr 

work. for the sake of ccrrnplctmrss. for dents new ro he problem. ad for mcrhdd~ptcal reasons. 

Ro:. William R. Ktwbold =as among the first schirlars to whom Wilfrtd Vmntch cupies oi the nununrtpr rrlrl 

ah ia dimav. in the hopc of ptrtinp it dtcrphaed and trahSiPd. Newbold. a nudenr oi med~eval philm~phr .trd 

scicna, published his first prcstnution in 1921. Hr krwktd on the rnanusaip and on other alch&cnl rexts aruibuted 

Rap Bacon for ~cretai morr yews before his sudden death. Wakshm MCI m of his remrch were did and published 

bv )UI Ird and Iiterary executor. Prof. Rdand G. Kcnr [Newbold and Kent 1928). Newbold war familiar with rhe srsttm 

of woteric rnpcot phi-p dcwlopsd bv the medicval Jew in Spin and known as the Cabala (or Knbbnlah 1. He studied 

the amnnm in a mixture of wipu on folio 116. and war immcdratcl? muck bv a phrase "michi . . . dabas 

mulm . . . m'' (as he red it). which k~Mf~ltd "Thw wasr fivinp me nunq paen'.. (For 1-1 different dinpr clt 

folio 116~. ree fipurc 23). The wad "parts" itorin "pwae" a "porw") WRS used in the Cabala. according w Nwbold. I(] 

mftr to all possibie combinarions of the Imm of the Hebrew alphkt. oh two at a time. &rum~np Cn,m the nutset. 

following Vwnirh. hat Roger Bncon was thr mnumipr's anrltnr. Newbold brouphr to bear tv~dencc rhar Bacon ua3 

famibar with cenrin aspem of Cabalistic he: he cites &nm in Bacon's Gmk Grammar and his iraymmrprv wrrtrncs 

on Hebrew [BPcon 1702). as wdl as his cmmcm cmccrniap c-kd writing dfw which see StEuon 4.4.2 abovel. ~s 

wib of this familiarity. 

Stnrtinp with this clue. Newbold examined some other works on rhe subp~ of akhcmy attributed to Bacon. and cla~mtr! 

to have did a ciphcr uKd by &con lor conding map within rnnoernr-apprinp ht~n text I the methcd I haw 

designated T.7 in Chaw 4). He moinrPined rhu a vrtiant of his mcrhod had been empioved in the Vornich manuscript ds 

well. Thus. NwboId ascriks tw different. bur drred. cipher syffems to Bacon: First. a "Latin text" cipher tram the 

alchemy uenrirrr. ad ~romd. a mote complex "shortbud cipher" used in the Vovnich manuscript. 

In the bun akhemiul manuscrip, a mwqc was hidden, rrcordms to Newbold. within Latin wards so chosen and 

arranged as to appear to k a maiw on rkhrmy or on a rehd topic. Alchemy mp were olwars expecred w be mysterious 

d nonvnrictl lo the uniniuottd (ad. one sv. tomany would-k iniuarn as wdll; such a work wwld thus provide an 

deal "cwtr" for a recm message. Each pair of visible hin ltacfs in the cover tm stood. in Newlmld's vim bawd on the 

Cabpiisti$ "earn", for a lingk undcrlving plaiatm her. In thir syatm. 484 lmer-pairs (twenty-mo Inters taken two at 1 

umt) wtrt gmwatd. so that each of thc cwmcy-tm) lcmrs of rhe plniarexr alphabet could Ix rcprenntcd bv any of twcntv- 

"Mnnntr". or Plter~rivt cipk pairs. A rerrrictim was $ad by NewMd on this large numkr of alrcmmri\~s. such 

that pin choJm w ruhutute for r phtwxt Bmtr in a word must ha* the first member of one pair the same as the last 

member of rhe peccding pit. Fw example. if "uniur" wtrc to bc mciphd. it might k represented as "w-rimit-ru-ur"; 

tk doubled lcnm would rhea k drop*, pring "~itur". a gd trdn word tse Newkid and Kent 1918. p. 53 if and 

Manly 193 1. p. 34 ff for a fuller expladon I. Mdrd complcrtitier wmc introduced m provide a cove tm that appeared to 

k aaepblt Ltin ad would not (at itw in an alchemy am) arouse suspicion. Thne added steps involvad a 'man?-misnirubmcution. ad on rop of that, a rearrangement or anagramminp of lmerr within passapes of fiftv-fivc or on; hundred and 

rm charmers of ten (our method T.6 1. 
5.1.2 Th SMnd Cipk. 

As ducrikd Nrwbdd ~Ndd ad Kmr 1928. p. 106,. there wm six mp to bt followed in dcriphalnp the 

VopaiEh -: 

I. Trurlipcrrri#r: ikmiftragFbtJhort&ad~.rad~thrminada. 

2. Swfiarion: dollhag .U bnt dw firm d lau d arma$in~ tk dtinp rPinp in prs wth rhe first 

me& of cwh the pme as the mmkr of the pdm? pit. 

3. Commuurian: In mv plir where the lKODd mmkr b om of the "mmmudnp" set "C. 0. N. M. L'. 1". A. 9". 

chgc tk firrt rrremkr madq w A "mnmrion rtphabef' pmdd br NerrbM: Whm the fira mrmk is J 

-w h. efurilEr thr Keoad a "terrrrioa dpbh" povdsd: whae kh art commtuinp Imtrr. chaw burfl. 

ewhb?rbtidierosddpbk 

4. Tm. &pkgpotht~printMrriphrbmrvalw~tbrlaoLupinr~bk). 

5. Imrrion: Chrngiag '*rlphabrtie.uduts:: d:phaneriE.dum''. I rhc nutln of ths rcep is nor clear I. 

6. Recmpition: Ampmming ek to prod= mcraiaeful ~ot. 

T'k "Wad" rehd to in q 1 was smlv brrrd on an et Cd of r-iauonr. and was to k 

~md~ofthtVocsiEbrarpui~oadaarerdiag~dkdKnupintornrn~unvmmpancnt 

~*rrdtiaer.~*rnbla~povikdinttKbrcLof~booLmmPMt~Ilodtnrtocom-oucdltkn~rtmmi- camtrim. mumhaw. and lo fordr. 

N~bdd ad Kmr p-dc pood ill- of r numkr of foliar from hfic manuxripr. chwen from wiuus chsscr ut 

dnwiqs; -aftkmm~b~eroljoouellso# whichkorCtdrw rwntommthcp#nurs. Fur 

~pk.rerk~~mraeiem~hdoaapycriDbmUPdO~dnwulp~~72r~.H~fifipurr 

b rt red as dtrctibiry porrrrrivt or p- mlrrrrr_ wirh u h ~omc rpprrrw illrdfiertion iwp. Mopan 

~k*~~~.)inthLdnwtnp.fhirorcnumbrrfraqwarttreeiaaonthcplnofmokramdmcs#rthe~krd 

fmwk 6- un Sdiw 75 ff. 0th draw@ w uken as ding the spproaec of a cornet {folio 71~1. an ohtrralion 

of 8 Ipid arboh (& 68~3). ad an innrllrr dpsr I& 67~21. 

thrrl.mrrdNcrboldrarbrikd+ithpcuaulwriPrmboVomichdmutp~wborrae~rr*ieur 

.ad A (Kd 1921. Gdd 1921. 19281. BgP kcm a vhr. ifhid. mOmtRt in the 

ma. whik hrwssmddrirhrhturenrionuftbcmupd 1-d Pdneopc. and thtonriciprioo ofmanr 

fwcmier)lav -fie discmmiu. Cnbolic mi- auld in mumph oa tht one haud over whPr ehw -a- as a 

vindimtion of medirual ~~bahstic phriapophr. d fd ovcr oae modw oa tbe orhcr had ia their bsre to apolo~ire far. 

crrwc. ad minimkt cht pnefpcioa ad agh inflic#d up the -w "6#rrun#r of m&a science" br. 

his wph in ebt Fm Ord# (Werilk 1921. Wdsh 19211. Em a numb of praniacrrt crpmr and 

rpd.LbPi~medie*rtphi~~Nrwbdd'r~onQitiePll~.&mrafirll~rportm~mil.ttthc~bk + 

a- iaw tit& k- of Ws wwk ud lhougbr 1- f 929. Gilwn 1928). Samr I#r duhs whoiats 

wwc din8 a hirdcr lmk at Ne's him. and e*prrrriq aheir bkr (Smk 1928; fhoradike 1421. 1929: 

sPkmon 19341. 

At thr umr urn rnadm &. Prof. Jdm M. Wy. a pmbea# of Em rt the Umrp d Chicap. had 

inmn#d~dfbIbrrmauraipdkdbna(~~gmhbmwrdr)"~'wahitT#~~'-rrd 

Mm. ~~rrafrindofNrrbdd's.dhd#mrpondcd~him; Newbddhoddkud hirmrrldsud findinpr 

wirhIcdral~o*rrmmcume. In 1921. Ad.alppobhhcd~crinHrrprrrM~~&~(192lbr rdintheAmmmun 

R~im of R&WJ 1192181. e*prcrriag I mildi? hd u ntud racrion. bt ~np roict to me dwh and 

w~.Ak~'sdeuhin l9X.dtbtpPsdr~pu~dhIrrakinrheMsdiadbrKent. Manh 

plblishad d. mrch morr *rtidt in I1931). cmpbrri* dirpro*iry ad -n~ Nrrrbddi *. 

This b h kiraly ex- hh vim in drr uriclr: '% mat I dkd the -re and 1-1 of the cipher 

rynem rmibutcd to ham. the mmt durly did I wr dut ir wu inuprblc of krnp d u a dium of rommuniation. and 

iaderd lwrr 13rcan's wf kt JK mnoa d Nrnu'r &kasm .ad mmky. I told 

PW Ncrbdd rny~dgaw~ra~oar la hi-l kpar.. . ." 11931. p. 347). klvpcrmm 

c*plriaekrr.~trikkrorld~otklvtchoLTnmmrlreapointd~hbh#~s~kMtrhtitw~~r 

mmohertrad~htiavitrQftt#q~~~~rothc~~so~~.~pawninentult~

He sap "*Om of the mar cmiamc phiksophen of Fmm, hob Gih. dmgh kwildard bv the dad. lpl 

A 

accepd thr rcrulrr; Prok fL.wl CPrron. Ik well-knorn hcunirn +in. in rrvo brig udeh. .crrprr bmh method 
& with uuiwi-; ad ~meri& &mim ad brob@rr hrvt km imiiprly imprcJKd. The irurrc~ts oi #i~ntitic~ 

plnb tbacfr*e dd dpl atPminrrion of rk daim of she PkMcl eipher" (p. 3471. I* Cmm 1929. Gih 

1928.1 

Ehrlymr&lrkidbnaph~ardwolltpa: "Inmy+~~~.eheNcrboMd.imumee.~rbPJCltIId 

UbeUyd~yrrpcped"Ip.H7).fintphiar~~tinyli#rmd~N~rbotd~urni~ 

Crcdc~r~~d.e~m~ytoardringof~~on~~~~~dthepprrhmcnt,rho~ntI 

of Nerrbdd'i nmhod. A mnd telling attack is faou#d by Manly on the rbrth lad final step. invoknp aaopmrninp 

m, 

lmetr in wmchtJ of fifry.fivr or om hudd and an ~m chnnlarr. He demanrtrucs !he amsEiap number of reasonable 

mn idndi~ cftjmilyl pomt. that an k # from r riyle sht pssae bv mnapmminp. For instaru-e. 

hr emdrlm a - in OCK ofk rlefrem~ acpoio# m Ekcrm: "impiunt qurcdrm aret qur#donc~ hmdi 

EllrnfllL " aea.,.*'Ftomtbir#mra#.Ncrboldkdobcri.#lI&~:"Dc*irnmadr 

~mhr;~l~n~.hadrlrmadehc~d-.ia~crbdd.s*'~n~'~.~hawa 

a& of'.loernrrivt.~:31r'b~ ll0mbcrbcrofpormibititin --fa #IcEdon wen bdwc dac 

mapmmbg war. This is Lhe mm# for which William F. hdmsa. work in rwpaoaon rrirh Mdv to r*~r 

NewW's thcwy. &aimed rht uuprrm "Paris is Id with loving Vntab. . . .". simply by choorinp a diffmnc wt uf 

quivrhu lad r difFmnr mnFmeat among tfie my pwribiiitin. For a full dircursion of cke problem of anapramminr 

old the litf~II~ dNcwbdd'r rbeorp. KC MuJy 193 I. pp..35O ff and Friedman ad Fridmra 1959. 

&?'I in wm Eueesrdad in brinf ~o rcrr Elwws err. ond Frk b wluracd again KO his 

~~~.~pcdro~drcpr~inm~-maionmPhep~trofwmcmoder

.Cliart his rdr m of trradeth-rf rdcadk insmmcna ad of asmmmcal ad 

-1 rerrrrr 600 in of d#ir .ppoid rime. INat. i pdulaf. b sa+y aiticol ad 

"dehmhng" *criadt td h crprrrsod Tb&k I916 ad 1923-1958.) It semss phbk aim that the 

om Nu's r*ork 9ht Imounr of u reEciwd. d iu can* dtHtwFiom so cIwely following upon 

irr uneritid mnec by many promiarnr r*pera rko pr~um~bly rhd be known b. mud man~scholus to 

wuhpheirbrlldrofchtdpdmft~~lkd~vcefiQllJidvcwrawirhthc pbkrnirpncna. fa daroi 

N+rbdd'r~vcrrpo~lioad h+gfndhdphibroph~wuld kmodttoapprmd~udedandfdish 

~lo~~d~ly&itir~vm~thrrd~rr~aaofolbervhdrnmdtt#iroa.nr~mtlons

ad pla of mid on rtn prabkm. 

Elirckh Friedman 1 19621 d-ikr Fdy and hir claim to a solution of thc wnumipt is follows: "In 1943. ? 

RocW hwya. Joocpb Martin FuIY. p~Wirhed a bk tatirlcd Row hcoa fr C$b: Tbe Rtghr Kq Fmnd. Fely war 

the auth# of W-'s #Maw. wng Wt~. ad paditems mtabgd in the Mmrn Collacdon uh 

rhe Mng '+@r Fdlia.' " Hormcr -t his mula my b*r &en. he rtuDtd his in I wnribie 

~.~~~his~dpbrmLhir~:~tlpmrhc~~thr#yh~~mmiat

Kent booL.kdidwopuaooaltgrrBwDa'rI*riaiadrorlrr.iw fiPmprtiruiarork onopricsa 

rsdGm--(-dw). 

F4y mael that the "Wm" Iby whid~ )K lppPrmdy meant the hphnt-frqucnq trcmr) in Bawn's Latin mpd " 

rhc lmsr "E. I. T. A, N, U, S", d he mcmpd m make a pvollel uroipris dkmr frquencie$ in the Voynich mtr. on an 

usurnpaon dimple substiru~ lour hypheii P.l and E. 1 and T. I ). From h studies he md quickly on to n.ntmprs 

u "aibbimg" various wads that miph k Aped m the bring rad dKif aamnpanfinp text in thc m~nusrript, Hc 

maarks rib ohms cxuper~aon that du him in Boroa's mmusmp mu him? Mated; he &~CI tht mc ro 

hwe b#a redd in kqth thy-five prarac rhr- rbir pncriot. He canmmo. olro with 4ku am-. upon 

~d~bcnnmmcdmrrl~drrricrl~a~~app~nd~~radhiadcrrdhis~

rrrcuchcnroammta~ mdwaprk him mthrmuchtuiautd lardcmmdq tpprwh ofpawnpat 

+bk "uibr" in he pcxr. 

Fdy's ammp at crib rpprmdy rnm with mt rueecu. On folio 7%. shown in Nmboki and Kmt [ 1928. Plnre 

Vl, Feel? hnd his first break into the mt. This ppe is om of rhoK showing nude halt figurn bhing in pods or tubs of 

lqud. FuIy *rrud that mo dd- ar ppc-dusm obw at the top m of Phc prpc tm figure t5 fw a &tail-of oned *) WETC -'ouuin" rod that the chmaelr Wing dm from rhna ud jaininp in the mddk of the pap were 

"ma-' inso fhe taro "d kh. & the "sack" m kb. the "ma" wrc l)wrwn rr hk fiyrcr 

standtnpin Ihelicpid. Thatm"M*inthc V~zaipamoocrrhdurar.dKmdarrof@peEond~nglc 
rrrcam of mysterious ruhtam riom thm. and the pwL into whch her pur. Feclv obraincd his first '-clewsA' I rl~ ht iik 

w call the mulu of has cribrip, bv s study ol thuc labels and an attempt to auurnc various Ltin wards thrr might 

rrprclcnt.fipum 2'5 haws rht mub he obtaind horn thrsc inidal rcrc~rchcr. 

as initlnl "ch' pmvpdsd Fdy with a nlunbtr of ha subtifuuonr for minmon sr.mbolr In tht Vqnich script. which 

hrthmem~inpnttSprtmprttleorrtrhc~~&ofthertxtonrhclpmepopr.h~dknandthatkacnotime 

Id rrrcrr w r compku p&amqy of rhr mpnwipt; he carried our dl his work on the iIlusuatioru in Newbokl ad Kent 

1928. The plunta wheh he obeolncd was a aude. Jbrmrd pseudo-Lain. wbich he mandated ro produce EnpEsh nzr 

ua pmccoIo+l qua For foho 78r. On Wo 48v3 (Newbold ad Ktnt 1928. Plate XXII), he chd to haw found 

Greck wwda ad m hove d#iphered a mysterious rthe to a smrw of Memoon (Feel! 1913. p. 57 I. On other folios. 

F-iy chimed w have found the pr-I diary of a scientist abmvinp living rtir under mapnification: the iniwnlil . . - ~ortinpr" of an earl? mearcher. hiddrn in ciph from the hostile t~ of religiws nudrffirirs. 

Alcholylh hc hd@ a bit u wmunp out Up in fnwr of Ragm ban u au&w of fb1s fCitntifiC diary. Fdt. maintoid 

that 4s ddpkmenr ad to.suppwt a JcarEirm:~~awkotrfrip.,E'i 25.&ws rfir nlphakts he dmelopcd as a 

rnut of his rrudicr fp.okbly by swcasively cribbing and then at lmcrr rn fiB in he paps. forcinp his assumptions 

until he produd mmerhinp like bin. m.. in a cutband-tq faduon). Like manv other mrdenu. he saw the Vovnich mipt 

as coauininp manv compand smbdr buih up from simpler hms. Uafmntnouiy for Fu1r. how-. no ocher nudent has 

arcepd his ~lolur~m u dd. Tilmm. wmminp up the pwaI oplnim. disrnisstr Fulv's efforts as follows: -*His 

unmnhodkl mt1d pdueed text in unaccepbk rndeva1 hun."in unnu~tir abkv~ad forms" ! 1968. p.6 1. 

5.3 Strong 

Professor hell C. Strong. a highly mpmcd medical scicnri* in the field of c*nm rcsclrch at Yak Unrvwsit~. kcamt 

ind in the V~ich rasnrrrript when he saw O'Ndl's dde ( 19441 dauq the mrnwripr akr 1493. He took up 

thr riddle of the eqmatk bk in the crmtm of a Lanp-mdurin~ iarcrert ia Rcnaismnsc lime. OW a five-pr wid. 

he anrrtmprrd without ru- to o&n c+a of the prrr for dv. He was forced. fidl!. m curl wt hh analper in the 

same wrv Fctly had, oh the of iUurmriaa~ dindivadm1 aior in published work rrrnrrrninp the manul~ipt. In due 

course. he published a kPcf rrtidr dPiminp a wluaoa to the mrw ( 1945 1. His dtriphcrmear was bad on what has ince 

ken termed n "prmlinr hbir mmm of'prichrnttic~l pmons of a mulnpic &hokt. indrcating that the Vurntch 

wnumipt auh was hmiliu with ciphers docribcd bv Trithiur. Pma. d Sekni" ( McKolp nd. p. 49 1. 

Strong's decipherment multcd in what he &mad to be a form of medieval Eapiirh; he ~ttribulcd the manuscript ta one 

Anrhmv Adam. bmthcr of thc b-korvn Roper &ham or Adthorn. a rum to the children of the Rovol HUUK vi 

Tudor in the uxtcmrh aaturv. Anthony was n phpician d urnloper: he puhrbrd mwal almannrs. a treati~ on 

asummnr. ad an herbal (&ktmm 11148P. 15&. 15)O. 1552. 1553). As descrikd C McKPip r n-d.. p. 4s): Strong's 

rffatx produced wxr pmmbup "an adp. coodid dimion of wmm'r ~ilmencr and psrrdcal macms of the cirnjupa1 

bed-pu qht d it a ri-th.cenrrrp quivaknt of he Kiw Ekpwt". He identified an herhat eonuacqmw amonp in 

rrripcs. ad ran a hkatory cxprncnt to rm the effmivmers of the prwripcion fa that pupore. The inprdimu 

comprrrsd pitch from the cnt bark of pine mcs. hoq, and "oil of spindk." Sttow chimed that h oil of spindle was found 

in hir apcrimcnr m have caused sperm- m lopr rhcir mmiliv, thtrcb!: mihag ia tffKavems as the acciw ingredient 

of he comaccptir~ (Saonp ad MGuh 1947. p. 900). The dernils ot his qalul~c wak ad hts method of 

dmpkrnmr. howmr. have ap$wcntly acm km explaid. and mnain pmbkmnrical. 

%on$$ of which he provtda rcmrl cxampln in his articles IScrmg 194'5. Saonp ad McCauley 1947 1, has 

rclrmd bv 0th ~hohrs as rornpletely unnrccp~aMe for medieval Enplirh. The rcdm mnv irriw at his awn 

rondmons hn Lhk following mpk: "Wbm sku@ of tua'e-bop rip. sco uopn kum di of s moswc-isme @.suns skuknr. fPokired h*lb a;lwknot.-' This astonish@ min~ of lmm is eronslPted bv Sump &us: "Whm chr conrents of 

the veins rip Iff au rhe menhams 1. the chikl comes rlfl~. from the mother isruiq with he Itpsunce rkd and kt 

whik the =nu bent rr the ehw. w lrrroFttd (above the hedl like the lepr of a aawfuh." IStronp 1943. p. 608.1 To mr 

mid. ar 1- this rrrm n hphlv unlikely thinp for rnq wrircr of an? age to haw said. whffhtr in cipher a aot. It ms 

Ipq me. &. hr lo many hve h oudv ~cupd wtth pmerohpicd or sexual intmpmatioru 

of tk ttxt. fhe of he scamin# d quire unc*ccption*bI~ mdr lidr ndc fipurcr on asmall ptqmcion of f0lI~ 

seem to mc an cnrinlr insuffiomt jusubuon for this obrruion. 

Nothing fiuth- har km hard horn Dr. Srronp in ruppm of his *ria. to rnq knowledpc. mm rhough the Vovnich 

rnonuraipr hu bcm iceerribk to xhdars at Smmp'~ own Uajversitv. Yak. for t nurnkt of vrrrs. According ro 

- 

Elirebrth Ftiedmon. "exp said rht wh be pduced war nor medieval Erqlish. hs for his cipher 'mnhod'. he wid litrle 

ahr it. bur what he dd sav made no sense to rrrprodopisa" i 1962). 

36 
kt S. Brumbaugh, a professor of medieval pdilmoph~ at Yale University. bemmt ~nrercsrcd in rhc Vuvnlih 

manuscript during ~ht 'hirties. and when it wru dm& bv H. P. Kfaus to Yak. hr "was drawn by an irmisrible ~rnpul~ 

m ld at it" lBrumbaugh 1975. p. 348). He was Plro muck bv O'Neili's idtntitica~ion of American plants in the drawings 

(1944). Brumhugh publistbcd m article in *darn (1974) mnoununp that hr hd solved the rnrsrerr. and hild red 

some laNs on plant pictures in the phonaoeeutical foCw u well a5 what he =fen to as "star maps from folio '5 on" I 1 g75. 

p. 348). He aIw mtes that he has dtcjphcccd the name of Ropcr Bmn in rhe "key" scntmcn un the last pcc. He rcprdc 

tk manuscript as a delbcratt fqcry for the put- of Minp Emperor Rudloph 11 oi Bohcrnra intr~ partiny with the l~ret 

sum of monv he pd for it. 

kunp that the romptctc mluuon will take a lot mm study. Brurnbuph nil1 claim that "extensive work with scr-tltrn 

on aswology. with lomc bv. ad frqumcv studia of sampler throughout the text show that my dcclphamcnt Ir mrrecr~ 

1 1975. p. 3481:-He ar~k~dmMrmcof~'&~~likc~~ucnrt~.ofsym~bjn the marpiru of folios lr. 1 Yr. i*. b6r. 

and 76r. and in tfrc ~ccmd rinp of 77 v. OI well PI the vntrnccr on 116"; these sequm~cs. while ro Jomt mrmr drliberate1~ 

misleading. still provide aid in pmmarinp the crphm. -ding to Brumbauph. Thr text MI folio 1 16v Brudauph finds 

k enciphered using what he ca1b. without further explanation. n "~f~ndard thirtcenrhenturv -cipher" r 19-5. p. !?fll. ht 

KCI c~~:firmaom fwthis in the paid ocqucnm in lrft and ripht mar~~ns of blio lr. in which he finds a mt~noalph~kt~r 

suhtimnon of ma normal aIP)LPh. wilh "a" of he m aeainst "dm' of he other. Yanp th~s cipher. and wmr 

rerrmngment of spllPbks, Brumbauph "RODGD BACON" from a ~~flon of Mio 116v which he reds JS 

"MICH1 CON OLADA BA" (m that this is the kplnning of the me tar rmnp that Newbdd red u '-MICHI . 

DABAS MULTAS . . . PORTAYI. He suepcsa that the name was "planted" in such a manner as to be tasiir rccn 

Rudolph's cxprm and thus to awut and delude them into iccepung thc antibution of rhe manusaipr KI &con. 

On foIio 66r. Bfumbaugh rrrr a rrr of "fwmelrc" in the words ad b sitttrrd down the right margin; these 

hmulm. be suppens. rene to equate symbolr to orher srmbds bv a son of "avprarittlmcric." of which he provides smcral 

exampla l197.5. pp. 350-351 1. I must crmb thot. while he he cxplnins arc conviknp emph. the mt of the 

"formuhe" remain wmewlur mystrriws to me in the absence of further chifierim. Using there "qunuons" and rht 

rmia of taklr fw phu Iwhich he "aibbcd" br aploltiag word pamrns with rcpcalinp kren such as "p" and "e" In 

"pcppa." "p" in "ppa." m.1. he sets up n four-bv-nine rabk ofcor~ndmcc~: he savs &at th table a sim~hr tcb 

"a rundard alchemist's or asrrdoffcr's cipher. wdl known in the erde" ( 1975. p. 35 1 1. and he finds among the text 1 16% 

the "qudrtx nonix" which he = as referring to chi four.h.nine structure. Figure 16 show the cipher bnx .IS 

Brumbauph recovcrrd it. 

AU tk Voynich rvmboir, BtumbPuph ruppestr. stand for hm of the numtmlr~zcro throuph nine ror ant throurh nlnc: 

the function of zero; if nay. is not made clnr in his prcrenraum). The enriphcrment. as he sees it. is a rwo-acp operation. 

which first replPd Ictars bv numerals using the four-bv-nine bw. cdlaps~n~ rht lenm of the alphakt onto the nine dipsts. 

and then subst~nrted holm among wvcraI diffmnt fanciful designs h each numeral in wdcr to conceal their idcntltr 

designs choscn from " mdan ad archaic numeral forms. GrerE and btin bs. ad sevtral cunlvt compendia" t 19-5. p 

35 31. h will be nod rhar this prm invdves mul6plr variants in bwh the Voynich xript and the plaintar. Dmpherrncnt 

lnvdvcr first recognizing the numrrai underlyinp one of iu variant forms in the Vech scrip. then writlnp under ir rhc , 

mo. thm. or four pible choices of plain= corr~ndmrrs; when this has ken dm for a wwd. o prol~ounceablt 

qumm of lmcrs is rclecrcd from among the choices. 

An example of rbe applicption of tha method to a pion of folio 11Gv will mvc as on ilusuat~on of the proccdurt. 

Brumbaugh rnpks out a ~cquen~e of cij$r Voy~ch svmbolr h the mixed tm on tha ppe. just preccdinp a phrase that 

he reads u High G-man: "vrW ubrm wr nim pa nicht 0.". and tr&m as "the abwt is false lo do nor cake n' 

Idmtify~np the cipht Vovnich symbol5 with numerals according to the correspondences he ha5 sa up (which he docs nor 

=plain anmhcre in his pprrs anpt in vrrv frapmenury form). )It obtains the di~iu "0 2 0 2 7 3 3 9". Assigning to hese 

rhtlt mulriplc plaintext quivaicnts from the nintQr-four box. he produrn the following: 

0202 733 e 

ABAB GC C I 

jKJK PL L 

VRVR YWW-US 
He dem amq rhe f~ pommablt PIo#DPW ( AKABYUUS. ARAKYLLUS. AKARYCCWS. UPUBYLLVS. 

NMBYCCUS. =..I tk d "MMYCCUS". which hr sar u a * 9o tkr Arabic nu- undcrlvinp rbe riphcr. 

InbirCirrcrrridr~I¶d).btprnmrran*mkrdorber~dhb~brrafromplrat~~p-6cri 

~Inrwstarn.tke~~~~ir~lirriocdap'~~t~ordrarr

*. 

fbr~~~~u~~~irdaaikd~bimu".a~~~bradmL*ti

aot mf firmly bucd m spclhq u mb impahhie; romt mmpk recm rcprduur @in#". 

Todporhedtapt#rrr'r~."thr~apherk~~~bplv~ci~tpy#"~1975.p.3~4~.Brumb.~ph , 

-.plr~p~.rb#~Pch~wbilcd~ra~qrocm~bhmiliur).orc.wrrc 

~rrd~k84iaL~Ida~~of*timein(PYILi0l~. 

Tha~(1975)PrlfCJtbeseLnrierlr~~~&rrrabPrirb'r~ "TkidcPthtbrdpis3 

-b~~#aipnlmhim. l-itasan-wh 1951 .... tirdiasthudrhcqmblsia 

tbr#ipm~+in~hdtbicthe~na.boa~~~~blcrPar.. .ic..d 

*rrprrrcaotroa-kaen... .AU~nm.mbyl#lrrehtir~d~k~fiea~tht@llaionofapc~t~l 

of~hu#pdenet,Cthtlu~mbvdlvan~~mddI~ngsiDc~ .... Bmmbrupbism 

~in~ttrtr~~mknumknhvlriour6#mr.~hukea~merdti~" + 

M~opaion~n~frJdId~n~'s*10ptblrkdppnirrbuhbtbeoritrutqw~~luikondKf~of 

rucbc*ik#rrrhrprrpmrr.Hr~m~ia.d~m#tdbOb#r*ddpbmamearinthrmrarticriprd 

rbeiriraomdia~tkrahd~athtr~.I&rtd~~q~w~~- 

uposriblcd*~dPrmrQanrtn#rbbr~iabnrreklrs.iambrrrIan~rr~bhirbmfrad 

~~~rrkrmm.~:mmrbr6~+=dmmrpondclrocr1h.*e~0bpiasa.1b.*c~emplsd- 

~ofoeberphmhklrdWarr~~mifcdlrmlaAIPrdrltcma*~~fuu1an 

~dromrutrugrrrinodLtiaar~t3inrrordr;mrap~.rrlrinriLrIurouldknpePedfrofi3Kknown 

nperi~~crrdh~rxr).Thmirjltst~plrpri~inrhe~apkdontoa.brrrwtrrrough#~kavtonc 

~.F~26hm~~QDajeavrl1mmpm~~r~+irht&i

aiw-~-~~mdr~dhis~' of-- 

A~udde~h~brr~.pprrrrdhQrl#rwl~&IP~db.rrrrdd~U~d 

LasdoaI1976).laddraridr.B~b~tbubir~~~uclomLradbimcrcrrm#t~dFht~- 

-0Tbis- 
Chapter 6 

History of Orher Substantial Analytic Efforts 

6.1 Tbe Forms in Wbicb the Ma~rrsrript Has Been Studied 

Thc Vopuch manuscript was for a long tim held in privm hands. first by ~u di~ovm. Wilfrid Vovnrch. then bv his 

widow. and finally by H. P. Kraus. B~UK of in grew financial value. iu owners wcrr underrtpndablr. relucrant to allow 

unlrrnittd accm to it or rrproduecien.dir.nrlthugh.thrp@uendy co~perawd with serious schohrs seeking ro unravel rhc 

rnrscry. In the firsr few yean afm hk di~ of the manuscript. Voynich mdc vigorous and reprnted nttempr to Interest 

studenrs in it. and Nrwbdd war incrdud to the problem rhrou~h hhb efforu. It is posibk that the disastrous outcome ot 

Newbold's restarcha. and he diroppoinunmt ~Ensioncd by their failure may havt rerutted in an atmo~phtre of caurton 

and of prcm resuiction on the pan of the owners in providing amrs to chc manusaipt in subsequent vrarr. 

As qJt haw en in the +our doper, Fuly and Strong wtre oMe to studv the rexr odv rhrouph iUurrrattons In the 

published works of Ntwbold and mhm. The manuscript bar come More the ewr of many other students. howcvet. In rhr 

form of phmuc copre. The mpm uKd bv Fritdma. Tilnnan. Kriuher. ad Currier. and the copr avaiiable KO me. 111 

derive uldmntcly hm a photoropy made by Father Percrm of Gthdic Univtrrirq on April 29. 1931. from a set ut 

pharwcnm frovldcd by Mrs. Vognih. Tiltman (in n report of Pctcrren's work made in conjunction with an invcntwv of his 

papas ah his death in 1%61. stpm that "virtudip dl copits of the mnuxript in private hands are derrvcd from Fr. 

hm's p-~td." The I have m&cd arc, in faa. copes of -its at four or five removes. Fricdman (in a note 

arewnpanying thc ropy in rht Friedmn dlection) pv& this intmning account of the phowcopim in private ownership 

at that time. and how they ~omc inro ewirtenct: 

-'On 23 hdsv 1944 wlillim 1 Fi .I flnedmml vrm a ku& lo rhr wdou of Dr. Wtlhd M. Vornach who was rhr d~uanwn trt thtr 

bmow mnurn~pt. qunttnp a phmcnraac qt The rqum was prantd and a cumpica mp was made frnm a muatlvt philtrnra!~~ c.alpr 

prowdcd h Mrs. Vmnlch. In her her &ttd 31 Mav 1944. she luted that wtrc copes urcrc aormelv rate me 15 I" rhr \cu 

Yak PuMic Ubruv; amkr rr rn rhr Briurh Muuum', anoh was pim to Dr. Pmrrrn olCa~hol~r t'nrvaurr: rnrwhrr u,~ ulrrn ttb .r 

uMr =horn Mrs. Vmch dd na dennfr: finnllv Mrs. Vuvnlch hmtlf bad r cop*. With the copr m the Ftrcdman nrllrullm !here ntlr 

appnrmkinall~lxmpnin~rald.. . ." 

In general: the photacopics 1 have sun prwidc n degrcc of definition and clariry which is quite ternarkable. Derails oi 

pcnsuokts. guidelines on diyrrmr. and other fine details show up my well, and he ten is dcarlv distinguishable rlmoa 

everywhere. tcMln deficiencies should. howem, be mmciomd. since thq may havt had a definite limiting or dirtorrinr 

effect. howcvtr slight. on the remch hcd out by many rrudmrr. Fim. rhe complete lack of color in the black and white 

copies ~ntviublv results in a low of some meaningful informazion. This may k impwtanr not onlv in identifving plants and 

in undersunding the mmninp of whet drawings. but even in irolatinp some details against a dark backpround. Whtn 

everything is m only in shades of grey. writing m small designs within colored fidds arc ~omrtima indisrinpuishablr. The 

rpme difficulty can arise in cam where rhe phoroetrpy is very dark, so that the grey hackpound obmm many details. 

A KC^ defect of the phowropin available to me applies primarily ro the large. multiply-folded folios. Because ~hc cop~cs 

had to bt made in pieces. their wcr-all rrtotionship m form a whole is ofictcn my diffjcult to reconstruct: the student does nor 

the cornplcre system of drawings u thty appeared in thr original form. Wwst w. in some case material has cvidcnrlv 

ken obscured by king out of fmu around the dgcr of a page, w has kn pardy cut off. so that we do not we evervthtng 

that was an some pgn in the original. This is notably the CPK for he iargt. intriettelv folded folio 85-86. containing a 

complex system of iarcr.relnrcd circular dingra~. 

Anwhtr fmture of the ph-tl I have studied. while not consdcutin~ as much of a hindrance to research as some of rhc 

problems already ment~oncd. is annoying and at tima confusing to the dent. There art numerous nms. cirdn. 

undm6ne. afid other jottings and mibblinps of mdnn researchers on many ppca Among thac are copious and obtrusit~ 

'I am rnfad br Mr. James Gtlloplr. who hu drd this copr. that it u impkc. mnprrwnp mlv rbwt the 6rst th~rd of rht manulrrtpr 

nude up pr#nuilv of plmr ffliru. 
nmains of ar hit one previou~ computa proceuin,~ project. including circled words and papraphs. lines markinc urf parts 

rrf rhc mt. and ltpmds such as "start hm". '-omit punch". and "punch lust tha." In some cam. these comments and marks 

cnrsr che rm and draw~nps in such a =PI' as to obscure or COtIfIJSe rome ftatnres of the oripinal. kratlons af nrptanalrstr 

have idul~ed char~cmisrir ad app~rentlv irresistible habit of nndcrEninp pam ad rcprions. and have orherwi~ 

triumphantIy nad heir p~su abut r)K meaning of tht dr~prams I"* Qur apes of man." "the four seasons!." 

"hgtrtafiur-mmhu"). While wn an cmp~hmc wih tk momimry joys md ort tows af one's phKirmuws as ther 

mppad with the enigma. morr of tk jotrinps are trivial at &rr. and at hr wws me onlv to funher appravate rhr 

difhcuh of thc task. I. fa em. wuid pnk tom ndinp more on he ppcs than whor Wilfnd Vornich raw when hc first 

viewed tkm In 1 912. 

A final unavoldabk dlspdrantape of wkinp with copies is the l~billtv d rk srdtnr w verifr. or rwecr hlpn~htscs 

conecrninp the him. prtiaUperad writinp In orhrr urlp and had dih In SKtton 4.2 above. Without a nrciul 

examinsrim of rht wid. pcrlnpa aided by -1 ehrmiul or phepaphic wehnrqua,tu -1 the hnl fragmmu of 

witimp mae fully. rc nnnor make rhe -,of rk aomgjrky pideh, a .a& in rhe smoodr ahrll of rht rnrsterr. 

So lid "crib i#&h is avrihbtr. he or rash were so oonrirrent ia "taEiMV w "dq" mrythinp. 

lervinp no dues "in tk clcu". thor we nd tvay prcaour bit of added informuon rvr can #kan from hcse cxuancous or 

anpnI KtibbIings. wham thcir ~wm. 

Such. th art the phcmmpin wid which mosr of he wdmm hivc wmkd whmc mrcks mill be dcscribed in this 

chapmr. The fir# problem firing rht a~lp has been tk onrmpr to niriw at r firm ~ct of ekmmtarv srmbh cmpriwnp An 

"alpiwbtt" far tb VwniEh pnrr. We have ~cn in Secnon 1.1 ad fipurc 19 the wide diffetenrcs berareen wanscrlptlrm 

alphrktr dopd bs. diht ~ttukno. Armed with a list of synhls that sldrfics him at ksrr as a bcpiarung. each student 

has then set hr rk t& d making mum. idem. coMordPm. and other onslym. either br had. or if he Is ru 

fomrrr~n or to hnve PK~~J m rmpums. bv machine. Somc studeao have wpd or mraikd hqc qwntities of lexr br 

bnd; this is o pod wrv m p the "kl" of the KXL ad lo bmrme fnmilror with t& sgmW and char variant forms. In the 

midm of this cham. ma1 maim anal@c cfforrr wdl k mlmcd. Tbc smh. wbrk na Wi- to a chim of a 

dccisiw break-in a decipherment. but in maq - added rubruidl! KO our bkdp about the mrausaipt; rhcv are 

~afcrmative ah from a mcthddoptcal swndpoin~. and dm theanmaon of my miws sdmt who pefers to learn 

from tk work of hrr prtdms rather than hndb rcp~ting it. 

Afm the debunking and ttimion bp. Jctrdars of the rhm major solutions chd bv Newbdd. Fcelr, and Stronp. 

WilIiam F. Fricdmm dtcidcd m mwnt a larpe-lcplc effort P~PLM~ rhe manuhpt with the ad oi a unlqucl~ t if accidmollr I 

well-&rutcd mrn of mrchur This ptoup. audr up of whohts mgpd in war vwuk in Washiripton. inciudrd 

[acwding w Eluckrti Friedrrun 1962) "spedrrlisrs in phildqy. @co~rapCty, ancimr. ckal. and medieval Ianpuapts: 

Epyphtg~srr. m~~cianr. ad authoritks on other scimcedcpined in dtc manuutipt." Awaiting demobilization at the 

clo~ of thetr service to the Gwaamcat duriq Wwld War 11. Jlrlv opd to p ropcrhct ofm working hwrs under 

Frirdmm'r dumion and hs thnr mlmm an rhc mvhus musaipt. 

The proup was called to@xer by Friedman in Maq of 1844. Oa the ntalh.nxth of May. sixtmn ~ple a&cd the firs1 

mmine of what was mmed an "mwamridd' umkrding. Friedman provided m ootlint of the mnnuscript*~ hirtwr. 

ad pws sdution aacmpu. d he amndnr examid the pharocopr. kot to Phan k Dr. Pearsen. Sampk shem of 

copv rvae dirvibud u, &ow present. and phar m made ro work up a standard Im of the svmhls and a transcription 

alphakt in Roman tmtrr with lwnr diku ad s-1 rhnr~mrs ipunctuauoh eu.1 lor proecssing on IBM punched-card 

acrountinp cquipmenf. Fiputr 19 shows the ltst of rvmboir and English quivrlmm hep Prrivcd at. Mminp~ wcn held ar 

appmmrtly bid? inomah rhrouph Junc: cramriprim of tm ad ztudv of thr uripr mnunued and various 

backdrwnd ropra (Athaaaiur Kircher'~ wrk.jOhn Ikt's octiviwtr. dim of medieval lotin. erc. I wer+ iavhpated ad 

ducwrad. 

Meetinps rrem to have kn mewhat krr frqucnt ad rcplar chcr*ih. or at least muiderablr less fullr docummtcd 

in the minutes I hvr sa~ Ntvmhelerr. in Scpcemkr 1944 nn "IBM run" hpd kn made (on tabukcinp and smnp 

machincr. since no proprammed computers were in pcrsl use or that rimel. In rubquent months. more text wns 

tranriiterad and dined. In hmkr 1944. mminp were "resumed." impl+p rhnr a hiatus of some durat~on had 

elaped during which rhr proup Id nor been wing. A ntw enthusiasm was mmmuniatrd m the amndccs. and a nh 

imprur prwided to heir effom (amding to tht miauml bv William Friedman's prmnmrion of his findings conccrninp s 

1 

40 
svnthecic language developed bv Wi1kins.i ~e 6.6 and 9.3 below for further dnailr~. Studies of thts I~ngu~rr ~ndl~~ttd rh~r 

ward winnings and dinps. le~cr frtqucncics. number of diknt symblr. and word lengths seemed comprablr 141 rhw 

found in thc Vovnith text. 

Durinp Jrnurry and February. the pup continued to arork m IBM runs and fraqurncv ubuhuuns. There 1s. 

unh~ytely. no rd of their wwk oh this cimc in the materials avaihbh w me. airbou#~ there is evidence that mrl; 

&ad ~pwadidy inlo 1945 and 1946. It is hard to ocU. in the ah of .nv summatv of their rcsulcr. how much text 

they rurmded in proccrring by muhine and whar anal^ they pfamcd on it. Judpnp by the prinwuu of machrmd text 

that wm~ pemd in wr recards. they aawikd ad kcvpunchd an imprcivr amount of text-at lenst iS.Ol)cl 

charmers. or 1663 thirty-charam lina. The tabulations of mults and any repom of rhc o~lrric rtud~es have diupperrrrf 

hom the file. if thev ever exid in final form. Sukquent studmtr have had to vr. wcr and over daaln. a11 the wwl; 11t 

uaaraiption and whine pcparakion. pr if it had never hen dont bv hers. 

Elitekh Fricdmn pmcntt the foliowinp pcr~pcrrirc on he outcome of the Fint Varnich Manuscript Smdr Group: 

"Becoux h-Mimiwry wwk ofuanrrribtnp~~.texr..inw.moehinetpr~~essable symbols could onh bt done after wnrkinc 

hours. drmoblitation was paCtid1v mmplm before the manuscrip war rcPdv fw final JIU~~. The Krenrists rhereupn 

dishadd and returned to their uaivenitk m r#earch prolms. Tkr considered opinton a m the ape. aulhorrhlp rnd 

general wnur of the manuscripts. based on their extracwricular work. are still valid tadnv. . . . '- I 1962 1. 

Farha Pctcrscn ( 188+!9663 was a -her and print at 5. Paul'r Cdlepc ad Cathbc Liwasitv. the f~dlw~nc 

details arc Iar~iy drawn from uapublishcd biographical mcs ad a sue of Pmrwn's wcrk on the rrunwrrlpt cumpitcd 

bv Tilmrpn ah Petersen's deaih in 1966.) He had oat hundml and mwtv-t~o lfim of phmowu made on April 19. 

1931 from Mrs. VoyniMs copy at a em of $25.00. Thmoint he ~pmt ronsidcrabk time. esmflv from 1952 until the 

time of his dcarh. in a ppidng ad thorough nudy of the mnusuipr. His work included a complm hand copv. carefullr 

cord by rdcrmuc to the original. which he -mid in the Ntw Ywk Gwr~ntrr Trust safe dcpostt vaub whm fit was 

kept until Mn. Vopkh's death. A aoct on the front p~pc of his transrrip attcscr to rhc fm hat he finished it Julv 19. 

1944. Tikman (I9751 rcpm that the msk of capvtnp c)n approximacrlv 250.000 &prams of urn occup~cd abour four 

wars. 

Permrn was a scholar of wide karninp in ancient Impurges and histon.. ad compiled a qumtiw of valuable dd 

intacstinp informarim abut religious. orudqicd. and mrrtical manuscrip ad aha wrces of possible relevancr to the 

Vornich manuscript. He Plro did muidcrablc urntion townrd idenribin? rhe plants Micd in the herbal drawnps. 

The papa of his 'transcript are copiously annoraoed with these pl~nings and commentaricr. In addition to the wanscrtpt. 

Perm made (ah by hadl a Jhriow and canpkte conmrdanc* of thr entire mnnwipt. showlag -try word with 

refereace 10 all the ppes whm it omrd and #vml wmds pnmlirq and following c~rh ormrrence. Tiltman suepcsts. 

in the absence of a complete cmpm index. his coiuordanre cm k ofpe~ value to studcnu of the manuwripr. 

In his ~holrrtv and widc.tanginpr b+rd rnruch. Petmen died the wab of Ramon Lull and St. Hikltuard of 

Binpen. mnpiml manusaiprs such as Pirarix. amolopkd. alchemical. and herbal wntinps. and the wwks oi Atbenus 

Mapnus and Roper Bacoa. There is, unfonunatdy. nowhere in the maraid available to me anv report of theories Petersen . may haw kid. w condurionr he my have r&d mmning eht dcapherrrsmt of the m~nuKtip. At his death. his paps . we= pivcn w William friedman; thrr wm inwntaied ar friedman's iequtrt bv Tilrmnn. and aft now a par1 of rhc 

Fridman collmion at ohe M&II Library in w. Virenia. 

64 Second VoMb M#nusm>t Study Group, f 962- 1 963 

In 1862. Friedman suc& in intmtinp cmpum rpecklulr at he hdio Corporation of America in an expcrimen~rl 

effmt to study rhe m6rc manusaipt bv computer. The first mminp of a new rrudy group was held on 25 Dectmkr. I9G2. 

Accordirq m the minutes. Mrs. Friedman pmmced background dam on the hnwy of prrviwr work ad pencral 

infcrmtion on rhc mnuuript. Mr. Friedma then gave a pmcntdon on the "Salient External Fcalura and Cryptolopic 

Charactcrim'u of the Mmwipc." fhc pup worked topether. qain "rxtrrcurrirularl~" and with a minimum of pubbcirv. 

over the nat several month. A smll mm ot "dedicated wives" (a they wm described by a participant in rhc kudr iroupr -- 

were hard at work uanxribinp and kevpunchiw a quantitv of text. using faditin provided by RCA after working hours. 
Ambr~iw phns wmc [aid for an impmriw ret of anpurer rum. inrcndcd to involve. according to the records 1 have 

studied. at lcmt a00 thirty-rhec charm mds. or upward of 68.000 hactm of tat. There are flowcharts. propram 

s@ficanom~ ad all the her paraphernalia of a full.sca1e computer pccack. which (bad it ken compkted) would mtainlv 

~Pw p"idcd sdcats with a #uI #lo1 for march. The compum tuns #and included studies of all charancr 

qwncn l*'n.p+*) fmm ont w rix kmrr in kngth; qIc d and of wds in thnr c-t; the 

oecllmo~c d 1- at diffmat porihnr within war&: words in dihnr piions within rmrmees; and, finollp, a studv 

crlled "kmr pamumtiom" whaw -re is ua dear to me fkn thc daumeaepdoa. fhir plan would have mulwd in a 

~~mpktc CompmtiorrPl-hpiftic analysis of the Vgnicb rm. 

1 anm dearrnim hou mnn~ ehrracters d #xt were *erudlp mchincd. ad wherhn nv p&np was mer completed. 

The is elcar wide- in the mords char program hd kn miam m pence the mpdm files required m car. out the 

proauinp. ad &at dnoild spddficatioas hd kcn wr up fa perkmnrng th ad tnbul*tioru. fn Seprrmber. 1943. 

plans dl krng pursued ro compkte tnoleriprion lad dniq of text. Figure 19 shows the uanrctipdm alphakt 

d by tite BCA group m -t the Voptich mipr Ehoram~ UafatPnnrrly. tk ocrond mdy group mkcd the same 

fm os the fim; Lm maruprams at RCA decided to tcrminatt men he miaid "aracurriculu" invdvtmmt of their 

rtrcrumr. ad the proup was kced w dirbnnd kfart any definitive ruuh cwld k obcnrd. 

A spm* in pnmics and bdop who kame one of rhc world's fortmort nvpmioyists. Friedman wv ah adevoted 

-dent of Iht Vwch manuscript from du ruly oa. He worked wid^ John M. Manly in munp and dirprwiw 

Nmbold's ek. EkM Frih ( 1962) prwikr on amusing account of the she. her husband. and Mady had 

tgcrkcr in demdag "deciphermmts" char mrJd k had frm Newbold's mr usine his mhd~ but with 

different arbitrary ad subjcQivc d ~magcmoaa af km#r u arrPia mp of fhe pro~eu Im Sm#m 5.1 abvel. 

In 1944. u we he ona wk in chis chrprrr. Fnedrmn brought ro@m rbe gdtmng of war-w~kinp scholars who 

ionmd th Firm Voynich Sady Grq. fbcir rvort un6onunatJy cut shm bcfort it cwld reach fruition. has 

a- kcn dnerikd. Ehkrh Frisdmrn hu h to av co~erning k hurbmd's during inter^ in the probkm. wkh 

m h~gd up to rhc time of trir death in Novcmkr, 1-9: "Thrmgh tk pn in- 1921. Fricdman has continued to 

intemz Kholon aad avpdopic cxpm in Ihe probkm. hda pivinp it what spare 6mc ht cwlld himrclf. In thc opinion of 

rhis writer. Enadmm's mdm hrv* prdd a hy which mnstinrrc~ a hpcd bass for an am& hat mv kad to a 

sdution of thu baffling mmllrripr" I 1 %2). 

Frirdm publirhtd a -t of his hemy. in he form of tn aqmn in a foMaar man arriclt wl -her acprolopic 

ropic in dK Januuy 1959 irwr of rtre PhWogtul Qdp IFdm and Friedman 1959). At the ume time. he 

dm a SWMWIU in dnr Eqbh in dx vchiyez af the Q~or~erly's dim. He did his in ordtr m tsublkh ad date his 

him w the idea. which he could rta ym work our. in dcoil ud pmvc suffic#nriy to publish. This is thc amgram. as it 

aprd in dw hae: "1 PW NO TRUST IN MAGISAMMATIC ACROSTIC CYPHERS. FOR THEY ARE OF 

LI7lZE REAL VALUE-A WASTE-AND MAY PROVE NOTHING.-FINIS." Bricdm and Fritdman 1179. p. 

19). In his kde. ht srrrer dart an anagram of rhrs kngoh is ebk. hqh cmenrcly diffiollr. to dvr; in orda to read it. 

one 4 Lw to knm ding of +I it d. Inrhir my, Frih planned oo bve a ayprogtapher's IPS word. and 

thus uiumph. mn from rhe pve. om my LPfer disc- of rbt same h. 

The which FribdmPn in the rayrom has iiact he Itlsoro #I a n& of studem, and there seem 

w k ao furtbcr real lcaecy conarnirq its mnm. Tiltrmn hrd Lnr iadcpradtady &KI the same codwion (~e hiom 

6.6 kk), mamely t)mt rht mt of rhr muroipr was wrim in a qafhcuc Imnpurge builr up on tk hsir of cnwpwies w 

dPucr of wmdr with dcd dings w ahrr affues. frkdmn's ad Tiltman's twtches into known longuapts of this nrpc 

have bcm mentimed ah. and m~te will k rPid oa the topic in 6.6 ad in UupPr 9. 

Brigadier Tilrman. a profnslonal +gin of Long and di#inpuuhrd menrc. wu induced to the elegant puzzle 

of tk Vopich manuscript in 190 by Wllirm Friedman. who pmvided him with mpk of r-1 fdrm from the final 

& of the manudpr, c~Nirting of rat nihur drawings. Ti qdy ~icd ~t. by hand. a thorough m of 

mtirrid dm on the an. c~l~~trrring hir cffwo on the mast frquent symbcb and their eomhnocioru. His analwis. 

denmastraring a "prcEedeace" srructure of qmbolr within wwds d the ordtrly khvior of chwacrtrs as "kgtancrs," 
"middks." ad "t&" of wards. hi remained ow of the most did and useful findings gleaned b! students of the 

manuscripr during many pars of study. In 1951. Tilwnna prepad an informal repr In the fonn of a pn~I 

cammufiicarion to his fried Wikm Fricdman. in which be summed up his work -(Tiltman 195 1). The nmr fp 

p9rpgrrph will brdy rmiw zomt of tht splimr pants in that rrpwt. 

filman &rd his atantian td thr khouior of tk ~~aoan commmt rymbolr in the manuscript; fi#urc 19 

JhblS his ~a1UCfipion aiphak. He ll~~r~ Zkt wdttjng of C~PCP~ within wmds in such r way that they srm to reflect 

mudm like smms ad affixes. Crwia gnu marr oftcn bp wads. d durn rbrrt dh cemin &a symbolr: othtrr 

exhikt a prefmm for he ends ol wwdr. whm they durm in &n arrangements with other symbols. Thtrt is 4 

structure 0f-d "I" and "C" spnMs ah "Q" ad "a". ad kfm "3.7 .$. f". A cable of these -'Jeadings". as Sound br Tiltman, is shown in figure 27. He matioar ah the frequent ~puenuol fepe~irion of "'a? " In 

phruer such as '' &? 3 ". ''3 a a$'. sr.. np.riu# the sumacim of a htnd of his that thc and orha simtlrt shm 

r-d mp might 4. for bnnum&.Lfot-pk, "4' might k "ui". ad '3 a 4r might k "xxv*'). 

Whik mtntioniq rhb dm m m iwng possihlity. TiltmPn pnrs out thu it dw not wurk our wdi in wmc caws. and 

it still lravn w with too mmny unsold pbh. In my ae, the otduin~ of symbols within words dearly dcmonrtrnted bv 

Tilrmnn, ud rim confirmed by &KS. prclmts ws with a ~~n which must k satisfmailv explained bv am valid 

dcciphrrmem rhrory. 

k Ile sd in his 19il rcpn to Ftidmn. Tihrn~h had indepmdmdv arrived at the same them* abut the pb~ntexr 

udrrlyiap the V~nicb &pt that Fridmon hidf had earlia dedopd. He stmm hi thv thus: "As vou know. I nrlv 

fwmed dte opinion. which you Md much e~rlicr than I, thar thm was ne cipher invdd u all (in rht mnmmlp x~eptcd 

~nrc of rht rrord) d thrt tht buis was mort Iikdv oo k a q primitive form of synthetic uniwul Ipnguape such PI was 

dmcI@ in chc form of a phitoqhid hifiation ot ideas by Bishop Wilkins in 1667" ( 195 1. p. t l. Tiltman became 

ronvid, from his stud7 drhc khvia of syrnbolr within rorb and -& wuhin lina of mt. that the pkomcna could 

not bt aphid by any simpk mhrituth system. In pursuit of ewfirmation for hs tm. )# undmodr a determined 

larh ta PM back the cmcq Of "unidm and "synchesic" Languages to a time that might bc mcwumt with the origin' 

of the Vomirh mdp (1550 w dim). 

Friedmm. a we haw above. had d up no inreresung synthetic lrnguagc system: one dcvelqd by Bishop 

john Wikm (164 I. 16680. 1668b1. and onorher of sum-hat later date kid by Gmrpc Dalpnrno ( 1 66 1. 1 680 1 - 

Tilmun did rherr mo hnpuqcs mefdlv. looking fm sqlirric ad ~rotistual rimilnriria to the Voynich mt. While borh 

were prokblv of too late a date lo hme kcn wad by tbe wthcr of the manustript. they might hve arisen in. or 

kn lad upoh an carlkr -em rhu mdd haw kn rn tmployed. Tiitman ddcd thPr bttr Wilkins' and Ddparno~s 

hngrupcs wm "much tw rfrremwic" to mum for he phenomcaa in he Vgnich #xr. He pwruQrcd. inncod. a lanpwpc 

that mrplo@ r "highlv i-I lhirmm of dih Ludr of rubrtituion" ( 195 1. p. 21. 

Ldng hack fmhm in hwy fm a Ilill wEcr h of "univrr~~t hayagc". Tiltman dLKwmd a system called the 

"UniHsEnl Chamear':. krLrd by om trw kk (Beck 16571. This system Idcd somewhat promising. though ir was suII 

hardly arly mwgh in date; it was &dy "ilbgid" d "d" ia its mcrllodr, The rvords of n small English dicrionarr 

Wpd numkn from one to W. in m~h aIphbcacaI dm. aeating r aude fmrldigir rode PI a foundation fw 

the Lnpu.gc. A sub= of obmt ane buadrcd ad rmnry-fk common words owM ah k rtp~emlwl by fhrcc.lcrrer 

prarpl in Airion oo tht baric four&& cde groupo. connirutiap. in effect. a set of varianu for drne wads; these ~pcciol " 

Grim dl ha with "I" m "I". 

W pup mnr in Bcdt's sm wert ptladed by tht letter "t". and djKcival pups bv the her "q". 

w~ym~ (r.5.. "to think" ad "m qir~re") had rhc umc hr-di~it paup wigd ro h. Piurals mrt shown bv an 

"I". a romcrimcr. an "8". after the digir-gmp. Verbs mqzk have up rn chm kaers piefixed to htu fwr-di@t proup for 

amin hm. The di#t.pups themwives cwld be wiirtm ab in h. 4 dipt hap tcprnentcd by a svllabk 

(mwmt.mL wml-~onronrlu. or ronroaonr-vowel-caumautl. Th variation. inmded bv Beck ro produce 

pronounccabk lwmr for the code wads. conuinrrer from a qprograpiw pant of view a iubScjtutian of digraphs or 

fm tht di8iu. to mi& a set of vori.ua Fidy, huu of the arbitrarily mid her-nurnkr makeup af words. 

a upnm rcq~ird a, BOW wkr am arord mdtd and tk nur kpn. Tiltman pinm out that he common "tnd~np" 

lnnp "4 9 '' in rhr Voymh text could sad 6a r plural *'r*' Mowed bv a wad up.rator as in W.5 hryuap. 

filman dimmed marhcr. rdll older "sptheuc bqzuage" pp~porpl by a man named Johnffw. dmioped under the.. 

of a Bi &dell abwt 1M1. No dctrikd dcvripaan of dus syrcem has survivad. unfwtunarely. In Chapter 9. 

mm will br said hour synrhcnc and uaimml hnpuages in general. 1 will ah Fnt. in Stabn 6.10 blow. mv own 
findingr in mring the deruc for the mimner of sirnilat svnrhetic hnpuapes at c& back conridcrablr. earlier-perhaps 

well inm the 6hrh of at kasc inm the carlr wxmnth mtuv. 

Ia later rcpom I 1867, 1968. 197 5 1, Tiltman krcrikr his 0th principal linc of wmrch on the Voudich mnnusrript. He 

vat some rime in Englmnd in 1957 cmulung ape- on ~IQ herbah d medial mndptr. and mcmpnp to uack 

down an ari8in for the plant Uwmtiolrr. He m exallrnt ~iew of rkt hisrory of wly herbals ad hnical 

iUtrr~.tionr 11%7. 1968). Summing up his om and 0th~' failure w duccnrrr any dm prrllelr to the Voynich 

mauumipr hr up "To rht kt af my kaowkdp IK~ me ha kca able m fud any poiat of cm6n wirh mr whet 

&I manuscrip w nrlq prinrd book. fhl~ is all the manger bmuv the rave of writifq and i~u~t~~ on rhe subiect 

of the plant wmM €ram he early Middle Aps ripht through :nm he wxmnth Pnd mn ~ven& mturKI war \err 

limited indeed. . . . In gmcral. the illustrp&r in Phe printed herbals arc limid m rwr or Juet collmionr of avlized 

*rODdt~~eOpiedomdoma~ninmo~cdmacdcgm~~a#5wm"11968. p. 11). 

Artde hn the substa~m~ mwi~ TitCII1Pn.s mearch hu made to our bkige of cht mmuxrip. anOf)#r 

impatlar mult of his work rhod k konrd. h the mlay yars of hu @tion with the problem. hc has served ns 

a ad 00nuer poiat f# dcnrs ikcd in the monwmp and desiriag inhation mbwrt rht rtxt or about 

dier cPrried WK on it by aha. Hh ad pmamrioas hvt provided many researcher5 with a full introduction to 

he lubim. and haw rnminrrd a number of dmu to take up an interem in he manuzcript. Ir should bt evidmr to anv 

rcadcr who has p'mvered &is far in rudinp chis lenprh~ monqrapb Ihnt tk puule of rtrr Voyich manuwripa prcscntJ 3 

cDmpkx dh~e. and CM kt k apw by~oopcratiwe ratarch. building on the earlier findings of others as in anr 

add* &mifir @ntmprizc. Tiltmoa's publrcabionr d communications haw provided ruch a foundation on the baas r$ 

which ae#er widam ma dvancr. without forced ro -st their mwrcn aeedldv rwtinp all rhr work hat 

whus have atready aamphhed. 

Krischa. a nun of my had inter- and oknn mmprisilyt mr~~ computer me-. mcdiclm. and avplqv. 

kcme inttrcrrrd in the manuscript and rmdt a mmpm analpis of the mt as a rcscrrch proierr dump his padwrt studr 

or Ward University. fhu mr~rch was dnaikd in a pow which mid a timifed circulation rt Haward and arn0n.c 

denn of the nunuscrip fKri~thcr 19691. In Part I of his pap. KriKhcT provide a bnef skh of rhe earlier solurion 

chms bv Newbold. Mv. d Srrong. ad -3 mm -PI infOrmOtiOn hut the kag ad bPckpmund of the 

mrucript. In Part 11. "Stetisn'd Adyis." hr 7 an inremuq dircwrioa of tht pabhns involved in wrivinp at a 

tranraipum alphakt ad r dcraipion of dsr aiphdm nd bp NmW. Currier. ad Tiltman. He SU~ nad descriks 

srvcral mlwmtiuiml whniqucs which ,mi@ uKfuUq k applied w ck VovnKh tnn. 

Krkhct's approach to tM eomp~msold~ ofthe m&pr is uniqdv immrting USE k mplwcd a rpecial packapt 

of proprPms Moped fat mrrhrrte wag of Chi- charaererr on he Dial Equipment -ration PDP-1 

computer. As KriKhcr stmm. this scr of prgnm was gmcrol ~ll~lgh to prrmit ier apphtioa ro dac Vomich xripr svmbir. 

Thr vmWr Ifollowinp Curricr'r alphakr) nrrt drawn on a arhode ray tuk "KO~C" dispiav amdltd w the PDP-1 

computer. The mt "could then k trrnraibwl by pie# with a lipht pm to the comzwnp ct~ar~~oer onhe uopc for 

each harmer of ttst seripc" (Krisrher 1969. p. 41, T hh mrrhd of tron~rrpnon was mwe dim and convenient than the 

Lsborious had +np and krrpudung requid bv orhm eompm rrudirc. Tht PDP- 1 Iv#em ah permitred ccwrvtaim~ 

editing and rorrrnion of the tronxrihd tt~t from the ~opc. The wtpur of coaapm mru could bt proetJscd on the 

Smrnkrp-Carison 4020 equipmrnr ro praduce r praphic npaodPetion of rhr Vovaich chamam. &us avoiding mrirelv the 

cumkrmm d -in$ artificial Ramaniurinm tht all txha sdrnrr have had to rcm to. Tbt Vwnich text could be 

fed My intorht compum. arhcrt it cwld k rub14 m my desd nunipuhcion a SePtiEtical ad*. A~o*imteh 

tuo pcrccat, or 5500 our of the 250.000 charaac~s in rht minurerip. mere machid bv Knvha in his wao. according m 

hts own statement (p. 53). His ftsqurney cwnu arc shown in fiprc 28: it my k d that they dd up to hr 6200. a 

discrepancy fot w hi& I can Find no @nation. 

In Sccrion 111 of bis mbnbpraph. KriKher diw me sutirrial roob for eompuinp dilfmnt ampla of natural 

lanpuap I~K. He drcu thm such technquts as pamriallv dl in comparing risr Voyntch tcm to sample in known . . lanpuapcr. fhrrc statistical mh ue: 1 r streistic u "cbrammmc" "k". dCIQjbing the dcprcc of cuinpactneas w mrmr 

in the sequences of charmers in the axr: 2) a mrinic -nnp the "tmopv" or dcgm of "wdmdnar" in a bod: of 

ttxr. bvinp a characteristic value for mrh norural hnyuape: md 3) Markmian analysis. a MT of mdwnp the probobilitr - 

that anv patticular lecrtr will be a sucEezror to anv olhtr prrcicular lenrr in n smne of tmt. Knrchtr wan dur hue 

meorurn. which haw proven effective ~n other swl-tiurnl rescarchcs. mav bt ustful in hdpinp us m dcmminc rhe 
udnlvinp h~uap d dtc Vwich at. Iln this he assumes ill.. that Be mnhd ~t cc~nccrlmrnt st 

empbmm has lol obvllnd MV oi tk cbnnsinim of uwd hwwp plum. ad. d. Ibu r m.wnnrblt 

vnnllyrCrdo.r.inhnudsf.kmahrh.wmin~4.4.ba..nbc.d~luumpmrmh 

~C~.dihn~.r~bahrrma-id*.lsd~~ofdrmdrarr.udb\TiLMn.Elizrhth 

Fridm&radabar.l 

Tk "k" f~~ttLiCdfhr"caaopr"meuorr~romprdbv~5#~udCordsdthcVormhmrt 

~mpk ht &id. He am. hmmr. hu thn. uc of no w witha. prdkl memum fa bun a mher natural 

hn/w rm for mcnpuim. Hc also &dm his own text mpk much coo mall la thc useful application i~t the 

Wahovhn Anal@sm' mdd. which rould. k snte. requke rr lem ti* dmn u much text. or 25.000 cbracrrrs. At the 

lime of nidw his p~. Kr*hs CMsd a arry at fwtb dies: I fd mr rrmd d rnr subvqvcnt results. 

ham. This pmmbiq ud iw + rhuh pdmd out a war d laiiw ro~ impaunt hrprhan 

.boot&~-~b~h~.kro~pdrbt#barkrorth~&#r.cbKvi~rar~iulmu~rs. 

Cmpria Currier. n prominmr profcsslonrl arpolopirt and dorc lrsociue d Friedman and T ilunan. prticiparrd In rhe~r 

~Ehn ad kame m mthusiutic rrudenr of the puzzle. Tiltman r 19751 sums up cur ria‘^ mrnr mnrk on the 

mmuw.ipr rr fdh: "Sitm his miremeat. . . swcn 9 ap Capin Cunicr has spt r pmt deal of time prtbfm~nr hl* 

ma dvra d rhc mlrrcrip. He hdb the vicv chat rhm are at krsl no diffmnt handmiti- which he rrllr A md 8- 

In~~thrrrosldadrkrfrrco~md~mroutinoaeoadrhtumthud.. . .Fu~hispruirsirsIn~*lutlut~r 

urrtwdift*r*narinthtir-uiatlufrcq~mrpafvrrvbdrorr#irdrichawanothcrinwadr. . . .Xthml 

~.mempqarcthirIccnm, Isaw u~laonedifimarrktwtatht~aatofrbc AandB papwhichcont-ioccd me- In 

hu mnr d suflia hlhwing a numk d dx can- rms the suffix 86 lad? i orour right times in mn-rive A 

paper ad 5% tima in ~y.fin B pqm. . . . Mv mn Minp is that the ~wo "hapup" expce~~ differmr applicraons 

~mohk~fthcumcrothrr bwrrccofruksmlimilu em". 

Carrim was Ibk. in 1973. m lurt rornpmr M wk cornparin# mo cucfplI~-cholm rmtbed mmpk of axr. ant in 

had A ad rbt 0th in frsad B. kh ldcrad from tht -1 f&. The rdcr of the dr chrlr drmons;ratd 

~~#diffatllEcJkrwrrnPbrlompla.lnfhtearneofs~braq~baad~~~urrk~amrrdaranumk

fivrha~~~rhtooaa~#~~inh*adsAnndB..ndbrks~~~Illispdumwl

invesiprim. He hiJ a& his m other zeaionr d the man- in diion m tk hehi Mior. His wort 1% 

dmmmtsd in four unpbbhrd prpm (Cumer 1970-1576. D'lmpaw 1 W61. 

6.9 Some Conmaem ts ~e~=rBin~ Comp~tm rbfetbods 

Tht s~bjm of ampom u rmh in mtuetr. ad mfid? in the ma& oa the V~ich rnannurlpt. is om 

ahuhaldfr~li~~mr~larrlrm~c#npm~mcr~~rdmrwrdrmit~&

~phiblgv.fbae~rrrnlrryr&c#npllar~.n.idintbtdvof&Vwnihmmusuip.~inoct#r.amilor. 

oar-proaoriw dqs. T bcPc rrr: 1 ) r AF&E-. prrmrrdnp & inanrprlrdon ad wpmizarion of rtxr 

ia ud mae sipdimat am* sim than con be dcolt with bp had: 2) rrr &roq && dm-om fuatflos. 

dbwinp us oo apply vui- id-. cam. md oehtr #ksrian. dupkr. summarizing and abdouon rcchniqucs. in wder ru 

cxplorr he dam ad show up my panem w npuhriti~ it may contain rs on aid to hhgporhnis scrrrh~np; and 31 a 

6yptb.rir-irAirr~ fimctim. fw invd@np vuim Wftc t&cories m mav hrvc drvclopcd as a rnulr of "hunrks" or 

fmm~hddmuhintsmdier. 

Moadd#~dt~mpl~mbr~lor~dthtnunurripa~inIbeCitaf&rppm#rmap)andd Icxpbramrdau 

redperion)- WhiLrrhertorr~IrrtfP1rd~in~~,~hrd~~downpllaar.insr

hwdap. ~ccmr in my to be rbt mum pmwfd lad the nmsr hlr m prodwe Iotid ad meanraphi1 

cmuikmoer tu mu knorledpc of tbr p.oblem. A ri@cant etMIpk of this efbk use d eompucm is Pm Curria-s 

rerrnt dy of hu& A ad B. dkmd in drt pmious l+aioo. Cmk hd dmbped hir dea &I "hands.' br visual 

imprmon of he mmurrripr kfm he came to the mpum #@ism to seek their rid. He had a definite hvpothesis. which 

I wilt presume to paraphrase u follows: "If. in focr. th is a ral ad Ilpnificaat diffcrmce kcwen the text In the trvo XIS 

of po~cr tht Iwk d- to me. thrn rher will have difftrtat diseribouons ad cllurrriner of charancrs." Accmdindu. ht " 

mqncrad dy -in arriHUr-planned dine rum. oo be mwlr only on mo mtdd wmph of larr ehovn so as to lrcrp 

arbcr*uuWn~~tkmlu~mr~-Tht~tra~~~roahrmdhrsthrorr.dmurartraanpr
diffcrenm Ilr had po~tdaml ktwrtn the two rpmplrs: a result chat might arvcr have been obtained through anv amounl of 

machinr map applied idisaimiwly m mssu of urutkclrd text. 

In mv apinim. thu is the kt wap tht eornpum CM ~cnr us at rhh smpe in our m*uch on the mnuxript. AU the morc 

ohks ad ask drrp proerrung ad data tddh @lap hvt kn mrde again and span by varims students. with 

dtsapind~ d. It rvrdmr thu. if an@iag ncv is #r k ieund from mmpum rum. m must perfam same 

tnue arrfully-plolracd Kkraoa of the dam. or romt mm 3-fic ad mpkirrratd rruniphtions roch as would how up 

drd p#trtnr in the iaoernnl strwmc of wwdr ud in rqmw to r pmcuh rhrory regarding the 

er*peolgc~mndthcrc*rm~omcthea~ rboruiupauikcontentor ~~. it isdl~easytoplugawa~at 

machining mar ud mm dam in wy -em1 wars. with no ding principle hr Acetion and intrrptation. Our abilitin 

w pro#rr dlEI bV mashim miay frequtntly far outrun our pla~inp and imyinadvr aphiirics. We arc Likclv ro cad up roo 

okn with mnv fCn of pilll~t~ that d UJ bale or dap. rim m llitl hm no mtraingful qncaionr to ask. One of the 

namt dcmrndiap upcrr~ of PEientifu w#k is tbr hmiag of 4 qdm, ad the drripn of apcriments that will p-duce 

dl am. We aesd ID apply rhir -titic rpprorrh m ow dy of rhc rmnuYr;p. ad elly in our u~t d

rr#lpmwr. In had dia, ohc limimriaw of p*#acc ad timc oa rhe prt of tht ikgator tff#rrwlf pcludc many of 

the mm wmeful ocrivitia. ar n h pmcm hit asmining VPE#~UI pqmmom. klt the EO~~~CI permitr us so transcend 

thcK hmmrhsand. plp~ #Iany out wad11 .cdukkona grad mk- 
Chapter 7 

Collateral Research: Roger Bacon ( A.D. 1214 ?-1292 ?) 

The mrily brief and skrtchy kew in rhir chaprr connw approach an appopriate maunmt of the remarkable 

hirreenrh-mmrp Jehohr whe name has so frequently ktn orrocid 6th the Veaich monumipt. As mar k strn from 

the dimion of Bacon's p*bk ruthhip of he manuscript in Srmon 2.2.2 abt. [hue is no dd evidence t~thcr 

suppatirip or denyinp hu rautecrion with he chtwak. however idirm. NmrdPtlers. anvonc inrerated in the manurcripr. 

(ad. id. mpae who mrcs ht fhtbmmy af Wcrr#n chaught) shmld learn iu much as pwiblc about Friar Bacon. if 

only hwc fie was SO middy a man why of ck acquaintam. He is npmrHy appealing m hc modern reader I w 

wd k; if his wks wcre made more rdblef in-bt he-hu- told us: in a hrrhripht and iqenuous manner. so much 

ibwr him~lf in his own writings; in fm, almwr all thir is kmwn abwt him day aigimui in his own words. sincc hl5 

muempwarin dy. if am. do& him in stwirin~ mds. Bacon's own voluminous writinps. and the manr and 

varied eIitCd diu of hb fik and wak mdc by rcholPnof the ninetenth and mmtitch cenruries. afford a wealth ni 

insight i,uo hose pmbkmatial relatioarhips krwm wivdaan and science. God and Nature. human vaiue and obiert~vr 

tuhnolcgy. which dl1 confront us day. howw art rna{~tfempc to &guise them bv r~ainp them into mndern jarcon. 

Boorm's lift worh have kta d&kd d analyzed in a numk of mpr studies. though I khwe tr is still la~r to 

sap thu. up po the no muly come ad definitive treatment has ken rteemped. Few of his mitinp have ken 

wadand imo my modcra Lnguye; much remains udid and unpublished evm in the original Latin. Bacon himself 

exlmbartd the proWem by rcwmkiq d re-wing his writings ova and wer again. so char ic is hard to tell which of the 

maq fiqmmr~ry wrkr chat survive arc copn ar rcviriw of pm of other wwkr. and which an wparare comps~rions. 

The ewrdemMclon of his dauim iy the Franciscan Order. and the resulting suspicion and feat on the part of later anterr. 

mnrribud to rhe confusion. since many ~h&n qwcd or wed his wark without darinp to mention his name. As d 

mnqumce of zbcrt mny 0brnvi~t5 ad Ifficulaea Bacon's m#ks arc not at1 accessible rn the modern reader. w~rh he 

de mxpm of P datian into English of rhe Opvr rw Ikn 1928b). 

khdrrly mrdk of h's rritinp have bccn artlad out primarily from vtrv rpccialid and narrow points of view At 

one -me. hirtorirnr ot have been inmeted in BncDa as part of search for ptcursors of mdcrn obfcnive 

e*prrimmd mrchds: at the & ermme. Carhdic pbiloqhercr and ubhs haw ewnmintd his prormunmmcna on 

various ncfinieof poino eonmning modid Schalordc phhqhy. Emile Ckb 11 811 1. dapire the early date of his work. 

provides a markably dmr. fur. ht syrnpnrheric werP1 pmaentath. ex- in clepnnt ~hodar1y F& and bolsttrtd 

bv n quality of knine fddabk in in thaougbaerr and dedication. A careful reading of this cajorable. humane book 1s 

recmnmtndad as a smning pwnt fw myom ilrrcrrrocd in Bacon. bttr writers are indebred to Charles for much of the 

information prnemrd in dxir wlnmcr d for much of in inttrpretntion as well. A much more recent baok by Stewart C. 

Em I19521 ir ah to k mmmcded unracwdlp: his approach b remarkable in in imaginative use of historical 

adpis and it^ atPfiw nm~pOaPLiwl from the fw nMihble fku to ddop a rrrikiq pierum of kn.5 prrronaliw and a 

hr pmpceaor am his hught. Jama Blkh Ihe nU-known Science Fiction writer pminmt in mn& with rhe Star 

Tr& mier) has written a verg fine fieei-1 bojppby 1197 1). bod ptimarilp on Earron's audy of Bacon. which 1 also 

recommend w the intctd dn. 

I haw ~tternpObd to &tun and rtrd mry scrims work cornrung Roper Bacon which I could find. in an effort to gain a 

fuller ndcnrpding of hb colrPibutiom a, kmwledgr ad his psiblr mition with the Voynich manuscript. The 

bibliogrrrphy appended to his mmopph. (while it crnnoc ch m k ahaurriw. and d~ na wm include all the workr I 

hmve examined. rinn xm~ appr likely to k of hnle value to the da primarily intcrmcd in the Voynich manuscript,. 

should provide access to mt of the major arwb on Bacon in English as well as many in other Wtl#m Ewopcan knpuager. 
Baron spar mast. if not all, of his adult lift as a scholar ar ce~cher. He stndied and then. havtnp completed n M~ster of 

Atu tauphr ar the Univtrsitits of Oxfwd and Patis in he 1230's ad 1240'1. The newlv rediscovered works on 

nuurpl philwophy by Arbk wcupled r CMPPI focus of idecmal ntciiemenr ar rhr rime. Aridc's work had ken 

pmrrwd nmonp WhPmmdans along with atm wrwm of Greek ituaiap. fik dwy were faptm bv a Europe 

immmcd In the hbariwn of tlx Dark Ap ad the haluirm of Ihc dv Church; mmkd into Latin and 

.rrompmird bv r wealth of eommear~ty br Moharnmsdon md Jewish philocophm. tbrw new wtllsprinps of earlv Gruk 

riem bm~k ht in imeUmuoI rduwm in thirrecnrh-rmturg Europe. The task of anempang to mIve the basic 

diffmmcs heen the phllwophy of Ari~torIe and bts ppn comrntntam. on Ihe one hand. and the anti-in~llectui~l. 

da--ldly vicrvpoint of the Church Fathm hminp an intcpl pan of Christian docuine. on the ahcr hand. 

-pied Ibe anemion ud straid the mum of &irrccnrh-cmuq thinkers. 

BPmn mas mat d ~IC ftrt ddm mpnk d lacrurinp on thc newly-mcricd Atinolriian Natural Philwrrphr and Arab 

mrnmrpurin. Ht wss dmrly a @ ruck. and must haw cnpvsd hu pus ar the Unimsiits. A voluminous 

monuxripr. appardy repre~ntinp a dmt't'lomp-rum coUecwm of nam or uansuip of Bacon's hrrs on various 

~0th of Arutatk. covainp -1 m. hu ken edirnd bv Saek IB~con 1909-1-1. Another rnanumip. ah 

dtJpibed bv Stuk (1933). re- noas bv a student in ah. much mm demeawv courses on peommr. arithmetic. 

and similar mpir i piwn bv Bacon. ,a 

Ar ~wnc poinr in his Univcriw studies, Bacon suddcnh ~rms to haw chanvd the cause of his thinkmp; rurn~nr mar 

from the p.omirinp ad rather ~urmsful am he had kn making fw himdf as a uacher. he apparmtlr- twk aft un 4 

CW~X of Kff-study. mkiap out &re ~hoh ind inohe "natural science" of rtPt dav: akhemv. aatormmr. and 

4-v. tk became pnrticuhriy pnarmpd with "aprimmm": m ipprwch to nature chat involved the collmion and 

m#mrtic -prism d analysis of dds =porn on nncud phmnamcna. abnp with a ~ort of informal rrnktrinp ar trialad-arm inwrtiwon of phcaomrrrp in 0th ro undd rhem better. The "scid rxpaimcadis" of Ropn Bacon was 

rn a dl filrr wr mhn. conaolkd hbwotory expe~im~t~rioa. with its v~t armament of C~~U~CIIL. proEadura. and 

md&; -Ins. it had rhr same hdarnencal orhmfion toward the exlad, objmiw -Id. ad the same mwlvation 

in opm-rnided mriositp. Bacon atso began to place prcot mphorir on knowltdpt of knpuapes 0th than bun. tn 

partidat Greek. Hckew. Arabic. md dm oripinal lan?uapes of the Bible and the Gruk ad Arab phihophers. reracdcd 

bv Bacon as the mms of wisdom mealad bv Gd. 

Bacon wrote cxanriwip on r variccv of wpics. notably on OPfics ad the transmiion of lifit: pcopraphv: asmmornr and 

Psrrolopy: laupup. manahon. and Bibbl criticism; he thm of tfie calendar and of ducation: mdcine; and alchernr. 

A pmincni fearwe of his vwks was an empphrJ en the uriliv of am ad xkmr tar he dvorion of man and the 

pod gf the Church. He was. firu and forrmorr. a "rnirrion.ori&" Ihiaker. and -nth. rtimaoad the mrur~nplr~mesr 

of my knowisdpc without a -1 paat and fiame of &nm. For him, the mativation of drmm and Ieatninp wu to k 

fwd in the mission of t)# Church. He the rncthdo~id unit of h. philosophy, and religion. and war 

imrreurd. w a dtp unusual fa his time. in inethodolop~ u such. It is in arm in^ m ~a. dm. thpt Blcon spoke u ofrcn 

and or insistently of the "Imutv" of phihqhv and scimt as of their ua'liv (h cxunpk. in an appt~tinp and charactwrstir 

ph~ qd by Fdowska ( 19'11, p. 36). from h's Gmmsi. &-Id*. he urn be wkha to compose a rrrarire on 

Pmprmvc "quia k ex pulchr~w &is. . . .", hrur it is "mare kautiful" rhon oh Kienrnl. 

kmr umt in tbr 1240'5 b &ci& ro jan dsr Fruteiscrn Or&. fm ~~PYIM he nertt dim inhis works. Manr 

rcimrifidy-orid modem wricm hvt qmdued atma tkir come d 6. which appears to mav of us. from our 

dirunr (ad oh irrcliph) riqnt. to have km a faul mistake on his put. He awn ~emr to have pomn almp 

dl with his superiwr. and in& swnr de* of discipline or eonfinemr on at hn mo occasions Ion the nature and 

smerifv of rhnt pnishcnu. ur Fern 1891). In 1267, he was uktd bv Pope Clement IV ro d copes of his 

philowrphd writinps m Rum. ad in mpmc. prdud rhc Oplrs ,Maw. Op ,UIUUJ. and Opvr Trrr~mz I hts thrrr bcsrkaorn works). Clrmmt's death in 1268 kd mv hop &cam might haw had of ochwiap remgntuon and support fur 

his ducrcion*l ad ~ntcllmual rcfarms. dhph he nppumdv mode ma1 JubKqumt rnrmpcr to wr~tt a krlpinm 

ha+. or encydopedic work an human kmwkdp. hr was probablp nmr mmpkrcd. Aprin impriloncd or ~vctclr 

restricted bv bs Or& in 1278- he produced link further until his death in 1292 (a. mm claim. 12%). tsn of Bacon-r 

exmr writings and fulltr trcPrmmrJ of his boptapbr may be found in Charles ( 1861 ). Eosron ( 195 2 1. and L~ttie I 1892. 

1914). 

.lIdgicc JA~ Expal~s~I Scilrl~e r 1923-98 1. he djfmissa Bacon PS 1 ~upersti~irn meditval monk. d btliivtr In magic. 

rompktelr. ded of anr tract oi thr madm xrentik outloolr, and rhvs nor wwhr nf the anmtion of mdnn thtnktrs. 

OVfrik 1# krls hozt as &hlv oll the dhd rrrms he d- in his rork. Tbdike's debunklap d ktm 

~cmr oo k a wm vvrp Pnd -*rig. uldollbdly in m --ern m he dfmivr .ad Pdulhon 

ofkmbf~eulirrmitar* 

~(1921lporikrrhu#mrwmcmkr~f.irtniavooeofB.coo'spl*rciabisoon:keirw~~ll 

pluli~aruseprBocoa's~h~vi~cdiDedm#tdtbrm~ma#aPberBKDnira~an.Ht~tkf$U~ap 

prrrperiw. kssd on heaa'r #reed phas fa hir unfiaidd Srripr*m kw: "In crdnuury Wr +rim .mow the 

men of hs own tim i~ il important rn nmcmkr. ern of all. rht eomplrrr oripinalirp of his sheme. His pt work. 

mfinuhd ir mwr pobablr wu ... wu PI distinct in kind u in form hn rhr +ah of hrs px 

~...Bscoll's~bnartir~*nraar+unpu.llrled~thrrrrianofk~;itwm 

Udy #r.Plothqplilrcu&dbna~~rhtrimrd~....fhewbdcsy#rmofh~thwpht~~ 

rran. .. . Itmr~bt~ebrfdolkis~d~mATFirrbi'~&~,amA.ieen~.kinio 

v*d-irrwbmraiSca" (pp. MI-1421. 

A ra* imwuriy ram mud? ha M$I ah. M.Ipgnm Frdomb (19711. prnmo o hbk. m fullr 

d~cumd ad mppd ursrmmr af Rqcr Ms kbutioar to kl#pwlrdpe ud hu influmn on thr -eat of 

modern thmlrfit. %c provider -01 &led exam+ of Bm's apch lo empirical hence: his wnqr of thr cause 

of rrrnboars in rtt rUu+. tor nrmpk. &MI!. ~lpporrr a midusion that he fuliy shard rmnv of the stmmuic and 

Pnrimic mend habirr of & &II Ki#lrirr (Fnnkwsh 1971. pp. 85-87: cf. b192Sb. pp. 587- 61 5 i. Thmgh thr 

~i~Ebrdrtr.d~~ollron~rbire#nrmadmtworhJ~~dca~hrlocd~rrpor~afabrndfiiswn 

~r-~~inrck#llrd.&~aunnermcr;m;ll.u~~~n~~dmbuil

~co~~~kanC~4~of~~rad~ninbavphmoa#op. 

Itui~~m~~teChlLjBSPiffOf~kDerarpkit~ddrt~M~.Bwar~~

medic iab,rulier kctllres I" "1 an Ariwork. and he wu &dy a rkilkd mrnrr of hi hiphlr* 

kd+ fmm ofanaiydcdlputuim looc%33). At tbthrvtoftheIchdasic Mnhad ru an amnpmtofdaa 

Lcoarisanp. flpally, of qua8cionr ha Bikl ud Pamisic rrthotlties and hn Gd d Arab philowphml ro that rU 

W1ourar6~~ad~opposi~api#npoiuabwrrr#tddinmaorkrt~m~.ddbrrd~r"dlrtion"a 

"rerolmioa"larmpdsp m tcrrh 8 ' ' ~1tk~.fhirmnbokh~fullp.pplirdrn~rkddam.w~1 

ddbapowcrfirldofraJprir.ddiaaed~~bmodtrnrrimrifirhfitarh.iirrtaw~~tr 

I~h"auoboriri#"ruhab~nvl~lmnan~dicr~(thtdriond~rdrerbP1. 

htbrnMradtmpiridquda~. kbislnrl~iofohe&abow.hprtm@~Ihekhmrrsdrht 

Sddwmc Mcdd as applied oo the ad k# &to be could obclrin. 

h#Cr h'r pnnaprl ~~ncrikrtiocl lo klw~vledp, ding to Frank&. indd the nature d melhoddogr uf 

scicicnce. Wenin$ oht prewatati&u of aber -1. wbieh she rerrprrds as one.& (mn in the ~ut of bn. wholc viw 

d&taarhr=rrortrrmphovuaE . . the ~lir:iau ad mpi4 de of ha m). siu Ws .mmrpiirhmenu in 

P&Sdlawi~ronrid#odmbuor:"Bocr#rrurbrfmmcoaridamll~h~~~tbe+ " 1 prabkmr mancud 

rmhrdeacr.br+urbo~fir#wbobd&*idoad~~oCrdmoc,bwdgl~onkyd&ud 

~....~.btworthrhW~~~Rpaoerai~rkrn#lrrtofwiroa~d its 

aiau;rrfleaionrdkh 6d amwe- mKh hm. tntbttimeaf~mdr~rd .. ." rp. 

f34~.Sbtd~tbu'~~td~Bocffl~~~~mdb#hthomrpiririrmoTh~bandt

mPrhcmracPl mutd of DacPm" Ip. 136). ad manrnmdr, AS haw cthcr Khdrn kfat hct. a rprrmradc hisotical 

uudy tu demonrtrace ad prow rhe iafiwncr d Ilop h'i mitiqs on the kna-known har rhinkrn. 

Until bu worb bvr b#n edited. mdatd. ad spmwiallr auditd u a wbdr. w rhrit wn mmr and rpPinn rht 

bprltgoond~fhrrkaoMpow~dconormporlrv~rodeti~vr~ll~af~r~ontri~uonrnhlunrn 

W~~-fi~har~#A~htrk~rm~la~

.rho& .Up rrfir# m br fibd my in aq opa*cpimt m&.hde. 

Coming am w he quaeiop of Boeon's paurk rultwmhip of. or ronmEtion with. tk Vopich mpawipr what. if 

andinp. epn we ~~ 1 fed. altbqh I wnoc mppm my rim wid^ any &fiiu cvikner. cbat bir authorship u 

~~~~m~~.aadykcrureofLbt~~oddraJkrrvan~sliBmche~rrrbcmrlrryu

~ai~ofpbt~pthrbrfiftccarha~~.Ih~~rlsooaebt~lhrv
puncd horn a careful study of what IS known abut hir Iift and his writings. ~ncludinp an attempt I nrcemr~lr rapd ~nd 

idquare) to srnple his own published works in the original bnn. I feel. in sum. rhat ken was nor a man who ww1a 

have praduad a work such as the Vovnich manuscript. cven durinp his perid af impsonmeat or psccurion. 

Far Emm kin^ n rebel or iconoclast in any modan sense. Bocm was dearly a deeply. even psionady relipiour man whu 

ocnpced chc kiiefs of hs Church. He cha to be a member of thr Franciscan Order. ad cfKne to rcmatn within a for 

the rrw of his life. in spite of ttpd hrwmmls ad duappolntmentr. Hc chd rrpcuedlv thnt the onlv purporc of 

human kmwlad~ was w serve Gal. uphold the Cachdic Faith, convert unklimrr. and defea~ rhc mil power land 

technology!) of htichst. He was abo fasctlipml. iu we hart Ken. bv mathtmatia. methodolop. and inductive reawn. 

howmr inadequate the ha and lechniquer available to him may haw ken. 

Bacon. in shwr dots nw seem to me ro be the wrt of man to haw created a magical manuscnpr. ul ptovlnc~al in strle. slm' 

ambiguous and &s as the puzzle btk us. Almost all af his ruthmdc writings that have come down to us arc clear. 

whohly mum in dirwl k6n. quite uncompromising in their forthright and rational qunlitr. He war skilled In 

dtafumanrhip, md trained etrisranrr in-the mm~mmd~drawing up ohbles and diagrams. In none of h13 extanr works 

is tbae any indication of a rul pmml inarnt in biolo~y w hny. nithouph he praised, in paainp. the usefulness ot 

apriculmre ad hhadry. His medical work was n faid~ful and complm compilation of infarnation abut medicinal plants 

drawn from arhrr authoritia. and nat wigid with him. His approach to astrmmY. asuolgv, and alchcmv was abstract 

and mlnnrioaal. osimted toward mhodoloey and mtyinolog~; it provide no frame of reference wtthin which we rnlphr 

u&~nd tk Vgvnich manuscript's idiosyncratrc ~odhc diagrams and other drawinps decwattd wrth hale figures and 

srmhlic pipa. "cans." and tuh. 

Ir sums w me much morr Likely that rhr Voymch manuscrip a product of the sixteenth ctnrurv. prohblv related to 

akhcmv. ad perhaps, as sum bv BrumbPugh. bkd to Bacon kcaurc of his rcpurarion for occult learnings, r Anr 

dctariu unidentified. mpariwr manuraipt war apt. in the p~rr. to k aztributed w Bacon. tspcclPUv if it conmned &pc 

w Plchrmy rad was pr& with bizam diagrams. I Rather than Mbing such o wak as this to a fastidious, ts~cnuallr 

con#mnvc,~and kvnad man wch as Roper &cam. I an hr man easily irnapine a small heretical so~icrv of Hcrmctlc 

dpo and iUuminni. ptrhap in Gumany or Easrcrn Ewopc. conceding t&r mange ad probibly dan-s donrincs in a 

s~tct bk of the kind we see in the Voynrch manuscript. I urF tfic intrmmd reader m txphe some of the works on Roptr 

Bacon lid in the bbliographv at the end of this moaopph. 4, erpccidly. to rend some of Bacon's own works 4 ii onlv, 

the Opvr MgrJ. the de vark aaasiblt in Ea~lishl. and thus reach his own ronciusionr. 
Chapter 8 

Collateral Research: Medieval and Renaissance Cosmology and 

Iconography 

The rrmainiry: chapters in this munograph are intended ro provide a vrrr btuad-bush rurvcv of wlo~ bdirrrvun~i I~F~Lthat may k relevant to the problem oi the Vornich manuwipr. As m have seen in Chapter 1. ~t ~tms prcrb~blc In thr rvtof manv students that the manwipt can k dared to late medieval or arlr Rmairroncc nmcs. and is of European 

pvcnirncr. It srrms. rhtrtfW. that mv d-dmr-shouM-.pain some undrrsrandinp uf the xlences. philrrulphvs. 

methods of rtprc~entation. and otk fr~nrres of rhme periods that con put into proper context the phcnrrmcn~ In rhr 

manuJcrtpt itulf. and pcthapr piw us swne "leads" toward an inrcrp~etation of the dramnps and the purpose ~nd rnorl\Jtlllrl 

of the work as a whde. I urge the reader to consider the present ~ketchr tttatmmr as a mcrt apperirer, s wmpler tli ,rrult 

verr bc:lutiful and CU~~OUJ pruducts of human an ~nd~widom chat brr surv~rrd the ~ctlnwlrsm rnd nr.glrct oi rrl~clar~.r 

rearnun on he one hand. and scientific ptivism un the other. 

8.1 Ars Alemorrltiuu: The Art of i\femory 

Probably the kt and must ~entrai aitmcnt oi the Arr of Mrmorr is that of Yarer I l%(r). Much of the pPcscnsarllmn 

klow is mkm from thor exctlknt mdv. and I recommend he book manr reader who wishes to I~rn mure. In the Imp arcs 

kf~~ pcil ad ppcr kame the truq and abundant comp~nKms of every scholar and bumuuat. ather means had tr) be 

found to orppniec ad rcmemkr the dctulr of complex presentations such as Itpl caw and puMlc speeches. Oracun. 

philoJophcrs. la-. and untamcn of ancient Greece and Rome prided themrelvcs on rheir h~ghtv developed visual 

mmia. which WC~C IO cu1fivated and cmpkrd as to bc virruallv eidetic in character. An rmpwrdnr Lnrin ~trur~t In th!* 

rrdition fbr the Middle Ap was the Ad Hewnnrrrm, anribu~td by dio.al writerr to C~rern I"Tullius" ; thl- wlrrk 

dekd a mdr s-m suppdlv devised br. Simonldcr of Ccw r 55&O8 3C I. and re-carded as a \ 1ta1 part &ti thr 

"An of Rhetoric." itself an awntul lenturc of ancimr and medrvai tducaaon. 

In the memorv rvltcm ascribed m Simonida. the wator went to a qulrr. well-liphred phcc such ~s r 1~rr.e bulUtnc. .I 

fururn. w rn ofk srrucnve prwlded with a mler of distinct niches. cglumna. stairs: or other ordcrlr dtrhttectur~l Ant: 

-nu elements. He walked ht rhm, svsmnaucall~ rehearsinp the ideas oi his presenw~ion, and iocussinc hir attentlivn 

upon he suc~c~sivr wnic uniu so u to USOCLP~C with each a kev word w Sentence of hi speech, in cunjunctrt~n math somt 

weird. saikinp. and mlorhl visual image that wouId scrw to remind him of the ideas Iacr in their proper wqucncr Thc 

"mmrr imapn" wrc to k chwm from such wrrcts as Gmk and Roman mrrholopr and leped. 

This svsrem of "place-memwv" pavc us wr drrn ward "rapic." from the "toplt" w "places" conrrrtunnp 1t5 nutn 

feature. LTht medical StPdans of the Crass which have survid into current Catholic usage tdrr pruvtde an cxamplt ni A 

"pl~c-mcmmv-' rymm assmad with vivid vmal imaprv). Greek and Rmn orators bad oi rht capacirr oi thetr -- 

"artificial mmmn". and romped to pet who muM rrmcmkr the lonpar ~eries of words or ideas- well intv the 

hundreds Pnd chou~ods-k mesnr of such mnemonic methods. In dditian KO the Ad Hrrenaiun~. ilnorher work. ~lul bv 

Cimo. De Olurm. dcxrikd a similar memorr srsrem. A wwk br Qu~ntilian. dat~ng from the first century AD. prtwtdw 

clear dirtrzim for choo~inp Memorr "plam" and conuructing map to be atwed in rhm and orw~ia~ed with tht tdt~, 

one wiM to memorize. 

with the dvenr of Chriainniv. the Memorr Arr kame n major resource for preachers and rciipiuus educators In their 

spreading of the Christian Fatth. Of the w great mend~cant Orders of the Middle Apes-the Dorninlc~ns and 

Fnncucrns-each had 16 own Elwrcd Memosr Arr for preachcr~. The Dominicans cmplw-ed the clrrsitral 3rt as described 

ah. with colorful imapn drawn ttom papan mrthotopr and other brbaric iwelpn murcer rln J manner wh~ch rrirrn 

~cm w w smrtlinplr ad amusinply inappropriate1 as mncmmc up for Chrirriiln teachings. 

The Franciscans followed a diffncnt tradir~on irutitutrd bv Ramon Lull i A.D. I235- I 3 15 1. J flamborant and Innuvauvr .. 

pcr~mplirv wk life md works ur mtIl worth studring fw their own tnainsic interest I sct Peer5 1029. Yatcs 19% LW). 

and 196G pp. 173- 198: Rws~ 196 1 r . Insotad of' usinp imager. Lull's "art" ernplored a set oi revolving circles ttr other 
rimpie peomctric lrputn marked with lerttn of the tiphabet. which mere rnarupuialtd In a comb~natun~l filsh~un. Thc rlnn 

w her eicmcnts war rotatd aparnst tach other to produce all pnsiMe cumbn~!~onr oi the Imcrs. u-hwh ciw Id be m~dt rib

u~nd for ideas such PI "God", "Evil". "Man". "rhe hl"; fat lists of aru and vlrrun; ur ior anr set tri conctpts nr 

ekmea~ one wtshcd m remember and meditate upon in ~qucnrr. Ldl. a'nruvc of Mqwca. was probably influenced bv the 

mvd Jewish adman of rhr Cabala i*cr 8.7 belaw) ad also bv rht Mohammedan m~ical philwqhr oi Sufism. Ir rr 

in-~ oo rwrc chat Lutl's combi~torist method d sy~dcalb listing and cons~derin~ all possible combinat~ons oi J 

fcu h elemeats is r vtrq -fuI and vaidle mental d. Shorn of its dim1 and rclipious pur~ it suruiwr rnru 

modern huic and xknrr. and is dul to mpuw ptopmmcrs. far cxampk. m armiszing wrntr in data or dmmrs ~bi J 

pblm 1 I made u~ of tt fw the K- of crs-panalrtic hvpthncs in Mion 4.4.2). It ah undoubtedlr ~nsp~red r numkr 

ofrrvpaoptophic kvlcrr involving rmtiap dtsrr. 

The pm Dkkw Cmm& Dam. ad he konopraphy of medr4 cathedrals with rbcir "sermons in uune" dre tutb 

saikinp +midimme of thr vwc Mrmorr & rriU valud bv and famifar to cducd pcopic todar In rht 

Rrmirvna that rru P et eMm-.Of nchly.&borOfOd ml~m~illc.s~sttm~. Giulio Carnillo r A.D. 1480.- 1544~ 

built r wdm rr~cmav "ham" mkllirhd wil &ful im~pes ad provldcd with drawers in which wriptr of spcecher 

ad ah ppn could k fiM. urinp a "w" qrrm of mcmorr; the inwpm repramred wch things ar the planets. rhr 

tnbPlistit "Scphiroch." mmcr of Pnplr. and orhn rnr~ical and mvrhdg~cal elements. Giordnno Bruno t A.D. 

1 548-1600) ha' enrered h Dminicon Order and studied their Mrmorv Art; kavinp the Order later ad trnhrkinc upm 

a C~W as a Hcirncrir Magus 4 which kd ultimtctiv to h~r dru)l",at the stnkt~. he continued ro k derplr inmrrrcd tn 

mnrmon~c~ and tauph~ his own cLbor~t mnernmlc s5Rm to wealth! patrons as a war of earning a living. His svstem. 

ro~onmud bv Yare ( 1466. pp. 189-2M1 from hno's work De L'mh~ ihmm (Bruno 15811. invulvrd 4 rrmr 

mrmca). wheel which kd thinv min scpmenu. e~ch ~Mividcd into five smaller OM. the whole arranped un the plan clt 

LuUf fipum IO rhat rinps within it rmd indgndently. . 

fk main scpmcars of Bruno's whnl wm labelled wi& -tf.thm Roman. fwr Grrrk. and thrn Hcbrta. lmen tar d 

of thirty. Each of hue d k -bid with, or lubdivwkd among. qmmu for the fiw vowels w prduce 

combikons h. Ae. Ai. Ao. Au. Ba. Be. nc. Imps shown din the vpmcmr ad dad with them on vanour rlus 

of the wheel repmend elemcnrs wc)l as the thirrv-six dmsns (srr 8.3 klow~. the mm pianas. mntv-eight usansIons ot 

tk moon. plantr. birds. animals. stma. mmb. nc.. in a vast and rllmkPcinp svncf#Jlr. This conecpr~on was nor ~ncendcd 

to mdy a mmrory hce: r was baGwllv a srsm m pmit the oprram to amn cnqclo@tc phlosrrphrcal 

knmldpe toupled with the mapien1 powers of a Hermcric Drminrpc. Bruno founded a mwacal srcr in Gcrmnnr called thr 

"Giadanirti": that Mieh were probPblp akin to hose of the lam Rosiauclans ad Fttemwns. John Dcc was im adm~rcr 

of kpno.~ philmophy. which wu in mav ways similar WJ his own. Thc mnmroruc art had a Inn mapnifircnr crfit) In the 

wmk of Lribnr~. in his &sign of a ret of "me" t urr in a "univcrsnl calculus.'* The dicval and Rcanirrance Mcmwv 

Am undwbtedle hmed- rhe conaptual foundacim and prmdcnt' for rk swnr)miE ad Prtifrcaalhpwp+s which kcamt 

fPrhio~Me in Renmsancc and lam times Im 9.31. 

An iamcniap detail concerning a lort Art of Memw attributed to Roper Bacan 15 mtlltiond k Yam I 1%- p. 2bl 

fnl. ad bt. Hadu 1 1936. pp. 6-1. Yam says. "'Ihat is r rumwr that Roper Bmn m an ns memoruttrrr trcarlse. 

but this hu not so hr brm rraerd:' Hadu rrk to r work C. 0. Reventlow t 1843. p. 41 ). which. win. quotm a still 

oldtr wart by Von Artrin f 1806). whKh Inrcer I haw. unhlrpnly. bctn unable KO pack dm. Rtwnrlaw s comments 

may br ~~mm~rirrd aa fdlm: Bacon hod written a Tnc~tu dc Am ~H~mwan'w. m k bud in a msaurmpt at Ox fad : 

this mmubpc. neva primed. hu not so far km did. Whik Bacon was nor known rr a mckr of mntmonics. he 

was + br Amin to have emplod a mdd bued on that of "rhc clnrricp1 ruthas" 4pmumaMr Cicao and 

Qwnuliin,. 

Wetacm ( 1953. p. g21 provides another vm tndrinp rch ro &is lost motmoaic an of Bacon. and J 

"mw-1" method rmplowd bv him to teach the dements of Gmk ad Hcbrm pnmmu. Baa chimed on revaal 

mm&s he could t& the errmfiris of Gtnk and Heh wr rhe fim romer within &p. sufficient ro permu rhr 

~tudent to rtPd and undcnrrnd fortipn wwds tn rcxipmt tam. ChPrP~feriRicallv. Bamn hacked up his claim wth he 

*i~ht and combative xatemmt. "Dabo crpt mcum si dcficimm" ("1 wiU fwkit mv hd if I fail"). I haw. alas. ken 

un*Mc so far to dim the rwm to which Wmrm refen: a wark. ulpparcdlv in prepration in 1953 bv Bcrvl SmaHet 

and Erelvn Jaffe. to h plblirhrd in oht Mcdiml ad Renaimnm Wan of the Warburp Institurc. whlch would exph~n 

the magical an of lurpuape reaching cmplowd k the MmirsWc Donor. 

Encvcloprdic mncmanic rvstems such as thow kribed nbwe cwutirud. in tffm. a rwr of vni-1 rodt or svnrfictir 

lanpu~pt. ouaiatrd with sinpk hers and clurmr of hers from n mixture of dpkkrr. and used more or I- arbitrariir to 
represent a vnticrr oi ~ubjm camptin. ca hi^ is tk primarr source oi their relevance to our prclent task. the ~cudr ot thr 

Vovnich manuscript. Some such system might well underlie [fit code-like structure of words demonstrated br T iltmrn in the 

Vovn~rh tm. Manr of the circular diaprams in thc manuraipt. with their rows of cells in concentric circles conralnmg 

pcrum or lakls or bits of text. are ah IOni~ent of the diagram of Lull. QmiUo. Bruno. and others. 

8.2 The Heraretic Tradition 

A ~t of philosophical and m~rical doctrines d pt mnnpnral richness and beautv. rhe Hermetic u-r~tinpr were t~i 

primq impnanec durinp the late Middle Ages and rhr RenaiwPnre. The kst single pmtral trrarmenr ~i rhr roptc 15. 

vain. bv Franm Yam 11%41. hother eOQd cl-t OWTYICW. from a lrrr spm~r bur sill fair point ot'\+im. 15 that ui 

Shumaker ( 1972). The Hermetic writings. compwrd h wmut snonvmws Hcllcaircic authors around A.D. i00-300. 

rcpre#ntcd an tclmtc~amaiparn of PIPtdm StOiFism.Jearish and Wsian philosophv. and a mcain admixrurc of anoent 

Epypun rdigious dements. The doctrines kmmt known to the Middle Ages when a monk named Leonard0 da Pirrorta 

brought to Florence a Grrek monusrrip of what came w k rrlkd the 6- Hcrnr#ic~m. It war translated o the urgent 

mmrnand of Cwimo dr' Me&& durinp the !mr~ I46243 bv Marsilio Ficino r who was himself to brrc~mr a firure rd 

conridcrabie prominence throuph his mpplm-medicpl rvsrem of asdopiral images and doctrincs~. The newlr.arndaml 

Cow Hrmrrit~m. published in 1-17 1. was expiorrw & its populmrin. and influence. and founded an ~nrclltrrual mrwcrnenr 

which was to k of ctnual impostonce in Europn thought. 

The Hmmca (as tht entire col~ of Hermetic wriunp is calledl were amibuoed to "Hrrrnn Tr~srnqiaur:~ J 

lcpcndsry mneimt E~yxirn Kcr w pl [idmcical wirh the Emm pod of widom. Thoth). rtparded a recipient and 

chanocl of Diviiw illmination. and a conlempaPry a prrdmsm of b. Fcrcufi&e 11944-54) ~W~CS a-hat is 

mmidercd tht mau Kfiolarl~ edition and commentary oa thr Hmerita; Srott ( 1914-361 p~vcs an English translation. 

dthqh Yarcr apparently doer not consider it accurate (1964. p. 22 fa). The Hermetic Tradition provided a motivation and 

frame af r~frrmce for orwlogv. mapic. Plchmy, mnd dl the occuh wimrrs which held a predorninanr in8umce in Wacrrn 

thou~hr for mny cmwiu; ths phih@y. as ic was imrrpmrd br Rcwtissu~.r thinkers. probblv nr rhc srarc fm mdern 

science and nehnolopv as well. The Hermetic him fnquentl? cmphsized the almost lirnidsr power oi the human 

mid. as prrakin~ of fht Divine Mind cr Nous. It ~mrs @able that the preKnr all-cncompassrnp hrbr~s of modcrn 

xitnce my k Poccd in prr ro an mipin in the Promcrhun dmim af Hctmaieism. reprdiap man ar ;I potent crtatlvr 

Dcrniurpe. capable of nandiny bdr God as co-repmr of the aaorural uniwrte. Jahn Dee. Cwneliu~ Apnppa. Cv~rdanti 

Bruno. Marsilio Ficino. Gimrmi Pico Dclh Mmadda. Giwpnni Baniru Pm. Tri~hmius-thcsc and manr orher 

figurn of hat Medieval and Renais~nct philosophy dm their inrpimtion fm the sprinps of the Hetmct~c revdarions. 

Whar was rhc nnturt d thee philwopfrical and mpml dortriaes. char ~aw thcm tkir porn ova the mind 01 man 

durine mmc of the most crcauvt cenmrin of Western hismy? Mdan ~lendfinlly.orirnrd writers like Shumaker I I972 I 

find ir bard m undnsmd their qpl. Ir ir amurirq w non rhu Shumakcr. in his Preface. ha&! s~ah of h15 shock and 

bmikkrment at the mthuriasm of his young srudenrs. who rush up to the @urn m question him capcrlv after il lecture un 

Hermctiarrn. In a highly imcJzinp per~onal canhion. he dimuKr his own ndwrse reaction to the Hermetic doctrines. h~s 

diffirul? in cornptchcndinp the "irrluonnl'* pint of vim on rcolitv embodied in rkm. and his inab11itv to rtconcik them 

with the positivistic orrjtudn of modrrn 4mcc with duch he is so much mm cmformhle. 

So that the reader unfamiliar with thnn my pain an idca of he impact ad hut? of thee wriunpl. I will quote two 

paragraphs of an cxmpc transland bv Yam ( 1964. pp. 23-24), drawn from an amount of rht crdon of the universe and 

of man in the Pimath (om of the books of the Cwplw H~rrakt8~11. 

[Tht will dGod firw hqk iwth a & mavt 7. a Nous-bmiur*. wtw, in ann lvhlomd the Sewn Gumnurr I planlrr 1 ral 

cavclop PhL wblt wald +I& their m.1 "Nuu rhr Nws. Frtk ofall kiw k~ne lih ad light. ktrghr hvth ;l Man ~tm~irr ub 

hmwlf. vhm ht lmrd as his om &Id. Fm tht Man wpl btadful. repduring tht irnmpr of his Fatha: tk it r-rs lndrml wah hlr amn 

Fam that Gd kll ra Iwt d pve wrr to him dl hb dr. Nm. wbm hr mu thr crwm which the Dcrnavrpr had tarh~mrd in rhe 

fire. Ihr Man w&d alro IV pdlm a rork. 4 ~mhuoa to& thr rp gm him br the Fsttm. I-Iav~ap thus enrered mrar rhr drtnturu~r 

Iphm. tn which k tud full prm. tk Mm uw the wakr of hu kahrr. d the Gmrrmws irll tfi bvr wrh hm. ~nd r~ch unvt I~I h~m 

a prt In thnr own nrk. Thm. hvnn~ ltprncd thclr ummcr and having meid parunpum In rkr nature. hr ul~hcd MI htrul; thmuch 

the pmpherr drk CIK~ and to know thr pwr of Him who Aplu abr the fire. 

"Thm Man. who had full pmr wcr the wink &'-I brinp and of mmals. kanr - the armamre ti the ~phem. h~rlnp hnh -- 

thruuph thrtr end~. ad shtrd ur dw heat~ klm rht kautlful km of Grd. Whcn Bt lp* thdt ht hid ra h~m tk ~ntxh~urr~hk 

kaurv and aU tk mmr of ~hc Gumnrxr. runrd to rhe twm ad God. Nuurn mild wnh 1tr.e. hw she hA urn tht ttArurts .,I that 

A mmprrhcnrive mmpmdium of astral and sympathcdc magic. Picutrix was influential from the rifmnth renturr on In 

European thpht. ProbPblv of Hellcnisric and Arabic wipin. it was vanslated from Arabic inm Spanash at the urder ot' 

Alfonso rhe Wia. in 1256. bur did not kcome availabk in a Lttin &on until rht fifrcmrh cmturr. Ir is a rich. eclectic 

conplaneration of images. seals. charamrr, and innntations bad on astral and planmar). demons and thtir pcnvers. Tht 

name Picahjx. amding w Riner ad Philtr ( 1962). is a medial prbk of an Arabic name Buigratir. which mar In 

turn be derivd h t)pr Gmk "Hippomrcs." Thr work indudes hcnr. prapcra and inantattons m the planets and ~nhtt 

mlcuinl bwlics; charms fcr all mnnn of purpwcs [to chase owar mice and flier. prevent a swmhearf i~lm 6wtln.g pawor. 

find lort objm. drscover hrdden treasure. cause pople to quaml or to make up. crc.1. hlanv oi the names. charms. 

"rhwacms" arc r&ed to as "ldhn" ar "E~yptian"; in fatt. hicratic or himplrphic r\mbolr rho[ seem cierrlv Ecrpaan 

arc rccopnilrbic in same cpw. u am Egyptian ekmme in spch ~hown in Ran lmcn 4 ~e fipurc 4 1 1. 

I have km unable m find. in r careful ~tudy of Rim and Plc~~r's rrarulation. ant~hinp that is di~crlr rrm~lar tu Jnr 

diaprpm or 5~rnkl in chc Vovnrch manuhp. with one inmminp exctprion. The "asmat" w "plnnetorv" talismans in the 

form of ptomctric fipures made up of line scgmmrs inrmpcrsed with circles w dm rcprmtinp constellativnr are str*~ncl\ 

reminimnr of the odd pc~neuical fipum adorned with faces on folio 67~2. As wt will set beiow. similar ilpurrs wat 

common In akhernical works 3s we11 (and rnav have had a common oripin in astral mapick. 

8.42 Solomoniea blagical Tradition. 

The Jewish k~srmm Jwtphur in the first centurr AD. mentioned a boak of incanradons for summoning spirits. JH-rikc: 

to Kinp Sdcmm. A book called ~ht "Tacammt of Solwnon" rrfas ro a ma~ic rinp gim tu Solomon bv +npcb. ~hlcfi 

confewad urn him power over whr demons (whose names and functions art listad). Mcdi~*,al writas speak of mrp~c~i 

M of Sdomon. ad a -rim& &fomoai~ and Si~iIIarn Sabmtoais ( KC? and Seal of Sobmwr~ are mentioned in J 

pamphlet mitaen in 1156. The msim tranrhd bg Mathm (1974) is rPid to dare from the fifteenth century. Thr 

SolomoniPn mapid udition wu he bat known of dl mcditval myical ~ytms. S. L. Mrepw Matherr. the uanslatrr 

of this and the Abramelinian mitirips as we1 (1975 1 war ma inreresting fipurc in hk own ripht: il practicinp ccrcrnun~al . - magician and htPd of the Rasiaucian Order of rk Wen Dawn at he end of the ninmcnrh entun.. The Soltmlonun 

srrrrm depended heavilg on Jcarlsh Cabalistic mums; it features Htbrtw characms and whet s~mbr>ls th~t ltmk much IILC 

WIW of th In P~UIMX, ad uranped In similar c~rcular "KPIJ" or mapin1 diagrams. Lkc mort hrph riru~l or --wh~rr 

mapic. i~ involvd purifth. a devout relipiwr frnm of rehence *kine pwcr and guidance from God and frrltu onhi 

an&. and ebbat+ cer~rnmals WI& incense. rabn. a ~p~ial mom w "oratory" and specul furnishings. ere. There sernlb 

cu k halt in this oppararus &or even rupeuu my diapram or spmhl in the Vwnlch manusmpt. 

The mapical books of Abrarnelin wm wandared br Mathers 1 19751 from r Frmch manuscript in the B~Miothcqut dt 

I'AwnaI datinp from the sncnrrrnth or ciphtnnrh ccrmnrrr. This. in turn. claims to have kn translnmd from an tw1pn~1 

Hcbrew manuscript dated 14118. One Akabm thr Jew. hrn 1362. is supposed ro have obtained tk maptc lure trum an 

Egvptlnn mnpiriiln named Aka.rnelin; ttrt mapica1 svsnm prncntrd is said to bt bad on. but no( identical n~rh. rht -- 

Cabala. Abraham wrotr he drrcriprion of this phi+~ for bs wnpet son. haxirip presented his elder son wtth ;i 

compendium of cht lofua and mare hiph1y-repardcd ~balist~c udtion. Tk Abramelinian svsttm is s~m~lnr In lrs 

mmonialr. ptrifimuonr. incensn. draperla. a.. as well as in ia paera1 chamff. to eht srm of Solurnon discussd 

briefly ah. The sen13 and charms. h-. m coruider~blv more vcrhl and ahan. and more explicirlr "Cahkstic" rn ' 

appcuPnc+; inad of cih and pearatla. the! consist entidy in "map~c quare" containing Roman kmrs repraentlnc 

Hch-sounding wads. hp lisu of demons and their hmions arc provided. ahg with detailed imtrumons br ur~np 

and wwkinp with t)mt dtmonic 7s. 

The ptaprim of mme of the advice is remarkable. mn mrtlinp w the unsuspKana mwltrn reader coming upn thest 

wtitinps for the fint time. I mnm rcrin quotinp some exarnpler: "It is not nccersar~ w obmve nnv mrmonln in order 10 

send PUP! the Spirits. because they thmuelw art only tw glad to k far arav from vw:' r Marhas 1975, p. 9' I. 

"Communicam unto rhcm Ithe evil rplrirsj also the Farm in the which ?w wish them to apxppear. . - .You ought, the eym?nv 

kfmc ta hnvr dcmoaded his from mur Guardian Angel. who knoweth her than rou rrrur nature and nwtstitut~oo. ani" 

who understandcth the farms which can Pmie you. and those of which rau can 1uppt the stpht." tp. 901. '*Let me htrt 
me awn imin MI the absolute necewtv in llccult &king of knp murtcour &en 10 the Erif Spirirr: for the Oprr~tav u ht* 

rasokat .ad werhrinp will spdily iay tumwlf opn to obion b! a Sparit of lik nocurt. the whwh will br~nr rhur 

hirtkimwdormfrll." ~p 1021 

Fmr kmilbr SpitffS wac to eKh opno# ia conr~dr dap six-how shifrr. hc eollld lend them ro aut~rr. 

dudr#dm~~~d~d~.Hccla.bowc*n.~purlhrm"6meoif'.rhmhthsnorCnpi1w 

ebcm~&'~~liurpitrum~~dthcvutrbkwexcruninmorrminu~edcrsildl~ot~ 

M* with tkr which it to mpv zhcm: as hid .. Wnp; . in making mrurs: clerks: 

-: . . ." (p. 3621. The is an imriwibk rc~h d pnrhdopicll lophut#.aon obwt dl of this. which rlmrar 

forarvlpoa~&tktkkf~~~"~at~~*~~~~Yi~andf~d~omeLid

ha hu ora mid. la h Pht #Eepaai & rhaorr. ofmrgicEic on which prrrrat-da! mapiam hx thnr thnww 

~rcioas.l.rPrr.~pa*lenkiq~krhtmPpd.nin~drphrof~~nmkowci~. 

In rpi# of rht gmt inmimic jam by Pbis nupl wdiuoa. it m mm. unhaarrlv. to k mirum~Il\- 

dad to tt~ drawtap ad pwa1 ehtamm of dtc V--,manwrip:. 

8-44 job* Dn's sfstam Qj 5pritn1I ,Magic. 

John he. wih his "KM~" Umund Krlkr, dmvlopdd m elabaptt ma~iul oppPflmr invd~i~ mvtwatium c)t. and 

~ommunicadon with. or pood rptitr. Sum. as we have snn. maw wdum kl hat Dee may have hd lomc 

with Ihc or*a of tk mammip IS nuplEJ phiboophp bdd k of prumhr rekancc n, our d. Ik 

rrpPdedhh~cmaac*out~~rhurouldh~kim~~~ritbCod;~w~ramu

mar* qwd m. mcllpll? umdk of a dent ad rvlririaus ,-. .ad ad! mdr m mplor on\. 

m#ar~~tnw#lthmdpmrr.Hism&a~~mbubcmm.khcar~.dinaiik.~eadn~~epmpra~a, 

rht of dryr pH, To what enmr Kdkp victimized and dhwd L)tc m~oc k erucd. but it bvt kn 

cwudcnbk.rirrad~fthr"~~war&dh,d~bf~.Dethimrcifhd.orht 

om~.norbi~rturncrmreed~virionrbba*scrlabard~uyl*oirrs.drurpprend?~l*~~ 

mw. On~orhtrtund.lomt+riarrhr*t~durIkcr~SOkf9c*pbidn~Kcllerkhirorrnp~.ad oolaolsd his acrcfrrv and his l.rr~d opb fa this r-. It is hard to irmCj-. in am ruc. how tiha of the k-tl 

mm -Id b.rt iud w Ahace and nmulcrbk n system without thr kllolPin~: cwpk of* oh-. 

Dcr's onpl mmu arc minismat of C.bPIP. d have a moap Hdww flaw: his mrpical sm or r whok. kw. tr 

Jud @ k8cm (1%8) to k +u dlpim ~II my ahcr 4-knma t*klirdE a Hermcdc dieioa. Ir rncludd r 

~~c~d~~~,inrt6ehIrr~rolrr~drcnwat~~mDPedKrlk~brra

~d~rmpbrrdan~nnnd~:Phirb-drlpkPbct~~kof~mracuchonthc 

Vomich ma-ip. fhy wilt bt daaibrd ahp with the pnrtic# ad rircumrerae*J rcromppirq tlmr rtvclmon to 

OU and Kclkv. in Smon 9.4 belw. Drt'r cmnmiai~ with the Rwiauriln mo*rmtn~ his philwopfiv in vd. and the 

aur#c of tbt "luqlWm mMlrrerip in hir rill br did in 8.9. For mae ~POCI rcpardine 

Dre's ~tCliC =PC. #e -boa (16591. & t1%8). Ikc (I%% 1%8). kil.Srmirb (19041. Frracb (19721. and 

Jasm 1 IWS). 

C.Im. My to TWLr 11923-181. rrroat a dumiam medial (mtv bOObofObOUf 1OOO pap 

~lh~D. LB.Tba.robrr.arllWrn&&~~~Thprdiku"r.l..dr 

~-w~.Thchum#h~ofa#dieiac.rwibbd~~poHipe#noes.rrsctrboraadkGJtad~mrdnvll 

Ankc ruch u Halg kn Rod- Rb. Wy Abk ad A- Tk mdicion rvrr pFcdaminant in 

Europe WW a hp period of Lime, and stwived an rome krn up until quilr dg; it matirum ra shrive. in mar a krs 

conarkdformr.iamuEh~"~"d~.M~~dd~medid~rmykfwdinS

ad Uokrrood (1%2). Siafer l1928.19591. d fa* 119221. 

lnrbrG~~6Dodrrrpromsedbrthe~om*nbodl~~~~or"~onr*'.tochofwbKh 

prodorrdanorvlrtrinpprodunrmbe~~nmt&~~.ada~&uaa,kd.The"hpmorr"-bW. 

reh la ruddy l bik. bik, d #depm-were dw exmro of muin wpn of dip-. The words "melancholic." 

"chdtric." "phlrpric." ad "ulrpuinr" whiett still &w in ow hop- a, daujbe empewneat or pudirv. arc 

dofrhrarmrrofttatfourhumon. WdthtburnorrhodarrPin"md@ti#'ti#',wCLh~it~uhfl~~ 
tht human bodv. arnprruamt. and mud. fhme were combinations of cdd. warm. wn. ad drr. Depending upn the 

baiaar* a- the hi hPmorr in rhr coarcieuum of r particular iddual. at war said to haw a plrticuh complexion^'. 

DLrur uw. oa#idinp m rhr C.Lcaic e. from a d Imb.linrr amq rbr humors md rbcir aaturd qualib-. 

SimikrI~.druyermrhir~~hrbrdik~~droplrh.m*atriq.radddrp.~rkhnrc 

diPferrdabowith d# m. lad intkcowdastianrdthr~cm;difkmt fook kh.d ahcr su-sld 

unpomnr di#o aa tbr brl*nec of the hum ad heir qdb. ad WTC ronridaed lo have ehPi-c qualitiu of 

drei m. Tbr mWl Win ach Id r erudd influma on the arms of rhr human bods. tfK dipstiom. and all the 

orha them of the hay. fhe "microcorm" w "small world" of the human body was held m reflm in miniature JII rhr 

rekm ad idu- at WQT~ wihn the "mw" aruaivmr u r whde. 

fhr medid trwmmu mpkd bv the Gaknic phrician d curhl cgniuarc of the p6mr of the bm\enlr 

Ma. ad "mtad &yJ" wat qbd OUL ar wkh &n -a EorJd aot soMr k applied. Gthurrc 

r~~)@rrorrriqup#r~bomorrrrarraimporrrat:plrcdtba~.Faenmpk.hhtrb+rd 

kton~wcrrEPppWCdwdnwdp~rsc~dntcr;rhubrrbdonrhokr~~~k~:and~nnnpr

mchnehdp (black bile). RId ,war bp dw obviolu ramhod of opniq a vein d bktdiilp cht pmr 

("phkbotomy"). Thus. the Gddc phgsicirn was a &Ued pnedtioncr of "rubueic ad phlebowm~", 

Hut and moisture were hiphlq impma in he Gabair therapin. Heat war the principle of life: prertcsl at birth and 

trrlp quth. it war hw#hr m keomr prrdudl! cxhrd ad cwkd wi& odv~neinp ape. 01d ~pe indvcd an excess 

dmr md dm wr rhu wum bodn ud #rdcns ot wPtm nib and unpllmrr wtrt rerommedd jru the tldcrlr. 

Andm IoveFeipl *fa ohtbodefferrrofohlsgcwurhrmwdamofa ?~uappcnonaaaimal,mbliru: 

rbc@pm#lmrrpriaoantdhrrkrrb#cdmaiffPrc~~firrncbr~llpnah&aoeinthrrou~mamrtfhr~ddw~hhedkd.chm.ma+rtm~.orkmrsdll.a~rhfvlmrika.~rrld.st~onamica1 

krratobriauly.todptuim~inGakaie~;&ph~d.aahbdmkaprAciap~~~ 

d. fht "medial &' nrmiasd of rrmrry-dght dip Ia numkr rbieh ralm in he diopm of the Vornich 

manumip), ad r)n influrace of rht mooa rm of cmriknbk imporernte &rouph ia cFfm on mcllmm and the rides. 

Roger b, in his madieifill rrrk lBoeon 19Tsr1, provldrr m mtmcly rompkc. dear. ud dcuikd twplnwrion of 

utrdgv u it dmd LD dw# (ad Withi-. in his prrf*cr m tht wmk. pi*n m er pen-l summan. of 

Galerrir &an id h's dktrirm ad ~olvm M wdll. Figure 34 rhar* mlimr fcrmrrr of Gdenic medicine. 

in "fm~C: wmcadrhtfamrma?dJ lladakthrlakfrradoatlPiapinamin~ mdu~anomiddn.r<nci 

in tbr rmaurrripr. ad pd~h in tbr wdi# diagram b. Tbcr mq h indd ia obt "human &re" dnm-iap as -dl: 

du omniprepcar pfi of orp# or bm eoold wdt rcpn#nr thc hornor a rtn diee#ioas. nc. Tmms reking rrl 

deprrn of dnm ward w- ad dv may c*cn k eonctlkd in rhr w of hehi folk. as ther acc frcquentl~ 

m&d in ancient rod medieval hcrklr u propcrria of medicinal piam. 

8.6 Ars Noimma* Dcartmic rd Angelic Ndgic 

~~wQPdrclrdwlyliml+rmperirl~a*lcaai~~oDpic~hitb mntbd in pusln~ in manr of the 

wmbcid in* 8.1 h. Y- (1%6)Mbnuuamyiolrrofmrmorp.~"rkorthrad m" asvmh. 

adrrl[*idrduarerpMndrlcindofmyicW.t&r11W8)~oeminJIJlernrab"rpirinuImp~'indble . dcuil. Thorndike f 1923-58) chmcmks An Notair u m rt dai@ oo @ knoakdp of d to rommunirrtt with 

God by he idon of snplr. tlrinp mpial durrrem ad paw: he dm dismisses all rht moltrial as "meoningiesr 

jumbles of diapramr and magic rvordi' dmur telling us much mow abut it. T7b, trrmtc of the Ars Noooria sent3 rn have 

kea etK urr of amgeli and dewmr' arm#. ud m a-p m qhit h idimiu u chamtls of illumination and 

porn 6.om C;od. Triehtmnu (- 1m1. Pkak. tk 0 ' a d hkurrlimian qial r~rmnr. ad 

J&nDcr's~proedanrllmdrhcrv).r~tdin~~mdrmonrd~Fi~33~~l

w~fmmvvioluqarmr.d~32poridnwrmccxrmpl#dehr~~.rad~cm~min*okc 

d~oltbeKb~~~rari~conneeeedrithtbefow~tbt~therrl~lsp

d ah cormwl tnriria. ad so mar have been ard on same of rht Vomieh nun* folior. 

The mpicpl Jmirh philwophp bn rs Chh lor KabbPlnh~ in Spin duriry the Mi& Apcr. A durmrhbddh~.~nuiqinSpun.-mimp#~lar-d~cLatforh~m. ThcCaW 
dtpmkd hmilr m~ mnipJulon ot the lmtn of the 'br rlphak ~nd lists add aurds. ~td was an r-JI hrrhlr 

"-* and rbsrrPn in cbamrfcr. in conwa~ ao thr I&. visual quolmw of manv orhcr mlpiml nmr. Tht nimtl t*t Gad 

ad af am and the Heh hms amu emplod in wan ~ronpi? uwcrting to us. day. crvplopic rechn~qum I~nd. In 

fact. thr rmaipulmiwrs of he Cabala my haw inspited ar kut mne early mpto~aphic dtvicerl. "Mapic cquares" rrrr a 

pwnkut fmure of the system. Ten &c ehu rolkd the "Slphitmh" were to tbt domint; thcst mm 

ulpposrd~o~rhtpowrswrarikuftofCmd.dwm~wnhorha~~len~mofehrum~rrrr. 

=..I ina r?lplerl dimlrpbkdcwrrrpaadcnm coct figure 351. The Hekr*. ktta were dl ilsocird with unrqut 

aumaicll rnl~cr d r Cbhsac &od clllrd "w* pcrrmaed ahmarib* 4 h.rk thr mmt nummicai t~lurs at 

k rubratud far ~a cf swh as rk "5cphirorh". -A& Cabalistir m did "ttmurah" in\*clhrrf *n;lrrmlmlnl: 

rad wwds. 

MOM of fht rmpicll srsmnr uf Irm tima mode or Imst rume use of Cubah. Hcbrca. lure ad the Heken- Ianpwrt 

POd dpbh wm mad. W of tkir Bikal uaociation. or rrpreiplly hdy. amckn~ and mgiallr pmm- mile 

thr ad "hl" ofthe V& dpt doer nor ~tm mr ck#I? &in ro dre dm. ahact. and rmaC 

lemocphrrrd~hImpwcr#rdlht~sriadab~Mrkrww&ori~~npinirromtdirnl mpirine~~~itl 

~~t~whkborrnwlmofthe~~robtat~~l~bmihvidru.Wt hP~c1rrnh~~r5.1 I iar 

Ntvbold rtgmpwd muse a CabaIirric principk iavdvinp dl mmbinaziaar of the lcmn of he Hch. rlphakr talren rwt J; 

J time as n prt of his duiciphammt method. This. in iuelf. qs ttr hawe bcm an inpmiws ~nd rarhtr rc;lcbbn~hlt 

htpthcrrr. howher mistaken it has turd 4wt UP haw km. Gem1 arveragt of Cahh mr k found in Bbu I lil.r-r.. 

Marhers I 19511.d Wrm I 19-31. 

Tht mpu Of rkhrmv tur b dt& wicb br nun? wrim in mrar diffmac my. Shumnlta I 19721 ad Graubvrd 

I 19531 pent pood pmril nrttmcalr. md Thandike r 1923-58 1 dircurrcr &emv in pinp as he desrrikz the writings 

of garbs laeimr and did pr- Siw 119-31 1 provida 8 awaprhvt caolq~c of akhemiml 

mausaip~.and racqdr romprficaavekiqdrkhrrmal lcrmradspnrbdrmry kfwad in- 11921. 

&bm& (16321 pa trfldVJlPbk cdlbofdd mrauxriplr.praumn#tkreodcr topa oar*ceb 

klilyrfwtkaorprrad#*kofbrearmdi~ 

Thtm~ofJchcm~~r unma kmrrdbork mrnr-oat~.Piobmrctrmntr. It wasPmikrwdrc~rhr 

k*ptunr. BPbvlonh Jrwr. and prtups ern m the Hindus ad Chi-. Mdimal wrirm ascrikd io origin m Hcrrner 

Trismcgiuur. and much of the alehemial lorr that cunc hn to he Middk Apn probably had its murcc amunr rhr 

Alexandrian Gmlu in the tarlr Chnrtian m. Ic was mmmiucd w Ellrope-- du Anb rorld through a tramhaon In 

114 of a rvrrk etbd "BRk of Ibr Cocnporidaa of Mthy." 1- in olckmr m~ hap-Lid. ooarununp mw.h 

Irrrm*mrhrrnnuvwbit~a,dcdi#:ebr~~-h~mrhrddi~dinfl~. ELLS 

hhmdr 4A.D. 1617-1693. Sounder in 1683 d Atbmdern Mm in Oxfad thr h plbli muJcurn in the 

&rtishIsler.wupcthapsd#ksrprominrmrachllrirrr6#Ilrhcmr. 

The kine5 of &hem!: md r hd range of mchd p&~ts and nuurol phmwneno; it is &fficult id4 tu 

d~stauaplr iu intimate iruerm- of Gaku~~ nredidne. @uh+ual d reti- m?#iEirm (Christian ad wprmr. 

m~-ddqv. -. bPrmr. ooolopr.. minarlgv ad pimitivt cbemislry. b wu on rllanbmop~ mpal a reliplwr 

pbibrophv~~duamarraieoropcr*rionrlwrd~lrtrTbertmcm~forarrdPkbPm~:prmdakhcmr 

ruo&.eaulammpoo~m~ar~hchrmiQl~..ndpramintml~.ofoatnc.tbe 

~ptopdmormd@v~. It-. indpobobihty.franarly mcrrl.v~ckiqdIlDettiopl#epuseddown 

duauph tk apcs ftom catlv mu in ch Nur E.n. -1 rlcixme. rn &c at# hd. was s ~~ical doctrine 

about he wun of rhe uaivnrt ad of msncr: an deEdc rmlp of Gnarcirbm Neo-Phtwrirm. Chtisuon mvrpcri 

ducaim. ad pqm mrcbolgv. There wu ao bud-rad-fpst lim drawn * b mo bra& of the arc; trplcalhrpCh~ILEihOb*jdb~pc6rrrrd~bc~lrrrnPbr&.d..ad#~ofththbautrrord 

IiWqoirtoF~ILdymtk~Oft&~ 

I~wucunomu*hm.kpimrlrhrm~.~~oatwho~medrohDrtropiaed#meprredul~~~te~.m~a 

-'urn" a htir m whom k rwld pss on his wdom u hir dtuh. ElLr Arhmdt was "doppd" in his war br an dda 

ak-r named William Barkhou~; Arhrnok himself apprtndr mm rtonnpd du hhatmv oprracronr of practical 

dchmrv but mtcnted himif with rtadinp d cdhnp manurerip d rrudyinp tf# s?mbab and ~onapr of theoretical - 

alrhrmr. Aimat iU aldmucal writings rctt rwtiarlr coded in a hi* mew. ddikatelv middinp and 

mphnrid Impuap; dm ad eiphcn wlcrc e#nmonlr em- in the muHueripa. aad exmnrr m am rhc rult. 
In enre. [as far r5 modern rrircrs haw been able rn ~uess from the convolutd secret wrlanus rh~r haw iumt.duwn tu 

w) alchemy atas based on a thrwr* involving a fundamental consnruenr ot' dl nature called the "iirsr msrer'' ur 'hvic." 

Individual oblms end their characrcrisric identities bar made them whn her wat ~mtd oi wmcthing else. through 

the sdditicm of "qwliues" such ns the cdd. muismre. dr- and heat of Gnlenic medicine. in order to transmucr an ob~ect 

into amha ohm. one mlur rtmwt the "qualities" ofom nature. prt back to the neutral "fust matter". then add ru "car 

on" the "qwlitics" of the desired nature (usually hm of pold). This process involved elahrate Kqucnccs oi manipulations 

in ohr alehemin's '*lrhatwr" rhar mipht ormpv monrhs w Fn. cmplov thc hcm of manr fttlprrr. and cansume 

incredible amount1 of monrr and effort. Pnctical akhernr was a feasible hobbr for onlv the richest oi men. 

The hbwatorr operarim included a hp list of nctjvitin which art variwslv I ad. ncedles~ to ~v. nivner~truslt.~ dthnni 

in the many akhcmical treatises. Ther are 'described bv arm such as cakinauon. solution. putreixuon. c+onpcI~rhtmkmmarion. txaltption. and projection. The products of th~ promrc~ and ;heir appcaram and bchnv~or rn the kbrtrrmri 

"glassware" w wscls wm drxnkl rn wildly metaphorical waps !a black midut was "thc raven" w --the crow-s head- : J 

cortorive dd was "the lim';: -ah* suhaecr were, cailcd..+'che snowv swan'.. "the rood thr tau his 611.'. "thc 

dmpn". ctc.). Submnm wm referred ro nl "medicine." "menrrrual fluid.'. "M." etc.. w lnklld with he ndmts ut 

parts of the human Mo. Maphm wm taken from hummn Icrcral life i "rnnrrinpe" or " wrddinp." "copuIatiun." "death' 

and "burial+'). and rciipion ("the passion of Christ." "mumction." "purification." "redernprh"~. In bct. alrnrat Any 

name o'aay naruraI or artificial hen or promr rwld,appear as a "cwcr-word" for same Jchemiwl procrsr ur productIt is mr own opinion that the Vornich manus~ri~~~could dl be, at kast in part. an alchemical rrtaag. I ice1 th~t thrhrpthcws r~plains the Jcmcr and mi-miouk of itr fmm; the dificultr of dcciphcrtnp it or rccognrzanp its dmwnci In 

anr mvcntionnl herbal or asrrolopicai illumnrims of he am. ad the apptent eiurclopedtc charantr tli its rtmrenr. In 

ian. the only rwo drawings I have found that hvc my dose kinship in ~vlt w mtmmt to thore in the manuscript arc tui, 

illusmations in Arhmok's Tbe~twm Ckitifm 8r1&na~nm 1 16511. f k we: a drawing of a plant. -'lunaria". on p. 

ad a svmbolic fcpmmtarion of an aklltmiral vation on p. 350. Both of thtse art in a proup of manuxr~pts of Ashmulr'i 

collection which ate idmtihcd. ah. wly as "anon-I." T hc tm. in pired Cncs of Old English verse. diicuucs herbs. 

Christian mystical plwirudn. amolopial mom. mc. in the ad wildlv hcrcKlprncws conplomcrat~m. It is apprrenrl~ 

much farther rowatd the "rhnwetitpi" or philmophiml d of tk Iprrrrurn han he pracrid. 

The plant fipurc har manv of the odd srrbtic featurn of rht Voynich manurcript's herbal fulror: the ripidll- svrnrnrtric~l 

arranpemmtr of leaves ad flowers: the "molded plastic". bl~kv. or ~ulprumquc iorrns: the platiurm =ith abrupt tdca 

havinp a "cut out" look on which rhr plant IS sininp. vm slmihr in m.1~ to =me root forms on rk C'orn~~h manusrripr 

phnr folios. 

The aher figure has ekmmts membIifip wrme of rbwc in rh+ hliw shine nude human lipm in tubs of Irquld. A 

cloud-like form at,thr top. from whuh mnvenuataiized ravs cmanm. repreKnts God; imrncdiac+ below. the fipure u! .I 

man or anpel breathes inm the mouth of a bulbous alhemid -1: hi5 brrpth IS ckarlv tndicatcd in exactlv the aJr th~r 

ik vaps or liquids arc shown purine hmph the elahrare "ptumbinp" on the Vovnich manuvripr fol~os. On ~ht wssrl 

art a sun {with a face] above and within a CFCSCMK m00n: fm mch of time. vnpm ar rrnanauons arc shown drscendlnc 

through the wsret. The round bottum of the -1 is provided wirh ~vm spu. spmd mud io curved urcumicrence. 

sfid the vapor rmerpcJ h a11 of thn* ad wickicr dm wer two nude, plump human fipurfi Iackrnp arms and holdinc 

hands: rhcrr fipum. while hmr drawn than the Voyich manumiv nudes. arc short-legged and "hipp~". a-ith tar 

rummies. in a vtry similar stvlt. Two dram ~undinp on thmr heads ad a rood cmpIcfc the cornm~tion. The strlc of rhc -- 

men ~puts on the vcwcl is so dose to that of similar spa and vrm on the ptpr-like fwms In the manuscript as to lx 

almt idilrinpuizhable. and the smbolu use of convcncionmkcd forms ro mu a new ~rnthaic whole wth a nrmplex 

mcaninp alsa Kcrns cloreh aktn to the methods ot the Vovrvch manuscript's rcribc or scriks. While thew draa-inps art 

identified onlr as "anonrmou" in Ashmole's cotleaion. 1 kw drscwmd wwm hiphlr nmilar figurer In whtr works a-htrc 

their am dad with the wririnpr of-flc Ilrpkv, a fifrcmth-cenrurv akhcmcrt who produced numerous treatises with J 

monp Cltrinian flavor (Philalethes 1678. Ripkv 1'191. 1756). Dr Rda ( 1973. fipure 64 i shows a fipurc similar ro tht 

JCC~ hbed abwc. cirinp its source as Oe Emmibrrr. k John Dastin ! Bririrh Museum. Eprrton 843. folio 1 7v I. 

In car- it mms likdv that a mph examirwirrn of alrhcal manuscripts and their illusuatronr m~phr rmplr 

rcpar the cffom ofanr nudmr who could pain access to thcm. 

8.9 Tbe Rosicrucian AIovementandjobn Dee 

Whiic Dr. John Dee has nlttadr. kn mentioned quite fttqucndy in this monopraph. !r remains to provide r iulltr 

discussion of hir rhouyht. his writinp. ad his connection wirh the Rwicrucian mowmenr. a phibscl@inl tradit~on which 
mar. iwlf. hve ~omt hnp on tk Vovrucfi manrucripr. kc arc a numkr of + annnmtr of John h's lift md 

thwgk aarbb Ikreon (1W). Fell-Smrrh (1904). ad Frcd~ 11972). Yam (1972) cwtn rht udr hicrudan 

mmemnu~~ly.PadderEr.p#bkin~-D#'sprivr~t~tDct t842)dabtod~km~nurrripr 

iabir~~IJ.ma19211wrdam;derrht~~~k@)inmra. 

TkU ' ' ~lacl#n.~iatkWrqkd~yhtbilyridt-naCiae~in 

hEllropurcmmkwamf ra~loliknli#~dphiksopbidhnlrinp:iteombidtherirh 

herity of Hd rndidan with C- mwm ad a rdmixaut of *Lchrmr. Gbrl.. ~pc. d

medicine. tkr Ibshcilnr me finrtidly wmtivt. The oud~~~ af phe onpal "maniknots" (rht Fam ad 

rhtGafe~.b#hrrpraduadinwnsh#miaYam 1972) anw~~~r.'l?ltv~rnkvcfouodrda 

"braha~'dappual~inviorpmdhercrw,d~mpoon~pwofrwld-krrcroirrmpcrin&~i~h~ 

SDPoden~aoh*eh~damialrt#eivrd.o~~~.irhwphetmrmrlrhp~bCIll~vrllrmmtAcl0lpcpdrairida~ tbrm). 

ftre~dpeoian.kLhoPe.d.Ickmy.m.wW.rly~clwdt~~a h@l*dmourmd 

comdotsdp#d~rad~y.Toobe,~o~~~ia~ehcm~.tfK~nrddpdmcr

rpmbotisindmd torbepraniarru&bcrrecn~~d~~w~niwduoPadFrtdcriekVrEknor 

Phuw of eht Rhne. and murid to Prinrrrr Eluakth. &ughler of Jam# I of Enpld) and che rcrcrio~r!. Catholic 

hauc of H8khrq. fkcot q&-potitid s~mW rids reJim ad m*#d ovcr#lm id- the bbhrp ~lt. the 

Palatine li. tk md raw, imp dad m the "Oh d tbt Grtttr." ad ST& oh from a aha w dmc III John 

Wrn#inprrpai.lb buWeurHh&&mfDrt 15M IW1. 

jaha~ct.waadi~~~-"&@~~~~tbrt . dna h&t up to h vlth 

~dc*d0pmcacr.drt6rhkrhvrlrer#b~di~dir#rroar"I1972p.Icii1.~-~rht~ 

w- lhr dcsPikr Dct's u 6pikrr: "la du kra &mend world k sdkd wtdxr u nehndgy rad 

rpplied -.... ~net~ddrorld.birrtlld~dnumkrrtrrdrosdm~d~~.dinhir lldoaar 

HicroglrpUce he klimd fK hd duewend a hula fa r cumbid mbaltn. Jehcmiml d mt)lem.rimI scimcc whlch 

wouMrmbkiu~mmovrIlpad~~lokobbeiqfrom~low~roehrhiphrn~.AndinJK, 

~p~rcricJtiilsphm:Dnbdkvsd~khd~tht#attd~~~byaom~ranporr~in&t~~bPtH1 

&rim" 

Dce'sinflucaaw8sarrkdlot&Ellrope*n~wkekwdtrrmnirt*iricrh 1583m.Hewu.accordiryc 

~Y~~reeirtiardrriappprwrmacmglrrLCcaenlElucpc.~hirdtbrrrbubemmUkrJPborqhlr 

rh=hlifrtnEnldmd. Itd#cmt&t hru~huof.ninatkaurl~in~a. naoalr in&hv. 

but~~~pro~srrS#mmwcrr#nr.rtaer#~dwhi~huwr~bemin~drxpbliaedMlv.Monofthrmnrs 

diKUoKd in Yam' mament ef af ad rhe Maw pb&r tmk ploct ah ehe Vgnich mnuwtipr was dread? In 

exhncc. It smm ro mr Likely; howlever. that chat ir sme lciarhip bcrwrm dae phihaphv undrrljinp the manuscrip 

rlld eht Iloribn mdiwa. Bsrr~y of rhe L#lra dth of thr mna~rrri~ with ilddph's oowr ad psaiblv ah 

~~~Drr.drheabriollr~ofiO~~r~m~dt)wIbueru~a~rsdcn

&r affd rn iv mr of tbis h*hh erl. 

Ahidwadrharldknidc~th"bin%trpbiE --wbicbDcerrr~mhrehdinhir 

~.dwtriehwmeyianh.rtikmiW.rkbdnVqniehd~f&brrirPeaia 16f'SkSirftromar 

Braarncto~uAttrmde.*ad~~wordrofArrhorDa.J&Dcr's~.eoaasaiy~mrrrcriouJmnurcrrptrS 

vd br Fa-Smirh (1904) U Cdk "fhe plrrrm- (m #dd] *nr d b8 powder drq hd. whr~h wa 

found in romc dd pim. *ad a kk lyinp by it eonuimg aorking hit hiuoglvpkh: wtrieh W his I~rthur'l) fuhcr 

bcslPmd much dmc up. but I mukl m h ttror bt awld mrk, u m~" (p 311). Arthur Dc*. born 1579. was 

app*rmdva@t~dduthetirwkprIhtmemshekscribn. 

Amrbcr~~~MSmkhpmbrbly~rht~dtkt~radt&pordtr:"Kclkpirtcpudra 

hruban~inW.ieL..rrhmbrrrsml.lr.l~mdd " ' I~dtwo~aphiPfrconcrioinp 

&m~dradrvtri#pmder."(p7fl.ltrrr~.~.mart.who~obeporkr.ad~~poDer 

when~hb#rmrIcplliid.Inf.ec.ont~ebrdefirdPeimprrorioadut:ISelln's~pvporcia#ckrn~Oler 

out lunda m urumed rlpm ar fint) was rn pin ins en=, ad probtbly his nmewy kcking. €m ra atternpc lo puzzle 

our he meaninp of rhe murPreripr and m w the pkrs m moke pM. 

Dre-s diy . u did Hdimll (Dee 1842) pidn no ftvthcr ik60n glnarairq the mnuscnp ar dw powder. 

Jaraa.horevrr.io~hipbly~oprsanr~I1%51.dcraiberap#6ondrkdiypZkUMbnadiwDmtdiria 

~~framthrttmpinda;d~iscrmpdocr.~,rmaiu ~t~muimn~~mrrar.Ir.rrPordria 

Still, he new system made mr headwar from 1275 on. It ir interesunp to nort thnt the common folk of Sgwrhern 

Eumpan nations like Gummv rarek 4 Arabic numerals &re the sixteenth centur!. The invention of chap ppcr. lead 

peacik. and mod- me- of mulriplif~rion and &virion did mr come abut until quirt rectndr: these me the 

dmhpcatr that. armding to ad kpinrki. redly made cht arw "alporism" amactive ad practical for ~rvdav 

an. &kt k time. the Arabic numerats wwe tmplQ.red primarily on Eoiru. for numkring the papa of manuxrrpn. and 

fw drrw. T)#r ohaa found inmminpkd in hawre ways wirh Roman numerals: c.p.. " IVOjj" .for " 1501": 

"~cCC~5Om' fa "1450"; and "M.CCCC.8iim' for " 1482. IP the early and troolitiwI ph- of their adwon. the 

~~~mmd.s "riphers" arcrr rtpotdtd pr inmmprehmrible, mpttrious. strange, and well-suiwd for use as crrpt~c svmbalr tn 

~mct writ in^ rrmns. 

Thr dothinp of mmc of &c human figures on dx pap of the Voynich manuscript hid afbd us $om clut as ro thr 

dmtt Pod vnicim of the wwk. Uaforrurutel j. the drawinp is w skcrchy. and the fipm are m small and Lacking tn 

dCtPii. that there is dkp~nriaply Jidc tc on. A wide vmet? d hats and be-r arc in evidence. mvn on figures 

&mire mritclv audc: thee include a rrrw of d~rdcms. tiaras and mnr as well as widt.brimmed ha. tloppr urn-nha-. and hats provided wtrh ribbons. veil;. or plumes faUlng ow the weam'sshouldtr w back. Dm% of wnmen and 

prrh~ps also mm incldn a mrr of rok wirh wide sh (see Virpo and one of the Gemini twins. figure It).. 

Vm mmon is a kind of knee-length. #cad runic kid at the wak r~e Sagihus. figure 101. Caumts of this npc 

mnmn during the frmmenrh. fifmmh, rixteu~d~ mturicr hrwphwt Europe. There seem to bt no exampk ut' 

cmcmc stvlm: the dl conical hprs or mo-hd headgear for women; ttK tra~radtpuffed pnsbns and hu,~r 

ruffhd cokr for men in ~lc ofm abut 1550; or the curly-eord S~A very short tunics over skin-riphr pants w~th 

dpim~ chat wen the height of fashion somewhat earlier. The garmenu rhowa h-r sketchlv. on the Vovnrch 

wept folios Kern quia simple and mcrPind oo the whole, ad vide rrlariv*lv little decisive infwrmtion. Thw m 

to me. from an dmittedly supafilial dy, to bt mipant with a dm knctn 1450 ad 15'10 Isrt Von Bochn 1964 Iw a 

dl-illusmd mrunmt of axtecnrh-antutr amurnel. bmc tvplcal hat and drnr fwms from the Vovnich manuscrtpr art 

~WI in fiprcs 10 and 37. 
Chapter 9 

Collareral Research: Artificial and Secret Languages 

Ltt medievat and Renais~ncc philosophr rncludtd vi~orws intererr in srn?hct~c lilnpups of mdnr kinds: tkt wrrr 

uariwrlr inded for concealment oi scrrcts. txprmion of mysrical relipious idear. abkviad ~nd cr1rnpt-t rrlnwrlptlnn or 

mt. interliapurrl communiuuon. and an rncvclopedic mnemonic reprcrenration of human knowledp. As has bnn the ids 

throuphout cht~ chqcrr on colbtcral research. I can pmcnr hat only he barest suppertion ofthe material available to tht 

~ntemtcd dcr. 

9.1 Bracbygrapby: The History of Sbortbund 

The dncicnr Grctb tmploved a srsrcm at' abhtviationr called Tironian Hand w St~tanon. mibed to bl~rcus TuHlu. 

Tirn in the first ~rntutr More Christ rue Rm I874.cAllm 1889. Bogc t95ir. Seu-bold dtten~ptcd (11 use tarlr Grcrl, 

~bbrru~~rionr in his drriphmmr rncrhod, rr rue mw in Chapter 5. Manv lam svstems of abbm.t;ltlr,ns in R~>~n.in ~flri 

meditvnl time Wac inspired h. or bad on. this early Gmk %%.stern. Figure 38 shows an intcrcstinp examplt 4i~ mcdn\~i 

hhand s!rrrm &rid from the Greek rnechob: irr mkcs are made up of prrs of rht ltrurs "a" rhtuugh "k" ~nd e;lrlt 

forms of the Hindu-Ar&c numb. This svrtcm, colkd "Noraria Arirtwtlis" b~ its author. an English monk cli the 

thlrtmth ctnturv. is of inrrrcst &cause ef the rmblnncc of some of iu symhls to the Vornich characters ~probiiblr. In 

rnr opinion. due to che daivion dbwh from mrlr numtrni fkmrj. Th symbols aaed as bases. ro which du~. lines. ctc.. 

were ddrd to form words. Rop*r ken wru repred h Jdmn ( 1%0. p. 311 to have btcn familrat with the f :ranian 

Nmrim. which hr called "arr nmtorin". 

Cappclli (1949) provides a {ummarr- of the histurr of Loua abbrtviatim svxems and heir develupmenr itum C~SS~LJ~ 

into mcd~rval times. The bn mHem made use of ma1 devices: single lmtrs could stand tor entire words or s~lli~bltl. 

words cnuld also h truncated or cunrrad. usuallr beinp provided with a mark ur srmbol showing thtr Jornethlnp h~d been 

clmitred r a mi1 or CW~ICU~ extmdinp upward w downward. o line or curve ah certain Imrrs. J shnr lint. etc.r. Ficurt 1 ' 

shuwr some Lorin abbreviations used in the Middlc Apcs tho1 memble chncrcrs of the Vovnich scrlpr. Ammy renerd1 

~xks dcalinp with he hinorr of shmhnnd and coverin$ the carlies1 srrternr are Giulimi 1 1 W8 1 rnd J~hnen I 1 i)41 1. 

AIston ( 1866 provider a bibilopphr of warb on the subject. 

Morr earfr Europcln or Enplish horrhand $Ferns I have erarn~nd arc hpned around simple lines and curves. rt1 rhtrh 

dots. dashes. circles. hooks. etc.. are attachd at various pitions tu fwm compound svmbo15 standing ior whdc words. Xlurr 

uf [hue earl* srstems were nor "phonetic." i.e.. rher mode little w no ammpt m show the loud oaf wwd~ idepdentlr 

sklline convenrionr as modern svstems do. in fact. the early srs- rended more mward an idcopaphlr or wrnbolrc, 

repmcntation of idear. although alphabetar ekmrna were also involrd. All of tht srrrem were cxmmeiv elaborate. 

rcquirinp the memorization of vast arravs of arbiuan. s~rnbds ehar wm d~tficult to write accuratelv and quicklv: the mdern .- 

rcadrr ran onlr wonder how anpmu eve~ manad ro htn or mtmk their tar~ numks of ruk ad forms. or ro recurd 

the tins don and hd5 with suff~cicnt prmion to permit dis~inpuishinp them Inm In ammpring to reild back what rhev hi! 

winen. Thm mcthcds mrninlr seem to have rquired far morc ehr than ordinarr writine. 

Dutfiic ( 19701 pmvids an inmestin# cornpariron of chm major snttnu In autenrt durinr: Elizabethan tlmn. Ar least 

one of them mar haw been cmpIoved to r~wd wme of the tao dSfiakespre's phvs duriw amal pcriormanccr. so chcr 

muu have hn uslble to somt extent. 1 *rill rumrnatitr bclow, in hiphlv abbeviad form. Duthic'r pmmtatton; the thret 

svncms seem rvpical af the merhodr avaiiable in tk sincmth and earl! wmtnnth centuner. Their authors lnttndcd them. 

awartntlr. not strnpiv for rranscrlptton ofspccch u m&n symmr m emplod. but also for rapid and rondcn~d writroc. 

;IS a con~e~lmmr method. and as a son of elegant. philwphieal dcdrcprmnrtnp "ideas". 

Figure 38 shows the basic nroke~ and tfie subsidiarr demmrs to k &td to each in Bright's srsrem. Each cjirhe el~hreto 

base s~rnbols consisted of a vertical line with a d~rt~npui~h~np hook,curiicue. err.. on its top: these srmboi, could be -rrtrm 
in four different pwirimr ivtrt~cai. horizontal. slanted left. slanted r~phtr. In addit~on, rn rhc twtt ot' NS~ base ~rrnbrtl one t*t 

rwrlve addiuonal squipple~ could bt added. making 8b.T comb~ncd ~vrnhls fa use to represent cornmttn wtxd~: these utrt 

called "charoctcfa11 wordr". Orb words not in thir brc Iin were expccucd br "aw~ar~np" rhm AS smnonrms iw 

anrmyms to a "chnromraI1 word". and prcfixinp ro it the firw.kacr basc s~rnhl of the muill wad. ru urve as A wrt ut 

determinant twc the exarnpb in Cpurc 381. Ai Duthie mwb. thts sqlrrrn was primitive d cumkrsomc. placing A great 

burden on tht memr of its user. and producinp Forms whrch were wrr. casu m parbk and confuse. 

&lo' rm em$m.d dinnrr Roman lmrrr in combinarion rirh dm. rummas. and rccrntr irullrmvelr c~1l.J ht 

Balm '*ct&'). which M-tci k *rrr cartfulI~ and accuratcl~ placed around the 1-5 to avoid uonluargn. Tht 

combimrio~ of and "titrles" produd rqmbds for a kc list of common wads a5 in Briphr'~ srm. and s~mikrlr. 

smonvms and antmvrns werr shown bv luinp the kc-wrd syrnbot with an rxaa stroke on the right or kft. f his shrwthand 

athod rquid tk mmw~rinp of over 500 dikm scrnbds: pmt -hion in the pl~rrmmt of tht "tinles" WAS 

mandamrv in order to avmd parMcr. It dms not ~rm to have been any mwe practical dun Brrphr-s srrtcm. 

Durhit finds 5 cnopraphic the kr of he three. and considers ir tu krhe fcrua&tion oi modern shurrhvnd rvstem, Freurt 

38 shows rhr rwtnw-six hic srrokez. called "uncfungcabk pretclcr*': thew amr vlr phoner~c. and "iknt" aert 

Iarpdy rupprd in mirinp words. A ci~k added m the fam of a smoke pfwidcd an "h" sound. ad dou rrrrnptd In fire 

clockm~r poririons mund the kc dr sad for vowels. Abkiad form of wards wcrc built up br. cornknin!: I~K 

rlenrmn In r manner mmmhat like rnodcrn muhods. Willis' rvrtcm is. in fm. wr! much hkc the lam Pinman srmm 

I which mav we11 haw bmr kid from it). Dudie judger Stmopraphie could haw ken cmployd tu rtcord sloa. 

C~W~UI speech in condensed form. but nor fw rapd verktim rcporr~np. It is incwdn~ ro mtc that Willis cd1d his srrrcm 

"kpnoptophie" as well as SampphPt. and cumded it appropriate for condmenr of scum. 

In summrv. I! vcms unlikdy chat my of 1- svnems or others rtlamd m them arc clwclr alun to the Vynich smrpr. 

The oniv element amp the Voynich svrnbh thPt btus anv -~MPI& ro tht h, dashes. bk~, and t~nles- ot' the 

earh shrrnhand mnhds is rhr hoak or mtIicue that frcqumtlv over the '-double-c" charmer '--- a) torm "&"- Thm stmu to k no visible rcrucrurc of auxiliary marks added to a murrmr set of buK svrnbt~ls. It Kern3 

crlnudtrablv mm reour~fflt. in mv opinion. co Id fw mlati.rionrhtps ktwecn the Voxnich characras mnd mcdietal Lrrn 

abbrtyiatiunr. w~rh some e~flr numeral form ( ~t Srction 4.1.2 and fipurer 15. 17 1. 

9.2 Steganopzphy- Tbt Early Histmy of Cryptology 

Thm art records of ciphm in rncik Egyp rod Rome: subu~cuuun ciphers of various kids. some emploving invcnted 

alphaktr or promemcat symbds. mt known froen thr arly Middlr Apa. Roger Bacon was peadv inmesad In Kcm 

witinp. and much hPS k made (h would-k hphcrsr of the Vmeh mnnumipci of Bacon's statemmu an this topic 

in hn Eplsh de S~CIC~~J Opmbw A& ar Nu&me. He mcmmcnds. fw rhc cormPlmtnt of peat and pwmt smw. and tn 

prevent th from kin^ abuud bv the common htrd of mankid. dac use of fhc iollowq ex@tnrs: 1 1 cfrPrncrcr~ and 

vcrw tor "incanmiam"): 21 fabks ad mipmas: 3) king out Imas. trpeclallr vow& (as the Hebrews. 

Chrldnnr, and Arab do w make lhcir rn hard- to red! k; 4 1 mixin8 ks of diffmmt kids I as. for wmple. the 

Pwronomer Ehrur hid his knowlsdpc bv a rninlsrr of Hebrew. Grlr. and bun ktrcrsr; 5) ernplo!~ hs "swanpe to 

OM'S own crtlnvr": 6, maanp characters frmn one's own uaspinarh (this kt king. according to Bacon. on epeciallt 

pd method. ud bv Amphius in hrr i3d uf tbc Srmrs ofkmn); 7) uriap mic fipura comkned with dots and 

sipnr ld of alphrbctrc churclm: arui finally 8) the "nomy an." whuh -a lfioupht was the kt method of all: the 

art of rvraiap "as heflr and t~pdlv as or# dmra." Bpcon claimed to bvr lrwd wmt. at least. of these methods in his own 

mino ps. 

This high1v ~nmnrinp and ratha compktc rompdim of mriv aypcopraphic &vim from che potent pen of the Docrw 

Mirabil~s has undcrltldably inrpifcd many uudrnts of the Vqnich maurcripr to seek me ora11 of rhm techniques in la 

paps. and w ~e in it a ~lt of b'5 practice of his own mwnmmdnriom A esnridrrab4e litcramrc cxisu. hliryt wth 

cipks amibured m Barn in akhrmim1 waks (Him 1304. 1914. 1915: Sde 19a. 192Sb: Manlv 1931 1. An . annpm. in whim Bacon is suppod ro have hdm a formula for pwrpouda, u aplicated variouslr br -me. bur 
debunked br otks twho dismiu it as a+superrdwus mk abwt a rpIit willow branch rhat rna,~icallr rtpi~ rwli. or a5 J 

adus m~rr#dinp k an tuly sdrm of a w- in a rmnusmipt~. 

A~of~rr?poopnphirmrrbobucaffaibod~ochere~rl~rrirm;Roman~rY~~~~I%O.~ 1%11- 

Ttkhrmiru 4 1566.15061. P~u t 1'163). -1 19701. d Arbrauiur Kirrkrr (Kir- 163 1. Wrektn I9481 am 

rllendirsd.rirh~rkich#t~~6#mrofcipbardeoderadbtd.rrrwh.~Dccwuinmrr#dim 

~.ddelurofnmbisaDirricnr~hnmrl~.E~ofE~.~toDcPcm~1%8)

Man! crrlv rr~rcmr invdd sub& ciphers. ltliq ind or did chumm. pemmnc fipum. numerals. 

rlhcmierl and rumlapiul wmbdr. hn ahbmiatim. ctc.. in hybrid mn~lomerations. There we. in rddition. umr 

mmt sophhimtcd acbnqm. b of appucnrlv in- wads all mrtiap with r pvca lmcr could h wed ar altctmrr 

fm LhPr kam. ~o rhir an inmxwwappnq dy of fivr hn wads rmphr conceal a her-lrtm 

~deh#nn#d~m~~.~rocbkr~rcapyd~"cadc~'~ronu~qrCP

roPdr~firde-pprordr.~duydsuddclDoar.~rdi~~&ac.~durr~orurtif~~ 

mnnr fw coaaJiaf rimplt in lccmr I=: br w. T-ru 1564. pp. 48ff.l. Ranmi Lulls ruuaq 

6pm hod wkh Wcwld beem- ropmd~crdiprapb (A. Ab. Ac. .. .. Az. Ba. Bb. =.I which 

mld k mrde w rtlad 6# .v#& or eaacepl. A number of dy maphc symm rmploytd Elm =huh with ant 

fixed and onc mating alphakt (e.p.. Alkni, in che lace hftnnrh eenturq. and Silvrrter and Pwta in the sinccnth; wr 

Silrmcr 1526. p- 7; Pwtn 1563. pp. 73.79.83; and MWr iW2. 1%). 

Anrldm dr -Id a mesa# aidin a much bnfcr "dummr" mrt k wrme rule rad upmn 

br~~~oiro.-rh*brsc~m'm~DiCrrmira~k.mednlrrk~clsfah~dinc

bncfnwsmpinh war. Atdrredconoellmtnrs~cmpb&~a#~raorchrrr kmrsinvrriousmbinaetms.~~ 

Ihr~a~of~rppvcadtderartirraraidedb ' td and -5. inr h. 

unkr~.atcmbnddcdm~krarrd~mahar.rbdily.crr.).Tt#t~pocouldkmdeomndhiemr~ 

of a bp a uuiq of#rnnncIoar; fw empk. in a ditml q~#m descrikd btr Tmhmriur (AD. 1462-1316) 

rbwt 1500, a rct of pups MA, MB. MC. ABA. ABB. ABC. . . ., CCA CCB. CCC could prwde menn-m values 

for rhr kntrr of the rlphrbn and a Irw additional chvytm. T k rwmtpmnn distih cuald be ~tcd mare 

Mv by mv the mm of dame rhinltr. amqed in dl uluqw combih I rhrcc dih fonrr. lmlr of dtrkntu an 

pianq. crc.1. Tb bmolu dpba of frPnrir Bmam r abw~ 16001 is ofhis w. diffmnp fmn Tdwmins' srscem udr rn 

rht itorrdpouproffi*cdemm. mrdeupofmdisi@a ehoim.aadempCo*ad mmemphmrucd means ti 

wfhtdkimimsinacwmm 

An impmaw of mcrhok exhibidnp a smpisimg depn of campkrirr ad Winicoum. were In 

ruc at an nrlv d.# in the lmia d h Prprl mtm and chr mum of Iulun Rims. A numb of there srwcms art 

dcsaibsd in Meism ( 1902. 1906). Pnsini [ i873). SKeo ( 1947). and hlkrri i 1568). Mcistcr I 14021 provides r detail&- 

history of mrly Idin ciphn. rhe dies dnriryt to 1226 h rhe Vmctian Repubtic and others from manr Italian cit~ts ' 

durinp dx mth ad the 6lamrh eea-. Meism r 1906) mas w rhe rrnr 1326 or I327 the r~rlirrt example of A 

*~dr"a#nmelrorw."~lydadtiscofrode~asPllrbksdingfor~ond~rmmmlr 

ia UlPKh Q he I"Pap". "W. "B. hadfit phrucr. pk m. 

km.).Meiroerdnerikss~mmkrof~Eompla.adhaad~in~i#P.pol~dur~nc 

tk folvmnrh and fifo#mb ctnatrin. Thnr an+d mrht ddmoa ckmracr (mon~ rltrrmivc cipk elmtern 011 . dap fa the mmr pIohucxr ehcml. oftea dnwn ftan f&l. mn. w id dphrkrr. Many such snrcms dm 

- 

made use of "nullr" (a li% of dtrrnrtivt dummy rymbob having no mtlning in thtmrtks but thrown in to pad out the mct. 

cor~cd ms. d furrher a~nftisr + would-h dcciphml. All rbclc dmim could be miplod in conccrr: 3 

"~oot." a prrmitirt dl dc. P)w an &barnu s- of monoprwphk. digraphic. Pnd uipraphic vnriantr. 

with a wicd stt of nulL PI wcD. Fii 39 sh i sampling 06- dv fdaa -phic svsmu. 

Df prninJu ia- kof~ of h rrbri- svlP &a u a qfftm dezaikd by Jllrob Sil- 11326). This rvrrrrn was 

buedmatrind~:rrodtcDadni~d~noawnlswulprirdmrhtdumarofnrdron~plpcd~r 

dirrioauv. Arma~.m~&Qdmphmr.amd~innndomordcr~M.DC. BN.rtr.l d 

b ud id of. a Mad wirh. rbc Bormn altmarlr m @IC rhe rol~lcna. Widin ndr column. thr individual 

*rordr. arranged in rouphl? alphrkrierl order. were indicated bv Atrbk numernlr. Latin endines wm shown br sinpie 

kr;m ar djprpphj. The alphakt trnplOyd ir made up of inrd and foreign spmkb of pat varim. Nulls drown from a 

hp sm of ciwlec~ conld k ~~luered duwph the rtn. Fiiure 40 shows a sketch of the mrin feature of Siivt#*r's swum. - ad c#a ham =mpk of trxt cariphmd in it. UnCrmudg. Sb's W don mr pron& cnouph hi1 rrp~rdinp the 
diuimwr w ah upcm of he srrrrcm ta suppon a can+ in&- oi itr &timuhip to the phtrwlmcru oi ttw 

Vmaich axc. na don it provde anr loap rompla of cncipbtrrd pera that m@t k studied sEui#lmlh. 

fbt rr*der aho rbt ~mofks off ihia erracnnifi~ cht "bq-middk-cnd-cnd-cnd rormm of yotds fin tk 

V-kh ten. ad the romrncDa of Tihn ad Friedmnn rrpudiq univrnrl *ad s- Ira~uppts. will recopue the 

plibihuts of du eulv code system in acmuruinp for the pkamcm dwy Cud in mind 4src ah SKdons 5.6.1 and 6.6 

lbwe.udu9.3rdrht~x~~.fidrma.edTihmra~~~mprtorrorrtkhrrrorvui 

s~~hrkmadlet~reul*tobr with tbr Vwukh -msaip I i.t.. bdat 1 5 50 1. k 

ism~opioim1hu1brerriion~darh~~cloadbalk~k~~~mrrar:6m.~rsrlt 

mpopophic 16 d d. in ck mcdimi ad Renriurm Am Memwwiva. Yam 11%. p. 3781 mmur tht 

wark of Ftonds Bicoc. -us. BiserM. Dtlpmo. md Wilkinr did #rwrrd thr mpmmt of a -'real chrmtr ' 

li-t.. a rm of rips Iike Chinee &ormen. sup+ to k "&mlvm' ehwd ta heir refem rr are ideographs ru 

hirroplrphr. urdiakpcndtatofIhtrpllinpor#wnddd).Shr~hlradcrtririnp bck ~oa fopdawn m m 

tvk endid#l d-..rr..- .the d.of B~~PJLP~QI,A @ ww 01- uh or olJPLrab 

Silvtr~aEollld~LOtmIbrbrJirdrheVorniebmt1tiri~rneoa~~~of~'srralrin~~orh 

M--.d.rad 161&h~phedbv.d&d~~bstnm&~~dJohaI)be(Shh 1v6. 

p. 21. 

9.3 Pusigrapby: U~iwtsd r ad Symtbtric Lag~ages ,? 

At rk urn durrnp he lut Middle hper and arir kaahnct when brin was w hap funa~lninp ar a Liqu~ Ftaw 

ior kuaad her1101 c~mmwim60a ad rbr vad hquppc~ wac kfl~iap to be cmpkwd nm# ad me. rrum 

~bmk~~~a~mfillO&djw~~dhlcluep.&drr~menmr

p.&whrchamercb.ntrm~#lor#.r#rrhrapnCnrrnfiomtbckhd.rridops+rrmudur~rmdr 

rmpb?.edideqprpiudefunatn~cooldsuadCwideuurhd#i.Phtrhn~~~~~lundrddr 

chrollph m alphakt Thur cbe uwe a numkr of &mu did mwud the dmhpment of a "unid character" w 

"red chprlem" which wd in m rmnaer bvporr drt multiplicit~ of vdu tonpucr md rcpezent &as dirccrlv In 

~umtW8~hrlln8tionr. 

~lradrmkiapwU~~~a*r~ac~lk~~infsn.ir~~rdid1~~ia~~icarnrmoa~rrsp

dsrkIiddlt+Y-i19661 dntr~wakofFd&roadbinrkts~nmnrhrrntrurcn~~ntht 

~flch fm a hnpp. Ukutr. as Y- &oms. was a Ir# pmt cxponmt of thr Paehnr crodilian. nrs-inp tht .4rt 

ut Mcmwr into the mark of & infinid #Wus (Yam 1%. w. 378 ff. r. 

TL rod! srntkct~ hryuw kd much in cummon with mpcopraphic dn. As a fwndatian. r cbrrificatrm scheme 

was up for WW& w dtu ro hn a hework of what war callad "syncr-" The rord-d- mtc &men h 

each rPdwr .co#dinp m hb own philwopherl bear. ad -; whik:inmYlrd gl k inkpedmt of anr knilupr. 

Pberrhemc&inwt*cdnumbrnwcodtr~pwdmr&dda~~.~omrof&u~murmmclr 

~~~~*rk~t~~oehmwaa~ra~rad~wrbemodanrrpder.~naz*

&road h an momau Spa& JcrPit ia t653 c*Ucd an '-uickamhs aontmlrcor." r dPrr w~ rn up for dl words 

rrlaanp to "the tlm": drir dm was assipnrd Roman nuawral I. Arabic numd wwc used m 111m idvidwl words 

wirhin the dus. tap.. 1. Fire. 2. Fhm. 3. Sm&. . . .. 6. Wid. 7. Bmre. . . .. 12. Wua. rrc.. r* Crwrr 1646. p. 55 

~.~.~rsvrrrm~dvcdr~~~~~~'~d~wideu.rt~#dhnpi~rlh:~.forexunpk.IDDodlot

clur "h W: H h "S@mm" U h "Hmum'* ac. I- 1661 1. 

John WI imptrm of a of '-d durauW amd the wu 1668. m np idudinp such things as: 

1 'T-d. Ma; 2. "trmwdmd. Mid": . . .. 5. "God. duCr##rrm*; 6. "The Wald. Geatton**; '.

"Tbc Eicmeatr"; a. Thee #dawphd chsm cmbobed tht &at tht auwt d rhc vnivmt current in thort 

umu. ad der~vtnp from mrdirval fwadctlms. U& each rurh drrr, -gone were wt up for "differences" and 

"VCJ". "Dikcacm" vm rhovn b *cnrcrl Pad oMqw lim .arctwd m tbr kfr of the h svmbol fw the class. 

'-specirr" m djum s-bol uuchtd oa the ripb. G . . ' (-a) wasShOvnhdasorlinn 

pppehodtork~&.WW~*#tlllhsdr~rrd*c~~h 

Gm 118461 d Ktrrba 116631 povPdr#rmwkofalllrmbad#rtr~v~hnpa~~. hurrni [I9701 

em a mv camplm uaumar ofr*rrrbnic d dl r*p#. iaddly: Fckpioor. mapkic. and mMal hnpurper 

as -1. Dllprrm's svmm is dercrikd in Dal~amo 1 1681 I. Comtaius' in Gursstr (1959,. Other s\.rrtm art prncntcd in 

Wi1)um 1 164 1. 1 6680, 1 U8b I and Top ( 1603 1. Th inwnted bnpum we of inter= to studmu of the Vomiih 

manuxnp for mtrd mxw. fk. mo ddud md c*pm rrPprobpiru wtto bed mt5 of Hlldr to the 

nimr mchm of Vornich rext. The ddcrr surviving Anplo-Saxon medical mnnu~ripu cxhib~t numerous cwjmples ui the% 

pr~ericcr [set Gratmn and Sinecr 195 2. &ms 14481. Some of the spells arc dlrtoruons uf Old Irish provers brou.uhr rn by 

Irish misionarier kg.. "Goaomil wpnd marburnil mprbsai ramun. . . .." a spell against "bhck blains." Gramn ~nd 

Sinpcr 1952. p. 1. Som are pbkd birs of Gmlc Ewpv ic.p.. "Stomen mlcor. Srornen mega fofu." and "Eulogcmen 

PtCm as vow *gwn puma. . . .." Gr~tton ad Slnge 1952. pp. 49-50). 

fb~ are wmr inmmiap survivals in dK Anpb.kn murcnpf of pipnn Roman pravrrs. for example a kautiful 

hvmn zo cht Earth Motha. "lkp Saw Tellus. Rrrum Naturnc Parens . . . ." lGrartan and Sinpcs 1952. pp. 45-461 

NW~WOU~ dies of pre.Chridm Anplo.Saxon relipiws rims urd kC& am diucmibk. Names of mints and aprrlrs md 

sn- of Biblid tau mre mploPwl a ctwms. sprlls combined parhied Cheek. Hebrew. and kt~n wards in Jn 

tmpwm-rwndttq ~lomc~sriaat chat mw have had a ruonp prvcholapcaI impncl on thr patient c"Ranmi.z~n ~duru~ 

dthsar mur 0 iacffabile Ornipinan. . . -her corher mirtme me1 dew mini dcw mi Amm Alleluiah." a spell fur -'lmw 

wm. Gmmn ad Slqer 1W2. p. 1891. Evm the word "Abrdka." which has come down to modern timcs rr 4 

*?.mu for mumkjumbo, ,w. a ph in AqCSamn mediciat (the word "ABRACADABRA" was "to k 

Wrim trpdlr on a prchrrmn and appiied w the pnrrmt". Gr~ff~n andSinger 1152. p. 10). 

5. Hilde~ade $ Binpen ( A.D. 1048-1 I7 9). who^ visions have rlreadv been examined brirflv for pssrble paratlelr 10 

the Vqnich manwcfip~ im Smon 3.2.31. was ah Jopifted with the mvstiral abiliv of " sprPkinp in tonpws.'. hianuscrlpls 

have kta found premviw a Jcrin af "carmh'* lsq or hymns) by Hildcpudc in an "ipnotn lingua". he rpparentlr 

aau recited spch rompmiti- whir under the swy of htr mystir virioas. An inwnred alphakr ah formed a part of 

fi&prdt*s knpuap; tbe Ietmr ue obvioruly di#afiarrs of Un letters for d# mow part. Bawn~ I 1970 l pwide5 a 

nu& of wmph of 4s Hildcprde's bapuagc. psuvd in a wt of fllaasary wrimn down bv her 

-potaria. In my m, drionr wirh German and bin M appwnr. as is the we of innmiom similar w htan 

endings. Fipre 43 shows the dpbrbcr ud ~ome vmpb of wrfirtmpred 4. 

hwni I19701 mk 0th. rimihr m@d hnpurpr ern* air& wn ScWmu (a ronrcmporarv oi 

Hildqdt. dsu in rekigks Iifc. and a frequent catapondmt with h~. ~nd Chrisiana voa Trond. The Jattcr was in the 

bkt of urnsing ddiour and inromprrhtnsiMe w& from "hen htr chtsr and her rhrmt'. when in a state of 

feligiow my. thr mystical Sufi ~cn within Mohornmtdrnim ah dm- a bipblv mplex rynrhew fnnpuapc callad 

"BPhibOl~fi." prdW with an mcnsivt ur of pnmmrtient ad s~nunirrl ruln rod r lupc lexicon. Bausafii ( 19701 prm 

mme rxrmptrs of this hguam. The ebility clnnrrr h ruicd wr chu a &.up lanpuap of this wpe uildcrlies hc 

Vognicfi hpt. devwd by an exccpoart mdividd uakr thc porrcr ofreli~iour in+-on. 

9.4.4 Tk Enocbirrr bmguoge OfJobw Dee. 

Dtacon 11%81 pwcna a clru and detailed dudpion of Phe reem knpafe which Drr and Kdiy daid to have 

mid as a fmlation fram the mplr rhiou* the '"saying #lass." He also prwidn a highly iatercrdng discussion of the 

"anffrlic convcruuaw" cnrtMd out by Drr ad Ktlley during the wig 1380's (DCPeon 1%B. pp. 1 38-156). C~s~ubon 

( 1659) dextiks rha ~onwsatians in pt dad. in a work bad on Dn's diaries and manwrripu. ptmiourly rranxrikd 

by Eh hrhmole. The follorinp .rcounr is dnwn from chac two mrar. I strwqly urp any interested reader to okin 

~~~C~ubon'swwkudrcoditin~{rhae~o~inthtF~Colkedm.Likyof~~).I~i~a fascinating 

and remarkable oaoun~ ad rhe prcrcnt hrfr~mrarrg era by no mt~ar do it jdm. 

k m have seen h (horn 8.4.4 d 83). john he ua~ aever Obk to -ye the virions ia hu crystal or hear the 

an@' 6. Far oh k aIkd mrirely on KeUy. who was dedy r highly unstable and urrrcrupulour 

prsonoltry. How muth aF wbt rcnc m in dte lmuiq "rtmotl" r@ in rfn dioriu was invend by KtNey in wdcr to 

make hidindirpcaribk to Dce a a pins dcdvc inflvcaa wet lum. is a maan opcn to question. Damn's view Is that 

k wrs usiq Kcllrg rather than tht aha wry uouad. and dut bah wac eagrprd in erymaphc and aplonar rn~uians 

for the Endish Gown under ~arcr of Ikt's uadagid ad drm~nolqeiul xriik. In any cue. rhc mtnner In wl~ich the 

?tit comrnunicatim vere t#eived and dd wmr ro complex ad ddne u w k aImm[ unklievabk. Kelkv 

middy odrm kame impatient nich the efh inmlvrd, and Dce hd to pi4 with him ad impwtune him to pcr him to 

caoriauc; onc prim the imwon that Kdky mr ntrtr nearly as intcruted in the ooffelic commuaicPaons as was Dee. and 

warU much haw pnhd to h hs an rhemnkiq ofpold. . , 
During rhc JC~~KCS 1 manv of'wh~;h tmk place durrn~ J vtrlt tu the ctlurr ui the Polrsh Count kkr In Cracou ~nd ~t 

Rudolph's court In Praaucr. Kellev sat before the ctvstal and reported what he saw and hard to Det. ahu u rvte 11 duan. 

occarronallv puttinp quesrionr ;a the spirirs throuph Kellev. Kcller often saw the anpels themsclva. and otha perwns and 

brings as well. ohm movrnp throuph tlalmr~te K~m5 and actions as on a srng (walking nloq a road, c~trnbanp mountains. 

crosinp: arcam. ctc. 1. Hr dnuik~ their faces. pesturn. manner. chhinp. ad mvitia in rrmarkablr vivid detail. 

Cawubm's account provides exrrnsive tnhmation conmninp the Htfinp. pparations. apparatus. and mbod of opcratlon 

during these wionr. as wll or a vcrbarirn accounr olrht visim themselves. From p. 75 on. hc reports the communic~t~on 

of a set of cipher matnm or "tabks" m Dee and KeUev bv he nnpcls. Kdkr mw tfrc mavw in rhe crrstal wrrh an angel 

standing n'karbv. polnr~np ro its quarts with a wind: Keilm then read hem off to Dcc. who made r cup ofthe matrix tor 

their own Iam use. Manv such "tables" were wnsm~ttcd bv the anpds: the sm called the "hii d Enoch." ior example. 

compr~d fortv-mne tables. tach hwng forrv-nine rows and fortv-nine columns. Lrltimattlr.. ;lr leasr twcntr-ax cu~nplerr 

books of tables and tuct wmc dicund ro Dce and Kellw bv the quits. 

Almp with the ~Mcs. the onpels dimtcd lo* lists of vocnbubrv words. each list followed bv a passape II~ running text 

thar used the ww&, much likt an tmv-dav elrmmrnrv lanpuapc hn. Durinp this proms. Dec otten asked mme 

pcnctratlnp quat~m conccrninp afixcs. scrurture. simibririer k nod kwcm wards rw pm af words. ctc-: he a1nj asked 

for and obtained ttpctiuons of thnps he Id nor heard right w queaimcd for mne reason. Ca~aubbn pim pap alter page 

recounnng th~s amnrlne lin~uaric fewarch. for all rht world like o series of mwrrlls kta.m a field lingu~st rnd h13 n~tivt 

intwminrs. 

Deacon I 1968 r provides the tbtlowiap dewip~on of the war* runntnp text was dictated: -'Each oi the tables whrch Krllrthad In hont of him conrrsad of a large square subdivided into hm-nine br forty-nine small squares. each contilrntng a letter 

oi tk Enothian alphabet. Thcsr lcatrr arcre in opparentlr random or&. Kelkv wouid lobk tnto the crrrtill and we the 

angel polnurig to arse rhcsc rdl quam in a rcpllca of the table in the m~al and =wid call our-sor. 4D ias in map 

rdinp). Dce would find the square in his ubIe and wrlrr down the rtkwnt lam. . . . The mult wzs a wnuncr in 

Enochirn wrikn backwards. It is olmm impossible to klim rbt rhb could br faked. cspeciallv when one remembers thar 

there were ninnv.cight tables to chow fKnn fw menwritiq, if one w~r frkinp it." (pp. 150-1 5 1 1. In Comuh's account. 

individual words are clearly shown wtimn backwards iwirb rhc last I~CT fitst). and the ardrr of words in each sentence or 

paragraph mt u n untr is also backwards. m thar rhr kt word Mnt is the first word olrhe pssa~f as it ro bt read. Figures 

43.44. and 45 show the nlphkt and mme ampla of Ehinn mcr: lit mv k notd that ccrrpin kacsr rbar appear In 

rhc rcxr arc not rrprcsmted in rhe ol~hakr. a facr which is nowhm trpla~ncd in the Iwrces 1. 

Enoch~an. accardinp to Deacon. is umqut and diflermr from anr ocher Cnbaliulc hnpuape or map~cal svstern. m it rs hard 

to m how ~t could have bnn pIapiai5ztd from anr other watt writinpz. Robert Hookc. a promlnenr ~c~ntccnth-ccnturr 

mentist and a mmkr af he Ro-1 Socltrs. held the view chat Enochian war ti ti ally a mpptopaph~c and esphonagt 

device. like a code. Deacon claims that Enahian is a ha fidc Ia~uapt. ad can be learned with me difficultv from Dee's 

unpublished manuKtipts (e.p.. Ljbn rM,v~c~immm, Slonne mr. 3 188. British Museum 1. and from hubon-s book I l 6SLl I. 

Thr Rosicrucian Order of tht Golden Dawn IEnpland. 187'1) Pdopted Eno~hian and mpld ic in their rim. The reader 

mav vaifv for himself in the samples shown in f?purer 44 and 45 hat wards having i constant mcnninp are repeated =ah or 

w~chout additionr: "OD". '*andw: "CHIS". "arc"; and "ICHISGE*'. "are not"; "CALTSGI A)". "rht earth"; 

"CHRISTGOS". "In thm k" nc. Whrtmf its rckvancc to rbt Voynich manusmpt. this arnuinp account of rcrcarrh Ln 

held Iineuirucs amonp the dmlzms of the qrit world deserves a careful study by modern psvcholia~uins and bixorronr. 
Chapter 10 

Collateral Research: Early Herbals and Materia Medica 

f kc hum! of fierbd~. kany. and meria rncdica is a major area of stud! which no snrdmr of tht Vovn~ch manuxript 

can afhd to Ipnm. Ar we have ytn in Smions 3.3.1 and 3.3.2 ah. many rr~tirchtrs haw made viporuus artempa to 

link thc herbal and pharmmtial drawings to tbe in ahcr medieval and RrnPIsmnre medical works. with lirrlt success. A 

numbrr of pood penera1 wwks on early herbah art available ro rhr ~rudent : Arkr 1 1953 I. Rohdr I ! 922 1. and Sinrrr 

( 19271 cwcr rhr hirrorr of earl! khl in pmcral, with a mmg emphasis on Old Enpluh herbals: Biedermann 1 lll'? 

provides o larpe colcccion of beautiful illusaarions uf mrlr branid. magical. and medical drawln~s as well iu a crner.11 

trcPmrenr of these topics, Cockaqne 118661 ad Graaan t 19521 cwer the Anpb-Saxon kkls rcrr complcrelu. ~nd alr) 

trace heir hsmv and mrm. Exdent rratrncnfs of the hismv of mdicine mav be found in Sinprr I 1928. 1962 r. TarIor 

I 1922). and Tharndikt. t.1963). wble .Thr~&~LIS)23-58) .prowdm exrensive detail on the wwk of ~lad~ridual phvs~cianr 

amonp whet xla*. Tihn 11 968. pp. 1 1-1 3 1 piw a hef but v~' useful &mh of the earlr h~stav t,f hcrhls and 

botanical illustrarian in rehion ta the srudv of the Vech manuscript. The following survev. drawn from rhne wrurres. 

whik hiphlv abbrcviartd. mar rmc to induce the rdcr to the sub and in lircramrc. 

The euiicst kginniaps d botanical drawinp and description are to be found in Greece. as is rruc ui HI much oi W'rstrrr~ 

learning and phii~phr. Aristotle was said to have writ& a trratirt on planm; this wt~k war apparmtlr ltut at a relattvrlj 

mrly date. and was not among ;he works of Gruk learning pwrd br. the Moharnmcdans and transmitted tn mtrlrtv~l 

scholars thrwph them. Aristwlr's pupil Thcaphranus of Eresus. however. produced a work whlch served as r source ior thc 

Grak "rhizwwnW I"madiggmV. fraqucndp ignoran~ ad supcncruau eat- d dcid plants who were the 

pharmPcirrr. physicians. d mdd suppliers of their day). In the fint EenKury B.C.. a hirhly taimd and unusuallv 

krraed mmkr of this class of rhizaomisrs namd Cmmw ewnpilcd aa hdd oontaining the firw known xt of plant 

drawinp. Crrauu f 132-63 B.C.) was phyidan m Midaridam VI Eupator. kng of Pontus in ha Minor. His htrhl was 

illustrnnd with picturn apparmtly drawn wich peat care and artiurq from lift. tach accompahicd bv a brlti dcxrtpr~un ut 

the medicinal cffclu and u~s of lt plant. 

While no manuscripts of Cnrmas' work have survived. a revision or exmm of it has hen prc~mcd. with somt oi the 

wipinal draw:ngl. in the ,Ilurcnk tMedicrr Libn Quinqme of Dioscorida Anazarks. a pht-sic~an attached to the Ruman 

Armv in Asia durinp tht first centurr A.D. (Thoscotides 191591. Diwcwidcs' tm and mnv ul the draa-~nes war 

reprodud in r beauuful manumipr hcrhl presented in A.D. 512 toluliana Anraa. dauphrrr ofa Roman Empcror: thr, 

manuscript. called the Juliana Anicia Codex. is prtKmd in Vim-. and a pan of a facsimile mar. be seen. arrordinc to 

Tiltman r 1968 I. in the Garden Library of Pumhmn Oaks. Bidemnn I 197 2 1 and Sinpcr 1 1917. 1928 prov~de A 

numb of illustntions of [hest exquisite drawings. whose lifelike and artistic quality are judged bv txpem to far exceed char 

of man!. if not most. sub~umt herbah &I into the Middle Apcr In spite of itr mlv dam. the Juliana Aniciil Cudex thus 

conxirum a mior hiph pnt in th* him? of COTIF hwhh. mched by ftar othm for manv centurlcs therealter. 

The first known herbal in which phnu wtrr described in dphakrieal order was that of Pamphiliu. compiled around 

A.D. 100. Manv cprh herhlr olro emplod an dm~w amnnpcmmt dcaiinp with phnu In an Lrrarcd br. the bod\ 

prt to which their medicinal cffm pruid. urdv ~tnrtiap at the head and ftntrhin~ at the kcr. Plinv the Elder. In bs 

Nsrurah Hima (AD. 77) earnpiled o massive mcvclopedia compririnp thinv-seven bkr mriap all the natural sciences 

of rhe dav. This collmion of mapical and superJririour bctiefs. 01d Wives' mltr. mvrhr. and ,ohauolu cancerninp bads. 

btasts. plants. medicines. rnmis. minerals. and a ha of other qcr was preadv influmtial in tht Middle Apes. An herbai 

bad on Dhor~dn' long-lid wwk rm compiled bv Aptletus lor "Pseudo-Apuiclur". ar he is frquentlv called to 

distinguish him from rht aurhor of The Urn Ass) abwt A.D. 400. This work. Tbe Herhmm of Apuietu~ P&~ORICYJ. 

kame one d the most widely known and copied of the tarlv hcrbdr: it sunid in some fwm inw the late Middle Aws 

and Renaissance. and was among the first illtutrard printed htrhlr. 

Aside from he abwe.mmtiamcd "hi~h-spm" and a few bther influenaal works. there war hale miri~l CMCB~C~ on 

pkaao. and almost no amp to mdr a draw phnr life from nnmrc. or to make anv ob@ve. mrpirical wial of medicinal 

cffms after the fashion of the modern henust. The Gd hcrhls urd hit Lmtin aanrlaaons were copied over and over 

again. their drawinp kominp more and more &bored and dutd in the prm. The names of the plants. and rhr spats 

oripi~llr- illunraml. were of course those of the Mediterranean reeion a of Asia Minor: ancient and mcditw1 hsbatius -- 

Ktm never w haw redired or undmtd that wv different plan~ prcw in different places, The names. often drawn from 
drd I# -ibund an~tnt knguapts. and muched in ancicnr forms that were no lonper understood. were careiutir iuplcd 

along with the drawings. 

Thr nwnkr in fnpiish Concimd mmonawrler dtd the bm rbev could ta mauh the parbled plcrurrs of foreign planrr 

nnd rhrrr -E aomn ogPiart the flora of their own mastery pardms and cm~nuvridc. A a ornult of thnt effom. Ionp lists 

of sw- Fa ptPw n- in VWWW hnp- were mpikd ad attached to the h&b to me as ~LoIsP~~~s. One 

crnm help wdtriap how mny padem lm heir Iivrs rhrouph the inwitable miri&ntifrcakn of poisonous plants 

u drid - Sidm ( 19&, p. 185) rum up Che state of affairs in his discussion of rt# H*rm of Apukius: *rth 

implimt fi&fit ob & dern -6s he pma to it as tn insrancc of wa a kmnd years of slavish mpr.knp 

applied rn "a fuilr -k with irs unrccop~lz~blt fipurcs and itr incompheruiblc ~ocPbularv". 

The bun and vrrnambr h&b of drt Wes wm &us. for the mast pnrt. simply umdarioar w compilations ui the 

Gmk works. A trttn ttalulnaoa of Diw~orldts' herbal kme the baas fa mane lam medieval herbals. T k Oid English 

hcrbrls haw km inrmr6~iy adid br ddnrJ. ad arc of pnrtintlu inmew burr of the aunv pnmitivr ppan survivib 

the* me. in mwe ar Inr supaficidy .Cbriramid form. T& Lmb Ed of Bdd ( Ropl 12D. British Mum m j. IS 

wn d the rttlirzr mad mar ~IIRWA d he Ow Euplirh herbals. datiw fnrm the tenth ccacurr; it prtrcnrr manv exampla 

of prpn ma#iEPI +h ad pctim. tnriv khI r#ercrving man survivoir is T6c ~CWII~R#. ah dating from r)tt 

pmch mcu~ ltfnrkian 585. Bra& Murewp). A Sum translarim of the H&#m of Apleius mmt in manv copla. 

and another Sax* tr~tulaljon of a wwk of the bktnron medical tradition in Icalv. dtd Pr*i Dhon. hh dating from 

rfir rhrh mt?;rv, were alro hiphlr iaflmud imq early Enelirh hcrhls; m Grattm and Sinper ( 1852). Cockrvnt 

1 1866). and Srmmr ( 1948). ad m ah Ihc brd discussion in -on 9.4.2 of ppnn charms from the earliew herMr. 

Sinper 119281 aaar the history of borPnicnl illur~ason in some derail. Durinp chc Mddlc Aws. a rtlau~-clr smll 

numkr of dds a aPdmElrcr of phnz iPusmtion ume imo existence. Mast of rhe drawinps were hiphlr. srylhed and 

diapmmrtic. produced with link a no ehOuphr of observing nature at first hand or ewn of revising dmiL from pcrw~l 

kllowkdv which must often hawe ronrradid what the compiler saw in cht sourm he was copcillp. A fCw noubie 

exctpiom prwidc ~omc nlief from the stmot@ rip~diq of most plant drawinp in medieval hahis. A tarin manuscript 

from Bun 9. Edrnudr in the rnlfrh antur?. ladudtd romt mcnraluur drawinpl amow a mrjoricv of udirionnl copies. 

The mpik app.dv did his kt rn idmtiiy the ancient and prrbkl fipm of hip phnu in tus Iourccs with The 

plPm in his pdm: wfrm he sucmdrd. he atached thr locPl plant name to r coped &awing. Where he could find no 

mah fw an Ewluh planr among the drawinps. ht mdt a new one rn fill the pp. The rtrh~on ot phnt drawings reached 

on amcmc in the thimcarh centuru. ding w Siapcr. when rbw deteriorated iaro pewncrrica1 forms riridlr enclod 

within a #old frame. Alh Mapnus I A.D. 1206- 1280? 1 iduded in hrr mcvclopedic works a semion called "On Plnna". 

mmpikd from a hido-Ari~lorriirn wlc. ad Alhs is did with wnm first-hpnd ob#rvation of the natural oblcctr 

with whKh he dealt. 

In prcp~rinp herbal as well ar other rmnwcripa it was the prrnicc of rhe medieval scrik or copvirr to leave a space In rhc 

mt of each pua~foph fm a hawinp. urdlr of a rh.pr and sin mhiq tht correrpondinp picture in he source he was 

ropnnp. The illuminator tbm suppiid the picturn if the patron w owner of he manuscript had the moncr to afford them. 

Sinprr kkr a mior "dvmtap" lfm our mh pint of view) to the illurnimwr ovrr rhc scribe. in that he former 

mhti~thr ~dcuned. ud rhu fncr from thr rtifliap ripdirits of tradition kndinprht mibt to the pt. For this ream. 

Sinw iudm Iht figures in lomc mrdrcvd herbah m k in idvance dthe tern in nnturdism ad armracv, and ~es in them d 

frerhtr and livdin qnrit. tke iilumirucorr mndt mrne mempc w &ow local @am ratk than qri~ the mtminplcss 

aotic wipids in tht aacieat rwrm. In mmc rola. the hdm left by he Icribt wcrr never filled (prclumabir. kau~ the 

omm mn out of monev kfm he d hire tbe Knim of m iHuminsmrl: ram* tfKv were filled much hur wirh 

pimm of P different ure w shape that dd not fir imo dw spocrr well. It is interesting to contrau this common rnedicr.al 

prha. whmbv a Pcrik kh spmm ro k filled later and sepatclr bt an iUumimm. with rhc integral compnltion or 

dmwinp~ ad an in rk Vwh mnumpr. 

Ah the low pnt re& durlnp the ttric~ecnh cmwp. bl ill~~trerirn increased in ~turalism and bcaurtthroufiwt rhe foumcmh .ad fiknrh mturitr (at kt as pdpcd by the modtrn aha). Some he metiiffa1 herbals 

afe matklcbk for the lik-like and misic qualie d their dln~ons: reproduced bv Sin- ( 1928) are mal examples zn 

which ilucns (a drapmflv. bmlcr. c.terpillPn. nc.) arc shown lirriap an the plans. al1 represented In a srvk almost 

indifinpuirhabk ar the cprual cre from a + modern drawinp. Among rhr kacr iUustrati~ are the kautifui woodcuts 

(mk bv Ham Weidin) in Otto BrunfeIs' H&mm Vilw Li~~lle~. compilcd in 1530, The omr. unfmuna~eiv. is far 

the hd stt bv the pctum; copled from the durable bcrbPI of Diwmridcs. it dariks meditcrrarmn plants - 

compkalv incoruismt with the k1 phnu in rht drawings. from tht Rhine region in Gamanv. A width ropicd work 

Chapter 11 

Concluding Remarks: Some Suggestions for Further Research 

In dorinp this monograph on the Veih manuscript. 1 would -iikt to suggest some line alonp which tuture wwk cm the 

problem might pfitablv h dimttd. These supptions include efforts aimed at pathering mm dara CII molvr ume oirhr 

mnnv unknowns In the problem: and efhs dmpnrd a, achieve n mwt rjpaous. complete. and scimrii~c ~nalrsis ut rhe JJ~J 

we now haw. 

I I .1 PaleograpbiE sad Otbcr Scientific Studies of the iltnusc+iPt 

In rnv opinion. it ir of pmav imptam that the inks. pipmius. snd vellum of the manuscript bt ttmd and examined 

~itntifiallv and compared !a thwc of ocher musirips bv pdcqraphm ad an hisrorions: and rhat the ppe of the 

mnuxript be studied u& spar1 liphung and otherwise trd to king up tram of erad. faded. or ilkpible wratinp. As 

far ar 1 haw bccn abic to discover. no such mearch has mr km carried out. Funher. there arc no current phns on the pdrr 

of the at own- ot ~hr manuscrip lthe &intcke Fibrarv at YaLel to make anr such mdies In the near futurr 

Nmmkleu, only studies such as the can ofkr mr hope of ~nurfactoy anmcfs ro wnr. ui our qutstlons. Thcv cuuld turn 

up cruaal new inlormanon that rnipht eompldv ata the complexion of the problem. I hope that some pmmt or tuturc 

dem will be aMt to arouse inltrtlt in a efir phrrid itudv of the manu~~ipt. obmin fundinp far it. d set thr 

ey wheels in motion to mplish the ruearch and make its rtrulu known to whtr mdmrr. If mr reader ot this 

mono~raph knows of rnv wctr scientific dwdicr olrtody carrid out on the manuscrip I hopc he will intorm me of them. 

1 1.2 Uncovm'ng More oj ;hc Munu sm'pt 's History 

As we ww jn Chapters 1 and 2, Wilfrii M. Vopnich rudd in ftmdng our a considerable quanun. oi uKiul and 

interming information about the histmy ad previous owwhip of the manuscript. In his historical sketch l Vovntch 192 1 rhc indid mmny promisinp leads for whtrr w pursue. Ewv known or suspnwd um ot' the manuscript should be 

te~atchtd in depth; renewed anmpu should be rnodr to lmte cmpdcntc. libtarla. and other collrct~ons ot papers 

pertaining w or brlonpinp ro these propie, and to d down an\* referem to the manurnapt and atremps to dccapher it. 

Sorncon* should &nly p to hrt the Villa Mondrrpone or aher placer what papers ad manuserip once srored thae 

might now k prd. in the hopc of finding-ddirioaal rcrords dating to the manuscript (for example. naes made br 

Arhanruius Kirchcr or by the unknownApreviour owner who wrote to ICIrchtr about thc mpfiumiprl. The arch~vcr of 

Rudolph's Gurt at Prague shad alw k a promirinp mm of mnpondencc or mrcs roncerninp the manuwnpr. 

Bockptound slcuthiap of this nature is -in to provide us with at leaa a few nw nuppca of iniwmat~un that cuuld 

mawform the problem or. tt least. duct the dkrapinp numkr of unknowns that now confront us. 

11.3 Collaterol Researcb 

While all the molt obvious sourns have appuendy been examined. as well er some more okure ones. In search at' 

Wblt praklr to tbt Voynich #xt ad dmwim. it r611 worthwhile m keep np the hunt monp lul well-known and 

ks adble swrces. I Meve that alchcmr wriunps. in parliorlu. dtravr ck amtion. since rhcv may not have been m 

rhoroughly studied bv Voynich maiusmip mwrctmr as have khl. medical. and arttolopicnl sources. More attentton 119 

miv qpographic writings of he f-ch rhrouph rhe ~lmecnth ccnturim mipht dm richlv ttpav our efforts. In tact. J 

dmrrn~ncd. thorough. and pinscaking nmmpt to search throu@ manuscript callmions and tarlp pr~ntcd bmks on almosr 

anv of rhr wpln skcwkd in Chquers 8 aid 9 of this monograph could 5611 rutn up a new and illuminat~ng bit of evrdencr 

for a studcnt specifidv =chine for a pallel rn he Vovnich manuaip. It seems to me hiphlv unliktlv rhar the Vornich 

monumipr scribtls) and illumi~misl nmr wm or drew anv other work in heir lives: rhcrc is always a hopc of findln~ 

wmcwhere a drawinp d similar style rht mipht Rive us a cluc to their identity w piace oi oripin. w another xrap ot tcxr In 

the Vovnich script among someone'r paprrr. 
1 1.4 A ~ompwhwsiva lrfdcbine File of tba Text 

In Chap 6. we saw thrt -1 obomvt rmmp rrrtr de w cam wr ampuar audis oi the cetirc curpur ui 

vomih mt. Om ob rhc rpproridp 250- cfunaar of oan in tk m~alucrip mwr nudcnrc have dcd oalt dl 

wmpkr n&q from MOD tn 21.000 chtrrerm in I-. Clrricr &I ddt with the Jar* rmehinc sompIcr of 

m* dent. and hi^ aramiption alphakt appur lo k the mwr: &ice 6a mrchiae ~#prroin~. (1 ~Pw discarded 

mvm trramipioa in fworofcutrin's. in Ipirrofthefmrhmt Ifirdaldy piadsmat 19.000chanctenofltwtoa 

~~~~orll~kfon1crmtu~dcuikd~obbrr~)FuherPmrom

conwrduaofcbrtlrrirrmra~pd~hrsd.irprcPcnodiaFhe~CdkeaonucbcMv~hll~m~n 

bia#ma Vhm. wilere i is n# cprilv Icr#sibk #r mou &a. 

It would k of pt v.lur. in my opinion. ro hve r compkrr machine file of the carp. in Currier's mrucripclm. ad 

ia~IPdinp ~dcnrifia& ob "had." "hpqs." ad the .ppttmr su@ murrr f hab.l. phawlicd. -id. erc. 

o~rilurmaha~wbiEh~hm~lobr~~~fiaat.Thisbikeooidkdpsakfaa 

+idr~ofrrPdia.w~informrnpd~b~eoaarai~tbrlea.dntpbn~~thrimpmn? 

"haad" ad "hnRuyc ' phmomell. dW.b Clutia ar dl or ather arpam. Smalla. carchllv #Id sampicr mu1d 

kamntdfom~nuirecwpurfaan~Epacifcplrpo6c. 

11.5 Sci*ntific HypmtbaJis Fotlaotioa mr) Testing 

~~hcwrhtrhrornrrtof~#m~kbusdonpll&rbn~hnrmrlu. donacwcfmlmdvdtheenrart 

eorpur of tar tnor bsr onr mom w a fm paps kr ad thee,. The hom should Plso rake iruo account ad rtternpr 

to crplun all Iht ckuh dmroarrnred @ ah mmrchm tTilrmm's "k@aniap-middltdnp" arumre; 

Curria's "hnp@ ad "W: tht pmrPaainfl of "&. ca.1. Fiull?. tkt hW Jbald be cmskenf 

wich.dkrr~m~~a~whrirlclrmadPbe~.~d~of~msnlucriprieDcff. laddicim.1 

hnlr n hid mmmia nor jmmh-kr set dak~ve lbroncJ dur ~cmcapbleoIe*pbiainpallorr 

lwpe put of thc dam. Having m up such a My of rcOrolubk hm- we lhoold dnipn "expmmtno" bed on 

~lmpdeJ~y~imm~ewirr~~rlllrrdtreenriklo~poar~~ioar~~radu~plr

~~obovt~:ruapkrslrchrhrtrt~u#mp~~adbcoo6rmcwfid~rhcarrain~wdulvmoamf. 

fhir march rill. dnemriro. dm imok pdd din of mr is tran. in amin ah mmrd I.- w in smkrc 

~VP ofwh m 

in CfK 8bKnaafulvaik purlle1tms.a ahcrbmLsimIhroext via nmcrdordhteddora.our arlr hopcut 

~linia.nadrrt~dewpcrrmr~k~wtbr~bodrofrwPnd~rbt~darpntuvt.inrhrs 

~r.prrhoprmeraromrdr~*dumrwkrriunrhort~fnry~d*ppropruamcuwill&frJl jurcictmrhc 

3rpmr mipa ofthe Vmwh muserip. 
'THE MOST MYSTERIOUS MANUSCRIPT IN THE WORLDu 

THE ROGER BACON Cf PHER MANUSCRIPT 

(BACON, ROGER 3,) Cipher muacript on dm Text wxitten in a secret hp\ 

app-tly based on Roman &us& chancteq irregularly disposed on the paga. 

102 leaves (of 1 16; lacks 14 leaves), including 7 double-folio folding leaves; 5 triple 

fc-lio foldingleaves; and one quadtuple folio folding leaf. With added signature marks 

(OF* XVtb or XVIth century), and foliation (of the XVIth or XVIIth cmturv) 

1-11,i~58,65-75,75-90,95-96,99-108,lil-116. With about 400 drawings of botonid ,mbjq including many of full-page sh; 53 drawings of mtrologid or 

astronomical subjects, plus abut 550 single w*; and 42 (biological 2) drawine most of which indude human fi-. The drawings colomd in aevemI shades - 

of gmn, bronn, light yellow, blue, and dark red. Luge BVQ (e 230 x e. 1 60 mm.). Old 

limp vdlnm cow (now detached). Fnom the libraries of John Dee (?), the Empemr 

Rudolph I1 (reiped 15 76 -1 6 1 1); Jacobua . . Honicky (Sinapius) de Tepenea; Joannn 

M- Marci of Gonland (1 66 6); Ahuius Kircher, S. J.; and Wiikd M. Val-nich. 

Accompanied by an Autograph Lttta signed by Joanna hw,p-ting the book 

to Athanasius Kkhm. 

No place or date, (XVth centu y, or earlier?). 

An enigmatic mdad mmep~ WW far w fwty ~sllr has baffled tht dohn and crypt+ 

grrph~~whoh.++~~~~went~~it,It~bbmttrmedbyPmf

M.Mdy,Wbgrmdemd~~dit,%t~~muraPOiptiathe*rwld." 

Fig. 1.-Eag fnr tbc Vqaicb Manuscript from H. P. bus Cadg 

-fmrr-lw~ 
Fig. 2.-Lena Fd wiPb fbt Manuscrip 

rfa 1%~) 
REVEREND AND DISTlNGLrfSHED SIR: 

FATHER IN CHRIST: 

This W. bequeathed lo me bv an inurnace friend. I destined for 

vcu. rnv vrh dm Athnsius. as swn as it cam inro mr poserston. 

fw I was convinced it could bt read br no om rrccpt vounclf. 

The form ownrr of this book once asked vwr opinion br hr. 

mpvinp and diq mu-a pwnmof rhc hk horn which he klieved 

vou would k abk lo read the remainder. but he at thar dme refused 

to KI&IX book id f. To ia decipherinp he devoted unbi np toi t 

ar is appmcnr from arrcrnpuof his which I rmd YOU herewith. and he 

rtlinquhhcd hopc onlv with his life. But his toil In vain. fur such 

Sph~nrcs as thew oh no one bit their mamr. Kirchcr- Accept mw 

rhil token. such as it is and lonp overdue though ~r be. oi mv afftccrtln 

far vou. and burst though in ban. if rherc art on!. wirh vour wonred 

success. 

Dr. Raphael. tutor in the Bohemian ianpuape w Ferdinand 111. 

then Kinp of Bohemia. cold me the aid Lmk had klonpd to the 

Empar Rudolph and that he prcrcnrcd he bearer who brwphr him 

tht book 600 ducar~ He bcIirved dw rudm war ~&cr Bacon. the 

EnpErhmsn. On this point I surpmd iudprment: ir is vour place to 

define for us whar'vicw I~C should mke rhmon. to whwt favor and 

kindness I unmtfvcdh mmmlr mywtf ad remain 

JOANNE5 MARCUS MARCI. 

of Crdand 

PRAGUE. 19th Aupust. 1665! 

6c 

Fig. 3-T ramsladm d Lcrrer 

ITtLmun 1%81 
Fig. 4.-Lin of folio Nmh lad Apporcat hbim Marter 

( Fobtion of Pamm Ph-py 

FolioNa 

Ir 

1v-I I\- 

112) 

I jr-Ttr 

17r 

4% 

57r 

5 8r.v 

5 

b5r.v 

btw 

6b6frl.vl 

67rL 

bfu2 

68rI.v I 

b8r2.vl 

-3 

bHv3 

W.C. 

tDt 1 

Ithi 

?Or2 

'It 

*lv 

'Ir 1 

'hl 

72rl 

7lvl 

?lr3 

t2v3 

73r3 

73v3 

Fob Na 

(74) 

75r.v 

76~ 

76v-84~ 

15/86r I 

85/&2 

85/&3 

851864 

85/86v 1 

85/s6vl 

ary~6v3 

85/lbv-5 

CI1/86vS.v6 

87r.v 

Ur-v 

Wrl.vl 

Wr2.v2 

90r 1.v 1 

Wrkr2 

191-92, 

93r-96v 

Wr-101~1 

lOFl L6r 

116%. 

- . 

lhcripioa 

text only: I1 1 (2) 

kbr 1 

renpl 

hcrhl 

r2) 

rl) 

rmmdopd: (1, 

larmlr 

l miuinp t 

h&l 

mm~r: 11)~21 

htr bal 

uraonomira1 

onronumid 

comdqlol 

astrmmmial 

a#rmmiwl 

ucroa~micoI * 

-rial . 

CWIAOW 

b COS~~~UP~ 

ad.: Arm rdark 1 

d.: Puerr 

ad.: Arm (light! 

ad. : Tawus 4 liphr I 

ml.: Taurus tduk r , 

uaol.: Lko 

-1.: Grmini 

aml.: Virgo 

rstrol.: Cancer 

ml.: LC0 

arrrd: Srorplo 

am].: Sqmariur 

IkKriptiaa 

imiuinpl 

human figures 

mxrdr 111 

human fipura 

text onlv 

mrmolgiml 

mofmm~e 

nnofra~trrs 

net of rams 

mof ro~tles 

c~rm~~opi~il~ 

cormoktp~ral 

mrt unlv 

hetbol 

phor-d 

phrrmprmticnl 

pharmaceutical 

fmhl 

hcrbol 

r mirunp) 

herbal 

~maccurlral 

axr onlr. wrs 

(11 121 

I 11 Km-like ~qumrcl 

I 2, Tar in cxuancour m:pu 
Fig. 5.-Sornc hlls from Herkl rad Phum.autie~1 F oliol 

tlla~aCa.-)- 



I 'a. 4L1, '\ 

Fig. 9.-Details from Herbal rod PbPrmrewrical Folios 

(hhmftoa.;.'Tdl 

Fig. 11.--Groupiagr of Humaa Figures in Artrologid hwings 

89 

Monrh 

April + 

April 

Mar 

., hIat 

Junt 

Folio 

?lr 

70h1 

F 

'Iv 

r 1 

Sum 

15 

1 

I 5 

I 5 

.Zi) 

Sip 

Aricsilightl 

Aria idarkr 

Taurus 4 liphr J 

Taurus 1ddrk1 

30 

31 

o 

sr I 

,;I) 

41) 

2~ 

Center) 

Third 

s 131 

n. hilt$ 

Rinpr of Fi~urrr (From 

First I Stcand 

'I (11 I0 111 

all c all c 

5 111 

n and c 

5 llr 

n and c 

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all r 

9 131 

all n 

7Zr3 

72q3 

7Ivl 

72vI 

t3r 

7 3~ 

74 ! 

-4 ! 

7oVl 

1 l r \mica1 

72r2 

10 111 

nrndc 

tt) t 1) 

nadr 

10 $.%I 

n. hats 

I6 131 

4 c. rest n 

Cancer 

Lto 

Virgo 

bbra 

&;lo 

Sa~llfar~u~ 

Capricwn 

Aquarius 

P~s~J 

"cans" r 21 

-7--- 

Gemtnt 

12 i31 

n. hilu 

4 151 

all n 

i 131 

all n 

July 

August 

September 

Ocrubtr 

Nuuemkr 

December 

januarv 

Ftbruarr 

March 

7 (31 

n. hats 

12 131 

all n 

I2 131 

dl n 

10 131 

n. hats 

10 r31 

ali n 

10 131 

all n 

miuinp 

11 131 

n. bar1 

IS 

all n 

18 (31 

a11 n 

13) 

n. hats 

I6 131 

all n 

16 0) 

all n 

n = naked 

horironral "cans" 1 3 I nu "cans" 

missing 

10 421 

n. hats 

c = clorhtd 

19 111 

n. hats - 
Fig. 12.4mpings of Emu inhtmnomicpl and Cwmobgieol Folios 

90 

7 Foiio 

b?r-I 

b7u l 

h'r? 

bTv3 

bar 1 

6nv 1 

bllr2 

68~2 

~~lr.4 

6% 

bY, 

k 

?or l 

'Url 

Hl/Wrl 

~5/86vj 

5 

rnw -. 

sun 

8-polnd 

scar 

sun in squaw 

ILO~K 

rnmn 

nunc 

wn 

mam 

ran) , 

34 ( I7 double 

rays) 

8 wurds 

4 mPlpe. 

tat spun 

au fdd 

29 words 

I6 (8 double 

rays) 

JU~ field 

14 words 

8 (4 douk 

 PI'S) 

~r 44 phr12 phro~s 

12 muons <, 

and phrnm 

i ccnrrifu- 

$d mu 

sun at top 

moon blow 

16 two sets 

of81 . 

mo~l ar top 

run brim4 radial 

phto~s 

4 radial 

6-pd 

star 

U-panred 

Xar 

6-pnd 

scar 

sun( ? I 

sun 

mm 

wad pin 

45 pip 

------ 21 phr01~6 

58 cells 

8 rubdivi. 

sks 

4 $puts 

------ 4 parapaphr 

4 human 

fipurcs 

4 star KUI 

6 hers 

28 piper 

and wads 

6 ~~rds 

8 xpmu 

4 qdrantr 

i male5 

from cornerr 

5 frorhv 

rinpr 

7 words 

8 phrases 

1 2 paraeraph, 

I I phrases 

9 arpvcs 

.. 

I 

I 

'1 radial 

words 

I 
- 

Folio 

7% 

7k 

76v 

771 

nv 

78r 

78v 

7 9r 

7% 

80t 

80v 

81t 

8iv 

82r 

82v 

83r 

e3~ 

84r 

84v 

AU 

Fip 

14 

29 

5 

4 

7 

15 

9 

7 

4 

16 

I2 

13 

16 

15 

7 

5 

4 

33 

15 

F-k 

14 

29 

4 

3 

7 

15 

9 

7 

4 

IS 

I2 

13 

16 

IS 

7 

5 

4 

33 

IS 

-1 2% 227 3? 

W.lc 

- 

- 

I? 

I? 

- 

- 

- 

- 

I? 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

Su bgroupingr 

2mbr:wp,8kwm6 

2mh: top 10. bwom 19 

sad 

s&tmed 

~~mrrd 

2pls:tap7.bottom8 

oae big mb with 7 "windows" 

samd 

Kpased; 5 0nhah ah 

3 rowr: 10.4.3 

ramcml 

2tubr:eop7.h6 

oae big mb 

4 -; ll in luge pwl 

d 

Kuerrtd 

smterd 

3 tubs; 12.10. I1 

2 tub: tup 7, boaom 8 
Idwml LUCIFER BEEMOTH WFICI 

World IEVIATHAN -AT& 

lNFlDELES 

Fig. 14.-hmt Mdirnl Taka d mpadtnar: 0- TWM. Thre# 

tLL*rld4k~IWA~ 161m 
F-4r0 tar -. 

Fig. 15-Dttrib Foiios from ~bkanudc~1 ad "Human Figure" 

93 
Fig. l&-Camp.riw~ of V+eh Spb~b rad Euly Arabic Numetab 

INdhlaCmirol HiB LOlll 
Fig. 17.--Comparison of Vgnieh Symbols wf L laria Abbrmiauons 

(b -u*prd Lrm Clrplh IIWW 

'prr 

Vgnicb 

~bol 

C 

m 

rn 

m 

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r/ rl 4sv-mal - 

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aw 

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9 9 mrmmm I' If -mbrus 

I 9 7 -Ins. -* -Isv * proper 

Similar Lana Abbmiatioo 

F cum. con 

n. ci, ai - co. quo 

m cp 

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symbol 

2 

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Similnr Latin Abbreviation 

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9 rc 

4 -a 

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Two Ekments TkttUtlncnta 

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Fig. m.0- EmkUiW ad Vh Fwu dVW Spbob 

gs 
Folio 66r 

Folio 66v 

fig. 21.-hi& Shaming Fngmunr of Writing ia Enrrncow Scrip 

94 
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"Key" Sentences. Folio 1 16v (Pbn~opv) 

mulk h +ccr cerc port*; 

Ndld's Sd Wing [Newbold 1928. p. 108 1 

Fig. 23.-Same Different Llcodine d FoPo L 16v 

101 
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Fig. 27.-Tiltma's Diviriolr mf Common Wads into "hs" and "SufCixes" 

ITdmW l9¶ 1 1 
.

~

Fig. 28.-Monographic Frequency Counts of Some Students

106

Voynich Currier Currier

Symbol ,L LanguageA Language B Krischer D'Imperio

(Herbal) (Herbal) (fo.l03-116) (Herbal,

, I Astronom.)

Af- 290 257 233 368

0 2249 1373 729 3389

884 1250 406 1333

, 1231 1529 464 1893

"2 205 151 41 425

663 496

I

250 (all) 1005 < 531 495 201 (all) 971

c:t' 1315 i 752 376 1373

415 . 289 93 557

"tf 516 376 187 734

75 108 47 '

, 154

tf : 595 801 267 I 865

..p' 21 63 6 i 53

ctti 165 51 13 !

, 266

M 42 12 7 I 49

86 100 15

I

106

#-c 7 9 2 29

.6, 900 1085 546

I

1470

(,. 769 1390 730 1094

t 16 I 8 2 I L, 216

or.. 4 1 0

"" I iJ .. 835 1 0 0 ,167

1tJ.R 0 0 0 I Sf 23

I,) 22 45 35

I u. 689

II? 8 24 11 j"-c 12

!If? 3 2 1 i

/-: 2 ,} 38 3 4 0 'v 82 73 38 I 7

/I,) 22- 286 153 It 3 11/,) 18 22 0 36 .-

-If 78 99 23 ' 1 13

'If 6 5 I ! ",.,. 1 1 1 ,

/lIt! 0 0 0

c1 13 7 1 I

Jf - 5 - 5 11 I

liP; 2 t ...... . - ..- -"' ""

!

- Totals 11709 11168 4896 18137
Fig. 29.-N ames of Fifteen Fixed Stars

107

Hermetic (Festugiere 1944-54) Agrippa (1970) Hermetic (Festugiere 1944-54)

Aldebaran Caput Algol Acharnahar

Alchoraya Pleiades Aldebaran

Caput Algol Aldeboram Hayok Alhaiot Hircus' Ascherhe Aljemaniya Alhabor Canis Major Jed Algeuze

Algomeisa Canis Minor Rigel Algeuze Cor Leonis Cor Leonis Sobel

Ala Corvi Cauda Ursae Ascherhe Asschemalija Alchimech Alaazel Ala Corvi Cor Leonis

Alchimech Abrameth Spica Lion's Tail

Benenays Alchameth Alramech

Alfeca Elpheya Alahzel

Cor ScorplOnis Cor Scorpiofi1s Centaur

Vultur Cadens Vultur Cadens Vultur Cadens

Cauda Capricorni Cauda Capricorni Mouth of Southern Fish
Fig. 30.-Sutioar of tbc Mow 

108 
I 

Zodiac bW, 'Hemeuc Gptic 

Sign (ILoauo Taw) (20Ct3m&) . WQ&) . 

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Fig. lo.--&& Sdhcr~or's 6de 

6 f9~ -24311 
I 

3%"9arrt? "Indian" chams to make 

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d 

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C~MI from 8 -th Cmcury "Grimoire de la Cable" in rhe Bibliothiquc 

Fig. 41.-Some bgical Spells ad Invoe~uow 

119 
Pig. 42.--- Alebrmy Symblr 

<- 1W) 

6 wbm-. 8 e 

Coppr-= 

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.+ 

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s, 89 

slot 
Fig. 43.-Tlo Yfial &ligh Lsn#or#es 

1U 

Fig. 45.--Aaotbtr Sample offwebian Text 

IGuh 1639. p. 203) 

[ThelbmorefY dJ lrolP*JpluktdS. 43naotapl.lsall 

) 

One =son 

Itt it confound 

another 

and 

kt there k 

no creature 

upon. 

m 

within ha 

the same. 

A11 

her rnrmkn 

kc them differ 

in their qualities 

ad 

krtherek 

no one mature 

~qud 

with mother. , 

Thc reasonable ma. 

turc of rhc emh; 

oc man. 

let thm vex 

and wd out 

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OD 

CHEUSTGQS 

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A SYMP 

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OD FIFAU 

LS MNAD 

t 

YARRY 

ID OIGO 

OD 

TORZULP 

I AOD AF 

GOHOL 

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T ABAQRD 

S AANIR 

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TI OBL 

BUSDIRTXLB 

NOPAID 

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OD ad 

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EL UP TILE 

PARM GI 

PIMP SAX 

OD 

To rht providence 

of him that sinerh 

onrhcHdyThront 

d 

-Up 

in tk bcgianin~ 

rryiap 

thr ah, 

let ha k governed 

k hct pwm: 

and " 

In rhm k 

dt vision 

in her 

that tht %my of 

kt 

may k 

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in irrlf. 

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kt it tun 

with the Heam, 

and 

TA 

QrnIST 

BOOAPIS 

PI 

pn handmid 

Inkmrhrm. 
Biblio~raphy

I It has be:ensucj:e:ue:dto me:b\ .t (ll1It'iI.&:ul: chileI should .Idd .t notl:to this blbho&:r.1ph\. tdhna.: \\ht'rl: tht' b"d., :11,1\i't

ti'und, Must of the: bcKlksmOl\'be:obtai ne:dt'irhe:r from the: Libriln of Con~ress Iindudin,&:rhe: Rart' Hook Room j, \X'.Jt'lIl:r

Libran at Harvard l' nlvcrsm'. or the: Main Libran ilt Cathu/it l 'niversin', Some are recenr reprints whKh I saw In thl: YI:~

Hookstore in Washin/[tUn. D,C The: purpose of this biblio,..,.aph,' is to make the: /iterilture ilS a(.'Ct'ssibleas possible:tI>am

serious student of the Vo\'nich milnuscript; hence I ha\'e provided intilf'matiun on currenth. available reprints and t.t(.

simile editicms uf some older WClf'ks,Personal communications and other unpublished materials arl: prc:ser\'ed III.1(ll1I1:(tIOIl

of VCI\'nlchiana. and ma\' be:examined b,' arran~emenr with me:.)

A,l:rlppa. Henn' C"rnehus. I1)"'0.Op~rtl. Lond"n: ~I')31. IReprinteu II}"O. I . Aa:rlppa. Henn' Cornelius. I()')I. Tbr~~ B(IO!ti(If Ouilil Phil(IJoph\'. Trilnsliue:d b,'J. Frenth. Lonuon.

A,l:ulrre:,. Respaldila. Andres, 1')3'5. R(lxn-I(lr &icon. Baree:luna-Buenos Aires: Editorial Ltbc,r S..1.

Alberti. Leon BattiStil. I'56~. O/'lIScoli .\lorali. Edited b\' C. Bc:rtoni, Venella.

Alessio. F. IlJ')7. .\lilfJ ~ Sci,nZil In RuxxnfJ BrlcfJne,Milan: Ceschina.

AlessiC/,F. IlJ')9. "Un Seculu di Studi su Ru~~e:roBacone , I~4~-llJn)." Rer'ls/~ CriliCil'"~StfJrlil Jellil Filo.lfJ(iu14.

Allen. Dun Cameron. 1941. Tb~ Sl6r.CmsseJ R,nllisSilnclI: Thll QlHlrrlll AhfJIlt AnrolfJ/o' tlnJ It.; II,tl"~I1"" III E"::/uI'J.

Durham. North Carolina: Duke Fnivc:rsin' Press,

Allen. Thumas \'('illiam. 1MH'). ,-':(lllIi (III Ahhr~r'iali(IIIS II' Grllll!t .\ltlRllScrlp/J. ()xfurd: Clarendon.

AlstUn, R. <.. It) )(). Trl!tltlSI!Jfill SbfJrthtlnJ. Leeds: Printed fur the author b,' E..J. Arnold.

Altick. Richard D. 19')0. Th~ SeI}(I"'rA"r',nturerJ. ;\;ew Y"rk: Macmillan.

Arber. AJ:nes,It)').;. Hl!rhaJs.Their OriXlnIInJf"fJJUllfJll./ 47lJ-J 670, Cilmbrid~e:The:rni,,'ersin' Press.

AshbrClok.Joseph. 1966. "Ro.~er Bileon and the VCI\'nichManuscript." Slit IInJ Tl!lescape (April!. pp. 211'i-21 'J.

Ashmole. Elias. 16')2, Theillrunt Chelllicum Brilllnnicum. London: Nath. Brooke. cReprinted Hildesheim: 1<)b'J I

Askham. Anthon,.. I')4Ha. An AI"""",clt,a Pro~noslicacyon. London: W, Powell.

Askham. Anthon\'. I')4Hb. A Prnnoslicacion .\llUie forlhe Yn,.,\lDXLVIlI, Londrm: W, PClwell.

Askham. AnrhoO\', I OJ')0. A Liltl, Hno,,/I of Ih, Pm/,nlles of H,rb,s. London: W, Powell.

Askham. AnthoO\'.\1 ')<;2.A LYlel Treatys,. nf Astronomy. London: W, Powell.

Askham. Anthon,', I'5,).~.A PJ'fJ.I!"OSIICillioll f"r tbl! Yn,. .\lCCCCLIl/. London: W, Powell.

Arwood. Man' Anne. IIJ<>O.Hftrllletl,' Philos(lphy IIn" Akht!ntv, :\iew York: Julian Press.

BanlO. R,,~er. 16')9. De .\llrllhili PfJllISllIl1!Artis III Natllrall. or FrIar &i,;on HIJ" Discm'l!rI' nl tl1ft .\lirtldl!.; 0'- .irt, -'.lIIlI','

,m" ,\IIIXIC".London.

Bawn. RoJ[er.16113.~nlnris .\Ie"iciRlle,\III]!lstriRfJ.I:n-1D. &zcunisAn~1i"e Arte Chyml"e Scrl/,III.Frankfurt.

Bawn. RoJfc:r. 16M" Tbl! Cure of Old AXil, tin" PreSn'lWIIORof "(flUlh. Translated b\. Richard Browne. LnnJun: Prlntl:d

fur Thu, Flesher and Edward Evers. .

Hawn. RoJfer. 11:1')9.Fr. Roxeri Bacon O/,erll QuileJalll HacI,nus In,dilil. Edired b\. John S. Brewer. London. Grc:c:n,

Lun~man and Robem.

Bamn. RoJfer. I ~lJ3. Lellre sur leI /,radixes "e '" ",,'ure et de'tart. Translated and commented b,' A. Poisson. Pam:

Chamuel.

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131
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