NASA/TM—2015–218480 

A Validated Task Analysis of the Single Pilot 

Operations Concept 

Cynthia A. Wolter 

San Jose State University Research Foundation 

Brian F. Gore 

NASA Ames Research Center 

January 2015 

 
ii 

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iii 

NASA/TM—2015–218480 

A Validated Task Analysis of the Single Pilot 

Operations Concept 

Cynthia A. Wolter 

San Jose State University Research Foundation 

Brian F. Gore 

NASA Ames Research Center 

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration 

Ames Research Center 

Moffett Field, California 94037

January 2015 

 
iv 

Acknowledgements 

This research was funded by the Concepts and Technology Development Project of NASA’s 

Airspace Systems Program (NASA POC Dr. Walter Johnson). The authors would like to 

thank Dr. David Foyle from the HCSL at NASA Ames, the SMEs Rob Kotesky, Bill Preston, 

and Vern Battiste for their invaluable assistance identifying the likely SPO tasks, the entire 

SPO research staff from the FFDRL, and all reviewers for their insightful comments and input 

on this document. 

The use of trademarks or names of manufacturers in the report is for 

accurate reporting and does not constitute an official endorsement, 

either expressed or implied, of such products or manufacturers by the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 

Available from: 

NASA Center for AeroSpace Information NASA Center for Aerospace Information 

7121 Standard Drive 7121 Standard Drive 

Hanover, MD 21076-1320 Hanover, MD 21076-1320 

(301) 621-0390 (301) 621-0390 

 
v 

Table of Contents 

List of Figures ............................................................................................................... vi 

Acronyms ...................................................................................................................... vii 

Executive Summary ...................................................................................................... 1 

1.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................2 

1.1 The Task Analysis ............................................................................................ 2 

1.2 Current Day Operations .................................................................................... 3 

1.3 Single Pilot Operations ..................................................................................... 3 

1.4 Single Pilot Operations Background Research ................................................. 3 

1.5 Single Pilot Operations Candidate Roles .......................................................... 4 

1.6 Research Objectives .......................................................................................... 5 

2.0 Method .................................................................................................................... 6 

2.1 Scenarios ........................................................................................................... 6 

2.2 Task Representations ........................................................................................ 10 

2.3 Concept Verification and the Impact of SPO on Operator Roles and 

Responsibilities ................................................................................................. 12 

2.4 Role and Responsibility Considerations ........................................................... 13 

2.5 Task Count and Workload ................................................................................ 14 

3.0 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 17 

4.0 Future Research ...................................................................................................... 18 

5.0 References ...............................................................................................................19 

Appendix A–F. Task Decomposition Spreadsheets 

A. Current Day Nominal ......................................................................................... 21 

B. Current Day Off-Nominal .................................................................................. 25 

C. SPO Hybrid Nominal ......................................................................................... 30 

D. SPO Hybrid Off-Nominal .................................................................................. 33 

E. SPO Specialist Nominal ..................................................................................... 38 

F. SPO Specialist Off-Nominal .............................................................................. 41 

Appendix G–I. Micro Saint Sharp Task Groups 

G. OBP-Centric Nominal Mode ............................................................................. 45 

H. GO-Centric Nominal Mode ............................................................................... 48 

I. Dedicated Assistance Mode ................................................................................ 49 

 
vi 

List of Figures 

Figure 1a. Denver approach (nominal) ......................................................................... 8 

Figure 1b. Divert to Cheyenne approach (off-nominal) ............................................... 8 

Figure 2a. Nominal SPO operations ............................................................................. 9 

Figure 2b. Off-nominal SPO hybrid Operations ........................................................... 9 

Figure 2c. Off-nominal SPO specialist operations ....................................................... 10 

Figure 3a. Task decomposition spreadsheet example ................................................... 11 

Figure 3b. Micro Saint Sharp task network example .................................................... 11 

Figure 4a. Current day nominal task count ................................................................... 15 

Figure 4b. SPO hybrid nominal task count ................................................................... 15 

Figure 4c. SPO specialist nominal task count .............................................................. 15 

Figure 4d. Current day off-nominal task count ............................................................ 16 

Figure 4e. SPO hybrid off-nominal task count ............................................................. 16 

Figure 4f. SPO specialist off-nominal task count ......................................................... 16 

 
vii 

Acronyms 

ASL ............... above sea level 

ATC ............... Air Traffic Control 

ATIS .............. Automatic Terminal Information Service 

CA ................. Captain 

CDU .............. computer display unit 

ConOps .......... concept of operations 

CRM .............. Crew Resource Management 

CTA ............... Cognitive Task Analysis 

DA ................. Dedicated Assistance 

FDDRL .......... Flight Deck Display Research Laboratory (NASA Ames Research 

Center) 

FO .................. First Officer 

ft .................... feet 

FY .................. fiscal year 

GO1 ............... Ground Operator 1 

GO2 ............... Ground Operator 2 

GO3 ............... Ground Operator 3 

ILS ................. Instrument Landing System 

NAS ............... National Airspace System 

NASA ............ National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

NextGen ........ Next Generation Air Transportation System 

OBP ............... On-Board Pilot 

PF .................. pilot flying 

PM ................. pilot monitoring 

PNG ............... pilot not flying 

SME ............... subject matter expert 

SPO ................ Single Pilot Operations 
1 

A Validated Task Analysis of the Single Pilot Operations Concept 

Cynthia A. Wolter1 and Brian F. Gore2

Executive Summary 

The current day flight deck operational environment consists of a two-person 

Captain/First Officer crew. A concept of operations (ConOps) to reduce the commercial 

cockpit to a single pilot from the current two pilot crew is termed Single Pilot 

Operations (SPO). This concept has been under study by researchers in the Flight Deck 

Display Research Laboratory (FDDRL) at the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration’s (NASA) Ames (Johnson, Comerford, Lachter, Battiste, Feary, and 

Mogford, 2012) and researchers from Langley Research Centers (Schutte et al., 2007). 

Transitioning from a two pilot crew to a single pilot crew will undoubtedly require 

changes in operational procedures, crew coordination, use of automation, and in how 

the roles and responsibilities of the flight deck and ATC are conceptualized in order to 

maintain the high levels of safety expected of the US National Airspace System. These 

modifications will affect the roles and the subsequent tasks that are required of the 

various operators in the NextGen environment. The current report outlines the process 

taken to identify and document the tasks required by the crew according to a number of 

operational scenarios studied by the FDDRL between the years 2012-2014. 

A baseline task decomposition has been refined to represent the tasks consistent with a 

new set of entities, tasks, roles, and responsibilities being explored by the FDDRL as the 

move is made towards SPO. Information from Subject Matter Expert interviews, 

participation in FDDRL experimental design meetings, and study observation was used 

to populate and refine task sets that were developed as part of the SPO task analyses. 

The task analysis is based upon the proposed ConOps for the third FDDRL SPO study. 

This experiment possessed nine different entities operating in six scenarios using a 

variety of SPO-related automation and procedural activities required to guide safe and 

efficient aircraft operations. The task analysis presents the roles and responsibilities in 

a manner that can facilitate testing future scenarios. Measures of task count and 

workload were defined and analyzed to assess the impact of transitioning to a SPO 

environment. 

 

 

1

 San Jose State University Research Foundation; San Jose, California. 

2

 NASA Ames Research Center; Moffett Field, California 
2 

1.0 Introduction 

When dealing with complex system redesigns such as the proposed Single Pilot Operations (SPO) in 

the National Airspace System (NAS) in the United States, it is necessary to evaluate the impact that 

the redesign will have on the roles and responsibilities of all of the agents operating within the 

system. This analysis can take many forms, including empirical simulations of the environment 

experiencing the complex redesign, semi-structured task analyses of the redesigned environment, 

and / or computational modeling to generate predictions of the impact of the redesigned systems on 

the baseline operational environment (among other approaches). In order to fully understand the 

effect that new system designs have on the system performance, and on all of the agents within the 

system, documenting the tasks that are currently required for the safe operation of the system and 

comparing this baseline task analysis with the tasks required in the redesigned system provides 

insight into potential problem areas for the redesigned system. The objective of the current research 

was to conduct a task analysis (iteratively validate/refine sets of tasks) associated with likely SPO 

environments to measure the impact of transitioning to SPO from current-day operations based on 

the simulations being completed out of the FDDRL over the past three years. 

The current-day flight deck operational environment consists of a two-person Captain/First Officer 

(CA/FO) crew. A concept of operations to reduce the commercial cockpit from the current two-pilot 

crew to a single pilot is termed Single Pilot Operations. This concept has been under study by 

researchers in the Flight Deck Display Research Laboratory (FDDRL) at the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration’s (NASA) Ames Research Center (ARC) (Johnson, Comerford, Lachter, 

Battiste, Feary, and Mogford, 2012) and Langley Research Center (LaRC) (Schutte et al., 2007). The 

ARC FDDRL research focuses on air-ground integration issues, while the LaRC research focuses on 

flight deck design issues. Both the ARC and LaRC research teams foresee that transitioning from a 

two-pilot crew to a single-pilot crew will undoubtedly require changes in operational procedures, 

crew coordination, in use of automation, and in how the roles and responsibilities of the flight deck 

and Air Traffic Control (ATC) are conceptualized in order to maintain the high levels of safety 

expected of the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS). The work consisted of: conducting a detailed 

task analysis of candidate FDDRL scenarios, refining existing current day approaches to reflect the 

roles/responsibilities of proposed SPO entities, and augmenting the SPO scenarios to include 

responses to off nominal scenarios using the full implementation of the augmented number of 

ground based operators. In performing this work, the task analysis team reviewed relevant literature, 

interviewed subject matter experts with active commercial aviation 

1.1 The Task Analysis 

A task analysis is the process whereby the tasks to safely fly the aircraft with automation are 

analyzed, documented and outlined (Kirwan & Ainsworth, 1992). The task analysis is a 

methodology covering a range of techniques to describe, and in some cases evaluate, the humanmachine and human-human interaction in systems. It is often described as the study of what an 

operator (or team) is required to do in terms of actions or cognitive processes to achieve a specific 

system state. Typically, it is characterized by a hierarchical decomposition of how a goal-directed 

task is accomplished, including a detailed description of activities, task and element durations, task 

frequency, task allocation, task complexity, environmental conditions, necessary clothing and 

equipment, and any other unique factors involved in, or required for, one or more people to perform 

a given task (Kirwan & Ainsworth, 1992). 

One type of task analysis, the Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA) identifies all of the critical cognitive 

tasks that the operator is required to perform with the automation (Diaper, 1989; Zachary, Ryder, & 
3 

Hicinbothom, 1998). CTA is a family of methods and tools for gaining access to the mental 

processes that organize and give meaning to observable behavior. CTA methods describe the 

cognitive processes that underlie the performance of tasks and the cognitive skills needed to respond 

adeptly to complex situations. Knowledge is elicited through in-depth interviews and observations 

about cognitive events, structures, or models. Often the people who provide this information are

subject matter experts (SMEs)—people who have demonstrated high levels of skill and knowledge 

in the domain of interest (Klein, 2000). The CTA is a complement to traditional task analysis as it 

adds the capability for designing for the unanticipated by describing the constraints on behavior 

rather than solely describing the behavior. These approaches feed into a concept-verification phase, 

where the research concept is verified by a human-system engineer, and preparations are made to 

implement the results from the task analyses into a model form (Gore, 2008). 

1.2 Current Day Operations 

The traditional roles of the cockpit operators are defined as Captain (CA) and First Officer (FO) 

roles. The CA is the main pilot of the aircraft and the one who remains ultimately responsible for the 

aircraft, its passengers, and the crew. The CA sits in the left seat of the cockpit. The FO is the second 

pilot of an aircraft. The FO sits in the right-hand seat in the cockpit. One pilot is designated the 

“pilot flying” (PF) and the other the “pilot not flying” (PNF), or “pilot monitoring” (PM), alternating 

during each flight phase as necessary. Even when the FO is the flying pilot, the CA is in command 

and has legal authority of the aircraft. The amount of time either pilot is in control of the aircraft is 

near equal in normal operations, as the PF designation is passed back-and-forth throughout any 

given flight. In typical day-to-day operations, the essential job tasks are distributed fairly equally but 

final decisions always remains with the CA (pilot-in-command). Some have defined the shared roles 

in the cockpit as being Aviate, Navigate, Communicate, and Systems Management (Billings, 1997). 

Modifications to the manner that this shared cockpit is implemented might be necessary in SPO. 

1.3 Single Pilot Operations 

In SPO, it is entirely possible that multiple operators and entities will be required to guide the safe 

transport of the aircraft (Johnson et al., 2012). In this proposed distribution of roles and 

responsibilities in the SPO environment, a division of tasks between 9 entities will be explored: an 

On-Board Pilot (OBP), Ground Operator 1 (GO1), Ground Operator 2 (GO2), Ground Operator 3 

(GO3), each with their own operator-specific automation (Flight Deck Automation, Ground 

Automation 1, Ground Automation 2, and Ground Automation 3), and Air Traffic Control. In this 

SPO iteration, the GOs would be fully trained pilots capable of flying the aircraft alone in the event 

that incapacitation of the OBP pilot. Three experiments conducted by the FDDRL will illustrate the 

basis for the scenario-based tasks that were included in the task analysis and the manner that it was 

created in an iterative fashion. 

1.4 Single Pilot Operations Background Research 

In the first SPO study conducted by Johnson, Comerford, Lachter, Battiste, Feary, and Mogford 

(2012), pairs of pilots were asked to complete simulated flight segments in each of two conditions: 

Co-located, and remote. The pilots were purposely presented with a critical situation that required 

problem solving. The situation was one in which the crew encountered severe weather during their 

flight and needed to divert to an alternate airport. Scenarios added complexity to the diversion task, 

such as the amount of fuel onboard to support planned or unplanned diversions and system failures 

such as anti-skid that required the crew to recalculate landing weights and distances. 
4 

The co-located condition required that pilots work together in a two-person flight simulator, a 

scenario that corresponded to current-day conditions. The remote condition required that the right 

and left seats of the cockpit be placed in different rooms, a scenario that represented one version of a 

SPO concept. The crew in the remote condition version of the SPO concept was allowed to 

communicate freely, however they could not see each other, observe each others' body language or 

point to information like weather cells on the navigation display. The interaction of the crew would 

be impacted by this change to SPO and part of the current task was to identify how the tasks would 

change as a function of such SPO operations. 

A second SPO study evaluated the use of Crew Resource Management (CRM) indicators and shared 

charts to aid both ground and air-based pilots’ communication and to enhance collaboration 

(Lachter, Brandt, Battiste, Ligda, Matessa & Johnson, 2014). Along with nominal, current-day 

baseline trials, pilots were separated as a distributed crew, with the CA on the flight deck and the FO 

on the ground, serving as dispatch with limited support to the OBP for multiple company aircraft. 

The concept of requesting Dedicated Assistance (DA) was also explored, both with the assistance of 

automation (CRM tools) and without. This study also presented a situation in which the pilots 

encountered severe weather that necessitated a diversion to an alternate airport. 

A third SPO study focused on the transition between actively controlling multiple aircraft to actively 

controlling a single aircraft during dedicated assistance (see Johnson et al., in press). Two crew 

configurations were studied to identify the optimal allocation of responsibilities. In the SPO Hybrid 

condition, one GO performing dispatch duties to the distressed aircraft, along with other company 

aircraft, would transition to a dedicated assistant (ground-based FO) when requested by the OBP of 

the distressed aircraft. Their other nominal aircraft was automatically handed off to other GOs. In 

the SPO Specialist condition, a Specialist GO was waiting, on call, for a dedicated assistance request 

by an OBP of any distressed aircraft. The distressed aircraft was then automatically handed off from 

the “dispatch” GO to the Specialist GO. 

1.5 Single Pilot Operations Candidate Roles 

A review of the requirements in the above-described studies augmented the 2013 task analysis of 

SPO scenario manipulations (Wolter & Gore, 2013). Finer level of detail and validation came from 

subsequent interviews and collaboration with SMEs (C. Wolter, B. Gore, V. Battiste & R. Kotesky, 

personal communication, January 30, 2013, and May 16, 2013; C. Wolter. R. Kotesky & W. Preston, 

personal communication, April 22, 2014). In this paper, we explore the differences between a 

nominal SPO flight and off-nominal SPO flights that require DA, all of which begin with the same 

flight plan into Denver. In nominal operations, the OBP would be in sole control of decisionmaking and flying tasks, only relying on the GO for dispatch information and communication with 

maintenance and company personnel. In off-nominal operations, the OBP can request DA where the 

GO becomes a ground-located FO. 

In this case, PF and PNF designations would vary between the OBP and the GO, with possible 

multiple mid-flight reassignments until the OBP releases DA. Most settings and radio 

communications would remain solely PNF responsibilities. Current CA specific tasks would remain 

the same and would always fall to the OBP. Both human operators would continually monitor 

instruments and radio communications, as well as perform crosschecks when notified of a change 

via voice or automation, and verify that the environment is consistent with their internal schema. 

Due to a “separated cockpit”, automation will play a large role in notifying the OBP and GO of any 

changes so that either could verify without undue radio congestion. The current mode of Dispatch or 
5 

DA would determine the type of automation available. In the DA mode, automation would notify a 

human operator if their ground or air-based counterpart had made changes such as: radio frequency, 

altitude, heading, speed, altimeters, computer display unit (CDU) inputs/executions, entering/exiting 

holds, approach mode, speed brake, landing gear, touchdown zone elevation, or flaps. In the 

Dispatch mode, automation would monitor the GO for conformance and notify if an aircraft needs 

assistance or has not been checked up on for a specified period of time. Automation will also notify 

parties of emergency situations when an aircraft reaches flight-based touch-points, such as when an 

aircraft passes below 18,000 ft. Advancements in automation may relieve the human operators of 

some tasks such as getting the current Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS), setting 

altimeters, loading expected arrival information and clearances from ATC. A major notable 

difference between the current day and the SPO environment is the shift to ‘communication-cued’ 

crosschecks (verbal or automated) rather than ‘movement-cued’ crosschecks that occur in a shared 

cockpit. Automation will need to account for these overt and covert characteristics associated with a 

human “good crew member.” Automation that mimics the characteristics of a “good crew member” 

can lead to increased efficiencies; which in turn lead to increased spare capacity to deal with 

unforeseen events. 

For the all SPO flights analyzed, there is a task decomposition of two candidate roles and 

responsibilities for the ground operators. In the Hybrid off-nominal condition, a GO who is serving 

as dispatcher with limited OBP support to 10 aircraft, will hand-off 9 of their aircraft to other GOs 

when DA is requested by an OBP of a distressed aircraft. They will then perform both dispatch tasks 

and FO tasks for the distressed aircraft. In the Specialist off-nominal condition, a GO who is serving 

as dispatcher with limited OBP support to 10 aircraft, will hand-off a distressed aircraft to a 

specialist GO when DA is requested by the OBP of that aircraft. The specialist GO will then perform 

both dispatch tasks and FO tasks for the distressed aircraft. 

1.6 Research Objectives 

The objective of this research was to iteratively validate/refine sets of tasks associated with likely 

SPO environments to measure the impact of transitioning to SPO from current day operations. The 

tasks identified in the task analysis are linked together in a string of both sequential and parallel 

nodes. These nodes represent networks that can then be used to analyze different scenarios and task 

assignments for their impact on workload, efficiency, and safety. Possessing such task analyses 

allows researchers to explore the degree to which the location and roles of pilots (co-located or 

remote) impact the ability of the crew to work as an effective, separated, two-person crew as 

compared to a co-located two-person crew. Potential SPO ConOps were measured by task count and 

task workload to assess the impact of the transition. 
6 

2.0 Method 

For the current research, task decompositions that included both the task analysis and a semistructured CTA of six scenarios (described below) of a planned approach into Denver starting at 

37,000 ft Above Sea Level (ASL) with the crew operating under (a) current-day rules, (b) SPO 

Hybrid rules, or (c) SPO Specialist rules, were completed. Each rule set was tested in either nominal 

approach to land or an off-nominal condition requiring the dynamic replanning of an alernate airport 

was completed. The task network analyses are represented with task decomposition spreadsheets and 

task networks. 

2.1 Scenarios 

Scenario 1a. Current Day Nominal: Instrument Landing System (ILS) approach into Denver 

runway 16L. 

The first task analysis scenario began before the top of descent at 37,000 ft ASL, near the 

YANKI waypoint. The crew included a CA and a FO. For this flight, the CA had the role of PF 

and the FO that of the PNF. CA/FO specific tasks are noted (see Figure 1a and Appendix A). 

Scenario 1b. Current Day Off-Nominal: Planned ILS approach into Denver runway 16L with a 

diversion to Cheyenne runway 27L. 

The second task analysis began before the top of descent at 37,000 ft ASL, near the YANKI 

waypoint. During the descent into Denver, a severe weather hold was initiated at LANDR at 

17,000 ft and the crew discussed and decided on their alternate landing points. The crew 

included a CA and a FO. For this flight, the CA had the role of PF and the FO that of the PNF. 

CA/FO-specific tasks are noted (see Figure 1b and Appendix B). 

Scenario 2a. SPO Hybrid Nominal: ILS approach into Denver runway 16L. 

The third ask analysis began before the top of descent at 37,000 ft ASL, near the YANKI 

waypoint. The crew included an OBP, a company GO (GO1), flight deck automation, and 

ground automation. Two additional GOs, their ground automations, and ATC are also 

represented in the analysis. The OBP was always the CA of the flight. The GOs each monitored 

10 aircraft, provided limited support, and primarily performed dispatch duties for their assigned 

aircraft. The GOs were available for DA support but DA was not initiated in this scenario (see 

Figures 1a, 2a, and Appendix C). 

Scenario 2b. SPO Hybrid Off-Nominal: Planned ILS approach into Denver runway 16L with a 

diversion to Cheyenne runway 27L. 

The fourth task analysis began before the top of descent at 37,000 ft ASL, near the YANKI 

waypoint. During the descent into Denver, a severe weather hold was initiated at LANDR at 

17,000 ft and the crew discusses and decides on their alternate. The crew included an OBP, a 

company GO (GO 1), flight deck automation, and ground automation. Two additional GOs, their 

ground automations, and ATC are also represented in the analysis. The OBP was always the CA 

of the flight. The GOs each monitored 10 aircraft, provided limited support, and primarily 

performed dispatch duties for their assigned aircraft. The GOs were available for DA support, 

which was requested by the OBP of “NASA01.” GO 1 then released their other aircraft to the 

other GOs and offered dedicated support to NASA01 until DA was no longer needed and 

released by the OBP. During DA, GO also performed dispatch duties for NASA01 (see Figures 

1b, 2b, and Appendix D). 
7 

Scenario 3a. SPO Specialist Nominal: ILS approach into Denver runway 16L. 

The fifth task analysis began before the top of descent at 37,000 ft ASL, near the YANKI 

waypoint. The crew included an OBP, a company GO (GO 1), a Specialist GO, and their 

automations. One additional GO, their ground automation, and ATC are also represented in the 

analysis. The OBP was always the CA of the flight. The GOs each monitored 10 aircraft, 

provided limited support, and primarily performed dispatch duties for their assigned aircraft. The 

Specialist GO was “offline” and available for DA support but DA was not initiated in this 

scenario (see Figures 1a, 2a, and Appendix E). Because DA was not initiated here, the task 

assignments for this scenario are fundamentally the same as Scenario 1b above. 

Scenario 3b. SPO Specialist Off-Nominal: Planned ILS approach into Denver runway 16L with a 

diversion to Cheyenne runway 27L. 

The sixth task analysis began before the top of descent at 37,000 ft ASL, near the YANKI 

waypoint. During the descent into Denver, a severe weather hold was initiated at LANDR at 

17,000 ft and the crew discusses and decides on their alternate. The crew included an OBP, a 

company GO (GO 1), a Specialist GO, and their automations. One additional GO, their ground 

automation, and ATC are also represented in the analysis. The OBP was always the CA of the 

flight. The GOs monitored 10 aircraft, provided limited support, and primarily performed 

dispatch duties for their assigned aircraft. The Specialist GO was “offline” and available for DA 

support, which was requested by the OBP of “NASA01.” The GO then released NASA01 to the 

Specialist GO but retained their other aircraft. The Specialist GO offered dedicated support to 

NASA01 until DA was no longer needed and released by the OBP back to the GO. During DA, 

the Specialist GO would also perform dispatch duties for the distressed aircraft (see Figures 1b, 

2c, and Appendix F). 

 
8 

Figure 1a. Denver approach (nominal). 

Figure 1b. Divert to Cheyenne approach (off-nominal). 
9 

Figure 2a. Nominal SPO operations. 

Figure 2b. Off-nominal SPO hybrid operations. 

 
10 

Figure 2c. Off-nominal SPO specialist operations. 

2.2 Task Representations 

Due to the complexity of the operational domains, two task representations were created to convey 

the details associated with each approach-to-land rule set. This breakdown was necessary given the 

complexity of the tasks required to safely land an aircraft and to illustrate the tasks that shifted from 

the well-established and safe concept of operations to the new concept of operations. Possessing 

such a breakdown allows a baseline operational standard to be compared with a next generation set 

of tasks. These representations of the tasks include a task decomposition spreadsheet and a task 

network model representation. 

1. Task decomposition spreadsheet. The task decomposition spreadsheet is an ExcelTM listing of 

the tasks and their sequential location per entity. The task decomposition was created to 

describe each task and operator roles in a more detailed, organized, in-depth manner to 

illustrate the task flow and the operator responsibilities. This complex representation of the 

task network allows for a more evolved understanding of both the malleable and rigid 

associations between tasks (see Figure 3a). 

2. Micro Saint Sharp task network. Micro Saint SharpTM is a platform for visualizing the task 

network linearly and identifying trouble spots where there is an increased task load due to the 

proposed SPO environment. By creating validated task groups, a fluid reorganization of task 

orders for analysis based on a given scenario can be developed. A difficulty level to each task 

could be assigned to better understand which tasks are suitable for redistribution to another 

human operator or to automation (see Figure 3b). 
11 

Figure 3a. Task decomposition spreadsheet example. 

Figure 3b. Micro Saint Sharp task network example. 
12 

2.3 Concept Verification and the Impact of SPO on Operator Roles and 

Responsibilities 

The task analyses were performed to determine the task differences between the current day and the 

proposed SPO descent and approach to land phases of flight, in addition to the changes in 

procedures when the crew is given divert commands from ATC regarding specific significant events 

(e.g., airport closure). Specific variables of interest included the number of communications, 

amount/role of automation, number of crosschecks and their impact on crew coordination. The 

analysis process began with a pre-existing current-day task analysis of a descent into Denver as well 

as a Divert to Cheyenne due to weather including entering and exiting a hold, deciding to divert to 

Cheyenne, and to safely land the aircraft. This was altered to represent the tasks required when 

operator roles are modified in the SPO environment with an OBP, GOs, operator-specific 

automation, and sometimes a Specialist GO (see Figures 2a, 2b, and 2c). This preliminary 

representation of significant event scenarios was populated through direct observation of the first 

and second SPO studies (Johnson et al., 2012; Lachter et al., 2014), observation of, and participation 

in, the creation of the third SPO study (see Johnson et al., in press), SME evaluations and interviews 

(C. Wolter, B. Gore, V. Battiste & R. Kotesky, personal communication January 30, 2013 and May 

16, 2013; C. Wolter. R. Kotesky & W. Preston, personal communication April 22, 2014) and 

published reports of anticipated NextGen tasks and operator errors (Gore, Hooey, Mahlstedt, & 

Foyle, 2013; Gore, Hooey, Haan, Socash, Mahlestedt, & Foyle, 2013; Gore, Hooey, Haan, 

Bakowski, & Mahlstedt, 2011). 

The most insight into the NextGen SPO ConOps was gained through active participation in the third 

SPO study design meetings. The ideas developed through this iterative simulation development 

process were fed into the task analysis. Reactions to the Hybrid and Specialist roles from the 

participants from the third SPO study were also used to further refine the analysis. The task analysis 

completed in FY14 follows the proposed ConOps from the third SPO study, and presents the roles 

and responsibilities in a manner that can facilitate generating future FDDRL testing scenarios as well 

as provide insight into the most efficient use of the crew resource as roles are reassigned. 

Specifically, the 2013 task analysis was augmented to include a more complex divert scenario based 

on a specific scenario also used in the third SPO study (see Johnson et al., in press). The previously 

explored single pilot-on-board role and responsibilities built upon the SPO first-of-its-kind task 

decomposition (Wolter & Gore, 2013) to define and incorporate a completely new entity (operator 

and operator role) based upon current dispatch operations. 

Gaps identified in previous task analyses were filled by first creating new task analysis spreadsheets, 

including new entities, tasks, roles, and responsibilities being explored by the FDDRL lab. Multiple 

iterations of the analyses revealed potential for improvement through task allocation to a different 

entity. After final scenarios were chosen and populated with high-level tasks, the tasks were refined 

and decomposed through comparison with SPO-concept reports, and a series of SME interviews. 

There were three interview sessions conducted where three SMEs (one current CA, one former air 

traffic controller, and an ATC specialist) reviewed six spreadsheets of very detailed tasks and task 

orders to represent each scenario. The spreadsheets were organized by altitude and airport distance 

for the primary aircraft (NASA01), human operator tasks (PNF and PF) with CA assignment, 

automation tasks, and ATC communications. Using SME input, the task decomposition spreadsheet 

was modified to be more representative of the proposed SPO environment (see Figure 3a and 

Appendices A, B, C, D, E, and F). 

An alternate set of roles and responsibilities for the crew, that focused on the impact of greater 

reliance on automation, both on the flight deck, and on the ground was created through SME 
13 

interviews. The preliminary analysis revealed a large increase in the number of tasks to be 

completed in the newest proposal of SPO ConOps, which indicated that on-board pilots and ground 

operators would need extra assistance from automation if they were to maintain a similar level of 

workload as previously proposed in the SPO ConOps. 

Both representations went through a series of edits to create both an accurate representation of a 

current-day environment, and a task distribution capable of representing a future SPO concept. The 

tasks were expanded into higher-level task groups or events such as Weather Rerouting, 

Maintenance Issues, and Gate Connections. These tasks groups were then entered into the Micro 

Saint Sharp program as individual networks, providing a flexible means to create new scenarios and 

identify problem areas by evaluating the task count and the workload (defined below) associated 

with the group (see Figure 3b and Appendices G, H, and I). 

A number of operator specific task groups for the GO are addressing maintenance issues, delays, 

security threats, customer care, and the complex dedicated assistance change in role. The nominal 

handoffs during a shift change, off-nominal Hybrid handoffs, off-nominal Specialist handoffs, as 

well as the handoff that occurs once dedicated assistance is released has been represented in the 

present analysis. In this representation, automation has been delegated the following tasks; 

crosschecks, notifications (for both OBP and GO if there is an issue detected such as noncompliance with the issued clearance), reminding (e.g., complete landing checklist at a certain 

altitude, execute new clearance, check on aircraft passing 18,000 ft, or “have you checked on this 

aircraft lately?”), and logging flight deck activity to continuously create briefing packages to ease 

handoffs. 

2.4 Role and Responsibility Considerations 

A review of previous SPO studies revealed that when separated, the aircraft’s crew performs 

additional communications to preserve a consistent mental map of the approach and the candidate 

divert options (Lachter et al., 2014). These additional communications highlighted a potential area of 

concern implementing a SPO-like condition; if the crew needed to take immediate action, fewer 

cognitive, attentional, or even coordinated resources to safely land the aircraft may be available for 

the crew as they are occupied getting to a consistent mental map. As the crew work to become 

coordinated, their attentional resources are occupied to a greater extent than if they were already 

coordinated. This suggests that additional tasks cannot be added to the crew. To alleviate extra 

communications and radio congestion, the use of CRM tools and shared displays were analyzed 

(Lachter et al., 2014). Although the automation support was helpful for preserving a consistent 

mental map, even more automation in different forms may be required. Exploring dedicated 

assistance revealed potential problem areas for the GO during the transition from handling multiple 

aircraft to handling one distressed aircraft. The method for the transition would need to be 

streamlined and defined in detail to ensure the distressed aircraft would receive the level of 

assistance required. 

Automation tasks were based on theoretical advancements in technology currently being tested in a 

laboratory setting for this task analysis. Here, automation has delegated many typical FO tasks as 

well as “good crew traits” such as crosschecking. The OBP/CA needs to be able to maintain ultimate 

control of the aircraft, yet have enough confidence to only crosscheck and execute the information 

that the flight deck automation has supplied. 

A specific SPO ConOps-related gap and research issue was identified for the Ground Operator and a 

problem aircraft’s dispatch tasks. There has been a lack of information on the impact on the dispatch 
14 

tasks once dedicated assistance is initiated. Based on our observations and task counts, the optimal 

role allocation may be for the original GO to retain their dispatch duties for the DA aircraft, 

assuming there is a moderate- to high-level of automation available to provide some task relief. This 

can alleviate some of the issues relating to “coming-in-cold” in the Specialist conditions by retaining 

an operator already familiar with the distressed aircraft. 

2.5 Task Count and Workload 

The task count and the workload associated with the tasks identified through a task analysis can be 

easily generated once a vetted set of tasks has been created. The task count is simply the number of 

tasks that the entity is responsible to complete, while the workload associated with the task is related 

to the attentional load required by the task. 

To measure workload in the six scenarios described, each task was described as having low-, 

medium-, or high-workload demands. The task-analyst classified the workload classifications using 

the task analysis and workload as a basis for the categorizations (Hamilton, Bierbaum, & McAnulty, 

1994; Hamilton, Bierbaum, & Fulford, 1990; McCracken & Aldrich, 1984). Low-workload tasks 

have been defined as tasks that are either very short in duration and/or require less attention (i.e., 

listening tasks, executing tasks, or any task performed by automation). Medium-workload tasks have 

been defined as tasks that occupy more attentional resources, but are normal tasks that are performed 

often (i.e., speaking and crosschecking). High-workload tasks have been defined as tasks that are 

unfamiliar and/or very demanding of attentional resources (i.e., discussing, deciding, and final 

manual landing). Every task in each scenario was given a corresponding workload level and then 

counted and recorded (see Figures 4a, 4b, 4c, 4d, 4e, and 4f). For the purposes of relevancy, GO and 

GO Automation tasks were only counted if they directly related to the flight of NASA01. GO tasks 

outside of the primary flight have not been adequately discussed at this point to confidently measure 

their shift from beginning to end. 

For a nominal approach into Denver, the task count revealed that the total task number is reduced 

from 175 tasks performed by three entities to 160 tasks performed by four entities for both the SPO 

Hybrid and SPO Specialist Nominal condition compared to current day (Figure 4a, 4b, and 4c). The 

number of tasks performed by the CA/OBP remains at 85 tasks in both current day and SPO, 

48.57% & 53.13% of the task total respectively. The workload for the CA/OBP also dropped from 

current day to SPO: High-workload tasks decreased from 16.47% to 11.76%; medium-workload 

tasks dropped from 62.35% to 54.12%; and, low-workload tasks increased from 21.18% to 34.12%. 

Across all entities, the same trend can be seen: High-workload tasks decreased from 11.43% to 

7.5%; medium-workload tasks dropped from 66.86% to 33.75%; low-workload tasks increased from 

21.71% to 58.75%. 

 
15 

Figure 4a. Current day nominal task count. 

Figure 4b. SPO hybrid nominal task count. 

Figure 4c. SPO specialist nominal task count. 

 
16 

For an off-nominal approach into Denver with a diversion to Cheyenne, the total tasks increased 

when comparing current day (237; Figure 4d) to the SPO Hybrid condition (318; Figure 4e) and the 

SPO Specialist condition (343; Figure 4f.) The number of tasks performed by the CA/OBP increased 

in both the SPO Hybrid (141, 44.34%) and SPO Specialist (146, 42.57%) conditions as compared to 

current day (118, 49.79%). The workload intensity trends were similar between all three conditions; 

High-workload tasks for current day, SPO Hybrid, and SPO Specialist made up 22.88%, 28.37%, 

and 30.82% of the total CA/OBP tasks respectively; Medium-workload tasks for current day, SPO 

Hybrid, and SPO Specialist made up 59.32%, 49.65%, and 47.26% of the total CA/OBP tasks 

respectively; and, Low-workload tasks for current day, SPO Hybrid, and SPO Specialist made up 

17.8%%, 21.99%, and 21.92% of the total CA/OBP tasks respectively. The increase in task number 

between SPO Hybrid and SPO Specialist is notable for future SPO ConOps development. 

Figure 4d. Current day off-nominal task count. 

Figure 4e. SPO hybrid off-nominal task count. 

Figure 4f. SPO specialist off-nominal task count. 

 
17 

3.0 Conclusion 

It is certainly a challenge to develop a set of tasks for concepts that are just in their infancy as is the 

case with the SPO concept. The task analyses completed as part of the present research produced a 

detailed and verified set of tasks representing a nominal, current-day approach into Denver. This 

task network is the necessary first step for any NextGen SPO approach scenario development 

process as it illustrates the most likely baseline task set upon which modifications could be proposed 

and evaluated for moving from a two-person crew to a single pilot being responsible for the 

operations of the aircraft. It is imperative that this baseline task analysis be accurate so that 

incremental changes can be proposed and evaluated in subsequent scenario considerations and an 

informed decision can be made about the costs and benefits of a next generation concept. Two 

reasonable and plausible SPO scenarios were defined and populated with detailed tasks, operator 

assignments, and task orders through a series of SME interviews, reviews of published reports, and 

participation in ongoing SPO experiments conducted in the FDDRL at NASA Ames Research 

Center. 

Based on SPO concept reports, studies conducted in the FDDRL lab, and task analyses performed 

thus far, a clearer picture of future NextGen SPO ConOps has been formed. To avoid overloading 

any single human operator during the approach phase of flight, there is an identified need for more 

reliance on automation to at minimum perform crosschecks and load flight settings. The approach 

phase of flight is densely populated with tasks from the top of descent to touchdown, requiring input 

from multiple operators to safely land the aircraft. If tasks currently being performed by two colocated pilots are all assigned to a single OBP, the task load on that operator becomes too great to 

reliably perform. With two operators collaborating remotely, communication between them presents 

an obstacle to overcome. Without the physical cues from being co-located, all communications 

could be made verbally but would add an impractical amount of additional tasks. 

The solution in these analyses was to provide support for crew crosschecks through automated 

notifications of any operator-initiated changes of the aircraft and shift routine setting tasks to 

automation. Automation would also act as a “good crew member” by reminding the human 

operators to attend to items that automation recognizes have not been attended to for a period of 

time. ConOps specifically relating to DA handoffs and DA changes in roles need to be firmly 

defined to increase the effectiveness of a ground-based FO. Along with some projected 

advancements in automation to perform basic uploading from ATC functions, tasks being assumed 

by all three entities (OBP, GO, and automation) rather than just the OBP alone, will help to alleviate 

task overload on any single operator—especially in the case of any significant and/or unexpected 

event. The data derived from these task analyses support these conclusions. 
18 

4.0 Future Research 

The SPO scenarios defined thus far represent two flight conditions and two potential ways of 

assigning tasks between entities in a SPO environment. Next steps could include refinement of the 

existing task analysis based on additional SME evaluations, as well as extending the task analysis to 

better define the GO roles and responsibilities. A GO-centric analysis may reveal needs that have not 

yet been defined. The GO-as-dispatch and GO-as-ground-based-FO tasks have not been adequately 

defined for analysis as they are entirely new roles, and never before studied. Modifications to the 

existing scenarios include dissecting the FY14 GO tasks to a finer level of detail, and possibly the 

impact of requesting DA at the beginning of the GO shift, or shift-start compared to DA at when 

crew are in the middle of their shift, or mid-shift. To accomplish this, a shift-based task analysis of 

the GO that includes likely tasks, task allocations, and task workloads for a specific period of time 

would need to be created. The tasks in the FY15 will be designed to parallel future FDDRL studies 

via communication/collaboration between teams. There will be an impact assessment of required 

and time-critical flight crew and ATC tasks under SPO technologies and procedures. Impact will be 

measured by task count and associated task workload changes and the number of task conflicts. 
19 

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Appendix A. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (Current Day Nominal) 

21 
Appendix A. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (Current Day Nominal) 

22 
Appendix A. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (Current Day Nominal) 

23 
Appendix A. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (Current Day Nominal) 

24 
Appendix B. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (Current Off-Day Nominal) 

25 
Appendix B. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (Current Off-Day Nominal) 

26 
Appendix B. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (Current Off-Day Nominal) 

27 
Appendix B. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (Current Off-Day Nominal) 

28 
Appendix B. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (Current Off-Day Nominal) 

29 
Appendix C. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (SPO Hybrid Nominal) 

30 
Appendix C. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (SPO Hybrid Nominal) 

31 
Appendix C. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (SPO Hybrid Nominal) 

32 
Appendix D. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (SPO Off-Hybrid Nominal) 

33 
Appendix D. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (SPO Off-Hybrid Nominal) 

34 
Appendix D. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (SPO Off-Hybrid Nominal) 

35 
Appendix D. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (SPO Off-Hybrid Nominal) 

36 
Appendix D. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (SPO Off-Hybrid Nominal) 

37 
Appendix E. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (SPO Specialist Nominal) 

38 
Appendix E. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (SPO Specialist Nominal) 

39 
Appendix E. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (SPO Specialist Nominal) 

40 
Appendix F. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (SPO Specialist Off-Nominal) 

41 
Appendix F. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (SPO Specialist Off-Nominal) 

42 
Appendix F. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (SPO Specialist Off-Nominal) 

43 
Appendix F. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (SPO Specialist Off-Nominal) 

44 
Appendix F. Task Decomposition Spreadsheet (SPO Specialist Off-Nominal) 

45 
Appendix G. Micro Saint Sharp Task Groups (OBP-Centric Nominal Mode) 

46 
Appendix G. Micro Saint Sharp Task Groups (OBP-Centric Nominal Mode) 

47 
Appendix H. Micro Saint Sharp Task Groups (GO-Centric Nominal Mode) 

48 
Appendix I. Micro Saint Sharp Task Groups (Dedicated Assistance Mode) 

49 
Appendix I. Micro Saint Sharp Task Groups (Dedicated Assistance Mode) 

50 
Appendix I. Micro Saint Sharp Task Groups (Dedicated Assistance Mode) 

51 
Appendix I. Micro Saint Sharp Task Groups (Dedicated Assistance Mode) 

52 
Appendix I. Micro Saint Sharp Task Groups (Dedicated Assistance Mode) 

53