Grasslands Plan Revision

Comprehensive Evaluation Report

Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

United States

Department of 

Agriculture

Forest Service

Southwestern

Region

July 2011

Version 
Table of Contents

Table of Contents ........................................................................................2

Executive Summary ....................................................................................1

Introduction................................................................................................2

Area of Analysis ..........................................................................................2

Historical Context .......................................................................................5

Roles of the Grasslands...............................................................................6

Determining the Need to Change the Current Management Plan.................7

Revision Topic 1: Ecosystem Diversity .......................................................8

Current Conditions and Trends ................................................................. 8

Vegetation ..................................................................................................8

Soil Resources...........................................................................................13

Air.............................................................................................................15

Species Diversity.......................................................................................16

Ecosystem and Species Diversity Risk Assessments..................................18

Ecosystem Diversity Concern Areas ......................................................... 19

Need for Change: Ecosystem Diversity..................................................... 20

Revision Topic 2: Managed Recreation ......................................................20

Current Conditions and Trends ............................................................... 20

Hiking and Camping ..................................................................................21

Off-Highway Motorized Use.......................................................................21

Hunting and Fishing..................................................................................22

Other Recreation Activities .......................................................................22

Developed Recreation Sites.......................................................................22

Areas of Interest.......................................................................................23

Managed Recreation Concern Areas ..........................................................24

Need for Change: Managed Recreation .................................................... 24

Revision Topic 3: Human Influences on the Grasslands ............................25

Current Condition and Trends ................................................................. 26

Livestock and Range Management ............................................................27

Oil and Gas................................................................................................27

Roads and Access......................................................................................28

Special Uses..............................................................................................28

Common Minerals and Products ................................................................28

Research ...................................................................................................29

Fire Management and Law Enforcement ...................................................29

Heritage Resources...................................................................................30

References Cited.......................................................................................32

Appendix A: Maps .............................................................................36
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Executive Summary

This Comprehensive Evaluation Report for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and McClellan Creek 

National Grasslands presents a summarized discussion of the needs for change in the current Land and 

Resource Management Plan direction regarding these Grasslands. This discussion was extracted from 

evaluations on the ecological, social, and economic sustainability of the Grasslands, and sets the stage for 

developing and implementing much-needed Plan revisions.

The “Need for Change” described in this report can be synthesized into a set of key, integrated themes, or 

needs:

Include More Adaptive Management Approaches

Invasive species, climate change, and wildland fire are perhaps the three most pressing emerging issues 

faced by all land managers. These dynamic and complex issues and others that will surely come in future 

years, combined with other factors that are not easily predicted point to the need for management 

strategies that allow for decision-making processes that incorporate new and emerging information.

Better Address the Unique, Local Conditions of the Grasslands

The ecological, social and economic conditions found in the Grasslands are unique to the southern Great 

Plains. However, the current Plan includes little or no direction that addresses this. These features and 

opportunities call for specialized assessments and management strategies.

Address Recreational Opportunities and Challenges

The Grasslands contain many recreational opportunities that are not addressed in the current Plan. It is 

expected that interest in recreation on the Grasslands will increase over time; therefore, there is a need to 

develop clear recreation management objectives and strategies.

Better Define Short and Long Term Energy Development Objectives

Oil and gas development on the Grasslands is important to both the nation’s energy needs and the local 

and regional economies of the grasslands. However, as the energy needs of our nation shift towards more 

sustainable resources and oil and gas productivity on some parts of the Grasslands decrease, there is a 

need to describe the long-term expectations, objectives and management strategies for energy 

development on the Grasslands. Moreover, there is a need to provide direction for the sustainable 

management of the wood products and other special resources found on the Grasslands that are important 

to the local economy.
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Introduction

This “Comprehensive Evaluation Report for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and McClellan Creek 

National Grasslands” (CER) presents a summarized discussion of the need for changes in the current Plan 

direction regarding the Grasslands1

. The Report is divided into three revision topics: Ecosystem 

Diversity, Managed Recreation and Human Influences on the Grasslands. For each of these topics, there 

will be a description of current conditions and trends, information about how those trends have changed 

or are expected to change over time, areas of management concern and what needs to change in the 

existing plan to meet the future needs of Grassland management.

The Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and McClellan Creek National Grasslands (Grasslands) comprise 

approximately 262,000 acres of public land and are among the twenty National Grasslands managed by 

the Forest Service. They are administered as part of the Cibola National Forest, headquartered in 

Albuquerque, NM, with district offices in Clayton, NM and Cheyenne, OK.

Although the Grasslands are subject to numerous federal laws, regulations and policies, the BankheadJones Farm Tenant Act (7 USC §1010) and associated Forest Service regulations (36 CFR 213) provide 

the specific framework for managing Grasslands. The Act and regulations require:

[A] program of land conservation and utilization to correct maladjustments in land use and thus 

assist in controlling soil erosion, reforestation, preserving natural resources, protecting fish and 

wildlife, developing and protecting recreational facilities, mitigating floods, preventing 

impairment of dams and reservoirs, developing energy resources, conserving surface and 

subsurface moisture, protecting the watersheds of navigable streams, and protecting the public 

lands, health, safety, and welfare, but not to build industrial parks or establish private industrial or 

commercial enterprises.

[To] promote development of grassland agriculture and sustained-yield management of the 

forage, fish and wildlife, timber, water, and recreation resources; and to demonstrate sound and 

practical principles of land conservation and use.

The Land and Resource Management Plan (Plan) for the Cibola National Forest and Grasslands is 

scheduled to be revised in accordance with the National Forest Management Act of 1976 and associated 

Forest Service Planning regulations. Revising the Plan will include dividing it into one Plan for the 

Grasslands and a separate Plan for the Forest. The goal of Plan revision is to provide management 

direction that balances the social, economic, and ecological demands on the grassland resources so that 

the resources can be sustained in perpetuity. The social, economic, and ecological systems are interrelated 

and need to be considered together.

Area of Analysis

This report analyzes current conditions and trends for the two districts that administer the Grasslands: the 

Kiowa-Rita Blanca District (which includes the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands) and the 

Black Kettle District (which includes the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands). The 

four Grasslands are spread out across portions of New Mexico, Texas, and Oklahoma, as displayed on the 

Vicinity Map (Figure 1).

Within each of the four designated Grasslands are small, scattered parcels of Forest Service-managed land 

called “Grassland units” that are surrounded by mostly private farm and ranch lands. The Forest Service 

land ownership is less than 24% of the land within the Grasslands administrative boundaries. Seventy-

 1 The current Cibola National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan is available at: http://www.fs.fed.us/r3/cibola/planrevision/national_grasslands/index.shtml
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three percent of the land with the administrative boundary is private and the remaining 3% represents 

State-owned land (see Land Jurisdiction Map, Appendix A). These Grassland units are where plan 

components will apply; however, to assess how the Grasslands contribute to social, economic and 

ecological sustainability, larger areas are analyzed.

The larger area of analysis for the ecological section varies depending on the scale of information being 

analyzed. Current conditions and trends for the Grasslands were analyzed using Grassland units within 

the administrative boundaries. The historical data and comparison of the Grasslands to the surrounding 

landscape were analyzed using Subsection boundaries from the National Hierarchical Framework of 

Ecological Units. All four Grasslands are part of the larger Great Plains grassland ecosystem.

The analysis area for social and economic conditions and trends is primarily the counties that overlap with 

the Grassland units (Grassland counties) with a few exceptions. In some cases, the evaluation compares

social and economic conditions and trends for Grasslands counties to state and regional trends. The 

Grassland units cover very small proportions of the land within each county (Table 1). Mora, Gray, 

Hemphill, and Colfax Counties contain minor proportions of Grasslands acreage. However, the large 

Forest Service recreation areas in Hemphill and Gray Counties make important contributions to the social 

and economic well-being of local communities. The Wagon Mound community in Mora County also has 

important ties to the Mills Canyon area of the Kiowa National Grassland. Colfax County is excluded from 

further evaluation because it only contains 320 acres of general rangeland on the Kiowa National 

Grassland, which does not contribute significantly to the county economy or lifestyle. In addition, the 

demographics and economic conditions of Colfax County are substantially different from those of other 

Grassland counties because of its proximity to Taos and the recreation and tourism activities associated 

with that area.

Table 1: Percent of County under Grasslands Management

Forest Service 

Ranger District County, State Percent of County which is in a Grassland Unit 

Kiowa & Rita Blanca Dallam, TX 8

Kiowa & Rita Blanca Harding, NM 5

Black Kettle Roger Mills, OK 4

Kiowa & Rita Blanca Union, NM 2

Kiowa & Rita Blanca Cimarron, OK 1

Kiowa & Rita Blanca Mora, NM <0.5

Black Kettle Gray, TX <0.2

Black Kettle Hemphill, TX <0.1

Kiowa & Rita Blanca Colfax, NM <0.1

Source: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service
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Figure1: National Grasslands Administered by the Cibola National Forest 
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Figure 2: Dust storm approaching Stratford, TX 

NOAA's National Weather Service Collection

Historical Context

Beginning about 12,000 years ago, various 

Indian groups began to occupy and adapt to 

the harsh conditions of the Great Plains. 

The western portion of the Kiowa National 

Grassland along the Canadian River was an 

area of significant prehistoric occupation, as 

was the Washita River corridor on the 

Black Kettle National Grassland. A 

prolonged drought in the 1400s caused 

many Indian and Spanish groups to leave 

the area, although populations returned with 

the milder climate of the 1500s. From 1500-

1700, bands of Apache, Comanche, Navajo 

and Kiowa Indians periodically occupied 

the area, along with the Spanish. In the 

1600s, white settlers moved in from the 

eastern United States, causing unrest among 

native populations. In the 1700s and early 

1800s, the trade economy greatly expanded, 

large-scale buffalo hunts became common, and the Spanish herded sheep in various parts of the

Grasslands. There was an accelerated settlement period in the late 1800s, resulting in creation of 

businesses, towns and counties. Hispanic sheepherders withdrew from the area as the cattle industry grew. 

An open-range cattle industry thrived from 1866-1886 and then the land was fenced into smaller-tracts of 

cattle ranches and family farms.

In the 1930s, cultivated food crops were in high demand. As a result of the combination of deeply plowed 

tracts of marginal lands in some parts of the region and over-grazing by cattle and sheep herds in other 

areas, much of the Great Plains was stripped of native vegetation. This loss of native grass cover,

combined with a severe drought, set the stage for an enormous loss of soil. Huge dust storms (Figure 2)

blew the topsoil throughout the Plains and Midwest as far as Washington D.C. There were 72 regional 

storms in 1937 before they began to drop off.

Strong measures were needed to restore lands that 

were severely denuded in the Dust Bowl. Federal 

conservation programs began to acquire the devastated 

farmlands to rehabilitate the area and replace outdated 

farming methods with seeding, rotating crops, using 

contour and strip plowing, terracing and planting trees 

as wind breaks. The 1937 Bankhead-Jones Farm 

Tenant Act required the Soil Conservation Service to 

transform severely eroded farmlands into 

demonstrations of good land conservation and 

utilization. In 1954, some of these lands were 

transferred to various federal agencies. In 1960, these 

same lands were transferred from the various agencies 

to the Forest Service and put into a National 

Grasslands System.

The Grasslands are nearly the only public lands within Figure 3: Contrast between National 

Grasslands and surrounding private 

land.
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a region dominated by private agricultural croplands and ranches (Figure 3). Grasslands management 

provides for the diversity of plant and animal communities, productive soils, high-quality water and 

riparian resources, and native prairie ecosystems. The Grasslands also demonstrate successful ecosystem 

restoration of lands.

The Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands are four of the twenty 

National Grasslands established to demonstrate on-going ecosystem restoration. The legacies from 

numerous cultural and ethnic groups that adapted to the harsh life on the prairie form the rich social, 

economic and ecological make-up of the Grasslands today.

Roles of the Grasslands

Ecosystems and wildlife habitat. The Grasslands significantly contribute to the sustainability of diverse, 

native Great Plains grassland ecosystems and associated wildlife. The Grasslands demonstrate successful 

ecosystem restoration of lands that were degraded during the Dust Bowl era. Grasslands management 

contributes to the sustainability of productive soils, high-quality water and riparian resources, native 

prairie habitat and species. The Grasslands also include rare shinnery oak and playa lake ecosystems not 

found in other regions. The public values how Grasslands management demonstrates the coexistence of 

complimentary land uses such as cattle grazing, hunting, and oil and gas production without 

compromising the ecological integrity of grasslands habitat.

Recreation. Recreation opportunities on the Grasslands greatly contribute to the quality of life enjoyed 

by residents and visitors alike. The Grasslands provide outstanding opportunities for hunting, fishing, 

camping, hiking, viewing birds and wildlife, driving to enjoy the scenery and open spaces, and visiting 

historic sites. The developed recreation sites, particularly the lake-based recreation complexes on the 

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands, and the developed sites in Mills Canyon area, 

offer unique and significant features available for both residents and visitors to enjoy within this region.

Livestock grazing. Livestock grazing on the Grasslands contributes to maintaining the ranching culture 

and lifestyle of these rural areas, improves the fiscal sustainability of local ranching operations, and helps 

to achieve plant community desired conditions. Over 96% of the Grassland units are used by permitholders to graze their cattle. This use of the Grasslands contributes to the social and economic well-being 

of this area while sustaining native prairie ecosystems.

Oil and gas. A small portion of the Grasslands contain rich oil and natural gas resources that contribute to 

meeting the nation’s energy needs. The Grasslands may also play an important future role for alternative 

energy developments such as wind.

Scenic, heritage, and paleontological resources. The Grasslands contain significant scenic, heritage 

(historic and prehistoric) and paleontological (fossil) resources. These offer opportunities for the public to 

learn about the past and appreciate the resources and beauty of the Grasslands. These important resources 

provide opportunities to base tourism businesses on bird-watching, hunting, wildlife viewing, and visiting 

historic and cultural sites.

Areas of Interest: Three features on the Grasslands are formally designated as ‘Special Areas’ to 

highlight and preserve their unique historic and scenic characteristics. These Special Areas include the 

Santa Fe National Historic Trail, and two scenic byways: The Santa Fe Trail National Scenic Byway, and 

La Frontera del Llano Scenic Byway (State). Other areas of interest include the Canadian River 

Inventoried Roadless Area (IRA) and the Canadian River eligible Scenic River corridor which attracts 

visitors for its remarkable historic, geologic, scenic, and recreation features.

Wildfire prevention. The Forest Service plays a vital role in working with volunteer rural fire 

departments and others in preventing wildfires that threaten human life and property. Without the active 

support of well-trained federal fire-fighting resources, preventing catastrophic wildfires in this remote and 
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rural region would be substantially more challenging. Thus, Grasslands management contributes to 

protecting valuable natural resources along with private properties and communities.

Determining the Need to Change the Current 

Management Plan

The main responsibility of administering the Grasslands includes managing and monitoring the health and 

status of the natural resources (e.g. vegetation and wildlife) while balancing the many human uses of the 

Grasslands (e.g. camping, hunting, livestock grazing). This CER examines the social, economic, and 

ecological conditions and trends in and around the Grasslands, as detailed in the Socio-Economic 

Sustainability Report and the Ecological Sustainability Report for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, 

and McClellan Creek National Grasslands. The sustainability reports evaluated ecological models, social 

and economic statistics, monitoring data, public comments and the results of the Forest Service 

Southwestern Region’s Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs Report to describe the current conditions and trends 

on the Grasslands. This report summarizes those findings and uses them to identify where these trends

generate a need to change direction in the current Plan.

Even though the Need for Change identified in this report is the primary driver of the development of a 

revised Plan, they do not represent a comprehensive list of needed changes. There are some areas of the 

current Plan that are still adequate and timely; that direction will be carried forward into the revised Plan. 

Most objectives and guidelines from the existing Plan may be modified or removed, for one of the 

following reasons:

o They describe a purely administrative function, such as budgeting rather than the management of 

land and resources;

o They duplicate of direction that can already be found in Forest Service handbooks and manuals; 

or

o They are based on outdated policies, science or information and would therefore be updated or 

removed as appropriate.

Schedules of activities in the Plan have been outdated for more than a decade and will be removed as 

well. There are also issues that have emerged since the Plan was developed or that were not as great of a 

threat to social, economic and ecological sustainability at that time. The Plan is silent or may have very 

little direction on such issues. These issues will be considered in the development of the revised Plan.
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Figure 4: Great Plains Region

Revision Topic 1: Ecosystem Diversity

Current Conditions and Trends

Using the National Hierarchical Framework of 

Ecological Units, an analysis of the distribution of 

current vegetation types across the landscapes 

surrounding the Grasslands was completed using the 

Section and Subsection units. Collectively, the four 

sections within which the Grasslands are located total 

over 65 million acres. The Grasslands make up less 

than 2% of these total acres. The majority of the land 

within these sections is privately-owned agriculture or 

crop land. Irrigated agriculture areas used for cropland 

are used mainly to farm soybeans, corn, or alfalfa. The 

main crops grown through dry-farming are winter 

wheat, beans, small grains, or sorghum. Much of the 

remaining vegetation is either shortgrass or mixed 

grass prairie; however, as the majority of the land 

ownership is private, most of these acres are used as 

rangeland for grazing cattle.

The Grasslands are part of the larger Great Plains 

grassland ecosystem (Figure 4); however, each 

Grassland has unique characteristics. Analysis of these 

unique ecosystems was conducted using Potential 

Natural Vegetation Types (PNVTs) and existing midscale vegetation types found on the Grasslands. 

PNVTs are coarse-scale groupings of ecosystem types that share similar geography, vegetation, and 

historical disturbances such as fire, drought, and native herbivory. The PNVTs used for this analysis were 

summarized from the Terrestrial Ecological Unit Inventory (TEUI) data for the Grasslands. There are 

seven PNVTs found on the Grasslands. A comparison between PNVTs and existing vegetation was used 

to show the departure from reference conditions.

2 Existing dominant vegetation and PNVT maps can be 

found in Appendix A.

Vegetation3

There are seven distinct PNVTs (ecosystem types) found across the Grasslands: Mixed Grass Prairie, 

Shinnery Oak, Mixed Hardwood Riparian, Shortgrass Prairie, Pinyon-Juniper, Cottonwood Willow 

Riparian, and Sand Sagebrush. A broad-scale analysis of the departure of current conditions from 

reference condition for each PNVT was done to set the context for the contributions the Grasslands make 

to ecological sustainability. Reference conditions, as described, in this document are referencing 

conditions of ecosystems in terms of vegetation composition and structure only. Reference conditions do 

not describe the extent or distribution of the PNVT across the landscape because these ecosystems would 

have historically covered millions of contiguous acres across the southern Great Plains. Due to settlement, 

landownership patterns across the landscape have become highly fragmented. As a result, four out of the 

 2 Mid-scale vegetation type description is structural, not compositional. Description of existing species composition was inferred by relating 

remotely sensed data (mid-scale) to ground-based data (TEUI). Comparison of existing vegetation to reference condition is therefore limited to 

plant community structure (not species composition).

3 USDA 20011a p. 15-30 and 65-75
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seven PNVTs found on the Grasslands (Shinnery Oak, Pinyon-Juniper, Mixed Hardwood Riparian, and 

Sand sagebrush) have greater representation on the Grasslands than they do in the surrounding landscape.

When looking to identify resource management opportunities and constraints, two key factors should be 

considered: the current status and trend of an ecosystem and the effects of current management activities 

on that status and trend. Using these considerations and recognizing the importance of other ecosystem 

characteristics (i.e., soil, water, air and habitat) each PNVT and habitat feature found on the Grasslands 

was reviewed to identify general management opportunities and constraints for the Grasslands.

Historically, natural disturbance was a regular component of all of the PNVTs found on the Grasslands. 

These disturbances, including wildfire, grazing, climatic events, and invasive species, had notable effects 

on the Grasslands vegetation (including composition and structure). In addition to these events, 

hardwood riparian areas were periodically affected by flooding. Though their frequency and intensity 

have shifted as a result of settlement and management, these historical natural disturbances continue to 

influence the composition and structure of the Grassland PNVTs. In addition to these historical natural 

disturbances, invasive species and motorized and off-road travel are now recognized as having 

disturbance-like effects on the Grasslands vegetation. Both have the potential to significantly modify 

ecological systems and processes.

Mixed Grass Prairie

Condition: Mixed grass prairie covers approximately 11,300 acres or 35% of the Black Kettle and 

McClellan Creek National Grasslands. The mixed grass prairie PNVT is characterized by mixed grass to 

tall grass prairie found on moderate to gentle slopes and is dominated by one or some of the following 

species: big bluestem; little bluestem; western wheatgrass; sideoats grama and blue grama. This PNVT 

may also include areas that are dominated by low structure grasses and forbs. In the early stage, 1-3 years 

post-fire, there are more forbs and diversity of species before little bluestem regains dominance. After 

approximately three years, the grasses become the dominant species. Perennial grasses on the red-shale 

soils are primarily blue grama, hairy grama, little bluestem, and purple three awns. About 10% of the 

areas are covered in forbs and 10% in woody species.

Trends: Prescribed fire and livestock grazing would produce plant communities with increased forb

composition within the mixed-grass prairie, and maintain current structure conditions.

Departure from Reference: The mixed grass prairie that occurs on soils that are a loamy, red-shale type 

and are currently near reference condition.

Contribution to Sustainability and Management Opportunities and Constraints: Currently, The 

Subsections, Canadian-Cimarron Breaks and Red Prairie, have disproportionate total percentages of 

mixed grass prairie compared to the percentage of mixed grass prairie on the Grasslands within those 

Subsections. The McClellan Creek boundary overlaps the Canadian-Cimarron Breaks Subsection and the 

disproportionately larger percentage of mixed grass on McClellan Creek is due to the small size of this 

unit and the lack of PNVT diversity considering the topography and overall landscape constraints. The 

disproportionately small percentage of mixed grass prairie within the Red Prairie Subsection and Black 

Kettle boundary overlap is largely due to the soil types in this area of the Grasslands that are more 

conducive to other PNV types. While it may appear that management of the mixed grass prairie on the 

Grasslands is not a priority due to its overrepresentation on private land, much of all mixed grass prairie 

off of the Grasslands is highly departed from its reference condition due to historical agricultural practices 

and land use. This makes the native mixed grass prairie located on the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek 

National Grasslands important, as it has a high contribution to the overall ecological sustainability.
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Shortgrass Prairie

Condition: Shortgrass prairie covers approximately 181,900 acres or 79% of the Kiowa and Rita Blanca 

National Grasslands. The shortgrass prairie PNVT typically occurs on plains and draws, or on gently 

rolling uplands of the southern Great Plains. Vegetation is mainly shortgrass dominated by blue grama, 

needle-and-thread, buffalograss, and little bluestem, with intermingled forbs and scattered half-shrubs. 

Post-fire early-successional stages are dominated by resprouts and seedlings of grasses and post-fire 

associated forbs covering approximately 2% of this PNVT. Species include blue grama and buffalograss. 

The mid-open stage covers approximately 90% of the PNVT with less than 35 percent herb cover that is 

low to medium height. The main grasses are blue grama and buffalograss. The mid-closed stage covers 

about 8% of this PNVT with greater than 35 percent herb cover. Again the main grass species are blue 

grama and buffalograss. Livestock grazing is conducted in accordance with most recent environmental 

analyses utilizing an adaptive management approach taken by monitoring use and conditions on the 

ground, then adjusting as conditions change. Prescribed fire is applied, but on a small scale and generally 

not within the historical fire regime of 5-10 years. Removal of shrubs and trees encroaching onto the 

shortgrass prairie is occurring where access is adequate.

Trends: Current management trends will keep this PNVT in low departure from its reference condition

and would create a greater proportion of early and late-structural successional stages.

Departure from Reference: Currently, the shortgrass prairie is in low departure from reference condition 

as a whole for the PNVT.

Contribution to Sustainability and Management Opportunities and Constraints: Currently, there is 

less shortgrass prairie across the landscape than found historically. These areas of shortgrass prairie 

located off the Grasslands are highly departed from the reference condition. Therefore, the shortgrass 

prairie located within the National Grassland units is important and has a high contribution to the overall 

ecological sustainability. There is a management opportunity to create a greater proportion of latestructural stage conditions, which may require more rest or grass-banking. Likewise, prescribed fire may 

be used to create a greater proportion of early successional stage conditions.

Shinnery Oak

Condition: This ecosystem covers approximately 18,900 acres (or 59%), of the Black Kettle and 

McClellan Creek National Grasslands. The composition and structure of shinnery oak areas varies across 

the landscape due to historical agricultural practices of deep plowing. About 45% of the shinnery oak 

PNVT is in the early-mid-open, post-fire to three years post-fire regime and dominated by tallgrasses in 

shallower and more stable sandsheet areas. Grass cover is dominant with rapid recovery of shinnery oak 

resprouts. The late-closed successional class structure and composition stage occurs in the 3 to 10 year 

post-fire time frame. Shinnery cover is mostly dominant although grasses remain co-dominant on about 

55% of the PNVT. Most shinnery oak stands on the unplowed areas are burned on a 2 to 9 year cycle with 

the intent to maintain grass cover within the oak for wildlife habitat diversity and to mimic historical

conditions. Structurally, the areas of deep plowed shinnery oak are close to the reference condition of 

shinnery oak but the composition of plants is different. These areas are dominated by little bluestem and 

have a small shrub and forb component with little or no shinnery oak present. Current livestock grazing 

within the shinnery oak system is relatively light, with utilization levels retaining at least 50% of the 

current year’s growth of vegetation, by weight, of forage species.

Trends: Under current management, the areas of unplowed shinnery oak are expected to remain close to 

the current condition. Prescribed burning and controlled grazing move this PNVT toward reference 

conditions that have the shinnery oak composition fully recovering its vertical structure within 2 to 4 

years after a fire. The deep plowed areas of shinnery oak will trend to meet structural reference conditions

but the shrub component will be represented by sand sagebrush, Oklahoma plum, and yucca.
11

Departure from Reference: The shinnery oak PNVT is in low departure from reference condition 

overall and has a slightly higher percent in the early/mid-open stage and slightly less in the late-closed 

stage than occurred historically.

Contribution to Sustainability and Management Opportunities and Constraints: The Subsections, 

Red Prairie and Southern South Central and Red Bed Plains, have overlapping boundaries with Black 

Kettle Grasslands. Both Subsections have disproportionate total percentages of shinnery oak compared to 

the Black Kettle Grassland due to agricultural practices that removed the shinnery oak species 

component. Currently, there is a much larger amount of the shinnery oak PNVT on Grasslands than in the 

surrounding landscape. This makes the contribution of the shinnery oak located within the Grasslands 

important to the overall ecological sustainability.

The horizontal expanse or range of shinnery oak does not fluctuate by current management, and the areas 

of the shinnery oak PNVT will remain fairly constant on the Grasslands with the composition and 

structure trends toward reference. Grassland managers will continue to manage with livestock grazing and 

prescribed fire to select for shrubs and woody plants including shinnery oak, sand sagebrush and 

Oklahoma plum and yucca to move the deep plowed areas as close as possible to a historical shinnery oak 

structure conditions.

Pinyon-Juniper

Condition: This vegetation type covers approximately 21,700 acres or 10% of the Kiowa and Rita Blanca 

National Grasslands. The current condition includes the early-successional stage that occurs post-fire and 

covers about 12% of the PNVT with open areas of grasses, forbs, seedlings less than 4.5 ft. in height and 

saplings. The mid-late successional stage covers about 88% of the PNVT and includes a mix of Pinyon

and juniper trees in a variety of classes with varying canopy cover. Mid-development classes averages 

10% of the PNVT in relative abundance and have dense canopy cover (31-70%) of pole size trees (5-9” in 

diameter) and very little understory. 25% of the PNVT will have pole size trees with a mixed 

shrub/herbaceous understory and canopy cover ranges from 0-30%. 35% of the PNVT will have late 

development with medium size trees (9-21” in diameter) and canopy cover of 0-40%. 10% of the PNVT 

will have dense, old growth characteristics with medium size trees and canopy cover of 41-70%. Stands 

of Pinyon-juniper that are overstocked and encroaching onto the shortgrass prairie are being treated using 

thinning and prescribed burning. Currently, the level of treatment is approximately 500-900 acres of 

thinning a year, followed by 1,000 to 1,800 acres of burning.

Trends: Through the continued use of prescribed burning and thinning projects, woodland areas have 

become more open although they have retained their mid-to late-seral stage structure including old growth 

characteristics of large-diameter trees, snags, and down logs.

Departure from Reference: The pinyon-juniper PNVT located on the Grasslands is in low departure 

from reference condition.

Contribution to Sustainability and Management Opportunities and Constraints: There is 

approximately the same amount of Pinyon-juniper across the landscape as was historically, in terms of 

relative abundance. Continued (and increased, where appropriate), burning will help encourage this 

PNVT toward reference condition. Since the majority of the Pinyon-juniper found off the Grasslands is 

highly departed from the reference condition, the contribution the Grasslands make to ecological 

sustainability for the Pinyon-juniper PNVT is important.

Cottonwood Willow

Condition: This vegetation type covers approximately 1,370 acres or 1% of the Kiowa and Rita Blanca 

National Grasslands. The early-successional class is represented on about 16% of this PNVT and is 

typically shrub/seedling dominated, but grasses may co-dominate. The mid- and late-successional class 
12

covers about 84% of this PNVT. The mid-vegetation composition includes tall shrubs and small trees 

(willows & cottonwoods). Late-successional class represents the mature, large cottonwood and willow 

riparian woodlands. Current management activities are targeting non-native, invasive species in riparian 

areas (specifically, salt-cedar). These activities are encouraging establishment of needed mid-successional 

conditions.

Trends: By removing salt-cedar from the Canadian River system in Mills Canyon, more of the PNVT 

will move into the mid-successional class. This will increase vegetation on stream banks and stabilize 

slopes. Areas along Perico and Sauz Creeks periodically flood which helps keep some of this PNVT 

within the early successional class. Under current management, this PNVT is expected to remain near 

reference condition.

Departure from Reference: The cottonwood-willow areas located within the Kiowa and Rita Blanca 

National Grasslands are in low departure from reference condition.

Contribution to Sustainability and Management Opportunities and Constraints: Currently, there is 

much less cottonwood-willow across the landscape than appeared historically and those areas present on 

the landscape that do have cottonwood-willow are highly departed from the reference condition. The 

cottonwood-willow areas located within the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands are within the 

reference condition, making it an important ecosystem and important to sustaining ecological 

sustainability. On-going non-native invasive species control will benefit regeneration and establishment 

of native cottonwood and willows. However, flood control and impoundments upstream of Grassland 

units can reduce flooding and in turn negatively effect cottonwood and willow recruitment. Current 

management trends of treating invasive species within the riparian systems, specifically saltcedar, will 

help reduce the amount of invasives found in the cottonwood-willow PNVT.

Mixed Hardwood Riparian

Condition: This vegetation type covers approximately 1,946 acres or 6% of the Black Kettle and 

McClellan Creek National Grasslands. The early-successional stage represents approximately 13% of this 

PNVT with pioneer tree and shrub species of cottonwoods and willows with an herbaceous understory of 

sedges in wet areas. In this early stage, most of the area is bare sand dominated by a young canopy of tree 

saplings and shrubs. Species would include indigo bush and various grass, sedges, and rushes. The midand late-successional stage covers the remaining 87% of this PNVT. In the mid-stage developing stands 

start to mature. This community tends to be partially open with scattered cottonwoods and willows. The 

shrub layer is poorly developed and often consists of widely scattered patches of dogwood. The 

understory vegetation is highly variable with wild rye, and muhlies. In wetter, more shaded areas, 

Virginia creeper, nettles, and poison ivy are present. In the late class is a mature, late seral, closed canopy 

cottonwood floodplain forest. Overstory is dominated by cottonwood, box elder, hackberry, walnut and 

elm. Understory species include Virginia creeper and poison ivy found along the upper terrace that has 

been protected from most flood events except for rare high intensity flooding.

Trends: Under current management, this PNVT is expected to remain in its current state.

Departure from Reference: The mixed hardwood riparian areas that are found on the Black Kettle and 

McClellan Creek National Grasslands are there due to soil movement during the Dust Bowl area. Topsoil 

blew into these low-lying areas followed by upstream damming, creating areas that would not have been 

present historically. Consequently there is not an appropriate reference condition or a departure from 

reference condition determination.

Contribution to Sustainability and Management Opportunities and Constraints: Currently, areas off 

of the National Grasslands that represent the mixed hardwood riparian PNVT are outside of mixed 

hardwood riparian structure and composition ideals. The Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National 

Grasslands hold a fairly large portion of this PNVT within the Canadian-Cimarron Breaks subsection, 
13

making this an important ecosystem. The most important management activity occurring within the 

mixed hardwood riparian is the removal of invasive species eastern red cedar and black locust. 

Management activities are limited by the conditions currently found within the mixed hardwood riparian. 

Overcrowded, thicket like conditions, compounded with stream impoundments are preventing large 

disturbance events (i.e. fire and flooding) that would have led to early-successional stage classes and 

regeneration of woody species. The removal of invasive woody species (e.g., eastern red cedar and black 

locust) would help with the re-establishment of native hardwood species, such as cottonwood, willow, 

elm, hackberry, and ash. However, as this PNVT is present now, current management is conducted in 

ways conducive to keeping this PNVT intact.

Sand sagebrush

Condition: The sand sagebrush PNVT vegetation type covers approximately 22,651 acres or 8 % of the 

Grasslands. One percent of this PNVT is a post-fire successional class dominated by resprouts and 

seedlings of grasses and forbs with low to medium height having a variable canopy cover. This class 

typically occurs where fires burn relatively hot. The mid-open successional stage represents 69% of this 

PNVT that has less than 35% herb cover, medium to tall in height. Mid-closed stage represents about 

39% of the PNVT area with greater than 35% herb cover, medium to tall in height. Prescribed burning is 

currently being used at a rate of approximately 500 acres every three-five years. Livestock grazing occurs 

during the winter months to limit the impact to soils and no livestock grazing occurs during the growing 

season.

Trends: Continuation of current management trends will maintain sand sagebrush near reference 

condition.

Departure from Reference: The sand sagebrush PNVT is in low departure from reference condition.

Contribution to Sustainability and Management Opportunities and Constraints: Currently, there is 

much less of the sand sagebrush PNVT across the landscape than was historically present due to massive 

soil movement that occurred during the dust bowl. These areas of the surrounding landscape that are sand 

sagebrush are highly departed from the reference condition. Sand sagebrush keeps the soil stable and 

helps prevent further soil movement; therefore, it is important on the Grasslands. This makes the sand 

sagebrush PNVT on the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands an important ecosystem and 

important to ecological sustainability. Management activities will continue to maintain these areas. An 

increase in prescribed burning activities would help move more of the area into needed early- and midsuccessional classes.

Soil Resources4

Condition: In terms of soil productivity, 52% of the soils on the Grasslands are in satisfactory soil 

condition, 48% are impaired, and 0% in unsatisfactory condition. In terms of soil loss5

, about 90% of the 

soils on the Grasslands are in satisfactory condition; the remaining 10% are considered unsuited 

(inherently unstable). All of the mixed hardwood riparian, Pinyon-juniper, cottonwood-willow riparian, 

sand sagebrush, and shinnery oak vegetation types are in satisfactory soil loss condition. This indicates 

that on-site soil loss is within threshold limits and is not reducing the ability of the soil to maintain longterm soil productivity. Conversely, the greatest areas of unsuited soil loss conditions are found in the 

shortgrass prairie vegetation type. Proportionally, the mixed grass prairie vegetation type has the most 

 4 USDA 2011a. p. 35-43 and p. 75 5 Ratings used for Soil Loss are Satisfactory, Unsatisfactory, and Unsuited. A Satisfactory rating denotes that the current erosion rate is less than 

the soil erosion rate tolerable threshold (T) and that a low level of erosion is occurring, representing maintenance of soil productivity. An 

Unsatisfactory rating denotes a high level of erosion (more than T), representing continued loss of soil productivity. An Unsuited rating 

represents inherently unstable soil types that, even with optimal ground cover, soil loss would exceed T.
14

area in an unsuited soil loss condition, about 35 percent. Soil erosion may be occurring beyond its 

threshold and the soil is at risk of not maintaining long-term soil productivity.

Trends: Restoration management practices over the past several decades have resulted in tremendous 

improvement in soil stability and vegetative recovery. A few units on the Black Kettle National Grassland 

that were heavily plowed in the past do not appear capable of recovering their productivity potential, 

although the soils are grass-covered and stabilized. A few units on Kiowa and Rita Blanca National 

Grasslands adjacent to towns or other private developments are heavily impacted by invasive plant 

populations that are seriously reducing soil productivity and vegetative diversity. These too are not likely 

to be fully restored to full productivity and native grassland vegetation due to continued spread of 

invasive plants and other impacts from adjacent lands.

Departure from Reference: Soils found on the Grasslands are altered due to soil movement during the 

Dust Bowl area creating areas that would not have been present historically. Consequently there is not an 

appropriate reference condition or a departure from reference condition determination.

Contribution to Sustainability and Management Opportunities and Constraints: There are no 

management activities occurring on the Grasslands that are targeted specifically to soil productivity or 

soil loss. However, all management activities that are implemented must be conducted in a manner that 

does not contribute to loss of long-term soils productivity there are activities or conditions off of the 

Grasslands that affect Grassland soils. If populations of invasive species off of Grassland units are not 

controlled, they will continue to spread onto the Grasslands, posing management problems.

Water Resources6

Condition: The following surface water and riparian vegetation occurs on the Grasslands units and 

additional water and riparian resources occur on adjacent private and state lands (based on Terrestrial 

Ecological Unit Inventory data):

o 32 miles of perennial (mostly year-round) streams, with 60% on the Kiowa and Rita Blanca 

National Grasslands and 40% on the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands

o 3,400 acres of riparian area and 40 acres of playa lakes (shallow depressions that remain dry 

between rain events)

o 1,300 acres of water in reservoirs, lakes, ponds and rivers (at normal pool levels)

Water quality conditions were extremely degraded during and immediately following the Dust Bowl era. 

These conditions have been dramatically improved by intentionally minimizing or avoiding any adverse 

effects from Grassland management activities. Impoundments are maintained and inspected for safety. 

Recreation surrounding the reservoirs, lakes and ponds does cause some minor erosion and contribute 

some sediment into the water bodies. Likewise roads contribute some sediment into streams. Typically 

grazing activities are managed to limit erosion and trampling along perennial streams, but watering of 

livestock does contribute some sediment into waterways.

Trends: Conditions of most streams, reservoirs, lakes, and ponds are trending toward reference 

conditions.

Departure from Reference: Though there were no standards historically all streams would have met 

current water quality standards. There were lower peak flow events, even on un-dammed reaches, 

compared to current conditions due to better watershed conditions. These conditions encouraged 

infiltration and groundwater recharge rather than fast runoff and overland flow. Higher ground water 

levels resulted in streams running longer into the growing season. No significant departure from current 

 6 USDA 20011a p. 43-46 and 76 
15

conditions relationship to reference or future conditions to reference was determined for perennial 

streams, reservoirs, lakes, and ponds under forest service control.

Contribution to Sustainability and Management Opportunities and Constraints: On the Black Kettle 

and McClellan Creek National Grasslands, unmanaged off highway vehicle use currently poses a risk to 

watershed conditions. The patchwork land ownership limits the ability of land management activities on 

the National Grasslands to have a large effect on water quality and stream flow. Benefits to stream health 

on Grasslands units can be negated by poor management on nearby private land. The mixed land 

ownership also presents an opportunity to work with partners and local land owners to address water 

quality and stream channel issues.

On the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands, invasive species (salt-cedar) and unmanaged off 

highway vehicle use currently pose risks to watershed conditions. Invasive species are being controlled 

when and where they are found to be affecting stream flow and water quality. Grazing activities are 

altered when playa lakes have water. Likewise playa lakes are protected from “pitting,” an activity that 

modifies the water holding capacity of a playa. Land management on adjacent private property could 

allow invasive species to re-invade riparian areas being treated. Additionally, impoundments can affect 

flooding which limits recruitment of riparian vegetation.

Overall, the Grasslands are similar to the surrounding landscape in respect to miles and acreage of water 

bodies. Groundwater depletion is occurring; though this depletion is outside of the agency’s control, it has 

the potential to affect Grasslands management.

Air7

Condition: None of the three states containing the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and McClellan 

Creek National Grasslands (New Mexico, Texas and Oklahoma) has air quality monitoring in the area of 

the National Grasslands. Nonetheless the air quality data that has been collected in these areas, usually by 

national monitoring networks or at regional airports, indicates that there is not a concern for air quality 

conditions in these areas except from dust storms and wildland fires.

Trends: The management trend affecting air quality is prescribed burning. The Forest Service is required 

to meet State air quality standards during implementation of these burns and all management activities 

that are implemented must be conducted in a manner that does not lead to long-term non-attainment.

Departure from Reference: Currently, the Grasslands are meeting the air quality standards as outlined 

for each state. Since the reference and current conditions are the same, the Grasslands are within the 

reference conditions for air quality. The increases in facilities listed on the EPA AirData Facility 

Emissions Reports especially in Roger Mills County, Oklahoma may indicate that in the future off-site 

emissions may have increase effects on the Grasslands’ ecosystems (US EPA 1999). However, given the 

current superior air quality in the area these increases in emissions may not have substantial effects on the 

ecosystems.

Contribution to Sustainability and Management Opportunities and Constraints: Prescribed burning 

must be done with respect to state and national air quality standards and appropriate burn permits must be 

obtained prior to implementation. There are potential threats to air quality that occur off of the Grasslands 

and outside of Forest Service control; however, they do not affect management of the Grasslands.

Climate Change

Climate change and extremes in weather patterns are expected to continue. Changes to vegetation that 

may occur will have pronounced effects on soil productivity, water-holding capacity and carbon storage 

 7 USDA 20011a p. 47-53 and 77
16

on the Grasslands soils. Predictions for a drying climate trend and increases in irrigation use on private 

land may additionally reduce water levels and availability.

Climate change effects may take years to manifest themselves and the correct actions to address them 

may not be apparent, however, climate change is considered a “reasonably foreseeable” effect. While 

there is scientific uncertainty about extent and timing of climate change there are also effects that are 

beginning to be observed. Extent and intensity of fires, insect and disease events are increasing. Drought 

is increasing as is the intensity of flood events.

Species Diversity8

Analysis of ecological sustainability must include consideration of both ecosystem and species diversity. 

To better capture the ecological sustainability of the Grasslands, a hierarchical approach was used to 

analyze species diversity on the Grasslands. A comprehensive list of species (including plant, macrolichen, bird, insect, and animal species) that have population or habitat concerns and that are found in 

Texas, New Mexico, and Oklahoma was developed using:

o Lists maintained under the Ecological Services Agency of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife

o Species ranks maintained by NatureServe

o New Mexico, Texas, and Oklahoma State T& E lists

o New Mexico, Texas, and Oklahoma priority Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy, 

(CWCS) species

o Species for which there are local concerns resulting from declines in habitat, population, and/or 

distribution

o Species that are of high public interest, and

o Species that have emerging issues (such as invasive species).

Using this comprehensive list as a starting point, research was conducted to determine those species that 

currently have:

o population and/or habitat within the Plan area

o population and/or habitat concerns (e.g., small or decreasing population, degrading habitat or 

habitat loss, etc.)

o or may be affected by Forest Service management actions

Species and Habitat Associations 

The species included in (Table 2 Species for Consideration in Plan Revision and Habitat Association) 

were organized according to their associated Vegetation Types and the Grasslands on with they occur 

Some species, however, are not associated with a vegetation type, but rather, are dependent on unique 

habitat features (such as Playa Lakes, aquatic or riverine wetlands, etc. The species habitat associations 

were used to assess the status of species and severity of risk to ecosystem characteristics.

Table 2 Species for Further Consideration in Plan Revision and Habitat Association

# Common Name Ranger 

District

Habitat or Vegetation Type

1 Alpine Fever-few KRB Shortgrass Prairie

 8 USDA 20011a p. 55-57 
17

# Common Name Ranger 

District

Habitat or Vegetation Type

2 Ambersnail KRB Other Wetlands

3 American avocet KRB Ponds and Playas

4 Andean prairie-clover KRB Shortgrass Prairie

5 Arid Land Ribbon Snake KRB Cottonwood-Willow Riparian

6 Arkansas River Shiner BKMC Rivers

7 Bald eagle KRB Shortgrass Prairie

Bald eagle KRB Cottonwood-Willow Riparian

Bald Eagle BKMC Aquatic Lakes

8 Bell's vireo BKMC Mixed Hardwood Riparian

9 Black-tailed prairie dog KRB Sand Sagebrush 

Black-tailed prairie dog KRB Shortgrass Prairie

10 Burrowing Owl KRB Shortgrass Prairie

11 Conchas Crayfish KRB Rivers

12 Dotted Checkerspot KRB Sandsage

Dotted Checkerspot KRB Shortgrass Prairie

13 Ferruginous Hawk KRB Shortgrass Prairie

14 Grasshopper sparrow BKMC Mixed Grass Prairie

Grasshopper Sparrow KRB Shortgrass Prairie

Grasshopper Sparrow BKMC Shinnery Oak

Grasshopper Sparrow KRB Sand Sagebrush

15 Great Plains narrow-mouth toad KRB Cottonwood-Willow Riparian

16 Greene milkweed KRB Shortgrass Prairie

Greene milkweed KRB Pinyon-Juniper

17 Hobomok Skipper KRB Cottonwood-Willow Riparian

18 Horrid Herrickia KRB Caves-Cliffs-Rock Outcrops

19 Interior Least Tern BKMC Rivers

20 Largemouth bass BKMC Rivers

Largemouth bass BKMC Aquatic Lakes

21 Lesser Prairie-chicken BKMC Mixed Grass Prairie

Lesser Prairie-chicken BKMC Shinnery Oak

Lesser Prairie-chicken KRB Sand Sagebrush

22 Long-billed Curlew KRB Ponds and Playas

Long-billed Curlew KRB Shortgrass Prairie

Long-billed Curlew BKMC Mixed Grass Prairie

23 Mountain Plover KRB Shortgrass Prairie

24 Northern Bobwhite BKMC Shinnery Oak

Northern Bobwhite BKMC Mixed Grass Prairie

25 One-flowered Milkvetch KRB Shortgrass Prairie

One-flowered Milkvetch KRB Pinyon-Juniper

26 Panhandle Spurge KRB Pinyon-Juniper

Panhandle Spurge KRB Sandsage

27 Plains Leopard Frog KRB Ponds and Playas
18

# Common Name Ranger 

District

Habitat or Vegetation Type

Plains Leopard Frog KRB Cottonwood-Willow Riparian

Plains Leopard Frog BKMC Aquatic Lakes

28 Red-headed Woodpecker BKMC Mixed Hardwood Riparian

Red-headed Woodpecker KRB Cottonwood-Willow Riparian

29 Rhena Crossline Skipper KRB Shortgrass Prairie

30 Rio Grande Turkey BKMC Mixed-grass Prairie

Rio Grande Turkey BKMC Mixed Hardwood Riparian

Rio Grande Turkey BKMC Shinnery Oak

31 Rocky Mountain Dagger KRB Caves-Cliffs-Rock Outcrops

32 Scaled Quail KRB Sandsage

Scaled Quail KRB Shortgrass Prairie

33 Spellenberg’s Groundsel KRB Shortgrass Prairie

Spellenberg’s Groundsel KRB Pinyon-Juniper

34 Suckermouth minnow KRB Rivers

35 Swift fox KRB Shortgrass Prairie

36 Zone-tailed Hawk KRB Pinyon-Juniper

Summary of major findings

Initially, 1,654 species with population or habitat concerns in Texas, Oklahoma, and New Mexico were 

considered for Grasslands Plan revision. This list was then narrowed down to just those species that occur 

on the Cibola National Grasslands and then screened further to a list of 36 species that includes only those 

that have known populations or habitat within the Plan area, have known population or habitat concerns, 

and may be affected by Forest Service management. These species were sorted according to the PNVT or 

unique habitat feature with which they are associated. Each of the PNVTs on the Grasslands, along with 

some unique habitat features (e.g., wetland or riverine), have adequate representation from species on the 

List of Species for Consideration in Plan Revision to warrant management consideration.9

Ecosystem and Species Diversity Risk Assessments10

The determination of ecological sustainability of the Grasslands is a culmination of assessing ecosystem 

characteristics (including PNVT, soil, water and air) departure from reference conditions and status of 

species diversity. Based on the ecosystem and species risk assessment findings described above, the 

Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands contribute to the ecological 

sustainability within each resource analyzed in this report.

Ecosystem characteristics for the Grasslands were analyzed to determine if the sustainability of these 

characteristics are at risk. This assessment was based on the ecosystem characteristics current condition, 

deviation away from reference conditions, and projected future trends. If the ecosystem characteristic is 

projected to move away from its reference condition, then the characteristic was determined to be at risk. 

If the characteristic is significantly departed from its reference condition and is stable (i.e., not trending 

further away or towards the reference condition) then it was determined to be at risk (this scenario was 

not found for any of the ecosystem characteristics on the Grasslands). If current management activities are 

resulting in the ecosystem characteristic trending towards its reference condition, the characteristic was 

 9 USDA 20011a Appendix B

10 Ibid. p. 57-69
19

determined not to be at risk. None of the ecosystem characteristics on the Grasslands is projected to trend 

away from reference conditions, therefore, it was determined that there are no risks to the ecosystem 

diversity on the Grasslands11. The Shinnery Oak PNVT is near reference condition, and the remaining 

six PNVTs (Mixed Grass Prairie, Pinyon-Juniper, Cottonwood-Willow, Mixed Hardwood Riparian, 

Shortgrass Prairie, and Sand sagebrush) are moving towards their reference conditions. The conditions of 

the unique habitat features found on the Grasslands (playa lakes, riverine and wetland associations on the 

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Grasslands and aquatic or riverine and wetland associated habitats on the Black 

Kettle Grasslands) have been dramatically improved, especially compared to the extremely degraded 

condition they were in during the 1940s and 1950s following the Dust Bowl era. Given these conditions, 

there are no risks to the ecosystem diversity on the Grasslands.

A species risk assessment was conducted by processing each species on the list of Species for Further 

Consideration in Cibola Grasslands Plan Revision through an assessment of various habitat and 

population factors and threats12. Natural history and population information was gleaned from the 

references used in the screening process and from Cibola National Grasslands biologists; State of OK, 

TX, and NM biologists; and the US Fish and Wildlife Service biologists. The results of this process 

provided a numerical ranking of the risk to a species. Those species found to be at high risk were further 

assessed for their likelihood of being affected by four population and distribution scenarios. Of the 

species identified for further consideration in Plan Revision, lesser prairie-chicken, plains leopard frog, 

black-tailed prairie dog, mountain plover, and swift fox were assessed to be at high risk on shinnery oak, 

ponds and playa lakes, sand sagebrush, shortgrass prairie, and cottonwood/willow riparian PNVTs 

(respectively). The risks to these species were found to be the threats derived from fragmentation, disease, 

predation, and invasive species.

Ecosystem Diversity Concern Areas

Due to disruption from settlement and agriculture production on adjacent private lands, the vegetative 

characteristics found on the Grasslands are largely unique in comparison to the surrounding landscape. 

Because the Grasslands exist to provide for ecological diversity, it is critical that the ecosystem 

characteristics contained within them be restored and maintained. There are several areas of ecosystem 

diversity concern:

o Four of the seven PNVTs (Shinnery Oak, Pinyon-Juniper, Mixed Hardwood Riparian, and Sand 

sagebrush) have a reduced range across the Section and Subsection. Therefore, management of 

these vegetation types on the Grassland units is important for the protection of their associated 

species.

o Of the seven vegetation types found on the Grasslands, all depart to some degree from their 

respective reference condition structure and disturbance regime. The degree of this departure

varies across each of the seven PNVTs.

o The introduction, presence and spread of invasive species have the potential to significantly 

modify ecological systems and processes.

o The potential effects of climate change are far-reaching: changes to vegetation structure and 

composition, soil condition, and water availability are reasonably foreseeable.

 11 In some instances, an ecosystem characteristic (for example, ground water quantity) was identified as being outside of, and trending away 

from, its reference condition. However, the causes for this condition and trend were found to be outside of the Forest Service’s control (for 

example, due to aquifer drawdown). 12 To assess the habitat, population and threat factors for each species, the Forest Service’s Southwestern Regions’ Ecological Sustainability

guidance was followed and tables were adapted to reflect assessment and ranking processes (Ecological Sustainability Version 5.1, 

10/10/2006, Status of Species, Table 6, Table 7). 
20

Need for Change: Ecosystem Diversity

The Plan does not clearly and specifically address many of the concerns related to ecosystem restoration 

and maintenance specific on the Grasslands. The revised Plan should provide direction that is more 

specific to the Grasslands in relation to ecosystem management:

o The ecosystems found on the Grasslands represent remnant pieces of the historical extent in 

which they were found across the southern Great Plains. Maintaining reference conditions on the 

Grasslands is, therefore, important to the future survival of species associated with these 

vegetation types. Current Plan direction does not focus on management activities (fire and 

grazing) that could be used to achieve plant community desired conditions. Most of the 

ecosystems found on across the landscape are outside their reference condition in terms of extent,

vegetative composition and structure, or disturbance processes; however, the areas of these 

ecosystems that remain on the Grasslands are near or trending toward their reference condition. 

There is a need to identify management activities (i.e. prescribed burning, adaptive management 

strategies) in the Plan that will maintain, or accelerate restoration of, reference conditions, 

recognizing past events that limit the ability of full restoration.

o Each ecosystem type is unique; however, the current Plan provides no specific direction for the 

majority of the ecosystems found on the Grasslands. Adaptive management techniques would 

provide managers with the flexibility to implement activities as conditions fluctuate. The revised 

Plan needs to have management direction to recognize the particular management objectives of 

each ecosystem (i.e. descriptions of different prescribed burning timeframes for each ecosystem).

o There are invasive species (plants) present on the Grasslands that have the potential to affect 

ecosystem structure, composition, and processes. The current Plan has little direction on the 

management of invasive species. The revised Plan needs to provide management direction 

addressing the introduction, spread and control of invasive plants and animals, with increased 

emphasis on adaptive management (i.e. inventory, monitor, and adjust treatments accordingly).

o The concept of climate change is not reflected in the current Plan. The revised Plan needs to 

address adaptive management of ecosystems with consideration that there may be changes in the 

climate.

Revision Topic 2: Managed Recreation

The recreation opportunities on the Grasslands that contribute the most to social satisfaction, quality of 

life, and the local tourism economy include hunting, fishing, camping, hiking, horseback riding, viewing 

birds and wildlife, driving to enjoy the scenery and open spaces, and visiting historic sites. The local 

public has expressed satisfaction with the recreation opportunities provided on the Grasslands, however, 

the demand for updated or improved amenities at some recreation sites is slowly and modestly increasing. 

This reflects the fact that while the populations in communities around the Grasslands are declining, 

visitation from cities outside the area is gradually increasing and producing a gradual change in 

recreational needs. Camping, often in association with hunting or fishing, is one of most prevalent 

recreation activities on all four Grasslands.

Current Conditions and Trends

Some of the key findings identified during evaluation of the Grasslands current conditions and trends 

follow.
21

Hiking and Camping13

Based on survey data, day hiking, developed camping, and primitive camping (mostly undeveloped sites 

within a short distance of a road) are the most frequent outdoor recreation activities in the area. While 

hiking and camping opportunities are important to the overall experience of Grassland visitors, they may 

be a secondary or complimentary activity to hunting, fishing, or other recreation opportunities. Camping 

occurs at developed and primitive sites throughout the Grasslands. On the Black Kettle National 

Grasslands, camping most often occurs at developed sites or one of the 32 designated-dispersed sites14

that are accessed from designated roads. On the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands, camping 

occurs at developed sites and people also may drive off of the roads to camp. With the implementation of 

the 2005 Forest Service Travel Management Rule (36 CFR 294),and associated Motor Vehicle Use Maps

that will designate the motorized trail system, accessibility for primitive motorized camping may be 

reduced in some areas of the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands. Because of this, increased use 

of developed recreation sites is projected to occur. Otherwise, the future trend for camping is expected to 

remain fairly stable across the Grasslands. Changes in users and uses on the District have recently spurred 

management to install a new developed campground at the top of Mills Canyon and improve the site at 

the bottom of the Canyon. The District will continue to be responsive to recreation changes as resources 

and management allow.

The Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands currently contain a total of about 13.7 miles 

of short, non-motorized hiking trails around the major recreation sites, each of which is less than 2 miles 

in length. Short trails are planned for some recreation sites on the Kiowa National Grassland, particularly 

around Mills Canyon. The 2.4-mile portion of the Santa Fe National Historic Trail on the Kiowa National 

Grassland is becoming more popular for hikers even though it is maintained as a historic site rather than a 

trail. Because of the flat terrain and fragmented and fenced land ownership pattern, there are currently no 

areas on the Grasslands which provide backpacking or long trail riding opportunities and none are 

expected to be developed. Instead, hiking trails provide a mix of day-use opportunities and some provide 

cultural, historical, or ecological information (interpretation) as well. It is projected that demand for dayhiking and particularly for interpretive trails will continue to rise on the Grasslands.

Off-Highway Motorized Use15

Driving motor vehicles off-road (cross country) is currently allowed on the Kiowa and Rita Blanca 

National Grasslands and prohibited on the Black Kettle National Grassland (since 1990). McClellan 

Creek National Grassland has an 8-mile trail system that is quite popular for motorbike and all-terrain 

vehicle use. Several locations on the Grasslands have been identified by the public as areas where off-road 

driving conflicts with other land use activities. These Grasslands will soon undergo a planning process in 

accordance with the 2005 Travel Management Rule (36 CFR 294) and designate a system of motorized 

roads, trails, and areas. Once the Motorized Vehicle Use Map (MVUM) is finalized, driving outside 

designated routes or areas will be prohibited, unless specially authorized.

Off-road driving and the resulting user-created roads in Mills Canyon and a few other areas on the Kiowa 

and Rita Blanca National Grasslands have removed important vegetation cover, accelerated soil erosion 

and stream sedimentation, and degraded riparian ecosystems, wildlife habitat, scenic quality, and historic 

sites. Uncontrolled motorized use in Mills Canyon has also impacted the Inventoried Roadless Area 

characteristics, and contributed to the introduction and spread of invasive plants.

 13USDA 2011b p. 21-22 14 Designated-dispersed sites are places designated (and usually mowed) to provide for parking, camping and day use activities in a natural

setting without toilets, tables, and other constructed facilities. The National Survey on Recreation and the Environment would consider these to 

be primitive camping.

15 USDA 2011b p. 23
22

McClellan Creek National Grassland currently provides the only motorized trail system in the area for 

dirt-bikes and small all-terrain-vehicles. While off-highway vehicle (OHV) use is increasing nationally, it 

is uncertain if it will significantly increase on the Grasslands due to the fences, land ownership pattern, 

and lack of terrain typically desired by OHV enthusiasts. And while visitation to the Grasslands is 

expected to increase, local populations are expected to continue to decline. The Grasslands may only be 

able to meet a portion of the demand for this activity due to the fragmented ownership pattern and multipleuse management objectives. The implementation of the 2005 Travel Management Rule is expected to 

address conflicts and resource impacts associated with unmanaged motor vehicle use.

Hunting and Fishing16

Hunting occurs throughout the Grasslands, with the exception of recreation and administrative sites, 

though data indicates that there may be more hunting in the Grasslands areas of Texas and Oklahoma

compared to New Mexico. It is a major activity on the Black Kettle National Grassland, attracting as 

many as 3,000 hunters from across the nation during the spring Rio Grande turkey season. The Black 

Kettle is one of the best public hunting areas in the nation for Rio Grande turkey and northern bobwhite 

quail, although deer and small game hunting is also very popular. Hunting on the National Grasslands in 

New Mexico occurs with a lesser degree of public influx due to limits on permits issued. Hunting 

activities on the Grasslands rarely create significant conflicts with other land uses. Fishing is very popular 

on the lakes and ponds of the Black Kettle National Grassland, on McClellan Creek National Grassland, 

and on the Kiowa National Grassland’s Canadian River. The Forest Service works with the state agencies 

that stock the water bodies with fish. The projected future trend is that hunting and fishing on the 

Grasslands will remain a stable and continuously popular activity on the Grasslands, with the highest 

densities of activity taking place on Black Kettle National Grassland in Oklahoma.

Other Recreation Activities17

Bird and wildlife watching are developing into very popular activities on the Grasslands. This activity 

includes observing and photographing birds and wildlife. According to a national survey of all wildlife 

and bird watching, bird watching attracted the biggest following. There is a potential to work with 

partners to expand these activities on the Grasslands as tourism and rural economic development 

opportunities (see Developed Recreation Sites section for more detail).

Developed Recreation Sites18

The Grasslands provide many developed recreation sites that are important to sustaining positive social 

and economic conditions in local and regional communities. Developed recreation sites typically include 

facilities such as restrooms, picnic tables, grills, trash containers, parking barriers, and bulletin boards. 

These sites range in development levels from those with a greater amount of amenities to those with very 

few facilities. There are site structures that accommodate large groups of people sometimes for extended 

periods of time, sites where smaller numbers of people can camp or picnic, and sites that serve as day use.

All developed recreation sites are open year-round and operate well without a fee program. Drinking 

water is provided at all campgrounds other than Mills Canyon and Rim campgrounds, and is monitored to 

ensure it meets standards for public safety. Drinking water is not provided at any of the day use sites, 

although demand for this service has increased, particularly on the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National 

Grasslands. Reconstruction upgrades have partially occurred at all of the sites, with toilets and other 

facilities brought up to meet current Americans with Disabilities Act and Forest Service standards, 

including accessibility. No major maintenance issues exist, although regular maintenance and upgrades to 

 16 ibid. p. 23-25

17 ibid. p. 25-27

18 USDA 2011b p. 28-30
23

replace facilities at the end of their service life and as needed to meet accessibility standards should 

continue to occur. Visitor use does not exceed the design capacity at these sites, meaning they generally 

do not exceed 70% of their capacity, except during hunting seasons. While the sites are popular and 

highly-valued in sustaining local communities, they do not have serious over-crowding or overflow 

problems. Under current management, the projected trend is that all the developed recreation sites on the 

Grasslands will continue to make a contribution to the quality of life for local residents and visitors, help 

stimulate the local rural economy, and continue to adequately satisfy, through regular maintenance, 

updates, and some expansion, the public demand for different types of developed sites.

The Forest Service is increasingly working to develop and improve interpretive services by laying out 

objectives aimed at increasing coordination with other programs and agencies, increasing professional 

training, and developing a means of working with others to provide interpretive programs. To meet these 

and other objectives, the Grasslands are developing interpretive sites and wildlife and bird watching areas 

which help improve public awareness and appreciation of natural and cultural resources. Public access to 

important natural and cultural resource sites provides an important opportunity to promote tourism and 

local economic growth. Overall, demand for interpretive services is expected to increase and therefore an 

expansion of current partnerships and a locating of new partnerships to aid in their development is 

necessary.

Areas of Interest19

The Grasslands provide many unique and remarkable scenic, historic, and ecological features that attract 

visitors and stimulate the local economy. Grasslands scenery is characterized by pastoral agricultural 

landscapes including vast open grasslands and rolling hills. Views from Grassland units often include 

homes, barns, tractors, trucks, windmills, cattle, stock tanks, and other private ranchland features, in 

addition to some oil and gas wells. Grasslands residents are accustomed to viewing these features and 

consider them a highly-valued part of the traditional landscape. Many visitors also have a deep 

appreciation of the rural character of the plains grasslands landscapes. The presence of farms and ranches 

contribute to the “sense of place” or “cultural identity” for residents and visitors alike.

Actions taken by the Grassland’s managers help contribute to scenic quality or mitigate negative effects 

of other uses that may detract from it. For instance, some closed oil and gas sites on the Black Kettle 

National Grassland were rehabilitated to minimize evidence of the past operation. In the past 20 years, 

Grasslands managers have created some trails to improve the public’s opportunity to view scenic 

landscapes and wildlife. Some areas on the Grasslands provide views that are uncommon in the 

surrounding area or are unique to this part of the plains grasslands. Examples of these areas include the 

lakes and riparian areas on the Black Kettle National Grassland, the “High Lonesome” area of the Rita 

Blanca National Grassland, and Mills Canyon on the Kiowa National Grassland. 

The Kiowa and Rita Blanca Grasslands have several features that attract visitors because of their unique 

historic and scenic resources. These areas have the potential to encourage tourism and enhance rural 

development opportunities in an economically declining region. They are:

o Santa Fe National Historic Trail

o Santa Fe Trail National Scenic Byway

o La Frontera del Llano Scenic Byway (State)

o Canadian River eligible Scenic River 

o Canadian River Inventoried Roadless Area

 19 ibid. p. 27-28, 30-31
24

Kiowa National Grassland provides significant and well-preserved historic (heritage) resources, such as a 

section of the Santa Fe National Historic Trail, and Mills Orchard and Ranch, a historic homestead site. 

Two scenic byways traverse this part of the Grasslands and management along the viewsheds can have a 

significant impact on the recreational experience of drivers. The Canadian Inventoried Roadless Area in 

the Mills area provides the largest semi-primitive non-motorized recreation area on the Grasslands. It

includes the Canadian eligible Scenic River corridor which is managed to retain the river’s outstanding 

historic, scenic, geologic, and recreational features. Local communities are beginning to capitalize on the 

value of these resources; these features and scenery define resident’s “sense of place” and have an 

intrinsic value in their quality of life. Visitation is projected to increase as the nationwide interest in 

historical and cultural tourism increases.

Managed Recreation Concern Areas

The recreational and tourism trends of the region are an important consideration in deciding which 

management strategies can be successfully implemented on the Grasslands. They also identify human 

caused threats or areas of concern that have the potential to affect the social, economic, and ecological 

sustainability of the Grasslands. Areas of concern for managed recreation on the Grasslands include:

o Continuation and maintenance of the opportunities for working with cooperators in the 

development and management of recreational activities.

o Uncontrolled motorized vehicle use on the Grasslands.

o Interest in natural and cultural interpretation and education has been increasing among Grassland 

visitors. Development and maintenance of recreational facilities and activities must be 

commensurate with the demand for use.

o Thresholds for scenery management objectives are being exceeded in some areas of the 

Grasslands.

Need for Change: Managed Recreation

The current Plan does not clearly and specifically address the issues related to recreation and scenic 

resources that play a vital role in supporting social and economic sustainability in the Grasslands. The 

Plan needs to provide direction that is more specific to the Grasslands for providing these important rural 

economic development opportunities:

o The demand for day-hiking, particularly on scenic and interpretive trails, continues to rise on the 

Grasslands. The Plan needs to identify and place emphasis on implementing work with 

cooperators, including tribes, in managing and maintaining recreation sites, including interpretive 

trails, signs, and programs, to support day-hiking development opportunities. Plan focus on this 

recreational development can improve rural economic development and working relationships. 

However, current plan direction for dispersed recreation is largely silent aside from designations 

of specific acreages of ROS classifications. There are also parts of the 1985 Plan which duplicate 

existing FS Handbook and Manual direction on coordinating with other agencies which will be 

removed from the plan and incorporated by reference.

o Motorized vehicle use can damage important vegetation cover, contribute to the spread of 

invasive plants, accelerate soil erosion and stream sedimentation, and degrade riparian 

ecosystems, wildlife habitat, scenic quality, and historic sites. There is a need for the revised Plan 

to address the risks attributed to off-road motorized recreation in Mills Canyon including the 

incompatibility between OHV use and preservation of the outstanding scenic, historic, geologic, 

and recreational attributes found in Mills Canyon along the Canadian River.
25

o The revised plan should acknowledge the need to conduct appropriate project-level analysis to 

mitigate site-specific damage from on-going use of OHV trails at McClellan Creek Grassland.

o There is a need for the plan to reflect changes reasonably anticipated to occur when the Travel 

Management Rule is implemented, such as the expected change in dispersed sites; from those 

requiring off-road access to those that can be accessed from designated roads or walking distance 

from existing roads.

o There is a need for the revised plan to reflect and support direction from the implementation of 

the Travel Management Rule. The new Grasslands Plan is being developed concurrently with the 

Travel Management Study EA, but the new plan will not be pre-decisional to the finding of the 

EA or the resultant Motor Vehicle Use Map.

o Developed recreation sites on the Grasslands continue to adequately satisfy, through regular 

maintenance, updates, and some expansion, the public demand for different types of developed 

sites. There is a need to manage for recreation opportunities in a variety of different settings and 

levels of development, from large developed recreation settings with many facilities to primitive 

settings.

o There is a need for the new plan to provide direction that management of scenic resources be 

based on objectives for specific areas, particularly those areas identified as having high scenic 

quality. 

o Areas of Interest have the potential to encourage tourism and enhance rural economic 

development. Opportunities for visiting, touring, and enjoying guided and interpretive activities 

related to scenery, historic/cultural sites, wildlife and birds, the Canadian eligible Scenic River, 

Canadian River Inventoried Roadless Area, and formally-designated sites including the Santa Fe 

National Historic Trail and two scenic byways.

o The development of the new plan will assess the need for additional special area designations

such as potential wilderness, an eligible Scenic River, or Research Natural Areas.

Revision Topic 3: Human Influences on the 

Grasslands

Local community residents have expressed that the Forest Service is maintaining good relationships and 

open communications with interested residents. These positive relationships strengthen the social 

cohesion and satisfaction with Forest Service actions within local communities. In addition, partnerships 

with other agencies and organizations have increasingly been used to meet Grasslands management 

objectives. Most partnership projects on the Grasslands are aimed at improving wildlife habitat and native 

ecosystem functions, or recreation sites and tourism opportunities, which resulted in enhancing social and 

economic conditions in local communities.

Based on social demographic data, the area surrounding the Grasslands is considered rural with a few 

“urban clusters” of over 2,500 residents. Populations in all the rural areas around the Grasslands are

declining and are projected to continue to decline while populations in the respective states and urban 

centers further from the Grasslands are increasing. Partly due to limited economic opportunities and low 

income levels, most Grasslands counties have more people moving out than in, particularly in the 20-35 

year old age group. An aging population trend is influencing an increase in age-related income 

disbursements (i.e. social security, retirement account) that will continue to comprise the largest 

proportion of income for area residents.
26

Kiow a-Rita Blanca Grassland Counties

- -

127

239

186

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

197019731976197919821985198819911994199720002003

Jobs (Index 1970=100

Recession Bars KRB Aggregation State United States

US

Counties

State

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Grassland Counties

- -

100

238

186

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

197019731976197919821985198819911994199720002003

Jobs (Index 1970=100

Recession Bars BKMC Aggregation

State United States

State

Counties

US

Based on economic data, the employment rate and per capita income level in Grasslands counties is 

expected to remain stable with some periods of growth and decline. Job growth and income levels are 

expected to continue to lag behind the U.S. and the three states average. Figure 7 illustrates that, over the 

last 34 years, job growth in the Grasslands counties has been slower than job growth for the States of 

Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico, and slower than national job growth. Most new jobs will continue to 

be low-income, non-salary, farming and ranching jobs with incomes that fluctuate seasonally. Job 

opportunities are expected to continue the shift from agriculture and oil-gas toward service jobs in urban 

areas further away from the Grasslands. The primary “industry” or economic activity in the area will 

continue to be livestock-related operations run by small businesses with less than 10 employees. Some oil 

and gas industry jobs in the area are expected to decline over the next 50 years.

Figure 5: Employment Compared to State and Nation20

o Vertical Recession Bars show periods of national recession.

o “BKCo_Aggregation” and “KRB County Aggregation” are the aggregated Job indices for the 

counties that contain a part of the Grasslands.

o State data is aggregated for Texas and Oklahoma for the Black Kettle and for Texas, Oklahoma, 

and New Mexico for the Kiowa and Rita Blanca.

Economic opportunities in the local area that are supported by Grasslands management include:

o Land and forage for cattle grazing;

o Royalty payments from oil and gas;

o Habitat for game which attracts out of area hunters;

o Designated areas, recreation sites, and unique scenic, historic, and cultural features which attract 

tourists; and

o Forest Service employment opportunities.

Current Condition and Trends

Some of the key findings identified during evaluation of the Grasslands current conditions and trends 

follow.

 20 Headwaters Economics, 2007. 
27

Livestock and Range Management21

Over 96% of the Grasslands are used by permit-holders to graze their cattle excluding the areas where 

developed recreation, administrative, research sites and exclosures designed to protect resource values are 

designated.

Permittees typically integrate grazing on the Grasslands with a livestock management strategy that 

extends across the surrounding private lands. Livestock management on the Grasslands is managed based 

on environmental analyses, allotment management plans, annual operating instructions, and monitoring. 

There is no indication that there will be a major increase or decrease in grazing on the Grasslands over the 

next 20 years; however, cattle numbers and strategies are expected to continue to fluctuate in response to 

drought, wildfire, prescribed fire, and other factors that change range conditions.

Livestock grazing on the Grasslands has generated few user conflicts. Ranchers occasionally express 

concerns about hunters and other Grasslands visitors cutting fences or leaving gates open, which impacts 

their grazing strategy and increases costs. Continuing current management should provide for affordable 

grazing on the Grasslands that contributes to the rural ranching lifestyle, culture, and economy while 

promoting ecosystem sustainability and trends toward reference conditions without compromising other 

land uses.

Relationships between the grazing permittees and Forest Service are necessarily close, as they work in 

partnership to maintain range facilities, monitor forage production and utilization, and determine 

appropriate stocking levels and the timing of allowable use. Adjustments to stocking levels or grazing 

management strategies continue to be made in Annual Operating Plans as needed based on site-specific 

conditions. These partnerships will remain vital to local communities and are projected to remain stable.

Oil and Gas22

Rich natural gas resources underlie some units of the Grasslands. This resource contributes to meeting the 

nation’s energy needs while supporting the local and regional economy and maintaining a lifestyle in a

rural area that has declining populations and limited economic opportunities. The Grasslands may also 

play an important future role in alternative energy developments such as wind and solar power.

There are currently 37 active oil-gas wells on Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands, and 

none on the Kiowa or Rita Blanca National Grasslands. Geologic analyses recently completed indicate 

that while there may be increases in the number of oil-gas wells on the Black Kettle for a few more years, 

oil-gas development in the area is expected to decline over the next 20-50 years as the wells lose 

productivity.

There is very low potential for economically viable oil or gas development on Kiowa or Rita Blanca 

National Grasslands. Oil and gas well sites on the Grasslands require little land (1-3 acres each) and short 

access roads (less than 1 mile). Under current leasing stipulations and conditions of approval, these 

activities on the Grasslands must meet stringent environmental industry standards including restoring 

closed sites to native grasslands.

The projected long-term declines in oil-gas production on the Grasslands and the associated rehabilitation 

of oil and gas sites should improve vegetative cover and soil productivity in those localized areas, which 

in turn will improve ecosystem and wildlife habitat conditions in those areas. Continuing current 

management trends is expected to continue to contribute to rural economies and national energy demands 

without incurring conflicts with other land uses or risks to ecological sustainability.

 21 USDA 2011b p. 20-21

22 USDA 2011b p. 18
28

Roads and Access23

Road systems play an integral role in social and economic land use opportunities and meeting ecological 

sustainability goals. Traffic volumes in and around the Grasslands are light and expected to remain fairly 

stable, due to the declining local populations and the slight expected increases in tourism-related traffic. 

The increase in tourism related traffic will be mostly concentrated in and around the Ports-to-Plains 

highway through Clayton, scenic byways, and the newly constructed Washita National Monument 

Visitor’s Center.

In the past 10 to 20 years, road density on Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands has 

remained relatively stable and has increased on the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands due to the 

increase in user-created roads. No major Forest Service road construction projects have occurred on the 

Grasslands in the past 20 years and none are anticipated in the foreseeable future.

Road access to National Grassland units is currently a concern and about 50 units do not have access that 

meets public and management needs. These units on the National Grasslands are without legal public road 

access through private land (within 1⁄2-mile). Similarly, some private landowners do not have legal road 

easements to drive through Grassland units to access their land. The lack of legal road easements to 

certain Grassland units constrains opportunities to improve public recreation, expand tourism and rural 

economic development, cost-effectively manage certain ecosystems toward reference conditions, or 

reduce illegal access/trespass issues. Also, the lack of public road access to collect firewood generated 

from thinning in the Pinyon-juniper ecosystem limits achievement of ecosystem restoration objectives on 

those units.

Special Uses24

Over half of the special use permits on the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands are 

related to oil and gas operations, and most permits on the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands are 

for power lines and road easements. The current Plan requires joint use of designated corridors for largescale utilities, such as interstate pipelines and high voltage transmission lines. It is projected that the 

development of oil and gas and wind energy in the region may result in more requests for utility and 

pipeline easements.

It is also projected that the types of special use permits issued may vary over time as demand for certain 

services increases or decreases. For example, in the past few years, Grassland managers received requests 

for activities such as outfitter and guide hunts, ecotourism activities, large-group gatherings, and grassseed harvest. Permit requests for guided outdoor recreation activities are not expected to substantially 

increase on the Grasslands (with the exception of hunting) because of the fragmented land ownership 

pattern. It is projected that demand for permits for educational or research purposes from universities will 

remain high throughout the region.

Common Minerals and Products25

There is no hard rock mining on the Grasslands and there is a prohibition on commercial or private use of 

mineral materials from the Grasslands, in accordance with the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act.

No major change in mineral materials extraction is expected. Continuing current management of mineral 

materials should continue to benefit local communities without land use conflicts or risks to ecological 

sustainability.

The Grasslands sell firewood to commercial operators from thinning operations in Pinyon-juniper 

woodlands and through removal of black locust or other invasive and non-native trees. The thinning and 

 23 ibid. p. 32-34

24 USDA 2011b p. 17-18

25 ibid. p. 18-19
29

tree removal practices are designed to move the ecosystems closer to historical fuel loads, lessen the risk 

of uncharacteristic wildfire, and increase the diversity and population of understory vegetation. The 

public demand for wood from this remote area is generally low and expected to remain balanced with the 

amount of wood likely to be supplied from this area over the next 20 years.

Research26

There are several ongoing research projects on the Grasslands, conducted by universities and other 

research institutes. The successful partnerships between Grasslands managers and educational and 

research institutions is expected to continue to support groundbreaking research. The results of these 

partnerships will continue to provide valuable public information and education about past life forms, 

evolution and ecological diversity. In addition, they will help develop trained environmental professionals 

who are well acquainted with grassland ecosystems. There is projected to be a fairly constant number of 

these activities under current management.

Two grassland vegetation types were identified in the 1985 Plan for evaluation as Research Natural 

Areas. As directed, Mixed Grass and Shortgrass prairie were evaluated; during the evaluation sand 

sagebrush-blue grama ecosystem was also found to be of interest. All three vegetation types failed to meet 

the criteria for recommendation.

In addition, paleontological (fossil) research on the Grasslands continues to contribute valuable 

information about past life forms and ecosystems. The fossils may continue to be affected by soil erosion, 

although the research site is expected to continue to be managed in partnership with educational institutes 

and museums to preserve this important resource.

Overall, management trends will continue to support education and research activities. The number of 

research activities on the Grasslands is expected to remain relatively stable although the type and location 

of projects is likely to change over time.

Fire Management and Law Enforcement27

Protecting the numerous structures on Grasslands units and surrounding private lands from wildfire 

impacts is critical to sustaining livestock grazing, hunting, and other critical land uses that these 

communities depend on. Even the loss of windmills and fences during a wildfire can have serious social 

and economic impacts to families who depend on grazing cattle on the Grasslands units. Partnerships to 

conduct prescribed burns across private land boundaries have improved the ability of the Grasslands 

managers to carry out prescribed burns in and around private lands. Some of the increase in this activity is 

related to the availability of funding for private land owners to complete habitat improvement and fuel 

reduction work on their lands. Because of these conditions, maintaining strong partnerships with local 

communities in these areas will continue to be an important component of meeting the Grasslands’

wildfire management objectives.

Suppression of wildfires on the Grasslands is expected to continue as the wildfire response strategy 

needed to protect human life and property. Cooperative agreements and coordination with agencies and 

rural fire departments on effective wildfire responses is especially important due to the mixed land 

ownership pattern across three states, nine counties, and many municipalities. The Forest Service 

continues to provide technical assistance for local firefighting resources, assist landowners in protecting 

their property from wildfire damage, and give presentations to community groups and schools on wildfire 

protection measures.

Cooperation with private landowners will help facilitate cross boundary prescribed fire events. 

Agreements to conduct cross-boundary burns will improve the ability of the Grasslands managers to 

 26 USDA 2011b p. 31 and 37

27 ibid. p. 37-38
30

protect important structures, reduce excessive fuel loads and wildfire risk, and move ecosystems closer 

toward reference conditions.

Heritage Resources28

Many significant well-preserved heritage resources that represent American Indian, Hispanic, and 

European Americans’ adaptations to the High Plains can be found on the Grasslands. Significant heritage 

resource sites include a 2.4 mile section of the historic Santa Fe Trail and the Mills Orchard and Ranch 

Site, a historic property on the New Mexico State Register of Cultural Properties. In addition, there are 

numerous homestead sites, prehistoric and historic artifact scatters, and other archaeological sites. These 

types of sites have become an increasing source of tourism regionally and nationally.

Another important aspect of preserving heritage resources is the stabilization of historic structures. 

Priority heritage sites identified by the Grasslands have been targeted for such stabilization efforts 

because of their importance to local history. In 2005, several structures in the Mills Canyon Orchard and 

Ranch site were stabilized. It is projected that stabilization projects will continue to be used as a tool to 

protect heritage resources in the future.

There are seven tribes that historically used and may continue to use the Grasslands for traditional, 

cultural, or religious activities. Many of these tribes, after years of separation from their traditional 

homelands, have adapted their cultural practices to resources closer and more easily accessible to where 

they currently reside. Some tribes expressed a desire to increase their use of the Grasslands to collect 

plants or other natural resource materials. While no Traditional Cultural Properties have been identified to 

date on the Grasslands, several tribes acknowledge historical use of the Grasslands, and specifically the 

Canadian River/Mills Canyon area on the Kiowa Grassland. Certain tribes have expressed an interest in 

seeing interpretive sites on the Grasslands be more inclusive of tribal history and in being more involved 

in project-level decisions.

Human Influences on the Grasslands: Concern Areas

The social and economic trends of the region are an important consideration in deciding which 

management strategies can be successfully employed on the Grasslands. They also identify human 

caused threats or areas of concern that have the potential to effect social, economic and ecological 

sustainability of the Grasslands. Some areas of concern for human influences on the Grasslands are:

o The rate and type of energy development activities on the Grasslands is undergoing considerable 

change. Oil and gas wells are expected to decline in productivity and alternative energy sources 

are anticipated in the region (i.e. wind energy).

o The turnover of private land adjacent to Grassland units is a threat to public and administrative 

access because it makes informal agreement with current landowners more tenuous.

o The checkerboard pattern of land ownership within the Grasslands administrative boundary also 

makes management of fire more challenging because of the need to manage fire across a mix of 

property owners.

o Protecting historic structures from vandalism and deterioration is an area of concern because it is 

a resource with potential to contribute to the economic sustainability of the Grassland counties.

Need for Change: Human Influences on the Grasslands

The current Plan does not clearly and specifically address the issues related to social demographics and 

economic conditions and trends, or maintaining consumptive and non-consumptive land uses that play a 

 28 USDA 20011b p. 30-31 and 35
31

vital role in supporting social and economic sustainability in the rural Grasslands area. The revised Plan

should provide direction that is more specific to the Grasslands for providing these important land uses 

and economic opportunities:

o Livestock grazing is the most widespread use on the Grasslands. The current Plan’s overall 

emphasis to promote and demonstrate grasslands agriculture, integrate grasslands management 

with units of other ownership, and to ensure that rangeland management is consistent with other 

resources, particularly wildlife habitat, is still applicable to the current conditions and trends on 

the Grasslands. However, the current Plan direction is focused on percentages of the Grasslands 

that should be in each condition class and to maintain a sustained yield of forage. This direction is 

outdated because it does not incorporate the adaptive management system principles that are 

currently used by the Forest Service and therefore, needs to be changed as part of Plan revision. 

There are also many parts of the Plan which duplicate existing FS Handbook and Manual 

direction which will be removed from the Plan and incorporated by reference.

o Oil and gas development contributes to meeting the nation’s energy needs while supporting the 

local and regional economy. For the most part, the current Plan (pp. 33-1, 34, 72) reiterates 

requirements found in the Forest Service Manual (FSM 2802-2803 and 2822). It also contains 

suitability criteria for No Surface Occupancy areas and direction for additional leasing 

stipulations for area greater that 16 degrees in slope (which is a rare topographical feature on 

grasslands). Because of the high density of oil and gas leasing on the Black Kettle and McClellan 

Creek National Grasslands and the growth of alternative energy enterprises such as wind farms, 

the revised Plan needs to facilitate energy development, while protecting natural resources, 

heritage sites and scenery.

o The current Plan has no direction related to oil and gas production site rehabilitation. Oil and gas 

productivity is declining in some parts of the Grasslands. There is a need to describe expectations 

for the rehabilitation of disturbed sites, such as oil and gas pads and roads, after operations have 

ceased in order to protect soil productivity and return vegetative cover.

o The checkerboard pattern of landownership across the grasslands make cooperating with private 

landowners essential to maintaining access to public lands. The current Plan is silent on road 

access but does prioritize consolidating ownership to improve management through land 

acquisition. The revised Plan needs to emphasize the importance of obtaining legal road access to 

National Grassland units that meets public, private land owner and management needs.

o The current Plan provides a map of utility corridors for each unit and does not allow large 

transmission utilities such as large electrical lines and major pipelines outside of these areas 

Because of the projected increase and changes in the type of energy developments in the region

and the land ownership pattern of the Grasslands, the revised Plan needs to consider the best way 

to manage requests for utility easements and related special uses.

o There are many special uses of the Grasslands that provide economic support to local 

communities. The current Plan is silent on special uses other than utility corridors and oil and gas 

sites. The revised Plan needs to provide opportunities for extracting miscellaneous products for 

commercial, non-commercial and Tribal use, such as wood products, plants, grass seed, or other 

materials.

o The current Plan is silent on non-commercial mineral uses on the Grasslands. The BankheadJones Act prohibits the extraction of common mineral materials for commercial uses; however, 

there is a need to manage non-commercial use of common mineral materials, so that resources 

can be adequately protected.

o The only direction in the current Plan related to firewood is that areas should be evaluated for 

their suitability for firewood gathering and that firewood gathering would not be allowed in 
32

Research Natural Areas (RNAs). Even though firewood gathering is less common on the 

Grasslands as in mountainous areas, it is still an important tool in managing vegetation. The 

revised Plan should identify what the goals of firewood gathering are on the Grasslands and 

support this important activity for local communities.

o Research on the Grasslands helps improve understanding of grassland ecosystems and provides 

educational opportunities for local communities. The current Plan only identifies that there should 

be an effort to establish RNAs on the Grasslands. It provides no other direction for how to 

manage other types of research activities on the Grasslands. There is a need for the revised Plan

to provide opportunities to conduct research on the grasslands, regardless of whether a RNA is 

established, and to make available areas with unique opportunities for research and educational 

use.

o The checkerboard pattern of the Grassland units and private land along with the types of fuels 

found on the Grasslands creates a fire environment which is very different from forests of the 

intermountain west. The current Plan provides no direction that assists in managing fire in an 

ownership pattern like the Grasslands; however, the overall goals of coordinating with other fire 

management agencies and preventing loss of life and property are applicable. The revised Plan

needs to identify appropriate management strategies for responding to wildland fires on Grassland 

units to avoid loss of life or significant property damage.

o Even though landscape-scale prescribed burning is unrealistic due to existing landownership 

patterns, the revised Plan needs to address how prescribed fires can be managed across 

jurisdictional boundaries to improve ecological conditions and wildlife habitat on and around the 

Grasslands.

o Historic structures are an important feature of the cultural and scenic resources of the grasslands. 

All of the direction for heritage resources in the current Plan reference outdated Forest Service 

direction or repeat existing direction and it is silent on many management issues. There are 

several areas of management important to the overall goal of preserving heritage resources that 

the revised Plan needs to address, in particular, the stabilization and preservation of historic 

structures and Traditional Cultural Properties. The revised Plan should also address the role of 

heritage sites in economic development.

References Cited

Headwaters Economics, 2007. All Grassland Counties, Black Kettle Counties, and Kiowa and Rita 

Blanca Counties Aggregation of Demographic, Employment, and Income Trends; and Grassland 

Counties Urban and Rural Housing. Available at: http://www.headwaterseconomics.org/. Accessed on 

March 16, 2007.

Russell and Adams-Russell. 2005. Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs Towards National Forest System Lands: 

The Black Kettle, Kiowa, and Rita Blanca National Grasslands. Adams-Russell Consulting, 

Placerville, CA.

USDA Forest Service. 20011a. Ecological Sustainability Report for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle 

and McClellan Creek National Grasslands.
33

USDA Forest Service. 2011b. Socio-Economic Sustainability Report for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black 

Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands.