U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, 

North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5090–G

Global Mineral Resource Assessment 

Prepared in cooperation with the Russian Academy of Sciences, China Geological Survey, Chinese Academy of 

Geological Sciences, the Coordinating Committee for Geoscience Programs in East and Southeast Asia, and XDM 

Geological Consultants, Inc.
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Porphyry Copper Assessment of the 

Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, 

North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

By Steve Ludington, Mark J. Mihalasky, Jane M. Hammarstrom, Gilpin R. Robinson, 

Jr., Thomas P. Frost, Kathleen D. Gans, Thomas D. Light, Robert J. Miller, and 

Dmitriy Alexeiev; based on contributions of Yan Guangsheng, Lian Changyun, 

Mao Jingwen, Li Jinyi, Xiao Keyan, Qiu Ruizhao, Shao Jianbao, Zhai Gangyi, 

Du Yuliang, Arthur A. Bookstrom, and Andre Panteleyev

Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5090–G

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey 

Global Mineral Resource Assessment

Michael L. Zientek, Jane M. Hammarstrom, and Kathleen M. Johnson, editors

Prepared in cooperation with the Russian Academy of Sciences, China 

Geological Survey, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, the Coordinating 

Committee for Geoscience Programs in East and Southeast Asia, and XDM 

Geological Consultants, Inc.
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2012

This report and any updates to it are available online at:

http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5090/g/

For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, 

its natural and living resources, natural hazards, and the environment:

World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov/

Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS

Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for descriptive purposes 

only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.

Although this report is in the public domain, it may contain copyrighted materials that 

are noted in the text. Permission to reproduce those items must be secured from 

the individual copyright owners.

Suggested citation:

Ludington, Steve, Mihalasky, M.J., Hammarstrom, J. M., Robinson, G.R. Jr., Frost, T.P., Gans, K.D., Light, T.D., Miller, 

R.J., and Alexeiev, Dmitriy, 2012, Porphyry copper assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North 

Korea, Mongolia, and Russia: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010-5090-G, 53 p. and GIS data.
iii

Acknowledgments 

The assessment of porphyry copper deposits in eastern Asia has a long history, and many 

people have been involved. USGS colleagues Klaus J. Schulz and Joseph A. Briskey initiated 

the project and participated in the first workshop, in Kunming, Yunnan, in 2002. Stephen G. 

Peters and Warren Nokleberg coordinated and led the initial assessment activities, prepared 

preliminary reports, and represented the USGS to our Chinese counterparts at several meetings. Jack H. Medlin, as USGS international specialist for Asia and the Pacific, facilitated joint 

project activities. Kathleen M. Johnson, USGS Mineral Resources Program Coordinator, provided 

spirited and constant support over the life of the project. Niki E. Wintzer and Kathleen D. Gans 

provided technical support.

USGS colleagues Peter Vikre, Floyd Gray, Michael L. Zientek, Arthur A. Bookstrom, and 

Mark M. Cocker served on an assessment oversight committee to evaluate the assessment 

results prior to publication. Technical reviews of the manuscript and GIS were provided by Floyd 

Gray, Karen D. Kelley, and Connie Dicken.

Scientists from the China Geological Survey and the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences generously participated in assessment meetings and provided data that would not have 

otherwise been available. Special thanks are due to Drs. Qiu Ruizhao, Tan Yongjie, and Chen 

Xiufa, who hosted the senior author for visits to copper deposits in China.
iv

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................1

Terminology............................................................................................................................................2

Report Format........................................................................................................................................3

Political Boundaries .............................................................................................................................3

Considerations for Users of this Assessment..................................................................................5

Porphyry Copper Deposit Models...............................................................................................................5

Occurrence Models..............................................................................................................................6

Grade and Tonnage Models................................................................................................................6

Tectonic Setting .............................................................................................................................................8

Lower Yangtze River Metallogenic Belt..........................................................................................10

The Adakite Issue ...............................................................................................................................10

Assessment Data.........................................................................................................................................10

Geologic Maps ....................................................................................................................................10

Mineral Occurrence Data .................................................................................................................12

Geochemical Data ..............................................................................................................................12

Other Data............................................................................................................................................12

Exploration History.......................................................................................................................................12

The Assessment Process...........................................................................................................................12

Three-Part Assessment.....................................................................................................................12

Tract Delineation.................................................................................................................................13

Permissive tracts for Mesozoic Porphyry Copper Deposits in East Asia..................................13

Manchuride Tract ......................................................................................................................15

Coastal Pacific Tract .................................................................................................................15

East Qinling Tract.......................................................................................................................15

Estimating Numbers of Undiscovered Deposits............................................................................15

Probabilistic Assessment Results....................................................................................................16

Discussion.....................................................................................................................................................16

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................18

Appendix A. Porphyry Copper Assessment for Tract 142pCu8509, Manchuride—China, 

Mongolia, North Korea, and Russia. ...........................................................................................25

Appendix B. Porphyry Copper Assessment for Tract 142pCu8704, Coastal Pacific, China 

and Vietnam.....................................................................................................................................33

Appendix C. Porphyry Copper Assessment for Tract 142pCu8705, East Qinling, China...................41

Appendix D. Porphyry Copper Deposits and Prospects........................................................................48

Appendix E. Description of Geographic Information System (GIS) Files............................................51

Appendix F. Assessment Team Member Information ............................................................................52

Figures

1. Mesozoic porphyry copper deposits and prospects of East Asia ............................................4

 2. Subduction and postsubduction models for porphyry copper generation..............................6

 3. Models for porphyry copper deposits in non-arc settings ...........................................................7
v

 4. Cumulative frequency plot showing contained copper of East Asian Mesozoic 

 porphyry copper deposits compared to global deposits from the grade-tonnage 

 model................................................................................................................................................... 8

 5. Simplified tectonic sketch map of East Asia.................................................................................9

 6. Map showing tracts permissive for Mesozoic porphyry copper deposits in East Asia......14

 7. Chart showing identified and undiscovered copper resources for Mesozoic permissive 

 tracts in East Asia............................................................................................................................18

 A1. Map showing tract location, known porphyry copper deposits, and porphyry copper 

 prospects for tract 142pCu8509, Manchuride—China, Mongolia, North Korea, and 

 Russia................................................................................................................................................26

 A2. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo computer simulation of undis-

 covered resources for tract 142pCu8509, Manchuride—China, Mongolia, North Korea, and 

 Russia.................................................................................................................................................32

 B1. Map showing tract location, known porphyry copper deposits, and porphyry copper 

 prospects for tract 142pCu8704, Coastal Pacific—China and Vietnam........................................34

 B2. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo computer simulation of undis-

 covered resources for tract 142pCu8704, Coastal Pacific—China and Vietnam.........................40

 C1. Map showing tract location, known porphyry copper deposits, and porphyry copper 

 prospects for tract 142pCu8705, East Qinling—China................................................................... 42

 C2. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo computer simulation 

 of undiscovered resources for tract 142pCu8705, East Qinling—China.................................47

Tables

1. Summary of identified resources in Mesozoic porphyry copper deposits of East Asia........3

2. Principal sources of information used for assessment of Mesozoic porphyry copper 

 in East Asia .......................................................................................................................................11

3. Permissive tracts for Mesozoic porphyry copper deposits in East Asia....................................... 14

4. Estimates of numbers of undiscovered Mesozoic porphyry copper deposits in 

 East Asia............................................................................................................................................16

5. Summary of simulations of undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits 

 and comparison with identified copper and gold resources in Mesozoic porphyry 

 copper deposits in East Asia .........................................................................................................17

 A1. Summary of selected resource assessment results for tract 142pCu8509, Manchuride—

 China, Mongolia, North Korea, and Russia.....................................................................................26

 A2. Porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu8509, Manchuride—China, Mongolia, North 

 Korea, and Russia .............................................................................................................................27

 A3. Significant prospects in tract 142pCu8509, Manchuride—China, Mongolia, North Korea, 

 and Russia..........................................................................................................................................28

 A4. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density for 

 tract 142pCu8509, Manchuride—China, Mongolia, North Korea, and Russia.............................29

 A5. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources for tract 142pCu8509, 

 Manchuride—China, Mongolia, North Korea, and Russia............................................................29

 B1. Summary of selected resource assessment results for tract 142pCu8704, Coastal 

 Pacific—China and Vietnam............................................................................................................33

 B2. Porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu8704, Coastal Pacific—China and Vietnam ..............36
vi

 B3. Significant prospects and occurrences in tract 142pCu8704, Coastal Pacific—China 

 and Vietnam.......................................................................................................................................36

 B4. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density for 

 tract 142pCu8704, Coastal Pacific—China and Vietnam ...............................................................37

 B5. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources for tract 142pCu8704, 

 Coastal Pacific—China and Vietnam ..............................................................................................37

 C1. Summary of selected resource assessment results for tract 142pCu8705, East 

 Qinling—China ........................................................................................................................................ 41

 C2. Porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu8705, East Qinling—China ..........................................43

 C3. Significant prospects and occurrences in tract 142pCu8705, East Qinling—China....................44

 C4. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density for 

 tract 142pCu8705, East Qinling—China ............................................................................................... 44

 C5. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources for tract 142pCu8705, 

 East Qinling—China ..........................................................................................................................45

 D1. Porphyry copper deposits, prospects, and occurrences in the Mesozoic of 

 East Asia................................................................................................................................................... 48

Acronyms and Abbreviations Used in this report 

ANOVA analysis of variance

CIS Commonwealth of Independent States

CCOP Coordinating Committee for Geoscience Programs

CGS China Geological Survey

GIS Geographic Information Systems

kt thousand metric tons

MASH melt, assimilation, storage, and homogenization

Ma million of years before the present

Mt million metric tons

REE rare-earth elements

SCLM subcontinental lithospheric mantle

SHRIMP sensitive high resolution ion microprobe

SSIB small-scale digital internal boundaries

USGS U.S. Geological Survey
vii

Conversion Factors

Inch/Pound to SI

Multiply By To obtain

Length

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

yard (yd) 0.9144 meter (m)

Area

acre 4,047 square meter (m2)

acre 0.4047 hectare (ha)

acre 0.4047 square hectometer (hm2) 

acre 0.004047 square kilometer (km2

)

square mile (mi2

) 259.0 hectare (ha)

square mile (mi2

) 2.590 square kilometer (km2) 

Mass

ounce, avoirdupois (oz) 28.35 gram (g) 

pound, avoirdupois (lb) 0.4536 kilogram (kg) 

ton, short (T) (2,000 lb) 0.9072 megagram (Mg) 

ton, short (T) (2,000 lb) 907.18474 kilogram (kg) 

ton, short (T) (2,000 lb) 0.90718474 metric tons (t) 

SI to Inch/Pound

Multiply By To obtain

Length

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft)

kilometer (km) 0.6214 mile (mi)

meter (m) 1.094 yard (yd) 

Area

hectare (ha) 2.471 acre

square hectometer (hm2) 2.471 acre

square kilometer (km2

) 247.1 acre

square centimeter (cm2

) 0.001076 square foot (ft

2

)

square meter (m2

) 10.76 square foot (ft

2

) 

hectare (ha) 0.003861 square mile (mi2

) 

square kilometer (km2

) 0.3861 square mile (mi2)

Mass

gram (g) 0.03527 ounce, avoirdupois (oz)

kilogram (kg) 2.205 pound avoirdupois (lb)

megagram (Mg) 1.102 ton, short (2,000 lb)

megagram (Mg) 0.9842 ton, long (2,240 lb)
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Abstract

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) collaborated with the 

China Geological Survey (CGS) to conduct a mineral resource 

assessment of Mesozoic porphyry copper deposits in East Asia. 

This area hosts several very large porphyry deposits, exemplified by the Dexing deposit in eastern China that contains more 

than 8,000,000 metric tons of copper. In addition, large parts 

of the area are undergoing active exploration and are likely to 

contain undiscovered porphyry copper deposits.

Three tracts were delineated to be permissive for Mesozoic porphyry copper deposits in East Asia: the Manchuride, 

Coastal Pacific, and East Qinling tracts, all Jurassic through 

Cretaceous in age. The tracts are based on mapped and 

inferred subsurface distributions of igneous rocks that define 

areas where the occurrence of porphyry copper deposits is 

possible. These tracts range in area from about 170,000 to 

about 1,400,000 km2. Although maps at a variety of scales 

were used in the assessment, the final tract boundaries are 

intended for use at a scale of 1:1,000,000.

These Mesozoic deposits in East Asia all formed in postsubduction environments, environments newly recognized as 

permissive for the occurrence of porphyry copper deposits. 

Based on the grade, tonnage, and geologic characteristics 

of the known deposits, two tracts, Manchuride and Coastal 

Pacific, were evaluated using the general (Cu-Mo-Au) porphyry copper grade and tonnage model. The East Qinling tract 

1

U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California, United States.

2

U.S. Geological Survey, Spokane, Washington, United States.

3

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, United States.

4

Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.

5

China Geological Survey, Beijing, China.

6

Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, China.

7

XDM Geological Consultants, Inc., Victoria, Canada.

Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East 

Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

By Steve Ludington1, Mark J. Mihalasky2, Jane M. Hammarstrom3, Gilpin R. Robinson, Jr.3, Thomas P. Frost2, 

Kathleen D. Gans1

, Thomas D. Light2, Robert J. Miller1, and Dmitriy Alexeiev4; based on contributions of 

Yan Guangsheng5

, Lian Changyun5, Mao Jingwen6, Li Jinyi5, Xiao Keyan5, Qiu Ruizhao5, Shao Jianbao5, 

Zhai Gangyi5

, and Du Yuliang5,Arthur A. Bookstrom2, and Andre Panteleyev7

was evaluated using the molybdenum-rich (Cu-Mo) model. 

Assessment participants estimated numbers of undiscovered 

deposits at different levels of confidence for each permissive 

tract. These estimates were then combined with the selected 

grade and tonnage models using Monte Carlo simulation to 

generate quantitative probabilistic estimates of undiscovered 

resources. Resources in future extensions of deposits with 

identified resources were not specifically evaluated.

Assessment results, presented in tables and graphs, show 

mean amounts of metal and rock in undiscovered deposits at 

different quantile levels, as well as the arithmetic mean for 

each tract. This assessment estimated a mean total of about 44 

undiscovered porphyry copper deposits within the assessed 

permissive tracts in East Asia. This represents nearly 4 times 

the 12 known deposits. Predicted mean (arithmetic) resources 

that could be associated with these undiscovered deposits are 

about 198,000,000 metric tons (t) of copper and about 3,900 

t of gold, as well as byproduct molybdenum and silver. The 

reported identified resources for those 12 known deposits total 

about 23,000,000 t of copper and about 850 t of gold. The 

assessment area is estimated to contain nearly nine times as 

much copper in undiscovered porphyry copper deposits as has 

been identified to date.

This report includes an overview of the assessment 

results and summary tables. Descriptions of each tract are 

included in appendixes, with estimates of numbers of undiscovered deposits, and probabilistic estimates of amounts of 

copper, molybdenum, gold, and silver that could be contained in undiscovered deposits for each permissive tract. A 

geographic information system that accompanies the report 

includes tract boundaries and a database of known porphyry 

copper deposits and prospects.

Introduction

Mesozoic porphyry copper deposits in eastern China, 

Mongolia, and Russia are part of an important copper 
2 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

province, one that provides much of China’s copper. The

area hosts Dexing, which contains more than 8,000,000 

metric tons (t) of copper (Cu) and is China’s largest operating copper mine. In addition, the study area hosts five more 

large porphyry copper deposits with more than 1,000,000 t 

of copper: Wunugetushan, Chengmenshan, and Zijinshan in 

China and Shakhtama and Bystrinskoe in Russia. Six other 

porphyry copper deposits have been reported (table 1), and 

there are numerous prospects in the assessed region (fig. 1).

Dexing has been in operation since at least the 1970s, 

and copper has been mined from high-grade vein and skarn 

deposits in eastern China for thousands of years. Most of the 

deposits in this region contain important amounts of molybdenum (Mo), gold (Au), and silver (Ag), all of which will be 

important byproducts in undiscovered deposits there.

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) conducted a 

probabilistic mineral-resource assessment of undiscovered 

resources in Mesozoic porphyry copper deposits in East Asia 

as part of a global mineral resource assessment. The purpose 

of the assessment was to (1) compile a database of known 

porphyry copper deposits and significant prospects, (2) delineate permissive areas (tracts) for undiscovered porphyry copper deposits at a scale of 1:1,000,000, (3) estimate numbers 

of undiscovered deposits within those permissive tracts, and 

(4) provide probabilistic estimates of the amounts of copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), gold (Au), and silver (Ag) that 

could be contained in those undiscovered deposits. The study 

was conducted in part in cooperation with the China Geological Survey (CGS) between 2002 and 2010. This document describes permissive areas for deposits of Mesozoic 

age within a geographic region (fig. 1) that includes much of 

eastern China, a small part of eastern Mongolia, and small 

areas in adjacent Russia, Korea, and Vietnam.

This assessment report includes an overview of the 

results, and summary tables. Detailed descriptions of each 

tract are included in appendixes, which include estimates of 

numbers of undiscovered deposits, and probabilistic estimates of amounts of copper, molybdenum, gold, and silver 

that could be contained in undiscovered deposits for each 

permissive tract. A database and map prepared using the 

geographic information system accompany the report, and 

include tract boundaries and a database of known porphyry 

copper deposits and significant prospects.

The assessment was conducted using the three-part form 

of mineral-resource assessment based on established mineral 

deposit models (Singer 1993, 2007a, b; Singer and Berger, 

2007; Singer and Menzie, 2010). In the three-part form of 

mineral-resource assessment, geographic areas (permissive 

tracts) are delineated using geologic, geochemical, mineral 

occurrence, and geophysical data to identify areas with 

features typical of the type of deposit under consideration. In 

this study, three permissive tracts were defined: the northernmost Manchuride permissive tract (142pCu8509) in northern 

China, western Mongolia, North Korea, and Russia; the East 

Qinling permissive tract (142pCu8705) in central China; 

and the Coastal Pacific permissive tract (142pCu8704) in 

coastal southeastern China and Vietnem (fig. 1). Secondly, 

the amount of metal in undiscovered deposits is estimated 

using grade and tonnage models derived from information 

about known deposits. Probabilistic estimates of numbers of 

undiscovered deposits are consistent with the known deposits 

that define grade and tonnage models (Singer, 2007a). And 

thirdly, estimates are made at different confidence levels 

using a variety of estimation strategies to express the degree 

of belief that some fixed but unknown number of deposits 

exists within the permissive tract. These estimates are measures of the favorability of the tract and of the estimator’s 

uncertainty about what may exist (Singer, 2007a).

Eastern Asia is an area of active mineral exploration, 

by both Chinese and international companies. This report 

reflects the status of porphyry copper exploration projects 

known to the authors as of August 2011. The supply of copper is important for Chinese industry, and continued exploration for and development of porphyry copper deposits is 

likely. Exploration in China, as elsewhere in the world, is 

presently focused on precious-metal deposits, due to current 

elevated prices, but porphyry copper systems may be associated with some precious-metal deposits and may be present 

in other parts of large exploration concessions under study 

for precious metals.

Terminology

The terminology used in this report follows the definitions used in the 1998 U.S. Geological Survey assessment of 

undiscovered resources in the United States (U.S. Geological 

Survey National Mineral Resource Assessment Team, 2000). 

This terminology is intended to represent standard definitions 

that reflect general usage by the minerals industry and the 

resource assessment community.

•Mineral deposit—An occurrence of a valuable commodity 

or mineral that is of sufficient size and grade that it might, 

under the most favorable of circumstances, be considered to 

have potential for economic development.

•Undiscovered mineral deposit—A mineral deposit that is 

believed to exist or an incompletely explored mineral occurrence or prospect that could have sufficient size and grade to 

be classified as a deposit.

•Mineral prospect—A mineral concentration that is being 

actively examined to determine whether a mineral deposit 

exists.

•Mineral occurrence—A locality where a useful mineral or 

material is found.

•Permissive tract—The surface projection of a volume of 

rock whose geologic characteristics permit the existence of 

a mineral deposit of a specified type. The probability that 

deposits of the type being studied occur outside the boundary 
Introduction 3

Table 1. Summary of identified resources in Mesozoic porphyry copper deposits of East Asia.

[Ma, million years; Mt, million metric tons; %, percent; g/t, grams per metric ton; t, metric tons; n.d., no data. Contained Cu in metric tons is computed as 

tonnage (Mt × 1,000,000) × Cu grade (percent)]

Tract Tract name Deposit name Age 

(Ma)

Tonnage 

(Mt)

Cu 

(%)

Mo 

(%)

Au 

(g/t)

Ag 

(g/t)

Contained 

Cu (t)

Contained 

Mo (t)

Contained 

Au (t)

142pCu8509 Manchuride Shakhtama 153 1,100 0.26 0.06 0.09 n.d. 2,860,000 660,000 99

Zhireken 158 130 0.1 0.099 n.d. n.d. 130,000 129,000 n.d.

Bystrinskoe Jurassic 349 0.7 n.d. 0.81 3.63 2,440,000 n.d. 283

Xiaosigou 106 18 0.73 0.086 n.d. n.d. 131,000 15,500 n.d.

Wunugetushan 184 558 0.4 0.05 n.d. n.d. 2,230,000 279,000 n.d.

142pCu8704 Coastal 

Pacific

Tongchankou 143 45 0.94 0.04 n.d. n.d. 419,000 17,800 n.d.

Fengshandong 144 105 0.38 0.05 0.37 20 399,000 52,500 39

Chengmenshan 144 409 0.75 0.047 0.24 9.9 3,070,000 192,000 98

Dexing 171 1,825 0.459 0.016 0.12 1.9 8,380,000 292,000 219

Yinshan 178 83 0.52 n.d. 0.8 n.d. 432,000 n.d. 66

Zijinshan 105 356 0.49 n.d. 0.14 6 1,740,000 n.d. 50

142pCu8705 East Qinling Jinduicheng 138 1,400 0.028 0.091 n.d. n.d. 390,000 1,270,000 n.d.

Total 22,600,000 2,910,000 854

of the tract is negligible. In this report, the term is commonly 

abbreviated to “tract.”

•Resource—A mineral concentration of sufficient size and 

grade, and in such form and amount that economic extraction of a commodity from the concentration is currently or 

potentially feasible.

•Identified resources—Resources whose location, grade, quality, and quantity are known or can be estimated from specific 

geologic evidence. For this assessment, identified resources 

are those in the porphyry copper deposits included in the grade 

and tonnage models used in the assessment (which can include 

measured, indicated, and inferred mineral resources at the lowest available cut-off grade). In addition, deposits that are not 

included in the models used for the assessment are considered 

to contain identified resources if they are characterized well 

enough to meet commonly used reporting guidelines.

•S-type granite—Granite in which geochemical and isotopic 

characteristics are primarily inherited through partial melting 

of a crustal sedimentary source.

Report Format

This report begins with a discussion of descriptive and 

grade and tonnage models of porphyry copper deposits. This is 

followed by a discussion of the Mesozoic tectonic history of the 

region and how that history has influenced the emplacement of 

magmatic rocks and the formation of porphyry copper deposits. The next section consists of comments about the nature 

and quality of the data that was gathered for the assessment, 

followed by a brief discussion of the exploration history. Next, 

the processes used to delineate permissive tracts are described, 

and a brief description of the three tracts analyzed in this study 

is presented. The last section of the report describes the assessment process, including a description of how estimates of 

numbers of undiscovered deposits are made and a discussion of 

the assessment results and their significance.

There are six appendixes to the report. Assessment results 

for the three permissive tracts, Manchuride, Coastal Pacific, and 

East Qinling, are presented in tabular form in appendixes A, B, 

and C, respectively, along with brief descriptions of the deposits 

and prospects in the tracts, and references for that information. 

Detailed information about the porphyry copper deposits and 

prospects in the area is presented in tabular form in appendix 

D. Tract boundaries and point locations of significant deposits 

and prospects are included in a geographic information system 

(GIS) described in appendix E. Appendix F identifies the members of the assessment team.

Political Boundaries

The political boundaries used in this report are, in accord 

with U.S. Government policy, the small-scale digital international boundaries (SSIB) provided by the U.S. Department 

of State (U.S. Department of State, 2009). In various parts of 

the world, some political boundaries are in dispute. The use 

of the boundaries certified by the U.S. Department of State 

does not imply that the U.S. Geological Survey advocates or 

has an interest in the outcome of any international boundary 

disputes.
4 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

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"

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80°E 100°E 120°E 140°E

50°N

30°N

CHINA

RUSSIA

MONGOLIA

MYANMAR

INDIA

LAOS

NORTH

KOREA

SOUTH

KOREA

VIETNAM

Xian

Chita

Hanoi

Lhasa

Pusan

Seoul

Taipei

Harbin

Kunming

Chengdu

Lanzhou

Beijing

Irkutsk

Mandalay

Shanghai

Guangzhou Hong Kong

Khabarovsk

Ulaanbaatar

9

8 7

6

5

4

3

57

52

58 56

55 54 53

51

49

47 46

45

41

40 38

34

31

50 48

44

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33

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27

22

21

14 13

12

11 10

29

28

26

25

24

23

20

18

17

16

15

19

6

36

Dexing

Yinshan

Zijinshan

Xiaosigou

Jinduicheng

Tongchankou

Fengshandong

2

1

Zhireken

Bystrinskoe

Wunugetushan

Shaktama

Chengmenshan

0 200 400 MILES

0 400 800 KILOMETERS

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 110° E., latitude of origin, 30° N.

Source for world terrain base: 

http://goto.arcgisonline.com/maps/World_Terrain_Base

Porphyry copper deposit

Porphyry copper prospect

Associated with tract 142pCu8509

Associated with tract 142pCu8509

Associated with tract 142pCu8704 

Associated with tract 142pCu8704 

Associated with tract 142pCu8705 

Associated with tract 142pCu8705 

Porphyry copper occurrence

Associated with tract 142pCu8509

EXPLANATION

"

"

"

Figure 1. Mesozoic porphyry copper deposits and prospects of East Asia. Sites are color coded by assessment tract: 

Brown, Manchuride (142pCu8509); Red, Coastal Pacific (142pCu8704); Blue, East Qinling (142pCu8705). Deposits are 

named on the map, prospects are numbered. Prospect names: 1, Borgulikan; 2, Twenty-one Station; 3, Lugokanskaya; 4, 

Kultuminskaya; 5, Kurunzulaiskaya; 6, Badaguan; 7, Advartolgoi; 8, Babayi; 9, Changling; 10, Group 6 and 7; 11, Bayantumen; 

12, Davhar Uul; 13, Suul Tsagaan; 14, Zuun Matad; 15, Naoniushan; 16, Lianhuashan; 17, Budunhua; 18, Ulandler; 19, 

Aolonhua; 20, Aonaodaba; 21, Baikal; 22, Haoliabao; 23, Daheishan; 24, Yangchang; 25, Xiaoxinancha; 26, Shibadougou; 27, 

Xinhe; 28, Yajishan; 29, Houyu; 30, Shangjiazhuang; 31, Qibaoshan; 32, Duijinshan; 33, Anjishan; 34, Guli; 35, Taipingshan; 36, 

Shaxi; 37, Jingbian; 38, Bamaoshan; 39, Baiyunshan; 40, Dingjiashan; 41, Heishanling; 42, Yongping; 43, Wangjiazhuang; 44, 

Hongshan; 45, Zhongliao; 46, Luoboling; 47, Jinxi; 48, Zhongteng; 49, Guifeng; 50, Yuanzhuding; 51, Yemaquan; 52, Jiangligou; 

53, Wenquan; 54, Taiyangshan; 55, Deemi; 56, Dan Feng; 57, Luocun; 58, Qiushuwan.
Porphyry Copper Deposit Models 5

Considerations for Users of this Assessment

Ideally, assessments are done on a recurring basis, at a 

variety of scales, because available data change over time. 

This product represents a synthesis of current, readily available information as of August 2011. The assessment is based 

on the descriptive and grade-tonnage data contained in published mineral deposit models. Data in the grade and tonnage 

models represent the most reliable average grades available for 

each commodity of possible economic interest; the tonnages 

are based on the total of production, reserves, and resources at 

the lowest cutoff grade for which data were available when the 

model was constructed.

The economic viability of any mineral deposit depends 

on a wide variety of factors, many of which vary with time. 

This caveat applies to the deposits used to construct the gradetonnage models, as well as to undiscovered deposits, so care 

must be exercised when using the results of this assessment to 

answer economic questions. If discovered, deposits may not 

be developed immediately or ever. Furthermore, the estimates 

in this assessment are of numbers of deposits that are likely 

to exist, not necessarily those likely to be discovered (Singer, 

2007b). Prospects, revealed by past or current exploration 

efforts, may become deposits through further drilling and 

characterization. These probable deposits are treated here 

as undiscovered deposits, albeit ones with a high degree of 

certainty of existence.

The mineral industry explores for extensions of identified 

resources, as well as for undiscovered deposits. Extensions 

of identified resources are not estimated in this assessment, 

although they are commonly a substantial part of newly discovered copper resources each year.

This assessment considers the potential for both exposed 

deposits and concealed deposits within 1 kilometer (km) of 

the surface. Very high grade deposits may be exploited at 

greater depths; however, it is not common. Exploration for 

and possible exploitation of these deeper deposits may be so 

expensive that they may not be discovered in the near term. If 

they are discovered, the cost to mine a deeply buried porphyry 

deposit may easily prohibit its development into a mine, given 

current or near-term metal prices and technology.

Permissive tracts are based on geology, irrespective 

of political boundaries. Therefore, tracts may cross country 

boundaries or include lands that already have been developed 

for other uses or have been withdrawn from mineral development as protected areas. The tracts were constructed at a scale 

of 1:1,000,000 and are not intended for use at larger scales.

Porphyry Copper Deposit Models

Porphyry copper deposits typically form in subductionrelated, compressional tectonic settings, during active subduction of oceanic or continental crust (Sillitoe, 2010; John and 

others, 2010). These deposits are associated with shallowly 

emplaced calc-alkaline plutons. The Andes range of South 

America is the classic province for continental arc magmatism 

(Kay and others, 1999; Richards and others, 2001). Magma 

associated with these deposits is typically hydrous, oxidized, 

and rich in sulfur and has likely undergone complex processes 

of differentiation and evolution at the crust/mantle boundary (Richards, 2003; John and others, 2010). Island arcs in 

the southwest Pacific Ocean are the archetypes of island arc 

magmatism (Garwin and others, 2005). Magma associated with 

island arc porphyry copper deposits is similar to that associated 

with continental arcs, but diorite, quartz diorite, and other more 

mafic rocks are somewhat more abundant (Kesler and others, 

1975).

In recent years, evidence has accumulated for the existence 

of a family of porphyry copper deposits that formed in a significantly different tectonic setting: extensional or transpressional 

regimes that form within cratons after active subduction has 

ceased (Richards, 2009; Hou and others, 2011). The porphyry 

copper deposits on the Tibetan Plateau are the classic and original examples of this family (Hou and others, 2009), but similar 

deposits are found in comparable settings in Mesozoic rocks in 

eastern China, in the western United States, and in other parts of 

the world. The geology and mineralization style characteristic 

of these deposits are broadly similar to those of classic porphyry 

copper deposits; however, the magmas that form them originated from processes that are, as yet, poorly understood.

Richards (2009) presents a model that is based on the 

remelting of previously subducted arc lithosphere triggered by 

postsubduction lithospheric thickening, lithospheric extension, 

or mantle lithosphere delamination. Such previously subducted 

lithosphere would contain small amounts of chalcophile and 

siderophile element-rich sulfide minerals, and would be a fertile 

source for hydrous, oxidized, gold-rich (but comparatively 

sulfur-poor) magmas. In his view, the remelting is triggered by 

postsubduction lithospheric thickening, lithospheric extension, 

or mantle lithosphere delamination (fig. 2).

More recently, Hou and others (2011) have promulgated 

a model that involves partial melting of thickened juvenile 

mafic lower crust or delaminated lower crust, and that includes 

asthenospheric mantle components (fig. 3). The fertility of these 

magmas depends on the contribution of copper and gold from 

the mantle, thickened lower crust that has been metasomatized due to previous underplating, and the inclusion of crustal 

components (especially molybdenum) during crustal melting 

and magma ascent. They suggest that the formation of these 

magmas is triggered by asthenospheric upwelling, lithospheric 

delamination, and (or) large-scale translithospheric strike-slip 

faults or orogeny-transverse normal faults.

Both Richards (2009) and Hou and others (2011) stress 

that most magmas associated with postsubduction porphyry 

copper-gold deposits are mildly alkaline (shoshonitic), 

rather than calc-alkaline, and that they may form isolated 

complexes and (or) broad magmatic fields, in contrast to 

linear magmatic arcs. At this time, there is no evidence that 

these deposits in postsubduction environments have different grade/tonnage relationships from other porphyry copper 

deposits and there is no basis to create a grade and tonnage 

model specific to these deposits.
6 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

Occurrence Models

Mineral deposit models used for this assessment include the 

porphyry copper models of Singer and others (2008), Cox (1986 

a, b, c), and John and others (2010). The recent review of salient 

features of porphyry copper deposits by Sillitoe (2010) is also 

pertinent. The global porphyry copper database of Singer and others (2008) contains tabulated descriptive information along with 

grade and tonnage data. Discussions of porphyry copper deposits 

related to the special postsubduction setting of the East Asian 

deposits are given by Richards (2009) and Hou and others (2011).

Grade and Tonnage Models

The grade and tonnage models of Singer and others 

(2008) were used in this assessment. In addition to the global 

porphyry Cu-Mo-Au model that is based on data from 422 

deposits, they identified two subtypes of porphyry copper 

deposit, Cu-Mo and Cu-Au, each with distinct grade and tonnage models. If sufficient reliable grade and tonnage data are 

available, the known deposits in a tract can be tested against 

the global models using statistical tests (t-test and (or) analysis 

of variance [ANOVA]). The Manchuride tract (142pCu8509) 

C. DELAMINATION

A. SUBDUCTION B. COLLISION

D. POSTSUBDUCTION EXTENSION

Postsubduction

porphyry Cu deposit

Postsubduction

porphyry Cu deposit

Upper crustal

batholith

Partial

melting

Partial

melting

1000 °C

SCLM

Asthenosphere

Asthenospheric

upwelling

Asthenospheric

upwelling

Delaminated

mantle lithosphere

1000 °C

SCLM

1000 °C

SCLM

1000 °C

SCLM

1000 °C

Oceanic mantle

lithosphere

Oceanic crust

Sea level

1000 °C

1000 °C

1000 °C

SCLM

1000 °C

SCLM

1000 °C

SCLM

Partial melting Continental

crust

Continental

crust

Not represented

in East Asia

Classic Andean

arc

Manchuride, Coastal

Pacific tracts

East Qinling

tract

Continental

crust

Crustal

thickening

Asthenosphere

Asthenosphere Dehydration of oceanic crust

Asthenosphere

Basaltic

underplating

Lower crustal

MASH zone

Upper crustal

batholith

Upper crustal

batholith

Lithospheric

thickening

Partial melting of

hydrated mantle

wedge

Volcanic arc Arc porphyry

Cu deposit

EXPLANATION

Partial melting in lower crust

Partial melting in hydrous cumulates

Partial melting in metasomatized subcrustal lithospheric mantle (SCLM)

Asthenospheric melt invasion

Figure 2. Subduction and postsubduction models for porphyry copper generation (after Richards, 2009). A, Normal arc 

magmatism. B, Collisional (compressive environment). C, Postcollisional mantle delamination (Manchuride and Coastal Pacific 

tracts). D, Postsubduction extension (East Qinling tract). MASH—melting, assimilation, storage, and homogenization. SCLM—

subcontinental lithospheric mantle. In all cases, high Sr/Y magmas may be generated by residual or fractionating hornblende 

(±garnet, titanite).
Porphyry Copper Deposit Models 7

contains five sites that are considered deposits (table 1). Two 

of the deposits (Shaktama and Zhiriken) have extremely low 

(<0.3 percent) copper grades, whereas three of the five do not 

have a reported gold grade, and cutoff grades are not reported 

for any of the deposits. There is also conflicting information 

about grades for some of these deposits.

The Coastal Pacific tract (142pCu8704) contains seven 

known deposits, but only six with grade and tonnage data 

(table 1). Once again, the cutoff grades are not reported. A 

further complication in this tract is that several of the deposits 

contain substantial amounts of skarn ore, which is likely to 

have higher gold grades. The Zijinshan deposit, which has no 

reported molybdenum grade, has been called a high-sulfidation 

epithermal copper deposit.

The East Qinling tract contains only one deposit (Jinduicheng, table 1); it is primarily a molybdenum deposit and 

may be atypical of undiscovered deposits there. None of the 

identified prospects in the tract contain significant amounts of 

gold, but many Mesozoic porphyry molybdenum deposits 

occur, some with and some without important amounts of 

copper.

Statistical tests on the grade and tonnage data indicated 

that, taken as a whole, the deposits have too much molybdenum to be part of the global (Cu-Mo-Au) population or the 

Asthenospheric

Partial melting

Upwelling

Delaminated

Interacting

with mantle Mantle lithosphere

Crust

lithosphere

Chengmenshan

Yangtze River

metallogenic belt

(Mesozoic)

Asthenosphere

Partial

melting Moho

Juvenile lower crust

Mantle lithosphere

Mantle lithosphere

Leucogranite

IYS

Orogen-transverse fault

Qulong

Gangdese

tract

Partial melting Mantle lithosphere

Thickened crust

Asthenospheric

Asthenospheric

Upwelling

melts

Dexing

Eastern China

(Mesozoic)

Moho

Mantle lithosphere

Juvenile lower crust

Mantle lithosphere

Partial

melting

Yulong, Dali

tracts

Machanqing

Yulong

A B

C D

EXPLANATION

Porphyry Cu-Mo

Porphyry Cu-Au

Normal fault

Thrust fault

Strike-slip fault

Figure 3. Models for porphyry copper deposits in nonarc settings (after Hou and others, 2011). A, Melting of lower crust triggered 

by translithospheric strike-slip faults in a late-collision, transpressional setting. B, Melting of thickened crust triggered by upwelling 

of asthenosphere in a postcollision, extensional setting. C, Melting of thickened, mafic lower crust, triggered by delamination of 

lithospheric root and upwelling of asthenosphere in an intracontinental, extensional setting. D, Melting of a delaminated lithospheric 

root and upwelling of asthenosphere in an anorogenic, extensional setting. The Yulong, Dali, and Gangdese tracts are described in a 

porphyry copper assessment of the Tibetan Plateau (Ludington and others, 2012). IYS, Indus-Yarlung-Tsangpo suture.
8 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

copper-gold submodel and too much gold to be part of the 

copper-molybdenum submodel. These results are largely a result 

of varied (but unknown) cutoff grades, uncertainties regarding 

deposit classification, and incompletely characterized deposits. 

These uncertainties mean that the existing data are unreliable 

as indicators of the deposits likely to be discovered in this area. 

Accordingly, the global (Cu-Mo-Au) porphyry copper grade and 

tonnage model was used to assess the Manchuride and Coastal 

Pacific tracts and the porphyry copper-molybdenum submodel 

was used to assess the East Qinling tract. The available data 

suggest that the overall size distribution of the known Mesozoic 

deposits in East Asia is comparable (fig. 4) to that in the global 

model of Singer and others (2008). 

Tectonic Setting

The porphyry copper deposits in East Asia described here 

formed after the amalgamation of the Asian continent, primarily in postsubduction settings. The magmatism associated with 

these deposits occurred during the Yanshanian orogeny, mostly 

during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. In the Chinese literature, this orogeny refers to Mesozoic events that are younger 

than the Indosinian orogeny.

The Indosinian orogeny refers to the East Asian collisional tectonic events associated with the closure of the eastern parts of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean and the formation of the 

Asian continent. Collisions occurred between the Sino-Korean 

Craton (North China) and the Yangtze Craton (South China) 

(fig. 5), and Indochina and Sibumasu8 in southeast Asia. These 

collisions are essentially contemporaneous with the closure of 

the Solonker Suture, which marked the disappearance of the 

Paleo-Asian Ocean (Windley and others, 2007, 2010; Wilhelm 

and others, 2012). Controversy abounds regarding the usage of 

the Indosinian, but the important point is that by Late Triassic 

time, north-directed subduction of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean had 

ceased, the Paleo-Asian Ocean had been consumed, and the 

evolution of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt came to an end.

Before 1990, the Yanshanian igneous rocks in southeast 

China (Coastal Pacific tract) were commonly thought to have 

been derived from a typical continental-margin arc. But subsequently, Li (2000) and Xu and others (2002) proposed that 

many of these rocks, particularly the Cretaceous ones, formed 

primarily in a postsubduction, extensional tectonic regime. 

Numerous later papers support this idea. Extensive petrologic 

studies have led to a model that calls on partial melting of 

delaminated lower crust, unrelated to active subduction, to form 

these igneous rocks (for example, Xu and others, 2002; Wang 

and others, 2006; Windley and others, 2010). Subduction of 

the Pacific Plate remains a plausible origin and may well apply 

to the Jurassic rocks (Wang and others, 2011). Unfortunately, 

available geologic maps did not permit separation of Jurassic 

from Cretaceous rocks.

Northeast China (Manchuride tract) presents a similar 

story. Although a postsubduction origin for the Cretaceous 

igneous rocks is widely accepted (Deng and others, 2007; Zhai 

and others, 2007; Windley and others, 2010), strong arguments 

for a Pacific Plate subduction origin for the Jurassic rocks can 

be made (Zhang and others, 2011; Zeng and others, 2012). The 

distribution of the Yanshanian igneous rocks coincides generally 

with a large area of thinned crust and lithosphere. Most of the 

rocks are within and east of a major north-south gravity lineament that separates thick crust with few Yanshanian plutons on 

the west from thinner crust punctuated by numerous intrusions 

on the east (Windley and others, 2010).

The origin of the East Qinling magmatic belt, which is 

superimposed on and generally coincides with the Indosinian 

Qinling-Dabie collisional orogen, is problematic because the 

igneous rocks extend far inland, well to the west of the magmatic fields to the north and south (fig. 5). In the East Qinling 

molybdenum belt (fig. 5), the ages of the important porphyry 

deposits indicate two major mineralization events—one about 

148 to 138 Ma and a second about 131 to 112 Ma (Mao and others, 2008). They also have strontium isotopic ratios that suggest 

the involvement of considerably more continental crust. Mao 

and others (2008) and Zhang and others (2009) call on mantle 

upwelling after lithospheric delamination for most of these 

rocks but allow that the subducted Paleopacific Plate could play 

a role in magmatism. The long (>2,000 km) linear shape of 

this magmatic belt indicates that the faults of the older QinlingDabie orogen were reactivated in Yanshanian time and played a 

4 5 6 7 8 

0 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

Log of contained copper, in tons 

Proportion of deposits, in percent 

 Global model 

Deposits in Coastal Pacific tract

 (142pCu8704) 

Deposits in Manchuride tract

 (142pCu8509) 

Deposits in East Qinling tract

 (142pCu8705) 

EXPLANATION

Dexing

Chengmenshan

Shakhtama

Bystrinskoe

Wunugetushan

Zijinshan

Yinshan Tongchankou

Jinduicheng Fengshandong

Zhireken Xiaosigao

Figure 4. Cumulative frequency plot showing tonnages of  East 

Asia Mesozoic porphyry copper deposits compared to global 

deposits from the grade-tonnage model of Singer and others 

(2008).

8

A name for a continental basement block including parts of Siam, Burma, 

Malaya, and Sumatra.
Tectonic Setting 9

role in providing access through the crust for the melts, whatever their origin.

The key evidence for a nonsubduction origin for the Yanshanian rocks is the width of the magmatic zones, the lack of 

synmagmatic compressional structures, and the thickness of the 

lower crust and lithospheric mantle. The width of the magmatic 

zones (>1,000 km) is greater than that observed (50–200 km) in 

most continental-margin arcs (Li, 2000; Li and Li, 2007; Hu and 

Zhou, 2012; Mao and others, 2012). Compressional structures 

that affect the plutons and volcanic rocks are lacking; in general, 

the plutons often cut preexisting structures. Finally, geophysical 

evidence (gravity and tomography) indicates that a large amount 

of lower crust and lithospheric mantle that was likely present 

beneath the area at the end of the Indosinian orogeny has been 

subsequently removed (Zhai and others, 2007; Windley and others, 2010), although the exact timing of the delamination is not 

determined. The area resembles the Cenozoic Basin and Range 

Province of western North America, where abundant postsubduction magmatism is associated with a wide variety of metallic 

mineral deposits.

!

! !

! !

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

! !

! !

!

!

" "

" "

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

" "

"

"

Xian

Chita

Hanoi

Lhasa

Pusan

Seoul

Taipei

Harbin

Kunming

Chengdu

Lanzhou

Beijing

Irkutsk

Mandalay

Shanghai

Hong Kong

Guangzhou

Khabarovsk

Vladivostok

Ulaanbaatar

100°E 120°E

40°N

20°N

60°N

140°E

Siberian

Craton

Western limit of

Yanshanian magmatism

Central Asian Orogenic Belt

Sino-Korean Craton

(North China)

Yangtze Craton

(South China)

Songpan-Garze

Craton

Qinling-Dabie Orogen

Sujiao-Imjingang

Orogen

Tan-Lu Fault

Solonker Suture

East Qinling

 Molybdenum

 Belt

 Lower Yangtze

 Metallogenic Belt

0 200 400 MILES

0 400 800 KILOMETERS

Political boundary source U.S. Department of State (2009)

Projection: Asia North Albers Equal Area Conic;

Central meridian; 95° E; Latitude of origin; 30° N

Source for world terrain base: 

http://goto.arcgisonline.com/maps/World_Terrain_Base

Porphyry copper deposit

Porphyry copper prospect

Associated with Manchuride tract (142pCu8509)

Associated with Manchuride tract (142pCu8509)

Associated with Coastal Pacific tract (142pCu8704)

Associated with Coastal Pacific tract (142pCu8704)

Associated with East Qinling tract (142pCu8705)

Associated with East Qinling tract (142pCu8705)

EXPLANATION

Tectonic boundary

Orogen

Magmatic boundary

Figure 5. Simplified tectonic sketch map of East Asia.
10 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

Composition of magmatic rocks of Yanshanian age in 

the area range from gabbro and basalt to granite and rhyolite (Pirajno and others, 2009; Hu and Zhou, 2012; Mao and 

others, 2012). The majority of the granitoids are I-type, but 

S- and A-types are also prominent in some regions at some 

times. The widespread occurrence of Yanshanian tungsten 

and tin granite-related deposits in southeast China suggests that many of those plutons are reduced ilmenite-type 

granitoids (Ishihara, 2007). In northeast China, numerous 

molybdenum-rich porphyry deposits of both Jurassic and 

Cretaceous age are primarily associated with high-K calcalkaline granodiorite, monzogranite, and granite (Zeng and 

others, 2012).

Both Hu and Zhou (2012) and Mao and others (2012) 

present similar metallogenic schemes that indicate systematic 

variation in petrochemistry, tectonic setting, and the resultant metallogeny throughout Yanshanian time. When these 

schemes can be incorporated into the attribution of available 

digital geologic maps, it will be feasible to considerably 

refine the boundaries of the permissive tracts in East Asia.

Lower Yangtze River Metallogenic Belt

The valley of the lower Yangtze River has been the site 

of repeated emplacement of porphyry copper and related 

deposits. This metallogenic belt (fig. 5) has been an important mining area in China for centuries and is the site of 

hundreds of Cu, Cu-Au, and Cu-iron (Fe) mineral deposits 

(Pan and Dong, 1999; Zhao and others, 1999). It contains 

three of the porphyry copper deposits in the Coastal Pacific 

tract (Tongshankou, Fengshandong, and Chenmengshan). 

Most of the deposits in the belt are made up of massive skarn 

and replacement ores, but all are related to granitoid rocks 

(mostly granodiorites and monzodiorites) emplaced in this 

belt from Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous time (approximately 150 to 120 million years before the present (Ma); Li 

and others, 2010; Mao and others, 2006). The origin of the 

igneous rocks of the belt is a contentious issue, but it is generally accepted, based on strontium and neodymium isotopic 

data, that they are of mantle origin, but with a substantial 

continental crustal component (Pan and Dong, 1999). Arguments about why so many Yanshanian deposits are localized 

here focus on the juncture between the preexisting (PermoTriassic) Qinling-Dabie orogen and the contemporaneous 

Tan-Lu Fault.

The Adakite Issue

Adakite is a term that is commonly used in the Chinese 

literature to mean igneous rocks with trace-element compositions that suggest an origin by melting of metabasaltic crust at 

pressures high enough to stabilize garnet, probably at depths 

of as much as 100 km (Xiao and Clemens, 2007). The most 

diagnostic parameters are high (> 20) strontium/yttrium (Sr/Y) 

and steep chondrite-normalized REE patterns (lanthanum/ytterbium (La/Yb) >20). Although the original definition (Defant 

and Drummond, 1990) was closely linked to an origin by direct 

melting of a subducting oceanic slab, the term “adakite” has 

been subsequently applied to rocks from other petrotectonic 

settings. Indeed, in a comprehensive review that documents 

the history of the evolution of the meaning of the term, Castillo 

(2006) pointed out that there is no single model for the origin of 

the rocks defined by these geochemical criteria.

Most of the rocks associated with the East Asian porphyry 

copper deposits have been classified in the literature as adakites, and a correlation between porphyry copper deposits and 

adakitic compositions has been noted in many parts of the world 

(Thiéblemont and others, 1997; Mungall, 2003). Direct melting 

of the slab, however, has been shown to be unsatisfactory as a 

unique factor in the genesis of porphyry copper deposits (Richards and Kerrich, 2007). Although the idea that plutons that 

give rise to porphyry copper deposits commonly have high Sr/Y 

and La/Yb seems valid, we avoid the use of the term “adakite” 

whenever possible in this assessment.

Assessment Data

Principal sources of information used by the assessment 

team for delineation of the tracts and compilation of deposits 

and prospects are listed in table 2.

Geologic Maps

Geologic maps at a variety of scales were used for tract 

delineation during the assessment. For China, unpublished 

digital versions of geological maps of the Chinese provinces that were published as part of a collection of Geologic 

Memoirs by the Chinese Ministry of Geology and Mineral 

Resources from 1984 through 1993 were used. In addition, the 

digital geologic map of China, based on the 1:2,500,000 scale 

map by the China Geological Survey (2004a), was consulted. 

Although this map is at a smaller scale than those in the 

geologic memoirs, it incorporates significant new petrologic 

and radiometric age data gathered in the 1990s. For Mongolia, a digital version of the 1:1,000,000 scale geologic map 

of Mongolia compiled by Tomurtogoo and others (1999) was 

used; this is a compilation based on mapping at various scales. 

For Russia, a digital version of the 1:2,500,000 scale map of 

Russia and the CIS Countries9

 published by the A.P. Karpinsky All-Russia Geological Research Institute (Petrov and 

Streinikov, 2008) was used.

The digital geologic maps do not always reflect the most 

recent radiometric age determinations or petrologic studies 

on the rocks in the tract; in many cases, ages of the igneous 

rocks are not accurately known. Many of the small plutons 

that host porphyry copper deposits in the region are too small 

to be depicted on the source maps, and the locations of some 

additional plutons were digitized based on available smallscale schematic maps.

9

Commonwealth of Independent States (11 former U.S.S.R. republics).
Table 2. Principal sources of information used for assessment of Mesozoic porphyry copper in East Asia.[NA, not applicable]

Theme Name or Title Scale Citation

Regional Geology of Anhui Province 1:500,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Anhui Prov

Regional Geology of Fujian Province 1:500,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Fujian Prov

Regional Geology of Gansu Province 1:1,000,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Gansu Prov

Regional Geology of Guandong Province 1:1,000,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Guangdong 

Regional Geology of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous 

Region 1:1,000,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Guangxi Z

Autonomous Region (1985)

Regional Geology of Hebei Province 1:500,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Hebei Prov

Regional Geology of Heilongjiang Province 1:1,000,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Heilongjia

(1993)

Regional Geology of Henan Province 1:500,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Henan Pro

Regional Geology of Hubei Province 1:500,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Hubei Prov

Regional Geology of Hunan Province 1:500,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Hunan Pro

Regional Geology of Jiangsu Province 1:500,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Jiangsu Pro

Regional Geology of Jianxi Province 1:500,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Jiangxi Pro

Regional Geology of Jilin Province 1:500,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Jilan Provi

Regional Geology of Liaoning Province 1:500,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Liaoning P

Regional Geology of Nei Mongol (Inner Mongolia) 

Autonomous Region 1:1,500,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Nei Mongo

Region (1991)

Regional Geology of Qinghai Province 1:1,000,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Qinghai Pr

Regional Geology of Shaanxi Province 1:500,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Shaanxi Pr

Regional Geology of Shandong Province 1:500,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Shandong 

Regional Geology of Shanxi Province 1:500,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Shanxi Pro

Regional Geology of Sichuan Province 1:1,000,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Sichuan Pr

Regional Geology of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region 1:1,500,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Xinjiang U

Autonomous Region (1993)

Regional Geology of Zhejiang Province 1:500,000 Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Zhejiang P

Geological Map of Russia and CIS Countries 1:2,500,000 Petrov and Streinikov (2008)

Geological Map of Mongolia 1:1,000,000 Tomurtogoo and others (1999)

Geological map of the People's Republic of China 1:2,500,000 China Geological Survey (2004a)

Porphyry copper deposits of the world: database, map, and 

grade and tonnage models NA Singer and others (2008)

World Minerals Geoscience database NA Natural Resources Canada (2010); Kirkham and Dunne (200

Mineral Resources Data System NA U.S. Geological Survey (2005)

Mineral Resources Map of East Asia NA Kamitani and others (2007)

Copper geochemical map 1: 12,000,000 National Geological Archives of China (2010a)Bismuth geochemical map 1: 12,000,000 National Geological Archives of China (2010b)Magnetic anomaly map of the (delta T)a field of the USSR 

territory and some adjacent water areas 1: 10,000,000 Ministry of Geology of the USSR All-union Order of Lenin G

Research Institutue (VSEDGD) (1978)

EMAG2-Earth Magnetic Anomaly Grid 2 arc-minute resolution National Geophysical Data Center (2009)

Magnetic anomaly map of the People's Republic of China and its adjacent waters 1: 5,000,000 China Geological Survey (2004b)

Geology

Stream-sediment

geochemistry

AeromagneticsMineral 

occurrences
12 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

Mineral Occurrence Data

A global database of porphyry copper deposits and prospects published by Singer and others (2008) was supplemented 

with other global and regional mineral occurrence databases, 

including that of the Geological Survey of Canada (Natural 

Resources Canada, 2010; Kirkham and Dunne, 2000) and databases prepared by the Geological Survey of Japan (Kamitani 

and others, 2007). In addition, commercially available databases 

(InfoMine, Intierra, Metals Economic Group), technical reports, 

company websites, and geologic literature were consulted. 

The U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Resources Data System 

(MRDS), an online searchable database, also includes information on mines, prospects, and mineral occurrences worldwide 

(U.S. Geological Survey, 2005).

Sites were classified as deposits (grade and tonnage well 

delineated) or prospects (incompletely characterized with 

respect to grade and tonnage) on the basis of recent published 

literature. The deposit-type classification of some sites is ambiguous because of insufficient information. Deposits and prospects 

that could be classified with some certainty as porphyry copper 

or porphyry-copper-related are included in the database for this 

report (appendix D). Some sites, for which minimal information 

was available, are termed occurrences in appendix D and are 

not plotted on maps. Distributions of gold placers, copper- and 

copper-gold skarns, and epithermal precious-metal deposits, as 

well as unclassified copper and gold occurrences, were considered during the assessment, but those deposits are generally 

not included in the database. Some skarns were included if an 

associated porphyry system could plausibly be inferred.

Geochemical Data

Stream-sediment geochemistry has been very important 

for mineral exploration in China. Beginning in 1978, the 

Regional Geochemistry-National Reconnaissance project covered more than 6,000,000 km2

 of the territory of China, and it 

has been directly responsible for the discovery of hundreds of 

mineral deposits, including several porphyry copper deposits 

(Xie and others, 2008). Although the data themselves are not 

available to the public, the China Geological Survey has made 

numerous national maps for specified elements available on 

the internet. Maps (National Geological Archives of China, 

2010a, b) that show the distribution of copper and bismuth 

were used to help refine the tracts defined in this study.

Other Data

Global magnetic anomaly data cover most of southern and 

eastern Asia (National Geophysical Data Center, 2009). The 

data are at 2-arc-minute resolution and display primarily broad, 

relatively deep magnetic features; however, because they do not 

correlate well with mapped outcrops of permissive rocks, they

were of limited use. The 1:5,000,000-scale aeromagnetic map 

of China (China Geological Survey, 2004b) and the magnetic 

anomaly map of the USSR (Ministry of Geology of the USSR 

All-Union Order of Lenin Geological Research Institute, 1978; 

Racey and others, 1996) were similarly of limited use.

Exploration History

In many parts of the world, porphyry copper exploration has been cyclic, in response to changing global economic 

trends and the evolution of local infrastructure. Exploration 

for porphyry copper deposits in East Asia is in its initial cycle. 

The porphyry copper deposit model was not well known in 

China until the 1960s, when scientific and industrial activity was renewed after a long period of warfare and internal 

turmoil. Subsequently, basic geologic mapping as well as 

detailed geochemical and geophysical surveys have been 

completed, resulting in the discovery of numerous porphyry 

copper deposits and prospects (Wang and others, 2004; Xie 

and others, 2008).

A few non-Chinese international companies have 

operated in the region since about 1990, but most exploration activity has been conducted by State entitities; little 

information is publically available and the work is not well 

documented in the English language literature. In Russia and 

Mongolia, many of the prominent exposed porphyry systems 

were discovered prior to 1991 and information developed at 

that time is difficult to access. Recent private-sector exploration using modern methods is expected to result in new 

discoveries, as exemplified by the discovery in the late 1990s 

of the giant Oyu Tolgoi porphyry copper deposit in Mongolia 

(Perelló and others, 2001).

The Assessment Process

A workshop attended by USGS and CGS scientists 

was held in Kunming, China, in September of 2005. At this 

meeting, preliminary tracts were delineated using nondigital 

methods. The CGS published the outlines of these tracts along 

with an associated quantitative resource assessment based on 

them (Yan and others, 2007). Meanwhile, assessment technology continued to evolve, and in 2009, the USGS decided to 

standardize procedures for the global mineral resource assessment, and updated the assessment using those procedures. 

Preliminary versions of this assessment were presented at the 

Coordinating Committee for Geoscience Programs in East 

and Southeast Asia (CCOP) workshop in Busan, South Korea, 

in the spring of 2010. The assessment was further refined in 

2011, after internal USGS review.

Three-Part Assessment

This assessment was conducted using methods, procedures, and models that support what have come to be known 

as three-part assessments. The three parts that are integrated to 
The Assessment Process 13

create the assessment are: (1) delineation of permissive tracts, 

according to the type of mineral deposits permitted by geology, (2) estimation of the amount of metal in typical deposits 

by using grade-tonnage models, and (3) probabilistic estimation of the number of undiscovered deposits by subjective 

methods (Singer, 2007a; Singer and Menzie, 2010).

A permissive tract for porphyry copper deposits is delineated as a geographic area that includes intrusive and volcanic 

rocks of specified ranges of composition and age that are part 

of a magmatic arc. These arcs have been traditionally related 

to convergent plate margins, but the Yanshanian-age rocks 

related to porphyry copper deposits in East Asia formed after 

subduction ceased. A tract generally is bounded by the outline 

of the magmatic arc, as depicted at the scale of the maps available for tract delineation, and may include areas covered by 

younger or structurally overlying materials that are less than 

1 km thick. For these tracts in East Asia, many of the igneous 

rocks most closely associated with porphyry copper formation are not depicted on available geologic maps; instead, their 

locations come from the scientific literature.

Frequency distributions of premining tonnages and 

average grades of thoroughly explored deposits are used as 

models for grades and tonnages of undiscovered deposits 

(Singer, 1993). Models are constructed from average grades 

and tonnages (including both measured and inferred resources) 

based on the total production, reserves, and resources at the 

lowest possible cutoff grade, as described by Singer and others 

(2008). 

Numbers of undiscovered deposits at various quantiles 

(degrees of belief) are estimated by an assessment team of 

experts using a variety of strategies, such as counting the number and ranking the favorability of significant prospects, and 

comparing the spatial density of known deposits and expected 

undiscovered deposits to that of known deposits in similar, 

well-explored regions (Singer, 2007b). Probable amounts 

of undiscovered resources are then estimated by combining 

estimates of numbers of undiscovered deposits with grade 

and tonnage models, using a Monte Carlo simulation process 

(Root and others, 1992; Bawiec and Spanski, 2012; Duval, 

2012).

Tract Delineation

The geology-based strategy used for porphyry copper 

tract delineation in the USGS global mineral resources assessment is described here. See appendixes A, B, and C for details 

on individual tracts. Digital geologic data were processed in a 

GIS (appendix E) using ArcMap software, as follows:

• Regional-scale maps and geologic literature were 

used to identify the fundamental units for tract delineation: magmatic arcs or belts of igneous rocks of a 

given age range.

• Digital geologic maps were then used to select map 

units to define preliminary tracts permissive for 

porphyry copper deposits. Igneous map units were 

subdivided by age groups and classified as permissive or nonpermissive based on lithology. Permissive 

rocks include calc-alkaline and alkaline plutonic and 

volcanic rocks. Nonpermissive rocks include, for 

example, ultramafic assemblages, ophiolites, highly 

evolved granites, peraluminous granites, and pillow 

basalts.

• Typically, a 10-, 15-, or 20-km buffer was then 

applied to plutonic rock polygons and a 2-km buffer 

to volcanic rock polygons; this generally expanded 

the area of the tract to include all porphyry copper 

deposits and significant associated prospects. The 

buffer accounts for uncertainties in the cartographic 

position of mapped boundaries, as well as possible 

unexposed or unmapped permissive rocks.

• After buffering, available data on mineral deposits 

and occurrences, locations of dated igneous rock 

samples, and geophysical and geochemical information were examined to identify previously unrecognized evidence of unmapped permissive rocks or 

hydrothermal systems.

• An aggregation and smoothing routine was applied 

to the resulting polygons, and the tracts were edited 

by hand in accord with postmineral fault boundaries. 

In some cases, more detailed geologic maps were 

used to resolve tract boundary issues or available 

schematic map illustrations from the literature were 

incorporated to augment the existing digital maps.

• Areas where postmineral volcanic centers, depositional basins, and other forms of cover were judged

to exceed 1 km in thickness were excluded from the 

tracts. Intrusions younger than the designated tract 

age were also excluded. Volcanic rocks younger 

than the designated tract age but inferred to be less 

than 1 km thick were included within permissive 

areas.

• Resulting tract boundaries were truncated at shorelines to eliminate undersea areas using a global GIS 

dataset adopted for the project (U.S. Department of 

State, 2009).

Permissive Tracts for Mesozoic Porphyry 

Copper Deposits in East Asia

Three tracts permissive for porphyry copper deposits were 

delineated (table 3, fig. 6). Brief summaries of the tracts are 

included here, but the detailed rationale for tract delineation is 

in appendixes A, B, and C. The ages and resources in known 

porphyry copper deposits for each of these tracts are presented 

in table 1. Descriptions of deposits and prospects are in appendix D; tract boundaries and the deposits and prospects database 

are included in the GIS (appendix E).
14 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

Figure 6. Map showing tracts 

permissive for Mesozoic porphyry 

copper deposits in East Asia.

Table 3. Permissive tracts for Mesozoic porphyry copper deposits in East Asia. 

Tract Tract name Countries Area (km2) Geologic feature assessed

142pCu8509 Manchuride China, North Korea, Mongolia, Russia 1,170,920

An assemblage of Yanshanian (Jurassic and 

Cretaceous) igneous rocks that formed in a 

postcollision, postsubduction environment 

after the collision of North and South 

China

142pCu8704 Coastal Pacific China, Vietnam 604,570

An assemblage of Yanshanian (Jurassic and 

Cretaceous) igneous rocks that formed in a 

postcollision, postsubduction environment 

after the collision of North and South 

China

142pCu8705 East Qinling China 171,100

A linear belt of Yanshanian (Jurassic and 

Cretaceous) mainly plutonic rocks that 

formed by the melting of primarily continental crust after the collision of North and 

South China

!

!

!

!

!

! !

!

!

! !

! !

! !

!

!

!

!

CHINA

RUSSIA

MONGOLIA

MYANMAR

INDIA

LAOS

NORTH

KOREA

SOUTH

KOREA

VIETNAM

Xian

Chita

Lhasa

Pusan

Seoul

Harbin

Kunming

Chengdu

Beijing

Irkutsk

Shanghai

Guangzhou

Khabarovsk

Ulaanbaatar

Taipei

Hong Kong Hanoi

Mandalay

Shandong

Peninsula

Hainan Island

80°E 100°E 120°E 140°E

50°N

30°N

0 200 400 MILES

0 400 800 KILOMETERS

Political boundary source U.S. Department of State (2009)

Projection: Asia North Albers Equal Area Conic;

Central meridian; 110° E; Latitude of origin; 30° N

Source for world terrain base: 

http://goto.arcgisonline.com/maps/World_Terrain_Base

Assessed Manchuride porphyry

copper tract (142pCu8509)

Assessed Coastal Pacific porphyry

copper tract (142pCu8704)

Assessed East Qinling porphyry

copper tract (142pCu8705)

EXPLANATION
The Assessment Process 15

Manchuride Tract

The Manchuride tract (142pCu8509), with an area of 

about 1,170,000 km2, is defined by a large group of Jurassic and 

Cretaceous (Yanshanian) igneous rocks formed after the final 

assembly of the Asian continent. These rocks have a wide range 

of compositions and extend about 2,800 km from the vicinity of 

Beijing into far eastern Russia, including part of eastern Mongolia and small areas in North Korea. They formed in a postsubduction, postcollision environment, apparently as a result of 

melting of continental crust and previously subducted oceanic 

crust due to mantle upwelling after thinning and delamination of 

the lithosphere. The tract includes at least five known porphyry 

copper deposits (table 1), Zhiriken, Bystrinskoe, and Shakhtama 

in Russia and Xiaosigou and Wunugetushan in China. In addition, there are 15 significant prospects and at least 14 additional 

sites that could represent porphyry copper style mineralization 

(appendixes A, D).

Coastal Pacific Tract

The Coastal Pacific tract (142pCu8704), with an area 

of about 600,000 km2, is defined by a large group of Jurassic 

and Cretaceous (Yanshanian) igneous rocks formed after the 

final assembly of the Asian continent. They have a wide range 

of compositions and extend about 2,500 km from northern 

Vietnam and Hainan Island to the tip of the Shandong Peninsula 

(fig. 6). They formed in a postsubduction, postcollision environment, apparently as a result of melting of continental crust and 

previously subducted oceanic crust due to mantle upwelling 

after thinning and delamination of the lithosphere. The tract 

includes six known porphyry copper deposits (table 1), including Dexing, China’s leading copper producer. There are at 

least 12 significant porphyry copper prospects and 9 additional 

sites that could represent porphyry copper style mineralization 

(appendixes B, D). In addition, many more skarn and replacement Cu and Cu-Au deposits could be indicative of porphyry 

copper style mineralization. The Lower Yangtze metallogenic 

belt (fig. 5) contains hundreds of porphyry-related skarn and 

replacement deposits.

East Qinling Tract

The East Qinling tract (142pCu8705), with an area of 

about 170,000 km2, is defined by a linear chain of primarily 

small plutons that formed in Jurassic and Cretaceous time along 

the suture between the North and South China paleocontinents. 

They are essentially bimodal in composition; the felsic rocks 

range from granodiorites to granite. The chain is about 2,300 

km long in an east-west direction and varies in width from about 

100 to 500 km. The rocks formed primarily by the melting of 

continental crust, heated by mantle upwelling after collision and 

subsequent thinning and delamination of the lithosphere. Most 

of the large mineral deposits in this tract are porphyry molybdenum deposits, including Jinduicheng (table 1). Some of the 

porphyry molybdenum deposits contain important quantities 

of copper. In addition, there are six significant porphyry copper 

prospects, including several large porphyry-related copper skarn 

deposits, and two other sites that could represent porphyry copper style mineralization (appendixes C, D).

Estimating Numbers of Undiscovered Deposits

The assessment team evaluated the available data and 

made individual, subjective estimates of the numbers of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits by using expert judgment. 

Estimates are expressed in terms of levels of certainty. Estimators were asked for the smallest number of deposits consistent 

with the porphyry copper model that they believed could be 

present at three specified levels of certainty (90 percent, 50 percent, and 10 percent). For example, on the basis of all available 

data, a team member might estimate that there is a 90-percent 

chance of 1 or more; a 50-percent chance of 5 or more; and a 

10-percent chance of 10 or more undiscovered deposits in a 

permissive tract. The differences between individual estimates 

were discussed and evaluated before a single team estimate was 

agreed upon for each tract.

The estimates were converted to an expected (mean) 

number of deposits and standard deviation using an algorithm 

developed by Root and others (1992). This algorithm can 

be described by the following general equations (Singer and 

Menzie, 2005), which are used to calculate a mean number of 

deposits () and a standard deviation (sx) based on estimates 

of numbers of undiscovered deposits predicted at specified 

quantile levels10 (N90 = 90 percent level, N50 = 50 percent level, 

for example):

 = 0.233 N90 + 0.4 N50 + 0.225 N10 + 0.045 N05 + 0.03N01 (1)

sx = 0.121 – 0.237 N90 - 0.093 N50 + 0.183 N10 + 0.073 N05 + 0.123 N01 (2)

For the example given above (N90 = 1; N50 = 5; N10 = 10),

 = 5.2 and sx = 3.2.

Another useful parameter for reporting uncertainty associated with an estimate is the coefficient of variation (Cv), 

defined as:

 Cv = sx / k (3)

The coefficient of variation is often reported as percent relative 

variation (100 × Cv).

The final set of undiscovered deposit estimates reflects 

both the uncertainty in what may exist and the favorability 

of the tract (Singer, 1993). The estimates were combined 

with appropriate grade and tonnage models in a Monte Carlo 

simulation using the EMINERS computer program (Bawiec 

and Spanski, 2012; Duval, 2012), based on the original Mark 3 

10To use the equation in cases where three nonzero quantiles (90-50-10) are 

estimated, use the N10 values for N05 and N01; where four quantiles (90-50-10-

5) are estimated, use the N05 value for N01.
16 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

computer program described by Root and others (1992), to provide a probabilistic estimate of amounts of resources that could 

be associated with undiscovered deposits.

The rationales for individual tract estimates are discussed 

in appendixes A, B, and C. Recent published literature, company websites, and technical reports for exploration projects 

were examined for descriptions of geology, mineralogy, deposit 

type, rock alteration, and sampling results to evaluate the likelihood that a prospect is associated with a porphyry copper system. In some cases, the number of significant porphyry copper 

prospects within a tract was counted as an important factor in 

estimation. Particular weight was given to prospects described 

as porphyry copper-related in published literature and recent 

exploration reports.

In addition, the distributions of reported copper and gold 

occurrences of unknown type and of placer gold workings are 

relevant. The level of exploration was also a factor in making estimates. In less well explored areas and areas with poor 

documentation of mineral occurrences, we were unable to use 

such methods effectively, and the spread in estimates and the 

associated relatively high coefficients of variation reflects the 

uncertainty associated with the estimates.

Final team estimates of undiscovered deposits are summarized in table 4, along with statistics that describe the expected 

numbers of undiscovered deposits, the standard deviation and 

coefficient of variation associated with the estimate, the number 

of known deposits, and the implied deposit density for each 

tract. The assessment predicts a mean total of about 44 undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in all three tracts, many more 

than the 12 that have already been discovered.

Probabilistic Assessment Results

The Monte Carlo simulation yields estimates for the mean 

and median copper and gold contained in undiscovered deposits 

(table 5). Identified resources in the table refer to metal contained 

in well delineated porphyry copper deposits only; the resource 

data are based on total production, plus measured, indicated, 

and inferred reserves and resources at the lowest cutoff grade 

reported. Identified resources may include substantial amounts of 

metal that have already been produced, for example in the case of 

the porphyry copper deposits in the Lower Yangtze metallogenic 

belt.

All three permissive tracts contain identified resources, 

although those in the Coastal Pacific tract constitute nearly 75 

percent of the total and those in the East Qinling tract are only 

about 2 percent. All tracts also contain porphyry copper systems 

that have been partially explored, but for which no reliable grade 

and tonnage estimates are yet available. Resources in deposits 

like these that have not been comprehensively drilled out are not 

included in the data for identified resources. These deposits were 

considered to be significant prospects with a high probability of 

representing deposits like those in the grade and tonnage models. An example is the Shaxi deposit, where a resource of nearly 

500,000 t of copper (Lan and others, 2009) has been identified, 

but details are not known, and the deposit is still being readied for 

exploitation.

Simulation results are reported at selected quantiles, along 

with the mean expected amount of metal, the probability of the 

mean, and the probability of no metal (tables A5, B5, C5). The 

amount of metal reported at each quantile represents the least 

amount of metal expected. The quantile estimates are linked to 

each tract simulation and, therefore, should not be added. Mean 

estimates, however, can be added to obtain total amounts of metal 

and mineralized rock that can be compared between tracts.

Discussion

This probabilistic assessment of resources in undiscovered Mesozoic porphyry copper deposits in East Asia indicates 

that significant amounts of additional resources may be present 

(table 5). The mean estimate of undiscovered copper resources 

in the study area (about 198,000,000 t) is nearly nine times 

the amount of copper present in identified resources (about 

23,000,000 t). This is entirely plausible for an area that is in 

Table 4. Estimates of numbers of undiscovered Mesozoic porphyry copper deposits in East Asia.

[NXX, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient 

of variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus 

known deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers; Ntotal/100k km2, deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 

km2. Nund, s, and Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)] 

Tract Tract name

Consensus undiscovered 

deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100k km2) N90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv% Nknown Ntotal

142pCu8509 Manchuride 2 8 60 60 60 21.7 22.0 100 5 26.7 1,170,918 2.3

142pCu8704 Coastal 

Pacific 2 12 40 40 40 17.3 13.7 79 7 24.3 604,560 4.0

142pCu8705 East Qinling 1 3 12 12 12 5.0 4.2 83 1 6.0 171,104 3.5
References Cited 17

Table 5. Summary of simulations of undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits and comparison with identified copper and 

gold resources in Mesozoic porphyry copper deposits in East Asia.

[t, metric tons; Mt, million metric tons; n.a., not applicable (only means are additive)]

142pCu8509 Manchuride 7,800,000 382 37,000,000 900 81,000,000 2,100 2,200,000 27,000 17,000

142pCu8704 Coastal Pacific 14,400,000 472 42,000,000 1,100 65,000,000 1,700 1,800,000 21,000 13,000

142pCu8705 East Qinling 392,000 0 19,000,000 360 52,000,000 130 2,400,000 22,000 9,300

Total 22,600,000 854 n.a. n.a. 198,000,000 3,930 6,400,000 70,000 39,300

Mean estimate of 

Undiscovered

molybdenum

resources 

(t) 

Undiscovered 

silver

resources 

(t) 

Rock (Mt)

Tract Tract name

Undiscovered 

gold 

resources

(t) 

 Known resources

Undiscovered

copper

resources

(t) 

Undiscovered

copper

resources

(t) 

Undiscovered

gold

resources

(t) 

Gold

(t)

Median estimate of

Copper

(t)

the early stage of exploration. In 2006, China’s reserve base 

was reported to be 30,700,000 t of copper and the identified 

copper resources were 70,500,000 t, contained in more than 

1,000 identified mines, many of them small (Li, 2008). At the 

same time, annual consumption was nearly 5,000,000 t and 

growing rapidly. Thus, the undiscovered resources in East Asia 

may play an important role in meeting China’s copper supply 

needs in the short and medium term.

However, a significant part of these resources, if they 

are present, may be inaccessible or uneconomic. Results 

should be interpreted with due caution, as no economic filters 

have been applied to these results to evaluate what portion 

of the estimated undiscovered resources might be economic 

under various conditions. For each tract, identified resources 

are compared with mean and median estimates of undiscovered copper resources in figure 7.

References Cited

Bawiec, W.J., and Spanski, G.T., 2012, Quick-start guide for 

version 3.0 of EMINERS—Economic Mineral Resource 

Simulator: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 

2009–1057, 26 p., accessed June 30, 2012, at http://pubs.

usgs.gov/of/2009/1057. (This report supplements USGS 

OFR 2004–1344, see Duval, 2012.)

Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Anhui Province, 1987, Regional geology of Anhui Province: Geological Publishing House, Beijing, Geological Memoirs, ser. 1, 

no. 5, 721 p. (Includes geological maps at 1:500,000 scale, 

bedrock geological maps at 1:500,000 scale, magmatic 

maps at 1:1,000,000, and tectonic maps at 1:1,000,000 

scale.)

Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Fujian 

Province, 1985, Regional geology of Fujian Province: 

Geological Publishing House, Beijing, Geological Memoirs, ser. 1, no. 4, 671 p. (Includes geological maps at 

1:500,000 scale, petrophase and structure maps of mesocenozoic volcanic maps at 1:1,000,000 scale, intrusive 

volcanic maps at 1:1,000,000 scale, metamorphic maps at 

1:1,000,000, and tectonic maps at 1:1,000,000 scale.)

Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Gansu Province, 1989, Regional geology of Gansu Province: Geological Publishing House, Beijing, Geological Memoirs, ser. 

1, no. 19, 692 p. (Includes geological maps at 1:1,000,000 

scale, magmatic maps at 1:1,500,000 scale, metamorphic 

maps at 1:2,000,000 scale, and tectonic maps at 1:1,000,000 

scale.)

Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of the Guangdong 

Province, 1988, Regional geology of Guangdong Province: Geological Publishing House, Beijing, Geological 

Memoirs, ser. 1, no. 9, 941 p. (Includes geological maps at 

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Figure 7. Chart showing identified and undiscovered copper resources for Mesozoic permissive 

tracts in East Asia.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Manchuride Coastal Pacific East Qinling

Copper, in milliom metric tons

Permissive tract

Known copper resources

Mean estimate of undiscovered copper resources

Median estimate of undiscovered copper resources

East Asia
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Zhang, Chao, Ma, Changqian, Liao, Qunan, Zhang, Jinyang, 

and She, Zhenbing, 2011, Implications of subduction and 

subduction zone migration of the Paleo-Pacific plate 

beneath eastern North China, based on distribution geochronology, and geochemistry of Late Mesozoic volcanic 

rocks: International Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 100, p. 

1665–1684.

Zhang, Z.W., Yang, X.Y., Dong, Y., Zhu, B.Q., and Chen, 

D.F., 2009, Molybdenum deposits in the eastern Qinling, 

central China—Constraints on the geodynamics: International Geology Review, v. 53, p. 261–290.

Zhao, Yiming, Zhang, Yinan, and Bi, Chengsi, 1999, Geology of gold-bearing skarn deposits in the middle and lower 

Yangtze River Valley and adjacent regions: Ore Geology 

Reviews, v. 14, p. 227–249.
24 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

Appendixes A–F
Appendix A. Porphyry Copper Assessment for Tract 142pCu8509, 

Manchuride—China, Mongolia, North Korea, and Russia

By Steve Ludington1, Mark J. Mihalasky2, Jane M. Hammarstrom3, Gilpin R. Robinson, Jr.3, Thomas P. Frost2, 

Kathleen D. Gans1

, Thomas D. Light2, Robert J. Miller1, and Dmitriy Alexeiev4, based on contributions of 

Yan Guangsheng5

, Lian Changyun5, Mao Jingwen6, Li Jinyi5, Xiao Keyan5, Qiu Ruizhao5, Shao Jianbao5, 

Zhai Gangyi5

, Du Yuliang5, Arthur A. Bookstrom2, and Andre Panteleyev7

Deposit Type Assessed: Porphyry Copper

Deposit type: Porphyry copper

Descriptive model: Porphyry copper (Cox, 1986; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General porphyry copper (Singer and others, 2008)

Table A1 summarizes selected assessment results.

Table A1. Summary of selected resource assessment results for tract 142pCu8509, Manchuride—China, Mongolia, North Korea, and 

Russia.

[km, kilometers; km2, square kilometers; t, metric tons]

Date of assessment Assessment 

depth (km)

Tract area 

(km2)

Known copper 

resources (t)

Mean estimate of undiscovered 

copper resources (t)

Median estimate of undiscovered 

copper resources (t)

2011 1 1,170,920 7,800,000 81,000,000 37,000,000

Location

The tract extends for nearly 3,000 km from Hebei and Shanxi provinces in China north into Russia, including part of eastern and northeastern Mongolia and a small area in North Korea along the Chinese border (fig. A1). The tract is as much as 1,500 

km wide, extending from the Gobi Desert in China and Mongolia to the shores of the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan. 

Geologic Feature Assessed

An assemblage of Yanshanian age (Jurassic and Cretaceous) volcanic and intrusive rocks that were formed by a variety 

of processes, including active subduction of the Paleopacific oceanic plate beneath the Sino-Korean (North China) craton, the 

Central Asian Orogenic Belt, and the Siberian craton (fig. 5), and mantle-induced melting after lithospheric delamination in an 

extensional tectonic regime.

1

U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California, United States.

2

U.S. Geological Survey, Spokane, Washington, United States.

3

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, United States.

4

Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.

5

China Geological Survey, Beijing, China.

6

Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, China.

7

XDM Geological Consultants, Inc., Victoria, Canada.

Appendix A—Tract 142pCu8509 25
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! 105°E 120°E 135°E 50°N 40°N Xinhe Houyu Baikal Babayi Yajishan Aolunhua Ulandler Budunhua Shaktama ZhirekenChangling Yangchang Daheishan Xiaosigou Zuun Matad Davhar Uul Bayantumen Naoniushan Borgulikan Avdartolgoi Shibadougou Lianhuashan Bystrinskoe Suul Tsagaan Xiaoxinancha Lugokanskaya Twenty-one Station Kultuminskaya Kurunzulaiskaya Badaguan Wunugetushan Group 6 and 7 Seoul Jinan Harbin FushunAnshan Dalian Baotou Qiqihar Taiyuan Tianjin Beijing Lanzhou Changchun P'yongyang Aonaodaba Haoliabao RUSSIA CHINA MONGOLIA NORTH KOREA SOUTH KOREA Sea of Japan Gobi Desert Yellow Sea RU

CHINA70°E 

50°N 30°N EX

OthePorpAsstrac

Porpprostrac

0 150 300 450 600 KILOMETERS 0 150 300 MILES Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009). Asia Lambert Conformal Conic Projection. Central meridian, 120° E., latitude of origin, 0°. Porp

Figure A1. Map showing tract location, known porphyry copper deposits, and porphyry copper prospects for tract 142pCu8509, Manchuride—Chinaand Russia.
Delineation of the Permissive Tract

Geologic Criteria

The tract outlines a field of intermediate to felsic Mesozoic intrusive and volcanic rocks that are widely regarded as 

posttectonic, related to lithospheric delamination instead of 

active subduction (Richards, 2009; Hou and others, 2011). 

This Mesozoic igneous activity occurred in concert with widespread crustal and lithospheric thinning during Yanshanian 

time (Windley and others, 2010; Zhai and others, 2007; Deng 

and others, 2007).

Because the maps used to delineate the permissive tract 

do not separate Triassic from Yanshanian age rocks, it was 

impossible to exclude the Triassic rocks, even though none 

of the porphyry copper deposits or prospects in the tract are 

Triassic in age. The tract was delineated using only intermediate-composition igneous rocks. Plutonic rocks include diorite, 

quartz diorite, granodiorite, monzonite, and syenite. Volcanic rocks include primarily andesite, with lesser amounts of 

dacite, trachyte, latite, and some pyroclastic rocks of unspecified composition. Granites, silicic ignimbrites, ultramafic 

rocks, and strongly peraluminous rocks were excluded.

Known Deposits

Zhireken (130,000 metric tons (t) Cu; Berzina and others, 2011), Shakhtama (2,860,000 t Cu; Berzina and others, 

2011), Bystrinskoe (2,440,000 t Cu; Seltmann and others, 

2010), Xiaosigou (131,000 t Cu; Yan and others, 2007), and 

Wunugetushan (2,230,000 t Cu; Wang and Qin, 1988) are the 

five known porphyry copper deposits in the tract (table A2, 

appendix D).

 Zhireken, discovered in 1945 (Berzina and others, 2007), 

Bystrinskoe, and Shakhtama are in the northern part of the 

tract in Russia. Zhiriken and Shakhtama have relatively low 

copper grades and high molybdenum grades and both are 

being mined. Wunugetushan is a large deposit in northern 

China, near the boundaries of Russia and Mongolia. Xiaosigou 

is a very small deposit in the southern part of the tract, about 

200 km northeast of Beijing.

Prospects, Mineral Occurrences, and Related 

Deposit Types

There are at least 30 identified porphyry copper prospects 

in the tract, mostly in China (appendix D, fig. A1). The 15 

most significant prospects are listed in table A3; details on all 

sites are in appendix D. 

The Xiaoxinancha Cu-Au deposit (Sun and others, 2009) 

is an operating mine (although the deposit is not yet fully 

delineated) in the eastern part of the tract, near the border with 

North Korea. It may be related to Pacific Plate subduction, as 

at 111 Ma, it is one of the youngest deposits in the tract (Ren 

and others, 2010). The delineated resource of 30 t of gold and 

140,000 t of copper (Zhang and others, 2007) may be present largely in veins, but porphyry-style mineralization is also 

present.

Sources of Information

Government geological institutions in China, Russia, 

and Mongolia do not publicly distribute detailed earth science 

information. Thus, we are reliant primarily on generalized largescale compilations that do not include needed information, and 

on academic papers in the scientific literature and promotional 

material from the websites of mineral exploration companies. 

Also, the understanding of the plate-tectonic history of the 

region is still evolving, which makes it difficult to use as a 

context for deposit occurrence. A list of the sources used in this 

assessment is in table 2 in the main body of this report.

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

Incomplete, unreliable, and conflicting information about 

grades, tonnages, and cutoff grades means that existing data 

are unlikely to be reliable guides to undiscovered deposits. 

Table A2. Porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu8509, Manchuride—China, Mongolia, North Korea, and Russia.

[Ma, million years; Mt, million metric tons; t, metric ton; g/t, gram per metric ton; n.d., no data; %, percent. Contained Cu in metric tons is computed as tonnage 

(Mt × 1,000,000) × Cu grade (percent)]

Name Latitude Longitude Age (Ma) Tonnage (Mt) Cu (%) Mo (%) Au (g/t) Ag (g/t) Contained Cu (t)

Shakhtama 51.28 117.88 153 1,100 0.26 0.06 0.09 n.d. 2,860,000

Zhireken 52.84 117.36 158 130 0.1 0.099 n.d. n.d. 130,000

Bystrinskoe 51.48 118.57 Jurassic 349 0.7 n.d. 0.81 3.63 2,440,000

Xiaosigou 41.05 118.60 106 18 0.73 0.086 n.d. n.d. 131,000

Wunugetushan 49.42 117.30 184 558 0.4 0.05 n.d. n.d. 2,230,000

Appendix A—Tract 142pCu8509 27
28 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

Table A3. Significant prospects in tract 142pCu8509, Manchuride—China, Mongolia, North Korea, and Russia.

[Ma, million years; t, metric ton; Mt, million metric tons; kt, thousand metric tons; %, percent; g/t, grams per metric ton]

Name Latitude Longitude Age (Ma) Comments (grade and tonnage data, if available)

Borgulikan 53.75 126.62 123 Grades up to 1% Cu, up to 3.3 g/t Au, up to 0.3–16.0 g/t 

Ag, up to 0.6% Mo.

Lugokanskaya 52.61 119.74 Jurassic Resource of 713,000 t Cu, 0.14 t Au, 1.63 t Ag, 

at unknown grade

Kultuminskaya 52.19 119.10 Jurassic Resource of 587,000 t Cu, 0.12 t Au, 0.95 t Ag, 

at unknown grade

Naoniushan 45.78 121.71 128 Copper grades from 0.3 to 0.98%

Lianhuashan 45.65 121.93 162 Average Cu grade 0.78%

Budunhua 45.00 121.43 166 Average Cu grade 0.40%

Ulandler 44.81 112.85 134 51 kt of Mo at 0.0934%; 1,300 t of Cu (no grade)

Aolunhua 44.76 120.56 131 Average Cu grade 0.29%

Aonaodaba 44.63 119.60 148 Copper grades from 0.3 to 1.0%; contains substantial Sn, 

Ag

Daheishan 43.49 126.32 175 May be primarily a Mo deposit

Yangchang 43.45 117.49 139 Ore in breccia

Xiaoxinancha 43.21 130.88 111 Grades of 0.63 to 0.8% Cu, 3.64 to 3.8 g/t Au, and 6.8 to 

16.8 g/t Ag; mining in enriched chalcocite blanket; tonnage 

not available

Shibadougou 43.14 127.94 Yanshanian Discovered in 2006 through stream-sediment geochemistry

Yajishan 42.42 119.83 151 Cu grade to 0.85%; 10.5 kt of Mo at 0.089%

Houyu 39.08 113.62 Yanshanian Yan and others (2007) report an unsubstantiated resource of 

about 110 Mt at 0.037 Cu

Although several of the deposits in the tract have substantial 

molybdenum grades (table A2), the general porphyry copper 

model was used for the estimation of undiscovered resources 

in the Manchuride tract. 

Estimate of the Number of 

Undiscovered Deposits

Rationale for the Estimate

Our knowledge of the geology and mineral deposits 

of this part of the world can best be termed incomplete. In 

general, it is not possible to access critical geologic data 

from government earth science organizations through those 

institutions’ websites. There are five known deposits in the 

tract and several significant prospects that have partially 

delineated resources and more than 30 other prospects.

Based on the relative proportions of volcanic and intrusive rock mapped, as well as the widespread prospects and 

mineral occurrences, much of the area appears to be exposed 

at an appropriate erosion level to preserve porphyry deposits. The largely postsubduction granitoid rocks in this tract 

are somewhat more silica-rich than many of the intrusions 

related to porphyry copper deposits worldwide, and several 

of the deposits and prospects (Zhiriken, for example) are 

related to high-silica granites, so in this area, the silica-rich 

granites are not necessarily negative evidence.

In this area, the rate of exploration success since the 

year 2000 appears to be rising rather than falling as it is 

in most of the world, suggesting that the area is relatively 

underexplored. The eastern part of the tract is heavily 

forested. Copper deposits have been mined in China for 

more than 1,000 years, but prospecting for porphyry copper 

deposits based on their geologic characteristics began only 

in the 1960s. The tract is quite large, covering an area of 

nearly 1,400,000 km2

. The large number of porphyry copper 

prospects, many of them discovered during the last decade, 

suggests that the tract may be as productive as a typical continental margin arc.

The assessment team estimated a 90 percent chance of 

2 or more undiscovered deposits in the tract, a 50 percent 
Appendix A—Tract 142pCu8509 29

chance of 8 or more deposits, and a 10 percent chance of 

60 or more deposits (table A4). A number of the significant 

prospects in this tract have partially delineated resources and 

this guided the estimate for the 90 percent confidence level 

of 2 or more deposits. 

The huge area of the tract is largely responsible for the 

estimate of 60 or more deposits at the 10 percent confidence 

level.

Because of the subjective nature of the tract delineation, 

it could be misleading to place great credence in a calculated deposit density for this tract, but the team’s estimate is 

entirely consistent with worldwide deposit density estimates 

(Singer, 2008; Singer and others, 2005).

A previous assessment (Yan and others, 2007) covered 

large parts of this tract (their tracts I-1, I-2, II-1, II-2, II-3, II-4, 

III-1, III-2, III-3, IV-1, IV-2, IV-3, and IV-4). The mean of 

their estimate was about 45 undiscovered deposits, compared 

with the present team’s estimate of about 22 (table A4). Their 

estimate, however, includes deposits of Paleozoic age, so 

should not be compared directly with this one.

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation 

Results

Undiscovered resources for the tract were estimated by 

combining the team’s estimate for numbers of undiscovered 

porphyry copper deposits with the general porphyry copper model of Singer and others (2008) using the EMINERS 

program (Root and others, 1992; Bawiec and Spanski, 2012; 

Duval, 2012). Selected simulation results are reported in 

table A5. Results of the Monte Carlo simulation are presented as a cumulative frequency plot (fig. A2), which shows 

the estimated resource amounts associated with cumulative 

probabilities of occurrence, as well as the mean, for each 

commodity and for total mineralized rock.

Table A4. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density for tract 142pCu8509, Manchuride—

China, Mongolia, North Korea, and Russia.

[NXX, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits 

plus known deposits; area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers; density, deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/km2

N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv% Nknown Ntotal

2 8 60 60 60 22.0 22.0 100 5 27 1,170,920 0.000023

Table A5. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources for tract 142pCu8509, Manchuride—China, Mongolia, North 

Korea, and Russia.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons (t); rock, in million metric tons (Mt)]

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or greater None

Cu (t) 260,000 2,000,000 37,000,000 220,000,000 280,000,000 81,000,000 0.37 0.04

Mo (t) 0 8,500 820,000 6,100,000 8,400,000 2,200,000 0.34 0.08

Au (t) 0 20 900 5,600 7,100 2,100 0.37 0.07

Ag (t) 0 0 9,700 73,000 100,000 27,000 0.33 0.12

Rock (Mt) 59 490 7,700 46,000 55,000 17,000 0.38 0.04
30 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

References Cited

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version 3.0 of EMINERS—Economic Mineral Resource 

Simulator: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 

2009–1057, 26 p., accessed June 30, 2012, at http://pubs.

usgs.gov/of/2009/1057. (This report supplements USGS 

OFR 2004–1344, see Duval, 2012.)

Berzina, A.N., Berzina, A.P., Gimon, V.O., and Krmsky, R.S., 

2011, Lead isotope signatures of Mo-rich porphyry deposits 

Zhireken and Shakhtama (Russia): Society for Geology 

Applied to Ore Deposits, 11th Biennial Meeting, Antofagasta, Chile, 2011, Extended Abstracts, p. 337–339.

Cox, D.P., 1986, Descriptive model of porphyry Cu, in Cox, 

D.P., and Singer, D.A., eds., 1986, Mineral deposit models: 

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1693, p. 76. (Also available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/b1693/.)

Deng, Jinfu, Su, Sjangguo, Niu, Yaoling, Liu, Cui, Zhao, Guochun, Zhao, Xingguo, Zhou, Su, and Wu, Zongxu, 2007, A 

possible model for the lithospheric thinning of North China 

Craton—Evidence from the Yanshanian (Jura-Cretaceous) 

magmatism and tectonism: Lithos, v. 96, p. 22–35.

Duval, J.S., 2012, Version 3.0 of EMINERS—Economic Mineral Resource Simulator: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2004–1344, accessed July 15, 2012, at http://pubs.

usgs.gov/of/2004/1344/.

Hou, Zengqian, Zhang, Hongrui, Pan, Xiaofei, and Yang, 

Zhiming, 2011, Porphyry Cu (-Mo-Au) deposits related to 

melting of thickened mafic lower crust—Examples from 

the eastern Tethyan metallogenic domain: Ore Geology 

Reviews, v. 39, p. 21–45.

John, D.A., Ayuso, R.A., Barton, M.D., Blakeley, R.J., Bodnar, 

R.J., Dilles, J.H., Gray, Floyd, Graybeal, F.T., Mars, J.C., 

McPhee, D.K., Seal, R.R., Taylor, R.D., and Vikre, P.G., 

2010, Porphyry copper deposit model, chap. B of Mineral 

deposit models for resource assessment: U.S. Geological 

Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5070–B, 169 

p., accessed September 8, 2010, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/

sir/2010/5070/b/.

Ren, Yungsheng, Zhao, Hualei, and Wang, Hui, 2010, Geochronology of the Xiaoxinancha Cu-Au deposit in NE 

China—Insights from molybdenite Re-Os dating: Goldschmidt Conference, Knoxville, Tennessee, 2010, Abstracts, 

available at http://goldschmidt.info/2010/abstracts/

finalPDFs/A861.pdf.

Richards, J.P., 2009, Postsubduction porphyry Cu-Au and 

epithermal Au deposits—Products of remelting subductionmodified lithosphere: Geology, v. 37, no. 3, p. 247–250.

Root, D.H., Menzie, W.D., and Scott, W.A., 1992, Computer 

Monte Carlo simulation in quantitative resource estimation: 

Natural Resources Research, v. 1, no. 2, p. 125–138.

Seltmann, R., Soloviev, S., Shatov, V., Pirajno, F., Naumov, E., 

and Cherkasov, S., 2010, Metallogeny of Siberia—Tectonic, 

geologic and metallogenetic settings of selected significant 

deposits: Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 57, p. 

655–706.

Singer, D.A., 2008, Mineral deposit densities for estimating 

mineral resources: Mathematical Geosciences, v. 40, p. 

33–46.

Singer, D.A. and Menzie, W.D., 2005, Statistical guides to 

estimating the number of undiscovered mineral deposits—An example with porphyry copper deposits, in Cheng, 

Qiuming, and Bonham-Carter, Graeme, eds., Proceedings 

of IAMG—The annual conference of the International 

Association for Mathematical Geology: Toronto, Canada, 

Geomatics Research Laboratory, York University, p. 

1028–1033.

Singer, D.A., Berger, V.I., Menzie, W.D., and Berger, B.R., 

2005, Porphyry copper density: Economic Geology, v. 

100, no. 3, p. 491–514.

Singer, D.A., Berger, V.I., and Moring, B.C., 2008, Porphyry 

copper deposits of the world—Database and grade and 

tonnage models, 2008: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2008–1155, 45 p., accessed June 1, 2011, at http://

pubs.usgs.gov/of/2008/1155/.

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Wei, Liang, Shurneng, Chiang, Yan, Zhang, Peng, and Nie, 

Xitao, 2009, Constraints of magmatism on the ore-forming 

process of magmatic hydrothermal gold-rich copper 

deposits as recorded from the element geochemistry and 

zircon CL image features—A case study of the Xiaoxinancha gold-rich copper deposit, Yanbian, Jilin Province: 

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Chinese, with English abstract.]

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polygons, beta edition 1, in Boundaries and sovereignty 

encyclopedia (B.A.S.E.): U.S. Department of State, Office 

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characteristics and metallogenic material sources of the 

Wunugetushan lower crust porphyry copper-molybdenum 

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English abstract.]
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Windley, B.F., Maruyama, S., and Xiao, W.J., 2010, Delamination/thinning of sub-continental lithospheric mantle 

under Eastern China—The role of water and multiple 

subduction: American Journal of Science, v. 310, p. 

1250–1293.

Yan, Guangsheng, Qiu, Ruizhao, Lian, Changyun, Nokleberg, Warren J., Cao, Li, Chen, Xiufa, Mao, Jingwen, 

Xiao, Keyan, Li, Jinyi, Xiao, Qinghui, Zhou, Su, Wang, 

Mingyan, Liu, Dawen, Yuan, Chunhua, Han, Jiuxi, Wang, 

Liangliang, Chen, Zhen, Chen, Yuming, Xie, Guiqing, 

and Ding, Jianhua , 2007, Quantitative assessment of the 

resource potential of porphyry copper systems in China: 

Earth Science Frontiers, v. 14, p. 27–41.

Zhai, Mingguo, Fan, Qicheng, Zhang, Hongfu, Sui, Jianli, 

and Shao, Ji’an, 2007, Lower crustal processes leading 

to Mesozoic lithospheric thinning beneath eastern North 

China—Underplating, replacement, and delamination: 

Lithos, v. 96, p. 36–54.

Zhang, Wenbo, Huang, Linri, and Jiang, Jianjun, 2007, Ore 

controlling factors of Xiaoxinancha-Nonping gold-coppertungsten ore belt of Jilin and its prospecting orientation: 

Mineral Resources and Geology, v. 21, p. 251–256. [In 

Chinese, with English abstract.]
32 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

0.00 

0.10 

0.20 

0.30 

0.40 

0.50 

0.60 

0.70 

0.80 

0.90 

1.00 

Probability 

Material, in metric tons

Cu 

Mo 

Au 

Ag 

Rock 

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean 

Rock 

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean Rock 

 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr 

Figure A2. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo computer simulation of undiscovered resources for 

tract 142pCu8509, Manchuride—China, Mongolia, North Korea, and Russia. k, thousand; M, million; B, billion; Tr, trillion.
Appendix B—Tract 142pCu8704 33

Appendix B. Porphyry Copper Assessment for Tract 142pCu8704, 

Coastal Pacific—China and Vietnam

By Steve Ludington1, Jane M. Hammarstrom2, Gilpin R. Robinson, Jr. 2, Kathleen D. Gans1, and 

Robert J. Miller1

, based on contributions of Yan Guangsheng3, Lian Changyun4, Mao Jingwen4, 

Li Jinyi4

, Xiao Keyan4, Qiu Ruizhao4, Shao Jianbao4, Zhai Gangyi4, and Du Yuliang4

Deposit Type Assessed: Porphyry Copper

Deposit type: Porphyry copper

Descriptive model: Porphyry copper (Cox, 1986; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General porphyry copper (Singer and others, 2008)

Table B1 summarizes selected assessment results

1

U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California, United States.

2

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, United States.

3

China Geological Survey, Beijing, China.

4

Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, China.

Table B1. Summary of selected resource assessment results for tract 142pCu8704, Coastal Pacific—China and Vietnam.

[km, kilometers; km2, square kilometers; t, metric tons]

Date of assessment Assessment 

depth (km)

Tract area 

(km2)

Known copper 

resources (t)

Mean estimate of 

undiscovered copper 

resources (t)

Median estimate of 

undiscovered copper 

resources (t)

2010 1 604,570 14,400,000 65,000,000 42,000,000

Location

The tract extends for about 2,500 km from northern Vietnam and Hainan Island in the south to the tip of the Shandong Peninsula in the north. A small area on Taiwan is also included. The tract is bordered on the east by the Pacific Ocean (Yellow Sea, 

East China Sea, and South China Sea) and extends as much as 800 km inland.

Geologic Feature Assessed

An assemblage of Yanshanian age (Jurassic and Cretaceous) volcanic and intrusive rocks that were formed by a variety of 

processes, including active subduction of the Paleopacific oceanic plate beneath the Yangtze (South China) Craton (fig. 5) and 

mantle-induced melting after lithospheric delamination in an extensional tectonic regime
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90°

50°N 30°N 10°N EX

OthePorpdeptracAsstracPorpprostrac

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009). Asia Lambert Conformal Conic Projection. Central meridian, 115° E., latitude of origin, 0°. 0 150 300 450 600 KILOMETERS 0 150 300 MILES

Figure B1. Map showing tract location, known porphyry copper deposits, and porphyry copper prospects for tract 142pCu8704, Coastal Pacific—Chin
Delineation of the Permissive Tract

Geologic Criteria

The tract outlines a field of intermediate to felsic Mesozoic intrusive and volcanic rocks that are widely regarded as 

posttectonic, related to lithospheric delamination instead of 

active subduction (Richards, 2009; Hou and others, 2011). 

Li and Li (2007) and Li, Li, Wang, and others (2010) suggest a Late Permian and Triassic continental arc was followed 

by Jurassic and Cretaceous postorogenic magmatism related 

to mantle upwelling. Neodymium and strontium isotopic 

evidence shows that the postsubduction melts have a primarily mantle source, with varying crustal contributions (Xu and 

others, 2002). Some Chinese geologists ascribe all the Mesozoic igneous activity to subduction of the Paleopacific Plate 

beneath South China (Lan and others, 2009).

The Lower Yangtze metallogenic belt (Pan and Dong, 

1999; Zhao and others, 1999) forms the heart of this tract and 

contains not only three of the known porphyry copper deposits, 

but also hundreds of Cu, Cu-Au, and Cu-Fe skarn and replacement deposits (fig. 5). The igneous rocks (150–120 Ma) are primarily granodiorites and monzodiorites (Mao and others, 2006; 

Li, Li, Wang, and others, 2010) that have a similar isotopic 

signature to many others throughout the tract, one of primary 

mantle origin with varying, but often significant, amounts of 

continental crustal involvement.

Because the maps used to delineate the permissive tract do 

not separate Triassic from Yanshanian age rocks, it was impossible to exclude the Triassic rocks, even though none of the 

porphyry copper deposits or prospects in the tract is Triassic in 

age. The tract was delineated using only intermediate-composition igneous rocks. Plutonic rocks include diorite, quartz diorite, 

granodiorite, monzonite, and syenite; granites were excluded. 

Volcanic rocks include primarily andesite, with lesser amounts 

of dacite, trachyte, latite, and some pyroclastic rocks of unspecified composition; the large exposures of silicic ignimbrite 

along the Pacific coast of eastern China were excluded, as were 

ultramafic rocks and known strongly peraluminous rocks. More 

detailed maps would likely allow the representation of this tract 

as multiple tracts with somewhat different histories. 

Known Deposits

Tongchankou (419,000 metric tons (t) Cu; Li and others, 

2008), Fengshandong (399,000 t Cu; Xie and others, 2007), 

and Chengmenshan (3,070,000 t Cu; Pan and Dong, 1999) are 

in the Yangtze River metallogenic belt. All are Late Jurassic in 

age (145–140 Ma) and all are being actively mined (table B2, 

appendix D).

Further east, Dexing (8,380,000 t Cu; Wang and others, 

2006), is the largest porphyry copper deposit in China, and 

has been known since the 1950s (Li and Sasaki, 2007). Dexing is Middle Jurassic in age (approximately 171 Ma). Nearby 

deposits that are being actively mined include Yinshan (Jiuqiu)

(432,000 t Cu), and Yongping (resource unknown). Yongping 

has been called a “Climax-type” porphyry Cu-Mo deposit (Li, 

Hu, and Wei, 2010), but there may be two deposits co-located, 

one copper-rich and one molybdenum-rich, and both with 

nearly the same Jurassic age. Because no grade and tonnage 

are available, Yongping was treated as a prospect during the 

assessment.

In the south, Zijinshan (1,740,000 t Cu) has been called a 

high-sulfidation epithermal copper deposit (Zhang and others, 1994; So and others, 1998), because of abundant alunite, 

but lower parts of the system exhibit classic potassic alteration 

assemblages.

Prospects, Mineral Occurrences, and Related 

Deposit Types

There are 21 known porphyry copper prospects in the 

tract (appendix D, fig. B1). Shaxi (Lan and others, 2009; 

Yang and others, 2007) is a buried porphyry copper system 

in the Yangtze River metallogenic belt that is being developed for eventual production. The final grade and tonnage are 

unknown, but it contains at least 500,000 t of copper. The 12 

most significant prospects are listed in table B3; details on all 

sites are in appendix D.

Sources of Information

Government geological institutions in China, Russia, 

and Mongolia do not publicly distribute detailed earth science 

information. Thus, we are reliant primarily on generalized largescale compilations that do not include needed information, and 

on academic papers in the scientific literature and promotional 

material from the websites of mineral exploration companies. 

Also, the understanding of the plate-tectonic history of the 

region is still evolving, which makes it difficult to use as a 

context for deposit occurrence. A list of the sources used in this 

assessment is in table 2 in the main body of this report.

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

Incomplete, unreliable, and conflicting information about 

grades, tonnages, and cutoff grades means that existing data 

are unlikely to be reliable guides to undiscovered deposits. 

The general porphyry copper model was used.

Estimate of the Number of 

Undiscovered Deposits

Rationale for the Estimate

Our knowledge of the geology and mineral deposits 

of this part of the world can best be termed incomplete. In 

Appendix B—Tract 142pCu8704 35
36 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

Table B2. Porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu8704, Coastal Pacific—China and Vietnam.

[Ma, million years; Mt, million metric tons; t, metric ton; g/t, gram per metric ton; n.d., no data. Contained Cu in metric tons is computed as tonnage 

(Mt × 1,000,000) × Cu grade (percent)]

Name Latitude Longitude Age (Ma) Tonnage (Mt) Cu (%) Mo (%) Au (g/t) Ag (g/t) Contained Cu (t)

Tongchankou 30.00 114.84 143 44.6 0.94 0.04 n.d. n.d. 419,000

Fengshandong 29.82 115.45 144 105 0.38 0.05 0.37 20 399,000

Chengmenshan 29.68 115.81 144 409 0.75 0.047 0.24 9.9 3,070,000

Dexing 29.02 177.73 171 1,825 0.459 0.016 0.12 1.9 8,380,000

Yinshan 28.97 117.60 178 83 0.52 n.d. 0.8 n.d. 432,000

Zijinshan 25.18 116.40 105 356 0.49 n.d. 0.14 6 1,740,000

Table B3. Significant prospects and occurrences in tract 142pCu8704, Coastal Pacific—China and Vietnam.

[Ma, million years; Mt, million metric tons; kt, thousand metric tons; g/t, grams per metric ton; %, percent)]

Name Latitude Longitude Age (Ma) Comments (grade and tonnage data, if available)

Shangjiazhuang 37.29 120.86 Yanshanian Yan and others (2007) report unsubstantiated resource of about 71 

Mt at 0.047% Cu

Duijinshan 35.54 118.32 Yanshanian Small resource at 0.21% Cu

Anjishan 32.07 119.10 108 Intermediate resources grading 0.76% Cu, 10.5 g/t Ag, 0.05 g/t Au

Taipingshan 31.70 118.70 Yanshanian Yan and others report a small (44 kt) resource of copper at 0.48%

Shaxi 31.18 117.27 124 Tonnage and copper grade (49 Mt at 0.4% Cu and ~3.5 g/t Au) 

estimated on base of data of Yang and others (2002) and Yang and 

Lee (2005)

Jingbian 30.97 117.44 Yanshanian Both vein and stockwork mineralization

Baiyunshan 30.00 114.97 Yanshanian 122 kt of Cu at 0.78%

Yongping 28.20 117.76 157 Two prospects; one is porphyry copper and one is classified as 

Climax-type molybdenum; formed during transition from compressional to extensional tectonic regime

Wangjiazhuang 27.15 119.33 Yanshanian Small (46 kt) resource of copper at 1.01%; high grade suggests 

substantial skarn

Hongshan 25.30 115.80 98 8 orebodies with grades > 0.4% Cu

Zhongteng 24.37 117.12 Yanshanian In breccia within Zhongteng caldera

Yuanzhuding 23.80 111.69 156 Resources of >600 Mt of ore; 980,000 t Cu and 260,000 t Mo

general, it is not possible to access critical geologic data from 

government earth science organizations through those institutions’ websites.

There are six porphyry copper deposits in the tract 

(Chengmenshan, Dexing, Fengshandong, Tongchankou, Yinshan, and Zijinshan) and another porphyry deposit (Yongping) 

that is being mined, but for which we do not have grade and 

tonnage information. There are 21 prospects (probably more) 

as well as hundreds of Cu and Cu-Au skarn deposits and prospects. Two of the prospects (Hongshan and Shaxi) are judged 

to be particularly significant because they contain partially 

delineated resources. There are also numerous epithermal 

precious-metal deposits.

Based on the relative proportions of volcanic and intrusive rock mapped, as well as the widespread prospects and 

mineral occurrences, much of the area appears to be exposed 

at an appropriate erosion level to preserve porphyry deposits.

In China, the rate of exploration success since the year 

2000 appears to be rising rather than falling as it is in most 

of the world, suggesting that the area is relatively underexplored. Copper deposits have been mined in China for more 

than 1,000 years, but prospecting for porphyry copper deposits 
Appendix B—Tract 142pCu8704 37

based on their geologic characteristics began only in the 

1960s. The tract is quite large, covering an area of more than 

600,000 km2

.

The assessment team estimated a 90 percent chance of 2 

or more undiscovered deposits in the tract, a 50 percent chance 

of 12 or more deposits, and a 10 percent chance of 40 or more 

deposits (table B4). Although several porphyry copper deposits have been discovered, the short exploration history and the 

heavily populated and vegetated nature of the tract suggest that 

it should be considered underexplored. Physical exploration of 

the surface in some parts of the tract has been quite extensive 

and it is probable that most outcropping deposits have been 

found; thus the estimate for 2 or more undiscovered deposits 

at the 90 percent confidence level. However, drilling beneath 

known skarn and replacement deposits is likely to encounter 

porphyry deposits and this belief guided the estimates at the 50 

and 10 percent confidence levels (table B4).

Because of the subjective nature of the tract delineation, 

it could be misleading to place great credence in a calculated 

deposit density for this tract, but the team’s estimate is entirely 

consistent with worldwide deposit density estimates (Singer, 

2008; Singer and others, 2005).

A previous assessment (Yan and others, 2007) covered 

about half the most favorable parts of this tract with 6 tracts 

(VI-1, VI-2, VII-1, VII-2, VII-3, and VII-5) and estimated 

about 17 mean undiscovered deposits, compared with the present team’s estimate of about 18 (table B4). 

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation 

Results

Undiscovered resources for the tract were estimated by 

combining the team’s estimate for numbers of undiscovered 

porphyry copper deposits with the porphyry copper-gold 

model of Singer and others (2008) using the EMINERS 

program (Root and others, 1992; Bawiec and Spanski, 2012; 

Duval, 2012). Selected simulation results are reported in table 

B5. Results of the Monte Carlo simulation are presented as a 

cumulative frequency plot (fig. B2), which shows the estimated resource amounts associated with cumulative probabilities of occurrence, as well as the mean, for each commodity 

and for total mineralized rock.

References Cited

Bawiec, W.J., and Spanski, G.T., 2012, Quick-start guide for 

version 3.0 of EMINERS—Economic Mineral Resource 

Simulator: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 

2009–1057, 26 p., accessed June 30, 2012, at http://pubs.

usgs.gov/of/2009/1057. (This report supplements USGS 

OFR 2004–1344, see Duval, 2012.)

Table B4. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density for tract 142pCu8704, Coastal Pacific—

China and Vietnam.

[NXX, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits 

plus known deposits; area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers; density, deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

 Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/km2

N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv% Nknown Ntotal

2 12 40 40 40 17.3 13.7 79 7 24 604,570 0.00004

Table B5. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources for tract 142pCu8704, Coastal Pacific—China and Vietnam.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons (t); rock, in million metric tons (Mt)]

Material Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or greater None

Cu (t) 250,000 2,500,000 42,000,000 160,000,000 200,000,000 65,000,000 0.39 0.04

Mo (t) 0 14,000 960,000 4,500,000 6,300,000 1,800,000 0.34 0.07

Au (t) 0 32 1,100 4,000 5,300 1,700 0.37 0.07

Ag (t) 0 39 11,000 53,000 76,000 21,000 0.33 0.10

Rock (Mt) 69 580 9,100 32,000 40,000 13,000 0.40 0.04
38 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

Cox, D.P., 1986, Descriptive model of porphyry Cu, in Cox, 

D.P., and Singer, D.A., eds., 1986, Mineral deposit models: 

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Qianming, 2009, Formation of the adakite-like granitoid 

complex and porphyry copper-gold deposit in Shaxi from 

southern Tangcheng-Ludiang fault belt—A clue to the West 

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Li, Jianwei, Zhao, Xinfu, Zhou, Meifu, Vasconcelos, Paulo, 

Ma, Changqian, Deng, Xiaodong, Sérgio de Souza, Zorano, 

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craton, Eastern China—Geochronological, geochemical, 

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43, p. 315–336.

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Guoqiang, Gao, Yuya, and Wu, Fuyuan, 2010, SIMS U-Pb 

zircon geochronology of porphyry Cu-Au-(Mo) deposits in 

the Yangtze River Metallogenic Belt, eastern China—Magmatic response to early Cretaceous lithospheric extension: 

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Li, Xiaofeng, and Sasaki, Munatake, 2007, Hydrothermal 

alteration and mineralization of Middle Jurassic Dexing 

porphyry Cu-Mo deposit, southeast China: Resource 

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isotope and SHRIMP U-Pb geochronology of the Yongping 

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challenge of finding new mineral resources—Global metallogeny, innovative exploration, and new discoveries: Society 

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km-wide intracontinental orogeny and postorogenic magmatic province in Mesozoic South China—A flat subduction 

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Zang, W., Stein, H.J., Zhou, T., 2006, Molybdenite Re-Os 

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Appendix B—Tract 142pCu8704 39

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Zhenhuan, Li, Chaofeng, Xiong, Xiaolin, and Ma, Jinlong, 

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249–270.

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rocks in the Ningzhen area of east China—Partial melting 

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Warren J., Cao, Li, Chen, Xiufa, Mao, Jingwen, Xiao, 

Keyan, Li, Jinyi, Xiao, Qinghui, Zhou, Su, Wang, Mingyan, 

Liu, Dawen, Yuan, Chunhua, Han, Jiuxi, Wang, Liangliang, 

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isotope geochemistry of Mesozoic igneous rocks and Cu-Au 

deposits along the middle-lower Yangtze Metallogenic Belt, 

China: International Geology Review, v. 53, p. 741–757.

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English abstract.]

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and Sun, Weidong, 2007, 40Ar/39Ar dating of the Shaxi 

porphyry Cu-Au deposit in the southern Tan-Lu fault zone, 

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40 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

Figure B2. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo computer simulation of undiscovered resources for tract 

142pCu8704, Coastal Pacific—China and Vietnam. k, thousand; M, million; B, billion; Tr, trillion.

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean Rock 

0.00 

0.10 

0.20 

0.30 

0.40 

0.50 

0.60 

0.70 

0.80 

0.90 

1.00 

Probability 

Cu 

Mo 

Au 

Ag 

Rock 

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean 

Rock 

Material, in metric tons 

0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr 
Appendix C—Tract 142pCu8705 41

Appendix C. Porphyry Copper Assessment for Tract 142pCu8705, 

East Qinling—China

By Steve Ludington1, Jane M. Hammarstrom2, Gilpin R. Robinson, Jr. 2, Kathleen D. Gans1, and 

Robert J. Miller1

, based on contributions of Yan Guangsheng3, Lian Changyun4, Mao Jingwen4, 

Li Jinyi4

, Xiao Keyan4, Qiu Ruizhao4, Shao Jianbao4, Zhai Gangyi4, and Du Yuliang4

Deposit Type Assessed: Porphyry Copper

Deposit type: Porphyry copper

Descriptive model: Porphyry copper (Cox, 1986; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: Porphyry copper-molybdenum (Singer and others, 2008)

Table C1 summarizes selected assessment results

Table C1. Summary of selected resource assessment results for tract 142pCu8705, East Qinling—China.

[km, kilometers; km2, square kilometers; t, metric tons]

Date of assessment Assessment 

depth (km)

Tract area 

(km2)

Known copper 

resources (t)

Mean estimate of 

undiscovered copper 

resources (t)

Median estimate of undiscovered 

copper resources (t)

2010 1 171,100 392,000 52,000,000 19,000,000

1

U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California, United States.

2

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, United States.

3

China Geological Survey, Beijing, China.

4

Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, China.

Location

The tract extends for about 2,300 km from Anhui Province in eastern China westward into Xinjiang Autonomous Region 

(fig. C1). The tract ranges from 50 to 400 km in width.

Geologic Feature Assessed

A linear belt of primarily small Yanshanian (Jurassic and Cretaceous) plutons that were formed by a variety of processes, 

including active subduction, but primarily by mantle-induced melting that includes significant amounts of crustal material after 

lithospheric delamination in an extensional tectonic regime.
! !! 

! 

90°E 100°E 110°E 39°N 33°N Lanzhou Xi'an 

Taiyuan 

Jinduicheng Yemaquan Wenquan Taiyangshan Deemi Dan Feng Qiush

Jiangligou Luocun 

INDIA MONG

80°E 100°E 

45°N 30°N 15°N Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009). Asia Lambert Conformal Conic Projection. Central meridian, 103° E., latitude of origin, 0°. EXPLANATION Other porphyry copper tracts Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu8705 Porphyry copper deposit Porphyry copper prospect; prospects associated with other tracts shown in gray 0 100 200 300 400 KILOMETERS 0 100 200 MILES Figure C1. Map showing tract location, known porphyry copper deposits, and porphyry copper prospects for tract 142pCu8705, East Qinling—Ch
Delineation of the Permissive Tract

Geologic Criteria

The tract outlines a field of intermediate to felsic Mesozoic 

intrusive and volcanic rocks that are widely regarded as posttectonic, related to lithospheric delamination instead of active 

subduction. This magmatic belt is largely coincident with the 

preexisting Qinling-Dabie orogen (Ratsbacher and others, 2003), 

formed in Paleozoic through Triassic time, and the emplacement 

of the rocks was guided by extensional faults related to reactivation of older structures. Strontium and neodymium isotopic 

evidence indicates that the rocks formed from differentiated 

mantle-derived melts that incorporated large amounts of lower 

crustal material (Zhang and others, 2009; Mao and others, 2008).

The tract was delineated using only intermediate-composition igneous rocks. Plutonic rocks include diorite, quartz diorite, 

granodiorite, monzonite, and syenite; granites were excluded. 

Volcanic rocks include primarily andesite, with lesser amounts 

of dacite, trachyte, latite, and some pyroclastic rocks of unspecified composition. Many of the intrusive rocks associated with the 

numerous molybdenum deposits in the tract are granites, with 

more than 70 percent silica.

Known Deposits

The most important porphyry-style ore deposit in the 

tract is Jinduicheng (Huang and others, 1988; Zhang and 

others, 2009; Zhu and others, 2010), which is the largest 

molybdenum-producing mine in China. Although most authors 

refer to the deposit as a porphyry molybdenum deposit, and 

the deposit is quite large (1,400,000,000 metric tons (t)), 

the molybdenum grade is relatively low (0.091 percent Mo) 

and the copper grade is 0.028 percent, as reported by Zhang 

and others (2009). Many, but not all, of the known geologic 

characteristics of the deposit suggest it should be considered a 

porphyry molybdenum deposit, but the copper grade is quite 

atypical. It is included here as a deposit because of its importance, recognizing that there is disagreement about the classification of porphyry deposits with molybdenum and/or copper 

grades less than or equal to 0.1 percent. Jinduicheng was dated 

by Stein and others (1997), using Re-Os methods at about 138 

Ma (Early Cretaceous) (table C2, appendix D).

The East Qinling molybdenum belt contains nearly 

half the known molybdenum resources of China (Zhang and 

others, 2009). Stretching east-west across much of southern 

Henan Province and eastern Shaanxi, the area contains nearly 

20 molybdenum-bearing deposits (skarn, porphyry, and vein) 

and prospects, as well as the Jinduicheng deposit. Details of 

these deposits, including copper grades, are poorly known 

and their classification is uncertain.

Prospects, Mineral Occurrences, and Related 

Deposit Types

In addition to the numerous porphyry molybdenum 

deposits in the East Qinling molybdenum belt (Mao and 

others, 2008), we identified eight prospects that appear to be 

related to porphyry copper style mineralization (appendix D, 

fig. C1). Several of these prospects appear to be primarily 

skarns. The Qiushuwan prospect (Zhang and others, 2008) 

appears to be zoned, with a copper-rich part above a deeper 

molybdenum-rich part. The six most significant prospects are 

listed in table C3; details on all sites are in appendix D.

Sources of Information

Government geological institutions in China, Russia, 

and Mongolia do not publicly distribute detailed earth science 

information. Thus, we are reliant primarily on generalized 

large-scale compilations that do not include needed information, and on academic papers in the scientific literature and 

promotional material from the websites of mineral exploration companies. Also, the understanding of the plate-tectonic 

history of the region is still evolving, which makes it difficult 

to use as a context for deposit occurrence. A list of the sources 

used in this assessment is in table 2 in the main body of this 

report.

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

Incomplete, unreliable, and conflicting information about 

grades, tonnages, and cutoff grades means that existing data 

are unlikely to be a reliable guide to undiscovered deposits. 

Because of the large number of contemporary molybdenum 

porphyry deposits in the belt, the porphyry copper-molybdenum model was used for assessment.

Table C2. Porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu8705, East Qinling—China.

[Ma, million years; Mt, million metric tons; t, metric ton; g/t, gram per metric ton; n.d., no data. Contained Cu in metric tons is computed as tonnage 

(Mt × 1,000,000) × Cu grade (percent)]

Name Latitude Longitude Age (Ma) Tonnage (Mt) Cu (%) Mo (%) Au (g/t) Ag (g/t) Contained Cu (t)

Jinduicheng 34.33 109.95 138 1400 0.028 0.091 n.d. n.d. 390,000

Appendix C—Tract 142pCu8705 43
44 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

Estimate of the Number of 

Undiscovered Deposits

Rationale for the Estimate

Most of the porphyry deposits in this tract are molybdenum porphyries; the East Qinling metallogenic belt is probably the most important molybdenum province in the world, 

with reserves of more than 8,000,000 t of molybdenum (Mao 

and others, 2011). We considered and assessed for only those 

deposits and prospects for which there was direct evidence of 

substantial copper content.

The largest molybdenum deposit in the tract, Jinduicheng, is difficult to classify, but it contains more copper 

(about 400,000 t) than many porphyry copper deposits. The 

breccia deposit at Qiushuwan (fig. C1) has a partially delineated resource of 500,000 t of copper. There are seven other 

prospects about which less is known; three of them may be 

skarn deposits.

Based on the relative proportions of volcanic and intrusive rock mapped, as well as the widespread prospects and 

mineral occurrences, much of the area appears to be exposed 

at an appropriate erosion level to preserve porphyry deposits. 

Some of the largely postsubduction granitoid rocks in this tract 

are somewhat more silica-rich than many of the intrusions 

related to porphyry copper deposits worldwide, but several of 

the deposits and prospects are related to high-silica granites, so 

in this area, the silica-rich granites are not necessarily negative 

evidence.

In China, the rate of exploration success since the year 

2000 appears to be rising, rather than falling as it is in most 

of the world, suggesting that the area is relatively underexplored. For example, a recently announced resource for the 

Shapinggou deposit (China Mining, 2011), in the eastern 

part of the tract, of more than 2,000,000 t of molybdenum 

metal makes it the second-largest molybdenum deposit in the 

world, although it does not appear to contain important copper resources. Copper deposits have been mined in China for 

more than 1,000 years, but prospecting for porphyry copper 

deposits based on their geologic characteristics began only in 

the 1960s.

Despite these uncertainties, the team estimated a 90 percent chance of 1 or more undiscovered deposits in the tract, 

a 50 percent chance of 3 or more deposits, and a 10 percent 

chance of 12 or more deposits (table C4). It is probable that 

most outcropping deposits have been found. Qiushuwan may 

well be a porphyry copper deposit, and the presence of large 

Cu-Au skarn deposits is prospective; thus the estimate for 

undiscovered deposits at the 90th percentile confidence level 

was 1 or more.

Because of the subjective nature of the tract delineation, 

it could be misleading to place great credence in a calculated deposit density for this tract, but the team’s estimate is 

entirely consistent with worldwide deposit density estimates 

(Singer, 2008; Singer and others, 2005).

Table C3. Significant prospects and occurrences in tract 142pCu8705, East Qinling—China.

[Ma, million years; kt, thousand metric tons; %, percent]

Name Latitude Longitude Age (Ma) Comments (grade and tonnage data, if available)

Qiushuwan 33.16 112.29 147 Resource of 500 kt Cu at 0.8%; 100 kt Mo at 0.12%

Dan Feng 33.90 110.28 Yanshanian Claimed as Cu-Mo porphyry target; contains much skarn

Taiyangshan 34.43 105.78 Yanshanian Small (8 kt) resource at 0.52% Cu

Wenquan 34.60 105.11 214 Cu grade to 0.05%

Deemi 34.38 100.13 Yanshanian Indicated as a large copper deposit; probably a skarn (?)

Yemaquan 37.00 91.98 Yanshanian Indicated as a medium copper deposit; probably a skarn (?)

Table C4. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density for tract 142pCu8705, East Qinling—China.

[NXX, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient 

of variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus 

known deposits; area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers; density, deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per km2. Nund, s, and Cv% 

are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract 

area 

(km2)

Deposit 

density 

(Ntotal/km2) N90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv% Nknown Ntotal

1 3 12 12 12 5.0 4.2 83 1 6 171,100 0.00004
Appendix C—Tract 142pCu8705 45

A previous assessment (Yan and others, 2007) covered 

about half the tract (Qinling molybdenum belt, tract X-7). 

They estimated 0.3 mean undiscovered deposits, compared 

with the present team’s estimate of about 5 deposits (table 

C4). Our estimate is meant to account for substantial copper resources in what are widely regarded as molybdenum 

deposits.

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation 

Results

Undiscovered resources for the tract were estimated by 

combining the team’s estimate for numbers of undiscovered 

porphyry copper deposits with the porphyry copper-gold 

model of Singer and others (2008) using the EMINERS 

program (Root and others, 1992; Bawiec and Spanski, 2012; 

Duval, 2012). Selected simulation results are reported in table 

C5. Results of the Monte Carlo simulation are presented as a 

cumulative frequency plot (fig. C2), which shows the estimated resource amounts associated with cumulative probabilities of occurrence, as well as the mean, for each commodity 

and for total mineralized rock.

References Cited

Bawiec, W.J., and Spanski, G.T., 2012, Quick-start guide for 

version 3.0 of EMINERS—Economic Mineral Resource 

Simulator: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 

2009–1057, 26 p., accessed June 30, 2012, at http://pubs.

usgs.gov/of/2009/1057. (This report supplements USGS 

OFR 2004–1344, see Duval, 2012.)

China Mining, 2011, A large molybdenum ore mine prospected in Anhui Province: press release, accessed December 

13, 2011, at http://www.chinamining.org/News/2011-07-

25/1311553991d48099.html.

Cox, D.P., 1986, Descriptive model of porphyry Cu, in Cox, 

D.P., and Singer, D.A., eds., 1986, Mineral deposit models: 

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1693, p. 76. (Also available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/b1693/.)

Duval, J.S., 2012, Version 3.0 of EMINERS—Economic Mineral Resource Simulator: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2004–1344, accessed July 15, 2012, at http://pubs.

usgs.gov/of/2004/1344/.

Huang, D.H., Wu, C.Y., and Nie, F.J., 1988, Geological 

features and genesis of the Jinduicheng porphyry molybdenum deposit, Shaanxi Province, China: Chinese Journal of 

Geochemistry, v. 7, p. 136–147.

John, D.A., Ayuso, R.A., Barton, M.D., Blakeley, R.J., Bodnar, 

R.J., Dilles, J.H., Gray, Floyd., Graybeal, F.T., Mars, J.C., 

McPhee, D.K., Seal, R.R., Taylor, R.D., and Vikre, P.G., 

2010, Porphyry copper deposit model, chap. B of Mineral 

deposit models for resource assessment: U.S. Geological 

Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5070–B, 169 

p., accessed September 8, 2010, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/

sir/2010/5070/b/.

Mao, J.W., Xie, G.Q., Bierlein, F., Qü, W.J., Du, A.D., Ye, 

H.S., Pirajno, F., Li, H.M., guo, B.J., Li, Y.F., and Yang, 

Z.Q., 2008, Tectonic implications from Re-Os dating of 

Mesozoic molybdenum deposits in the East Qinling-Dabie 

orogenic belt: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 72, p. 

4607–4626.

Mao, J.W., Pirajno, F., Xiang, J.F., Gao, J.J., Ye, H.S., Li, Y.F., 

and Guo, B.J., 2011, Mesozoic molybdenum deposits in 

the east Qinling-Dabie orogenic belt—Characteristics and 

tectonic settings: Ore Geology Reviews, v. 43, p. 264–293.

Ratschbacher, L., Hacker, B. , Calvert, A., Webb, L., 

Grimmer, J., McWilliams, M., Ireland, T., Dong, S., and 

Hu, J., 2003, Tectonics of the Qinling (Central China)—

Tectonostratigraphy, geochronology, and deformation 

history: Tectonophysics, v. 366, p. 1–53.

Table C5. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources for tract 142pCu8705, East Qinling—China.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons (t); rock, in million metric tons (Mt)]

Material Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or greater None

Cu (t) 0 410,000 19,000,000 150,000,000 200,000,000 52,000,000 0.31 0.07

Mo (t) 0 33,000 990,000 6,800,000 9,400,000 2,400,000 0.32 0.07

Au (t) 0 0 50 360 540 130 0.30 0.14

Ag (t) 0 0 6,900 62,000 110,000 22,000 0.28 0.15

Rock (Mt) 0 110 4,000 26,000 33,000 9,300 0.33 0.07
46 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

Root, D.H., Menzie, W.D., and Scott, W.A., 1992, Computer 

Monte Carlo simulation in quantitative resource estimation: 

Natural Resources Research, v. 1, no. 2, p. 125–138.

Singer, D.A., 2008, Mineral deposit densities for estimating 

mineral resources: Mathematical Geosciences, v. 40, p. 

33–46.

Singer, D.A. and Menzie, W.D., 2005, Statistical guides to 

estimating the number of undiscovered mineral deposits—An example with porphyry copper deposits, in Cheng, 

Qiuming, and Bonham-Carter, Graeme, eds., Proceedings of 

IAMG—The annual conference of the International Association for Mathematical Geology: Toronto, Canada, Geomatics Research Laboratory, York University, p. 1028–1033.

Singer, D.A., Berger, V.I., Menzie, W.D., and Berger, B.R., 

2005, Porphyry copper density: Economic Geology, v. 100, 

no. 3, p. 491–514.

Singer, D.A., Berger, V.I., and Moring, B.C., 2008, Porphyry 

copper deposits of the world—Database and grade and 

tonnage models, 2008: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2008–1155, 45 p., accessed June 1, 2011, at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2008/1155/.

Stein, H.J., Markey, R.J., Morgan, J.W., Du, A., and Sun, Y., 

1997, Highly precise and accurate Re-Os ages for molybdenite from the East Qinling molybdenum belt, Shaanxi 

Province, China: Economic Geology, v. 92, p. 827–835.

U.S. Department of State, 2009, Small-scale digital international land boundaries (SSIB)—Lines, edition 10, and 

polygons, beta edition 1, in Boundaries and sovereignty 

encyclopedia (B.A.S.E.): U.S. Department of State, Office

of the Geographer and Global Issues.

Yan, Guangsheng, Qiu, Ruizhao, Lian, Changyun, Nokleberg, 

Warren J., Cao, Li, Chen, Xiufa, Mao, Jingwen, Xiao, 

Keyan, Li, Jinyi, Xiao, Qinghui, Zhou, Su, Wang, Mingyan, 

Liu, Dawen, Yuan, Chunhua, Han, Jiuxi, Wang, Liangliang, 

Chen, Zhen, Chen, Yuming, Xie, Guiqing, and Ding, Jianhua, 2007, Quantitative assessment of the resource potential 

of porphyry copper systems in China: Earth Science Frontiers, v. 14, p. 27–41.

Zhang, Z.W., Yang, X.Y., Dong, Y., Zhu, B.Q., and Chen, D.F., 

2009, Molybdenum deposits in the eastern Qinling, central 

China-Constraints on the geodynamics: International Geology Review, v. 53, p. 261–290.

Zhang, Zhihui, Zin, Ming, Fang, Rong, Tang, Jie, and Zhai, 

Dongxu, 2008, Geological characterisitcs of the Qiushuwan 

Cu, Mo deposit with the analysis of its prospecting potential 

in deep part, Zhenping of Henan: Mineral Resources and 

Geology, v. 22, p. p.107–110. [In Chinese, with abstract in 

English.]

Zhu, Laimin, Zhang, Guowei, Guo, Bo, Lee, Ben, Gong 

Hujun, and Wang, Fei, 2010, Geochemistry of the Jinduicheng Mo-bearing porphyry and deposit, and its implications for the geodynamic setting in East Qinling, P.R. China: 

Chemie der Erde, v. 70, p. 159–174.
Appendix C—Tract 142pCu8705 47

Figure C2. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo computer simulation of undiscovered resources for tract 

142pCu8705, East Qinling—China. k, thousand; M, million; B, billion; Tr, trillion.

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean Rock 

0.00 

0.10 

0.20 

0.30 

0.40 

0.50 

0.60 

0.70 

0.80 

0.90 

1.00 

Probability 

Material, in metric tons 

Cu 

Mo 

Au 

Ag 

Rock 

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean 

Rock 

0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr 
48 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

Appendix D. Porphyry Copper Deposits, Prospects, and 

Occurrences in the Mesozoic of East Asia

This appendix consists of a table and an Excel workbook that contain detailed information about the porphyry copper 

deposits, prospects, and occurrences in the study area. Table D1 is an index of the deposits, prospects, and occurrences included 

in the Excel workbook, sorted by tract, site status, and rank. The workbook EAM_DEPPROS.xls includes four worksheets. The 

first contains descriptive information for each site listed in table D1. The remaining three worksheets include references for each 

site, organized by tract.

Table D1. Porphyry copper deposits, prospects, and occurrences in the Mesozoic of East Asia.

 Deposit name Country Latitude Longitude Site status Rank ID on fig. 1

Zhireken Russia 52.8430 117.3600 Deposit

Bystrinskoe Russia 51.4800 118.5700 Deposit

Shaktama Russia 51.2830 117.8830 Deposit

Wunugetushan China 49.4239 117.3010 Deposit

Xiaosigou China 41.0500 118.6010 Deposit

Borgulikan Russia 53.7909 126.6351 Prospect Significant 1

Lugokanskaya Russia 52.6140 119.7446 Prospect Significant 3

Kultuminskaya Russia 52.1851 119.0959 Prospect Significant 4

Naoniushan China 45.7800 121.7090 Prospect Significant 15

Lianhuashan China 45.6508 121.9260 Prospect Significant 16

Budunhua China 44.9991 121.4260 Prospect Significant 17

Ulandler China 44.8150 112.8520 Prospect Significant 18

Aolunhua China 44.7603 120.5560 Prospect Significant 19

Aonaodaba China 44.6331 119.6030 Prospect Significant 20

Daheishan China 43.4891 126.3240 Prospect Significant 23

Yangchang China 43.4477 117.4930 Prospect Significant 24

Xiaoxinancha China 43.2133 130.8850 Prospect Significant 25

Shibadougou China 43.1380 127.9420 Prospect Significant 26

Yajishan China 42.4202 119.8300 Prospect Significant 28

Houyu China 39.0768 113.6160 Prospect Significant 29

Twenty-one Station China 52.6641 125.0110 Prospect 2

Kurunzulaiskaya Russia 50.9857 116.9645 Prospect 5

Badaguan China 49.8232 118.8250 Prospect 6

Avdartolgoi Mongolia 49.6721 114.8402 Prospect 7

Babayi China 49.5821 118.5710 Prospect 8

Changling China 49.4422 116.8960 Prospect 9

Manchuride tract
Appendix D 49

 Deposit name Country Latitude Longitude Site status Rank ID on fig. 1

Group 6 and 7 China 48.9833 116.4330 Prospect 10

Bayantumen Mongolia 48.1258 114.5395 Prospect 11

Davhar Uul Mongolia 48.1167 114.2653 Prospect 12

Suul Tsagaan Mongolia 46.8833 115.4889 Prospect 13

Zuun Matad Mongolia 46.8389 115.5333 Prospect 14

Baikal China 44.2190 131.3338 Prospect 21

Haoliabao China 43.7461 120.4090 Prospect 22

Xinhe China 42.9500 128.4170 Prospect 27

Name unknown China 53.2438 121.6999 Occurrence

Name unknown China 52.1993 124.3408 Occurrence

Name unknown China 51.4521 120.1996 Occurrence

Name unknown China 51.2027 126.6660 Occurrence

Name unknown China 51.1189 126.7135 Occurrence

Name unknown China 50.8050 120.8169 Occurrence

Name unknown China 49.4918 116.6704 Occurrence

Name unknown China 49.3553 116.5891 Occurrence

Name unknown China 48.7169 120.8925 Occurrence

Name unknown China 47.9931 121.3002 Occurrence

Name unknown China 47.1660 119.9176 Occurrence

Name unknown China 44.3808 119.3842 Occurrence

Name unknown China 44.2410 116.3213 Occurrence

Name unknown China 43.8474 119.4940 Occurrence

Name unknown China 43.7701 118.7588 Occurrence

Name unknown China 43.7171 117.3225 Occurrence

Tongchankou China 29.9987 114.8390 Deposit

Fengshandong China 29.8189 115.4490 Deposit

Chengmenshan China 29.6813 115.8050 Deposit

Dexing China 29.0189 117.7300 Deposit

Yinshan China 28.9718 117.5960 Deposit

Zijinshan China 25.1801 116.4010 Deposit

Shangjiazhuang China 37.2917 120.8590 Prospect Significant 30

Duijinshan China 35.5420 118.3180 Prospect Significant 32

Anjishan China 32.0667 119.1000 Prospect Significant 33

Taipingshan China 31.6969 118.7065 Prospect Significant 35

Shaxi China 31.1833 117.2670 Prospect Significant 36

Jingbian China 30.9684 117.4450 Prospect Significant 37

Baiyunshan China 29.9965 114.9730 Prospect Significant 39

Table D1.—Continued

Coastal Pacific tract
50 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

Deposit name Country Latitude Longitude Site status Rank ID on fig. 1

Yongping China 28.1983 117.7620 Prospect Significant 42

Wangjiazhuang China 27.1493 119.3270 Prospect Significant 43

Hongshan China 25.3000 115.8000 Prospect Significant 44

Zhongteng China 24.3700 117.1230 Prospect Significant 48

Yuanzhuding China 23.8040 111.6880 Prospect Significant 50

Qibaoshan China 35.6471 119.2200 Prospect 31

Guli China 31.8800 118.7000 Prospect 34

Bamaoshan China 30.8540 117.3800 Prospect 38

Dingjiashan China 29.4650 117.3360 Prospect 40

Heishanling China 28.9200 118.3170 Prospect 41

Zhongliao China 25.1836 116.4350 Prospect 45

Luoboling China 25.1465 116.4020 Prospect 46

Jinxi China 24.3700 117.2670 Prospect 47

Guifeng China 23.8200 114.0170 Prospect 49

Jinduicheng China 34.3323 109.9540 Deposit

Yemaquan China 36.9964 91.9758 Prospect Significant 51

Wenquan China 34.6010 105.1130 Prospect Significant 53

Taiyangshan China 34.4259 105.7790 Prospect Significant 54

Deemi China 34.3793 100.1300 Prospect Significant 55

Dan Feng China 33.8986 110.2830 Prospect Significant 56

Qiushuwan China 33.1599 112.2920 Prospect Significant 58

Jiangligou China 35.5500 111.2300 Prospect 52

Luocun China 33.8810 111.7540 Prospect 57

Table D1.—Continued

East Qinling tract
Appendix E 51

An Environmental Sciences Research Institute (ESRI) 

geodatabase file (EASIA_pCu.gdb) containing three feature 

classes and an ESRI map document (EASIA _GIS.mxd) are 

included with this report. These may be downloaded from the 

USGS website as zipped file GIS_SIR5090G_appendix_E.zip, 

which also contains the data in shapefile format.

The feature classes (and shapefiles) are as follows:

EASIA_pCu_Tracts is a vector (polygon) feature class 

that represents the three permissive tracts. Attributes include 

the tract identifiers, tract name, a brief description of the basis 

for tract delineation, and assessment results. Attributes are 

defined in the metadata that accompanies the files.

EASIA _pCu_ Deposits_prospects is a vector (point) 

feature class that represents the locations for known deposits 

(identified resources that have well-defined tonnage and copper grade) and prospects. The deposits and prospects are listed 

in tables in appendixes A, B, C, and D of this report. Attributes 

include the assigned tract, alternate site names, information 

on grades and tonnages, age, mineralogy, associated igneous 

Appendix E. Description of Geographic Information 

System (GIS) files 

rocks, site status, comments fields, data sources and references. Attributes are defined in the metadata that accompanies 

the files.

EASIA _political_boundaries is a vector (polygon) 

feature class that represents the political boundaries in and 

adjacent to the study area. The data were extracted from the 

country and shoreline boundaries maintained by the U.S. 

Department of State (2009).

The files can be viewed with an included ESRI map 

document (version 9.3) named EASIA_GIS.mxd. 

Reference Cited

U.S. Department of State, 2009, Small-scale digital international land boundaries (SSIB)—Lines, edition 10, and 

polygons, beta edition 1, in Boundaries and sovereignty 

encyclopedia (B.A.S.E.): U.S. Department of State, Office 

of the Geographer and Global Issues.
52 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia

Steve Ludington is a research geologist with the USGS 

in Menlo Park, California. He received a B.A. in geology from 

Stanford University (1967) and a Ph.D. in geology from the 

University of Colorado (1974). He worked as an exploration 

geologist in Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona before joining the USGS in 1974. His work with the USGS has included 

regional geologic studies, metallogenic and geochemical 

studies, wilderness studies, and mineral-resource assessments. 

He has done mineral-resource assessment work in the United 

States, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Mongolia, Afghanistan, and 

Mexico and was a coordinator for the 1998 USGS National 

Mineral Resource Assessment.

Mark J. Mihalasky is a research geologist with the 

USGS in Spokane, Washington. He received a B.S. in geology in 1984 from Stockton State College, an M.S. in geology 

in 1988 from Eastern Washington University, and a Ph.D. 

in earth sciences in 1999 from the University of Ottawa. He 

has worked as an exploration geologist and GIS consultant, 

Assistant Professor of Earth and Marine Geology and Coastal 

Research Center Director of Research at The Richard Stockton 

College of New Jersey, and, since joining the USGS in 2008, 

a geospatial analyst and resource assessment scientist. He has 

experience in economic geology, mineral and interdisciplinary natural resource assessment, and quantitative analysis 

and modeling of geospatial data. He has been involved with 

metallic mineral resource assessments (gold, silver, copper) in 

Nevada, China, Afghanistan, and western Asia (eastern Russia, 

Mongolia, northern China, Kazakhstan), diamond resources 

in Mali and Central African Republic, and interdisciplinary 

natural resource assessments in Madagascar, Gabon, and the 

United States.

Jane M. Hammarstrom is a research geologist with 

the USGS in Reston, Virginia. She received a B.S. in geology from George Washington University in 1972 and an 

M.S. in geology from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State 

University in 1981. She is Co-chief of the USGS Global 

Mineral Resource Assessment project and the task leader 

for the porphyry copper assessment. Jane has more than 30 

years of research experience in igneous petrology, mineralogy, geochemistry, economic geology, and mineral resource 

assessment.

Gilpin R. Robinson, Jr. is a research geologist with the 

USGS in Reston, Virginia. He received a B.S. in geology from 

Tufts University (1973) and a Ph.D. in geology from Harvard 

University (1979). He is a geologist, geochemist, and mineral 

resources specialist working on mineral resource assessment 

and other projects, including geologic mapping, studies of the 

origin and genesis of metal and industrial mineral deposits, 

and geochemical modeling.

Thomas P. Frost is a research geologist with the USGS 

in Spokane, Washington. He completed his B.A. in geology in 

1975 at U.C. Santa Barbara and his Ph.D. at Stanford in 1987. 

He has experience as a marine geologist working on environmental hazards associated with oil leasing in the Gulf of Alaska 

and Cook Inlet, a petrologist working on rheologic modeling 

of mafic and felsic magma interaction in granitic plutons in the 

Sierra Nevada, and a geochemist doing geochemical surveys 

and geologic mapping. Recent work includes the Interior 

Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project, which was 

charged with assessing forest-landscape-aquatic-social-economic conditions in the Columbia River Basin and developing 

adaptive management plans for Federal lands in the basin. He 

has participated in porphyry copper mineral resource assessments of Russia, Mongolia, northern China, and Kazakhstan.

Thomas D. Light was a research geologist with the 

USGS in Spokane, Washington, where he retired in 2011. 

Tom received his B.S. in geology from Bowling Green State 

University in 1969. He worked as a mineral exploration 

geologist/geophysicist in northern Ontario and Wyoming, and 

as a geophysicist for the Naval Oceanographic Office before 

receiving his M.S. in geology from Northern Arizona University in 1975. Subsequently, Tom worked for the U.S. Bureau 

of Mines doing mineral resource assessments in the western 

U.S. In 1981 he joined the USGS, where he did geochemical and mineral resource studies of numerous Alaska Mineral 

Resource Assessment Program (AMRAP) quadrangles in 

Alaska, was the Associate Branch Chief for the Branch of 

Alaskan Geology, and was the coordinator for the Alaskan 

portion of the 1998 USGS National Mineral Resource Assessment. After 21 years in Alaska, Tom transferred to Spokane, 

Washington, where he spent 3 years working on the Global 

Mineral Resource Assessment Project.

Appendix F. Assessment Team Member Information 
Appendix F 53

Dmitriy Alexeiev is a senior scientist with the Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) in 

Moscow, Russia. He received MA and Ph.D. degrees in geology from Moscow State University in 1985 and 1993 respectively. He worked as a mapping geologist in the Karatau area 

of southern Kazakhstan between 1985 and 1993. From 1993 

to 2005 he was with RAS Institute of Oceanology, and has 

been with RAS Geological Institute from 2006 to the present. 

His studies focus on the tectonic evolution of the Paleozoic 

Kazakhstan –Tian-Shan region and the Mesozoic to Cenozoic Russian Far East. His work with the USGS has included 

regional tectonic syntheses, terrane models, and the evolution 

of arc systems through time for Kazakhstan, Central Asia, and 

the western Circum-Pacific.

Arthur A. Bookstrom is a research geologist with the 

USGS in Spokane, Washington. He received a B.A. in geology 

from Dartmouth College (1961), an M.S. in geology from the 

University of Colorado (1964), and a Ph.D. in geology from 

Stanford University (1975). He worked as a mine geologist at 

the Climax molybdenum mine in Colorado, El Romeral magnetite mine in Chile, and the Rochester silver mine in Nevada. 

He has done exploration-project work at sites in Colorado, 

Nevada, and Montana, as well as regional exploration for 

molybdenum in Colorado and regional exploration for gold 

in Nevada, Montana, and Saudi Arabia. His work with the 

USGS has included regional geologic studies, metallogenic 

studies, mineral-environmental studies, and mineral-resource 

assessments.

Andre Panteleyev is an economic geologist, formerly 

with the British Columbia Department of Mines of the 

British Columbia Geological Survey. He received his B.Sc. 

(Honours, 1964), M.Sc. (1969), and Ph.D. (1976) from the 

University of British Columbia. He specialized in economic 

geology studies at Queen’s University from 1967 to 1969, 

and is registered as a Professional Engineer (P.Eng.) with 

the Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists 

of British Columbia. He specializes in intrusion-related and 

subvolcanic mineralized environments, conceptual mineral 

deposit modeling, the genetic interrelationships of mineral 

deposits, regional metallogeny, methodologies and applications of regional mineral potential assessments, and multisector land use negotiations. His work experience includes nine 

field seasons in the Canadian Cordillera with Kennco Explorations (Western) Ltd (a Canadian subsidiary of Kennecott 

Copper Corporation) doing porphyry copper exploration. He 

has worked and lectured extensively in Canada, Mongolia, 

China, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Perú, as well as the 

United States, El Salvador, Fiji, Mexico, and Sweden. He is 

currently with XDM Geological Consultants, Inc., in Victoria, Canada.
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Menlo Park Publishing Service Center, California

Manuscript approved for publication, June 21, 2012

Edited by Tracey Suzuki

Layout by Stephen L. Scott
Ludington and others—Global Mineral Resource Assessment—Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Mesozoic of East Asia—Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5090–G