CHAPTER 3

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER 3

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Introduction and Study Area

This chapter describes the natural and socioeconomic 

environment of public lands in the western U.S., 

including Alaska, which would be affected by the 

alternatives under consideration. It includes the

resources that were identified in Chapter 1, and provides 

a framework for understanding the environmental, 

cultural, and social consequences of the proposed 

program and alternatives. In many instances, the 

sections in this chapter reference material provided in 

the affected environment chapter of the 2007 PEIS, 

rather than repeating the full discussions here. However, 

updated information is provided, where relevant.

Land Use and Ecoregions

Land Use

The BLM manages approximately 247 million acres in 

the western U.S. and Alaska. Public lands make up less

than 0.1 percent of the total land area in some states, up

to approximately 68 percent of lands in Nevada (Table 

3-1).

The BLM manages activities and resources on

rangelands throughout the West to ensure that 

fundamental rangeland health is being sustained or 

improved. The BLM permits livestock grazing on public 

lands in a manner aimed at achieving and maintaining 

rangeland health.

Other public uses on BLM-administered lands include 

oil, gas, geothermal, and mineral development, various 

types of recreation, forestry (harvest of timber and other 

forest products), and cultural activities. Roads and trails 

on BLM-administered lands support various forms of 

travel, including OHV use and other motorized travel, as 

well as non-motorized forms of travel such as mountain 

bike, horse or pack animal, and foot. Additionally, 

rights-of-way support petroleum pipelines, electrical 

transmission lines, and other utilities. 

Land use planning is directed by BLM Handbook H1601-1 (Land Use Planning Handbook; BLM 2005). 

This document provides guidance for preparing, 

revising, amending, and maintaining land use plans. 

Land use plans are developed with public input, in 

accordance with the FLPMA, which requires the BLM 

to manage public lands and their various resource 

values to support multiple uses and sustained yields. 

TABLE 3-1

Acres of Public Lands in 17 Western States and 

Percent of the State Administered by the BLM

State Acres of 

BLM Land

Percent of State Lands 

Administered by the BLM

Alaska 72,594,739 20.0

Arizona 12,202,750 16.8

California 15,330,274 15.3

Colorado 8,332,880 12.5

Idaho 11,611,720 21.9

Montana 7,983,412 8.6

Nebraska 6,354 0.2

Nevada 47,794,096 68.0

New Mexico 13,484,412 17.2

North Dakota 58,841 0.2

Oklahoma 1,975 0.2

Oregon 16,135,531 26.1

South Dakota 274,437 0.4

Texas 11,833 <0.1

Utah 22,854,632 43.3

Washington 429,167 0.9

Wyoming 18,373,316 29.4

Total 247,480,369 100

Source: USDOI BLM 2012a. Acreages are approximate and 

subject to change in response to land transfers.

Ecoregions

Because this PEIS addresses a broad geographic region 

with a diverse range of biophysical characteristics, the 

study area has been subdivided into smaller, 

homogeneous areas for analysis. Where possible, 

information on resources has been organized by 

ecoregions rather than by state boundaries. Ecoregions 

are geographic areas that are delineated and defined by 

similar climatic conditions, geomorphology, and soils 

(Bailey 1997, 2002). Since these factors are relatively 

constant over time and strongly influence the ecology 

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of vegetative communities, ecoregions may have similar 

potentials and responses to disturbance (Clarke and 

Bryce 1997; Jensen et al. 1997). Ecoregions, therefore, 

provide a useful framework for organizing, interpreting, 

and predicting changes to vegetation following 

management treatments.

The public lands addressed in this PEIS lie within eight 

major physiographic regions, or ecoregion divisions: 

Tundra, Subarctic, Subtropical Steppe, Subtropical 

Desert, Temperate Steppe, Temperate Desert, 

Mediterranean, and Marine, including Mountain 

Provinces (Map 3-1).

Climate

Climate is the statistical distribution of atmospheric 

conditions, as determined by the weather patterns that 

result from long-term fluctuations in global atmospheric 

and hydrologic cycles. Climatic patterns describe the 

annual distribution of energy and moisture, thus 

affecting the amount and seasonal distribution of 

temperature, precipitation, and winds. These factors 

influence the composition and distribution of rangeland 

vegetation, as well as the formation and erosion of 

rangeland soils, and hydrological conditions. These 

factors also influence the distribution of wind-borne air 

pollutants, such as smoke from wildfires and prescribed 

fires.

The western U.S. experiences several broad climatic 

groups: polar, boreal, temperate, Mediterranean 

highland, and dry. Polar and boreal climates dominate in 

Alaska, while a humid temperate climate is 

characteristic of the coastal areas of Washington, 

Oregon, and northern California. The southern 

California coast has a Mediterranean climate, while 

mountainous areas have a highland climate. The rest of 

the western states east of the Cascade, Sierra Nevada, 

and Rocky mountains are characterized by a dry climate. 

The 2007 PEIS presents specific information on the 

climate within each of the eight ecoregions (USDOI 

BLM 2007a:3-2 to 3-4).

Air Quality

Background information on air quality standards and 

pertinent regulatory information is presented in the 2007

PEIS (USDOI BLM 2007a:3-3 to 3-4). Under the 

authority of the Clean Air Act, the USEPA sets primary 

and secondary National Ambient Air Quality Standards 

(NAAQS) for the criteria pollutants sulfur dioxide 

(SOR

2R), nitrogen dioxide (NOR2R), carbon monoxide (CO), 

ozone (OR

3R), lead (Pb), and particulate matter (PMR10R

[less than 10 microns in diameter] and PMR

2.5 R[less than 

2.5 microns in diameter]). Primary standards protect the 

health of sensitive individuals, and secondary standards 

protect the general welfare of the public.

The most recent NAAQS are listed in Table 3-2. 

Different averaging periods are established for the 

criteria pollutants based on their potential health and 

welfare effects. The NAAQS are enforced by states, 

which in some cases have adopted additional or more 

stringent standards. Each state develops a plan 

describing how it will attain and maintain the NAAQS. 

Air quality agencies send these plans to the USEPA for 

approval.

Geographic areas that meet the standards are attainment 

areas and those that do not meet the standards are 

nonattainment areas. Nonattainment areas must 

implement a plan to reduce ambient concentrations 

below the NAAQS. Once they comply with the 

standards, they are designated as maintenance areas. 

Table 3-3 lists counties with public lands that are 

designated as nonattainment or maintenance areas for 

each criteria pollutant. PM, OR

3R, and NOR2R

concentrations are expected to be higher near industrial 

areas and cities where there are significant combustion 

sources and vehicles. High SOR

2R concentrations occur 

primarily near coal-fired power plants, smelters, and 

refineries.

Detailed sources of information about existing air 

quality in the areas covered by this PEIS are limited to 

data from available monitoring sites for criteria 

pollutants. In the undeveloped regions of public lands, 

ambient pollutant levels are expected to be low, and 

probably negligible in remote areas. In general, 

locations experiencing high ambient pollutant levels in 

the treatment area are areas with commercial and 

industrial land use (areas with mills, power plants, etc.), 

and local population centers (areas with automobile 

exhaust, residential heating, etc.).

Greenhouse Gas Emissions and 

Climate Change

Climate change is a global issue that refers to any 

significant change in measures of climate, including 

temperature, precipitation, or wind, that extends for a 

period (decades or longer) of time. Climate change is a 

result of natural factors, such as volcanic eruptions, and 

n land use and burning of fossil fuels (USEPA

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TABLE 3-2

National Ambient Air Quality Impact Significance Criteria

2010a). Anthropogenic activities such as deforestation 

and fossil fuel combustion emit heat-trapping GHGs, 

which are defined as any gas that absorbs infrared 

radiation within the atmosphere. The heat absorption 

potential of a GHG is referred to as the Global 

Warming Potential. Each GHG has a Global Warming 

Potential value based on the heat-absorbing ability of 

the GHG relative to COR

2. RThe carbon dioxide equivalent 

(COR

2Re) for a gas is derived by multiplying the tons of 

the gas by the associated Global Warming Potential of 

the gas. Greenhouse gases, both naturally occurring and 

anthropogenic, prevent heat from escaping the 

atmosphere and thereby regulate the Earth’s 

temperature. Anthropogenic sources of GHGs have 

elevated GHG concentrations within the atmosphere, 

which has led to an increase in the Earth’s average 

surface temperature over the last century (USEPA 

2010a).

Unlike criteria air pollutants and toxic air contaminants, 

which are of regional and local concern, GHGs are 

global pollutants. They have the ability to affect global 

temperatures due to their heat trapping ability, and are 

therefore often discussed from a global perspective.

There are six recognized GHGs: COR

2R, 

chlorofluorocarbons, methane, nitrous oxide (NR

2RO), OR3R, 

and water vapor. The federal Clean Air Act now 

regulates these six GHGs. While certain sources are 

required to meet the USEPA’s final GHG Reporting 

Rule (74 FR 56260; 25,000 metric tons [MT]), other 

types of projects (including the proposed herbicide 

treatments) are not required to meet these rules. 

The revised draft CEQ guidance for NEPA analysis 

uses 25,000 MTCOR

2Re annual emissions as a reference 

point for identifying projects that require quantitative

analysis of GHG emissions (CEQ 2014), although this 

reference point is for the purposes of disclosure and not 

a substitute for a determination of significance under 

NEPA. Additionally, the guidance states that land 

management agencies should consider net GHG 

emissions that would occur with and without the 

proposed project. 

Pollutant Averaging PeriodP

1 NAAQS PSD IncrementsP

2

Primary Secondary Class I Class II

NOR

2

1-hour 100 ppb NA NA NA

Annual 53 ppb 53 ppb 2.5 μg/mP

3 25 μg/mP3

CO 1-hour 35 ppm NA NA NA

8-hour 9 ppm NA NA NA

PMR

10

24-hour 150 μg/mP

3 150 μg/mP3 8 μg/mP3 30 μg/mP3

Annual NA NA 4 μg/mP

3 17 μg/mP3

PMR

2.5

24-hour 35 μg/mP

3 35 μg/mP3 2 μg/mP3 9 μg/mP3

Annual 12 μg/mP

3 15 μg/mP3 1 μg/mP3 4 μg/mP3

SOR

2

3-hour 75 ppb NA 25 μg/mP

3 512 μg/mP3

24-hour NA 0.5 ppm 5 μg/mP

3 91 μg/mP3

Annual NA NA 2 μg/mP

3 20 μg/mP3

Lead Rolling 3-month 

average 0.15 μg/mP

3 0.15 μg/mP3 NA NA

OR

3 8-hour 0.075 ppm 0.075 ppm NA NA

P

1

P Annual standards are never to be exceeded. Short-term standards (those other than annual or quarterly) are not to be exceeded more than 

once per year, except for OR

3R, PMR10R, and PMR2.5 Rstandards. For OR3R, the expected number of days with ozone levels above the standard is 

not to be exceeded more than once per calendar year. For PMR

10R, the standard is attained when the 99P

thP percentile concentration for the 

year is less than the standard. For PMR

2.5R, the standard is attained when the 98P

thP percentile concentration for the year is less than the 

standard.

P

2

P Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) increments are the maximum amounts of pollutants allowed above a specified baseline 

concentration. Class I areas are predominantly large national parks and wilderness areas as of August 7, 1977. Class II areas include a 

variety of areas, such as national monuments, recreational areas, preserves, lakeshores, and wild and scenic rivers.

NA = Not applicable; ppb = parts per billion; ppm = parts per million; and μg/mP

3

P = micrograms per cubic meter.

Sources: USEPA 2012b; 40 CFR 52.

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TABLE 3-3

Counties Within the Treatment Area that are Designated Nonattainment or 

Maintenance Areas for Various Pollutants

Pollutant State Nonattainment Maintenance

PMR

2.5

Alaska Fairbanks North Star Borough* None

Arizona Pinal*, Santa Cruz* None

California

Alameda, Butte*, Contra Costa, El Dorado*, 

Fresno, Imperial*, Kern*, Kings, Los 

Angeles*, Madera, Marin, Merced, Napa, 

Orange, Placer*, Riverside*, Sacramento, San 

Bernardino*, San Francisco, San Joaquin, San 

Mateo, Santa Clara, Solano*, Sonoma*, 

Stanislaus, Sutter, Tulare, Yolo*, Yuba*

None

Idaho Franklin* None

Montana Lincoln* None

Oregon Klamath*, Lane* None

Utah Box Elder*, Cache*, Davis, Salt Lake, 

Tooele*, Utah*, Weber* None

Washington Pierce* None

PMR

10

Alaska Anchorage Municipality*, Juneau City and 

Borough* None

Arizona Cochise*, Gila*, Maricopa*, Pima*, Pinal*, 

Santa Cruz*, Yuma* Gila*, Mohave*

California

Imperial*, Inyo*, Kern*, Los Angeles*, 

Mono*, Orange, Riverside*, Sacramento, San 

Bernardino*

Fresno, Inyo*, Kern*, Kings, Madera, Merced, San 

Joaquin, Stanislaus, Tulare

Colorado None

Adams*, Arapahoe*, Archuleta*, Boulder*, 

Broomfield, Denver, Douglas, Fremont*, Jefferson, 

Pitkin*, Prowers*, Routt*, San Miguel*

Idaho Bannock*, Bonner*, Power*, Shoshone* Ada*, Bannock*, Power*

Montana Flathead*, Lake*, Lincoln*, Missoula*, 

Rosebud*, Sanders*, Silver Bow* None

Nevada Clark*, Washoe* None

New Mexico Dona Ana* None

Oregon Lane* Jackson*, Josephine*, Klamath*, Lake*, Union*

Utah Salt Lake, Tooele*, Utah, Weber* None

Washington None King*, Pierce*, Spokane*, Thurston*, Walla Walla*, 

Yakima*

Wyoming Sheridan* None

SOR

2

Arizona Pinal* Cochise*, Gila*, Greenlee*, Pima*, Pinal*

Montana Lewis and Clark*, Yellowstone* None

Nevada None White Pine*

New Mexico None Grant*

Utah Salt Lake, Tooele* None

NOR

2 None None Los Angeles*, Orange, Riverside*, San Bernardino*

CO Alaska None Anchorage Municipality, Fairbanks North Star 

Borough*

Arizona None Maricopa*, Pima*

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TABLE 3-3 (Cont.)

Counties Within the Treatment Area that are Designated Nonattainment or 

Maintenance Areas for Various Pollutants

Pollutant State Nonattainment Maintenance

CO

(cont.)

California None

Alameda*, Butte*, Contra Costa*, El Dorado*, 

Fresno*, Kern*, Los Angeles*, Marin*, Napa*, 

Orange, Placer*, Riverside*, Sacramento*, San 

Bernardino*, San Diego*, San Francisco, San 

Joaquin*, San Mateo*, Santa Clara*, Solano*, 

Sonoma*, Stanislaus*, Yolo*

Colorado None

Adams*, Arapahoe*, Boulder*, Broomfield, Denver, 

Douglas*, El Paso*, Jefferson*, Larimer*, Teller*, 

Weld*

Idaho None Ada*

Montana None Cascade*, Missoula*, Yellowstone*

Nevada None Carson City*, Clark*, Douglas*, Washoe*

Oregon None Clackamas*, Jackson*, Josephine*, Klamath*, 

Lane*, Marion*, Multnomah*, Polk*, Washington* 

Utah None Utah*, Salt Lake*, Weber*

Washington None Clark*, King*, Pierce*, Snohomish*, Spokane*, 

Yakima*

Ozone

Arizona Maricopa*, Pinal* Pinal*

California

Alameda, Amador, areas of Indian Country, 

Butte, Calaveras, Contra Costa, El Dorado*, 

Fresno, Imperial, Kern*, Kings, Los 

Angeles*, Madera, Marin, Mariposa, Merced, 

Napa, Nevada*, Orange, Placer*, Riverside*,

Sacramento, San Bernardino*, San Diego*, 

San Francisco, San Joaquin, San Luis 

Obispo*, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Solano*, 

Sonoma*, Stanislaus, Sutter*, Tehama*, 

Tulare, Tuolumne, Ventura*, Yolo

None

Colorado Adams, Arapahoe, Boulder, Broomfield, 

Denver, Douglas, Jefferson, Larimer*, Weld* None

Nevada Clark* None

New Mexico None None

Oregon None None

Utah None None

Wyoming Lincoln*, Sublett, Sweetwater* None

Lead California Los Angeles* None

Montana Lewis and Clark* None

* Only a portion of the county is in nonattainment or maintenance for the pollutant.

Notes: States that are not listed for a particular pollutant do not have counties within the treatment area that are also within nonattainment or 

maintenance areas for that pollutant.

Source: USEPA 2012c.

For analysis of the proposed herbicide treatments, 

comparing projected GHG emissions to regional or 

national GHG emissions provides an understanding of 

the relative contribution of the action to total GHG 

emissions. The emissions can also be considered in 

terms of federal goals for GHG reductions, such as 

those described in EO 13693, Planning for Federal 

Sustainability in the Next Decade. There are more 

sources and actions emitting GHGs than are typically 

encountered when evaluating the emissions of criteria 

pollutants or toxic air contaminants. The global climate 

change problem is much more the result of numerous 

and varied sources, each of which might make a 

relatively small addition to global atmospheric GHG 

concentrations, but that together have a cumulative 

effect. While there are difficulties in attributing specific 

climate change impacts to any given proposed action

and quantifying those impacts, projected GHG 

emissions can be used as a proxy for assessing a 

proposed action’s potential climate change impacts. 

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Class I Areas and Visibility Protection 

Under the Clean Air Act, the U.S. has designated 

certain national parks, wilderness areas, and Indian 

reservations as Prevention of Significant Deterioration 

(PSD) Class I areas (Map 3-2). These areas are 

considered pristine and are therefore afforded special 

protection from impacts associated with air pollution. 

Mandatory Class I areas, which include large national

parks and wilderness areas that were in existence on 

August 7, 1977, are a subset of Class I areas that may 

not be redesignated, and are subject to visibility 

protection regulations. Additional information on 

policies related to visibility protection is presented in 

the 2007 PEIS (USDOI BLM 2007a:3-4 to 3-6).

Herbicide Drift

Aerial and ground application of herbicides may 

transport herbicides through drift, allowing airborne 

herbicides to move beyond the intended target. The 

primary factors that influence drift are droplet size, 

wind speed, humidity, formulation of the herbicide, 

height of application, equipment and application 

techniques, and the size of the area treated with the 

herbicide. The factor that has the greatest influence on 

downwind movement is droplet size. Procedures that 

can be employed to reduce drift include: 1) using a 

lower spray nozzle height, 2) using the lower end of the 

pressure range, 3) increasing the spray nozzle size, 

4) using drift-reducing nozzles, 5) using drift control 

additives, and 6) using sprayer shields (Hofman and 

Solseng 2001). Additionally, several university 

extension service agencies provide assistance regarding 

SOPs to minimize herbicide spray drift (Dexter 1993, 

Hofman and Solseng 2001).

Topography, Geology, Minerals, 

Oil, and Gas

The diversity in the landscape of the treatment areas 

reflects differences in geologic processes and the effects 

of climate, which have been shaping the land over a 

long period of time. 

A detailed baseline summary of mineral, oil, and gas 

resources located within the project area, by ecoregion, 

is presented in the 2007 PEIS (BLM 2007a:3-6 to 3-7). 

Map 3-3 presents an update, based on the most recent 

available digital data, of oil and gas wells on public 

lands.

In 2011, conventional energy development from public 

lands produced 43 percent of the nation’s coal, 13 

percent of domestic natural gas, and 5 percent of the 

domestically produced oil. BLM-administered federal

coal leases power more than 20 percent of the energy 

generated in the United States. The BLM is also 

actively promoting solar, wind, and geothermal energy 

development on federal lands. Nearly 40 percent of U.S. 

geothermal energy production capacity is on public 

lands (USDOI BLM 2012b).

At the end of Fiscal Year (FY) 2012, the BLM 

administered approximately 47,000 oil and gas leases, 

of which approximately 23,000 were producing 

(USDOI BLM 2013b). During 2011, geothermal leases 

generated more than 4,600 gigawatts of electrical 

power, and accounted for more than 40 percent of the 

U.S. geothermal energy capacity (USDOI BLM 2013c).

States within the project area with the largest acreage of 

public lands in producing status for oil and gas activities 

are New Mexico, Colorado, Montana, and North 

Dakota. Between 2006 and 2012, there were substantial 

increases in the amount of public land in producing 

status in North Dakota and California, and sizeable 

decreases in Alaska and Nevada (USDOI BLM 2013a). 

Coal licenses and leases occur on public lands in 

Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Utah, and 

Wyoming. Mining operations occur on public lands in 

the majority of the western states covered by this PEIS, 

with most mining activity occurring in Nevada. 

Geothermal potential exists in 12 of the 17 states 

covered by this PEIS.

Soil Resources

Soils in the treatment area are diverse and range from

the arid, saline soils of the Southwest, to the clayey 

glaciated soils of Montana, to the cold, wet permafrost 

soils of Alaska. 

Eleven soil orders are represented on public lands in the 

western U.S. and Alaska (Map 3-4). Because soils 

develop under local conditions of climate, parent 

material, and vegetation, each ecoregion may contain 

several or all of the soil orders as a result of various 

combinations of local soil forming factors. A detailed 

description of soils by soil order is presented in the 2007 

2007 PEIS (USDOI BLM 2007a:3-7 to 3-9) and is 

incorporated here by reference. Map 3-4 is a very basic 

inventory of soil types at the landscape level. More 

detailed mapping of soils and associated information 

can be found in individual soil surveys completed for 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-6 January 2016

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the western U.S., which are available on-line 

at 34TUhttp://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/soilsurvey/

soils/survey/state/U34T.

The concept of soil quality encompasses a soil’s 

capacity to function. Healthy soils support plant and 

animal diversity and productivity, air and water quality, 

and human health (Soil Quality Institute 2001). They 

filter and buffer pollutants, store and cycle nutrients, 

and support structures and protect archaeological 

resources. Soil quality is a function of each soil’s 

inherited properties (texture, type of minerals, and 

depth), as well as more dynamic properties that can 

change with management (porosity, infiltration, 

effective ground cover, and aggregate stability). The 

ability of a soil to filter, buffer, degrade, immobilize, 

and detoxify herbicides is a function of the soil quality.

Soil quality is integrated with the BLM’s management 

activities, which can result in changes in certain soil 

properties such as soil porosity, organic matter, 

biological activity, and susceptibility to erosion. These 

changes in turn affect the fate of herbicides in soils. For 

example, disturbances that result in increased 

susceptibility to erosion will affect the off-site 

movement of certain herbicides that are designed to 

bind to soil particles. Herbicides can alter soil organism 

diversity and composition. Compaction or surface 

disturbance may affect soil-activated herbicides from 

reaching the root zone of target plants. Soil quality is 

also considered by the BLM in health score cards used 

to assess land health.

Biological Soil Crusts

Biological soil crusts (also known as cryptogamic, 

microbiotic, cryptobiotic, or microphytic crusts) are 

commonly found in semiarid and arid environments. 

They are a community of organism at the surface of the 

soil comprised of cyanobacteria, blue-green algae, 

microfungi, mosses, liverworts, and lichens (Rosentreter 

et al. 2007). Biological soil crusts provide important 

functions, such as improving soil stability and reducing 

erosion, fixing atmospheric nitrogen and contributing 

nutrients to plants, and assisting with plant growth 

(Belnap and Gardner 1993, Evans and Ehleringer 1993, 

Eldridge and Greene 1994, Belnap and Giliette 1998, 

Harper and Belnap 2001). They also enhance soil 

fertility and stability. Biological soil crusts occupy open 

spaces between the sparse vegetation of the Great Basin, 

Colorado Plateau, Sonoran Desert, and the inner 

Columbia Basin, and also occur in agricultural areas and 

native prairies, and in Alaska.

Biological soil crusts can reach up to several inches in 

thickness and vary in terms of color, surface 

topography, and surficial coverage. Crusts generally 

cover all soil spaces not occupied by vascular plants, 

which may be 70 percent or more in arid regions 

(Belnap 1994). They are well-adapted to severe growing 

conditions, but are influenced by disturbances such as 

compression from domestic livestock grazing, tourist 

activities (hiking, biking, and OHVs), mechanical 

treatment and agricultural practices (extensive tillage 

and planting), application of herbicides, and military 

activities (Peterjohn and Schlesinger 1990, Belnap 

1995, U.S. Geological Survey [USGS] 2004). It is 

prudent to minimize surface disturbance of soil crusts to 

prevent invasions of annual fire-adapted grasses and 

minimize dust produced from disturbance.

Micro and Macroorganisms

The soil microbial community plays a crucial role in 

maintaining ecosystem health and sustainability, with 

plant-microbe interactions contributing to the condition 

of the ecosystem. Microorganisms help to break down 

and convert organic remains into forms that can be used 

by plants. Microorganisms, such as mycorrhizal fungi, 

nitrogen-fixing organisms, and certain types of bacteria 

assist plant growth, suppress plant pathogens, and build 

soil structure. There is evidence that certain bacteria in 

soil may suppress cheatgrass and other invasive species 

(USFWS 2013). One of the main benefits of

mycorrhizal fungi is the improved uptake of nutrients 

(predominantly phosphorous) and water by plants 

(Allen 1991). Soil microorganisms are also important in 

the breakdown of certain types of herbicides.

Macroorganisms, such as insects, earthworms, and 

small burrowing mammals, mix the soil and allow 

organic matter on the surface to become incorporated 

into the soil. These organisms are part of a food web

that is essential to the cycling of nutrients within the 

soil. Soil organisms interact and support plant health as 

they decompose organic matter, cycle nutrients, 

enhance soil structure, and control the populations of 

soil organisms, including pests (Ingham, no date). 

Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is a concern throughout the western U.S. 

and Alaska, particularly in semiarid rangelands. The 

quantity of soil lost by water or wind erosion is 

influenced by climate, topography, soil properties, 

vegetative cover, and land use. While erosion occurs 

under natural conditions, rates of soil loss may be 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-7 January 2016

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accelerated if human activities are not carefully 

managed.

Tundra lands in Alaska are susceptible to erosion if the 

thick vegetative mat overlying permafrost is disturbed 

or removed. Trails quickly turn into widely braided ruts, 

especially in wetlands and at streambank crossings. The 

resulting gully erosion can rapidly erode substantial 

quantities of previously frozen soils. Erosion from 

aufeis (thick ice that builds up as a result of repeated 

overflow) and anchor ice is also a concern, because of 

spring breakup flood events leaving disturbed stream

channels. These events cause previously stable riparian 

areas to form a long-lasting sequence of extensively 

braided channels, especially in glacial soils.

Rangelands are affected by all four types of water 

erosion: sheet, rill, gully, and streambank. Sheet erosion 

is relatively uniform erosion from the entire soil surface 

and is therefore often difficult to observe, while rill 

erosion is initiated when water concentrates in small 

channels as it runs off the soil. Sheet and rill erosion are 

capable of reducing the productivity of rangeland soils, 

but often go unnoticed. Gully and streambank erosion is 

far more visible, and may account for up to 75 percent

of erosion in desert ecosystems (Hein 2002).

Wind erosion is most common in arid and semiarid 

regions where lack of soil moisture greatly reduces the 

adhesive capability of soil (Brady and Weil 2002). Most 

wind erosion problems result from bare, exposed soils 

with weak or degraded soil structure, such as along 

trails or on sand dunes or disturbed surfaces. In addition 

to moisture content, soil particle size (texture), 

mechanical stability of aggregates and clods, and 

presence of vegetation also affect the ability of wind to 

move soil. 

It is possible to control rates of soil erosion by 

managing vegetation, plant residues, and soil 

disturbance. Vegetative cover is the most significant 

factor in controlling erosion because it intercepts 

precipitation, reduces rainfall impact, restricts overland 

flow, and improves infiltration. Biological soil crusts 

are particularly important for protecting the soil and 

controlling erosion in desert regions, but are easily 

disturbed by grazing and human activities. While wind 

erosion on rangelands is difficult to quantify, the 

presence of natural vegetation on most rangelands is 

generally sufficient to keep wind erosion from 

becoming a serious problem. 

In areas treated with herbicides, erosion can lead to 

movement of herbicides on soil particles. Herbicides 

bound to soil particles may be moved off site by wind or 

water erosion events. Soil texture (sand, silt, and clay)

and structure affect the movement of water and 

herbicides through soil, and the amount of herbicide that 

is likely to be adsorbed by soil. The coarser the soil, the 

faster the movement of percolating water and the lower 

the opportunity for adsorption of dissolved chemicals. 

Soils with more clay and organic matter tend to hold 

water and dissolved chemicals longer. These soils also 

have far more surface area onto which herbicides can be 

adsorbed (LaPrade 1992).

Soil Disturbance 

Many western landscapes with undisturbed soils are 

healthy, stable, and less vulnerable to erosion than areas 

with disturbed soils. Soil disturbance stimulates erosion, 

breaks up soil aggregates, and promotes the loss of 

organic matter. 

Soil compaction occurs when moist or wet soil 

aggregates are pressed together and the pore space 

between them is reduced. Compaction changes soil 

structure, reduces the size and continuity of pores, and 

increases soil density. Large animals, vehicles, and 

people can cause soil compaction. Generally, soil made 

up of particles of about the same size compacts less than 

soil with a variety of particle sizes. Numerous rock 

fragments can create bridges that reduce compaction. 

Plant litter and roots, and soil organic matter, structure, 

moisture, and texture all affect a soil’s ability to resist 

compaction. In areas of rangeland where compaction 

exists, compacted soil extends generally less than 6 

inches below the soil surface, although it can be as deep 

as 2 feet under heavily used tracks and roads (USDA 

Natural Resources Conservation Service 1996). 

Compaction becomes a problem when the increased soil 

density limits water infiltration, increases runoff and 

erosion, or limits plant growth or nutrient cycling (Soil 

Quality Institute 2001).

Water Resources and Quality 

Water Resources

Water resources in the western U.S. and Alaska are 

important for fish and wildlife habitat and a variety of 

human needs, such as domestic consumption, industrial 

activities, crop irrigation, livestock watering, and 

recreation. Numerous legal and policy requirements 

have been established to manage water resources for 

these multiple needs, including state law and case law 

defining water rights, the Clean Water Act, the 

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Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Act, and EO 

11988 (Floodplain Management).

Water resources are classified as surface water or 

groundwater. Surface water resources include rivers, 

streams, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, and wetlands. Major 

river systems (e.g., Colorado, Columbia, Snake, 

Missouri, Arkansas, Rio Grande, and Yukon Rivers) 

and their tributaries are important sources of water in 

the western U.S and Alaska. Additional discussion of 

surface water and groundwater resources can be found 

in the 2007 PEIS (USDOI BLM 2007a:3-15).

As shown on Map 3-5, nine hydrologic regions have 

been identified in the treatment area: Alaska, Pacific 

Northwest, California, Upper Colorado, Lower 

Colorado, Rio Grande, Missouri, Great Basin, and 

Arkansas-White-Red (Seaber et al. 1987). Most public 

lands occur in arid to semiarid environments in the 

Great Basin and Colorado drainage basins. A discussion 

of these hydrologic regions and their main hydrologic 

resources is included in the 2007 PEIS (USDOI BLM 

2007a:3-11 to 3-15), and is incorporated here by 

reference. 

Groundwaters are more complex than surface waters in 

that they occur in aquifers that are beyond our sight, can 

have rapid or extremely slow flow rates, and can 

recharge or discharge from streams and uplands or 

alternate between discharging and recharging, 

depending on a multitude of factors. Groundwaters or 

aquifers can also become contaminated and can 

transport contaminants over great distances very rapidly 

or over thousands of years. Once contaminated, aquifers 

can also be very difficult to cleanse, either naturally or 

by remediation. Very shallow aquifers can release 

contaminants over a matter of days, while very deep 

aquifers with long flowpaths can take thousands of 

years to flush, possibly longer if contaminants become 

bound in the strata.

As populations in the western U.S. increase, water 

availability has become a concern, particularly during 

drought conditions. In the Southwest, in particular, 

ongoing extraction of water from groundwater storage is 

resulting in depleted aquifers. Additionally, use of 

surface water is resulting in reduced flows in some 

streams and rivers. Finally, there is evidence that 

climate change is resulting in a shift in patterns of 

precipitation, which could further exacerbate water 

availability issues in certain areas (USGS 2005a). 

Water Quality

Water quality is defined in relation to its specified 

and/or beneficial uses, such as human consumption, 

irrigation, fisheries, livestock, industry, or recreation. 

The quality of surface water is determined by 

interactions with soil, transported solids (organics and 

sediments), rocks, groundwater, and the atmosphere.

The BLM has responsibilities to protect water quality in 

accordance with mandates of the FLPMA and the Clean 

Water Act, as well as other laws and regulations that 

pertain to water quality. The BLM cooperates with the 

USEPA, states, and tribes to meet water quality 

standards. The BLM must maintain waters for 

designated beneficial uses, restore impaired water 

resources in support of their designated beneficial uses, 

and provide water for public consumption and use 

(USEPA 2013a).

Section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act requires that 

water bodies violating state water quality standards and 

failing to protect beneficial uses be identified and placed 

on a 303(d) list (USEPA 2013a). The delisting of 303(d) 

listed streams is a priority of the BLM.

Nonpoint source pollution, the largest source of water 

quality problems, comes from diffuse or scattered 

sources rather than from an outlet, such as a pipe that 

constitutes a point source. Sediment is a nonpoint 

source of pollution that results from activities such as 

livestock grazing and timber harvest. Erosion and 

delivery of eroded soil to streams is the primary 

nonpoint source pollution problem of concern to the 

BLM (USDOI BLM 1980).

Additional discussion of water quality pollutants, and a 

summary of baseline water quality information for 

water resources in each hydrologic region, are provided 

in the 2007 PEIS (USDOI BLM 2007a:3-15 to 3-18, 

Maps 3-6 and 3-7). 

In the western U.S., the key water quality issues limiting 

water usability are the presence of elevated 

concentrations of naturally occurring constituents (such 

as dissolved minerals and trace elements such as 

arsenic), irrigation return flows, mining, and 

urbanization. Increased salinity in deep aquifers and 

some surface water bodies in the arid West have made 

them unsuitable sources of drinking water (USGS 

2005a). 

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Irrigation return flows may contain salts, trace elements, 

and agrochemicals such as nitrate and pesticides. In 

certain areas, irrigation water may be reused multiple 

times, resulting in elevated levels of contaminants such 

as selenium, boron, arsenic, mercury, and pesticides 

(USGS 2005a). Herbicides can impact the quality of 

both surface water and groundwater. Herbicide use in 

agricultural areas accounts for approximately 70 percent 

of the total national use of pesticides, and has resulted in 

the widespread occurrence of these chemicals in 

agricultural streams and shallow groundwater (USGS 

1999). 

Abandoned, inactive, and active mines can release 

highly acidic and toxic mine drainage that contains 

elevated levels of trace elements. These elements may 

also be leached from exposed mine deposits (USGS 

2005a).

Urbanization of many areas of the western U.S. has 

resulted in increased wastewater return flows, as well as 

increased stormwater runoff from developed areas. 

Municipal treated wastewater may contain residual 

herbicides and other pesticides, industrial and household 

chemicals, and pharmaceuticals. Urban streams also 

contain elevated concentrations of pesticides used at 

residences, commercial areas, and public areas (USGS 

2005a).

The most recent water quality inventories available are 

the 2004 National Water Quality inventory (USEPA 

2009a) for surface water, and the USGS National Water 

Quality Assessment (USGS 2002 to 2012) for 

groundwater. Based on the 2004 inventory, 45 percent 

of stream miles in the western U.S. are in good 

biological condition, compared to best-available 

reference sites, 26 percent are in fair condition, and 28 

percent are in poor condition. The most prevalent 

stressors observed were nitrogen, phosphorus, riparian 

disturbance, and streambed sediments. Nationwide, the 

top sources of stream impairment were agricultural 

activities, hydromodifications (e.g., water diversions, 

channelization, and dam construction), and unknown or 

unspecified sources.

Based on the most recent Alaska Water Quality 

Assessment Report (USEPA 2010b), approximately 30 

percent of inventoried river and stream miles are 

classified as good waters, while approximately 70 

percent are classified as impaired waters. The primary 

causes of impairment are turbidity, fecal coliform, and 

sedimentation/siltation, with resource extraction and 

urban runoff/stormwater as the primary sources of 

impairment.

The USGS National Water Quality Assessment 

(NAWQA) assesses trends in concentrations of 

chloride, dissolved solids, and nitrate (USGS 2012). In 

sampled wells in the western U.S., these pollutants 

show increasing trends in some areas, relatively stable 

trends in other areas, and decreasing trends in others. 

Throughout much of the Great Basin, there is a stable 

overall trend, with pollutants increasing in some 

sampled wells but decreasing in others. In California’s 

Central Valley, there is an increasing trend in all three 

pollutants. In the Subtropical Desert Ecoregion there is 

an increasing trend in chloride in the Rio Grande Valley 

of New Mexico, and an increasing trend in dissolved 

solids in the Rio Grande Valley and Central Arizona 

basins. Dissolved solid concentrations are also 

increasing in the Central Columbia Plateau of 

Washington. In the upper Snake River Basin of Idaho, 

chloride is increasing but nitrates are decreasing. One 

other area showing a trend of improvement is the 

Willamette Basin of Oregon, where nitrate 

concentrations in groundwater are decreasing.

Pesticides have been detected in streams and 

groundwater in the western U.S., and are most prevalent 

in areas with substantial agricultural or urban land uses. 

The NAWQA has been assessing surface water and 

groundwater quality since 1991. According to the 

NAWQA, pesticides are more frequently detected in 

streams than in groundwater, and more frequently in 

shallow wells than in deeper wells that tap aquifers. The 

most commonly detected herbicides in sampled streams, 

nationwide, include commonly used agricultural 

herbicides and five herbicides used for nonagricultural 

purposes, including three currently used by the BLM

(2,4-D, diuron, and tebuthiuron; USGS 2006). In 

groundwater, compounds with relatively high mobility 

and persistence have been detected most commonly,

none of which are currently used by the BLM in its 

vegetation management programs.

Wetland and Riparian Areas

Wetlands are generally defined as areas inundated or 

saturated by surface water or groundwater at a 

frequency and duration sufficient to support vegetation 

that is typically adapted for life in saturated soil. 

Wetlands include bogs, marshes, shallows, muskegs, 

wet meadows, estuaries, and riparian areas. The BLM 

administers approximately 12.9 million acres of 

wetlands. Of these, approximately 12.6 million acres are 

found in Alaska (USDOI BLM 2012a). 

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Riparian and wetland areas comprise approximately 5

percent of BLM lands (USDOI BLM 2012a). The 

benefits of these vital areas, however, far exceed their 

relatively small acreage. The functions of wetland and 

riparian areas include water purification, stream 

shading, flood attenuation, shoreline stabilization, 

groundwater recharge, and habitat for aquatic, 

semiaquatic, and terrestrial plants and animals (USEPA 

2005a). 

The BLM defines properly functioning wetlands as 

those that: 1) support adequate vegetation, landform, or 

debris to dissipate energies associated with wind action, 

wave action, and overland flow from adjacent sites, 

thereby reducing erosion and improving water quality; 

2) filter sediment and aid floodplain development; 3) 

improve floodwater retention and groundwater 

recharge; 4) develop root masses that stabilize islands 

and shoreline features against cutting action; 5) restrict 

water percolation; 6) develop diverse ponding 

characteristics to provide the habitat and the water 

depth, duration, and temperature necessary for fish 

production, waterbird breeding, and other uses; and 7) 

support greater biodiversity (Prichard et al. 2003). This 

assessment does not take into consideration the habitat 

value of the wetland to fish and wildlife. It also does not 

directly consider the presence of invasive plant species, 

although it does assess vegetation characteristics that 

can be altered by invasive species, such as structural 

characteristics, age-class distribution, and species 

diversity.

Ninety-eight percent of wetlands located on BLM land 

are thought to be functioning properly. In Alaska, 99 

percent of wetlands are considered to be in proper 

functioning condition, in terms of their ability to 

dissipate energy associated with high-flow events, with 

the status of the remaining 1 percent unknown. Within 

the lower 48 states, approximately 58 percent of 

wetlands are considered to be in proper functioning 

condition. Approximately 2 percent are considered to be 

non-functional, 42 percent are functioning at risk, and 

26 percent are unknown. Public lands with poorly 

functioning wetlands tend to be located in the 

southwestern U.S. For example, 15 percent of the 

wetland acres in New Mexico and 14 percent of the 

wetland acres in Arizona are considered non-functional 

(USDOI BLM 2012a).

Riparian areas, according to the BLM, are green zones 

along flowing-water features such as rivers, streams, 

and creeks (Gebhardt et al. 1990). The BLM 

administers approximately 155,300 miles of riparian 

habitat in the treatment area. Of this, approximately 

107,600 miles are found in Alaska (USDOI BLM 

2012a).

It is estimated by the BLM that 42 percent of surveyed 

riparian areas in the lower 48 states and 100 percent of 

riparian areas in Alaska are properly functioning, in 

terms of having adequate vegetation, landform, or large 

woody debris present to dissipate stream energy 

associated with high water flows (USDOI BLM 2012a). 

Two percent of riparian areas in the lower 48 states are 

considered non-functional, and 14 percent are 

functioning but at risk (USDOI BLM 2012a). Poorest 

functioning riparian areas are found in the Southwest, 

while most riparian areas in Alaska, Colorado, 

Montana, and Utah function properly.

Vegetation

The composition and distribution of plant communities 

in the western U.S. have been influenced by many 

factors, including climate, drought, insects, diseases, 

wind, domestic livestock grazing, cultivation, browsing 

by wildlife, and fire (Gruell 1983). Other activities that 

have an effect on plant communities include 

development, agricultural production, logging, mineral 

extraction, reclamation activities, recreational activities, 

and ROW development including road construction and 

maintenance. In addition, non-native plant species have 

invaded native plant communities, resulting in the loss 

of ecosystem components in portions of the western 

U.S.

Before European settlement, naturally occurring fire 

was an important influence on the landscape of the 

western U.S., and plant communities were adapted to 

the occasional intense fires that burned over the 

landscape (Gruell 1983). The exclusion of fire 

following European settlement has caused significant 

changes in plant species composition in the western 

U.S., especially in areas adapted to fire (Swetnam 

1990). Where fire-adapted communities previously 

limited the expansion of pinyon, juniper, and other less 

fire-tolerant species, exclusion of fire has resulted in 

expansion of these species into the surrounding 

ecosystems (Gruell 1983). The circumstance has also 

contributed to accumulation of hazardous fuels. In 

rangelands, many vegetation types have altered fire 

regimes and are experiencing more frequent fires that 

burn larger, more continuous areas, which has 

contributed to the expansion of invasive grasses and 

forbs. Invasive annual grasses have increased the 

incidence of fires in sagebrush communities adapted to 

infrequent fires, and have reduce the fire return 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-11 January 2016

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AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

frequency to such an extent that portions of sagebrush 

steppe have been converted to grassland.

Vegetation Classification System

In the 2007 PEIS, vegetation within the treatment area 

was classified into 14 subclasses, consistent with the 

1997 National Vegetation Classification Standard (see 

USDOI BLM 2007a:3-19, Table 3-4). This standard 

differentiated vegetation on the basis of growth form, 

life history strategy, and percent of canopy closure or 

hydrologic influences (Federal Geographic Data 

Committee 1997), with important subclasses then 

described by ecoregion (USDOI BLM 2007a:3-19 to 3-

25). 

In 2008, a new, dynamic standard was adopted (Federal 

Geographic Data Committee 2008), which the BLM is 

currently using for all Resource Management Plans. The 

new standard classifies vegetation based on floristic 

(species-based) and physiognomic (growth form-based) 

properties. Table 3-4 summarizes important 

macrogroups within likely BLM vegetation treatment 

areas, as well as their associated classes, subclasses, 

formations, and divisions. The majority of future 

vegetation treatments are likely to occur within these 

macrogroups. A complete list of macrogroups within 

the 17-states analysis area is provided in Appendix D, 

along with brief descriptions of key macrogroups by 

ecoregion.

As shown in Table 3-4, the new classification 

incorporates climate and geographic location into its 

hierarchy. Original vegetation descriptions in the 2007

PEIS considered ecoregion as well as vegetation 

classifications. For the sake of clarity and consistency, 

this PEIS will follow a similar approach to the earlier 

PEIS for assessing impacts to vegetation. However, the 

new classification system groupings will be introduced 

into the analysis as appropriate. 

Based on the BLM’s past vegetation treatment 

activities, and future vegetation treatment goals, the 

following macrogroups, by ecoregion, are the most 

likely locations of future herbicide treatments. 

Additional descriptions of vegetation within each 

ecoregion can be found in the 2007 PEIS (USDOI BLM 

2007a:3-19 to 3-25).

Tundra and Subarctic Ecoregions

Only very limited herbicide treatments are currently 

proposed for macrogroups within these ecoregions, but 

more may occur in them in the future. Regardless, the 

vegetation macrogroups in this ecoregion are unlikely to 

constitute more than a small fraction of the areas 

receiving herbicide treatments. 

Temperate Desert Ecoregion

The Temperate Desert Ecoregion includes the arid 

shrublands and grasslands of the Great Basin and the 

Rocky Mountains, as well as lower montane forests and 

pinyon-juniper woodlands. 

As far as locations of likely future herbicide treatments, 

important macrogroups that occur in the Temperate 

Desert Ecoregion include shrublands, grasslands, and 

sagebrush shrubland and steppe. Rocky Mountain and 

intermountain forests and woodlands are also important, 

to a lesser degree.

Great Basin and Intermountain Dry Shrubland 

and Grassland

The shrubland-steppe and grasslands in this macrogroup 

occur throughout the Colorado Plateau and ArizonaNew Mexico Mountains, west to the Mojave Desert, 

and north to the Wyoming Basin. The shrubland-steppe 

is either shrub-dominated, dwarf shrub-dominated, or 

grass-dominated with a sparse shrub layer. The 

grasslands are located throughout the intermountain 

western U.S., as a matrix over large areas of 

intermountain basins and in mosaics with semi-desert 

shrublands. The dominant perennial bunchgrasses and 

shrubs of these grasslands are drought-resistant.

Great Basin and Intermountain Tall Sagebrush 

Shrubland and Steppe

This macrogroup consists of shrublands and shrubsteppe that are widely distributed from the Great Basin, 

Columbia River Basin, Colorado Plateau, northern 

Rocky Mountains, and northwestern Great Plains, as far 

east as the Dakotas. Climate ranges from arid to 

subhumid. Stands are dominated by Wyoming big 

sagebrush and basin big sagebrush, sometimes along 

with other shrub species. The herbaceous layer can be 

sparse to strongly dominated by graminoids.

Northern Rocky Mountain-Vancouverian 

Montane and Foothill Grassland and Shrubland

This macrogoup is comprised of shrublands in the lower 

montane and foothill regions around the Columbia 

Basin and north and east into the Northern Rocky 

Mountains, and dry grasslands occurring in the canyons 

and valleys of the northern Great Basin and Columbia 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-12 January 2016

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BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-13 January 2016Final Programmatic EIS

TABLE 3-4

Vegetation Classification System 

Formation Class Formation Subclass Formation Division Macrogroup

Forest and

Woodland Temperate Forest

Warm Temperate Forest

Southwestern North American 

Warm Temperate Forest

California Forest and Woodland

Californian-Vancouverian 

Foothill and Valley Forest and

Woodland

Madrean Warm Montane Forest 

and Woodland

Southwestern North American 

Warm Temperate Scrub and

Woodland

Southern Plains Scrub 

Woodland and Shrubland

Cool Temperate Forest

Western North American Cool 

Temperate Forest

Southern Vancouverian 

Montane and Foothill Forest

Vancouverian Lowland and

Montane Rainforest

Northern Rocky Mountain 

Lower Montane and Foothill 

Forest

Southern Rocky Mountain 

Lower Montane Forest

Western North American Cool 

Temperate Woodland and Scrub

Intermountain Singleleaf 

Pinyon-Western Juniper 

Woodland

Rocky Mountain Two-Needle 

Pinyon-Juniper Woodland

Shrubland and

Grassland

Mediterranean Scrub and

Grassland

Mediterranean Scrub California Scrub California Chaparral

Mediterranean Grassland and

Forb Meadow

California Grassland and

Meadow

California Annual and Perennial 

Grassland

California Ruderal Grassland 

and Meadow
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3-14 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS

TABLE 3-4 (Cont.)

Vegetation Classification System

Formation Class Formation Subclass Formation Division Macrogroup

Shrubland and

Grassland (cont.)

Temperate and Boreal 

Shrubland and Grassland

Temperate Grassland, Meadow 

and Shrubland

Western North American 

Grassland and Shrubland

Northern Rocky MountainVancouverian Montane and 

Foothill Grassland and

Shrubland

Southern Rocky Mountain 

Montane Grassland and

Shrubland

Southern Vancouverian Lowland 

Grassland and Shrubland

Great Plains Grassland and

Shrubland

Great Plains Mixedgrass Prairie 

and Shrubland

Great Plains Shortgrass Prairie 

and Shrubland

Western North American 

Interior Sclerophyllous 

Chaparral Shrubland

Cool Interior Chaparral

Warm Interior Chaparral

Semi-Desert

Warm Semi-Desert Scrub and

Grassland

Warm Semi-Desert Scrub and

Grassland

North American Warm Desert 

Scrub and Grassland

Apacherian-Chihuahuan SemiDesert Grassland and Steppe

Chihuahuan Desert Scrub

Cool Semi-Desert Scrub and

Grassland

Cool Semi-Desert Scrub and

Grassland

Western North American Cool 

Semi-Desert Scrub and

Grassland

Great Basin and Intermountain 

Dry Shrubland and Grassland

Great Basin and Intermountain 

Tall Sagebrush Shrubland and

Steppe

Source: Developed by the BLM based on the Federal Geographic Data Committee Vegetation Subcommittee’s National Vegetation Classification Standard, Version 2 (Federal 

Geographic Data Committee 2008). 

Note: This table shows the important vegetation macrogroups. Vegetation treatments may occur in additional macrogroups not shown here (see Appendix D), which comprise a 

substantially smaller proportion of the proposed treatment acres.
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Basin. The shrublands occur within a matrix of lowelevation grasslands and sagebrush shrublands. The 

grasslands consist of patchy graminoid cover, cacti, and 

some forbs.

Southern Rocky Mountain Montane Grassland 

and Shrubland

The shrublands in this macrogroup are dominated by 

Utah serviceberry, alderleaf mountain mahogany, or 

Gambel oak. The macrogroup extends from the 

southern and central Great Plains, southwest to southern 

New Mexico, extending north into Wyoming, and west 

into the Intermountain West region.

Northern Rocky Mountain Lower Montane and 

Foothill Forest

The ponderosa pine woodlands and “wooded steppes” 

in this macrogroup are located in the foothills of the 

northern Rocky Mountains in the Columbia Plateau 

region and west along the foothills of the Modoc 

Plateau and Eastern Cascades into southern interior 

British Columbia, and east across Idaho into the eastern 

foothills of the Rocky Mountains. The woodlands and 

wooded steppes occur at the lower treeline/ecotone 

between grasslands or shrublands and more moist 

coniferous forests, typically on warm, dry, exposed 

sites. The macrogroup also includes ponderosa pine 

woodlands that occur along the eastern face of the 

Rocky Mountains and into the Great Plains.

Southern Rocky Mountain Lower Montane Forest

This macrogroup consists of forests dominated by 

ponderosa pine, either solely or mixed with other 

coniferous species. Mixed forests typically have a shrub 

understory, while forests dominated solely by ponderosa 

pine typically have a grass-dominated understory.

Intermountain Singleleaf Pinyon-Western 

Juniper Woodland

This macrogroup consists of pinyon-juniper woodlands 

that occur on dry mountain ranges of the Great Basin 

and eastern foothills of the Sierra Nevada. They are 

dominated by singeleaf pinyon, Utah juniper, or western 

juniper. This macrogroup includes woodlands that have 

expanded from their historical ranges into grasslands, 

steppe, and shrub-steppe habitats, primarily as a result 

of fire exclusion and livestock grazing.

Rocky Mountain Two-Needle Pinyon-Juniper 

Woodland

This macrogroup includes pinyon-juniper woodlands 

that occur on dry mountains and foothills of the 

Colorado Plateau region, along the east and south 

foothill slopes of the southern Rocky Mountains and 

into the plains of southeastern Colorado and northern 

central New Mexico, on dry mountains and foothills in 

southern Colorado east of the Continental Divide, and in 

mountains and plateaus of northern and central New 

Mexico. Dominant species include two-needle pinyon, 

Utah juniper, or oneseed juniper. This macrogroup 

includes some woodlands that have expanded into 

adjacent grasslands and become denser.

Temperate Steppe Ecoregion

The Temperate Steppe Ecoregion occurs in a semiarid 

continental climate zone, and includes the Rocky 

Mountains and the Great Plains. Most of the important 

macrogroups in this ecoregion also occur in the 

Temperate Desert Ecoregion and were described in the 

previous subsection. They include many of the Rocky 

Mountain grassland, shrubland, and forest, and pinyonjuniper woodland macrogroups listed in Table 3-4 (see 

Appendix D). Additionally, they include the grassland 

and shrubland macrogroups of the Great Plains.

Great Plains Mixedgrass Prairie and Shrubland

This macrogroup consists of mesic and dry mixed grass 

prairies of the Great Plains. On mesic sites they are a 

mixture of mostly mixed grass prairie with some 

tallgrass prairie. Graminoids such as western 

wheatgrass, green needlegrass, big bluestem, and Idaho 

fescue are dominant. With intensive grazing, coolseason non-native species such as Kentucky bluegrass, 

smooth brome, and field brome can increase in 

dominance. Shrub species can increase in dominance 

with fire suppression. The dry mixed grass prairies 

occur on flat to rolling topography, and are dominated 

by moderate to moderately dense medium-tall grasses 

and scattered shrub.

Great Plains Shortgrass Prairie and Shrubland

This macrogroup includes shortgrass prairies dominated 

by blue grama and buffalograss, and shrublands 

dominated by honey mesquite. They occur on flat to 

rolling uplands, and are characterized by a moderate to 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-15 January 2016

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AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

dense sod of short grasses, with scattered mid grasses 

and forbs. The shortgrass prairies occur in the rain 

shadow of the Rocky Mountains and range from the 

Nebraska Panhandle south into Texas and New Mexico. 

The shrublands occur primarily in Texas, Oklahoma, 

and eastern New Mexico.

Subtropical Steppe

The Subtropical Steppe Ecoregion includes the plateaus 

and high plains of northern Arizona, New Mexico, and 

Texas. It supports a semiarid climate, and consists of 

primarily perennial grassland communities, with some 

shrublands and woodlands. Macrogroups that are most 

likely to be targeted by vegetation treatments are Warm 

Interior Chapparal, Rocky Mountain Two-Needle 

Pinyon-Juniper Woodland, and Chihuahuan Desert 

Scrub.

Warm Interior Chaparral

This macrogroup occurs in the northern Chihuahuan 

Desert and adjacent Sky Islands and Sonoran Desert, 

extending into limited areas of the southern Great 

Plains. Vegetation consists of moderately dense to 

dense grasslands, sometimes with scattered shrubs or 

succulents.

Rocky Mountain Two-Needle Pinyon-Juniper 

Woodland

These woodlands have two-needle pinyon, Utah juniper, 

or oneseed juniper as the dominant species. Within the 

subtropical steppe ecoregion they occur in mountains 

and plateaus of northern and central New Mexico. 

Chihuahuan Desert Scrub

The Chihuahuan Desert shrublands are concentrated in 

the extensive desert grassland in foothills and piedmonts 

of the Chihuahuan Desert, extending into the Sky Island 

region to the west. Areas occupied by this macrogroup 

generally saw a shift from the original perennial 

grasslands to shrub-dominated communities. Possible 

causes of the shift include livestock grazing, climatic 

change, and fire suppression. Vegetation consists of 

desert scrub species, with honey mesquite or velvet 

mesquite and succulents as dominants.

Subtropical Desert

The Subtropical Desert Ecoregion occupies southeast 

California, southern Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, 

and western Texas, and includes the Chihuahuan, 

Sonoran, and Mojave Deserts. Vegetation is adapted to 

dry conditions, and includes numerous xerophytic 

plants. Since only a small fraction of the BLM’s 

herbicide treatments occur in this ecoregion, no 

discussion of individual macrogroups is presented here. 

This information can be found in Appendix D.

Mediterranean

The Mediterranean Ecoregion Division occupies most 

of California (excluding deserts in the southeastern 

portion of the state) and a portion of southern Oregon. It 

supports chaparral communities, coniferous forests, and 

oak woodlands, among other vegetation types. Based on 

the BLM’s treatment program goals, important 

macrogroups in this ecoregion are certain forests and 

woodlands.

California Forest and Woodland

This macrogroup consists of savannas, woodlands, and 

forests dominated by Californian endemic oak and 

conifer species. These habitats occur almost entirely 

within California below 8,000 feet. 

Californian-Vancouverian Foothill and Valley 

Forest and Woodland

These forests and woodlands occur along the Pacific 

Coast lowlands from southern California to southern 

British Columbia. They occur inland from the coast, in 

the dry interior lowland valleys, and are drought 

tolerant. 

Southern Vancouverian Montane and Foothill 

Forest

The forests and woodlands of this macrogroup occur in 

the foothills and lower montane elevations of the 

southern Cascade and Klamath Mountains, the Modoc 

Plateau, and the Sierra Nevada, Peninsula, and 

Transverse Ranges. This macrogroup covers a broad 

range of elevations. It includes dry montane Jeffery 

pine-ponderosa pine woodlands, Sierran mixed conifer 

woodlands, and mixed conifer woodlands tolerant of 

serpentine soils, among others.

Marine

The Marine Ecoregion Division occupies the Cascade 

and Coast Ranges of western Washington and Oregon, 

and the coast mountains of southeastern Alaska, along 

the Pacific Coast. The mild, rainy climate produces 

conditions that are hospitable for dense forest 

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communities, which are characteristic of this region. 

Most treatments are in ROWs where the vegetation is 

managed in an early seral condition. Since only a small 

fraction of the BLM’s herbicide treatments occur in this 

ecoregion, no discussion of individual macrogroups is 

presented here. This information can be found in 

Appendix D.

Noxious Weeds and other Invasive 

Vegetation 

Invasive plants are non-native species that may cause 

physical or environmental damage or have other 

adverse effects on humans. Invasive plants include 

noxious weeds, which are designated by federal, state, 

or county government as injurious to public health, 

agriculture, recreation, wildlife, or property. Infestations 

of invasive plants are capable of degrading wildlife 

habitat; reducing plant and animal diversity; displacing 

many threatened and endangered species; and reducing 

opportunities for hunting, fishing, camping and other 

recreational activities; and may cost millions of dollars 

in treatments and loss of productivity to land owners. 

Besides ecological and economic costs, invasive plants 

can cause impacts to public safety. A few native 

species, such as junipers, exhibit similar behavior, 

contributing to hazardous fuels and reducing

groundwater through evapotranspiration.

The 2007 PEIS discusses the traits of invasive plants 

and their mechanisms of invasion (USDOI BLM 

2007a:3-26 to 3-27).

BLM Infestations

The estimated rate of weed spread on public lands is

4,300 acres per day (USDOI BLM 2012c). An estimate 

of weed spread on all western federal lands is 10 

percent to 15 percent annually (Asher and Dewey 

2005).

Table 3-5 shows gross estimates of acres of infestation 

of key invasive plant species targeted for treatment by 

the BLM. These estimates were compiled by the BLM 

from data provided by individual field offices during a 

2014 inventory. Based on this inventory, total estimated 

acres of invasive plant infestations on public lands in 

the western U.S. states exceeds 79 million acres (more 

than 30 percent of total land acres). States with the 

largest infestations are Nevada, Oregon, Utah, and 

Idaho. The most prevalent invasive plant species are 

annual grasses, which represent nearly 70 percent of the 

total infested areas. Other species/groups that occupy 

more than 100,000 acres include thistles, halogeton, 

knapweeds, woody species (Russian olive and 

tamarisk), mustards (hoary cress, perennial pepperweed, 

and Dyer’s woad), leafy spurge, toadflaxes, and 

starthistles. The BLM treated approximately 260,000 to 

436,000 acres of invasive plants using herbicides during 

2006 through 2012. States with the greatest acreage 

treated during this time period were New Mexico, 

Idaho, Wyoming, Nevada, and Oregon.

Vegetation Condition and Fire 

Regimes

The fire regime condition class (FRCC) is used by the 

BLM to help describe common issues on public lands, 

such as altered disturbance regimes, invasive species, or 

highly altered plant communities. The FRCC classifies 

land based on the degree of departure from historical 

fire regimes. 

The BLM currently uses the Fire Regime Condition 

Class Mapping Tool, Version 2.2.0, to determine and 

map FRCC on public lands. The FRCCs reflect the 

current conditions’ departure from modeled reference 

conditions. Three FRCCs have been defined, as follows 

(National Interagency Fuels Technology Transfer 

2010):

Condition Class 1 lands (approximately 58.9 million 

acres of public lands) are within the natural or historical 

range of variation, and risk of losing key components is 

low. Vegetation attributes (composition and structure) 

are intact and functioning. 

Condition Class 2 lands (approximately 84.6 million 

acres) have fire regimes that have been moderately 

altered from their historical conditions. They experience 

either an increased or decreased fire frequency of one or 

more return intervals, potentially resulting in moderate 

changes in fire and vegetation attributes.

Condition Class 3 lands (approximately 82.6 million 

acres) have fire regimes that have been substantially 

altered, and the risk of losing key components to fire or 

other causes is high. Fire frequencies may have departed 

by multiple return intervals from historical fire regimes, 

potentially resulting in dramatic changes in fire size, 

intensity, and severity, as well as changes in landscape 

patterns. Vegetation attributes have been substantially 

altered.

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3-18 January 2016

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TABLE 3-5

Estimated Acres of Invasive Plant Infestations on Public Lands in 2014

State AnnualP

1

P

Grasses Halogeton Knapweed ComplexP

2 StarthistlesP

3 MustardsP4 Leafy 

Spurge ThistlesP

5 ToadflaxesP6 Woody 

SpeciesP

7 Total

Alaska 604 -- -- -- 1 -- 8 40 -- 653

Arizona 1,009,649 29 10 319 18 -- 5,528 -- 2,326 1,017,879

California 4,395,500 25 5,012 15,097 255,071 1 13,112 313 347,108 5,031,239

Colorado 1,567,736 115,683 24,533 3 8,248 602 279,372 9,138 7,519 2,012,834

Idaho 5,373,002 45,805 1,435,775 11,451 40,800 242,500 162,651 8,915 17,425 7,338,324

Montana 231,979 1,120 149,839 -- 6,135 124,859 348,217 233,620 978 1,096,747

Nevada 25,929,222 4,300,150 9,474 2,120 27,927 2,502 38,825 12 190,886 30,501,118

New 

Mexico 570,700 67,010 851 10,091 71 20 1,182 10 42,687 692,622

Oregon 6,602,000 1,000 261,520 105,000 404,000 1,000 13,020,710 2,000 104,000 20,501,230

Utah 7,596,812 2,664,244 13,580 6 2,458 300 13,290 10 384,367 10,675,067

Wyoming 285,343 1,308 12,104 -- 4,833 24,117 24,856 647 15,158 368,366

Total 53,562,547 7,196,374 1,912,698 144,087 749,562 395,901 13,907,751 254,705 1,112,454 79,236,079

P

1 PAnnual grasses include cheatgrass, red brome, buffelgrass, common Mediterranean grass, and medusahead rye.

P

2

P Knapweed complex includes Russian, spotted, diffuse, and squarrose knapweed.

P

3

P Starthistles include Maltese and yellow starthistle.

P

4

P Mustards include hoary cress, perennial pepperweed, and Dyer’s woad.

P

5

P Thistles include Canada, bull, plumeless, musk, Italian, and Scotch thistle.

P

6

P Toadflaxes include dalmatian and yellow toadflax.

P

7

P Woody species include Russian olive and tamarisk.

Note: North and South Dakota data are included in Montana data, Nebraska data are included in Wyoming data, Oklahoma and Texas data are included in New Mexico data, and 

Washington data are included in Oregon data.

Source: BLM 2014 invasive plant species inventory.
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Map 3-6 shows the breakdown of FRCCs on public 

lands. Note that not all public lands fall into one of these 

categories. Based on Vegetation Condition Class data 

from Landfire (2010 and 2011), more than 58 percent

(48 million acres) of the Condition Class 3 lands occur 

in the Temperate Desert Ecoregion, which is a 

substantial increase from the 21 million acres reported 

in the 2007 PEIS (USDOI BLM 2007a:3-29). 

Approximately 18 million acres (21.5 percent) of 

Condition Class 3 lands occur in the Subtropical Desert 

Ecoregion, which is a slight increase from the number 

reported in the 2007 PEIS. Condition Class 3 areas are 

less prevalent in the remaining ecoregions: 4.9 million 

acres occur in the Temperate Steppe Ecoregion, 3.2 

million acres occur in the Subtropical Steppe Ecoregion, 

3.1 million acres occur in the Subarctic Ecoregion, 3.0 

million acres occur in the Tundra Ecoregion, 1.5 million 

acres occur in the Mediterranean Ecoregion, and 0.67 

million acres occur in the Marine Ecoregion.

The fire regime group is another mapping tool utilized 

by the BLM that characterizes the presumed historical 

fire regimes within landscapes based on interactions 

between vegetation dynamics, fire spread, fire effects, 

and spatial context (Barrett et al. 2010). A natural fire 

regime is a general classification of the role fire would 

play across a landscape in the absence of modern 

human mechanical intervention (Agee 1993; Brown 

1995 in Barrett et al. 2010). Five natural fire regime

groups have been developed based on the average 

number of years between fires, combined with fire 

severity (Barrett et al. 2010):

Fire Regime Group 1 – 0 to 35 year frequency, low to 

mixed severity.

Fire Regime Group II – 0 to 35 year frequency, 

replacement severity.

Fire Regime Group III – 35 to 200 year frequency, 

low to mixed severity.

Fire Regime Group IV – 35 to 200 year frequency, 

replacement severity.

Fire Regime Group V – 200+ year frequency, any 

severity.

More fire is generally desired in groups I through III 

where fire was historically more frequent. In groups IV 

and V, too much fire has generally occurred on BLM 

lands and fire-adapted invasive plant species are 

prevalent.

Of the public lands categorized under the fire regime 

group classification, the majority (66 percent) are in 

group IV or V, with 44 percent in groups I through III. 

Most public lands where fire is occurring much more 

frequently than historically are found in the Temperate 

Steppe (45 percent) and Temperate Desert (30 percent) 

ecoregions.

Non-timber and Special Forest 

Products

Special forest products include plant materials, fungi, 

and bryophytes (mosses, liverworts, and hornworts). 

They consist of firewood, biomass, medicinal plants 

(e.g., ginseng and goldenseal), wild foods (e.g., 

mushrooms, berries, roots, and syrups), decoratives and 

floral greens (e.g., salal, ferns, and evergreen boughs), 

flavors and fragrances (e.g., sassafras and balsam fir),

fibers (e.g., cedar bark, sweetgrass, and lichens), wild 

native seeds, and transplants for restoration and nursery 

stock. Special forest products are harvested for a variety 

of reasons, including subsistence, cultural, spiritual, 

commercial, recreational, and educational purposes.

During FY 2011, approximately $270,000 worth of 

non-timber forest products were sold by the BLM in 

western states. The actual value of non-timber forest 

products harvested on public lands is substantially 

greater (USDOI BLM 2012a). Nearly half of nontimber forest product sales on public lands were in 

western Oregon, and about 18 percent were in Nevada. 

Other important states for non-timber forest product 

sales are Colorado and Utah. 

Special Status Species

BLM special status species are: 1) species listed or 

proposed for listing under the ESA, and 2) species 

requiring special management consideration to promote 

their conservation and reduce the likelihood and need 

for future listing under the ESA. According to BLM 

policy, BLM actions must not adversely impact special 

status species. There are more than 150 plant species 

occurring on or near public lands in the treatment area 

that are federally listed as threatened or endangered, or 

proposed for listing. The number may change over time 

depending on future evaluations of each species’ status. 

Special status plant species are distributed throughout 

the western U.S., including Alaska. A list of these 

species can be found in Appendix E.

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For this PEIS, the BLM has consulted with the USFWS 

and NMFS on listed species and species proposed for 

listing, and their critical habitat, that could be affected 

by the proposed treatments. As part of the consultation 

process, the BLM prepared a BA, which provides a 

description of the distribution, life history, and current 

threats for each species (USDOI BLM 2015). 

Information contained in the BA will be used as a 

guideline by BLM field offices when developing local 

projects.

Fish and Other Aquatic 

Organisms

The BLM administers lands directly affecting almost 

117,000 miles of fish-bearing streams and almost 3 

million acres of reservoirs and natural lakes (USDOI 

BLM 2012b). These habitats range from isolated desert 

springs of the Southwest to large interior rivers and their 

numerous tributaries.

Key fish species that occur in aquatic habitats in or 

adjacent to BLM-administered lands are discussed in 

the 2007 PEIS, by geographic region (USDOI BLM 

2007a:3-30 to 3-35). 

Special Status Species

Nearly 80 aquatic animal species occurring on or near 

public lands are federally listed as threatened or 

endangered, or are proposed for future listing. Included 

in the total number are 61 species/subspecies of fish, 11 

species of mollusk, and 7 aquatic arthropods. A 

complete list of these special status species can be found 

in Appendix E. Please note that this list is dynamic, and 

will likely change throughout the time period 

considered by this PEIS.

Special status aquatic animal species are found on 

public lands throughout the U.S. Numerous listed 

salmon populations are found in rivers of the Pacific 

Coast states. In arid areas, many special status fish 

species are found in the rare and fragile desert wetlands 

and springs, as well as in the major rivers such as the 

Colorado and the Rio Grande. In the deserts of the Great 

Basin and Colorado Plateau, terminal lakes, marshes, 

and sinks provide important habitat for special status 

fish species that are adapted to their warm, saline 

conditions.

Special status mollusks occur predominantly in the 

Snake River of Idaho, and in thermal habitats and small 

springs and wetlands in New Mexico, Arizona, and 

Utah. Aquatic arthropods of special concern occur 

predominantly in the vernal pools of California.

Wildlife Resources

Public lands sustain an abundance and diversity of 

wildlife and wildlife habitat. Public lands provide a 

permanent or seasonal home for more than 3,000 

species of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

Wildlife populations are found in areas where their 

basic needs—food, shelter, water, reproduction, and 

movement—are met. The area in which the needs of a 

particular population are met is its habitat. Many 

animals have special behaviors and physical traits that 

allow them to successfully compete with other animals 

in only one or a few habitats; many threatened and 

endangered species fall into this category. Other 

animals, such as mule deer, coyote, and American robin 

are less specialized and can use a wider range of 

habitats.

Several features make some habitats better for wildlife 

than others. In turn, the more of these features that are 

present, the greater the diversity of wildlife species that 

are likely to be present. These features include:

• Structure – shape, height, density, and diversity 

of the vegetation and other general features of 

the terrain.

• Vertical layers – layers of vegetation (e.g., 

herbaceous, shrub, and forest canopy).

• Horizontal zones – vegetation and other habitat 

features that vary across an area.

• Complexity – an integration of vertical layers 

and horizontal zones.

• Edge – the area where two types of vegetative 

communities meet, such as a forest and shrub 

community.

• Special features – unique habitat features 

needed for survival or reproduction, including 

snags (dead trees), water, and rock outcrops.

For inventory and management purposes, the BLM 

divides wildlife habitat based on land cover types: 

Outside of Alaska, the vast majority of wildlife habitat 

is in the shrub-scrub category, with herbaceous and 

evergreen forest the next most abundant habitat types. 

In Alaska, dwarf shrub, shrub-scrub, evergreen forest, 

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and sedge/herbaceous are the most abundant habitat 

types (USDOI BLM 2012a).

The BLM inventories a portion of its rangelands. The 

BLM’s Rangeland health standards include levels of 

physical and biological condition or degree of function 

required for healthy lands and sustainable uses, as 

defined in BLM Handbook H-4180-1 (Rangeland 

Health Standards; USDOI BLM 2001). Of lands that 

have been inventoried for rangeland health, 56 percent

are rated as meeting standards for rangeland health or 

making significant progress toward meeting these 

standards. The remaining 44 percent of evaluated lands

do not meet rangeland health standards, or are not 

making significant progress toward meeting the 

standards for various reasons. Livestock have been 

determined to be a significant factor affecting rangeland 

health on 29 percent of inventoried lands (BLM 2013d).

Based on a 2006 report, approximately 26 percent of 

BLM-administered lands are forested. The most 

common forest habitats are pinyon-juniper woodlands, 

juniper woodlands, and Douglas-fir forests (USDOI 

BLM 2006). 

The BLM manages vegetation to improve wildlife 

habitat. Plants, which are an important component of 

habitat, provide food and cover. Food is a source of 

nutrients and energy, while cover reduces the loss of 

energy by providing shelter from extremes in wind and 

temperature, and also affords protection from predators. 

The important characteristics of wildlife and habitat in 

the eight ecoregions that comprise the treatment area are 

presented in the 2007 PEIS (USDOI BLM 2007a:3-36 

to 3-43).

Special Status Species

There are 65 terrestrial animal species occurring on or 

near public lands in the treatment area that are federally 

listed as threatened or endangered, or proposed for 

listing. Included in the total number are 9 species of 

arthropod, 7 species of amphibian, 5 species of reptile, 

16 species of bird, and 28 species of mammal. A 

complete list of special status animal species may be 

found in Appendix E. Please note that this list is 

dynamic, and will likely change throughout the time 

period considered by this PEIS.

Special status animal species are found on public lands 

throughout the U.S. Special status arthropods are largely 

butterflies that occur mostly in open habitats. Special 

status amphibians occur in wetland habitats throughout 

the West, and special status reptiles occur in warm 

habitats of California and the Southwest. Special status 

birds and mammals use a wide range of habitats found 

on public lands throughout the western U.S. 

Livestock

Approximately 155 million acres of public lands are 

available for livestock grazing. The majority of the 

grazing permits issued by the BLM involve grazing by 

cattle, with fewer and smaller grazing permits for other 

kinds of livestock (primarily sheep and horses).

The BLM administers grazing lands under 43 CFR Part 

4100 and BLM Manual MS-4100 (Grazing 

Administration – Exclusive of Alaska; USDOI BLM 

2009a). For management purposes, lands that are 

available for livestock grazing are divided into 

allotments and pastures. The BLM administers nearly 

18,000 permits and leases for grazing on more than 

21,000 allotments under BLM management. Permits 

and leases generally cover a 10-year period and are 

renewable if the BLM determines that the terms and 

conditions of the expiring permit or lease are being met. 

The grazing permit establishes the allotment(s) to be 

used, the total amount of use, the number and kind of 

livestock, and the season of use. The grazing permit 

may also contain terms and conditions as appropriate to 

achieve management and resource condition objectives. 

Allotment management plans further outline how 

livestock grazing is managed to meet multiple-use, 

sustained-yield, and other needs and objectives, as 

determined through land use plans.

Geographically specific rangeland health standards and 

guidelines are identified for each state to help direct the 

grazing program for those states. The BLM conducts 

reviews of land within its jurisdiction to determine the 

level of compliance with rangeland health standards. As 

of 2012, the BLM had inventoried approximately 126

million acres of rangeland. As stated previously, 

approximately 56 percent of inventoried rangelands are 

meeting all standards for rangeland health or making 

significant progress toward meeting these standards 

(BLM 2013d).

Public lands provide forage for many ranches and help 

to support the agricultural component of many 

communities scattered throughout the West. As of 

October 2011, the total number of grazing 

permits/leases in force was 17,694, with a total of 12.4 

million Animal Use Months (AUMs) authorized (Table 

3-6; USDOI BLM 2012a). There has been a gradual 

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administered lands, from 18.2 million AUMs in 1954 to 

8.9 million AUMs in 2012 (USDOI BLM 2013e). In 

most years the actual use of forage is less than the 

amount authorized.

TABLE 3-6

Grazing Permits and Leases in Force and Active 

Animal Unit Months in 2011

State Leases and 

Permits Active AUMs

Arizona 770 642,288

California 526 314,442

Colorado 1,471 584,901

Idaho 1,866 1,352,781

Montana 3,764 1,269,161

Nebraska 18 592

Nevada 684 2,120,374

New Mexico 2,272 1,847,960

North Dakota 79 9,279

Oklahoma 4 132

Oregon 1,231 1,023,040

South Dakota 472 73,223

Utah 1,452 1,190,920

Washington 265 33,073

Wyoming 2,820 1,925,583

Total 17,694 12,387,749

Source: BLM Public Land Statistics (USDOI BLM 2012a).

Wild Horses and Burros

The BLM, in conjunction with the Forest Service, 

manages wild horses and burros on BLM- and Forest 

Service-administered lands through the Wild FreeRoaming Horse and Burro Act of 1971. As of June 

2014, the free-roaming wild horse and burro population 

was approximately 49,200 animals, with another 48,000

animals held in holding pens (Table 3-7; USDOI BLM 

2014a). The population of free-roaming wild horses and 

burros is nearly 22,500 animals above the Appropriate 

Management Level (AML) of 26,500. The AML is an

estimate of the number of wild horses and burros that 

can graze on public lands without causing damage to the 

range.

Animals are managed within 179 wild horse and burro 

Herd Management Areas (HMAs; USDOI BLM 

2012b). Wild horse herds grow at an average rate of 20 

percent annually. Management is accomplished by 

carefully controlling horse and burro populations so that 

their numbers do not exceed the carrying capacity of the 

land. This is done primarily by gathering animals 

periodically so that numbers are near the AML. Fertility 

control is being used in some HMAs as a means to 

reduce the population growth rate. 

When horse and burro populations begin to exceed the 

AML, excess animals are gathered and offered to the 

public through periodic adoption. In FY 2011, 2,844 

wild horses and burros were adopted in the U.S. Thirtythree percent of these were adopted in the eastern U.S. 

More than 227,000 animals have been adopted since 

1971 (USDOI BLM 2012a). Public lands inhabited by 

wild horses or burros are closed to grazing under permit 

or lease by domestic horses and burros. The Wild FreeRoaming Horse and Burro Act of 1971 mandates that 

wild horses and burros can only be managed in areas 

where they were found in 1971. Those that stray onto 

non-designated public and/or private lands are removed.

Paleontological and Cultural 

Resources

Paleontological Resources

The BLM is responsible for managing public lands and 

their various resources so that they are utilized in a 

manner that will best meet the present and future needs

of this Nation. The western U.S. has a fossil record that 

includes almost all of the geologic periods from the 

Cambrian (500+ million years ago) to the Holocene 

(Recent; from approximately 11,000 years before the 

present [BP]), and nearly every imaginable ancient 

environment. Many fossil deposits are of national and 

international importance. It is estimated that there are 

more than 50,000 fossil sites documented on public 

lands. More information on paleontological resources 

and their management is provided in the 2007 PEIS 

(USDOI BLM 2007a:3-45 and Table 3-8).

Cultural Resources

Cultural resources include archaeological, historic, or 

architectural sites, structures, or places with important 

public or scientific uses, and may include definite 

locations (sites or places) of traditional cultural or 

religious importance to specific social or cultural 

groups. The BLM locates, classifies, and ranks cultural 

resources, and manages them according to their relative 

importance, to protect significant cultural resources 

from inadvertent loss, destruction, or impairment, and to 

encourage and accommodate the appropriate uses of 

these resources through planning and public 

participation.

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TABLE 3-7

Wild Horses and Burros on Public Lands in Fiscal Year 2013

State Wild Horses Wild Burros Total Maximum AML

Arizona 333 4,411 4,744 1,676

California 4,086 1,922 6,008 2,184

Colorado 1,205 0 1,205 812

Idaho 668 0 668 617

Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota 160 0 160 120

Nevada 23,347 1,688 25,035 12,796

New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas 146 0 146 83

Oregon and Washington 3,120 60 3,180 2,715

Utah 3,979 313 4,292 1,956

Wyoming and Nebraska 3,771 0 3,771 3,725

Total 40,815 8,394 49,209 26,684

Source: USDOI BLM 2014a.

TABLE 3-8

Cultural Resources on Public Lands 

State

Number of 

Acres 

(in millions)

Number of 

Acres 

Surveyed

Percent of 

Acres 

Surveyed

Number of 

Properties 

Recorded

Alaska 72.4 179,759 0.2 3,831

Arizona 12.2 980,953 8.0 13,953

California 15.3 2,135,675 14.0 34,522

Colorado 8.3 1,838,771 22.2 47,035

Idaho 11.6 2,581,358 22.3 17,753

Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota 8.3 1,522,922 18.3 11,389

Nevada 47.8 3,000,829 6.3 57,688

New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas 13.6 1,771,607 13.0 39,209

Oregon and Washington 16.5 1,880,146 11.4 15,578

Utah 22.8 2,794,218 12.3 50,679

Wyoming and Nebraska 18.4 3,249,624 17.7 49,424

Total 247.2 21,935,862 8.9 341,061

Source: BLM Public Land Statistics (USDOI BLM 2008b, 2009b, 2010a, 2011, 2012a, 2013a).

The cultural heritage for public lands administered by 

the BLM in 17 western states extends back to 

approximately 13,000 years BP. As one moves forward 

in time, the number and variety of sites increases mainly 

as a result of the increase in Native populations and, 

after 500 BP or so, European and Euroamerican 

immigration.

Table 3-8 summarizes the number of acres of public 

lands inventoried for cultural resources, the number of 

properties found on public lands, and the number of 

properties listed in the National Register of Historic 

Places (NRHP).

American Indian and Alaska Native 

Cultural Resources

A brief review of the archaeology and ethnography of 

culture areas within the study area was provided in the 

2007 PEIS (USDOI BLM 2007a:3-45 to 3-53). This 

review covers the Arctic and Subarctic (Alaska), the 

Northwest Coast, the Southwest, the Great Basin, the

Plateau, California, and the Plains Culture Areas. Table 

3-9 provides a summary of this information. 

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TABLE 3-9

Culture Areas, Prehistoric Occupation Periods, and Selected Common Site Types

Culture 

Area Paleoindian Middle Period or Archaic Late or Sedentary Period

Arctic and 

Subarctic

13,000+ to 9,000 B.P.

Open campsites

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites

Animal kill and lithic processing sites

9,000 to 6,000 B.P.

Semi-subterranean houses 

Open campsites and tent camps

6,000 to 250 B.P.

Semi-subterranean house villages

Open campsites and tent camps

Northwest 

Coast

12,500+ to 6,000 B.P.

Open campsites

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites

6,000 to 250 B.P.

Large, cedar plank pithouse villages 

Fortified sites

Seafood capture or processing sites

Pictograph and petroglyph sites

California

11,000(?) to 8,000 B.P.

Open campsites

Animal kill or processing sites

8,000 to 5,000 B.P.

Open campsites and coastal villages

Plant or seafood processing sites 

5,000 to 250 B.P.

Large coastal villages

Burial mounds

Extensive seafood, sea mammal, and 

plant processing sites 

Pictograph and petroglyph sites

Great 

Basin

11,500+ to 8,000 B.P.

Open campsites

Cave occupation sites

Lithic processing sites

8,000 to 4,000 B.P.

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites

Pithouse villages

Plant and lithic processing sites

Fishing sites

4,000 to 250 B.P.

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites

Small pithouse villages

Plant and lithic processing sites

Storage pits 

Pictograph and petroglyph sites

Southwest

11,500 to 8,000 B.P.

Open campsites

Animal kill and lithic processing sites

Cave occupation sites

8,000 to 2,000 B.P.

Open campsites

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites

Pithouses and storage pits

Waddle and daub structures

Lithic processing sites

Pictograph and petroglyph sites

2,000 to 250 B.P.

Pithouse villages

Storage pits

Above-ground structures (Pueblos)

Below-ground structures (Kivas)

Irrigation ditches and roads

Navajo hogans and pueblitos

Pictograph and petroglyph sites

Plains

12,000 to 8,000 B.P.

Open campsites

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites

Animal kill and lithic processing sites

8,000 to 2,000 B.P.

Open campsites

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites

Pithouses and storage pits

Tipi ring sites

Cairns and cairn lines

Animal kill, lithic, and plant processing 

sites

2,000 to 250 B.P.

Open campsites and tipi ring sites

Waddle and daub structures

Earthlodge villages

Burial mounds

Storage pits 

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites

Small pithouse villages

Cairns and cairn lines

Animal kill, lithic, and plant 

processing sites

Pictograph and petroglyph sites

Plateau

12,500 to 8,000 B.P.

Open campsites

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites

Fishing sites

Lithic processing sites

8,000 to 4,000 B.P.

Open campsites

Small pithouse villages

Cave occupation sites

Animal or fish processing sites

Lithic processing sites

Plant processing sites

4,000 to 250 B.P.

Pithouse and longhouse villages, often 

with burials

Open campsites

Cave occupation sites

Storage pits

Animal or fish processing sites

Lithic and plant processing sites

Pictograph and petroglyph sites

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-24 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

European Settlement Resources

The earliest Euro-American contacts with the western 

U.S. and Alaska, which typically began with 

exploration or trading, started in the 1500s in the 

Southwest and California. By the late 1700s and early 

1800s much of what is now the western U.S. was being

traversed by explorers and fur traders. A summary of 

these encounters and the European settlement resources 

present with the seven culture areas is provided in the 

2007 PEIS (USDOI BLM 2007a:3-54 to 3-56).

Public lands in the West contain cultural resources 

representing all major periods and events in the broad 

sweep of Euro-American history. The most common 

rural manifestations of these dominant themes include 

transportation resources such as ferry sites, railroads, 

trails, and roads; military sites (training grounds and 

battlefields); and mining resources related to exploration 

(prospect pits), extraction (adits, hydraulic cuts, and 

quarries), and processing (smelters and mills). Other 

resources include homesteading, ranching, and farming 

resources (human and animal shelter and irrigation 

development); fishery resources (boats, fish traps, and 

weirs); and logging resources (stumpage, sawmills, and 

human and animal shelter). Evidence of community 

development includes rural schools, stores, churches, 

and community centers. Recreation and leisure sites 

include cabins, resorts, and trail systems.

Important Plant Uses and Species Used 

by American Indians and Alaska 

Natives

Although universally important, plant use by Native 

American and Alaska Native groups is extremely 

varied, both by region and by group. Subsistence use of 

such plant products as roots and tubers, stalks, leaves, 

berries, and nuts is essential to Native people. 

Vegetation also provides habitat for important wildlife 

species.

Most Native American and Alaska Native groups 

constructed a variety of residential shelters and other 

buildings such as ceremonial lodges and sweat houses,

using a combination of materials, usually employing a 

locally derived hardwood as part of the structural frame. 

The frames were then covered with other readily 

available materials, such as planks, mats, and brush. 

Wood has been burned to cook food, warm dwellings, 

and facilitate toolmaking. Trees have been fashioned 

into various types of watercraft and terrestrial hauling 

devices. Various woods have been carved or used to 

produce utilitarian implements like bowls and spoons, 

and also ceremonial items, such as pipes and totems, 

and many other items of material culture.

The use of plants for medicinal purposes is widespread. 

Plants such as sweetgrass, cedar, and sage (referring to 

both Salvia and Artemisia spp.), have seen important 

religious and other ceremonial uses. The use of grasses 

and other plant resources for basket, box, and tool 

making also can be observed in the cultures of 

numerous Native American and Alaska Native groups. 

Plant products also have been used to make textiles, 

cordage, and matting, as well as to tan hides. The use of 

plant dyes, paints, and soaps is widespread.

Visual Resources

Public lands have a variety of visual (scenic) values that 

warrant different levels of management. Visual 

resources in these landscapes consist of land, water, 

vegetation, wildlife, and other natural or man-made 

features visible on public lands. Vast areas of grassland, 

shrubland, canyonland, and mountain ranges on public 

lands provide scenic views. Surface-disturbing impacts 

on public lands have the potential to impact scenic 

views. Visual Resource Management (VRM) is the

BLM’s system for protective management of scenic 

values and minimizing the visual impacts of surfacedisturbing activities.

Different levels of scenic values require different levels 

of management. The VRM system provides a way to 

identify and evaluate scenic values to determine the 

appropriate levels of management. The VRM system 

has two stages: land use planning and land use plan 

implementation. The land use planning stage involves 

inventory of scenic values (Visual Resource Inventory 

[VRI] Classes) and designation of visual management 

decisions (VRM Classes). The land use plan

implementation stage involves visual impact analysis, 

mitigation to reduce adverse visual impacts, and 

determination of conformance to the land use plan

VRM Class designations.

BLM lands are inventoried for three scenic values: 1) 

scenic quality, 2) public sensitivity for the scenic 

quality, and 3) distance zones. VRI Classes are assigned 

based on systematic procedures that combine the three 

inventory factors, as outlined in BLM Handbook H8410-1, Visual Resource Inventory (USDOI BLM 

1986a). There are four VRI classes, with VRI Class I 

and II representing areas with the highest visual value 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-25 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

and VRI Class IV representing landscapes with lowest

visual value. The VRI information is taken into 

consideration with the other natural and cultural 

resource values and resource allocations to determine 

VRM Classes during the land use planning process.

VRM Classes have established management objectives 

which land use authorizations must meet to be in 

conformance with the land use plan (USDOI BLM 

1986a). VRM classes range from Class I to IV, with 

Class IV allowing for the most visual change to the 

existing landscape and Class I allowing for the least 

(Table 3-10).

During the analysis stage, the potential visual impacts 

from proposed activities or developments are assessed 

to determine whether the potential visual impacts will 

meet the management objectives for the area. A visual 

contrast rating is used, in which the project features are 

compared with the major features in the existing 

landscape using the basic design elements of form, line, 

color, and texture. This process is described in BLM 

Handbook H-8431-1, Visual Resource Contrast Rating

(USDOI BLM 1986b). Activities or modifications in a 

landscape that repeat the basic design elements are 

thought to be in harmony with their surroundings. 

Modifications that do not harmonize are said to be in 

contrast with their surroundings.

Wilderness and Other Special 

Areas

The BLM manages certain lands that possess unique 

and important historical, anthropological, ecological, 

biological, geological, and paleontological features. 

These features include undisturbed wilderness tracts, 

critical habitat, natural environments, open spaces, 

scenic landscapes, historic locations, cultural landmarks, 

and paleontologically rich regions. Special management 

is administered with the intent to preserve, protect, and 

evaluate these significant components of our national 

heritage. Most special areas are either designated by an 

Act of Congress or by Presidential Proclamation, or are 

created under BLM administrative procedures.

The NLCS is the primary management framework for 

these specially designated lands. Of the nearly 247

million acres administered by the BLM, approximately 

27 million acres are managed under the NLCS program.

The NLCS designations primarily include National 

Monuments, National Conservation Areas, Designated 

Wilderness and WSAs, National Scenic and Historic 

Trails, and Wild, Scenic, and Recreational Rivers (Map 

3-7 and Table 3-11; USDOI BLM 2013a).

Outside of the NLCS framework, the BLM manages 

other special areas, including Areas of Critical 

Environmental Concern (ACECs), Research Natural 

Areas, National Natural Landmarks, National

Recreation Trails, and a variety of other area 

designations. The BLM uses the ACEC designation to 

highlight public land areas where special management 

attention is necessary to protect and prevent irreparable 

damage to important historical, cultural, and scenic 

values; fish or wildlife resources; or other natural 

systems or processes. The ACEC designation may also 

be used to protect human life and safety from natural 

hazards.

TABLE 3-10

Visual Resource Management Classes and Objectives and Appropriate Management Activities

VRM 

CLASS Visual Resource Objective Change Allowed (Relative Level)

Relationship to the Casual 

Observer

Class I

Preserve the existing character of the 

landscape. Manage for natural ecological 

changes.

Very Low Activities should not be visible and 

must not attract attention.

Class II Retain the existing character of the 

landscape. Low Activities may be visible, but should not attract attention.

Class III Partially retain the existing character of the 

landscape. Moderate Activities may attract attention but should not dominate the view.

Class IV

Provide for management activities which 

require major modification of the existing 

character of the landscape.

High

Activities may attract attention, may 

dominate the view, but are still 

mitigated.

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-26 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-27 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS

TABLE 3-11

National Landscape Conservation System and Other Special Designation Areas on Public Lands as of September 2011

State

National Landscape Conservation System Area Non-NLCS Area

Outstanding 

Natural Areas,

Forest Reserve, 

and 

Cooperative 

Management 

and Protection 

Areas

National 

Monuments

National 

Conservation 

Areas

Wilderness Areas Wilderness Study 

Areas

Wild, Scenic, and 

Recreational Rivers

National, 

Historic, and 

Scenic Trails

Acres of Critical 

Environmental 

Concern

# of 

Sites Acres # of Sites Acres # of Sites Acres # of Sites Acres # of Sites Acres # of Sites Acres/MilesP

1 # of 

SitesP

2 Miles # of 

Sites Acres

Alaska - - - - 1 1,208,624 - - 1 326,000 6 609,280/952 1 149 52 8,682,156

Arizona 5 1,774,213 3 119,234 47 1,397,106 2 63,930 - - 3 122 58 774,124

California 2 7,560 3 301,899 1 56,167 86 3,834,292 67 812,566 8 24,800/108 4 612 185 5,320,721

Colorado 1 170,965 3 398,668 5 205,814 54 548,219 - - 2 86 71 517,785

Idaho 1 274,693 1 470,840 7 517,362 44 655,512 16 313 miles 5 452 102 591,671

Montana 2 375,027 - - 1 6,347 39 449,963 1 89,300/149 3 358 54 380,795

Nebraska - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Nevada - - 3 1,045,668 45 2,055,005 63 2,552,457 - - 3 1,147 51 1,459,704

New 

Mexico 2 9,379 2 256,207 5 169,523 58 958,751 2 22,720/71 3 348 153 1,023,241

North 

Dakota - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Oklahoma - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Oregon 2 496,258 1 55,930 - - 8 247,993 88 2,653,135 25 255,916/812 3 68 181 810,738

South 

Dakota - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Texas - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Utah 1 1,866,134 2 108,317 18 260,273 86 3,234,465 11 20 miles 3 583 59 764,782

Washington - - - - 1 7,140 1 5,636 - - 1 12 15 19,378

Wyoming - - - - - - 42 574,401 - - 6 1,816 42 571,626

Total 4 503,818 16 4,828,240 16 3,663,725 223 8,700,855 545 12,835,035 69 1,002,016/2,425 16 5,753 1,023 20,916,721

P

1 POnly miles (no acreages) are given for wild, scenic, and recreational rivers designated after 2000. 

P

2 PFigures in the number column do not add up to the total shown at the bottom areas may cross state lines and are reported in the count for each state.

Sources: USDOI BLM 2012a, 2013f. 
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Additional discussion of NLCS lands and ACECs is 

provided in the 2007 PEIS (USDOI BLM 2007a:3-56 to 

3-58). Table 3-11 summarizes current information about 

these areas on BLM administered lands. A total of 1,024 

areas comprising nearly 21 million acres are designated 

as ACECs; 46 areas comprising more 400,000 acres are 

designated as National Natural Landmarks; and 192 

areas comprising over 500,000 acres are designated as 

Research Natural Areas. An additional 36 million acres 

fall under various other designations, such as the Lake 

Todatonten Special Management Area, the Santa Rosa 

Mountains National Scenic Area, HMAs, and Globally 

Important Bird Areas. In addition, more than 3,300 

miles of vehicle routes and trails are designated as 

National Backcountry Byways and National Recreation 

Trails (USDOI BLM 2012a). The BLM also cooperates 

with the National Park Service in implementing the 

National Natural Landmark Program as it applies to

public lands. The National Park Service, through the 

National Natural Landmark Program, designates 

significant examples of the Nation’s ecological and 

geological heritage.

Recreation

Public lands provide visitors with a wide range of 

recreational opportunities, including hunting, fishing, 

camping, hiking, dog mushing, cross-country skiing, 

boating, hang gliding, OHV driving, mountain biking, 

birding, viewing scenery, and visiting natural and 

cultural heritage sites. In addition to the recreational 

opportunities afforded the public by wilderness and 

other special areas discussed earlier, the BLM 

administers more than 3,650 recreation sites and 380 

Special Recreation Management Areas, 9,000 miles of 

floatable/boatable rivers and lakes, 54 National Back 

Country Byways, 5,750 miles of National Scenic, 

Historic, and Recreational Trails, and thousands of 

miles of multiple use trails used by motorcyclists, 

hikers, equestrians, and mountain bikers (USDOI BLM 

2012b, d).

The BLM’s long-term goal is to provide opportunities 

to the public for environmentally responsible recreation. 

Over 4,000 communities with a combined population of 

40 million people are located within 25 miles of public 

lands, and more than 100 million acres of public lands 

are located within a day’s drive of a major urban area 

(USDOI BLM 2012b).

In 2010, the America’s Great Outdoors initiative, a 

presidential conservation and recreation agenda, was 

launched. This initiative has increased awareness of, 

and expanded opportunities for, recreational 

opportunities on BLM-administered lands.

BLM field offices reported 57.8 million recreational 

visits to BLM public lands and waters in FY 2011, a 

decrease of 1 percent from the previous year. The total 

amount of time spent on public lands, reported as visitor 

days, was estimated at 67 million visitor days, an 

increase of less than 1 percent from the previous year 

(Table 3-12; USDOI BLM 2012a). 

TABLE 3-12

Estimated Recreation Use of Public Lands During 

Fiscal Year 2011

State

Number of Visitor DaysP

1

P

(thousands)

Recreation 

Sites

Dispersed 

Areas TotalP

2

Alaska 196 434 630

Arizona 9,187 1,540 14,554

California 11,523 3,907 15,486

Colorado 1,549 5,083 6,757

Idaho 1,337 3,177 4,542

Montana, 

North Dakota, and 

South Dakota

1,081 2,965 4,046

Nevada 1,917 3,225 5,379

New Mexico,

Oklahoma, and Texas 457 1,139 1,605

Oregon and 

Washington 3,387 3,853 7,411

Utah 1,835 2,939 4,822

Wyoming and 

Nebraska 674 1,003 1,697

Total 33,143 29,265 66,929

P

1

P One visitor day equals 12 visitor hours.

P

2 PIncludes visitor days for recreation lease sites and recreation partnership 

sites.

Note: Columns may not add up to totals due to rounding.

Source: BLM Public Land Statistics (USDOI BLM 2012a).

The greatest number of visitor days in FY 2011 

occurred in Arizona and California. Overall, developed 

recreational sites were used about as frequently as nondeveloped dispersed areas. Recreational use of public 

lands consists predominately of camping and 

picnicking, which represented 42 percent of all visitor 

days in 2011. Other important recreational activities 

include off-highway travel (12 percent); non-motorized 

travel, such as hiking, horseback riding, and mountain 

biking (10 percent); hunting (8 percent); and viewing 

public land resources and interpretation and education 

(7 percent). The remaining visitor days were associated 

with driving for pleasure, special events, sports and 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-28 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

activities, power and non-power boating, fishing, and 

swimming. Snow- and ice-based activities, such as 

cross-country skiing, snowmobiling, and snowshoeing, 

represented less than 1 percent of visitor days (USDOI 

BLM 2012a).

Commercial revenues generated by recreation on BLM 

lands are discussed in the Social and Economic Values 

section of this chapter.

Rights-of-way, Facilities, and 

Roads

Rights-of-way

Under FLPMA and the Mineral Leasing Act provisions, 

the BLM issues ROW grants to authorize the 

construction, operation, and maintenance of a wide 

range of projects on public lands. These include 

petroleum pipelines, electrical transmission lines, 

telecommunications lines, energy development and 

distribution facilities, water facilities, communication 

sites, and roads. The ROWs are issued for a specific 

term for the use of public lands. In FY 2011, there were 

nearly 104,000 ROWs on public lands, and the BLM 

issued nearly 2,700 new grants (USDOI BLM 2012a).

The length and width of an ROW (and the resulting 

acreage of public lands) is dependent on a variety of 

physical and operational factors, including topography, 

geology, safety, type of use or uses proposed within the 

ROW, current technology, and access needs. Individual 

ROWs may also be subject to controls or limitations 

prescribed by law or identified in BLM land use plans. 

The BLM encourages the utilization of ROWs in 

common, where practical, in order to minimize adverse 

environmental impacts. Land use plans identify ROW 

corridors for existing and future ROW development.

Vegetation can interfere with ROW site access, facility 

maintenance, and electric power flow, and pose safety 

problems for workers and other ROW users. Therefore, 

ROW grants generally include provisions that authorize 

the holder to manage vegetation within and adjacent to 

the ROW using methods approved by the BLM. The 

scope and intensity of vegetation treatments within 

ROWs are operationally specific and highly variable. 

Inspections are conducted periodically to assess 

vegetation management needs within ROWs. Preemergence or post-emergence herbicides can be applied 

to prevent or control young emerging and existing 

vegetation. Other types of vegetation treatments may 

also be utilized. 

Invasive plant species may be associated with the open 

conditions along ROWs. Additionally, vegetation 

removal activities can result in ground disturbance that 

facilitates the establishment and spread of these species. 

The relatively open nature of ROWs makes them 

attractive to many recreationists, which can facilitate the 

spread of invasive plants that are present on ROWs.

Facilities and Roads

The BLM operates or oversees operations on numerous 

facilities on public lands. These include oil, gas,

geothermal, and mineral exploration and production 

sites; numerous campgrounds, 65 interpretive centers, 

and other recreational facilities; nearly 5,000 buildings 

and 655 administrative sites; more than 72,000 miles of 

roads; and communication facilities (USDOI BLM 

2012a).

Construction and operations disturbance can often 

introduce noxious weeds and other invasive vegetation 

to facility sites and roads. In general, vegetation 

management at facilities focuses on controlling 

vegetation that can pose a safety or fire hazard, or is not 

aesthetically pleasing. In such situations the vegetation 

is managed using several methods, which can be 

integrated into an effective management process. 

Residual herbicides, applied to vegetation before or 

after emergence, offer extended management in areas 

where bare ground is required for safety purposes. 

Mechanical methods, such as mowing, and manual 

control by hand pulling have been used to manage 

vegetation along roads, as well as in sensitive areas. 

Social and Economic Values

Social/Demographic Environment

The western U.S., including Alaska, is more sparsely 

populated than the rest of the U.S., containing about 33

percent of the total U.S. population, but comprising 

approximately 65 percent of the total land area. In 2010, 

over 102 million people lived in this region, with over 

60 million in California and Texas, alone (Table 3-13).

Population density is relatively low, averaging about 46 

people per square mile (miP

2

P), which is just over half of 

the national average of nearly 87 people per miP

2

P. 

Density ranges from about 1 person per miP

2

P in Alaska to 

over 239 persons per miP

2

P in California. Based on 2010 

census data, population growth in the western U.S. 

between 2000 and 2010 was 13.8 percent, which was 

higher than the national average of approximately 10 

percent (U.S. Department of Commerce Bureau of the 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-29 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-30 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS

TABLE 3-13

Population, Age Distribution, and Race in the Western States and Alaska

State

Population 

2010 

(thousands)

Percent 

Change 

from 

2000

Density 

(per 

miP

2

P)

Age Distribution Percent of 

Hispanic 

Origin

Percent of Both Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Origin

Percent 

Under 

18

Percent 

Over 

65

Caucasian African 

American

American 

Indian

Asian/Pacific 

Islander Other More than 1 Race

Alaska 710 13.3 1.2 26.4 7.7 5.5 66.7 3.3 14.8 6.4 1.6 7.3

Arizona 6,392 24.6 56.3 25.5 13.8 29.6 73.0 4.1 4.6 3.0 11.9 3.4

California 37,254 10.0 239.1 25.0 11.4 37.6 57.6 6.2 1.0 13.4 17.0 4.9

Colorado 5,029 16.9 48.5 24.4 10.9 20.7 81.3 4.0 1.1 2.9 7.2 3.4

Idaho 1,568 21.1 19.0 27.4 12.4 11.2 89.1 0.6 1.4 1.4 5.1 2.5

Montana 989 9.7 6.8 22.6 14.8 2.9 89.4 0.4 6.3 0.7 0.6 2.5

Nebraska 1,826 6.7 23.8 25.1 13.5 9.2 86.1 4.5 1.0 1.8 4.3 2.2

Nevada 2,701 35.1 24.6 24.6 12.0 26.5 66.1 8.1 1.2 7.9 12.0 4.7

New Mexico 2,059 13.2 17.0 25.2 13.2 46.3 68.4 2.1 9.4 1.5 15.0 3.7

North Dakota 673 4.7 9.7 22.3 14.5 2.0 90.0 1.2 5.4 1.1 0.5 1.8

Oklahoma 3,751 8.7 54.7 24.8 13.5 8.9 72.2 7.4 8.6 1.9 4.1 5.9

Oregon 3,831 12.0 39.9 22.6 13.9 11.7 83.6 1.8 1.4 4.0 5.3 3.8

South Dakota 814 7.9 10.7 24.9 14.3 2.7 85.9 1.3 8.8 1.0 0.9 2.1

Texas 25,146 20.6 96.3 27.3 10.3 37.6 70.4 11.8 0.7 3.9 10.5 2.7

Utah 2,764 23.8 33.6 31.5 9.0 13.0 86.1 1.1 1.2 2.9 6.0 2.7

Washington 6,725 14.1 101.2 23.5 12.3 11.2 77.3 3.6 1.5 7.8 5.2 4.7

Wyoming 564 14.1 5.8 24.0 12.4 8.9 90.7 0.8 2.4 0.9 3.0 2.2

United States 308,746 9.7 87.4 24.0 13.0 16.3 72.4 12.6 0.9 5.0 6.2 2.9

Western 

States 102,795 15.0 46.4 25.5 11.6 29.6 68.8 6.6 1.9 7.3 11.5 3.9

Western 

States as a 

Percentage of 

Total U.S.

33.3 - - 35.4 29.6 60.4 31.6 17.4 66.6 49.4 61.7 44.8

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce Bureau of the Census 2011.
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Census 2011). Many of the western states exceeded the 

national average, with growth rates of 20 percent or 

higher during this time period. States with the greatest 

rate of population growth were Nevada (35.1 percent), 

followed by Arizona (24.6 percent), Utah (23.8 percent) 

and Idaho (21.1 percent). Population growth was 

highest in metropolitan areas. Population growth in the 

western U.S. has slowed from the rate of increase 

observed during the previous decade.

The age distribution of the population of the western 

U.S. is similar to the nationwide distribution. 

Approximately 25 percent of the population is under 18 

years of age, while about 12 percent is over 65. Alaska 

and Utah are slight exceptions, with a higher percentage 

of people under 18 (26 percent and 32 percent, 

respectively) and a lower percentage of people over 65 

(8 percent and 9 percent, respectively).

Economic Environment

Employment

Between 2007 and 2012, employment fell by 2 percent 

in the 17 western states, which was slightly lower than 

the national decline of 3 percent. States with positive 

employment growth during this period include Alaska, 

Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, 

Texas, and Wyoming. States with the most employment 

growth were North Dakota (18 percent), Alaska (5.6 

percent), and Texas (5.1 percent). States with above 

average decreases in employment include Nevada 

(-12.3 percent), Arizona (-8.8 percent), Idaho (-6.8 

percent), California (-5.9 percent), Oregon (-4.3 

percent), and New Mexico (-3.1 percent; U.S. 

Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics 2013a).

In 2014, the average annual nationwide unemployment 

rate was 6.2 percent (Table 3-14). Unemployment rates 

in the western U.S. were less than the national average, 

with the greatest unemployment in Nevada (7.8

percent), California (7.5 percent), Arizona (6.9 percent), 

Oregon (6.9 percent), and Alaska (6.8 percent). The 

unemployment rate was lowest in North Dakota (2.8

percent), Nebraska (3.3 percent), South Dakota (3.4

percent), and Utah (3.8 percent; U.S. Department of 

Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics 2015). Unemployment 

rates were generally higher for African Americans and 

Hispanics than other races.

Over 33 percent of the nation’s employment 

opportunities, amounting to more than 58 million jobs, 

are located in the western U.S. (Table 3-15).

Employment in the trade and services industries 

accounts for over half of the total jobs. Industries related 

to natural resources, such as agriculture and mining, are 

important sources of employment and represent nearly 

half of the nation’s agricultural services, forestry, and 

fishing jobs. Employment in the government and 

military sector is higher in Alaska than in other states, 

accounting for 24 percent of total jobs versus about 14 

percent overall in the western U.S.

TABLE 3-14

Percent Unemployment for the Western U.S. and 

Alaska

State Year

1990 2000 2010 2014

Alaska 7.0 6.6 8.0 6.8

Arizona 5.5 3.9 10.4 6.9

California 5.8 4.9 12.4 7.5

Colorado 5.0 2.7 9.0 5.0

Idaho 5.9 4.9 8.7 4.8

Montana 6.0 4.9 6.7 4.7

Nebraska 2.2 3.0 4.7 3.3

Nevada 4.9 4.1 13.8 7.8

New Mexico 6.5 4.9 8.0 6.5

North Dakota 4.0 3.0 3.8 2.8

Oklahoma 5.7 3.1 6.9 4.5

Oregon 5.6 4.9 10.8 6.9

South Dakota 3.9 2.3 5.1 3.4

Texas 6.3 4.2 8.2 5.1

Utah 4.3 3.2 8.1 3.8

Washington 4.9 5.2 9.9 6.2

Wyoming 5.5 3.9 7.0 4.3

United States 5.6 4.0 9.6 6.2

Source: U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics 

2015.

Income

Based on data from 2008 to 2012, the estimated per 

capita income in the western U.S. was $28,575, which 

was similar to the national average of $28,051. Per 

capita income was greatest in Alaska, Colorado, and 

Washington, and lowest in Utah, Idaho, and New 

Mexico (U.S. Department of Commerce Bureau of the 

Census 2014). 

In 2011, the median household income in the western 

U.S. was $52,376, a 4.1 percent decrease from the 

previous year. The highest median annual income in the 

western U.S. was paid to individuals employed by the 

information sector ($60,379), followed by public 

administration ($58,072), and professional services 

($54,196). The lowest median annual income was 

earned by those working in agriculture, forestry, fishing,

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-31 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

TABLE 3-15

Percent Unemployment by Industry in 2011

State

AgricultureMining and Natural ResourcesConstructionManufacturingTransportation and Public UtilitiesTrade (Wholesale and Retail)Finance, Insurance, and Real EstateInformationServicesGovernmentTotal Number (thousands)

Alaska 0.2 6.8 5.2 3.5 5.5 11.3 6.3 1.6 35.6 24.0 454

Arizona 0.8 1.1 4.9 5.0 3.2 14.4 12.4 1.5 43.0 13.6 3,228

California 1.1 1.5 4.3 6.7 3.2 13.3 10.3 2.6 44.0 13.1 19,969

Colorado 1.4 2.1 5.7 4.5 2.8 12.7 11.9 2.6 42.1 14.2 3,200

Idaho 4.4 1.9 5.9 6.8 3.2 14.5 9.4 1.4 38.2 14.4 879

Montana 4.7 3.0 6.4 3.2 3.4 14.0 9.0 1.4 39.5 15.3 629

Nebraska 4.2 1.1 5.1 7.8 5.1 14.1 9.7 1.6 37.2 14.2 1,231

Nevada 0.3 1.4 4.6 2.8 4.0 12.8 12.1 1.2 49.7 11.1 1,498

New Mexico 2.5 3.4 5.6 3.3 2.7 12.9 7.1 1.5 40.9 20.1 1,066

North Dakota 6.1 4.5 6.3 4.7 4.5 15.0 8.1 1.5 33.2 16.0 527

Oklahoma 4.0 6.0 5.4 6.4 3.2 12.8 7.9 1.3 35.8 17.2 2,168

Oregon 3.1 1.5 4.7 8.2 3.0 14.0 8.9 1.8 41.5 13.3 2,222

South Dakota 5.7 1.3 5.7 7.3 3.1 14.9 10.2 1.3 35.5 15.1 564

Texas 1.8 3.5 6.2 6.1 4.0 13.7 10.0 1.6 39.5 13.6 14,611

Utah 1.1 1.2 5.5 7.3 3.5 13.6 12.7 2.1 38.7 14.3 1,658

Washington 2.1 1.2 5.0 7.5 3.0 13.6 8.9 3.0 39.3 16.3 3,829

Wyoming 3.3 9.4 7.5 2.8 4.4 12.2 9.0 1.2 31.1 19.1 391

Western U.S. 1.8 2.3 5.2 6.2 3.5 13.5 10.1 2.1 41.3 14.0 58,124

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce Bureau of Economic Analysis 2012.

and hunting ($27,243); portions of the service industry 

(e.g., accommodation and food services, arts, 

entertainment, and recreation [$27,877]); and retail 

trade ($34,057; U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of 

Labor Statistics 2013a).

Environmental Justice

Executive Order 12898 directs federal agencies to 

address the disproportionately high and adverse human 

health or environmental effects of their actions on 

minority and low-income populations. Minority 

populations are defined as Hispanics, Asian Americans 

and Pacific Islanders, African-Americans, American 

Indians, and Alaska Natives. Low income populations 

are defined as those below the poverty level, which is 

established by the U.S. Census Bureau. Information on 

minority and low income populations can be obtained 

from Census data and then compared to an appropriate 

statistical reference area. 

Given the programmatic nature of this PEIS, it is not 

feasible to do an analysis of minority and low-income 

populations based on the complete coverage of BLMadministered lands. These analyses will be done at the 

local level for individual treatment programs. Instead, 

general information for the states covered by this PEIS 

is provided.

Information on minority populations is provided in 

Table 3-13. The western U.S. contains a large 

percentage of the nation’s minority populations, 

including more than 60 percent of the nation’s 

Hispanics and American Indians, and nearly 50 percent

of the nation’s Asian/Pacific Islanders. In particular, 

Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, and Texas 

contain large Hispanic populations, which comprise 

from 25 to over 45 percent of the total population in 

each of these states. Almost 15 percent of Alaska’s 

population is comprised of American Indians (Alaska 

Natives).

The population of the western U.S. living below the 

poverty level is estimated at 14.8 percent, which is 

consistent with the national average (U.S. Department 

of Commerce Bureau of the Census 2014). Table 3-16

presents the percent of people below the poverty level, 

by state, as compared to the U.S. as a whole. The 

highest poverty rates occur in New Mexico, Texas, and 

Arizona, while the lowest rates occur in Alaska and 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-32 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Wyoming. However, within each state, areas of high 

poverty may vary geographically, and could include 

some rural areas where BLM-administered lands are 

prevalent. 

TABLE 3-16

Percent of People Below the Poverty Level for the 

Western U.S. and Alaska

State Percent Below Poverty 

Level

Alaska 9.6

Arizona 17.2

California 15.3

Colorado 12.9

Idaho 15.1

Montana 14.8

Nebraska 12.4

Nevada 14.2

New Mexico 19.5

North Dakota 12.1

Oklahoma 16.6

Oregon 15.5

South Dakota 13.8

Texas 17.4

Utah 12.1

Washington 12.9

Wyoming 11.0

Western Region 14.8

United States 14.9

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce Bureau of the Census

2014 (2008 to 2012 data).

Revenues Generated by BLM Lands

The BLM allows land use for authorized private 

commercial activities such as energy and mineral 

commodity extraction, timber harvesting, livestock 

grazing, recreation, and the development of ROWs on 

public land. Tax revenues generated by public land is

used to assist state and local governments, support the 

General Fund of the U.S. Treasury, and offset charges 

for program operations where certain fees collected can 

be retained by the BLM. During FY 2011, the BLM 

collected nearly $245 million from a variety of land 

uses in the western U.S. (Table 3-17; USDOI BLM 

2012a). Additionally, royalties collected by the Office 

of Natural Resources Revenue from leasable minerals 

produced from federal lands and managed by the BLM 

are greater than $4 billion annually. Operating revenues 

from mineral leases and permits totaled $11.2 million in 

FY 2011 (USDOI BLM 2012a). These receipts include 

rental collections from oil and gas ROWs, revenues 

from developed lands within the Naval Oil Shale 

Reserve in Colorado, lease rentals and bonus bids from 

the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska, and fees 

related to mining claims, holding fees, and nonoperating revenues.

Woodland products are an important commodity and 

source of revenue generated on public lands. These 

products include timber; other wood products, such as 

fuelwood, posts, and poles; and non-wood forest 

products, such as Christmas trees, cactus, seed, yucca,

pinyon nuts, mushrooms, and yew bark. During FY 

2006 to 2011, an average of approximately $28 million 

was received annually from woodland products 

harvested from public lands, the majority of which came 

from timber sales. The average volume of timber 

harvested annually between 2006 and 2011 was 

approximately 20 million cubic feet. The revenue 

generated from timber sales has generally decreased, 

from $46.7 million in 1997 to $19.4 million in 2011 

(USDOI BLM 2007e, 2008b, 2009b, 2010a, 2011, 

2012a, 2013a).

Over ninety percent of income from the sale of timber 

and other vegetative materials is derived from Oregon 

and California and Coos Bay (Oregon) Wagon Road 

Grant Lands. Timber sales on other public lands include 

sales from salvage timber and forest health projects.

Grazing fees are derived using a formula established in 

the Public Rangelands Improvement Act of 1978, which 

is based on several index factors, including private land 

lease rates, beef cattle prices, and the cost of production. 

In 2012, the fee was $1.35 per AUM, which is the same 

as the fee in 2011 (USDOI BLM 2012b). 

Approximately $12.9 million was collected in grazing 

receipts in FY 2011 (USDOI BLM 2012a). Half of the 

grazing fees are used by the BLM for rangeland 

improvements (USDOI BLM 2012b).

Fees are charged at many public recreation sites to 

provide for maintenance and improvement, and include 

access fees for Entrance Permits, Special Area Permits, 

Daily Use Permits, Commercial, Competitive, and 

Group Permits, Leases, and Passports. At other 

locations, generally those without public facilities, no 

fees are charged. In FY 2011, 90 percent of recreational 

use on public lands, in terms of visitor days, occurred in 

non-fee areas (USDOI BLM 2012a). The BLM also 

issues special recreation permits to qualified 

commercial companies and organized groups such as

outfitters, guides, vendors, and commercial competitive 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-33 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

TABLE 3-17

Revenues Generated from Public Lands by Source for Fiscal Year 2011

State Mineral 

Leases

Timber 

Sales

Land and 

Material Sales

Grazing 

Fees

Recreation 

Fees OtherP

1 Total

Alaska $177,048 $0 $147,412 $0 $297,636 $244,200 $866,296

Arizona 164,145 30 1,148,015 590,660 1,558,148 5,174,916 8,635,914

California 1,150,461 375,327 1,519,999 236,116 3,919,741 15,463,819 22,665,463

Colorado 1,150,587 18,324 544,930 546,467 525,830 1,197,756 3,983,894

Idaho 48,153 669,386 437,872 1,427,646 905,063 2,012,714 5,500,834

Montana 2,275,206 573,232 122,619 1,774,829 392,321 231,322 5,369,529P

2

Nebraska 0 0 0 1,665 0 0 1,665

Nevada -174,777 26,581 9,702,808 1,937,754 3,874,883 8,515,169 23,882,418

New Mexico 2,640,656 53,824 3,815,706 2,064,872 422,656 2,369,195 11,366,909P

2

North Dakota 3,397 0 712 14,353 0 4,125 22,587

Oklahoma 0 0 0 128 0 0 128

Oregon 53,499 16,959,414 297,646 1,107,627 2,441,837 1,975,359 22,835,382P

3

South Dakota 0 7,753 744 160,483 0 3,500 172,480

Texas 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Utah 1,392,958 15,714 1,234,071 1,060,156 2,863,376 3,474,791 10,041,066

Washington 0 607,096 82,390 44,903 0 31,261 765,650

Wyoming 2,301,344 90,506 1,688,388 1,961,661 168,434 3,693,095 9,903,428

MultipleP

4 118,559,009P5 0 0 0 0 0 118,559,009

Total 129,741,686 19,397,187 20,743,312 12,929,320 17,369,925 44,391,222 244,572,652

P

1

P Includes fees and commissions, ROW rents, rent of land, and other sources.

P

2

P Includes Land Utilization Project land purchased by the federal government under Title III of the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act and subsequently 

transferred to the USDOI.

P

3 PIncludes Oregon and California receipts, Coos Bay Wagon Road receipts, and receipts from public domain sales and other categories.

P

4 PThese revenues are not broken down by state in the Public Land Statistics.

P

5

P Includes mining claim and holding fees, application for permit to drill fees, and non-operating revenue. These revenues are not reported by state.

Source: BLM Public Land Statistics (USDOI BLM 2012a).

event organizers who conduct activities on both fee and 

non-fee lands. Nearly $17.4 million were collected in 

recreation fees in FY 2011 (USDOI BLM 2012a).

In FY 2011, sales of public land and material, including 

receipts from the sale of public land, and the sale of 

vegetative and mineral materials, totaled nearly $20.8 

million, of which $6.8 million was from the sale of 

certain public lands in Clark County, Nevada, near the 

city of Las Vegas, under the Southern Nevada Public 

Land Management Act (USDOI BLM 2012a).

In addition to providing revenue for the BLM, all of the 

major public land resource use categories generate 

economic activity in the communities and states in 

which they occur. For example, there are nearly 17,700 

grazing permits/leases in force on public lands, 

supporting nearly 12.4 million AUMs (Table 3-6). 

Alaska and Texas have no grazing permits/leases in 

force. The value of these grazing permits/leases and the 

acreage they entail vary widely depending on the 

location, soil characteristics, and precipitation. The 

availability of public land grazing leases is highly 

beneficial, if not crucial, to some ranching operations, 

however, and consequently is very important to many 

rural communities throughout the West.

Similarly, mineral development is an economic 

mainstay of many western communities. Table 3-15

illustrates the relative importance to the employment 

base of mineral extraction, particularly in Alaska, North 

Dakota, Oklahoma, and Wyoming. Each of these states 

has a much higher percentage of employment in the 

mining/natural resource industry than the average for 

the West as a whole. This industry sector includes oil 

and gas, coal, aggregates, and hard rock minerals such 

as gold and copper. Alaska’s oil industry not only 

supports ongoing employment, but also contributes 

toward minimizing taxes for all state residents and has 

provided a substantial cash rebate to residents over the 

years.

The BLM estimates the contribution to local economies 

from recreation on public lands. These estimates serve 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-34 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

as one example of the economic activity that depends on 

the public land base. Recreational activity provides 

revenue for local economies through expenditures 

associated with activities such as hunting, fishing, and 

wildlife viewing (Table 3-18). In FY 2012, an estimated 

$31 million was injected into local economies through 

these recreation-associated expenditures (USDOI BLM 

2013a). These activities produce indirect economic

benefits to community businesses providing food, 

lodging, equipment sales, transportation, and other 

services. State fish and wildlife management agencies 

also benefit from spending associated with these 

activities from sources such as state tax revenue and 

state administered fishing and hunting license programs.

Expenditures by the BLM

The budget for the BLM was $1.1 billion in FY 2014, 

and was projected to be $1.1 billion in FY 2015 

(USDOI BLM 2014b). In FY 2012, $960 million was 

allocated to management of lands and resources (Table 

3-19). These expenditures included integrated 

management of public land, renewable and cultural 

resources, fish and wildlife, threatened and endangered 

species, recreation, and energy and minerals. 

Wildland Fire Management

While the amount budgeted for wildland fire 

management may be relatively consistent from year to 

year, the cost of fighting fires has varied substantially. 

Since 2009, the BLM’s fuels management budget has 

averaged between $60 million and $100 million 

annually. The total wildland fire management budget 

for the BLM ranges from $250 million to $280 million 

annually.

Table 3-20 shows the BLM’s fire suppression 

expenditures for recent years. The variability often

results from changing weather, but terrain, vegetation, 

and proximity to populated areas all contribute to the 

cost of fighting a fire. The cost of fire suppression also 

depends on the number and size of fires. Approximately 

95 percent of wildland fires are controlled in the initial 

attack, when they are relatively small and not yet 

seriously out of control. Table 3-21 illustrates the total

acreage of USDOI-managed lands burned by unwanted 

fires in recent years. Between 2008 and 2012, the 

acreage burned by fires has varied, with the lowest 

burned area in 2009 and the highest in 2012. 

TABLE 3-18

Estimated Benefits to Local Economies by Recreation on Public Lands in Fiscal Year 2011

StateP

1 Fishing 

Expenditures

Hunting

Expenditures

Wildlife Viewing 

Expenditures Total

Alaska $578,759,000 $140,125,000 $650,777,000 $1,369,661,000

Arizona 898,694,000 361,468,000 938,904,000 2,199,066,000

California 2,710,963,000 910,828,000 4,681,133,000 8,302,924,000

Colorado 608,089,000 497,348,000 1,554,265,000 2,659,702,000

Idaho 316,929,000 290,884,000 297,226,000 905,039,000

Montana 253,511,000 347,805,000 421,625,000 1,022,941,000

Nevada 161,990,000 144,570,000 405,696,000 712,256,000

New Mexico 337,233,000 184,025,000 332,835,000 854,093,000

North Dakota 93,729,000 129,114,000 22,913,000 245,576,000

Oregon 556,574,000 418,447,000 869,584,000 1,844,605,000

South Dakota 131,089,000 185,258,000 183,204,000 499,551,000

Utah 415,617,000 306,636,000 632,176,000 1,354,429,000

Washington 904,796,000 313,134,000 1,502,311,000 2,720,241,000

Wyoming 584,056,000 153,737,000 442,253,000 1,180,046,000

Total 8,552,029,000 4,383,379,000 12,934,905,000 25,870,310,000

P

1

PEstimates include only states with more than 50,000 acres of public lands. No estimates were made for Nebraska, Oklahoma, or Texas.

Source: BLM Public Land Statistics (USDOI BLM 2012a).

Note: Columns may not add up to totals due to rounding.

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-35 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

TABLE 3-19

Summary of BLM Jobs and Expenditures for the Management of the Lands and Resources Program 

by Activity and Subactivity (dollars in thousands)

Activity/Subactivity 2013 (Actual) 2014 (Enacted)

FTEP

1 Amount FTEP1 Amount

Management of Lands and Resources

 Land Resources

 Soil, Water, Air

 Range Management

 Forest Management

 Riparian Management

 Cultural Resources

 Wild Horse and Burros

 Wildlife and Fisheries

 Wildlife Management

 Fisheries Management

 Threatened and Endangered Species

 Recreation 

 Wilderness Management

 Recreation Resource Management

 Resource Protection and Maintenance

 Energy and Minerals

 Realty and Ownership

 Transportation and Facilities Maintenance

 Workforce and Organizational Support

 National Landscape and Conservation System

 OtherP

2

P 

5,994

1,417

227

670

48

171

116

185

319

232

87

154

531

151

380

532

1,157

512

341

442

244

345

$902,160

231,587

41,455

75,955

5,889

21,321

15,131

71,836

61,136

48,606

12,530

20,326

63,429

17,300

46,129

94,749

110,092

62,226

65,632

160,661

29,909

41,988

6,078

1,493

227

675

81

169

114

173

311

225

86

159

541

155

386

524

1,261

484

335

434

253

337

$956,875P

245,474

42,939

79,000

9,838

21,321

15,131

77,245

64,868

52,338

12,530

21,458

66,961

18,264

48,697

94,749

130,119

67,658

65,632

165,724

31,819

44,109

P

1

P Full-time equivalent.

P

2 PIncludes Communications Site Management, Mining Law Administration, and Challenge Cost Share.

Source: USDOI BLM 2014b.

TABLE 3-20

BLM and USDOI Fire Suppression Expenditures

Fiscal Year 2007 through Fiscal Year 2013

Fiscal Year

Total 

Expenditure 

BLM

Total 

Expenditure 

USDOI

2007 301,114,240 470,491,000

2008 251,381,120 392,783,000

2009 139,787,520 218,418,000

2010 147,976,960 231,214,000

2011 204,024,320 318,788,000

2012 298,132,480 465,832,000

2013 255,487,360 399,199,000

10-year 

Annual 

Average

223,749,184 349,608,100

NA = Not applicable.

Source: USDOI BLM 2014c.

TABLE 3-21

USDOI Unwanted Wildland Fires

During 2006 to 2012

Calendar 

Year

Number 

of Fires

Total 

Acreage

2006 11,823 2,554,304

2007 8,212 2,896,507

2008 5,778 2,387,484

2009 6,225 511,790

2010 5,786 1,294,546

2011 7,615 1,423,895

2012P

1 9,151 3,186,827

Total 54,590 14,255,353

 P

1 P2012 values are estimated.

Source: USDOI 2014.

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-36 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Hazardous Fuels Reduction

Reducing the hazardous fuels available to sustain a 

wildland fire can be costly. The USDOI treated 733,871

acres in the wildland-urban interface (WUI) during 

2012 at an average cost of $224 per acre. Treatment can 

cost up to $5,000 per acre for labor-intensive, small, 

mechanical treatments in forested WUI areas. During 

the same year, the USDOI treated 266,619 acres in nonWUI areas at a cost of about $69 per acre (USDOI 

2014).

Weed Management

Herbicides and other vegetation management methods 

are employed to control invasive plant species, which 

have caused a variety of problems on public lands. The 

Vegetation section of this chapter addresses several 

major types of weed infestations on public lands. As 

Duncan and Clark (2005) noted, “The economic impact

of most (weed) species is poorly documented. This is 

generally due to the lack of quantitative information on 

ecosystem impacts and the challenge of assessing nonmarket cost such as those to society and the 

environment (e.g., changes in fire frequency, wildlife 

habitat, aesthetics, and loss of biodiversity).”

Expenditures for herbicides used on BLM land are a 

relatively small part of the agency’s budget. Table 3-22

provides information about the estimated cost per acre 

for currently approved herbicides. These estimates 

include only the cost of the chemicals; labor and 

equipment costs for herbicide application are in addition 

to the costs shown. The BLM estimated it spent $12.7 

million to treat weeds on approximately 204,000 acres 

($62 per acre) during FY 2012 (Ramos 2014). These 

costs included herbicide, labor, and equipment costs. 

The cost of herbicides can vary dramatically, depending 

on the type selected and the method of application. 

Costs can also vary significantly by geographic region, 

vendor, type of chemical (generic versus branded), and 

size and terrain of the application target area. The 

BLM’s range of estimated application costs for ground 

applications is typically $45 to $450 per acre for 

backpack sprayer applications, $35 to $450 per acre for 

all-terrain vehicle (ATV)/utility terrain vehicle (UTV)

applications, and $25 to $120 per acre for boom sprayer 

applications. Costs for aerial applications are estimated 

at $6 to $40 per acre for fixed-wing aircraft and $15 to 

$300 per acre for helicopter applications. Occasionally, 

costs can exceed these ranges, depending on the site 

conditions. Backpack sprayer applications have been 

reported as high as $4,200 per acre, and ATV/UTV 

applications have been reported as high as $800 per 

acre.

Some herbicide treatments may require reseeding or 

some other form of site restoration or rehabilitation 

following herbicide application, particularly large-scale 

treatments that clear an area of vegetation. The cost of 

reseeding a site following a treatment varies depending 

on the extent of work required, and can range anywhere 

from $350 to $1,000 per acre (USDOI BLM 2014d). 

Payments to State and Local Governments

Where the federal government maintains public land, it 

makes payments to state and local governments for a 

variety of purposes. Receipts from coal leases and 

bonus payments, for example, are shared. Payments in 

lieu of taxes help address the loss of potential local tax 

income that could have been generated from those 

public lands if they were in private ownership. 

Payments in lieu of taxes, as well as other forms of 

transfer payments, are generally set by law and provided 

according to a formula. Payments in lieu of taxes, for 

example, are computed based on the number of acres of 

public lands within each county and multiplied by a 

dollar amount per acre. Over $6 billion in payments

have been made since 1976. Table 3-23 shows the BLM 

payments to states and local governments for FY 2011.

Note that this table does not include royalty payments 

associated with leasable minerals that are returned to the 

state of origin, which exceeded $2 billion in FY 2012.

Human Health and Safety

Background Health Risks

This section discusses background information on 

human health risks of injuries, and cancer and other 

diseases for people living in the states in which the 

BLM is planning to implement herbicide treatments. 

People living in these states are exposed to a variety of 

risks common to the U.S. as a whole, including 

automobile accidents and other injuries; contaminants in 

the air, water, soil, and food; and various diseases. Risks 

to workers may differ from those facing the general 

public, depending on the nature of a person’s work. 

Some of these risks may be quantified, but a lack of 

data allows for only a qualitative description of certain 

risks. Where data are only available for the U.S. as a 

whole, it is assumed that these data apply to the 

treatment states. Information for this section was

obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention (CDC), the National Center for Injury 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-37 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

TABLE 3-22

Herbicide Uses and Costs for Vegetation Treatments on Public Lands During 2011

Herbicide Type of 

Application Acres TreatedP

1 Total Herbicide 

ExpenditureP

2

P

Cost per Acre for 

HerbicideP

2

2,4-D Aerial

Ground

1,571

37,380

$5,216

223,161

$3.32

5.97

Bromacil Aerial

Ground

0

6,338

0

728,836

NA

115.00

Chlorsulfuron Aerial

Ground

3,779

5,347

25,508

64,158

6.75

12.00

Clopyralid Aerial

Ground

52,789

2,104

831,427

34,463

15.75

16.38

Dicamba Aerial

Ground

128

11,044

1,440

141,691

11.25

12.83

Dicamba + 

Diflufenzopyr

Aerial

Ground

0

38

0

16

NA

0.41

Diquat Aerial

Ground

0

17

0

55

NA

15.50

Diuron Aerial

Ground

0

9,991

0

325,306

NA

32.56

FluridoneP

3 Aerial

Ground

0

0

0

0

NA

NA

Glyphosate Aerial

Ground

16,935

9,861

73,498

85,492

4.34

8.67

HexazinoneP

3 Aerial

Ground

0

0

0

0

NA

NA

Imazapic Aerial

Ground

17,498

3,696

179,355

53,588

10.25

14.50

Imazapyr Aerial

Ground

3,501

5,938

69,075

135,389

19.73

22.80

Metsulfuron methyl Aerial

Ground

1,518

10,398

2,869

51,470

1.89

4.95

Picloram Aerial

Ground

3,905

24,938

45,063

404,490

11.54

16.22

Sulfometuron methyl Aerial

Ground

0

1,116

0

6,731

NA

6.03

Tebuthiuron Aerial

Ground

73,493

133

66,144

162

0.90

1.22

Triclopyr Aerial

Ground

106,580

3,176

576,006

75,620

5.32

23.81

P

1

P Acres treated do not take into account whether the aerial application was by helicopter or airplane, nor do they distinguish between 

ground application methods. Costs would vary depending on the application method. 

P

2

P Total herbicide expenditure and cost per acre do not include costs for labor, equipment, and application, and represent an average cost 

for use throughout the BLM.

P

3 PHerbicide not applied in 2011, so no data are available. Estimated costs are $548.63 per pound active ingredient for fluridone and 

$42.45 per pound active ingredient for hexazinone.

NA = Not available or not applicable.

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-38 January 2016

Draft Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

TABLE 3-23

BLM Payments to States and Local Governments During Fiscal Year 2011

State

Payments 

in Lieu of 

TaxesP

1

Mineral 

Leasing 

ActP

2

Taylor Grazing Act Proceeds 

of Sales Other Total 

Section 3 Payments Section 

15 Other

Alaska $25,490,863 $4,064 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $25,494,927

Arizona 31,546,890 82,124 48,912 77,642 0 49,480 0 31,805,048

California 38,025,813 598,526 13,018 48,225 0 113,620 0 38,799,202

Colorado 27,022,334 514,788 63,511 29,612 18,632 29,940 0 27,678,817

Idaho 25,592,241 26,452 167,378 19,350 0 123,674 0 25,929,095

Montana 24,717,269 21,204 133,026 103,597 0 8,526 596,776 25,580,398

Nebraska 996,651 0 0 812 0 0 0 997,463

Nevada 22,942,298 105,787 213,384 3,168 0 118,288 1,025,321P

3 33,636,189

New Mexico 32,916,396 1,240,210 214,208 138,216 15 105,467 10,025 34,624,537

North Dakota 1,452,758 1,562 0 7,314 0 6 0 1,461,640

Oklahoma 2,639,362 0 0 65 0 0 0 2,639,427

Oregon 13,062,332 26,823 126,848 28,766 0 9,614 85,486,761P

4 98,741,144

South Dakota 4,995,110 0 0 0 0 0 0 4,995,110

Texas 4,629,597 0 0 0 0 0 0 4,629,597

Utah 34,659,277 694,786 132,435 0 0 27,200 0 35,513,698

Washington 13,843,603 0 0 22,651 0 11,505 0 13,877,759

Wyoming 25,656,797 1,084,182 160,744 332,280 31,313 86,234 0 27,351,550

Western States 330,189,591 4,400,508 1,273,464 811,698 49,960 683,554 87,118,883 424,527,658

All States 375,158,254 4,400,508 1,273,464 811,698 49,960 702,420 87,118,883 469,515,187

P

1

P Payments in lieu of taxes are made by the USDOI, Office of the Secretary, for tax-exempt federal lands administered by the BLM, National Park 

Service, USFWS, and Forest Service, as well as for federal water projects and some military installations.

P

2

P These are payments to states of 50 percent of mineral leasing ROW rents.

P

3

P Does not include direct payments of land sales under the Southern Nevada Public Land Management Act and some calendar year payments to Clark 

County, Nevada and the State of Nevada under the Santini-Burton Act because they were not reported to Treasury in 2012.

P

4

P These are Secure Rural Schools and Community-Self-Determination Act payments to 18 counties in Western Oregon authorized by Public Law 110-

343.

Sources: USDOI 2011, USDOI BLM 2012b.

Prevention and Control, the National Center for Health 

Statistics (NCHS), the National Institute for 

Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), and the 

Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Risks from Diseases

Disease Incidence

Despite the difficulties in establishing correlations 

between work conditions and disease, certain illnesses 

have been linked to occupational hazards. For example, 

asbestosis and lung cancer among insulation and 

shipyard workers has been linked to their exposure to 

asbestos (NIOSH 2012). Pneumoconiosis among coal 

miners has been correlated with the inhalation of coal 

dust. Occupational exposures to some metals, dusts, and 

trace elements, as well as CO, carbon disulfide, 

halogenated hydrocarbons, nitroglycerin, and nitrates, 

can result in increased incidence of cardiovascular 

disease. Neurotoxic disorders can arise from exposure 

to a wide range of chemicals, including some pesticides. 

Dermatological conditions like contact dermatitis, 

infection, trauma, cancer, vitiligo, uticaria, and 

chloracne have a high occurrence in the agricultural, 

forestry, and fishing industries.

Disease Mortality

Mortality rates for the 17 western states in the BLM 

treatment area are listed in Table 3-24. The five most 

common causes of death in the U.S., as well as in these 

17 states, are heart disease, cancer, respiratory disease, 

stroke (cerebrovascular diseases), and accidents (CDC 

2011). Counties in the western U.S. that have the 

highest mortality rates are located in southern and 

eastern North Dakota, central Texas, southern New 

Mexico, and eastern Montana. Mortality rates are 

generally lowest in counties in central and western 

Colorado, Alaska, and northern Utah (CDC 2011). 

Mortality rates for males are nearly one and a half times 

those as for females, and mortality rates for African 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-39 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Americans over one and a quarter times those for

Caucasians (CDC 2011).

Risks from Injuries

Injury Incidence

In 2011, nearly 32.4 million nonfatal injuries were 

reported in the U.S., almost 4.3 million of which were 

transportation related (CDC 2011). Injuries accounted 

for 29 percent of emergency department visits during 

2010 (CDC 2011).

The rate of hospitalizations for injury is significantly 

higher among elderly persons than among all other age 

groups (CDC 2011). In 2010, more than 4,500 U.S. 

workers died from occupational injuries. Although 

difficult to enumerate, annually about 49,000 deaths are 

attributed to work-related illnesses. In 2010, an 

estimated 3.9 million workers in private industry and 

state and local government had a nonfatal occupational 

injury or illness (NIOSH 2012). Some chronic injuries

may be directly linked to the nature of the work 

performed. For example, vibration syndrome affects a 

large proportion of workers using chippers, grinders, 

chainsaws, jackhammers, or other handheld power 

tools, causing blanching and reduced sensitivity in the 

fingers. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that in 

2010, an estimated 29 percent of all work-related illness 

cases were due to musculoskeletal disorders (NIOSH 

2012). Noise-induced hearing loss may also affect 

production workers who are exposed to noise levels of 

80 decibels or more on a daily basis.

Acute trauma at work remains a leading cause of death 

and disability among U.S. workers. During the period 

from 1992 through 2011, more than 115,000 U.S. 

workers 10Tdied10T from occupational injuries. The Census of 

Fatal Occupational Injuries Summary (U.S. Department 

of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics 2013b) identified 

4,693 workplace deaths from acute traumatic injury in 

2011. Occupational fatalities resulted from numerous

causes, including transportation incidents, falls, contact 

with objects and equipment, and homicides.

TABLE 3-24

Mortality Rates (per 100,000 Population)P

1

P and Causes of Death by State 2010

State

Cause of Death

All

Diseases

Cancer AccidentsP

2 Cerebrovascular and 

Cardiovascular Disease

Chronic Respiratory 

Disease

Alaska 771.5 192.4 41.5 176.9 58.7

Arizona 693.1 178.6 43.1 154.2 46.7

California 646.7 200.0 37.0 156.9 27.8

Colorado 682.7 168.9 49.7 149.5 43.5

Idaho 731.6 201.3 47.0 159.9 42.1

Montana 754.7 196.0 51.3 161.0 53.2

Nebraska 717.8 194.7 48.8 167.4 35.8

Nevada 795.4 230.6 49.5 174.2 41.3

New Mexico 749.0 189.6 47.7 152.4 60.7

North Dakota 704.3 200.9 43.1 157.1 38.8

Oklahoma 915.5 285.2 67.4 191.3 60.3

Oregon 732.1 178.0 45.3 173.9 37.8

South Dakota 715.1 195.1 46.0 171.0 44.5

Texas 772.3 225.5 43.0 165.9 39.0

Utah 703.2 180.3 33.1 133.7 40.6

Washington 692.3 188.5 40.4 170.5 37.6

Wyoming 778.8 207.0 59.5 172.6 59.8

United States 747.0 218.2 42.2 172.8 38.0

P

1 PAge-adjusted death rate per 100,000 population, which accounts for changes in the age distribution of the population.

P

2 PAccidents do not include motor vehicle accidents.

Source: CDC 2011.

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-40 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

The occupational fatality rate in 2011 was 

approximately 3.5 fatalities per 100,000 employed. 

Fatality rates were highest for the agriculture, forestry, 

fishing, and hunting; mining; transportation; and 

construction industries. The fatality rate for the 

agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting sector was the 

highest, at 24.9 fatal industries per 100,000 workers. 

The mining sector had the second highest rate, at 15.9 

fatalities per 100,000 employed. In the transportation 

and construction industries the rates were 15.3 and 9.1 

fatalities per 100,000 employed, respectively. The 

largest number of fatal work injuries resulted from 

transportation and warehousing-related incidents, which 

accounting for 16 percent of workplace fatalities in 

2011 (U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor 

Statistics 2013b). 

Injury Mortality

Over 180,000 Americans died from injuries nationwide 

in 2010. About 20 percent of these resulted from motor 

vehicle accidents, while other accidental deaths 

occurred from unintentional falls, drowning, and 

poisoning (CDC 2011). Injury is the leading cause of 

death and disability among children and young adults.

Risks from Cancer

Cancer Incidence

Nationwide, the chance of developing some form of 

cancer during one’s lifetime is estimated to be about 40 

percent (American Cancer Society 2012). There are 

many causes of cancer development, including 

occupational exposure to carcinogens, environmental 

contaminants, and substances in food. In the U.S., at 

least 30 percent of all cancer deaths and 87 percent of 

lung cancer deaths are attributed to tobacco smoking. 

Work-related cancers are estimated to account for 4 to 

10 percent of all malignancies. It is difficult to quantify 

the information because of the long time intervals 

between exposure and diagnosis, personal behavior 

patterns, job changes, and exposure to other 

carcinogens. The NIOSH has reported that 

approximately 20,000 cancer deaths and 40,000 new 

cases of cancer each year in the U.S. are attributable to 

occupational hazards (NIOSH 2012). Millions of U.S. 

workers are exposed to substances that have tested as 

carcinogens in animal studies and it is estimated that 

less than 2 percent of chemicals in commerce have been 

tested for carcinogenicity (NIOSH 2012).

Cancer Mortality

Based on the data shown in Table 3-24, cancer 

accounted for between 19 and 25 percent of all deaths in 

the treatment states in 2010. Nationwide, cancers 

account for approximately 23 percent of all fatalities 

(CDC 2011). Cancer mortality rates are generally 

highest in Washington, California, South Dakota, and 

Oregon, and lowest in Utah, New Mexico, Oklahoma, 

and Montana, and differ depending on race and sex. 

Generally, males have higher rates of cancer mortality 

than females, and African Americans have higher rates 

than Caucasians.

Risks from Using Herbicides on Public 

Lands

Based on data from the USDOI accident reporting 

database (SMIS), there were five accidents involving 

ATV/UTVs and pesticide application between October 

1, 2009 and June 16, 2014.

Risks from Wildfire Control on Public 

Lands

During FY 2013, 2,573 fires totaling 1,166,649 acres 

were suppressed on public lands. The number of 

human-caused fires was 838 and the number of 

lightning-caused fires was 1,735. Approximately 54

percent of fires occurred on rangelands and other nonforest lands. The remainder occurred in forests (USDOI 

BLM 2014e).

Wildfires cause the loss of life and property. According 

to the National Interagency Fire Center (2014), 34

people died from wildland fire-related accidents in 

2013. From 2006 through 2011, the leading cause of 

firefighter deaths nationally, which include federal, 

state, and local firefighters and volunteers, as well as 

private individuals who were involved in direct support 

of wildland fire operations were: stress/overexertion 

(51.2 percent), vehicle/aircraft accidents (17.3 percent), 

and being caught or trapped (9.1 percent; U.S. Fire 

Administration 2013).

BLM Vegetation Treatments Three New Herbicides 3-41 January 2016

Final Programmatic EIS