EXPERIENCE YOUR AMERICA

Priority Mail

Postage and Fees 

PAID

U.S. Department of the 

Interior

Permit No. G-83

National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation

City of Rocks National Reserve

P.O. Box 169

Almo, ID 83312

Prepared by:

National Park Service

Pacific West Region-Seattle Office

Park Planning and Environmental Compliance

909 1st Avenue

Seattle, WA 98104

CIRO GMP Superintendent Letter

Draft GMP/EIS 2015

Dear Citizen,

It is with great pleasure that we share with you the Draft General Management Plan and Environmental 

Impact Statement for City of Rocks National Reserve. When it comes to planning the future of our 

precious national parks, we should be thorough, methodical, and sure of the long-term decisions that 

we make. We must by necessity move with care and consideration. This document is the result of five 

years of public input, research, field assessments, and discussions with stakeholders and our operating 

partners.

This draft general management plan and environmental impact statement reflects a comprehensive 

framework for the management of City of Rocks National Reserve. Four alternatives for management 

are presented, including a continuation of the strategy implemented over the last 20 years. In 

consideration of the four alternatives, the National Park Service and the Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation have agreed on a preferred alternative.

Now it is your turn to read, consider, and determine if the direction we are headed is where you also 

want to go. The preferred alternative is conservative and considerate of the values we all share for City 

of Rocks. This document is a lengthy read, but we have provided an Executive Summary at the 

beginning for those who prefer a concise overview, while including greater detail in the body of the 

plan. If you have questions, please do not hesitate to ask them. If you cannot find what you’re looking

for, send me an email at Wallace_Keck@partner.nps.gov or call me at 208-824-5911.

A 60-day comment period, forthcoming public meetings, and a final writing of the general management 

plan will follow the release of this draft document. I hope you will take comfort as I do that when the 

plan is completed, City of Rocks National Reserve will be managed in such a way that future generations 

will applaud the efforts we made together.

Sincerely,

Wallace F. Keck

Superintendent

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City of Rocks National Reserve

DRAFT GENERAL MANAGEMENT PLAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL 

IMPACT STATEMENT

City of Rocks National Reserve

P.O. Box 169

Almo, ID 83312

(208) 824-5911

Contact: Wallace Keck, Superintendent

Prepared by:

National Park Service

Pacific West Region – Seattle

Park Planning and Environmental Compliance

909 First Avenue

Seattle, WA 98104

Clam Shell. 

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Draft General Management Plan and Environmental Impact Statement for

City of Rocks National Reserve

Cassia County, Idaho

Prepared by United States Department of the Interior: National Park Service

City of Rocks National Reserve was established 

on November 18, 1988 (P.L. 100-696). The 1996 

City of Rocks National Reserve Comprehensive 

Management Plan no longer provides adequate 

guidance to address the management and 

operational issues now facing the Reserve.

This draft general management plan and 

environmental impact statement (GMP/EIS) 

examines four possible management strategies 

or “alternatives,” including the impacts of 

implementing these alternatives in the Reserve. 

These alternatives address visitor use and the 

preservation of natural and cultural resources 

to protect and interpret the significance of 

the Reserve. They comply with National Park 

Service (NPS) planning requirements and 

respond to issues identified during the public 

scoping process. Alternative B is the preferred 

alternative of the National Park Service and 

the Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

(IDPR). If approved in a Record of Decision 

following the release of the final environmental 

impact statement, the preferred alternative 

will become the general management plan for 

the Reserve.

Alternative A: the No Action Alternative would 

assume that current management, programming, 

facilities, staffing, and funding would generally 

continue at their current levels and that existing 

plans would be implemented.

Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (preferred 

alternative) would focus on the spectacular 

scenery, geology, biological richness, and 

cultural landscape experienced by past 

and present visitors. It would emphasize a 

backcountry-type visitor experience that would 

allow for self-discovery within a minimally 

developed western outdoor environment.

Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship would 

protect resources through research activities, 

educational opportunities, and partnerships 

by emphasizing the national significance 

of the Reserve. Visitors would be provided 

opportunities to learn about the history and the 

natural wonders within the Reserve.

Alternative D: Treasured Landscapes Inspiring 

Stories would tell the stories of the Reserve 

through the people who pass through, live, and 

recreate within it, focusing on the California 

Trail and ranching heritage. It would emphasize 

a frontcountry, day-use experience with more 

formal and structured recreational opportunities 

and programs.

This document includes a detailed description 

of the alternatives followed by a description of 

park resources affected by the alternatives and 

the projected environmental consequences of 

the alternatives. Also included in this document 

are the results of public involvement and 

consultation with other agencies, organizations, 

and individuals associated with planning for the 

Reserve’s future.

Please refer to “How to Use This Document” 

on the following page to navigate through the 

chapters. To comment on the document, refer to 

“How to Comment on This Document.” This 

draft GMP/EIS has been distributed to agencies, 

organizations, and individuals for review and 

comment. The 60-day public comment period 

will be initiated upon publication in the Federal 

Register of the Environmental Protection 

Agency’s notice of filing and release of the draft 

EIS. At that time, the closing date of the 60-day 

public comment period will be announced.

Landscape of rocky trail, hills, and mountains.

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How to Use This Document

This Draft General Management Plan and 

Environmental Impact Statement for City of 

Rocks National Reserve (GMP/EIS) is presented 

in six chapters and appendices.

The Executive Summary at the beginning 

of the document is a condensed version of 

this document.

Chapter 1: Introduction and Background sets 

the stage for the draft GMP/EIS by describing 

the Reserve, the planning process, the purpose 

and need for the plan, and implementation 

of the plan. It also describes the issues that 

are addressed in the GMP/EIS, resources and 

values at stake in the planning process, and the 

relationship of this GMP/EIS to other plans in 

the Reserve and region.

Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and 

Management includes the foundation 

document, which describes the Reserve’s 

purpose, significance, interpretive themes, 

and fundamental resources and values. It also 

describes the special congressional designations, 

authorizations, mandates, and legal and policy 

constraints and guidance.

Chapter 3: Alternatives describes four 

management alternatives, including the NPS 

and IDPR preferred alternative. The alternatives 

represent reasonable sets of management 

directions consistent with NPS policy and 

applicable laws and planning requirements. This 

chapter includes two useful tables: Summary of 

Alternatives and Summary of Impacts.

Chapter 4: Affected Environment provides 

detailed information on the Reserve, focusing 

on those resources that could be affected 

by the decisions contained in the individual 

management alternatives.

Chapter 5: Environmental Consequences 

describes the impacts of each alternative on 

affected resources within the Reserve.

Chapter 6: Public Involvement summarizes 

the public involvement and consultation process 

that was an integral part of the creation of this 

draft GMP/EIS.

Appendices provide more detailed information 

related to the plan, including the full text of the 

Rim Development Concept Plan for City of Rocks 

National Reserve and the City of Rocks National 

Reserve Wilderness Eligibility Assessment.

Maps and figures are placed within the text of 

the applicable chapters. In many cases, actions 

or other discussions contained in this draft 

GMP/EIS refer directly to maps and figures. In 

fact, many actions themselves are map-based. 

The reader must rely on the text, maps, and 

figures taken together to fully understand the 

actions described in this draft GMP/EIS.

Colorful sunset over Twin Sisters. 

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How to Comment on This Document

The public comment period for this draft GMP/

EIS will extend for 60 days upon publication 

in the Federal Register of the Environmental 

Protection Agency’s notice of filing and release 

of the draft. The National Park Service and the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

encourage you to review the document and 

welcome your comments. During the comment 

period, comments may be submitted using 

several methods:

The preference is for readers to submit 

comments online at the City of Rocks National 

Reserve GMP/EIS project website at http://

parkplanning.nps.gov/ciro.

A postage-paid comment form is included in 

the City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/

EIS Summary Newsletter, Number 4. You may 

use this form and attach additional pages 

as necessary.

In addition, letters may be sent to:

Superintendent, 

City of Rocks National Reserve

P.O. Box 169

Almo, ID 83312

Comments may be made in person at one or 

more of the upcoming public open houses. 

The specific dates and times for these meetings 

will be announced in local newspapers, in the 

draft GMP/EIS newsletter, and on the City 

of Rocks National Reserve website and the 

GMP/EIS project website. A limited number of 

additional paper and digital copies of this report 

are available from the above mailing address. 

The full report is available for viewing and 

downloading at the GMP/EIS project website. 

This document is also available for viewing at 

public libraries in Almo, Idaho, and at the Seattle 

downtown public library in Seattle, Washington.

Your comments and contributions have been 

a valuable component of this planning process 

and the planning team looks forward to your 

additional comments on this draft GMP/EIS.

Please note: Before including your address, 

phone number, e-mail address, or other personal 

identifying information in your comment, you 

should be aware that your entire comment—

including your personal identifying information—

may be made publicly available at any time. While 

you can ask us in your comment to withhold your 

personal identifying information from public 

review, we cannot guarantee that we will be able 

to do so.

Close-up view of rock formation.

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Executive Summary

City of Rocks National Reserve (Reserve) 

was designated as a unit of the national park 

system on November 18, 1988, by the ArizonaIdaho Conservation Act of 1988 (Public Law 

100-696) and is managed cooperatively by 

the National Park Service and 

Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation. The Reserve is located 

in the Albion Mountains in southcentral Idaho and is one of many 

publicly owned lands within the 

region.

City of Rocks National Reserve 

contains unique and diverse 

resources. The geologic features 

are world-renowned both for 

rock climbing and academic 

study. Vegetation communities 

include sagebrush steppe, 

pinyon-juniper woodlands, 

mountain mahogany woodlands, 

and higher elevation forest 

communities of aspen, subalpine fir, lodgepole pine, and limber pine. The 

Reserve’s pinyon-juniper forest contains the 

state champion pinyon pine and is the largest 

forest of its kind in Idaho. There are at least 

498 species of plants, 142 birds, 5 amphibians, 

14 reptiles, and 56 mammals documented or 

expected within the Reserve. Idaho’s only 

known population of cliff chipmunk is found 

in the Reserve and on adjacent lands. Other 

fauna of note include mule deer, coyote, bobcat, 

mountain lion, moose, elk, and bighorn sheep. 

The bighorn sheep were reintroduced a few 

miles north, but have been seen in the Reserve.

The Reserve preserves and protects 6.2 miles of 

the California National Historic Trail, 1.8 miles 

of the Salt Lake Alternate, and the surrounding 

cultural landscape, which includes remnant 

historic trail ruts, more than 350 emigrant 

signatures on 22 rocks, and portions of the 

Mormon Battalion Trail and the Kelton-Boise 

Stage Route.

The Reserve comprises an area of 14,407 acres. 

Of that total, approximately 9,680 acres are in 

federal ownership, 4,087 acres are privately 

owned, and 640 acres are owned by the State of 

Idaho. Private land within the Reserve remains 

regulated by Cassia County zoning 

and subdivision ordinances. 

Though considered nontraditional 

uses in most national park units, 

cattle grazing and hunting still 

occur within the Reserve. The 

Shoshone-Bannock Tribes have 

traditionally used the area for 

seasonal hunting and pine nut 

gathering and continue to do 

so today.

Due to these exceptional resources, 

a portion of City of Rocks was 

designated a state park in 1957. The 

Reserve was designated a national 

historic landmark in 1964 and a 

national natural landmark in 1974.

ACCOMPANYING PLANNING 

DOCUMENTS IN THIS GENERAL 

MANAGEMENT PLAN

As part of the Reserve’s draft general 

management plan, a development concept 

plan (DCP) is included for the rim area (the 

western rim of Circle Creek Basin, known as 

“the Rim”) that addresses a broad spectrum of 

issues and use conflicts between recreational 

activities—in particular, day-use activities 

and overnight camping (Appendix D). The 

highest concentration of vehicular and 

recreational use in the Reserve is along the 

Rim. This development concept plan provides 

a framework to enhance and improve visitor 

facilities and the visitor experience in this area.

Another accompanying report in the document 

is the wilderness eligibility assessment for the 

Reserve (Appendix C). All lands administered 

by the National Park Service must be evaluated 

View of City of Rocks landscape.

Frozen waterfall.

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for their eligibility for inclusion in the 

national wilderness preservation system. This 

assessment concluded that lands within the 

Reserve boundary fail to meet the requirements 

necessary to qualify for the congressionally 

designated national wilderness preservation 

system. Though Reserve lands do not meet the 

criteria, the area could contribute to a larger area 

of potential wilderness if the Sawtooth National 

Forest were to reconsider its management plan 

prescription for inventoried roadless areas 

immediately north of the Reserve.

THE CONTEXT FOR THE PLAN

Planning for the Reserve has taken into 

consideration its overall location in south 

central Idaho. The context for these alternatives 

is affected by activities occurring outside City 

of Rocks National Reserve. For instance, 

management activities on adjacent lands 

managed by the Bureau of Land Management 

(BLM) and the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) affect 

conditions and use at the Reserve.

In addition to these federally managed lands, 

state-owned lands also surround the Reserve. 

These include Castle Rocks State Park (one 

mile northeast of the Reserve) managed by the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation, 

and several Idaho Department of Lands parcels 

located to the south and southeast of the 

Reserve boundary. The State of Idaho also owns 

one section of land in the heart of the Reserve.

Replicas of the California Trail wagons.

ALTERNATIVES

The four management alternatives considered 

in this draft GMP/EIS present a vision 

and direction for City of Rocks National 

Reserve. The alternatives are consistent with 

the Reserve’s purpose, significance, and 

special mandates as presented in “Chapter 2: 

Foundation for Planning and Management.” 

The alternatives presented by the planning team 

propose different ways to manage resources, 

visitor use, and facilities at the Reserve.

The four alternatives include Alternative A: 

No Action Alternative (Continued Current 

Management), Alternative B: Silent City of 

Rocks (NPS and IDPR preferred alternative), 

Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship, and 

Alternative D: Treasured Landscapes, Inspiring 

Stories. The four alternatives vary by theme 

or concept, resource management decisions, 

desired future conditions, and the application of 

management zones on the ground.

MANAGEMENT ZONES

Management zoning is the method used by the 

National Park Service to identify and describe 

the appropriate variety of resource conditions 

and visitor experiences to be achieved and 

maintained in different areas of a park. Zoning 

is a two-step process. First, appropriate 

management zones are identified. Then, these 

zones are allocated to geographic locations 

throughout the Reserve. Management zones 

define and spatially apply management goals 

and objectives for resource management, levels 

of development, and different types of potential 

visitors’ experiences.

Emigrant trail ruts can still be seen on the California National Historical Trail.

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Unlike most national park units that are entirely 

owned and managed by the National Park 

Service, approximately a third of the land within 

the Reserve is in private ownership where local 

county zoning and regulations prevail. On 

private land, there would be no public visitation 

(unless with the landowners’ permission) or 

activities or facilities. Private landowners would 

continue to be stewards on their own lands with 

NPS and IDPR assistance. Congress expected 

the Reserve to be zoned according to use and 

resource preservation—the enabling legislation 

for the Reserve called for zoning areas within the 

Reserve that would be devoted to public use and 

development; historic and natural preservation; 

and private use subject to appropriate local 

ordinances designed to protect the historic 

rural setting.

The following management zones were created 

for City of Rocks National Reserve:

The Visitor Facilities and Access Zone

encompasses a variety of facilities that support 

the highest visitor capacity within the Reserve 

and serve as an access point for experiencing 

the Reserve.

The Transition Zone balances recreation with 

the protection of resources. This zone provides 

a more geographically dispersed recreational 

experience, offering scenic vistas and a sense of 

open, natural character while providing minimal 

developed comforts.

The Natural Zone preserves natural 

features, natural processes, diversity, and 

ecological values, and provides for compatible 

recreational uses.

The Research Natural Area Zone preserves 

outstanding natural features, natural processes, 

diversity, and ecological values, and provides 

for nonmanipulative research. Activities in 

this zone will be restricted to nonmanipulative 

research, education, and other activities that 

do not detract from the area’s research values, 

according to NPS policies.

The Historic Rural Setting Zone preserves 

the western rural setting and perpetuates the 

visual character of historic ranching activities on 

the landscape.

The California Trail Zone preserves and 

interprets the major landmarks, trail remnants, 

inscription rocks, and historically significant 

viewsheds associated with the California 

National Historic Trail. The alignment of 

the historic trail through the Reserve is best 

characterized as a landscape corridor through 

which wagons, people, and livestock dispersed 

as the ground plane opened and then converged 

through geographical constrictions such as river 

fords, mountain passes, and rock formations.

Rock climbing is one of the most popular visitor activities at the Reserve.

Cattle grazing and roaming.

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COMMON TO ALL ALTERNATIVES

Several actions would be common to all 

alternatives. These actions span areas of 

resource protection, visitor use, and operations. 

Some of these actions include:

•	 Private uses on private lands would 

continue under the jurisdiction of 

Cassia County.

•	 The Reserve would continue to work 

with adjacent landowners and citizens on 

issues of mutual concern.

•	 To better educate hunters and trappers 

about areas available within the Reserve 

and to establish sustainable levels of 

hunting, the Reserve would work with the 

Idaho Department of Fish and Game.

•	 Reserve operations (administration and 

maintenance) would continue to be 

located at the Castle Rocks State Park 

Administrative Unit in Almo.

•	 The Reserve would recommend that 

Cassia County extend the Historical 

Preservation Zone to cover the entire 

Reserve to fully protect its cultural and 

natural resources.

•	 Section 36 in the Reserve would continue 

to be a state-owned parcel within 

the Reserve.

•	 The Reserve would encourage Cassia 

County to support national scenic byway 

designation of the existing City of Rocks 

Back Country Byway.

•	 The national historic landmark and the 

national natural landmark designations 

would be updated to encompass other 

significant features in the Reserve.

•	 The Reserve would continue to allow 

noncommercial pinyon nut gathering 

and hunting.

A full list of actions that are common 

to all alternatives is included in 

“Chapter 3: Alternatives.”

SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVES

The development of alternatives for the future 

of City of Rocks National Reserve is based 

on the purpose of the Reserve, including 

protection of the scenic qualities and attributes 

of the California Trail landscape, maintaining 

the historic rural setting, and preserving the 

granite features associated with the national 

natural landmark through cooperative efforts. 

These cooperative efforts rely on local citizens, 

Cassia County, the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation, and the National Park Service. 

The alternatives define and present proposed 

strategies for the protection, preservation, 

and management of shared values at City of 

Rocks National Reserve. A full summary of the 

alternative actions can be located in table 18 

in chapter 3.

Alternative A: No Action Alternative 

(Continue Current Management)

Alternative A is the No Action Alternative and 

assumes that existing programming, facilities, 

staffing, and funding would generally continue 

at their current levels. The primary emphasis of 

the No Action Alternative would continue to be 

protection of resources and maintaining existing 

recreational uses in the Reserve.

Resource Protection

Under alternative A, natural and cultural 

resource preservation and protection would 

continue to be a high priority for Reserve 

management. Programs would focus on the 

inventory and monitoring of resources working 

with the NPS Upper Columbia Basin Network 

(UCBN) and private landowners. The 312-acre 

Research Natural Area (RNA) would continue to 

be managed for its nationally designated values.

View from Indian Grove Overlook (Granite Mountain at left, Smoky 

Mountain in the center, with a backdrop of the Raft River Mountains).

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Grazing

Grazing would continue at an economically viable 

level for permittees (permit holders) while meeting 

the long-range objectives to preserve and protect 

significant resources and scenic quality in the 

Reserve.

Education and Interpretation

The Reserve would continue to provide 

interpretive and educational opportunities 

relating to the various City of Rocks interpretive 

themes and would continue to work with other 

organizations that use the Reserve as a place to 

teach. Reserve staff would continue to conduct a 

variety of interpretive programs and special events 

and provide educational materials and activities for 

visitors and youth, including guest speakers.

Visitor Experience

Alternative A would continue to offer the current 

level of visitor services. Traditional recreational 

activities such as hiking, biking, horseback riding, 

birding, and climbing would continue to be 

accommodated, and the current trail system would 

be maintained.

In the short term, the temporary existing visitor 

center with its administrative and visitor services 

functions would remain located within the Castle 

Rocks State Park Administrative Unit in Almo, 

on state-owned land. In the long-term, the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation would 

seek to develop a permanent visitor center on 

state-leased BLM land near Smoky Mountain as 

approved in the Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive 

management plan and in the 2006 Castle Rocks 

State Park Master Plan (CMP).

Smoky Mountain Campground, located outside 

the Reserve on a state-leased BLM parcel, would 

continue to serve as the main campground for 

recreational vehicles, equestrians, and others 

camping outside the Reserve and would be 

expanded to include a second camping loop of up 

to 62 sites, as described in the CMP.

Boundary

There would be no change to the Reserve 

boundary under alternative A.

Climate Change 

In alternative A, the Reserve would continue 

to interpret and monitor the effects of humancaused climate change in the Northern Basin 

and Range Province at City of Rocks and work 

toward increasing fuel and energy efficiency. The 

Reserve would implement actions outlined in 

its climate action plan to reduce greenhouse gas 

emissions (Reserve 2010c). The Reserve would 

continue to allow and support existing climate 

change research within the Reserve.

Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks 

(Preferred Alternative)

Alternative B, the NPS and IDPR preferred 

alternative, would highlight the spectacular 

scenic resources, geology, biological richness, 

and cultural landscape experienced by emigrants 

and early settlers as well as contemporary 

visitors. Alternative B would encourage selfdirected exploration of the Reserve’s western 

landscape and facilitate individual discovery to 

evoke a powerful connection to the Reserve and 

its history.

Resource Protection

Under alternative B natural and cultural resource 

preservation and protection would continue 

to be a high priority for management of the 

Reserve. The Research Natural Area would be 

reconfigured and expanded to 485 total acres to 

facilitate research. The Reserve would develop 

and implement a wildlife monitoring plan to 

guide ongoing management of populations and 

habitats and would collaborate with partners 

to determine the feasibility of reintroducing 

certain extirpated wildlife. In addition, Reserve 

staff would conduct a condition assessment and 

evaluate and monitor features associated with 

the California Trail corridor to detect changes 

over time and to diminish impacts.

Grazing

Grazing would continue within the Reserve 

but would be reduced over time as permittees 

discontinue requests for permits due to changing 

business models or abandonment. The presence 

of cattle on the landscape would continue, 

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but total head and animal unit month (AUM) 

would be expected to decrease over time 

through attrition. Attrition would be initiated by 

permittees, not Reserve management.

As opportunities arise, grazing allotments 

could be reorganized to achieve maximum 

benefits for both natural and cultural resources. 

As allotments are discontinued, increased 

protection of the California Trail Zone and 

VIsitor Facilities and Access Zone would 

be emphasized.

Education and Interpretation

Alternative B would incorporate tribal 

perspectives and involvement into interpretive 

programming. Reserve neighbors would be 

encouraged to participate in interpretation and 

would be given opportunities to tell their stories 

about the Reserve.

Visitor Experience

In alternative B, a full-scale replacement visitor 

center would not be built. Instead, the small 

existing visitor center would be reconfigured 

and slightly expanded, if possible, to provide 

additional space and a better separation of uses 

and functions, keeping space for retail sales, a 

small area for viewing the Reserve film, a staffed 

visitor information desk, restrooms, a small book 

area, and limited exhibits. This small, centuryold house would continue to serve as the main 

visitor center for the Reserve and Castle Rocks 

State Park. Because of its condition, a new 

visitor contact station could be built on stateowned land adjacent to the existing visitor 

center/headquarters building to supplement the 

existing building.

Hikers peer into the distance at Indian Grove Overlook.

Alternative B would place emphasis on minimal 

development, or on the rehabilitation of 

facilities, which would provide for a lower 

facility-related energy and carbon footprint. 

To further reduce carbon emissions, Reserve 

staff would maximize energy efficiency, 

conservation, and sustainability associated with 

any new development.

Emphasis would be on visitor preplanning 

through the internet and community outreach, 

as well as on using self-guided exhibits and 

interpretive materials within the Reserve. There 

would be less emphasis on staff presence, 

guided programs, and tours. A new entrance 

kiosk would be constructed at Smoky Mountain 

Campground and at Bath Rock to improve 

orientation for visitors. This alternative would 

support outreach programs to schools and 

organizations. New programs would bring 

more educational opportunities to the area. 

In the long term, if lands and funding become 

available, the Reserve could consider building a 

visitor center as approved in the Reserve’s 1996 

comprehensive management plan and the 2006 

Castle Rocks State Park Master Plan.

A new recreational trail would be developed for 

hiking, bicycling, and equestrian use within the 

Reserve beginning at the end of the California 

Trail hiking trail, near Nicholson Ranch, and 

eventually connecting with the Tea Kettle Trail. 

This new trail would allow visitors to explore 

signature rocks and the California Trail corridor 

without having to drive, walk, or bike along the 

road.

An equestrian staging area for parking and 

staging horse trailers would be developed near 

the Bread Loaves intersection to supplement 

the equestrian camping provided at Smoky 

Mountain and the Juniper group site. Alternative 

B would reconfigure camping within the 

Reserve to address resource impacts and 

visual and safety issues based on the proposed 

recommendations of the Rim Development 

Concept Plan for City of Rocks National Reserve

in Appendix D and analyzed as part of this 

general management plan. Alternative B would 

also provide for primitive group camping and 

some additional tent camping sites at Smoky 

Mountain campground to serve 50-70 people.

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The National Park Service would partner with 

the Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

to develop a primitive camping area for social 

camping, including some tent campsites on 

the existing state-leased BLM parcel. The 

National Park Service would partner with the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

to construct an amphitheater here for evening 

programs and interpretive activities as approved 

in the 1996 comprehensive management plan.

Boundary

Under the Preferred Alternative, there would 

be no change to the current Reserve boundary. 

At the southwest corner of the Reserve, the 

National Park Service would encourage Cassia 

County, the Bureau of Land Management, and 

private landowners to protect portions of the 

California Trail corridor outside the Reserve 

beginning at the southwest corner of the Reserve 

and continuing to Granite Pass, the next stop for 

the emigrants traveling on the California Trail 

from the Circle Creek encampment.

Climate Change

Alternative B would implement the same climate 

change mitigation, research, and interpretation 

strategies outlined in alternative A, including 

interpretation of the effects of climate change 

and implementing the Reserve climate action 

plan to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In 

addition, the minimal development emphasis 

in alternative B would provide for a lower 

facility-related energy and carbon footprint. 

To further reduce carbon emissions, Reserve 

staff would maximize energy efficiency, 

conservation, and sustainability associated with 

any new development. Alternative B would 

also encourage RNA research that analyzes 

the impacts of climate change on different 

vegetation types over time.

Alternative C: A Stage 

for Stewardship

Alternative C would protect resources by 

encouraging research activities; enhancing 

educational and interpretive opportunities; 

and forging partnerships with educational 

institutions, agencies, organizations, private 

landowners, park visitors, and tribes. 

Visitors would be provided with a variety of 

opportunities to learn about and experience 

California Trail history and the many natural 

wonders within the Reserve. The Reserve would 

be recognized as part of a much larger area of 

protected lands—one that provides a stage for 

fostering improved understanding of resources 

across the broader landscape.

Resource Protection

Alternative C would increase public 

understanding of resources through the 

application and dissemination of research. 

This includes recognizing the significance 

of protecting biological diversity within the 

Reserve and the role the Reserve plays in the 

ecological health of the entire region. Working 

with partners, the Reserve would advocate for 

natural processes to occur on lands throughout 

and adjacent to the Reserve, regardless of 

ownership. The Research Natural Area would 

be reconfigured and expanded to 693 acres to 

provide and protect additional flora and fauna 

species for research. The Reserve would seek 

partnerships with other agencies to get a better 

understanding of how wildlife uses the Reserve 

and surrounding lands.

Grazing

In alternative C, grazing on public lands could 

be voluntarily eliminated over time within 

the life span of the general management plan. 

Encouraging the elimination of grazing in 

The Reserve has one of the few old-growth pinyon forests remaining 

in Idaho and contains the largest pinyon in the state.

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alternative C would be consistent with the 

concept of stewardship, with an emphasis 

on promoting natural processes, and on 

promoting  biodiversity.

To facilitate removal of grazing, a voluntary 

federal grazing permit buyout program would be 

initiated. This buyout would allow permittees to 

exchange their permits for compensation from 

conservation organizations. The benefits would 

include: permittees receiving compensation 

by relinquishing their permit; saving money 

for taxpayers by decreasing costs associated 

with subsidizing the federal livestock program 

for these grazing allotments; reducing related 

management costs by the National Park 

Service and the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation; removing adverse impacts 

on natural and cultural resources, such as the 

California National Historic Trail; and protecting 

and enhancing the Research Natural Area, 

riparian, and wetland areas.

Education and Interpretation

Additional interpretive and educational 

programs would be provided primarily 

though the proposed visitor center and the 

outdoor learning center, including guided 

walks and talks and exposure to the Reserve’s 

natural and cultural environment. There 

would be opportunities for both structured 

and unstructured activities including selfguided and group discovery. Interpretation 

and education could also be provided by 

other non-NPS entities and partners, such 

as educational institutions or members of 

the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes. Visitors and 

youth would participate in stewardship 

activities that contribute to the preservation of 

nationally significant resources, such as Reserve 

geology and the California National Historic 

Trail. Interpretive programs would focus on 

immersion, hands-on experiential learning, and 

environmental stewardship.

Visitor Experience

As in alternative B, a new recreational trail would 

be developed to connect the California Trail 

hiking trail to the Tea Kettle Trail. In alternative 

C, an additional formal trail for hikers would be 

developed to the summit of Smoky Mountain 

from the Smoky Mountain Campground.

An equestrian staging area for parking and 

staging horse trailers would be developed near 

the Bread Loaves intersection to supplement 

the equestrian camping provided at Smoky 

Mountain and the Juniper group site. Alternative 

C would reconfigure camping in the Reserve to 

address resource impacts and visual and safety 

issues based on the proposed recommendations 

of the Rim Development Concept Plan for 

City of Rocks National Reserve in Appendix 

D and analyzed as part of this general 

management plan.

Campgrounds at Twin Sisters.

The Reserve would encourage the development 

of a privately operated shuttle service linking the 

Reserve and Castle Rocks State Park.

Alternative C would develop a smaller, more 

cost-effective version of the visitor center 

approved in the Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive 

management plan and the Castle Rocks State 

Park Master Plan for the Reserve. The National 

Park Service would partner with the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation to develop 

a shared visitor center within the expanded 

boundary, close to the Reserve’s Almo entrance.

A second camping loop and amphitheater 

would be added to the Smoky Mountain 

Campground, with up to 62 additional campsites 

with an emphasis on group tent camping. 

Adjacent to Smoky Mountain Campground, an 

outdoor learning center would be developed to 

immerse students and visitors in direct contact 

with nature through outdoor experiences 

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emphasizing exploration, reflection, and 

stewardship. The learning center would connect 

people, nature, and community through science, 

art, and the hands-on study of natural and 

cultural history within the larger Northern Basin 

and Range ecosystem.

Equestrians tour the Reserve.

Boundary

Alternative C would include a boundary 

modification of 4,247 acres of land: 652 acres in 

two private parcels and 3,595 acres managed by 

the Bureau of Land Management to incorporate 

scenic resources, portions of the California 

National Historic Trail, and old-growth 

pinyon-juniper forest at the east boundary of 

the Reserve. Smoky Mountain Campground 

would be located within the expanded Reserve 

boundary. This expansion would address 

overcrowding and lack of available campsites 

during the Reserve’s peak season. At the 

southwest corner of the Reserve, the National 

Park Service would encourage Cassia County 

and private landowners to commemorate and 

protect the California Trail corridor outside the 

Reserve beginning at the southwest corner of the 

Reserve and continuing to Granite Pass, the next 

stop for the emigrants traveling on the California 

Trail from the Circle Creek encampment. The 

Reserve would seek to partner with adjacent 

landowners and agencies to work together on 

common issues or areas of mutual interest such 

as nonnative plants, climate change, California 

National Historic Trail, and Smoky Mountain 

pinyon forest. In particular, the National Park 

Service could cooperate or partner with the 

Bureau of Land Management on projects of 

mutual interest using the federal Service First 

Authority. Cassia County would continue to 

retain jurisdiction of remaining private lands 

within the current or revised boundary.

Climate Change

In alternative C, facilities and transportation 

options would be designed sustainably and with 

a low carbon footprint. The Reserve would 

encourage development of a privately operated 

shuttle system linking Castle Rocks State Park to 

the Reserve. Rather than building new housing 

units, the Reserve would work with partners 

to encourage nearby communities to provide 

housing for employees, researchers, and visiting 

scholars.

Alternative C would emphasize enhanced 

research opportunities on landscape-scale 

natural resource topics, including climate 

change. An expanded Research Natural Area 

would provide and protect additional flora 

and fauna species for research, including the 

opportunity for paired studies to compare and 

contrast species’ adaptation to changing natural 

conditions. By establishing active partnerships, 

this alternative would promote climate change 

research and enhance public understanding by 

sharing the results.

Contingency plans would be developed to 

address instances of high-intensity fire or 

increased erosion, each of which could increase 

as the climate changes. Restoring connectivity 

between ecosystems and reducing fragmentation 

would allow ecosystems to adjust and adapt, 

thus increasing their resilience to fire, drought, 

invasive species, wildlife, changing water 

supplies, and other impacts associated with 

climate change.

Alternative D: Treasured Landscapes 

Inspiring Stories

Alternative D would focus on telling the stories 

of the Reserve through the emigrants who 

passed through it and those who live, work, 

and recreate in it today. Visitors would gain a 

deeper understanding of the Reserve’s resources 

through more formal and structured recreational 

opportunities and programs. This alternative 

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to learn about archeology and other cultural 

resources. Programs would focus on the 

California Trail and ranching heritage. Some 

of these activities would be provided at the 

proposed full-service visitor center and some 

through commercial visitor services.

Activities related to natural resources could 

include ranger-led or field expert-led nature 

hikes, night sky viewing opportunities, 

geology field schools, and on-site hunter 

education programs based on sound wildlife 

management principles.

Visitor Experience

The current array of recreational opportunities 

would be expanded to include additional dayuse activities, such as more walks and hikes, 

horseback riding, and biking opportunities. 

An equestrian staging area for parking and 

staging horse trailers would be developed to 

supplement the equestrian camping provided at 

Smoky Mountain and the Juniper group site. As 

with alternatives B and C, alternative D would 

reconfigure camping in the Reserve to address 

resource impacts and visual and safety issues 

based on the proposed recommendations of the 

Rim Development Concept Plan for City of Rocks 

National Reserve in Appendix D and analyzed as 

part of this general management plan.

In alternative D, a combined City of Rocks 

National Reserve/Castle Rocks State Park visitor 

center would be developed as called for by the 

Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive management 

plan and Castle Rocks State Park Master Plan. 

This permanent visitor center would be located 

within the expanded boundary, close to the 

Almo entrance of the Reserve.

A second campground loop at Smoky Mountain 

Campground would be added with up to 62 

additional campsites. Instead of a mixture of 

tent and recreational vehicle camping as in 

alternatives A and B, and instead of the group 

tent camping experience provided for in 

alternative C, there would be an emphasis on 

developing more individual tent campsites.

emphasizes a frontcountry and day-use visitor 

experience. Alternative D focuses on providing 

interactive and immersive experiences in the 

cultural and natural world for different user 

groups by providing enhanced opportunities to 

learn, recreate, and enjoy the Reserve.

Resource Protection

Natural and cultural resource preservation and 

protection would continue to be a high priority 

for Reserve management. Programs would focus 

on the inventory and monitoring of resources 

working with the NPS Upper Columbia Basin 

Network and private landowners. The Research 

Natural Area would be reconfigured and 

expanded to 485 total acres and continue to be 

managed for its designated values.

Grazing

Grazing permits would continue to be renewed 

in all zones (except the Research Natural Area 

Zone) unless there were permittee abandonment 

or consistent failure to comply with conditions 

of the permit. To minimize visitor conflicts, the 

Reserve would also consider removing cattle 

pasturing from the Visitor Facilities and Access 

Zone where possible. This could result in a slight 

reduction in grazing from reconfiguring existing 

allotments. As in other alternatives, the grazing 

management plan would be updated to reflect 

these and other changes.

Education and Interpretation

Alternative D would allow opportunities for 

visitors and youth to engage in on-site living 

history activities and demonstration projects 

Parking becomes an issue during peak season.

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Boundary

Similar to alternative C, alternative D would 

include a boundary modification of 4,247 acres 

of land: 652 acres in two private parcels and 

3,595 acres managed by BLM to add scenery, 

portions of the California National Historic 

Trail, and old-growth pinyon-juniper forest 

at the east boundary of the Reserve. Smoky 

Mountain Campground would be located 

within the proposed Reserve boundary. Cassia 

County would continue to retain jurisdiction 

of remaining private lands within the current 

or revised boundary. As in alternatives B and 

C, at the southern boundary of the Reserve, 

the National Park Service would encourage 

Cassia County and private landowners to 

commemorate and protect the California Trail 

corridor from the southwest corner of the 

Reserve to Granite Pass.

Climate Change

Management of actions associated with climate 

change mitigation, research, and interpretation 

would be the same as alternative B, plus the 

Reserve would encourage commercial visitor 

services guides to use vehicles with alternative 

fuels to limit emissions within the Reserve and at 

Castle Rocks State Park. The Reserve would also 

encourage visitor activities that promote walking 

or hiking, rather than driving.

Sunset and rainbow.

ENVIRONMENTAL 

CONSEQUENCES

The potential effects of the four alternatives are 

analyzed for the following resources:

•	 land use

•	 air quality

•	 lightscapes

•	 soundscapes

•	 geology and soils

•	 water resources (including hydrology 

and water quantity, water quality, 

and wetlands)

•	 vegetation

•	 wildlife

•	 special status species

•	 cultural resources (including 

prehistoric and historic archeology and 

cultural landscapes)

•	 visitor experience (including access and 

transportation, visitor use opportunities, 

interpretation and education, visitor and 

employee safety, and scenic resources)

•	 park operations and partnerships

•	 socioeconomics

•	 special uses and designations (including 

national natural landmark, natural historic 

landmark, California National Historic 

Trail, and grazing and livestock trailing)

As required under the National Environmental 

Policy Act (NEPA), unavoidable adverse 

impacts, the relationship between short-term 

use of the environment and maintenance and 

enhancement of long-term productivity, and 

irreversible and irretrievable commitments 

of resources are also discussed. This analysis 

is the basis for analyzing the advantages 

and disadvantages of the action alternatives 

compared to the No Action Alternative. 

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SUMMARY OF IMPACTS

The potential effects of each of the four 

alternatives on the affected environment 

of the Reserve are described in this GMP/

EIS. Environmental documents disclose the 

environmental impacts of the proposed federal 

action, reasonable alternatives to that action, 

and any adverse environmental effects that 

cannot be avoided should the proposed action 

be implemented. Analysis of alternative A 

provides the basis for comparing the effects of 

the action alternatives (alternatives B, C, and 

D). Impacts are described in terms of type of 

impact (beneficial or adverse), area, duration, 

and intensity—whether they are neglible, minor, 

moderate, or major. The analysis also provides 

consideration of cumulative impacts and 

measures to avoid, minimize, and/or mitigate 

impacts. Cumulative impacts are the incremental 

impacts of an action when it is added to past, 

present, and future actions occurring in the 

same vicinity, regardless of who undertakes 

these actions. In addition to determining the 

environmental consequences of the preferred 

and other alternatives, NPS Management Policies 

2006 (NPS 2006a) and Director’s Order 12 

(NPS 2001) require analysis of potential effects 

to determine if actions would impair park 

resources. This impairment analysis will be 

appended to the Record of Decision.

As shown in “Table 19. Summary of Impacts” 

in chapter 3, there would be a wide range of 

negligible to major adverse and beneficial effects 

in alternatives A–D. Adverse and beneficial 

effects would vary among alternatives.

Impacts from Alternative A

Impacts under alternative A would continue 

to be those that are occurring under current 

management. Most impacts on natural and 

cultural resources would range from negligible 

to moderate and would include beneficial 

impacts from current operations, such as from 

nonnative invasive plant treatment. Some 

impacts, such as vegetation and wetlands 

impacts, would continue to be locally major 

from changes related to grazing. These would 

also be combined with beneficial effects from 

reducing grazing in and near springs and 

wetlands. There would also be a range of 

generally beneficial impacts related to visitor 

experience, including from activities the Reserve 

currently conducts in interpretation and 

education; however, visitors would continue 

to experience peak season crowding at some 

popular facilities and campsites and at the visitor 

center. If a new visitor facility was constructed, 

this action could improve visitor experience, 

especially associated with acquiring information 

about the park. There would continue to be no 

adverse effects on cultural resources, such as the 

prehistoric and historic archeological resources, 

the California National Historic Trail, and the 

City of Rocks National Historic Landmark.

Impacts from Alternative B 

(Preferred Alternative)

Impacts under alternative B, the preferred 

alternative, would be similar to alternative A 

but would have a wider range of beneficial 

impacts compared to alternative A. Proposals 

in alternative B would reduce some visitor 

impacts, such as through implementation of 

the Rim Development Concept Plan for City of 

Rocks National Reserve and from providing 

more visitor information and educational 

opportunities in the proposed campground 

amphitheater. Camping opportunities, including 

a wider range of sites in more durable areas, 

would also be improved. The current range of 

negligible to moderate or locally major adverse 

effects on vegetation and wetlands would 

probably continue, depending on permittee 

interest in continuing to lease grazing allotments. 

The planning team developed three action alternatives for the Reserve.

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Grazing could be reduced through attrition 

in this alternative. As in alternative A, visitors 

would continue to experience some peak season 

crowding in some areas that would generally not 

be alleviated by the proposals in this alternative. 

The small building used for a visitor center, 

however, could be remodeled, improving the 

setting for delivery of some information about 

the park. This alternative would also include 

the potential for some restoration of riparian 

areas and would undertake a variety of planning 

efforts to improve climbing, grazing, and 

vegetation management along the California 

National Historic Trail. Additional wildlife 

inventory and other programs to improve 

resource knowledge would also expand. As in 

alternative A, climbing routes would continue 

to be analyzed for sensitive resources and 

this could continue to result in seasonal use 

modifications, an ongoing beneficial effect on 

some resources, such as nesting raptors. There 

would also be more efforts to improve resource 

knowledge, resulting in long-term benefits to 

understand these and the need for management 

actions. Compared to alternative A, there would 

be a variety of beneficial effects from application 

of revised management zones that would 

improve resource protection by targeting smaller 

areas for potential management and visitor uses.

Visitors find parking and campsites near trailhead.

Impacts from Alternative C

Impacts under alternative C would have a 

similar range compared to alternatives A and 

B but would tend toward more beneficial 

impacts from broader improvements in visitor 

services, education, and interpretation, and 

from more focus on resource protection, 

including association with a potential boundary 

expansion. Instead of reducing grazing through 

attrition, grazing permittees would be offered a 

voluntary buyout program and this could lead to 

long-term beneficial effects on water resources 

and vegetation currently affected by grazing 

sooner than in alternative B. There would be 

an emphasis on learning more about Reserve 

resources through inventory and monitoring and 

by encouraging partnerships with researchers 

and research institutions. This knowledge 

would be shared widely with visitors, including 

students, through the outdoor learning center, 

new visitor center, and amphitheater proposed 

in this alternative. Other impacts related to 

actions identified in alternative B, such as 

improvements in camping, implementation of 

the Rim development concept plan, would also 

have a range of minor to moderate adverse and 

beneficial effects in implementation.

The visitor center serves the Reserve and Castle Rocks State Park.

Impacts from Alternative D

Impacts under alternative D would range from 

negligible to moderate, including some locally 

major impacts related to grazing, but would 

generally be similar to alternatives A and B, 

with more beneficial effects from a boundary 

expansion as in alternative C. There would 

probably be more minor to moderate adverse 

effects from an emphasis on providing for more 

frontcountry visitor services within the Reserve; 

however, these would be coupled with additional 

inventory and monitoring of resources and 

providing for more active interpretation and 

education, actions that would have long-term 

beneficial effects. As in alternative A, grazing 

would continue and would continue to have a 

range of effects; however, in alternative D, there 

would be opportunities for visitors to participate 

in ranch-related activities.

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Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction and Background 1

Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management 41

Chapter 3: Alternatives 79

Chapter 4: Affected Environment 193

Chapter 5: Environmental Consequences 305

Chapter 6: Public Involvement 467

Preparers and Consultants 477

Acronyms 481

Glossary 486

Selected Bibliography 501

Appendix A: Reserve Legislation 527

Appendix B: Pertinent Laws, Policies, and Procedures 535

Appendix C: City of Rocks National Reserve Wilderness Eligibility Assessment 536

Appendix D: Rim Development Concept Plan for City of Rocks National Reserve 541

Appendix E: Analysis of Boundary Adjustment and Land Protection 570

TABLES

Table 1. Summary of Presidential, Legislative, and Administrative Actions 47

Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived from 

Laws, Regulations, and Policies 49

Table 3. Management Zones 83

Table 4. Alternative A, Staffing 102

Table 5. Summary of One-time Cost for Alternative A, No Action Alternative 105

Table 6. Alternative A, Summary of Costs 106

Table 7. Alternative B, Staffing 117

Table 8. Summary of One-time Cost for Alternative B, Preferred Alternative 119

Table 9. Alternative B, Summary of Costs 121

Table 10. Alternative C, Staffing 133

Table 11. Summary of One-time Cost for Alternative C

Sunset at City of Rocks.

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Table 12. Alternative C, Summary of Costs 137

Table 13. Alternative D, Staffing 145

Table 14. Summary of One-time Cost for Alternative D 147

Table 15. Alternative D, Summary of Costs 150

Table 16. Indicators, Standards, Management Strategies, and Monitoring Strategies 151

Table 17. Summary of Comparative Costs 170

Table 18. Summary of Alternatives 171

Table 19. Summary of Impacts 186

Table 20. County Profiles of Idaho-Cassia 198

Table 21. Average Maximum Temperature 199

Table 22. Average Rainfall 199

Table 23. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (as of October 2012) 201

Table 24. 2007 Baseline Emission Results for City of Rocks National Reserve – Metric Tons 204

Carbon Dioxide Equivalent (MTCO2E)

Table 25. Examples of Sound Levels 208

Table 26. Explanation of Sound Level Values 210

Table 27. Explanation of Common Weathering Features Found on Pinnacles in the Reserve 215

Table 28. General Soil Map Units and Their Characteristics 221

Table 29. Summary of Water Well Information 225

Table 30. Special Status Plant Species 231

Table 31. Special Status Wildlife Species 237

Table 32. City of Rocks National Reserve Visitation 264

Table 33. Wayside Exhibits for City of Rocks National Reserve and Castle Rocks State Park 270

Table 34. Primary Designated Trails and Roads with Mileage 287

Table 35. Fence Ownership and Maintenance Responsibilities 288

Table 36. Cassia County Population Trends and 2020 Projection 295

Table 37. Community Population Trends 295

Table 38. Cassia County Employment by Industry 296

Table 39. Covered Employment and Average Annual Wages Per Job for 2001, 2010, and 2011 297

Table 40. Economic Impact of City of Rocks National Reserve on Community 301

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Table 41. Comparison of Zoning by Alternative 315

Table 42. National Wetlands Inventory Data for Grazing Allotments 356

Table 43. Special Status Plant Species 386

Table 44. Special Status Wildlife Species 387

Table 45. Comparison of Grazing Allotments 1989 and 2013 452

FIGURES

Figure 1. Regional Context 2

Figure 2. Land Ownership and Management 3

Figure 3. Existing Conditions (brochure map) 4

Figure 4. Designations 6

Figure 5. Alternative A: No Action Alternative 94

Figure 6. Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks 108

Figure 7. Trail Addition for Alternative B 114

Figure 8. Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship 122

Figure 9. Trail Additions for Alternatives C and D 129

Figure 10. Alternative D: Treasured Landscapes Inspiring Stories 139

Figure 11. User Capacity Framework 156

Figure 12. Grazing Allotments 194

Figure 13. Cassia County Zoning 197

Figure 14. Geology 211

Figure 15. Soils 218

Figure 16. Hydrology 223

Figure 17. Wetlands 227

Figure 18. Vegetation 228

Figure 19. Research Natural Area 241

Figure 20. Cultural Resources 250

Figure 21. Tribal Territories 258

Figure 22. Trails 266

Figure 23. Scenic Viewpoints 278

Snow on Chicken Rock and Treasure Rock formations.

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Chapter 1

Introduction and Background

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Chapter 1: Introduction 

and Background

City of Rocks National Reserve (Reserve) is a unit 

of the national park system and is managed by 

the Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

(IDPR). The Reserve is located in the Albion 

Mountains and is part of the Northern Basin 

and Range Ecoregion. The Reserve is within 

Idaho’s Second Congressional District in Cassia 

County, Idaho.

LOCATION AND ACCESS

City of Rocks National Reserve is located in 

south central Idaho approximately two miles 

north of the Utah border. Interstate 84, the 

Snake River Valley, and the city of Burley (the 

Cassia County seat) are located approximately 

50 miles to the north. The Reserve is surrounded 

by the gateway communities of Almo, Elba, 

and Oakley.

Most visitors access the Reserve off Interstate 

84 at either the Declo or Malta exits and follow 

Idaho State Highway 77 south through Albion 

and Elba to the Reserve entrance at Almo. A 

second entry can be accessed by driving south 

along State Highway 27 to Oakley, then turning 

east into the Emery Canyon entrance or into the 

Junction entrance further south.

The nearest air service is located at Twin 

Falls or Pocatello (approximately 80–100 

miles), followed by Salt Lake City or Boise 

(approximately 200 miles). There is no public 

transportation to the Reserve (“Figure 1. 

Regional Context”).

REGIONAL CONTEXT

City of Rocks National Reserve is one of many 

publicly owned or managed lands within the 

region. A unit of the Sawtooth National Forest is 

adjacent to the northern portion of the Reserve 

at Graham Peak, and two other Sawtooth 

National Forest units are located to the west 

and south of the Reserve. The Bureau of Land 

Management (BLM) lands abut the Reserve’s 

east, south, and west boundaries. Though 

there is no designated wilderness adjacent to 

the Reserve, the Sawtooth National Forest 

Independence Lakes area immediately north is 

designated an Inventoried Roadless Area by the 

U.S. Forest Service (USFS).

In addition to federally owned lands, the state 

of Idaho owns lands surrounding the Reserve. 

These include Castle Rocks State Park—one mile 

to the northeast of the Reserve—and several 

Idaho Department of Lands parcels located 

to the south and southeast of the Reserve 

boundary (“Figure 2. Land Ownership and 

Management”). The state of Idaho also owns 

one section of land in the heart of the Reserve 

(Section 36, the original City of Rocks State 

Park) subject to IDPR management. Privately 

owned land is found both within and around 

the Reserve boundary. Figure 3 shows existing 

conditions at the Reserve.

City of Rocks in autumn.

Window Arch.

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Figure 1. Regional Context

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Figure 2. Land Ownership and Management

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Figure 3. Existing Conditions

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ESTABLISHMENT OF CITY OF 

ROCKS NATIONAL RESERVE

City of Rocks is a unique geologic area 

exhibiting granite pinnacles and monoliths more 

than 60 stories tall. It has long been an oddity 

and wonder, especially for passing emigrants 

along the California Trail (1843–82). One 

emigrant artist, James F. Wilkins, named the area 

“Silent City of Rocks” in 1849. The surrounding 

area was some of the last to be settled in Idaho 

and was homesteaded by a few ranchers in the 

1870s. Starting in the 1920s, supporters of the 

natural and cultural richness of City of Rocks 

proposed the area as a national monument.

On February 27, 1957, the Idaho Legislature 

declared Section 36 within City of Rocks as a 

state park under the jurisdiction of the Idaho 

Lands Board. In 1964, a large area including 

Section 36 was designated a national historic 

landmark. On March 15, 1973, Section 36 was 

transferred to the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation and the following year the area 

was designated a national natural landmark 

(“Figure 4. Designations”). The National Park 

Service (NPS) published a suitability and 

feasibility study for a proposed City of Rocks 

National Monument in July 1973 and a study for 

management alternatives for the City of Rocks 

Area in 1986.

For generations of Cassia County residents, 

City of Rocks’ scenic, natural, and cultural 

resources have provided inspiration, educational 

opportunities, and recreation. Concern over 

increasing use of the area (without available 

amenities) by visitors from outside the region 

prompted local residents to support efforts to 

designate City of Rocks as a national reserve.

City of Rocks National Reserve was established 

by Congress on November 18, 1988, by the 

Arizona-Idaho Conservation Act of 1988 

(Public Law 100-696) (“Appendix A: Reserve 

Legislation”). The purpose of this legislation is 

“to preserve and protect the significant historical 

and cultural resources; to manage recreational 

use; to protect and maintain scenic quality; and 

to interpret the nationally significant values of 

the reserve.”

When the Reserve was established, Congress 

recognized the closely interwoven relationship 

between the local community, private 

landowners, traditional use, and the need for 

resource protection.

The 1988 act drew a 22-mile boundary 

around lands owned or managed by the U.S. 

Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation, 

and private individuals. A comprehensive 

management plan was then developed for the 

site, followed by establishment of a cooperative 

management agreement between the National 

Park Service and the Idaho Department of 

Parks and Recreation. Upon completion of 

the cooperative management agreement, the 

National Park Service officially transferred 

on-site management of the Reserve to Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation on 

May 2, 1996.

DESCRIPTION OF THE RESERVE

City of Rocks National Reserve comprises an 

area of 14,407 acres (“Figure 2. Land Ownership 

and Management”). Of that total, approximately 

9,680 acres are in federal ownership, 4,087 acres 

are in private ownership, and 640 acres are 

owned by the State of Idaho. Public ownership 

within the Reserve includes both NPS and 

state-owned land, including a state-owned 

parcel known as Section 36 (legally named City 

of Rocks State Park). Private land within the 

Reserve is regulated by Cassia County zoning 

and subdivision ordinances. At the time the 

Reserve was established, legislation required 

that local government have in place ordinances 

or other regulations that would preserve 

the historic and natural features of the area. 

Cassia County responded with the creation 

of a Historic Preservation Zone. This zone 

limits existing landowners to one residence per 

ownership of record at the time the Reserve was 

established, and it requires land uses consistent 

with those of 1988 or earlier. Currently this 

zone covers most, but not all, of the Reserve 

(“Figure 4. Designations”).

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Figure 4. Designations

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Visitors come to the Reserve 

to walk parts of the California 

National Historic Trail (California 

Trail) (6.2 miles) and the Salt 

Lake Alternate (1.8 miles) and 

to immerse themselves in the 

surrounding cultural landscape 

that appears strikingly similar 

as it did in the mid-1880s. That 

landscape includes remnant 

historic trail ruts, more than 

350 emigrant signatures on 22 

rocks, a portion of the Mormon 

Battalion Trail, and the KeltonBoise Stage Route. Other cultural 

resources include prehistoric 

artifacts, homesteads, irrigation 

and ranching improvements, 

and mica mines. Cattle graze 

on private lands adding to the historic scene. 

There are seven authorized allotments regulated 

by permit between May and September. The 

Shoshone-Bannock Tribes have traditionally 

used the area for seasonal hunting and pine 

nut gathering.

Elevations within the Reserve range from 5,720 

feet at the east entrance to 8,867 at Graham 

Peak, resulting in a total relief of 3,147 feet. 

Visitors from all over the world come to the 

Reserve to study the unique geology and to 

climb the granite rock formations. The natural 

resources in the Reserve are diverse. Vegetation 

communities include sagebrush steppe, pinyonjuniper woodlands, mountain mahogany 

woodlands, and higher forest communities 

of aspen, sub-alpine fir, lodge-pole pine, and 

limber pine. The Reserve’s pinyon-juniper forest 

contains the state champion pinyon pine and is 

the largest forest of its kind in Idaho. There are 

498 species of plants, 142 birds, 5 amphibians, 

14 reptiles, and 56 mammals documented or 

expected within the Reserve. Idaho’s only 

known population of cliff chipmunk is in the 

Reserve and on adjacent lands. Other fauna 

of note include mule deer, coyote, bobcat, 

mountain lion, moose, elk, and big-horn sheep. 

The big-horn sheep were reintroduced a few 

miles north, but have been seen in the Reserve.

Approximately 100,000 visitors 

pass through the Reserve 

annually, primarily between April 

1 and October 30. Today the park 

offers camping, climbing, hiking, 

backpacking, equestrian riding, 

mountain biking, sight-seeing, 

hunting, and much more. Many 

come from the metropolitan 

areas of Utah’s Wasatch Front, 

or from the populated areas of 

southern Idaho (Boise, Twin 

Falls, Pocatello, and Idaho 

Falls). Nearly every state is 

represented in visitor registers 

and on camping receipts with the 

western states of Utah, Wyoming, 

California, Colorado, and Oregon 

listed most frequently. More than 

a dozen foreign countries are also represented 

annually. The Reserve is open year-round; 

however some roads are impassable to vehicles 

in winter.

EVENTS AFFECTING THE 

RESERVE AFTER ENABLING 

LEGISLATION

The following actions and legislations occurred 

after the Reserve was established but have a 

direct effect on how the Reserve is managed 

(see also “Summary of Presidential, Legislative, 

and Administrative Actions” in “Chapter 2: 

Foundation for Planning and Management”).

HUNTING WITHIN CITY OF ROCKS 

NATIONAL RESERVE

In November 1990, Public Law 101-512 

(“Appendix A: Reserve Legislation”) was 

enacted, which permits hunting in the Reserve 

in accordance with applicable federal and 

Idaho state laws. The law states that there can 

be designated zones and periods in which 

hunting is prohibited for reasons of public safety, 

administration, floral and faunal protection and 

management, or public use and enjoyment. 

Emigrant signatures on rocks.

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Restrictions on hunting would be put into 

effect only after consultation with the Idaho 

Department of Fish and Game, which has 

jurisdiction over hunting activities.

CALIFORNIA NATIONAL HISTORIC 

TRAIL LEGISLATION AND NATIONAL 

TRAILS SYSTEM ACT

In August 1992, Congress passed Public Law 

102-328 (“Appendix A: Reserve Legislation”), 

which amended the National Trails System Act 

to designate the California National Historic 

Trail and the Pony Express National Historic 

Trail as components of the national trails system. 

This legislation included all routes and cutoffs 

(including the Salt Lake Alternate), extending 

from Independence and Saint Joseph, Missouri, 

and Council Bluffs, Iowa, to various points in 

California and Oregon.

The National Trails Systems Act, Public Law 90-

543, was enacted into law in 1968 and defined 

the purpose of the national historic trails as “the 

identification and protection of the historic 

route and its historic remnants and artifacts for 

public use and enjoyment.”

CASSIA COUNTY 

DESIGN GUIDELINES

In 1995, the Cassia County Design Guidelines

were prepared by the Department of Landscape 

Architecture and Environmental Planning at 

Utah State University for the Cassia County 

Commission. The guidelines were intended 

for stakeholders, developers, and the general 

public to assist in complying with the intent of 

the City of Rocks National Reserve legislation 

and “to help ensure perpetuation of the intact 

and beautiful landscape of Cassia County” 

(Timmons 1995: p. iii).

The document analyzes the essential elements 

of the visual landscape of the area and proposes 

a set of guidelines to encourage and assist future 

development within and around City of Rocks 

National Reserve. It was also developed for the 

Cassia County Planning Commission to use 

in reviewing development proposals and to 

guide citizens and developers in designing their 

projects so that they are compatible with the 

unique visual qualities of the area. Cassia County 

adopted these guidelines.

CITY OF ROCKS BACK 

COUNTRY BYWAY

In 1996, the 49-mile City of Rocks Back Country 

Byway was designated by the State of Idaho 

and became 1 of 17 scenic and historic byways 

in the state. This scenic route runs through 

Cassia County between the cities of Albion and 

Oakley, through City of Rocks National Reserve, 

and portrays historically significant working 

landscapes (shown as Twin Sisters Road and City 

of Rocks Road on figure 3). Byway designation 

expanded opportunities for protection of the 

rural heritage and interpretation of the area 

through new marketing and funding sources.

The City of Rocks Back Country Byway 

Advisory Committee (Cassia County) produced 

the City of Rocks Back Country Byway Rural 

Heritage Stewardship Handbook and Byway 

Management Plan in June 1998. It is intended to 

provide a vision and direction for the byway and 

to coordinate various activities among citizens 

and local, state, and federal agencies.

A section of the California National Historic Trail is 

preserved and protected in the Reserve.

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The byway was proposed by the National Park 

Service when developing the Reserve’s first 

comprehensive management plan. City of Rocks 

National Reserve is considered the “heart of the 

byway” (Cassia County 1998: p. 9).

About half of the byway is paved. The section 

through the Reserve is not paved, in keeping 

with the historic rural character of the Reserve. 

The byway management plan mentions the 

importance of retaining the historical character 

along the roadway through the Reserve and 

states that “the feeling of being allowed to 

experience nature in an undisturbed state is 

enhanced by the road surface and the way the 

road is situated within the landscape” (Cassia 

County 1998: p. 33).

CASTLE ROCKS STATE PARK 

ACQUISITION

The Castle Rock Ranch Acquisition Act of 

2000 (Public Law 106-421) (“Appendix A: 

Reserve Legislation”) authorized the National 

Park Service to purchase the 1,240-acre Castle 

Rock Ranch one mile northeast of the Reserve. 

The purchase was completed on March 15, 

2001. The acquisition act did not authorize the 

inclusion of Castle Rock Ranch in the Reserve 

boundary, nor was the National Park Service 

authorized to manage the land for recreation. 

Instead, the purpose was to make this property 

available for exchange with state-owned lands 

at Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument. 

The state lands within the park boundary at 

Hagerman came into the ownership of the 

National Park Service and the Castle Rock 

Ranch came into the ownership of the state of 

Idaho. The land exchange was completed in 

October 2004. The National Park Service and 

the Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

signed an exchange agreement on August 21, 

2003, and Castle Rocks State Park became 

officially recognized. Since May 2003, the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation has 

provided park facilities and managed recreation 

at the park. The state park remains outside the 

Reserve boundary.

On December 18, 2006, an additional 200 acres 

were purchased by Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation, connecting the ranch to the 

southern base of Cache Peak, and on December 

21, 2007, a 120-acre conservation easement 

with 10 acres of recreational access east of Eagle 

Rock Grove was purchased.

As part of the transfer of the Castle Rocks State 

Park Ranch Unit, the National Park Service, the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation, the 

Idaho State Historic Preservation Office, and 

the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation 

signed a memorandum of agreement (MOA) 

in 2003. Stipulation 4 of this agreement states, 

“IDPR agrees that the NPS, as an interested 

party representing the Secretary of the Interior, 

will be provided an opportunity to comment 

on proposed undertakings that will affect 

significant features of Castle Rocks Ranch 

properties currently located within the existing 

boundaries of the City of Rocks National 

Historic Landmark at early stages of project 

development.” A portion of the Castle Rocks 

State Park Ranch Unit, including the Castle Rock 

formation, is part of the City of Rocks National 

Historic Landmark (“Figure 4. Designations”).

HISTORY OF TWIN SISTERS 

CLIMBING CLOSURE

Climbing Background

City of Rocks National Reserve has become 

famous for sport climbing, while still offering 

classic crack climbs and traditional face climbs. 

As the Reserve received increased media 

attention for its sport routes and quality of 

climbing and camping experience, the area’s 

popularity increased substantially. Although rock 

climbing had been occurring in City of Rocks 

since the 1960s, a 1973 NPS suitability/feasibility 

study for the proposed City of Rocks National 

Monument did not even mention climbing. 

By 1987, climbing and its impacts figured 

prominently in the NPS study of management 

alternatives for the City of Rocks area. How to 

manage rock climbing became an immediate 

concern of the National Park Service following 

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The findings and recommendations resulted 

in closure of the Twin Sisters to climbing and 

management of recreational use to protect 

cultural values.

Following approval of the comprehensive 

management plan, the draft climbing 

management plan and environmental 

assessment was prepared. Comments on the 

plan indicated that most climbers supported 

access to Twin Sisters climbing routes, while 

cultural resource specialists, historians, and 

California Trail enthusiasts favored continued 

closure to technical rock climbing on the 

landmark. The final plan resulted in a decision 

to protect the resources and values of the 

Reserve while allowing for appropriate levels 

of public recreational climbing use. Climbing 

was prohibited within the California Trail 

management subzone which included the Twin 

Sisters formation. Subsequent litigation (civil 

case no. CIV 98-0556-E-BLW) resulted in a 

decision affirming the closure (March 29, 2000).

The court concluded that the National 

Park Service properly followed the law and 

regulations in concluding that there was no 

significant impact on the environment by the 

closure of the Twin Sisters to recreational use, 

such as climbing, nor did the socioeconomic 

effect on climbers warrant an environmental 

impact statement (EIS). The court also noted 

that judgments of historical significance made by 

the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, 

the expert regulatory body concerned with 

preserving, restoring, and maintaining the 

historical and cultural environment of the 

nation, deserved great weight. The NPS decision 

reached was not arbitrary or capricious. The 

enabling legislation directed conservation 

and protection of the cultural and historical 

resources and it was clear that City of Rocks 

National Reserve was not created to protect 

climbing opportunities for the general public.

the Reserve’s designation in November 1988. 

During the process for developing the Reserve’s 

first comprehensive management plan, it became 

clear to the Reserve management that climbing 

and traditional land uses were important 

management considerations.

Twin Sisters.

Twin Sisters Closure

Due to potential natural and cultural 

resource impacts, on March 24, 1993, the 

NPS Pacific Northwest Regional Director 

issued a moratorium on public climbing and 

prohibited any incidental recreational use of 

the Twin Sisters pending a final decision from 

the comprehensive management plan and 

subsequent climbing management plan. The 

memorandum tasked the superintendent and 

regional resource chiefs to conduct research and 

resource impact studies that would form the 

basis for a long-term management decision for 

the Twin Sisters formation. The study addressed 

the potential impacts of rock climbing on the 

natural resources (soils, geological features, 

vegetation, wildlife, and views) of the Twin 

Sisters. No significant impacts on natural 

resources were found.

The “Twin Sisters Resource Study” (Reserve 

1993) also evaluated the cultural resource 

significance of the formation based primarily on 

existing studies, including the national historic 

landmark documentation and 61 emigrant 

diaries and journals. The evaluation included 

consultation with the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes, 

Idaho State Historic Preservation Office, and the 

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation.

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MANAGEMENT OF CITY OF 

ROCKS NATIONAL RESERVE

As a unit of the national park system, the 

National Park Service provides support to the 

Reserve through the services of the Pacific 

West Region, the Denver Service Center, 

Harpers Ferry Design Center, and Washington 

office staffs in areas concerning interpretation, 

resource management, and site development. 

The National Park Service ensures that its 

responsibilities under the National Historic 

Preservation Act, National Environmental 

Policy Act, and other appropriate federal 

legislation are carried out by the state of Idaho in 

administration of the area.

The Reserve differs from most traditional 

national park units due to its unusual 

management arrangement, as well as certain 

traditional uses that are allowed to continue, 

provided they are consistent with the obligation 

to protect the area. There are only two national 

reserves in the national park system. The other 

national reserve is Ebey’s Landing National 

Historical Reserve in Washington state, 

established in 1978.

The Reserve is managed by the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation to preserve 

and protect the nationally significant historical, 

cultural, and scenic resources; to manage 

recreational use; and to interpret the area’s 

resources for the public. State management of 

the Reserve fulfills a mandate of the enabling 

legislation calling for the “state or appropriate 

units of local government” to manage the 

Reserve. The same staff who manage City of 

Rocks National Reserve also manage nearby 

Castle Rocks State Park.

The missions of the National Park Service and 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation are 

complementary. The mission of the National 

Park Service is “to conserve the scenery and 

the natural and historic objects and the wild 

life therein and to provide for the enjoyment of 

the same in such manner and by such means as 

will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment 

of future generations” (NPS Organic Act). 

The IDPR mission is “to improve the quality 

of life in Idaho through outdoor recreation 

and resource stewardship” (Reserve 2010b: 

p. 5). A cooperative agreement (Cooperative 

Agreement 1443-CA9000-96-0002) and the 

“2014 Operation Plan and Guidelines for the 

Management of City of Rocks National Reserve 

(CIRO)” (revised 2014) were developed between 

the two agencies to assure efficient and highquality management of the Reserve, meeting 

the missions of each agency. The operation plan 

and guidelines for management document is 

periodically updated to keep it current.

 Rainwater in panholes on granite.

ROLE OF THE NATIONAL 

PARK SERVICE

As written in the cooperative agreement, the 

role of the National Park Service is largely 

one of oversight and technical assistance. This 

includes annual review of IDPR management 

and administration of the Reserve, as well as 

technical expertise and training in program 

areas such as interpretation and visitor services, 

resource and visitor protection, resource 

management, information management, 

facility maintenance and development, and 

planning. The operation plan and guidelines for 

management provides context and parameters 

for cooperation between the two agencies to 

assure efficient and high-quality management 

and administration of the Reserve.

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As mentioned, the National Park Service 

remains responsible for compliance with federal 

resource protection laws, such as the National 

Historic Preservation Act and the National 

Environmental Policy Act. The National Park 

Service also has a role in section 106 review 

of national historic landmarks (NHL). The 

National Park Service is delegated monitoring 

and technical assistance responsibilities by 

Congress to ensure that national historic 

landmarks retain the highest level of integrity (36 

CFR 65.7). NPS responsibilities include review 

and formal comment on individual proposed 

actions that have the potential of adversely 

affecting national historic landmarks as well 

as the cumulative effect of changes through 

time on NHL properties. More specifically, 

there are special requirements that apply to 

national historic landmarks pursuant to section 

110 of the National Historic Preservation Act 

and section 800.10 of the regulations: 16 USC 

Section 470h-2(f) mandates that “[P]rior to 

approval of any Federal undertaking which 

may directly and adversely affect any National 

Historic Landmark, the head of the responsible 

Federal agency shall, to the maximum extent 

possible, undertake such planning and actions 

as may be necessary to minimize harm to 

such landmark.”

Though the Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation is responsible for programmatic 

compliance, such as archeological clearance 

prior to ground disturbance, NPS cultural 

resource specialists provide consultation 

and assist the department with meeting 

this responsibility as noted in the Reserve’s 

operation plan and guidelines for management.

NPS authority to provide technical assistance 

to private property owners within the Reserve 

is based on the following laws: National System 

Trails Act of 1968 (California National Historic 

Trail), Outdoor Recreation Act, and the National 

Historic Preservation Act. National historic 

landmark and national natural landmark 

designation for private lands within and outside 

City of Rocks also provides for NPS technical 

assistance to landowners to help preserve 

landmark values. Assistance would be available 

for all areas within the Reserve.

ROLE OF IDAHO DEPARTMENT OF 

PARKS AND RECREATION

Based on the cooperative management 

agreement between the National Park Service 

and Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation, 

the role of the department is predominantly 

one of daily management and administration 

of the Reserve. Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation provides sufficient state funding 

as authorized and appropriated by the Idaho 

State Legislature to assure the management and 

operation of the Reserve at a comparable level 

to other units of the Idaho state park system. 

Because the Reserve is a unit of the national 

park system, Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation complies with federal resource 

protection laws and executive orders, and 

cooperates, participates, and contributes to 

NPS program implementation at the Reserve in 

accordance with NPS policies and guidelines. 

In cooperation with the National Park Service, 

the Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

develops annual work plans and provides an 

annual report.

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

also implements and enforces state statutes, 

ordinances, rules, and regulations on public 

lands, and provides administrative and visitor 

contact services on state-administered land 

outside the Reserve.

OPERATION PLAN AND GUIDELINES 

FOR MANAGEMENT

As noted, the “2014 Operation Plan and 

Guidelines for the Management of City 

of Rocks National Reserve (CIRO)” is the 

guiding framework for management of the 

Reserve. Discussions appropriate to this 

general management plan (GMP) involve 

funding, facility development, and commercial 

visitor services.

Funding

Funding for Reserve operations is a shared 

responsibility between the National Park 

Service and Idaho Department of Parks and 

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Recreation. NPS funding is provided annually 

through congressional appropriations equal 

to approximately 50% of the total operating 

costs. IDPR funding is provided annually 

through departmental appropriations equal to 

approximately 50% of the total operating cost.

Projects and programs unique to the National 

Park Service and appropriate to the Reserve 

are funded in full by the park service to the 

greatest extent possible. These include cultural 

and natural resource protection programs, 

the volunteers-in-the-parks program, the 

repair and rehabilitation program, the cyclic 

maintenance program, the fee demonstration 

program, curatorial and collections management 

programs, and fire management programs, 

among others. On-site implementation 

and management of these programs is the 

responsibility of Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation, which holds accountability. 

The National Park Service provides technical 

support and assistance, and budgetary services 

and assistance.

Facility Development

Development of facilities outside the Reserve 

boundary is the primary responsibility of Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation. All new 

facilities inside the Reserve boundaries such as 

visitor centers, campgrounds, roads, wayside 

exhibits, kiosks, restrooms, parking, and trails, 

are sited and developed in accordance with NPS 

design guidelines. Planning and development 

will conform to applicable guidelines, policies, 

and laws to ensure that natural and cultural 

resource values are protected.

The Reserve superintendent is responsible 

for initiating development projects inside the 

Reserve boundary in accordance with the GMP, 

development concept plans (DCP), and other 

approved plans. The National Park Service is 

responsible for providing technical assistance, 

plan designs, standards, reviews, and on-site 

expertise on development projects as stated in 

the project document.

Commercial Visitor Services

According to the section on “Commercial 

Uses and Other Activities,” commercial 

visitor services at the Reserve are the direct 

responsibility of Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation. All commercial guiding operators 

have to meet the criteria of the Idaho Outfitters 

and Guides Licensing Board and the Idaho Parks 

Board prior to initiating activities within the 

Reserve. Only those commercial activities that 

contribute to the understanding, appreciation, 

and stewardship of the Reserve’s resources and 

fall within appropriate recreational uses would 

be permitted, and activities must offer no threat 

to resources or visitor use. Idaho Department 

of Parks and Recreation permits business 

operations or other commercial activities within 

the boundaries of the Reserve only with the 

prior approval of the National Park Service. All 

permits, licenses, or other commercial activities 

fees collected by Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation would be used at the Reserve 

for associated programs, operating expenses, 

or improvement projects directly related to 

the Reserve.

RELATIONSHIP OF CASTLE 

ROCKS STATE PARK TO CITY OF 

ROCKS NATIONAL RESERVE

Administratively, Castle Rocks State Park 

consists of three named units: the Ranch Unit 

(1,440 acres), the Administrative Unit (12 acres), 

and the Smoky Mountain Unit (240 acres leased 

by Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

from the Bureau of Land Management) 

(IDAPA Code 67-4212). Together the units 

comprise 1,692 acres, plus an additional 200-

acre conservation easement. The state park 

units, owned by Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation, receive about 72,000 visitors 

annually and are still in the development phase: 

the Castle Rocks State Park Master Plan was 

approved on August 3, 2006 (“Figure 2. Land 

Ownership and Management”).

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The geographic and geologic area referred to as 

“Castle Rocks” is located in the Ranch Unit one 

mile northeast of the Reserve. This unit is the 

main state park area where the public recreates.

The Administrative Unit is situated southeast of 

the Ranch Unit and east of the Reserve located 

in the town of Almo. At the Administrative 

Unit, facilities are shared between Castle Rocks 

State Park and the Reserve. This includes a 

visitor center, administrative headquarters, 

maintenance facility, and employee housing.

The Smoky Mountain Unit is located southwest 

of the Administrative Unit and east of the 

Reserve. This unit provides developed camping 

opportunities for both Castle Rocks State 

Park and Reserve visitors. The Bureau of Land 

Management retains management (ownership) 

of this unit, though Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation has entered into a long-term 

lease with the bureau through the Recreation 

and Public Purposes Act program 

(43 U.S.C. 869 et seq.).

In addition to the developed campground, 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation is 

also leasing a 120-acre parcel from the Bureau 

of Land Management at the Smoky Mountain 

Unit with the intent to develop a permanent 

visitor center (see figure 2). (This 120-acre 

parcel is considered part of the 240-acre Smoky 

Mountain Unit lease.) This proposal was 

approved in the 2006 Castle Rocks State Park 

Master Plan and the 1996 City of Rocks National 

Reserve Comprehensive Management Plan, 

Development Concept Plan and Environmental 

Impact Statement.

Similar to the Reserve, the most popular 

recreation at Castle Rocks State Park is climbing, 

but the area also offers other opportunities, such 

as horseback riding, birding, mountain biking, 

hiking, hunting, picnicking, and photography.

PURPOSE OF THE GENERAL 

MANAGEMENT PLAN

Upon approval, the GMP will set the 

management philosophy for City of Rocks 

National Reserve for the next 15 to 20 years. It 

provides an updated framework for continued 

management of the Reserve by the National 

Park Service and Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation. The purposes of this GMP are 

as follows:

•	 Updates the 1996 City of Rocks National 

Reserve Comprehensive Management Plan

•	 Fulfills the requirements of the National 

Parks and Recreation Act (Public Law 

95-625 1978), the General Authorities Act 

(Redwood Act Amendment 1978), and 

NPS Management Policies 2006 (NPS 

2006a), which require all national park 

units to have general management plans 

and to regularly update these plans

•	 Describes the purpose, significance, 

special mandates, fundamental resources 

and values, and primary interpretive 

themes for City of Rocks National 

Reserve through foundation planning (see 

“Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and 

Management”)

•	 Clearly defines resource conditions, visitor 

uses, and experiences to be achieved 

within the Reserve

•	 Provides a framework for Reserve 

managers to guide decisions about 

protecting Reserve resources and 

providing high-quality visitor experiences 

through management of visitor activities 

and facilities

•	 Develops a foundation for decisionmaking in consultation with interested 

stakeholders and NPS and IDPR 

leadership, based on analysis of 

the benefits, impacts, and costs of 

the alternatives

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Legislation establishing the National Park 

Service as an agency (Organic Act of 1916) and 

the range of laws governing NPS management 

provide the fundamental direction for 

administration of the Reserve and other units 

and programs of the national park system. This 

GMP is intended to build on these laws and 

the legislation that established and governs 

the Reserve in order to provide a vision for 

the future.

For a list on the laws and policies directing 

management actions, see “Desired Conditions 

and Potential Management Strategies Derived 

from Law, Regulations, and Policies” at the end 

of chapter 2, and “Appendix B: Pertinent Laws, 

Policies, and Procedures.”

Two hikers looking out from Indian Grove Overlook with wildflowers.

This draft GMP is accompanied by a draft EIS 

to assess its potential environmental impacts as 

required by the National Environmental Policy 

Act (NEPA).

The GMP analyzes alternatives for addressing 

desired future conditions that are not already 

mandated by law and policy and that must 

be determined through a planning process. 

Where law, policy, and regulations do not 

provide clear guidance, management decisions 

will be based on the GMP, public concerns, 

and analysis of impacts of alternative courses 

of action, including long-term operational 

costs. Successful implementation of the GMP 

will result in the long-term preservation of 

natural and cultural resources and an enhanced 

visitor experience.

Actions directed by general management plans 

or in subsequent implementation plans are 

accomplished over time. Budget restrictions, 

requirements for additional data or regulatory 

compliance, and competing priorities may delay 

implementation of many actions. Major or 

especially costly actions could be implemented 

10 years or more into the future.

The GMP does not describe how particular 

programs or projects will be implemented. 

Those decisions will be deferred to more 

detailed implementation planning, which will 

follow the broad, comprehensive planning 

presented in this GMP/EIS. All future plans 

would be consistent with the approved GMP.

NEED FOR THE GENERAL 

MANAGEMENT PLAN

The current 1996 comprehensive management 

plan no longer provides adequate guidance 

to address the policy and operational issues 

now facing the Reserve. Many of the actions 

in the comprehensive management plan have 

been implemented, but other actions are 

either outdated, cost-prohibitive, or cannot be 

executed for other reasons, including current 

property ownership.

The National Parks and Recreation Act of 1978 

and the Redwood Amendment of 1978 require 

the preparation and timely revision of general 

management plans for each unit of the national 

park system. The Reserve’s operation plan and 

guidelines for management states that the GMP/

EIS be kept current and revised or amended 

as necessary.

In 1996 when the original comprehensive 

management plan was produced, approximately 

50% of the land within the Reserve was in 

public ownership. Today, that percentage is 

approximately 70%, resulting in additional 

planning opportunities for newly acquired 

parcels. A land protection plan is currently 

underway and would follow the publication 

of this draft GMP. The land protection 

plan will define those land interests that are 

most important to fulfilling the purpose of 

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the Reserve, the resource 

protection reasons for 

acquisition, and the priority 

of acquisition, as developed in 

consultation with the Reserve 

superintendent. Any lands 

proposed for acquisition 

would be by willing seller only, 

and in full accord with Reserve 

legislation and NPS policies.

Visitation within the Reserve 

has risen from approximately 

81,000 visitors in 1993 to 

more than 99,439 in 2011 

(NPS 2012h) (see “Chapter 4: 

Affected Environment,” table 

31). Population growth in the 

nearby metropolitan areas of Salt Lake City and 

the Pocatello/Idaho Falls area is expected to 

increase in the next 20 years, potentially creating 

more visitation and use within the Reserve. 

Because of increased visitation, there is a need to 

evaluate existing facilities. The temporary visitor 

center serving both the Reserve and Castle 

Rocks State Park is located in a 100-year-old 

house that is inadequate to accommodate the 

use of the thousands of visitors that pass through 

for orientation and information.

Campsites within the Reserve existed when 

the Reserve was established, and though 

many campsites at that time were closed or 

rehabilitated, there are lingering issues that 

need to be addressed, such as campsites that 

conflict with day use activities, safety and visual 

issues along the road where some campsites are 

located, and the need for additional toilets. Most 

campsites in the Reserve are located along the 

southern and western rim of Circle Creek Basin 

(known as “the Rim”). These sites offer prime 

views of the pinnacles comprising the “Inner 

City” as well as more expansive views of Granite 

Ridge that completes the northern encirclement 

of the basin. As part of this GMP, a development 

concept plan has been prepared to help address 

these specific issues, including comprehensive 

assessment of the trail system with associated 

parking, picnicking, and trailheads (“Appendix 

D: Rim Development Concept Plan for City of 

Rocks National Reserve”) (see 

DCP recommendations in 

“Chapter 3: Alternatives”). 

Development concept plans 

are drawings and narrative 

that show in a conceptual 

way how actions in a general 

management plan would be 

developed for specific areas. 

NEPA analysis for the Rim 

development concept plan is 

part of this GMP. The Circle 

Creek Basin area associated 

with the “rim” can be located 

in “Figure 2. Land Ownership 

and Management.”

Intensive use of the Reserve 

during some seasons has caused parking 

conflicts, especially associated with horse trailer 

and large recreational vehicle (RV) parking. 

Determining how to continue to accommodate 

these user groups is important.

Several plans completed since the 1996 

comprehensive management plan are now due 

for revision, and additional plans are needed 

to better inform Reserve management. Among 

these plans are the grazing management 

plan, fire management plan and vegetation 

management plan. The GMP would 

provide additional and needed direction for 

their development.

Though the Reserve is small in size, a wilderness 

eligibility determination is a requirement 

of NPS management policies. Determining 

wilderness eligibility is an issue that needs 

to be addressed in this GMP (“Appendix C: 

City of Rocks National Reserve Wilderness 

Eligibility Assessment”).

At present, management zoning for the 

Reserve uses both zones and subzones and 

covers both private and public land. Many of 

the prescriptions for these are overlapping 

or contradictory and at times confusing for 

Reserve managers. A section of the Reserve 

at the eastern boundary was not zoned on the 

1996 management zoning map and needs to 

be corrected.

Equestrians tour the Reserve.

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A further discussion of these and other issues 

can be found in “Planning Issues and Concerns” 

in this chapter.

NATIONAL PARKS AND 

RECREATION ACT AND THE 

REDWOOD AMENDMENT OF 1978

The National Parks and Recreation Act of 

1978 (Public Law 95-625) and the Redwood 

Amendment of 1978 (Public Law 95-250 

Sec 101 (6) [b]) require the preparation and 

timely revision of general management plans 

for each unit of the national park system. NPS 

management policies call for each general 

management plan to “set forth a management 

concept for the park [and] establish a role 

for the unit within the context of regional 

trends and plans for conservation, recreation, 

transportation, economic development and 

other regional issues.” Congress has also 

specifically directed the National Park Service 

to consider, as part of the planning process, the 

following elements:

“General management plans for each unit shall 

include, but not be limited to:

•	 Measures for the preservation of the 

area’s resources;

•	 Indications of types and general intensities 

of development (including visitor 

circulation and transportation patterns, 

systems and modes) associated with 

public enjoyment and use of the area, 

including general locations, timing of 

implementation, and anticipated costs;

•	 Identification of an implementation 

commitment for visitor carrying capacities 

for all areas of the unit; and

•	 Indications of potential modifications to 

the external boundaries of the unit, and 

the reasons therefore (16 U.S.C. 1a-7[b]).”

According to the NPS Program Standards: 

Park Planning, Director’s Orders 2, and NPS 

Management Policies 2006, general management 

plans meet these requirements by describing 

the desired resource conditions and visitor 

experiences to be achieved and maintained in 

each particular area of the park; identifying the 

kinds and levels of resource management, visitor 

use management, development, and access 

appropriate to the desired conditions; setting 

measurable standards for user capacity; and 

addressing potential boundary modifications.

COOPERATING AGENCIES

Under the National Environmental Policy Act, a 

“cooperating agency” is defined as

any Federal agency other than a lead agency 

which has jurisdiction by law or special 

expertise with respect to any environmental 

impact involved in a proposal (or a 

reasonable alternative) for legislation or other 

major Federal action significantly affecting 

the quality of the human environment.

State and local agencies and American Indian 

tribes that meet the above-mentioned criteria 

may also become cooperating agencies by formal 

agreement (Sec. 1508.5 CEQ regulations).

In August 2012, a memorandum of 

understanding was signed between the 

National Park Service and the Bureau of Land 

Management to enter into a cooperating 

agency status (Sec. 1501.6 CEQ regulations) to 

emphasize agency cooperation in the NEPA 

process. The purpose of the memorandum 

was to provide a framework for cooperation to 

facilitate the timely completion of the GMP and 

associated plans as needed. An advance copy of 

the draft GMP/EIS was submitted to the Bureau 

of Land Management in December 2012 for 

review and comment. Extensive comments were 

received from the bureau and changes were 

incorporated into this document.

The National Park Service and Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation operate 

the Reserve under a long-term cooperative 

agreement that outlines their roles and 

responsibilities with regard to planning and 

management. Therefore, a cooperating agency 

agreement was not entered into between the 

two agencies for the purpose of developing 

this GMP.

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PLANNING ISSUES 

AND CONCERNS

The planning team, along with representatives 

from other agencies, organizations and 

interested members of the public, identified 

various issues and concerns about City of Rocks 

National Reserve during this planning process. 

This information assisted in determining the 

scope, or range of issues, to be addressed by this 

GMP/EIS.

The result of the GMP will be to provide 

long-term guidance for the issues related 

to management of resources, visitor use 

(including recreation, interpretation, and 

education), transportation (including access and 

circulation), Reserve facilities and operations, 

interagency coordination, partnerships, climate 

change, and boundary issues.

CULTURAL RESOURCE PROTECTION 

AND PRESERVATION

The Reserve was established “to preserve and 

protect the significant historical and cultural 

resources” related to the California Trail, 

which passed through the City of Rocks from 

1843 to 1882. These resources include the 

emigrant inscriptions, trail ruts, and landscape 

characteristics that contributed to City of Rocks’ 

prominence along the California Trail. While the 

Reserve manages the California Trail resources, 

the NPS National Trails Intermountain Region 

serves as trail administrator. High-potential 

sites and trail segments are the most important 

areas of a national historic trail for protection. 

Two high-potential sites, both listed in the 

National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), 

and one high-potential segment (Curlew Valley 

to the Salt Lake Alternate, or Salt Lake Cutoff), 

are located along the California Trail within 

the Reserve boundary. These are described 

in more detail under the California National 

Historic Trail comprehensive management 

and use plan description in “Chapter 4: The 

Affected Environment.”

The Reserve also manages other cultural 

resources related to American Indian use before 

the California Trail era, and homesteading 

and ranching which post-date the California 

Trail. These resources include archeological 

sites and remnants of homesteads, as well 

as archival and museum objects. The GMP 

will explore various preservation treatment 

options, management strategies, and design 

guidelines for the protection of a wide variety of 

cultural resources.

Some of the cultural sites, such as the KeltonBoise stage station, are located on private land 

within the Reserve and contain important 

historic remnants of the California Trail or 

homesteading period. Managing cultural 

resources on both private and public land 

presents challenges, such as protection from 

vandalism, deterioration from weathering, and 

impacts from visitor use and livestock grazing.

NATURAL RESOURCE PROTECTION

The Reserve is part of a larger biogeographic 

crossroads—an area where many different 

habitat types and ranges meet. As a result, it 

is home to a variety of plant and animal life, 

including several species at the edge of their 

range. Invasive species, visitor activities, and 

grazing can impact these resources. The GMP 

will explore management actions for natural 

resource protection.

In addition, the GMP will reevaluate 

management of the City of Rocks Research 

Natural Area (RNA). This 312-acre area within 

the Reserve was designated for its outstanding 

natural features, natural processes, natural 

diversity, and ecological values. It contains 

unique geologic formations and the northern 

limit of the pinyon-juniper forest type in North 

America. The designation and boundary was 

inherited from the Bureau of Land Management 

and U.S. Forest Service when the Reserve 

was established. As part of the GMP process, 

agency information on the Research Natural 

Area and the current status of its resources 

will be reviewed. In addition, the City of Rocks 

Research Natural Area has the opportunity to 

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provide student and professional education, 

to serve as a baseline for measuring long-term 

ecological changes, and to serve as a control 

area for comparing results from manipulative 

research conducted elsewhere. A determination 

will be made about which recreational uses, if 

any, might be appropriate within the Research 

Natural Area, whether the RNA designation 

should remain, and whether other areas of the 

Reserve with biological diversity could also be 

considered for designation as research natural 

areas or inclusion in the current Research 

Natural Area.

LIVESTOCK GRAZING

The Reserve differs from most traditional 

national park system units in terms of allowing 

certain traditional ranching uses to continue, 

provided they are consistent with the obligation 

to protect natural and cultural resources.

NPS management policies allow grazing where 

it is specifically authorized by federal law or 

is required to maintain a historic scene, and 

where it does not cause unacceptable impacts 

on park resources or values. Although grazing 

was not specifically identified in the Reserve’s 

enabling legislation, and is prohibited in most 

national park units, section 202(a) of the 

enabling legislation required that the Reserve’s 

management plan be crafted by the National 

Park Service in cooperating with appropriate 

federal and state agencies, local government and 

local residents, as a distinguishing feature of the 

Reserve. Congress indicated that the plan for 

City of Rocks should identify which zones could 

most appropriately be devoted to “private use 

Cattle grazing is a special use permitted at the Reserve.

subject to appropriate local ordinances designed 

to protect the historic rural setting” existing 

at the time the Reserve was established. In 

addition, cosponsors of the legislation indicated 

that grazing “in areas that are not in high public 

use” would be one of the continuing private uses 

of land within the Reserve (Back 1991).

Private grazing permits for seven allotments on 

public lands are currently in effect on a large 

proportion of public lands in the Reserve. 

Permits for these allotments are currently 

reviewed on an annual basis. The 1996 grazing 

management plan established the 1991 animal 

unit month (AUM) total for the Reserve as the 

maximum level of use for range use. An animal 

unit month is grazing by one cow/calf pair for a 

month. Grazing is not permitted in the Research 

Natural Area and continues to be removed from 

wetlands and riparian areas.

In 1988, the year the 14,407-acre Reserve was 

established, approximately 6,400 acres inside 

the boundary designated by Congress were in 

private ownership and used primarily for cattle 

grazing. Today the total acreage of private lands 

has been reduced to 4,087 acres (31%) with 

9,680 acres in public ownership. The GMP 

will present various alternatives for grazing 

within the management alternatives, based on 

the alternative concepts and how management 

zones are applied for each alternative. An 

updated grazing management plan will be tiered 

from the GMP and provide more detailed 

guidance on grazing management, including 

AUM levels.

SOUNDSCAPE AND NATURAL QUIET

Natural sounds are a fundamental resource 

of the Reserve, also referred to as the “Silent 

City of Rocks.” Military and commercial 

overflights, especially at night, have an impact 

on both visitor experience and wildlife. Reserve 

operations and visitor activities can also 

contribute to the deterioration of the natural 

soundscape. Baseline acoustical monitoring 

has recently been conducted to measure and 

record the sounds of the Reserve. The GMP will 

present recommendations to maintain natural 

sounds and natural quiet in the Reserve.

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CLIMATE AND AIR QUALITY

Air quality in and around southern Idaho is 

some of the best in the continental United States. 

Pristine airsheds are a fundamental resource 

of the Reserve and visitor surveys indicate that 

air quality and scenic vistas are among the most 

highly valued characteristics of the Reserve. 

The GMP will evaluate ways to protect the 

airsheds and associated views, particularly those 

associated with the California National Historic 

Trail that bisects the Reserve.

The effects of global climate change may 

include changes in temperature, precipitation, 

evaporation and snowpack rate, local weather 

patterns, wildfire frequency, and plant and 

animal communities. Planning and management 

actions will allow the Reserve to minimize its 

greenhouse gas emissions, adapt to climate 

change, and interpret changing conditions. The 

GMP will provide guidance on how the Reserve 

will assess, respond to, and interpret the impacts 

of global climate change on both natural and 

cultural resources, as well as operations and 

visitor services.

LIGHTSCAPE

Southern Idaho is also one of the best places 

in the United States for viewing night skies. 

The GMP will recommend ways to protect and 

restore the scenic and ecological qualities of 

a naturally dark environment in and around 

the Reserve.

OPERATIONS AND FACILITIES

The Reserve has an ongoing need for additional 

staffing, funding, and facilities. A visitor center, 

as proposed in the 1996 comprehensive 

management plan and the Castle Rocks State 

Park Master Plan, has yet to be constructed on 

state-leased BLM land near the Reserve’s Almo 

entrance. The potential to develop a visitor 

center to meet multiple agencies’ needs will 

be explored. In addition, there are currently 

insufficient options for seasonal and permanent 

housing on either Reserve-administered land 

or in the local (town of Almo) area. The GMP 

will provide guidance for the Reserve regarding 

housing.

VISITOR EXPERIENCE

Visitors come to the Reserve to enjoy the 

scenery and to climb, hike, and recreate in other 

ways, including equestrian use. Visitation to the 

Reserve is increasing, and the demographics of 

visitors are trending to younger adult visitors 

(25–35 years old) and smaller group sizes. As 

the visiting population shifts, their interests 

and preferred activities may also change. 

The GMP will use current visitor survey 

data to comprehensively address available 

visitor facilities, activities, and programs. Day 

use and camping will be evaluated, taking 

into consideration camping opportunities 

on adjacent public and private lands. A 

comprehensive look at the trail system with 

associated parking, picnicking, and trailheads 

will be completed as part of the GMP. The GMP 

will also provide guidance on other recreational 

uses, such as climbing, hunting, and equestrian 

use, including locating equestrian staging areas 

and any related facilities in response to current 

access and safety concerns.

EVALUATION OF BOUNDARIES

The National Parks and Recreation Act of 

1978, as amended, requires that general 

management plans consider the adequacy of 

existing boundaries. When the Reserve was 

established, it was assumed that the private lands 

and associated ranching within the boundary 

would remain part of the Reserve. Since then, 

many of the landowners have opted to sell their 

land to the National Park Service. Planning 

for these acquired lands will be addressed in 

the GMP. The GMP will also determine if any 

changes to the boundary are appropriate based 

on resource protection, visitor use, and land 

management needs. See “Appendix E: Analysis 

of Boundary Adjustment and Land Protection,” 

for a discussion of the criteria used to assess 

boundary modifications.

The national historic landmark and national 

natural landmark boundaries that overlay the 

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Reserve are configured differently from each 

other and neither covers the entire Reserve 

(“Figure 4: Designations”). The Cassia County 

Historic Preservation Zone does not cover the 

entire Reserve, and therefore may not fully 

protect the cultural and natural resources. This 

presents some management challenges. The 

GMP will consider recommendations for these 

designations to address inconsistencies and gaps 

in resource protection.

TRANSPORTATION 

AND CIRCULATION

Access and transportation within and through 

the Reserve includes use by motorized vehicles, 

horses, bicycles, and people on foot. Parking is 

available in both day use and overnight camping 

areas, but overflow parking often takes place 

along the side of roads, creating safety concerns, 

vegetation impacts, and erosion issues. Staging 

areas for equestrian use also present similar 

problems. Some visitors merely pass through 

the Reserve on scenic drives along the City of 

Rocks Road. The GMP will consider all forms 

of motorized and nonmotorized transportation 

and evaluate circulation patterns, parking, and 

other transportation options.

City of Rocks Back Country Byway runs 

through the Reserve along the City of Rocks 

Road and Twin Sisters Road (a byway spur). The 

byway is experiencing erosion due to climatic 

conditions and its alignment on disintegrating 

granite soils. The roads are currently managed 

by Cassia County, which poses some challenges 

for Reserve staff when maintenance is needed. 

The GMP will also examine an array of potential 

management options for the City of Rocks Back 

Country Byway and make recommendations for 

byway management.

ISSUES AND CONCERNS 

NOT ADDRESSED

Not all of the issues or concerns raised by the 

public are included in this GMP. Issues that 

were raised by the public were not addressed if 

they are already prescribed by law, regulation, 

or policy; if they would be in violation of law, 

regulation, or policy; or if they were at a level 

that was too detailed for a general management 

plan and are more appropriately addressed in 

subsequent planning documents.

IMPACT TOPICS: RESOURCES 

AND VALUES AT STAKE IN THE 

PLANNING PROCESS

Impact topics allow comparison of the 

environmental consequences of implementing 

each alternative. These impact topics were 

identified based on federal laws and other legal 

requirements, the Council on Environmental 

Quality’s guidelines for implementing the 

National Environmental Policy Act, NPS 

management policies, subject-matter expertise 

and knowledge of limited or easily impacted 

resources, and issues and concerns expressed by 

other agencies or members of the public during 

scoping (“Appendix B: Pertinent Laws, Policies, 

and Procedures”). Impact topics were developed 

to focus the environmental analysis and to 

ensure that alternatives were evaluated against 

relevant topics.

The planning team consolidated the issues and 

selected the impact topics described below 

to facilitate the analysis of environmental 

consequences. A brief rationale for the selection 

of the impact topics that will be analyzed in 

the environmental consequences chapter 

is given below, as well as a more detailed 

justification for dismissing other topics from 

further consideration.

Rock arches.

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IMPACT TOPICS CONSIDERED 

AND ANALYZED

Impacts of each action and alternative have been 

analyzed for the topics discussed below. These 

impact topics focus the discussion on comparing 

the environmental impacts, either beneficially 

or adversely, among alternatives on affected 

resources. The National Environmental Policy 

Act calls for examination of the impacts on the 

components of affected ecosystems.

Physical Resources

Land Use

NPS Management Policies 2006 provides 

direction for protection of lands and 

resources within park units, acquisition of 

nonfederal lands that are within park units, 

and cooperation with agencies, tribes, and 

private property owners to provide appropriate 

protection measures. Land use refers to the 

general characteristics of how land is allocated 

among various administrative, preservation, 

recreational, and development needs. Currently, 

the Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive management 

plan provides the framework for the types 

of land uses allowed within the project area. 

Land use would change as a result of the 

implementation of the action alternatives 

because the GMP would rezone areas within 

the Reserve and because some undeveloped 

areas would be developed. Therefore, land use is 

included as an impact topic.

Air Quality

The Clean Air Act of 1963, as amended, was 

established to promote public health and welfare 

by protecting and enhancing the nation’s air 

quality (42 USC 7401 et seq., PL 88-206). The 

act establishes specific programs that provide 

special protection for air resources and air 

quality-related values associated with national 

park units. Section 118 of the Clean Air Act 

requires a park unit to meet all federal, state, and 

local air quality standards.

City of Rocks National Reserve is a Class II area 

under the Clean Air Act. The closest Class I area 

is Craters of the Moon National Wilderness 

Area. Class II areas allow only moderate 

increases in certain air pollutants, while Class 

I areas (primarily large national parks and 

wilderness areas) are afforded the highest degree 

of protection, meaning that very little additional 

deterioration of air quality is permitted. The act 

states that park managers have an affirmative 

responsibility to protect air quality-related 

values (including visibility, plants, animals, soils, 

water quality, cultural resources, and visitor 

health) from adverse air pollution impacts (EPA 

2000). Air quality is included as an impact topic 

because proposed actions under the alternatives 

could affect air quality and because the GMP, 

as with the Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive 

management plan, would encourage the state 

to change the area’s designation from Class II 

to Class I.

Lightscapes

NPS Management Policies 2006 states that “the 

Service will preserve, to the greatest extent 

possible, the natural lightscapes of parks, which 

are natural resources and values that exist 

in the absence of human-caused light.” The 

stars, planets, and moon—visible during clear 

nights—have a significant impact on people as 

well as on many other species, including birds, 

terrestrial predators, and prey. Lightscapes have 

been included as an impact topic because the 

proposed actions under the alternatives could 

introduce or increase artificial light sources in 

the environment beyond current or historic 

levels, which, without mitigation, could affect 

the ability to see natural features visible on 

clear nights.

View of the landscape from north Circle Creek Basin.

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Soundscapes

A soundscape is defined as the total ambient 

acoustic environment associated with an area. It 

may be composed of both natural and humanmade sounds. In a high noise environment, 

natural ambient sounds may be masked by other 

noise sources. Natural quiet is another term for 

characterizing the expected natural soundscape.

Park soundscape resources encompass all 

of the natural sounds that occur in parks, 

including the physical capacity for transmitting 

those natural sounds and the interrelationship 

among natural sounds of different frequencies 

and volumes in the park (NPS 2006a). NPS 

Director’s Order 47: Soundscape Preservation 

and Noise Management defines operational 

policies that will protect, maintain, or restore 

the natural soundscape (NPS 2000). Natural 

sounds are part of the park environment, are 

vital to the functioning of ecosystems, and may 

also be valuable indicators of ecosystem health. 

Soundscapes have been included as an impact 

topic because the proposed actions under the 

alternatives, such as construction of facilities and 

new trails, could affect natural quiet.

Soils

NPS Management Policies 2006 requires the 

National Park Service to understand, preserve, 

and prevent—to the extent possible—the 

unnatural erosion, physical removal, or 

contamination of the soil. The alternatives 

include ground disturbance from construction 

and grazing of previously disturbed and 

undisturbed soils. Loss of vegetation from 

construction and grazing would also probably 

increase the potential for erosion and cause 

additional alteration of soil properties. 

Therefore, soils are included as an impact topic.

Water Resources

The 1972 Federal Water Pollution Control 

Act, as amended by the Clean Water Act (33 

USC 1251 et seq., PL 92-500 and PL 95-217), 

is a national policy to restore and maintain the 

chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the 

nation’s waters, to enhance the quality of water 

resources, and to prevent, control, and abate 

water pollution. NPS Management Policies 2006

provides direction for the preservation, use, and 

quality of water in national parks.

Water Quality

Section 401 of the Clean Water Act, as well 

as NPS policy, requires analysis of impacts 

on water quality. Construction and grazing 

activities may increase the potential for erosion 

and sedimentation that can adversely impact 

water quality. Because of this, water quality 

is addressed.

Water Quantity

Because there are replacement facilities 

proposed in some alternatives, there would 

probably be some changes in the use of water 

associated with the implementation of the 

alternatives. Some uses of water, such as during 

road construction, would be short-term and 

negligible. Other uses, such as grazing, are 

consumptive and shift existing water use from 

one location to another. Therefore, water 

quantity has been included as an impact topic.

Wetlands

Executive Order 11990 requires that impacts to 

wetlands be addressed. Section 404 of the Clean 

Water Act requires federal agencies to avoid, 

minimize, and mitigate impacts to wetlands. 

Executive Order 11990, NPS Management 

Policies 2006, and Director’s Order 77-1: 

Wetland Protection (NPS 2002b) direct that 

wetlands be protected and that wetlands and 

wetland functions and values be preserved. They 

further advise that direct or indirect impacts 

on wetlands be avoided whenever there are 

practicable alternatives. Although the 1996 

comprehensive management plan called for 

wetlands to be fenced out of grazing areas, this 

process is still ongoing; therefore, wetlands are 

addressed as an impact topic.

Biological Resources

Vegetation

NPS Management Policies 2006 calls for 

protecting the natural abundance and diversity 

of park native species and communities, 

including avoiding, minimizing, or mitigating 

potential impacts from proposed projects. The 

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alternatives are likely to result in tree removal 

and other vegetation loss as well as enhancement 

or restoration of vegetation. Therefore, 

vegetation is included as an impact topic.

Wildlife

NPS policy is to protect the natural abundance 

and diversity of park native species and 

communities, including avoiding, minimizing, 

or mitigating potential impacts from proposed 

projects. More than 190 native species of 

terrestrial and aquatic vertebrates have been 

recorded in the park, including 142 species 

of birds, 35 mammals, 11 reptiles, and 3 

amphibians. Many wildlife species may reside 

in or near the project area. The alternatives 

will involve impacts on wildlife such as the 

removal of wildlife habitat and increased 

noise levels caused by construction activities. 

The loss or alteration of habitat has a direct 

effect on wildlife, which is often greatest 

when nesting/denning and foraging areas are 

affected. Therefore, wildlife is included as an 

impact topic.

Special Status Species

The federal Endangered Species Act requires 

an examination of impacts on all federally 

listed threatened or endangered species. 

NPS Management Policies 2006 calls for an 

analysis of impacts to state-listed threatened, 

endangered, candidate, rare, declining, and 

sensitive species; and federal candidate species. 

Under the Endangered Species Act, the National 

Park Service is mandated to promote the 

conservation of all federally listed threatened 

and endangered species and their critical 

habitats within the Reserve. Ongoing informal 

consultation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service and the Idaho Department of Fish and 

Game (IDFG) has identified rare, threatened, 

and endangered species that occur in the 

Reserve; therefore, special status species are 

included as an impact topic.

Cultural Resources

Pre-contact and Historic Archeological 

Resources / Historic Structures / Cultural 

Landscapes

Consideration of the impacts on historic 

properties is required under provisions of 

section 106 of the 1966 National Historic 

Preservation Act (NHPA), as amended, and the 

2008 NPS Programmatic Agreement among the 

National Park Service, the National Conference 

of State Historic Preservation Officers, and the 

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. It is 

also required under NPS Management Policies 

2006. Conformance with the Archaeological 

Resources Protection Act (ARPA) in protecting 

known or undiscovered archeological resources 

is also required by the National Historic 

Preservation Act. Management Policies 2006

calls for ongoing inventory and analysis of the 

significance of archeological resources found 

within parks.

Federal land managing agencies are required 

to consider the effects proposed actions may 

have on properties listed in, or eligible for 

inclusion in, the National Register of Historic 

Places and to allow the Advisory Council on 

Historic Preservation a reasonable opportunity 

to comment. Agencies are required to consult 

with the state historic preservation office, tribes, 

and other federal, state, and local, agencies 

and organizations; identify historic properties; 

assess adverse effects on historic properties; and 

negate, minimize, or mitigate adverse effects 

on historic properties prior to implementation 

of any federal or federally assisted undertaking 

(36 CFR 800). Therefore historic structures 

and cultural landscapes are included as 

impact topics.

The National Park Service is delegated 

monitoring and technical assistance 

responsibilities by Congress to ensure that 

national historic landmarks retain the highest 

level of integrity (36 CFR 65.7). There are special 

requirements that apply to national historic 

landmarks pursuant to section 110 of the 

National Historic Preservation Act and 

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section 800.10 of the regulations: 16 USC 

§470h-2(f) mandates that “[P]rior to approval 

of any Federal undertaking which may directly 

and adversely affect any National Historic 

Landmark, the head of the responsible Federal 

agency shall, to the maximum extent possible, 

undertake such planning and actions as may be 

necessary to minimize harm to such landmark.”

There are 81 archeological sites recorded in 

the Reserve. Of these sites, 36 are historic. The 

others are prehistoric. Although archeological 

surveys have been conducted in many of the 

proposed project areas, there is a potential for 

previously unknown archeological resources 

to be found. Therefore, American Indian and 

historic archeological resources are included as 

an impact topic.

Recreational and Social Resources

Visitor Experience

Providing for the enjoyment of national park 

system resources is one of the foundations of 

the NPS Organic Act. The Organic Act directs 

the National Park Service to promote and 

regulate the use of national parks to conserve 

resources and to provide for their enjoyment by 

existing and future generations. In accordance 

with this act, NPS Management Policies 2006

and Director’s Order 17: Tourism (NPS 

1999a) identify visitor use patterns and the 

desired visitor carrying capacity and allow for 

appropriate recreational activities within park 

units. Depending on the selected alternative, 

a variety of impacts on visitor use may occur. 

The impacts considered in this section 

related to visitor experience include access 

and transportation, visitor use opportunities, 

interpretation and education, safety, and 

scenic resources.

Park and Partner Operations

Environmental documents often consider 

impacts on park operations and visitor services 

in order to describe how proposed actions 

would change park management strategies 

and methods and disclose the additional costs 

(including staffing) that are associated with the 

proposal. The alternatives would affect a variety 

of ongoing and proposed new Reserve 

operations as well the ability of the Reserve to 

maintain its infrastructure and conduct park 

operations. Therefore, park operations are 

included as an impact topic.

Socioeconomics

Socioeconomic impact analysis is required, as 

appropriate, under the National Environmental 

Policy Act and NPS Management Policies 

2006 pertaining to gateway communities. 

The local and regional economy near the 

park is dependent on tourism and resource 

use. Agriculture, manufacturing, professional 

services, and education also contribute to 

regional economies. Therefore, socioeconomics 

is included as an impact topic.

Grazing and Livestock Trailing

This impact topic has been added to respond to 

public concerns on the preliminary alternatives 

regarding the effect of the GMP alternatives 

on traditional uses, such as grazing and 

livestock trailing.

Climate Change and Sustainability

The long-term effects of global climate change 

are uncertain; however, it is clear that the earth 

is experiencing a warming trend that affects 

global weather patterns, wildfire frequency and 

intensity, the amount and timing of rainfall, 

drought conditions, and invasive species ranges. 

At the Reserve, changes such as these may affect 

the distribution of both native and nonnative 

plant and wildlife populations, and may also 

have implications for cultural resources, visitor 

use, and operations. The NPS Climate Change 

Response Strategy and its implementing plan, 

the NPS Climate Change Action Plan (2012–

2014) provide systemwide guidance for NPS 

response to climate change. In this GMP, climate 

change impacts are discussed in the context 

of cumulative impacts on air quality; water 

resources; vegetation; wildlife; special status 

species; cultural resources, including cultural 

landscapes; visitor experience, including health 

and safety; and visitor use opportunities.

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REQUIRED ANALYSIS TOPICS 

FOR ENVIRONMENTAL 

IMPACT STATEMENTS

The following topics are required for analysis in 

environmental impact statements. Analysis of 

such impacts for this draft GMP can be found in 

“Chapter 5: Environmental Consequences.”

Unavoidable Adverse Impacts

Unavoidable adverse impacts are moderate to 

major impacts that cannot be avoided.

Relationship between Short-term Use of 

the Environment and Maintenance and 

Enhancement of Long-term Productivity

This impact topic is meant to describe the extent 

to which the alternatives use renewable vs. 

nonrenewable resources.

Irreversible and Irretrievable 

Commitments of Resources

Irreversible commitments of resources are 

actions that result in the loss of resources that 

cannot be reversed. Irretrievable commitments 

are actions that result in the loss of resources, 

but only for a limited time.

IMPACT TOPICS DISMISSED FROM 

FURTHER CONSIDERATION

The topics listed below either would not be 

affected by, or would be affected only negligibly 

by the alternatives evaluated in this document. 

Therefore, these topics have been dismissed 

from further analysis. Negligible effects are 

localized effects that would not be detectable 

over existing conditions. Many of these effects 

would be short-term and would occur only as 

a result of construction activities. A detailed 

rationale for dismissing these and other impact 

topics is given below.

Geologic Hazards

Although geologic hazards, including 

earthquakes, rock fall, unstable slopes, 

avalanches, and others, are present within City 

of Rocks, the proposed alternatives would have 

no measurable effects on increasing or reducing 

impacts from or exposure to geologic hazards. 

Therefore, geologic hazards have been dismissed 

as an impact topic.

Floodplains

Executive Order 11988, “Floodplain 

Management,” requires an examination of 

impacts on floodplains and the potential risk 

involved in placing facilities within floodplains. 

NPS Management Policies 2006; General 

Management Planning Dynamic Sourcebook 

(NPS 2005b); Director’s Order 12: Conservation 

Planning, Environmental Impact Analysis, and 

Decision Making (NPS 2001); and Director’s 

Order 77-2: Floodplain Management (NPS 

2003) provide guidelines for proposals that 

occur in floodplains. Executive Order 11988 

requires that impacts on floodplains, if present, 

be addressed. Because no actions are proposed 

in or currently occur in floodplains, this topic 

has been dismissed from further analysis.

No floodplains have been mapped along 

streams in the Reserve. Because all of the 

streams are high- to medium-gradient streams 

of relatively small size, it was assumed that 

100- to 500-year floodplains do not extend 

far beyond the riparian areas associated with 

the streams. Consequently, City of Rocks was 

zoned as an area of minimal flooding by the 

Federal Emergency Management Agency. 

The creeks and drainages of the Reserve 

are subject to flash flooding during summer 

months when thunderstorms can produce large 

quantities of precipitation in localized areas. 

The hazards from these summer floods are 

considered minimal.

Water Rights

City of Rocks is entitled to federal reserved 

water rights on the portion of the Reserve 

acquired from the Sawtooth National Forest, 

and the amount claimed coincides with what 

was the minimum necessary for national forest 

purposes. The Reserve’s enabling legislation 

provided for the federally reserved water rights 

for the former USFS portion to be transferred 

to City of Rocks National Reserve. However, it 

excluded the creation of new federally reserved 

water rights for national park purposes. Where 

Reserve rights held by the National Park Service 

were insufficient, appropriative water rights were 

acquired by the state.

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The National Park Service has received partial 

decrees for water right claims as part of the 

Snake River Basin Adjudication. During this 

process, the National Park Service and Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation filed for 

water rights within the Reserve for various 

purposes associated with its operation. The 

National Park Service was granted 10 water 

rights, including a federal reserved water right 

for groundwater withdrawn from the well at 

the crest of the Emory Canyon Road. Also, the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

has 2 water rights and the Bureau of Land 

Management has 1 water right within the 

Reserve. In addition, there are 15 privately held 

water rights within the Reserve boundaries.

As land uses change and/or grazing is reduced 

in the Reserve over the lifetime of this plan, it 

may be that some water rights will not be used 

for the purposes described in the right, or not 

be used at all. If a change in use occurs, then the 

appropriate change applications would be filed 

with the State of Idaho or the rights would be 

surplussed. If the Reserve were to acquire lands 

at any point in the future, evaluation of water 

rights would also be included in any proposed 

transactions and, if they are needed, would be 

completed before the transaction is executed.

Traditional Cultural (Ethnographic) Resources

NPS Management Policies 2006 and “NPS-28 

Cultural Resource Management Guideline” 

direct parks to consider potential impacts 

of planned actions on cultural resources, 

including ethnographic resources. The 

Reserve and surrounding area have a history of 

habitation and resource use by prehistoric and 

Cattle driving is a seasonal sight at the Reserve.

contemporary American Indians. Analysis of 

impacts on known resources is important under 

the National Historic Preservation Act and other 

laws, including the Native American Graves 

Protection and Repatriation Act, American 

Indian Religious Freedom Act, and Executive 

Order 13007, “Indian Sacred Sites.” The 

National Park Service defines American Indian 

traditional cultural (ethnographic) resources as 

any “site, structure, object, landscape, or natural 

resource feature assigned traditional legendary, 

religious, subsistence, or other significance 

in the cultural system of a group traditionally 

associated with it” (NPS 2006a). Traditional 

cultural properties are ethnographic resources 

listed in or eligible for the National Register 

of Historic Places. Known ethnographic 

resources in the vicinity of the Reserve would 

be avoided by actions called for in this GMP. 

Therefore, there would be no or negligible 

effects on ethnographic resources. As with other 

unknown (undiscovered) cultural resources, if 

these were later found within a project area, the 

preferred course of action would be to avoid 

impacts by relocating the proposed management 

action. (See archeological resources 

mitigation measures.)

American Indian Religious Freedom Act

To comply with the American Indian Religious 

Freedom Act, federal agencies must consider 

the effects of their actions on American Indian 

traditional religious practices. Based on analysis 

in the areas of potential effect, there are no 

currently known traditional or religious use 

areas within the proposed project area. In 

addition, there are no known Indian sacred sites 

that would require compliance with Executive 

Order 13007, “Indian Sacred Sites” (61 FR 

26771, 42 USC 1996).

Museum Collections

NPS Management Policies 2006, Director’s Order 

24: NPS Museum Collections Management, the 

NPS Museum Handbook, and cultural resources 

laws identify the need to evaluate effects on 

museum collections, if applicable. Requirements 

for proper management of federal archeological 

collections and associated records are defined 

in 36 CFR 79. Museum collections would not be 

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affected by the proposed project, except by the 

potential addition of material to the collections, 

if any is found.

As provided for in the Cooperative Agreement 

between the NPS and IDPR for management 

of the Reserve, IDPR staff manages the Reserve 

to NPS standards, including the handling of 

museum collections. Artifacts and natural 

history specimens collected from Section 36 

(IDPR-owned land) are owned by IDPR but 

are loaned to NPS, housed at the Hagerman 

Fossil Beds National Monument collections 

facility, and managed by NPS along with 

collections recovered from NPS-owned land. 

Artifacts found on private property within the 

Reserve belong to the property owner unless 

they are donated to IDPR or NPS. Should a 

cultural resource survey on private property be 

necessary, an agreement would be reached that 

any material collected would be donated to the 

NPS or IDPR for inclusion in the NPS or IDPR 

museum collection. Collections from Castle 

Rocks State Park are also housed and managed 

by NPS at the Hagerman Fossil Beds National 

Monument collections facility, per an agreement 

between the Idaho State Archeologist, 

Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument, and 

IDPR.

Historic Structures

The Reserve contains some structures associated 

with historic homesteading and mining. 

However, a number of these are located on 

private land, and those that are within the 

Reserve on publicly owned land are not eligible 

for listing in the National Register of Historic 

Places. While the visitor center is located in a 

1912 building, the house that the visitor center 

occupies is not eligible for NRHP status. 

Impacts from reconfiguration of the visitor 

center are discussed under “Visitor Experience.”

Wilderness

NPS wilderness management policies are 

based on provisions of the 1916 NPS Organic 

Act, the Wilderness Act (1964), and legislation 

establishing individual units of the national 

park system. These policies establish consistent 

direction for the preservation, management, 

and use of wilderness, and they prohibit the 

construction of roads, buildings, and other 

man-made improvements, as well as the use of 

mechanized transportation in wilderness. All 

park management activities proposed within 

wilderness are subject to review following the 

minimum requirement concept and decision 

guidelines. The public purpose of wilderness 

in national parks includes the preservation of 

wilderness character and wilderness resources 

in an unimpaired condition, and provides for 

recreational, scenic, scientific, educational, 

conservation, and historical use.

The Reserve wilderness eligibility assessment 

approved by the NPS Director on April 19, 

2012, determined that lands within the Reserve 

boundary do not meet the requirements 

necessary to qualify for the congressionally 

designated national wilderness preservation 

system. Among the reasons for this were the 

inability to provide complete solitude, and the 

presence of human-made intrusions. Although 

Reserve lands alone do not meet the eligibility 

criteria, they could contribute to a larger area of 

potential wilderness if the Sawtooth National 

Forest were to reconsider its management 

prescription of inventoried roadless areas 

immediately north of the Reserve. The Graham 

Creek Study Area will continue to be managed in 

accordance with the NPS Organic Act of 1916. 

Because there is no wilderness in the Reserve, 

this topic was dismissed from further analysis 

(see “Appendix C: City of Rocks National 

Reserve Wilderness Eligibility Assessment”).

Prime and Unique Farmlands

The Farmland Protection Policy Act was 

implemented to preserve and protect the 

dwindling supply of farmland in the nation. In 

1980, the Council on Environmental Quality 

(CEQ) directed that federal agencies assess the 

effects of their actions on farmlands classified 

as prime or unique by the U.S. Department 

of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resources 

Conservation Service. Prime farmland, as 

defined by the department, is land that has 

the best combination of physical and chemical 

characteristics for producing food, feed, forage, 

fiber, and oilseed crops and is available for these 

uses. It may include cultivated land, pastureland, 

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forestland, or any other type of land that is not 

considered an urban or built-up land or water 

areas. In prime farmland areas, the soil quality, 

growing season, and moisture supply are optimal 

for the soil to economically produce sustained 

high yields of crops when proper management—

including water management—and acceptable 

farming methods are applied.

In general, prime farmland has an adequate 

and dependable supply of moisture from 

precipitation or irrigation, a favorable 

temperature and growing season, acceptable 

acidity or alkalinity, an acceptable salt and 

sodium content, and few or no rocks. Prime 

farmland is permeable to water and air: it is not 

excessively erodible or saturated with water 

for long periods, and it either experiences very 

little flooding during the growing season or it 

is protected from flooding. Additionally, slopes 

in prime farmland range primarily from 0% to 

12%. About 2,134 acres, or approximately 15% 

of the Reserve, would meet the requirements for 

prime farmland only if irrigated (USDA-NRCS 

2011: p. 57). Because these soils are not irrigated 

and because the purposes of City of Rocks 

National Reserve differ from those associated 

with irrigated farmland, this impact topic was 

dismissed from further analysis.

Energy Consumption

Implementation of the proposed actions would 

not cause measurable increases in the overall 

consumption of electricity, propane, wood, 

fuel oil, gas, or diesel associated with visitation 

or with park operations and maintenance. 

Therefore this topic was dismissed from 

further analysis.

Environmental Justice

Executive Order 12898, “Federal Actions to 

Address Environmental Justice in Minority 

Populations and Low-Income Populations” 

(59 FR 7629, as amended by Executive Order 

12948, 60 FR 6381, 42 USC 4321), requires all 

federal agencies to incorporate environmental 

justice into their missions by identifying and 

addressing disproportionately high and adverse 

levels of human health or environmental effects 

from their programs and policies on minorities 

and low-income populations and communities. 

This executive order does not apply to the 

subject of this document. The actions evaluated 

in this document would not have an effect 

(either beneficial or adverse) on socially or 

economically disadvantaged populations. There 

are also no indications that disadvantaged 

persons would be disproportionately affected. 

Therefore this topic was dismissed from 

further analysis.

Wild and Scenic Rivers

There are no wild and scenic rivers or rivers that 

may be eligible for wild or scenic status within 

the Reserve. Therefore, this topic was dismissed 

from further analysis.

Hazardous Materials

There would be no substantial changes in 

the use of hazardous materials as a result 

of implementation of the alternatives. 

Therefore, this topic has been dismissed from 

further analysis.

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RELATIONSHIP OF OTHER 

PLANNING EFFORTS TO THE 

GENERAL MANAGEMENT PLAN

The following plans, agreements, and related 

documents have influenced the preparation 

of this GMP, or may be modified based on the 

information in this GMP/EIS. The following list 

is not all-inclusive. Rather, it represents the plans 

most relevant to the management actions, issues, 

policies, and procedures addressed in this GMP.

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE PLANS

California National Historic Trail 

Comprehensive Management and Use Plan

The California National Historic Trail, Pony 

Express National Historic Trail Comprehensive 

Management and Use Plan/Final Environmental 

Impact Statement; and the Oregon National 

Historic Trail, Mormon Pioneer National Historic 

Trail Management and Use Plan update/Final 

Environmental Impact Statement was published 

in June 1999. It provides broad-based policies, 

guidelines, and standards for administering 

these four trails to ensure the protection of 

trail resources, their interpretation, and their 

continued use. It complies with the planning 

requirements found in section 5(f) of the 

1968 National Trails System Act. The National 

Trails Intermountain Region, a program of 

the National Park Service, serves as is the 

administrator of these trails.

Legislation directs the Secretary of the Interior 

to cooperate with and encourage those states 

through which the trails pass to operate, 

develop, and maintain any portions of these 

trails that are located outside the boundaries of 

federally administered areas. The National Trails 

System Act also authorizes the Secretary of the 

Interior to enter into cooperative agreements 

with states, local government, landowners, 

and private organizations or individuals to 

help operate, develop, and maintain trail 

portions outside federal jurisdiction. These 

cooperative agreements can include provisions 

for limited financial or technical assistance to 

encourage participation in trail management 

activities. Cooperative agreements can also 

secure volunteer assistance for the protection 

and management of the trails and their 

related resources.

This comprehensive management and use 

plan for the California National Historic Trail 

focuses on enhancing resource preservation 

and visitor use to achieve the highest possible 

degree of cooperation among the partners, 

increase awareness of the need to work together, 

and communicate what is being planned and 

what is actually being done. This proposal calls 

for an improved visitor experience through 

integrated development and programming 

and a comprehensive strategy for resource 

protection, including an ambitious program to 

inventory and monitor resources that would 

bring together, in one location, information that 

is currently dispersed.

Purpose of the California 

National Historic Trail

According to the California National Historic 

Trail comprehensive management and use plan, 

the purposes of the trail are to:

•	 “Enable all people to envision and 

experience, in a coherent and convenient 

way, the heritage and impacts of the 

western overland migration

•	 Encourage preservation of its history and 

physical remains” (NPS 1999b: p.25).

View of the California Trail landscape from Pinnacle Pass.

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The Trail is nationally significant because:

•	 “It is one of the major highways of the 

19th century, which provided a 2,400-

mile path for emigrants to the West. 

Their resulting settlement significantly 

contributed to change in peoples, cultures, 

and landscapes.

•	 One of the largest overland migrations in 

American westward expansion used the 

trail as a result of the California gold rush.

•	 The route, followed earlier by American 

Indians and western explorers and 

travelers, provided a foundation 

for American transportation and 

communication systems west of the 

Mississippi River” (NPS 1999b: p.25).

Interpretive Themes and Subthemes

Several interpretive themes and subthemes were 

developed in the plan for trailwide themes and 

geographic regions and subthemes. Trail-specific 

subthemes developed for the California National 

Historic Trail (NPS 1999b: p.33) include 

the following:

•	 Between 1841 and 1860, more than 

200,000 Americans traversed the 

California Trail to escape economic 

adversity, obtain better farmlands, or get 

rich quick in the gold rush.

•	 Although most of the overland emigrants 

to Oregon and California through 1848 

sought to establish farms and permanent 

homes, a majority of the forty-niners were 

single young men, hoping to make their 

fortunes in the gold fields of the Sierra 

Nevada and return home to the East.

•	 The California Trail emigrants represented 

various cultures, ethnic groups, religious 

denominations, educational backgrounds, 

and economic interests.

•	 The rapid influx of Americans along 

the California Trail influenced national 

politics, international relations and 

boundaries, and U.S. policy toward 

American Indians. Settlement was so rapid 

that California became a state in 1850 

without having been a territory.

Central Cutoffs and Alternative Routes

The Salt Lake Cutoff (1848) is mentioned in the 

plan and described as one of the central cutoffs 

and alternate routes along the California Trail.

City of Rocks National Reserve Grazing 

Management Plan

The National Park Service contracted with 

the University of Idaho to produce a grazing 

management plan for the Reserve in 1996 and 

again in 2008 to revise the plan. Although this 

revised plan was submitted, the Reserve has not 

yet prepared an environmental assessment to 

document proposed changes to Reserve grazing 

management operations. Regardless, small 

changes within the scope of the 1996 grazing 

management plan have continued. Future 

revision of the grazing management plan and 

Reserve grazing operations based on analysis 

of the University of Idaho recommendations is 

proposed following the approval of this GMP. 

(Depending on the alternatives selected for 

implementation from this GMP, the intent of the 

grazing management plan may change and/or 

new studies may be needed.)

The intent of the City of Rocks National Reserve 

Grazing Management Plan was to enable 

livestock grazing to continue at an economically 

viable level for permittees, while meeting longrange objectives to preserve and protect the 

significant natural and cultural resources and 

scenic quality within the Reserve. Livestock use 

in the area began as early as 1850 with grazing 

along the California Trail and continues to 

this day.

The goals of the plan (Reserve 2008a: p. 2) 

were to:

•	 Manage livestock use so that an 

appropriate balance between grazing and 

natural resources protection, cultural 

resources preservation, recreational use, 

and scenic quality is assured.

•	 Through managed grazing and ranching 

activities protect, preserve, and interpret 

the historic rural setting.

•	 Provide for managed use of designated 

pasture lands within the Reserve.

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To achieve these goals, the following program 

guidelines were established (Reserve 2008a: p. 

2) in cooperation with private landowners and 

grazing permittees:

•	 The natural and cultural resources and 

scenic quality of CIRO [the Reserve] may 

not be impaired by livestock use

•	 In all issues related to range utilization, 

management decisions would be based 

first on whether or not resources will be 

impaired.

•	 The 1991 AUM total [animal unit month] 

for the Reserve is established as the 

maximum level for range utilization.

•	 Private lands purchased by CIRO [the 

Reserve] and vacated allotments may be 

incorporated into the Reserve’s grazing 

program and the available AUMs may be 

utilized by one or more of the remaining 

permittees, as determined by the CIRO 

[Reserve] Superintendent.

•	 Existing landowners and permittees 

within CIRO [the Reserve] have 

preferential status for future allotment 

permits.

•	 Current allotments, which include CIRO 

[the Reserve] and BLM or USFS lands 

outside of the Reserve, will be redefined, 

where feasible and by mutual agreement 

with the respective agency, so that all 

grazed public lands within CIRO [the 

Reserve] are exclusively CIRO [Reserve] 

allotments.

•	 As new CIRO [Reserve] allotments are 

established, the carrying capacity for 

each will be determined. These carrying 

capacities will become the maximum 

AUM levels for future utilizations.

City of Rocks National Reserve 

Climbing Management Plan and 

Finding of No Significant Impact

The 1998 City of Rocks National Reserve 

Climbing Management Plan and Finding of No 

Significant Impact was published shortly after 

the Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive management 

plan. The climbing management plan (Reserve 

1998a: p. 1) was prepared to determine 

the following:

•	 The appropriate level and type of climbing 

practices within the Reserve

•	 What types and levels of impact associated 

with climbing in different areas of the 

Reserve are acceptable and do not impair 

Reserve resources or result in derogation 

of Reserve values

•	 What climbing practices should be used 

and are appropriate within the Reserve

•	 What levels and kinds of mitigating 

management actions are necessary to 

assure a sustainable range of compatible 

climbing opportunities with long-term 

protection of the Reserve’s natural and 

cultural resources and retention of a highquality visitor experience.

The proposed action incorporates a permit 

system for climbing activities with a regulatory 

approach to protect resources and control 

climbing. Climbing is managed with the primary 

intent to protect the resources and values of 

the Reserve, while providing for appropriate 

levels of public recreational climbing use. 

Climbing is prohibited within the California Trail 

management subzone, which incorporates the 

two spires of the Twin Sisters formation.

A revised climbing management plan is on hold 

pending completion of the GMP.

City of Rocks Fire Management Plan

The City of Rocks National Reserve Fire 

Management Plan and compliance document 

were completed in September 2005. The plan 

considers fire management activities over a fiveyear period and assists park managers in meeting 

cultural and natural resource management goals, 

while ensuring firefighter and public safety are 

not compromised (Reserve 2005b).

The three paramount considerations listed in the 

Reserve fire management plan are:

•	 To protect life and property within and 

adjacent to Reserve areas

•	 To perpetuate, restore, replace, or 

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replicate natural processes to the greatest 

extent practicable

•	 To protect natural and cultural resources 

and intrinsic values from unacceptable 

impacts attributable to fire and fire 

management activities

City of Rocks National Reserve 

Visitor Study

The City of Rocks National Reserve Visitor Study, 

prepared by the Social Science Program of the 

National Park Service in April 2009, describes 

the results of a visitor study at City of Rocks 

National Reserve September 6–14, 2008. A 

summary of this information is presented in 

“Chapter 4: Affected Environment” in the 

“Visitor Use” section.

City of Rocks National Reserve 

Cultural Landscape Inventory

The City of Rocks National Reserve Cultural 

Landscapes Inventory was completed in 2008 

and serves as a database containing information 

on the historically significant landscapes within 

City of Rocks National Reserve. This inventory 

identifies and documents each landscape’s 

location, size, physical development, condition, 

landscape characteristics, and character-defining 

features, as well as other valuable information 

useful to Reserve management. The results of 

the inventory present the overall condition of 

the City of Rocks National Reserve cultural 

landscape and the stabilization measures 

necessary to preserve those features.

City of Rocks National Reserve—

Research Natural Area

Natural Resource Condition Assessment: City of 

Rocks National Reserve – Research Natural Area 

(NPS 2010) was the result of a study conducted 

at the Reserve and prepared by Northwest 

Management, Inc., in March 2010. The report 

was developed to give Reserve managers and 

planners a better understanding of the City of 

Rocks Research Natural Area.

Research natural areas are defined as a national 

network of sites designed to facilitate research, 

preserve natural features, and represent prime 

examples of ecological communities with 

little past disturbance and unimpeded natural 

processes. The report states that the current 

312-acre Research Natural Area was officially 

recognized by the National Park Service in 

the 1996 comprehensive management plan for 

the Reserve (240 acres of BLM land and 72 of 

USFS land transferred to the National Park 

Service when the Reserve was established). 

NPS Natural Resource Management Reference 

Manual 77 guides management activities of 

the Research Natural Area, which are limited 

to nonmanipulative research and/or education 

(with no grazing allowed in the Research 

Natural Area). Research natural areas are 

defined as a national network of sites designed 

to facilitate research, preserve natural features, 

and represent prime examples of ecological 

communities with little past disturbance and 

unimpeded natural processes.

The report states that City of Rocks Research 

Natural Area continues to meet the purpose 

for which it was originally established, has few 

observed human impacts (impacts were noted 

primarily along the southern and western 

boundaries), and preserves a healthy old-growth 

stand of singleleaf pinyon (Pinus monophylla) 

at the northernmost distribution of the species 

and associated community. The Research 

Natural Area is one of four research natural 

areas in Idaho with a singleleaf pinyon plant 

association and contains the highest frequency 

of singleleaf pinyon in sample plots. The area’s 

designation as a research natural area will help 

preserve the genetic diversity of the singleleaf 

pinyon community.

A related study, City of Rocks National Reserve—

Proposed Expansion of the Research Natural Area,

was completed by Northwest Management, Inc. 

in December 2010 to investigate possible areas 

for RNA expansion.

The proposed expansion areas ranged in 

size from 9.5 acres to 303 acres and were 

selected due to their similarity in vegetation, 

rock outcrops, species diversity, and cattle 

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accessibility. The proposed expansion areas 

would create a continuous Research Natural 

Area that would exhibit similar vegetation 

compositions and provide additional buffer 

for the current Research Natural Area from 

undesirable weed species and grazing. More 

research is needed, however, to determine if 

the proposed areas meet all the requirements 

for RNA designation. Some of these expansion 

areas are considered in two of the alternatives.

RELATED FEDERAL AGENCY 

PLANNING DOCUMENTS

USFS – Sawtooth National 

Forest Land and Resource 

Management Plan

The Sawtooth National Forest Land and Resource 

Management Plan is a 10- to 15-year plan and 

was completed by the U.S. Forest Service in 

2005. The plan covers 2.1 million acres and 

describes management goals and objectives, 

resource protection methods, desired resource 

conditions, and the availability and suitability of 

lands for resource management. The purpose 

of the plan is to provide management direction 

to ensure sustainable ecosystems and resilient 

watersheds that are capable of providing a 

sustainable flow of beneficial goods and services 

to the public. The Sawtooth National Forest 

is managed for watershed and soil protection, 

grazing, wildlife habitat, timber, and recreation. 

The unit nearest to the Reserve is approximately 

63,400 acres (USFS 2005). There are two 

management areas of the Sawtooth National 

Forest that adjoin the boundary of the Reserve 

and are discussed below:

USFS – Management Area 17

Management Area 17, the Independence Lakes 

area, is located directly north of and contiguous 

with the Reserve boundary. It is 43,300 acres, 

including one private land inholding of 625 

acres. The primary uses in this area are livestock 

grazing and dispersed recreation. Portions 

of the Cache Peak and Mount Harrison 

Inventoried Roadless Areas are found within the 

management area.

Management direction specific to the Reserve 

and related to the scenic environment is to 

“maintain scenic integrity in areas next to City 

of Rocks and Castle Rocks to preserve the 

high scenic value of these areas for visitors.” 

In addition, recreation resources would 

“emphasize recreation facility maintenance, 

specifically Independence Lakes Trailhead, and 

Independence Lakes and Skyline Trails” (USFS 

2005: III–288).

USFS – Management Area 15

Management Area 15, the Albion Mountains 

area, is 20,100 acres adjoining the Reserve’s 

northwestern boundary. The primary uses in 

this area are livestock grazing and dispersed 

recreation. Though there are portions of 

inventoried roadless areas (Cache Peak and 

Mount Harrison) in this management area, they 

are not contiguous with the Reserve boundary.

The management guideline for recreation 

resources states the desire to “coordinate 

closely with the National Park Service and 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation in 

managing the area around City of Rocks.” For 

fire management, the management objective 

is to: “Identify areas appropriate for wildland 

fire. Use wildland fire to restore or maintain 

vegetative desired conditions and to reduce fuel 

loadings. However, emphasize prescribed fire 

or mechanical treatments over wildland fire use 

adjacent to off-Forest agricultural investments 

and on-Forest plantations, and in the Almo Park 

and City of Rocks” (USFS 2005: III–271).

USFS – City of Rocks Research Natural Area

The National Forest Management Act 

regulations require that forest plans study 

and recommend areas for research natural 

areas. The search for candidate areas on the 

Sawtooth National Forest began in 1977 and 

was coordinated with the Idaho Natural Areas 

Coordinating Committee. The previous 1987 

Sawtooth National Forest Land and Resource 

Management Plan found eight candidate 

research natural areas on USFS land to be 

eligible. One of the candidates was a 45-acre site 

known as City of Rocks adjacent to the BLM 

research natural area of the same name.

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The City of Rocks Research 

Natural Area was designated in 

the Sawtooth National Forest 

Land and Resource Management 

Plan for its geologic features and 

singleleaf pinyon vegetation. 

The management goal for the 

Research Natural Area was 

to maintain the area in its 

natural condition for research 

and education opportunities 

(USFS 1987).

The National Park Service 

received the USFS Research 

Natural Area when the Reserve 

was established in 1988.

BLM – Cassia Resource 

Management Plan

The most recent Cassia Resource Management 

Plan (RMP) was published by the BLM 

Burley District Office in January 1985. As with 

the U.S. Forest Service, the Bureau of Land 

Management manages its lands for multiple 

use objectives under the Federal Land Policy 

and Management Act of 1976, as amended. 

The resource management plan encompasses 

1,629,472 acres located in south central Idaho. 

Approximately 97% of this acreage is located 

within Cassia County.

The resource management plan is divided into 

14 management areas that consist of lands with 

similar resource features and characteristics 

that can be effectively managed as a unit. This 

plan predates the establishment of City of Rocks 

National Reserve, but those lands now within 

the Reserve were in Management Area 8.

Management Area 8 contains 17,877 acres of 

public land and consists of the City of Rocks 

and the surrounding mountains at the southern 

end of the Albion Range. This management 

area has nine resource management objectives 

that relate to: improving rangeland; providing 

forage for livestock; improving wildlife habitat; 

controlling surface disturbing activities 

on erodible soils; preserving the geologic, 

historic, and scenic values of City of Rocks; 

and upholding the integrity 

of the national natural 

landmark and national historic 

landmark designations.

In addition to these objectives, 

the resource management plan 

calls for the preparation of a 

watershed management plan, 

habitat management plan, and 

a City of Rocks recreation 

area management plan (BLM 

1985).

BLM – City of Rocks 

Research Natural Area

In 1987, an amendment was 

added to the 1985 BLM Cassia 

Resource Management Plan to 

evaluate lands nominated for 

dual designation as research natural areas and 

areas of critical environmental concern. A 240-

acre section of BLM land at City of Rocks was 

one of the areas recommended for designation 

by the University of Idaho and The Nature 

Conservancy to serve as a range and woodland 

reference site. Due to its steep terrain, this area 

was generally not used for grazing.

The area designation was primarily due to City 

of Rocks containing one of the most northern 

populations of singleleaf pinyon pine in a pinyon 

pine-Utah juniper forest type. The area also 

consists of Basin and Range vegetative habitat. 

It was noted that the undisturbed condition of 

the range habitat would be used to compare 

rangeland treatments with nontreated areas 

(BLM 1987).

The National Park Service received the BLM 

Research Natural Area when the Reserve 

was established.

Castle Rocks Climbing Decision 

Record and Finding of No 

Significant Impact

In 2009, the Bureau of Land Management 

conducted an environmental assessment on a 

proposal to adopt the Castle Rocks Interagency 

Recreation Area Climbing Management Plan

Rock climbing is one of the most popular visitor 

activities at the Reserve.

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(BLM 2010). The Castle Rocks Interagency 

Recreation Area (a concept no longer used) 

includes 480 acres of USFS land, 400 acres of 

BLM land, and 1,420 acres of IDPR land.

In the Decision Record, the Bureau of Land 

Management selected alternative III, which 

closed BLM-managed lands in the Castle 

Rocks Interagency Recreation Area to all 

types of climbing. In addition, the Bureau of 

Land Management does not allow overnight 

camping or construction of new trails in the 

interagency recreation area. This alternative 

was selected because the other alternatives 

“have the potential to cause adverse cumulative 

effects to historic properties” as defined under 

36 CFR 88.16 (BLM 2010: p. 2). The Bureau of 

Land Management also selected alternative III 

because it protects cultural and natural resources 

that would be impacted by increased visitation in 

the other alternatives. The decision recognized 

that closing BLM lands reduced the opportunity 

to climb rocks in the BLM portion of Castle 

Rocks Interagency Recreation Area, but goes on 

to state that similar climbing opportunities exist 

at City of Rocks National Reserve and in the 

IDPR portions of Castlea Rocks.

In November 2011, the Bureau of Land 

Management initiated an RMP amendment to 

consider closing BLM-managed lands in the 

Castle Rocks area to certain activities to protect 

cultural and historic properties. These BLM 

lands contain resources that are rare and of great 

importance to the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes 

of Fort Hall and the Shoshone-Paiute Tribes 

of the Duck Valley. According to the Bureau of 

Land Management, both tribes consider the 

area a sacred site and have asked the Burley 

Field Office to help them nominate the area as 

part of a traditional cultural property under the 

National Register of Historic Places.

The RMP amendment and associated 

environmental assessment considered the 

permanent designation of no climbing, no 

staging, no camping, and no construction of new 

trails on BLM-managed lands at Castle Rocks 

Interagency Recreation Area. In April 2013, 

the Bureau of Land Management published 

the Proposed Decision Record and Finding of 

No Significant Impact (FONSI), Cassia Resource 

Management Plan Amendment at Castle Rocks 

(BLM 2013b). This decision implements the 

March 2010 decision to close BLM-managed 

lands in the Castle Rocks area to staging, 

traditional climbing, sport climbing, and 

bouldering; prohibit overnight camping and 

construction of new trails; and remove bolts 

from existing bolted climbing routes from BLMmanaged lands.

RELATED STATE, COUNTY, AND 

REGIONAL PLANNING DOCUMENTS

Castle Rocks State Park Master Plan

The Castle Rocks State Park Master Plan was 

prepared by the Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation in September 2006. The IDPR intent 

is to designate and manage the park under its 

Natural Park classification which is defined as 

lands and waters containing outstanding natural 

communities and possessing natural integrity.

The vision for the park is stated as providing 

diverse recreational activities with an emphasis 

on discovery and solitude in a protected geologic 

setting. Visitors would be offered opportunities 

Pinnacle near the geological trail.

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to experience natural beauty, ranching heritage, 

and prehistoric culture.

The preferred alternative chosen was a modified 

high-level management alternative. The 

preferred alternative has many management 

objectives that relate to City of Rocks National 

Reserve. These include the following actions:

•	 Identify trail connections for climbers, 

equestrians, hikers, and mountain bikers 

from Castle Rocks State Park to other 

public lands, including City of Rocks 

National Reserve

•	 Continue to share a new permanent visitor 

center with the Reserve as the primary 

contact point for visitors

•	 Convert the current temporary visitor 

center to staff offices once a permanent 

one is constructed

•	 Develop an amphitheater at Smoky 

Mountain Campground within walking 

distance of the campsites

•	 Expand Smoky Mountain Campground 

according to the BLM lease agreement

•	 Expand camping opportunities at Smoky 

Mountain Campground with an additional 

tent camp loop and back country yurts

•	 Identify possible trail links to other public 

lands from Smoky Mountain Campground 

for recreational opportunities in a trail 

management plan

Idaho State Trust Lands

The Idaho Department of Lands manages 

2,460,000 acres for the purpose of providing 

financial support for various institutions. 

Approximately 85% of these lands are managed 

to provide financial support for Idaho public 

schools. There are three 640-acre sections 

of trust lands within close proximity to the 

existing Reserve boundary, all of which are 

rangeland and managed for Idaho public 

schools. The management of all Idaho State 

Trust Lands is guided by the State Trust 

Lands Asset Management Plan (ISBLC 2007). 

The management goals for state trust lands 

established by this plan include:

•	 Protect and enhance the value and 

productivity of the land assets

•	 Maximize financial returns from land 

assets over time

•	 Encourage a diversity of revenueproducing uses of land assets

•	 Manage land assets prudently, 

efficiently, and with accountability to 

the beneficiaries

Cassia County Comprehensive Plan

The Cassia County Comprehensive Plan was 

adopted by Cassia County in 1992 and revised 

in 2006. The plan’s purpose is to guide future 

development of the county for the next 20 to 

25 years. It is based on long-term goals and 

addresses 14 planning components set forth in 

the Idaho Local Land Use Planning Act (Idaho 

Code Section 67-6508).

The plan lists 10 historical, geological, and 

recreational sites recommended for protection 

from incompatible land uses, including City of 

Rocks National Reserve. According to the plan, 

incompatible or destructive land uses “will be 

reviewed in order to determine what steps may 

be needed to remove, reduce or prevent the 

negative impacts on the identified special site or 

area” (Cassia County 2006: p. 47).

Cassia County Public Land Use 

Policy Plan

Federal and state lands make up a large portion 

of Cassia County. The Cassia County Public Land 

Use Policy Plan was adopted in August 2009 by 

Cassia County to guide the use of public lands in 

the county, including federal and state land uses 

and activities, and to protect the rights of private 

landowners. The intent of the plan is to “protect 

the custom and culture of county citizens 

through protection of private property rights, 

the facilitation of a free market economy, and the 

establishment of a process to ensure meaningful 

input into the planning process by local 

communities and individuals” (Cassia County 

2009: p.1).

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The plan states that federal and state agencies 

must coordinate with the Cassia County 

Commission for any proposed actions from their 

agencies in the county that will impact the Cassia 

County Public Land Use Policy Plan and must 

submit in writing the purposes, objectives, and 

estimated impacts of their actions. The report 

would be provided to the County Commission 

for review and coordination prior to initiation 

of action.

The policies cover land disposition, water 

resources, agriculture, timber and wood 

products, cultural resources, recreation, wildlife 

and wilderness, mining, transmission corridors, 

alternative energy, cultural background, access 

and transportation, monitoring and compliance, 

and severability. The Cassia County Public Land 

Use Policy Plan is considered a companion 

planning document to the Cassia County 

Comprehensive Plan (Cassia County 2009).

Simpson’s hedgehog cactus can be found in the Reserve.

NEXT STEPS IN THE 

PLANNING PROCESS

After distribution of the draft GMP/EIS, there 

will be a 60-day public review and comment 

period after which the planning team will 

evaluate comments from other governmental 

agencies, tribes, organizations, businesses, 

and individuals regarding the draft plan. The 

planning team will then incorporate appropriate 

changes to produce a final GMP/EIS.

The final GMP/EIS will include letters from 

governmental agencies, any substantive 

comments on the draft GMP/EIS, and planning 

team responses to those comments. Following 

distribution of the final GMP/EIS and a 30-day 

no-action period, a Record of Decision (ROD) 

will document the NPS/IDPR selection of an 

alternative for implementation. The Record of 

Decision must then be approved and signed 

by the NPS Pacific West Regional Director. 

When the Record of Decision is signed and 

approved, the public will be notified and the 

final GMP can be implemented. Specific actions 

and plans derived from the GMP may require 

additional environmental impact analysis and/or 

implementation of mitigation measures.

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE 

GENERAL MANAGEMENT PLAN

Implementation of the approved GMP will 

depend on future funding. The approval of a 

general management plan does not necessarily 

guarantee that the funding and staffing needed 

to implement the plan will be forthcoming. Full 

implementation of the approved GMP may be 

many years in the future.

Implementation of the approved plan also could 

be affected by other factors, such as changes in 

visitor use patterns, management agreements 

among partner agencies, and unanticipated 

environmental changes. Once the GMP has 

been approved, additional feasibility studies 

and more detailed site specific documentation, 

planning, and compliance will be completed, 

as appropriate, before many proposed actions 

could be carried out. Several management 

actions and plans that would require additional 

environmental impact analysis would be 

prepared subsequent to the approval of this 

GMP. Among others, these include the revised 

grazing and fire management plans and some 

actions associated with the Rim development 

concept plan.

Future implementation plans, such as those 

described above will tier from the approved 

GMP/EIS and will be based on the goals, future 

conditions, and appropriated types of activities 

established upon approval of the final GMP/EIS.

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Chapter 2

Foundation for Planning and Management

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Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning 

and Management

This chapter contains a summary of the 

foundation document developed for City of Rocks 

National Reserve. The foundation document 

provides a shared understanding of the Reserve’s 

purpose, significance, fundamental resources and 

values, interpretive themes, and special mandates 

and legal requirements. Elements of foundation 

documents are discussed below.

PURPOSE OF THE

FOUNDATION DOCUMENT

The foundation document is used to guide 

current and future planning and management 

of City of Rocks National Reserve. The 

foundation document contains a description 

of the Reserve’s purpose, significance, 

fundamental resources and values, interpretive 

themes, special mandates, and the legal/

policy requirements for administration and 

resource protection. The primary advantage 

of developing a foundation document is the 

recorded understanding of what is most 

important about the Reserve that provides the 

basis for future planning and decision-making.

ELEMENTS OF A 

FOUNDATION DOCUMENT

The legislation that created the City of Rocks 

National Reserve guided the planning team in 

understanding and documenting why Congress 

and the president created the Reserve. The 

foundation document defines each of the 

following elements:

PURPOSE

The purpose is a statement of why Congress 

and/or the president established the Reserve as 

a unit of the national park system. The purpose 

statement provides the most fundamental 

criteria against which the appropriateness of 

all planning recommendations, operational 

decisions, and actions are tested. The purpose of 

the Reserve is based on its enabling legislation 

and legislative history.

SIGNIFICANCE

Guided by legislation and the knowledge 

acquired through management, research, and 

civic engagement, statements of significance 

define what is most important about the 

Reserve’s resources and values. In developing 

the significance statements, the planning 

team focused on the attributes that make the 

Reserve’s resources or values important enough 

to be included in the national park system. 

City of Rocks National Reserve contains many 

significant resources, but not all these resources 

contribute to the Reserve’s national park 

unit status.

The purpose and significance statements are 

used to guide all planning and management 

decisions to ensure that the resources and values 

considered most significant by Congress and the 

president are the Reserve’s first priority.

FUNDAMENTAL RESOURCES 

AND VALUES

The City of Rocks National Reserve works to 

ensure that those resources and values that 

are fundamental to maintaining the Reserve’s 

significance are preserved for public enjoyment. 

Understanding the resources and values that 

support each significance statement will provide 

managers and planners with a focus on what 

is truly most important about a park. If the 

fundamental resources and values are degraded, 

then the significance of what is most important 

about the Reserve may be jeopardized.

View of rock formations through a rock opening/arch.

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Defining the fundamental resources and values 

does not preclude the consideration of other 

important resources and values. The National 

Park Service planning process calls for a rigorous 

analysis of the impacts of proposed actions on 

all components of the environment, particularly 

those resources and values determined to be 

so important nationally or locally that they are 

protected by law.

ANALYSIS OF FUNDAMENTAL 

RESOURCES AND VALUES

The analysis articulates the importance of 

the fundamental resources and values, their 

current conditions, potential threats, and the 

issues that need consideration in planning 

and management. Included in the analysis 

is the identification of relevant laws and 

NPS policies related to the preservation and 

management of the resources. In addition, 

stakeholders who have a substantial interest in 

the preservation or management of a particular 

resource are identified. This section of the 

foundation document will require periodic 

reviews and updates as monitoring and 

research improves our understanding of each 

fundamental resource and value. (The analysis 

of fundamental resources and values in not 

included in this GMP, but is part of the City of 

Rocks National Reserve Foundation Document 

[January 2007]. Copies can be obtained by 

contacting the Reserve.)

INTERPRETIVE THEMES

Interpretive themes are the key stories and 

concepts of the Reserve and describe what 

needs to be interpreted to provide visitors with 

opportunities to understand and appreciate the 

purpose and significance of the Reserve. The 

development of interpretive themes provides the 

foundation on which the Reserve’s educational 

and interpretive programs are based.

SPECIAL MANDATES

Special mandates are legal requirements and 

administrative commitments that apply to the 

Reserve. These special mandates may include 

direction from Congress or formal agreements 

with other public or private entities. The 

special mandates are identified to ensure their 

consideration in all planning and decision 

making about the Reserve.

PURPOSE OF CITY OF ROCKS 

NATIONAL RESERVE

City of Rocks National Reserve was created 

to preserve and protect through cooperative 

efforts the scenic qualities and attributes of the 

California Trail landscape, historic rural setting, 

and granite features, while interpreting its values 

and managing recreation.

Geology bread loaves.

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SIGNIFICANCE, FUNDAMENTAL 

RESOURCES AND VALUES, AND 

INTERPRETIVE THEMES OF CITY 

OF ROCKS NATIONAL RESERVE

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT 1 – 

EMIGRANT HISTORY

City of Rocks National Reserve preserves the most 

intact and authentic setting of the California Trail 

that was part of the largest overland emigration 

route in American history. City of Rocks served 

as a landmark and critical refuge that inspired 

numerous written accounts of the landscape.

Fundamental Resources and Values

•	 California Trail remnants and artifacts 

such as wagon ruts, inscriptions, 

and encampments

•	 Diaries, art, and other written records 

documenting the experiences and 

thoughts of emigrants passing through 

City of Rocks

•	 Vegetation communities (1840–70) 

observed by the emigrants

•	 Geologic formations that provided 

landmarks and inspiration for the 

emigrants (such as naming of rocks)

•	 Watering sources (springs and streams) 

that supported the emigrants’ experience

•	 Archives of the Reserve that document 

the signatures, historic vegetation 

communities, and emigrant encampments

Interpretive Theme

•	 City of Rocks was a major landmark for 

emigrants traveling along the California 

Trail. City of Rocks provided rest and 

inspiration for the many weary travelers 

who were heading for Granite Pass and 

ultimately for California or Oregon.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT 2 – 

TIMELESS SCENERY

The Reserve has a timeless natural quality and 

protects and preserves outstanding scenery set 

among sculpted granite monoliths framed by the 

Albion and surrounding mountains.

Fundamental Resources and Values

•	 Unobstructed views of the natural 

landscape, which include towering 

rock pinnacles, vegetative patterns, and 

changing elevation

•	 Dominance of natural sounds such as 

birds and wind (soundscapes)

•	 Clear atmospheric conditions that provide 

for pristine airsheds and clear night skies

Interpretive Theme

•	 The timeless scenery of City of Rocks 

National Reserve is broad and expansive 

yet accessible and personal. People 

develop a personal relationship with 

this landscape as evidenced by emigrant 

journals and comments from modernday visitors.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT 3 – 

RURAL SETTING

City of Rocks National Reserve embraces the 

historic rural setting by preserving remnants of 

traditional occupation, transportation, and land 

use of the people who lived here.

Fundamental Resources and Values

•	 Remnant structures and features of the 

historic City of Rocks stage station along 

the historic Kelton-Boise stage route

•	 Structures and features associated 

with historic land uses of the Reserve 

are evidence of ranching, mining, and 

dryland farming

•	 Natural landscape of what is now City 

of Rocks National Reserve was used for 

thousands of years by different peoples

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Interpretive Theme

•	 The rural setting of City of Rocks National 

Reserve still provides authenticity to the 

traditional western rural lifestyles of the 

past 150 years.

Dark clouds over Chicken Rock.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT 4 – 

INSPIRATIONAL LANDSCAPE

The Reserve is a dramatic geologic landscape 

with naturally sculptured spires and domes that 

evoked emotional responses, as recorded in 

emigrant diaries and by visitors today.

Fundamental Resources and Values

•	 Rare geologic landscape of densely spaced 

granite spires and domes enclosed within 

a mountain basin

Interpretive Theme

•	 Erosion of a cross-jointed granite pluton 

has resulted in the formation of a maze 

of spires and domes that are noted for 

their impressive scenery, stark silence, and 

inspirational qualities.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT 5 – 

GEOLOGIC RESOURCES

The Reserve preserves an uplifted and eroded 

landscape that reveals geologic structures, 

igneous intrusions, and a rare exposure of some 

of the oldest and deepest crustal metamorphic 

rocks in the western United States.

Fundamental Resources and Values

•	 Geologic structures and rock types that 

provide opportunities for scientists and 

visitors to observe and understand (1) 

ancient and recent tectonic events that 

raised the mountainous interior of the 

western United States and (2) surficial 

processes of weathering, erosion, 

and deposition that shape the current 

landscape and reveal otherwise buried 

structures and ancient rocks

Interpretive Theme

•	 The uplifted and eroded rocks at City of 

Rocks National Reserve are like an open 

window into the crust of the earth where 

visitors and scientists can view (1) geologic 

structures and ancient rocks resulting 

from a long history of tectonic events that 

raised the mountainous interior of the 

western United States and (2) landforms 

that provide clues to the surficial processes 

of weathering, erosion, and deposition 

that shaped the current landscape.

Diagram of prevailing rock types at City of Rocks.

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SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT 6 – 

ROCK CLIMBING

City of Rocks National Reserve provides one of 

the highest quality granite face-climbing areas in 

the United States.

Rock climbing and many recreational activities are accommodated.

Fundamental Resources and Values

•	 World-class climbing area due to the 

combination of excellent quality granite, a 

preponderance of easy to moderate wellprotected climbs, and a naturally quiet and 

austere western setting

Interpretive Theme

•	 People come from around the world to 

experience the challenge of climbing the 

rocks in a quiet and scenic western setting.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT 7 – 

BIOGEOGRAPHIC CROSSROADS

The Reserve occurs at a biogeographic 

crossroads and protects a rich ecological 

diversity, providing exceptional opportunities 

for scientific study and shared learning.

Fundamental Resources and Values

•	 Unique representation of plant and animal 

species distribution, encompassing the 

northern extent of some species while 

including the southern extent of others

Interpretive Theme

•	 Because the Reserve is located between 

the Great Basin and the Upper Columbia 

Basin, a diversity of plants and animals 

can be studied, observed, and enjoyed in a 

relatively small area.

SPECIAL MANDATES 

AND ADMINISTRATIVE 

COMMITMENTS

Often there are special mandates or constraints 

that direct national park system unit planning 

and management decisions. The special 

mandates are specific directions or agreements 

that relate directly to the park unit. Mandates 

might be a legislative requirement or a signed 

agreement that adds another dimension to 

a park unit’s purpose and significance: for 

example, mandates could include an agreement 

that an area is managed by another entity, or 

they might include a unique designation such 

as a wilderness area, a world heritage area, or a 

biosphere reserve.

Additionally, mandates—such as long-term 

cooperative agreements and easements—can 

commit managers to specific actions and limit 

their ability to modify land use in the park unit. 

Mandates and constraints are specific to City of 

Rocks National Reserve. There are also law and 

policy considerations that relate to the national 

Geology depression against a concave flared granite 

wall functions like a cistern.

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park system as a whole; these are described 

at the end of this foundation document (see 

“Desired Conditions and Potential Management 

Strategies Derived from Laws, Regulations, 

and Policies”).

MANAGEMENT OF THE 

NATIONAL RESERVE

City of Rocks National Reserve is a unit of the 

national park system managed by the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation under 

Cooperative Agreement 1443-CA9000-96-0002.

USE OF PRIVATE PROPERTY WITHIN 

CITY OF ROCKS NATIONAL RESERVE

Private land uses are subject to Cassis County 

ordinances that are designed to protect the 

historic rural setting. The county’s Historic 

Preservation Zone limits existing landowners to 

one residence and land use consistent with that 

of 1988 and earlier. The Historic Preservation 

Zone does not fully cover the Reserve (a portion 

of the southeast section of the Reserve was left 

out) and this may not fully protect and preserve 

the historic and natural features in that area.

HUNTING WITHIN CITY OF ROCKS 

NATIONAL RESERVE

Public Law 101-512, dated November 5, 

1990, provides that hunting will be permitted 

in accordance with applicable laws of the 

United States and the State of Idaho, except 

in designated zones where and periods when 

no hunting may be permitted for reasons of 

public safety, administration, floral and faunal 

protection and management, or public use 

and enjoyment.

WATER RIGHTS

Within Public Law 100-696, dated November 

18, 1988, Congress recognized that unique 

circumstances exist regarding water and waterrelated resources within the Reserve. The State 

of Idaho has committed to providing the water 

necessary to fulfill the purposes of the Reserve. 

In addition, Congress recognized that there 

is little or no water or water-related resources 

that require the protection of a federal-reserved 

water right. However, the Reserve is entitled to 

federal reserved water rights associated with 

the initial withdrawal of the land for national 

forest purposes.

DISPOSITION AND MINING

Subject to valid existing rights, federal lands and 

interests within the Reserve are (1) withdrawn 

from disposition under the public land laws, 

(2) withdrawn from entry or appropriation 

under the mining laws of the United States, 

and (3) withdrawn from the operation of the 

mineral leasing laws, and from operation of the 

Geothermal Steam Act of 1970, as amended.

The Reserve’s pinyon pine woodlands provide an opportunity for 

scientific research as well as visitor enjoyment and pine-nut gathering.

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SUMMARY OF PRESIDENTIAL, LEGISLATIVE, AND 

ADMINISTRATIVE ACTIONS

City of Rocks National Reserve was designated as a national reserve and a unit of the national park system 

in 1988.

Table 1. Summary of Presidential, Legislative, and Administrative Actions

Public Law Date Summary

Public Law 100-696

Arizona-Idaho 

Conservation Act of 1988

Approved November 

18, 1988

Establishes City of Rocks National Reserve—to provide for the 

designation and conservation of certain lands in the states of 

Arizona and Idaho.

Public Law 101-512

Hunting in City of Rocks 

National Reserve

Approved 

November 5, 1990

Legislates hunting in City of Rocks National Reserve under Idaho 

Department of Fish and Game, except in high visitor use zones.

Public Law 106-421,

Castle Rock Ranch 

Acquisition Act of 2000

Approved 

November 1, 2000

Directs the Secretary of Interior to enter into a land exchange 

to acquire from the private owner and to convey to the state of 

Idaho approximately 1,240 acres of land near the City of Rocks 

National Reserve, Idaho.

Public Law 102-328, 

Amends the National Trail 

System Act

Approved 

August 3, 1992

Legislates the California National Historic Trail as a component of 

the national trails system.

The National Trails Systems Act [PL 90-543], enacted into law in 

1968, defined the purpose of the national historic trails as “the 

identification and protection of the historic route and its historic 

remnants and artifacts for public use and enjoyment.”

City of Rocks National 

Historic Landmark 

designation by Secretary of 

the Interior

1964 Designates City of Rocks, significant under the themes of 

transportation and exploration, as one of the great natural 

landmarks on the California Trail. The first practicable route to 

California, north of the Great Salt Lake, passed directly through 

the City of Rocks valley. After 1846 it was sometimes referred to 

as the “Applegate Trail,” used by Oregon-bound emigrants. Many 

tar-filled inscriptions carved into the soft granite columns are still 

discernible today and are evidence of pioneering expeditions that 

traveled through the valley throughout the 19th century.

National historic landmarks are nationally significant historic places 

designated by the Secretary of the Interior because they possess 

exceptional value or quality in illustrating or interpreting the 

heritage of the United States.

City of Rocks National 

Natural Landmark

1974 This designation commemorates City of Rocks for its unique 

geology that exhibits nationally significant features, including the 

dominance of bornhardt formations, the scarcity of tors, a wide 

range of elevations over which the landforms are distributed, and 

evidence that the landforms have been carved from the upper 

parts of a pluton.

The National Natural Landmark Program was established by the 

Secretary of the Interior to identify, recognize, and encourage 

the protection of sites containing the best remaining examples 

of ecological, and geological components of the nation’s 

natural heritage.

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DESIRED CONDITIONS AND 

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT 

STRATEGIES DERIVED FROM 

LAWS, REGULATIONS, AND 

POLICIES

To fully understand the implications, limitations, 

or requirements of an alternative proposed 

in this GMP/EIS, it is important to compare 

the servicewide laws and policies with the 

management actions described in the alternative. 

To facilitate this process, this section identifies 

what must be done at City of Rocks National 

Reserve to comply with applicable laws, 

regulations, and policies. Management directives 

derived from these sources are summarized 

in two ways: as the desired conditions they set 

forth, and the potential management strategies 

park managers may employ to achieve them. 

These are then used to assess the merits of 

alternatives during the planning process.

Many management directives for the Reserve 

are specified in laws, regulations, and policies 

guiding the National Park Service and therefore 

are not subject to alternative approaches. For 

example, there are laws and policies about 

managing environmental quality, such as the 

Clean Air Act and the Endangered Species 

Act; laws governing the preservation of 

cultural resources and cultural values, such 

as the National Historic Preservation Act and 

the Native American Graves Protection and 

Repatriation Act; and laws about providing 

public services, such as the Americans with 

Disabilities Act—to name only a few. In other 

words, a general management plan is not needed 

to decide, for instance, that it is appropriate to 

protect endangered species, control nonnative 

species, protect archeological sites, conserve 

artifacts, or provide for universal access—laws 

and policies already require the National Park 

Service to fulfill these mandates. The National 

Park Service would continue to strive to 

implement these requirements with or without a 

new general management plan.

Some laws and executive orders are applicable 

solely or primarily to units of the national park 

system. These include the 1916 Organic Act 

that created the National Park Service; the 

General Authorities Act of 1970; the National 

Parks and Recreation Act of 1978, relating to the 

management of the national park system; and 

the National Parks Omnibus Management Act 

(1998). Other laws and executive orders, such 

as those addressing environmental quality, have 

much broader application.

The NPS Organic Act provides the fundamental 

management direction for all units of the 

national park system. It states, “The National 

Park Service shall promote and regulate the 

use of the Federal areas known as national 

parks, monuments, and reservations . . . by 

such means and measure as conform to the 

fundamental purpose of said parks, monuments 

and reservations, which purpose is to conserve 

the scenery and the natural and historic objects 

and the wild life therein and to provide for the 

enjoyment of the same in such manner and by 

such means as will leave them unimpaired for 

the enjoyment of future generations.”

The National Park Service General Authorities 

Act affirms that while all national park system 

units remain “distinct in character,” they are 

“united through their interrelated purposes 

and resources into one national park system 

as cumulative expressions of a single national 

heritage.” The act makes it clear that the NPS 

Organic Act and other protective mandates 

apply equally to all units of the system. 

Further, the Redwood Act of 1978 states that 

NPS management of park units should not 

“derogat[e]...the purposes and values for which 

these various areas have been established.” 

The National Park Service also has established 

policies for all units under its stewardship. These 

are identified and explained in an NPS guidance 

manual entitled Management Policies 2006. 

The alternatives considered in this document 

incorporate and comply with the provisions of 

these mandates and policies.

The most pertinent servicewide laws and policy 

topics related to planning and managing the 

Reserve are examined below. For each topic, 

there is a series of desired conditions that the 

Reserve staff is achieving, and will continue to 

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strive to achieve, for that topic. The law or policy behind these desired conditions is cited, and examples 

of the types of actions being pursued by Reserve staff are given. The alternatives in this GMP/EIS address 

the desired future conditions that are not mandated by law and policy and must be determined through a 

planning process.

Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Natural Resources Ecosystem Management

Law and Policy Source

NPS Management Policies 2006 (§1.5, 4, 4.1, 4.1.4, 4.4.1) provides general direction for 

managing national park units from an ecosystem perspective.

Desired Conditions

City of Rocks National Reserve is managed holistically, as part of a greater ecological, social, 

economic, and cultural system.

The Reserve develops and maintains a current land protection plan that identifies means of 

protection available to achieve the purposes for which the Reserve was created.

Reserve managers seek to maintain all components and processes of naturally evolving park 

ecosystems. Natural disturbance and change are recognized as an integral part of the functioning 

of natural systems.

Through partnerships and cooperative agreements, the Reserve staff works with other land 

managers in the Northern Basin and Range Ecosystem (North American Desert) to accomplish 

mutual objectives for providing wildlife corridors, protecting biodiversity and key habitats, etc.

In collaboration with landowners inside and outside the Reserve, viewsheds within and adjacent 

to the Reserve are protected.

The Reserve provides benchmarks or “control” conditions for studies of ecosystem processes in 

(largely) unmanipulated landscapes, such as the Research Natural Area, helping to determine the 

Reserve’s own resource preservation goals and those of adjacent lands.

Natural processes of ecosystem disturbance and change function unimpeded, and are altered 

only as needed to provide for visitor and staff safety and access, to protect Reserve facilities in 

developed areas, and to maintain cultural landscapes.

“Purification” services provided by Reserve ecosystems are protected and maintained, thus 

helping to provide clean air and water for Reserve resources and the surrounding area. Soil and 

water resources are free of contaminants.

Ecosystems and habitats damaged by human activities or nonnative species are restored. 

Future development avoids sensitive habitats and dynamic areas prone to natural disturbances, 

if possible.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Participate in collaborative planning efforts with adjacent land managers and tribal 

governments to identify common goals, pursue solutions, and build joint data sets through 

information sharing.

•  Prepare a land protection strategy for the Reserve.

•  Maintain intact ecological functions in keystone habitats.

•  Restore habitats and disturbance regimes that have been altered in the Reserve while 

balancing needs to conserve threatened and endangered species, maintain existing critical 

facilities and road access, and provide for public safety.

•  Protect and, as necessary, restore the natural cycling of nutrients in damaged ecosystems 

and habitats.

•  Provide interpretive and educational programs about ecosystem processes, “ecological 

services,” and methods to sustain these.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Natural Resources Ecosystem Management

DUPLICATE Law and Policy Source

NPS Management Policies 2006 (§1.5, 4, 4.1, 4.1.4, 4.4.1) provides general direction for 

managing national park units from an ecosystem perspective.

Desired Conditions

City of Rocks National Reserve is managed holistically, as part of a greater ecological, social, 

economic, and cultural system.

The Reserve develops and maintains a current land protection plan that identifies means of 

protection available to achieve the purposes for which the Reserve was created.

Reserve managers seek to maintain all components and processes of naturally evolving park 

ecosystems. Natural disturbance and change are recognized as an integral part of the functioning 

of natural systems.

Through partnerships and cooperative agreements, the Reserve staff works with other land 

managers in the Northern Basin and Range Ecosystem (North American Desert) to accomplish 

mutual objectives for providing wildlife corridors, protecting biodiversity and key habitats, etc.

In collaboration with landowners inside and outside the Reserve, viewsheds within and adjacent 

to the Reserve are protected.

The Reserve provides benchmarks or “control” conditions for studies of ecosystem processes in 

(largely) unmanipulated landscapes, such as the Research Natural Area, helping to determine the 

Reserve’s own resource preservation goals and those of adjacent lands.

Natural processes of ecosystem disturbance and change function unimpeded, and are altered 

only as needed to provide for visitor and staff safety and access, to protect Reserve facilities in 

developed areas, and to maintain cultural landscapes.

“Purification” services provided by Reserve ecosystems are protected and maintained, thus 

helping to provide clean air and water for Reserve resources and the surrounding area. Soil and 

water resources are free of contaminants.

Ecosystems and habitats damaged by human activities or nonnative species are restored. 

Future development avoids sensitive habitats and dynamic areas prone to natural disturbances, 

if possible.

Potential Management Strategies

Participate in collaborative planning efforts with adjacent land managers and tribal governments 

to identify common goals, pursue solutions, and build joint data sets through information 

sharing.

Prepare a land protection strategy for the Reserve.

Maintain intact ecological functions in keystone habitats.

Restore habitats and disturbance regimes that have been altered in the Reserve while balancing 

needs to conserve threatened and endangered species, maintain existing critical facilities and 

road access, and provide for public safety.

Protect and, as necessary, restore the natural cycling of nutrients in damaged ecosystems and 

habitats.

Provide interpretive and educational programs about ecosystem processes, “ecological services,” 

and methods to sustain these.

Natural Resources Fire Management

Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Law and Policy Source

NPS Management Policies 2006 (§4.5); Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy; Director’s 

Order 41: Wilderness Stewardship; Director’s Order 18: Wildland Fire Management and the 

accompanying Reference Manual 18: Wildland Fire Management provide guidance on the basic 

principles and strategic guidelines governing the management of wildland fire by the National 

Park Service.

Desired Conditions

Fire management programs will be designed to meet resource management objectives prescribed 

for the various areas of the Reserve and to ensure that the safety of firefighters and the public 

are not compromised.

All wildland fires are effectively managed, considering resource values to be protected and 

firefighter and public safety, using the full range of strategic and tactical operations as described 

in an approved fire management plan.

Natural fire regimes are restored and maintained, but will be modified to comply with air quality 

regulations, and/or to protect listed species, cultural resources, and the safety of life and property.

The best available technology and scientific information are used to manage fire within the 

Reserve, to conduct routine monitoring to determine if objectives are met, and to evaluate and 

improve the fire management program.

Hazard fuel reduction efforts protect structures such as the Nicholson ranch house, Ward ranch 

house, restrooms and two well housings, public parks-private interface areas, and cultural 

resources where appropriate and necessary.

Recognizing fire as a natural process that does not acknowledge administrative boundaries, land 

managers develop a comprehensive cross-boundary fire management plan with adjacent land 

managers, such as the U.S. Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Maintain a current fire management plan to reflect the most recent wildland fire policy, fire 

use applications, and the body of knowledge on fire effects within the unit’s vegetation types.

•  Maintain cooperative agreements for fire suppression with appropriate federal, tribal, state, 

and local agencies and organizations.

•  Monitor individual prescribed fires to provide information on whether specific objectives 

regarding smoke behavior, fire effects, etc. are met.

•  Conduct fire history research and other studies to describe the Reserve’s natural fire regime.

•  Conduct research and monitor the effects of fires in the Reserve to ensure that long-term 

resource objectives are met.

•  Consider fire as a management tool to maintain native plant communities and control 

nonnative species.

•  Provide information to visitors about the role of fire in northwest ecosystems.

Other fire management program goals and objectives from the fire management plan:

•  To suppress unplanned, human-caused ignitions.

•  To restore and maintain forest composition in selected areas where natural ecosystems have 

been altered by fire suppression and other human activities.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Natural Resources Native Species

Law and Policy Source

NPS Management Policies 2006 (§4.4) calls for the National Park Service to maintain natural 

ecosystems in parks and to restore native plant and animal populations. NPS Natural Resource 

Management Reference Manual 77 also provides general direction on the restoration of natural 

resources for the Reserve.

Desired Conditions

The National Park Service maintains, as parts of the natural ecosystem, all native plants and 

animals in the Reserve, including all five of the commonly recognized kingdoms of living things 

(encompassing flowering plants, ferns, mosses, lichens, algae, fungi, bacteria, mammals, birds, 

reptiles, amphibians, fishes, etc.).

The National Park Service strives to protect the full range of genetic types (genotypes) of native 

plant and animal populations by perpetuating natural evolutionary processes and minimizing 

human interference with evolving genetic diversity.

The National Park Service strives to restore extirpated native plant and animal species to parks 

when specific criteria are met regarding habitat availability, safety, genetic type, and reason for 

extirpation.

The Reserve provides naturally evolving examples of plant and animal communities.

Animal and plant populations in the Reserve are managed to promote long-term viability, 

including maintaining age-structures, abundance, density, and distributions within normal ranges, 

and a full range of natural genetic variability.

Extirpated native species are restored when feasible.

Effects of native diseases and pests are within normal range of variation, and are not worsened 

by human-caused factors.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Complete an inventory of the plants and animals in the Reserve. Regularly monitor the 

distribution and condition of selected species that indicate ecosystem condition and diversity.

•  Develop and implement restoration plans for extirpated species, such as pygmy rabbit, 

pronghorn antelope, and peregrine falcon, subject to meeting all five criteria required by NPS 

Management Policies 2006 for restoring native species (§4.4.2.2).

•  Restore native biological communities and habitats. Minimize human impacts on native 

species, ecosystems, and the processes that sustain them.

•  Preserve genetic diversity by maintaining the abundance of unique populations at or above 

levels necessary for genetic variability.

•  In cooperation with other agencies and tribal governments, preserve healthy populations 

and provide safe migratory corridors for wide-ranging wildlife populations such as mule deer 

and elk.

•  Protect the Reserve’s biotic communities from impacts due to human activities and facilities 

while ensuring that visitors have ample opportunity to visit and enjoy these ecosystems.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Natural Resources Nonnative Species

Law and Policy Source

NPS Management Policies 2006 (§4.4) calls for the National Park Service to maintain natural 

ecosystems in parks and to restore native plant and animal populations. NPS Management 

Policies 2006 (§4.4.5.2) states that each park unit will use an integrated pest management 

approach to address pest issues. NPS Natural Resource Management Reference Manual 77 also 

provides general direction on the restoration of natural resources for the Reserve. Executive Order 

13112, “Invasive Species” provides direction for the management of nonnative species.

Desired Conditions

Populations of invasive, nonnative plant and animal species are managed, including eradication, 

wherever such species threaten Reserve resources or public health and when control is prudent 

and feasible using integrated pest management techniques.

Reserve ecosystems are free of nonnative species where feasible, with the exception of 

noninvasive species that are documented as innocuous, and are a contributing element of a 

cultural landscape (as defined by The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the Treatment of 

Historic Properties with Guidelines for the Treatment of Cultural Landscapes).

Particularly sensitive habitats in the Reserve, including those containing endemic or rare species, 

are maintained free of nonnative species.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Complete an inventory of plants, animals and, as feasible, other organisms in the Reserve 

and regularly monitor the distribution and condition of selected species including invasive 

nonnative species.

•  Study the environmental and ecological effects of nonnative species invasion to assess 

threats, prioritize management actions, and prevent introduction and establishment of 

nonnative species.

•  Monitor the condition of native species, populations, and communities that may be 

vulnerable to nonnative and potentially catastrophic diseases or organisms such as West Nile 

virus, pine bark beetle, and others. Implement management programs to prevent and develop 

a long-term program to reverse the destructive effects of nonnative species.

•  In management zones, limit planting of nonnative species to noninvasive, innocuous plants 

that are justified by the historic scene or operational needs.

•  Control or eliminate nonnative plants and animals, diseases, and pest species where there 

is a reasonable expectation of success and sustainability using integrated pest management 

techniques. Base control efforts on

» the potential threat to visitor health or safety

» the potential threat to legally protected or uncommon native species and habitats

» the potential threat to scenic and aesthetic quality

» the potential threat to common native species and habitat

•  Implement management actions in the Reserve in a manner that minimizes the introduction 

or increase in invasive nonnative species, both number and type.

•  Work in cooperation with agencies, tribes, and local communities on nonnative 

species control.

•  Provide interpretive and educational programs on the preservation of native species.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Natural Resources Rare, Threatened, and Endangered Species

Law and Policy Source

Under the Endangered Species Act, the National Park Service is mandated to promote the 

conservation of all federal threatened and endangered species and their critical habitats within 

park unit boundaries. NPS Management Policies 2006 (§4.4.2.3) also call for the agency to 

survey for, protect, and strive to recover all species native to park units that are listed under the 

Endangered Species Act. In addition, the National Park Service is directed to inventory, monitor, 

and manage state-listed species in a manner similar to the treatment of federally listed species, to 

the greatest extent possible.

Desired Conditions

Federally listed and state-listed threatened and endangered species and their habitats are 

protected and sustained. At this time, the Reserve has no federal- or state-listed threatened and 

endangered species.

Native threatened and endangered species populations that have been severely reduced in or 

extirpated from the unit are restored where feasible and sustainable.

Threatened, endangered, or otherwise imperiled species in the Reserve show increasing trends 

leading to improvement in the species’ status and ultimately to recovery. State-listed and federally 

listed wildlife populations are stable or increasing, as measured by monitored parameters such 

as survival of specific bat and raptor species and sagebrush obligates and habitat (such as 

sage grouse).

Habitats that support or are suitable for sensitive, rare, endemic, or listed species are protected, 

such as sagebrush habitat, pinyon-juniper woodland, and functioning and healthy wetland and 

riparian habitat.

If species become listed, visitors to the Reserve learn about species in the Reserve that are listed 

under the Endangered Species Act, as well as actions that may assist their recovery.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Support research that contributes to management knowledge of rare and protected species 

and their habitat. Incorporate findings in interpretive and education programs.

•  Inventory rare or protected species in the Reserve and regularly monitor their distribution, 

condition, and population trends. Modify management plans to be more effective, based on 

the results of monitoring.

•  Manage designated critical habitat, essential habitat, and recovery areas to maintain and 

enhance their value for listed species, if applicable.

•  Consult with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to ensure that NPS actions comply with the 

Endangered Species Act.

•  If species are listed, implement management actions in the Reserve in a manner that 

minimizes the potential adverse effect on listed species and their habitat.

•  Participate in the recovery planning process when appropriate. Cooperate with the U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service to implement recovery plans approved by the agency for any listed 

species found in the Reserve.

•  To the greatest extent possible, inventory, monitor, and manage state-listed and locally listed 

species in a manner similar to federally listed species.

•  Work with neighboring land and resource managers to obtain information on the status and 

trends of little-known, but potentially at-risk wildlife species, such as ringtail cat, bobcat, kit 

fox, and pygmy rabbit.

•  If species are listed, provide information to visitors regarding listed species that occur in the 

Reserve and measures to promote their recovery.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Natural Resources Air Quality

Law and Policy Source

The Clean Air Act (42 USC 7401 et seq.) gives federal land managers the responsibility for 

protecting air quality and air quality related values (AQRVs)— including visibility, plants, animals, 

soils, water quality, cultural resources, and public health—from adverse air pollution impacts. NPS

Management Policies 2006 (§4.7) and NPS Natural Resource Management Reference Manual 77

provide further direction on the protection of air quality and related values for park units. City of 

Rocks National Reserve is a Class II air quality area under the Clean Air Act.

Desired Conditions

Air quality in the Reserve meets national ambient air quality standards for specified pollutants. 

Ecological values related to air quality are protected against the adverse effects of air 

pollution. The Reserve’s air quality and related values are maintained or improved with little or 

no deterioration.

Visibility is excellent, such that scenic views, including integral vistas and views of landscapes 

within and outside the Reserve are clear and distant and adhere to visibility standards.

Area management and visitor service activities promote preservation of excellent air quality, 

including healthful indoor air quality in Idaho facilities.

Views from Reserve overlooks, integral vistas, and scenic stops are not obstructed or marred by 

air pollution for most of each year.

Air quality monitoring within or near the Reserve is able to verify whether trends are improving or 

deteriorating, and whether air quality standards are met within the Reserve.

Air pollution ecological effects research and monitoring confirms air quality related values are not 

being impacted by air pollution.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Cooperate with local air pollution control authorities, the Idaho Department of Environmental 

Quality, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to monitor air quality, including 

visibility, and ensure that these authorities maintain high-quality characteristics consistent with 

EPA, state, and local standards.

•  Inventory and monitor air quality related values associated with the Reserve. Establish 

baseline conditions for and monitor native plants or other species that may be sensitive to 

air pollution.

•  Evaluate air pollution impacts on air quality related values and identify causes.

•  Participate in federal, regional, and local air pollution control plans and drafting of 

regulations, and coordinate with the NPS Air Resources Division to review permit applications 

for major new air pollution sources that may affect the Reserve.

•  Through timing and appropriate equipment, minimize air pollution emissions associated with 

Reserve operations and visitor use activities. Use and demonstrate sustainable practices and 

pollution prevention measures in Reserve operations. Encourage best available practices and 

technologies to provide healthful indoor air quality at IDPR facilities.

•  Form regional partnerships to develop alternative transportation systems and promote 

clean fuels.

•  Provide information regarding air quality and related values to Reserve visitors and encourage 

them to reduce their air pollution emissions.

•  Conduct and assist research on air quality related values to learn about effects of local 

and long-range atmospheric deposition on plants, soils, and wetlands within the Reserve. 

Determine changes in ecosystem function caused by atmospheric deposition and assess the 

resistance and resilience of native ecosystems to the effects of air pollution.

•  Protect air quality at the highest level possible under the Clean Air Act by working 

cooperatively with the State of Idaho to change the Reserve’s designation from a Class II to a 

Class I air quality area.

•  Work to meet the NPS Pacific West Region’s “carbon neutral” goal as soon as possible.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Natural Resources Geologic and Soil Resources

Law and Policy Source

NPS Management Policies 2006 (§4.8) and NPS Natural Resource Management Reference Manual 

77 provide general direction on the protection of geologic and soil resources, including geologic 

features and geologic processes. Other pertinent laws and policies include the 1988 Federal Cave 

Resources Protection Act and 1976 Mining in the Parks Act.

Desired Conditions

The Reserve’s geologic resources are preserved and protected as integral components of the 

Reserve’s natural systems.

The National Park Service actively seeks to understand and preserve the soil resources of the 

Reserve, and to prevent, to the extent possible, the unnatural erosion, physical removal, or 

contamination of the soil, or the soil’s contamination of other resources.

Natural soil resources and processes function in as natural a condition as possible, except where 

special considerations are allowable under policy.

Monitoring and research programs assess conditions and trends in the Reserve’s geoindicators, 

particularly those that are both important to the Reserve’s ecosystem and management, and 

subject to human influence (such as groundwater chemistry, streamflow, stream channel 

morphology, sediment load, slope failures, and erosion).

Surficial geology is mapped for priority areas and critical habitats.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Assess the impacts of natural processes and human-related events on geologic and soil 

resources and restore as warranted.

•  Partner with the U.S. Geological Survey and others to identify, address, and monitor 

geologic hazards.

•  Collect baseline information on soils and develop surficial geology maps for sensitive or 

priority areas.

•  Develop a plan to address geologic and soil research, inventory, and monitoring.

•  Update geologic history of the Reserve, using modern theory and techniques.

•  Update geologic interpretations at interpretive stops or displays.

•  Identify interpretive themes or other opportunities for interpreting the notable geologic 

events or processes that are preserved, exposed, or occur in the Reserve.

•  Prevent or minimize adverse, potentially irreversible impacts on soils. Possibly implement soil 

conservation and soil amendment practices to reduce impacts, and import clean off-site soil, 

or use soil amendments as necessary to restore damaged sites.

•  Minimize soil excavation, erosion, and off-site soil migration during and after any grounddisturbing activity.

•  Survey areas of the Reserve with soil resource problems and take actions appropriate to the 

management prescription to prevent or minimize further erosion, compaction, or deposition.

•  Apply effective best management practices to problem soil erosion and compaction areas in a 

manner that stops or minimizes erosion, restores soil productivity, and reestablishes or sustains 

self-perpetuating vegetative cover.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Natural Resources Water Resources

Law and Policy Source

NPS Management Policies 2006 (§4.6.1, 4.6.2) calls for the National Park Service to perpetuate 

surface and groundwater as integral components of park aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. 

NPS Natural Resource Management Reference Manual 77 provides further direction on the 

management of water quantity on parks, stating the National Park Service will manage and 

use water to protect resources, accommodate visitors, and administer park units within legal 

mandates. The Clean Water Act strives to restore and maintain the integrity of U.S. waters, 

which includes waters found in the recreation area. Other law and policy guidance include the 

Rivers and Harbors Act; Executive Order 11514, “Protection and Enhancement of Environmental 

Quality”; and Executive Order 12088, “Federal Compliance with Pollution Control Standards.”

Desired Conditions

Surface water and groundwater are protected, and water quality meets or exceeds all applicable 

water quality standards.

NPS-permitted programs and facilities and Reserve facilities are maintained and operated to avoid 

pollution of surface water and groundwater.

Water resources in the Reserve meet or exceed all federal and state water quality standards for 

temperature, bacteria, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, toxic substances, pH, and nutrients.

Pollution prevention and protection of water quality to meet the needs of aquatic organisms 

are priorities.

Almost all Reserve water resources meet state criteria for outstanding water resources.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Work with appropriate agencies and partners to determine minimum flow needs and to 

attain the highest possible water quality standards available under the Clean Water Act for 

waters in the Reserve, or waters affecting Reserve resources.

•  Develop and implement an environmental management plan that includes pollution 

prevention and environmental best management practices.

•  Promote water conservation through the National Park Service, Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation, partners, visitors, and Reserve neighbors.

•  Apply best management practices to all pollution-generating activities and facilities in the 

Reserve and take positive steps to reduce such activities.

•  Minimize the use of pesticides, fertilizers, and other chemicals, and manage them in keeping 

with NPS policy and federal regulations.

•  Monitor water flows and water quality in selected areas.

•  Conduct water quality monitoring and research to target detection of change from 

atmospheric input in selected Reserve streams.

•  Manage stormwater runoff appropriately.

•  Encourage public support for and participation in protecting watersheds to promote greater 

public understanding of water resources at City of Rocks National Reserve.

•  Monitor groundwater levels (measure aquifer water table elevation).

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Natural Resources Streams and Floodplains

Law and Policy Source

Floodplains are protected and managed in accordance with Executive Order 11988, “Floodplain 

Management”; NPS Director’s Order 77-2: Floodplain Management and its accompanying 

procedural manual; and NPS Management Policies 2006 (§4.6.4).

Desired Conditions

Natural floodplain values are preserved or restored.

Long-term and short-term environmental effects associated with the occupancy and modification 

of floodplains are avoided when practicable.

When it is not practicable to locate or relocate development or inappropriate human activities to 

a site outside the floodplain, the National Park Service

prepares and approves a statement of findings in accordance with Director’s Order 77-2

uses nonstructural measures as much as practicable to reduce hazards to human life and property

while minimizing impacts on the natural resources of floodplains, ensures that structures and 

facilities are designed to be consistent with the intent of the standards and criteria of the 

National Flood Insurance Program (44 CFR 60)

The most current engineering methods and techniques that minimize adverse effects on natural 

stream processes are used to protect Reserve roads and facilities located in floodplains.

Visitors understand the dynamic nature of the Reserve’s stream systems and the variability of flow 

and sediment movement after storms.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Identify riparian corridors where stream bank failure could occur during flash floods and any 

administrative, maintenance, operational, or visitor facilities located within them.

•  Inventory flood-prone areas near facilities and roads and develop a program to proactively 

protect these using the most current techniques that minimize adverse effects on aquatic and 

riparian habitats and fluvial processes.

•  Locate any new facilities to avoid floodplains. If avoiding floodplains is not feasible, undertake 

other actions to comply with Executive Order 11988, “Floodplain Management”; NPS 

Director’s Order 77-2 and its accompanying procedural manual; and NPS Management 

Policies 2006 (§4.6.4).

•  Work with area partners, including tribes, federal, state, and county agencies, and others, 

to develop restoration plans for at-risk river systems. Use current technologies, over time, to 

restore or improve floodplain and riparian functions altered in the past by bank-hardening 

techniques.

•  Provide information to visitors regarding stream processes and natural flooding regimes.

•  Although grazing and trailing of cattle are currently allowed in all management zones except 

for the Research Natural Area, steps would continue to be taken to keep cattle out of streams 

by fencing.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Natural Resources Wetlands

Law and Policy Source

Wetlands are protected and managed in accordance with the Clean Water Act; Rivers and 

Harbors Act; Executive Order 11514, “Protection and Enhancement of Environmental Quality”; 

Executive Order 11990, “Protection of Wetlands”; NPS Natural Resource Management Reference 

Manual 77; NPS Director’s Order 77-1: Wetland Protection and its accompanying procedural 

manual; and NPS Management Policies 2006 (§4.6.5).

Desired Conditions

Natural and beneficial values of wetlands are preserved and enhanced.

The National Park Service implements a “no net loss of wetlands” policy and strives to achieve a 

longer-term goal of net gain of wetlands across the national park system through the restoration 

of previously degraded wetlands.

To the extent possible, the National Park Service avoids long-term and short-term adverse impacts 

associated with the destruction or modification of wetlands, and avoids direct or indirect support 

of new construction in wetlands wherever there is a practicable alternative.

The National Park Service compensates for remaining unavoidable adverse impacts on wetlands 

by restoring wetlands that have been previously degraded.

“Keystone” species that sustain and depend upon wetland habitats occur in natural distribution 

and numbers.

Reserve visitors have the opportunity to learn about and understand the unique services and 

functions provided by wetlands.

Wetlands near developed areas remain unaffected by maintenance of Reserve facilities or 

management or recreational activities.

Wetlands adversely affected by prior human activity are restored where feasible.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Inventory wetlands within the Reserve and monitor their conditions. The distinct functions 

they perform are identified.

•  Locate any new facilities, or relocate existing facilities to avoid or restore wetlands if feasible. 

If avoiding wetlands is not feasible, undertake other actions such as compensation to comply 

with Executive Order 11990, “Protection of Wetlands”; the Clean Water Act; and Director’s 

Order 77-1: Wetland Protection.

•  Prepare a statement of findings if proposed actions would result in adverse impacts on 

wetlands, including an analysis of alternatives, delineation of the wetland, a wetland 

restoration plan, mitigation, and a functional analysis of the impact site and restoration sites.

•  Complete wetland inventories, and include this information in the planning, management, 

and protection of wetlands. Reserve staff would conduct systematic surveys of Reserve 

watersheds.

•  Encourage the use of wetlands for educational and scientific purposes that do not disrupt 

natural wetland functions.

•  Participate in collaborative planning efforts to protect and restore wetlands within and 

outside the boundaries through cooperative conservation strategies along with adjacent land 

managers and tribal governments.

•  Although grazing and trailing of cattle are currently allowed in all management zones except 

in the Research Natural Area, steps would be taken to ensure that cattle are fenced out of 

riparian areas.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Natural Resources Lightscape Management / Night Sky

Law and Policy Source

NPS Management Policies 2006 (§4.10), recognizes that natural lightscapes are natural resources 

and values that contribute to the visitor experience. The policy further states that the Reserve 

staff will seek to minimize the intrusion of artificial light into the night scene. In natural areas, 

artificial outdoor lighting will be limited to meet basic safety requirements, will be shielded when 

possible, and will employ other minimum impact techniques.

Desired Conditions

Natural darkness and other components of the natural lightscape in the Reserve are protected.

The National Park Service will seek the cooperation of Reserve visitors, neighbors, and local 

government agencies to prevent or minimize the intrusion of artificial light into the night scene 

of the ecosystems of the Reserve.

The Reserve’s inventory of natural resources identifies ecological processes or components that 

uniquely depend upon or are affected by nighttime light.

Artificial light sources in the Reserve’s developed areas are designed to prevent light pollution and 

should set an example to the public of night-sky and wildlife-friendly lighting.

Throughout a majority of the Reserve, visitors have opportunities to experience a naturally dark 

night sky free of light pollution.

Potential Management Strategies

•  The Reserve will cooperate with Reserve visitors, neighbors, and local government agencies 

to find ways to prevent or minimize the intrusion of artificial light into the night scene in 

the Reserve.

•  In developed areas, artificial outdoor lighting will be limited to basic safety requirements and 

will be designed to minimize impacts on the night sky.

•  Reserve staff will evaluate the impacts on the night sky caused by Reserve operations. If 

light sources in the Reserve are affecting night skies, the staff will consider alternatives such 

as shielding lights, changing lamp types, reducing intensity, reducing time of operation, or 

eliminating unnecessary sources. Alternatives such as wayfinding markers and the use of 

portable flashlights will be examined.

•  The Reserve will develop lighting zones to delineate where outdoor lighting is appropriate, 

what type of lighting is needed, and match outdoor lighting to visitor expectations and basic 

safety needs.

•  Guidelines will be developed that articulate best management practices for mitigating 

light pollution.

•  Night sky quality will be inventoried and tracked as feasible by Reserve staff for NPS Night 

Sky Program.

•  Interpretive programs and materials will be provided to help visitors understand the role 

and value of natural lightscape to communicate the status of natural lightscapes within the 

Reserve and to communicate what can be done to protect this resource.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Natural Resources Natural Soundscape

Law and Policy Source

NPS Management Policies 2006 (§4.9) and NPS Director’s Order 47: Soundscape Preservation and 

Noise Management require park managers to preserve the natural soundscape associated with 

the physical and biological resource components of the Reserve, such as the sounds of the wind 

in the trees and birds singing.

Desired Conditions

The National Park Service preserves the natural ambient soundscape, restores degraded 

soundscape to the natural ambient condition wherever possible, and protects the natural 

soundscape from degradation due to noise (such as inappropriate/undesirable humancaused sound).

Noise from management or recreational uses is minimized to provide a high-quality visitor 

experience and protect biological resources and processes that rely on sound (for example 

intraspecies communication, courtship, predation and predator avoidance, and effective use 

of habitat).

The acoustical environment remains unimpaired.

Natural sounds predominate in the park. Noise would not affect appropriate transmission of 

natural sounds.

Visitors have opportunities to experience, understand, and appreciate the Reserve’s natural 

soundscape.

The Reserve monitors key locations throughout the Reserve to ensure protection of the natural 

soundscape.

The Reserve uses best available technology and methods to minimize or mitigate artificial noises 

produced by equipment and management activities.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Monitor and prevent or minimize unnatural sounds that adversely affect Reserve resources or 

values or visitors’ enjoyment of them.

•  Require Reserve staff, contractors, guides and outfitters, and tour bus companies to comply 

with measures designed to reduce noise levels.

•  Minimize noise generated by NPS management activities by moderating administrative 

functions such as the use of motorized equipment.

•  Encourage visitors to avoid unnecessary noise, such as minimizing the use of generators and 

maintaining quiet hours in the campgrounds.

•  Provide interpretive programs and materials to help visitors understand the role of natural 

sounds and the value of the Reserve’s soundscape.

Natural Resources Scenic Resources/Viewsheds

Law and Policy Source

NPS Organic Act and NPS Management Policies (§1.4, 1.6, 3.1) call for the National Park Service 

to conserve and protect scenery and scenic vistas.

Desired Conditions

The scenic views at the Reserve continue to stir imaginations, inspire, and provide opportunities 

for visitors to understand, appreciate, and forge personal connections to the California National 

Historic Trail and the adjacent Northern Basin and Range Ecosystem.

The visual integrity of the California National Historic Trail corridor remains protected.

Intrinsically important scenic vistas and scenic features are not significantly diminished by manmade developments both within and beyond the Reserve.

A natural visual setting is retained.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Work with adjacent and nearby landowners and agencies to minimize any visual impacts from 

nearby developments and to ensure that developments do not encroach on the Reserve.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Cultural Resources Archeological Resources 

Law and Policy Source

Antiquities Act of 1906; Historic Sites Act of 1935; National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, 

as amended; Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979, as amended; The Secretary of 

the Interior’s Standards and Guidelines for Archeology and Historic Preservation; Programmatic 

Agreement among the National Park Service (U.S. Department of the Interior), the Advisory 

Council on Historic Preservation, and the National Conference of State Historic Preservation 

Officers for Compliance with Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (2008); NPS

Management Policies 2006 (§5.3.5.1); and Director’s Order 28: Cultural Resource Management

call for the National Park Service to manage archeological resources in situ unless physical 

disturbance is justified and mitigated by data recovery or other means in concurrence with the 

state historic preservation officer. See also 36 CFR Part 79 and The Secretary of the Interior’s 

Standards and Guidelines for Archeological Documentation.

Desired Conditions

Survey for the identification of archeological sites is complete and documentation including 

determinations of eligibility is finished.

Archeological sites are protected in an undisturbed condition unless it is determined through 

formal processes that disturbance or natural deterioration is unavoidable. Plans for addressing 

known impacts are drafted and implemented.

When disturbance or deterioration is unavoidable, the site is professionally documented and 

excavated, and the resulting artifacts, materials, and records are curated and conserved through 

consultation and formal agreements with the Idaho State Historic Preservation Office, Advisory 

Council on Historic Preservation, and American Indian tribes when the site is associated with one 

of the affiliated tribes.

Interpretation of the human past is provided for visitors once consultation with affiliated tribes 

and the state historic preservation office is completed.

Archeological site baseline data are available. Site conditions are monitored to record changes in 

resource conditions as a result of environmental conditions or visitor use impacts.

Archeological resources degrading from environmental conditions and visitor impacts are 

mitigated through data recovery or other preservation strategies, including site-hardening.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Cultural Resources Archeological Resources

Potential Management Strategies

•  Develop an archeology management plan addressing specific needs for inventory, 

documentation, and research in consultation with affiliated tribes and the state historic 

preservation office.

•  Survey and inventory archeological sites throughout the Reserve; determine and document 

their significance (including determinations of eligibility [DOEs]) consistent with The Secretary 

of the Interior Standards for Archeology and Historic Preservation.

•  Treat all archeological resources as eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places 

pending a formal determination by the National Park Service, the state historic preservation 

office, and associated Indian tribes as to their significance.

•  Determine which archeological sites should be added to the Archeological Sites Management 

Information System and the National Register of Historic Places.

•  Conduct field work.

•  Gather field data regarding habitation sites, rock shelters, lithic scatters, hunting camps, 

gathering areas, and other resources to develop a more accurate predictive model of 

American Indian site distribution and to address related research questions.

•  Inventory, evaluate, and manage archeological resources that reflect late 19th century and 

early 20th century activities, such as mining sites, homestead sites, cabin remains, and 

associated trash dumps. Resources eligible for the National Register of Historic Places will be 

documented and listed.

•  Monitor sites, as needed, on a case-by-case basis monthly, annually, or biannually.

•  Educate visitors on regulations governing protection and conservation of archeological 

resources.

•  Document, track, and prosecute for violations of archeology laws, including the 

Archaeological Resources Protection Act, associated with removal or transport.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Cultural Resources Historic Structures

Law and Policy Source

The Antiquities Act of 1906, and the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended, 

call for analyzing the effects of possible federal actions on historic structures in, or eligible for, 

the National Register of Historic Places and for inventorying and evaluating their significance 

and condition. A Programmatic Agreement among the National Park Service, the Advisory 

Council on Historic Preservation, and the National Conference of State Historic Preservation 

Officers for Compliance with section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (2008) and 

NPS Management Policies 2006 (§5.3.5.4) call for the treatment of historic structures, including 

prehistoric ones, to be based on sound preservation practice to enable the long-term preservation 

of a structure’s historic features, materials, and qualities. All treatment of historic structures must 

comply with The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties. 

Also See also Director’s Order 28: Cultural Resource Management.

Desired Conditions

Historic structures are inventoried and their significance and integrity are evaluated under 

National Register of Historic Places criteria.

The qualities that contribute to the listing, or eligibility for listing, of historic structures in the 

National Register of Historic Places are protected in accordance with The Secretary of the 

Interior’s Standards and for the Treatment of Historic Properties, unless it is determined through a 

formal process that disturbance or natural deterioration is unavoidable.

The historic character of historic buildings and structures are managed in accordance with section 

5.3.5.4 of NPS Management Policies 2006.

Historic structure inventories and reports are prepared and existing reports amended as needed. 

Actions identified in historic structure reports are implemented and a record of treatment added 

to the reports.

Identified and evaluated historic structures are monitored, inspected, and managed to enable the 

long-term preservation of a resource’s historic features, qualities, and materials.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Employ the comprehensive maintenance, protection, and preservation measures in 

accordance with The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the Treatment of Historic 

Properties. For properties lacking specific plans, preservation actions would be based on the 

Secretary’s standards and NPS policy and guidelines.

•  Treat all historic structures as eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic 

Places pending formal determination by the National Park Service and state historic 

preservation office.

•  Create design guidelines and/or historic structure reports for all developed areas in the park 

to preserve the character-defining features. Include design review oversight to ensure the 

compatibility of new planning, design, and construction.

•  Pursue basic preservation maintenance activities to avoid costly rebuilding or reconstruction of 

historic structures or cultural landscapes.

•  Before modifying any historic structure in the National Register of Historic Places, consult 

with the state historic preservation office and the Advisory Council for Historic Preservation, 

as appropriate.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Cultural Resources Resources and Park-associated Communities

Law and Policy Source

NPS Management Policies 2006 states that “[T]he Park Service will maintain a program of 

professional cultural anthropological/ethnographic research designed to provide NPS managers 

with information about relationships between park resources and associated peoples” 

(§5.3.5.3.3). When research is conducted, it will be done to identify park-associated communities 

and to initiate collaboration with them. Findings will then be used to inform planning, resource 

management, decision-making, interpretation, and to assist managers in meeting “responsibilities 

to associated peoples (communities) and other stakeholders in the outcomes of NPS decisions.” 

The National Park Service, as with all federal agencies, has responsibilities to all associated 

communities and stakeholders, but also has unique responsibilities to federally recognized tribes. 

A sampling of relevant laws, federal regulations, and other instruments are cited in the “Law and 

Policy Source” sub-section under “Government-to-Government Relations with American Indian 

Tribes” to avoid redundancy.

Antiquities Act of 1906; American Indian Religious Freedom Act; Native American Graves and 

Repatriation Act; Executive Order 13007, “Indian Sacred Sites”; and NPS Management Policies 

2006 (§5.3.5.3) call for gathering ethnographic information through anthropological and 

collaborative community research that recognizes the sensitive nature of such cultural data and 

documents and the meanings that traditionally associated groups assign to traditional natural 

and cultural resources and the landscapes they form. In accordance with the National Historic 

Preservation Act of 1966, as amended, the purpose is to preserve, conserve, and encourage the 

continuation of the diverse traditional prehistoric, historic, ethnic, and folk cultural traditions 

that underlie and are a living expression of American heritage as manifested in the traditional 

use of ethnographic resources in park units. Executive Order 13007 also calls for NPS managers 

to accommodate the access to and the ceremonial use of American Indian sacred sites by 

practitioners and to preserve the sites’ physical integrity.

Desired Conditions

Appropriate cultural anthropological research is conducted with traditionally associated tribes 

and other groups who have lived in or used resources in the Reserve “[T]o the extent practicable, 

permitted by law, and not clearly inconsistent with essential agency functions” (Executive Order 

13007) and “the National Park Service accommodates access to and ceremonial use of Indian 

sacred sites by Indian religious practitioners and avoids adversely affecting the physical integrity 

of these sacred places.”

All executive agencies are required to consult, to the greatest extent practicable and to the 

extent permitted by law, with tribal governments before taking actions that affect federally 

recognized tribal governments. American Indians and other individuals and groups linked by ties 

of kinship or culture to ethnically identifiable human remains, sacred objects, objects of cultural 

patrimony, and associated funerary objects are consulted when such items may be disturbed or 

are encountered on park lands.

All ethnographic resources determined eligible for listing or listed in the National Register of 

Historic Places are protected. If disturbance of such resources is unavoidable, formal consultation 

with the state historic preservation office and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, and 

with American Indian tribes, as appropriate, is conducted.

The identities of tribal and other consultants and information they may provide about sacred and 

other culturally sensitive sites, places, and practices are kept confidential as appropriate in terms 

of complying with all applicable laws, agreements with consultants or other circumstances.

Potentially sensitive natural and cultural resources and traditional cultural properties 

(ethnographic resources eligible for the National Register of Historic Places) are identified, 

recorded, and evaluated through consultation with area tribes. The integrity of traditional cultural 

properties is preserved and protected.

Positive and productive government-to-government relationships exist with each of the 

Shoshone-Bannock Tribes that have traditional association with the Northern Basin and Range 

Ecosys stem.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Cultural Resources Resources and Park-associated Communities

Potential Management Strategies

•  Survey and inventory ethnographic resources and document their significance.

•  Treat all ethnographic resources as eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic 

Places pending a formal determination by the National Park Service and the state historic 

preservation office. Any formal nomination would be made only with the full support and 

consensus of the associated tribes.

•  Continue to encourage the employment of American Indians on the Reserve staff to improve 

communications and working relationships and encourage cultural diversity in the workplace.

•  Conduct consultation with associated Indian tribes in terms of section 106 of the National 

Historic Preservation Act and planning processes for this and other planning efforts.

•  Continue to work collaboratively with the tribes when conducting research related to the 

resources they value.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Cultural Resources Cultural Landscapes

Law and Policy Source

Antiquities Act of 1906; Historic Sites Act of 1935; National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as 

amended; Executive Order 11593, “Protection and Enhancement of the Cultural Environment”; 

The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties with Guidelines 

for the Treatment of Cultural Landscapes; Programmatic Agreement among the National Park 

Service (U.S. Department of the Interior), the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, and the 

National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers for Compliance with Section 106 of 

the National Historic Preservation Act (2008); and NPS Management Policies 2006 (§5.3.5.2) call 

for the preservation of the physical attributes, biotic systems, and uses of cultural landscapes that 

contribute to historical significance.

Desired Conditions

Cultural landscape inventories are conducted to identify landscapes potentially eligible for listing 

in the National Register of Historic Places and to assist in future management decisions for 

landscapes and associated resources, both cultural and natural.

The management of cultural landscapes focuses on preserving the landscape’s physical attributes, 

biotic systems, and use when that use contributes to its historical significance.

The preservation, rehabilitation, restoration, or reconstruction of cultural landscapes is 

undertaken in accordance with The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the Treatment of 

Historic Properties with Guidelines for the Treatment of Cultural Landscapes.

The cultural landscapes of the Reserve retain a high degree of integrity.

Cultural landscape inventories and reports are prepared, and existing reports are amended 

as needed.

Identified and evaluated cultural landscapes are monitored, inspected, and managed to enable 

the long-term preservation of a resource’s historic features, qualities, and materials.

Actions identified in cultural landscape reports are implemented, and a record of treatment is 

added to the reports.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Treat cultural landscapes that are potentially eligible for listing in the National Register of 

Historic Places as eligible until a formal determination is made (by the National Park Service 

and state historic preservation office).

•  Comply with cultural resource protection and preservation policies and directives, for the 

maintenance of cultural landscapes.

•  Create design guidelines and/or cultural landscape reports for all developed areas in the 

park to ensure that the character-defining features of these landscapes are preserved. These 

guidelines would include provisions for design review oversight to ensure the compatibility of 

new planning, design, and construction.

•  Where and when possible, work to remove man-made structures or features that do not 

contribute to the cultural landscape or facilitate the visitor’s experience of the priority 

landscape.

•  Emigrant inscriptions, which are a significant cultural feature of the Reserve, will be managed 

to NPS standards.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Cultural Resources Museum Collections

Law and Policy Source

Antiquities Act of 1906; Historic Sites Act of 1935; American Indian Religious Freedom Act; 

Archaeological Resources Protection Act; Native American Graves and Repatriation Act; National 

Historic Preservation Act; Museum Act of 1955 (16 USC 18f, 18f2-3); Director’s Order 24: NPS 

Museum Collections Management; NPS Museum Handbook; Executive Order 11593, “Protection 

and Enhancement of the Cultural Environment”; The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards and 

Guidelines for the Treatment of Historic Properties; and the Programmatic Agreement among 

the National Park Service (U.S. Department of the Interior), the Advisory Council on Historic 

Preservation, and the National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers for Compliance 

with Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (2008). NPS Management Policies 2006

(§5.3.5.5) states that the National Park Service “will collect, protect, preserve, provide access 

to, and use objects, specimens, and archival and manuscript collections . . . in the disciplines 

of archeology, ethnography, history, biology, geology, and paleontology to aid understanding 

among park visitors, and to advance knowledge in the humanities and sciences.”

Desired Conditions

All museum collections (objects, specimens, and manuscript collections) are identified and 

inventoried, catalogued, documented, preserved, and protected.

Provision is made for access to and use of the Reserve’s museum collections for exhibits, research, 

and interpretation.

The qualities that contribute to the significance of collections are protected in accordance with 

established standards.

Research and development projects include plans for the curation of collected objects and 

specimens.

The Reserve’s museum collections are housed in appropriate facilities that provide protection for 

current collections and allow for future collection expansion.

Reserve museum collections provide documentation of Reserve’s natural and cultural resources.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Inventory and catalog all Reserve museum collections in accordance with standards in the 

NPS Museum Handbook.

•  Develop and implement a collection management program according to NPS standards to 

guide the protection, conservation, and use of museum objects.

•  Continue outreach efforts to Reserve visitors, provide access to and give tours of the 

collections to the community, and provide field assistance with Reserve research projects 

as needed.

•  Collections facilities would be upgraded, improved, and expanded according to the 

recommendations of the City of Rocks National Reserve Museum Management Plan 2008.

•  Provide efficient access to reference materials and information.

•  Meet requirements of Director’s Order 24: NPS Museum Collections Management, the NPS 

Museum Handbook, and “Curation of Federally-Owned and Administered Archaeological 

Collections” (36 CFR 79).

•  Continue the relationship with Hagerman Fossil Beds for curatorial support.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Cultural Resources Government to-Government Relations with American Indian Tribes

Law and Policy Source

In accordance with the Presidential Memorandum of April 29, 1994, and Executive Order 

13175, “Consultation and Coordination with Indian Tribal Governments,” “the Service [NPS] will 

maintain a government-to-government relationship with federally recognized tribal governments. 

This means that NPS officials will work directly with appropriate tribal government officials 

whenever plans or activities may directly or indirectly affect tribal interests, practices, and/or 

traditional use areas such as sacred sites” (NPS Management Policies 2006, §1.11.1). This policy 

facilitates compliance with a variety of laws, federal regulations, and other legal instruments 

such as the National Historic Preservation Act; the National Environmental Policy Act; “Protection 

of Historic Properties” (36 CFR 800); the American Indian Religious Freedom Act; the Native 

American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act; Executive Order 13007, “Indian Sacred Sites”; 

Presidential Memorandum on Tribal Consultation, November 5, 2009; Secretarial Order No. 3317, 

Department of the Interior Policy on Consultation with Indian Tribes, December 1, 2011; and, 

Department of the Interior Policy on Consultation with Indian Tribes.

Desired Conditions

The National Park Service and tribes culturally affiliated with City of Rocks National Reserve 

maintain ongoing government-to-government consultation. IDPR and NPS managers and staff 

respect the viewpoints and needs of the tribes, continue to promptly address conflicts that occur, 

and consider American Indian values in Reserve management and operation.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Meet and communicate with tribal officials to identify problems and issues of mutual concern 

and interest and work together to take actions to address these concerns.

•  Keep tribal officials informed of planning and other actions in the Reserve that could affect 

the tribes.

•  Provide technical assistance to the tribes, upon request, including sharing information and 

resources, to address problems and issues of mutual concern.

•  Recognize the past and present existence of native peoples in the region and the traces 

of their land use and occupation as an important part of the cultural environment to be 

researched, preserved, and interpreted, if appropriate.

•  Consult with all tribes traditionally associated with the Reserve to develop and accomplish 

the programs of the Reserve in a way that respects the beliefs, traditions, and other cultural 

values of the tribes with ties to NPS lands.

•  Accommodate access to traditionally used areas in ways consistent with Reserve purposes and 

American Indian values and that avoid adversely affecting the physical integrity of such sites 

and resources.

•  Conduct appropriate ethnographic, ethnohistorical, or cultural anthropological research in 

conjunction with, and in cooperation with American Indian tribes traditionally associated with 

the Reserve and cooperate as appropriate in light of law and policy with any continuation of 

subsistence activities.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Climate Change Climate Change

Law and Policy Source

Executive Order 13423, Executive Order 13514, DOI Secretarial Order 3226, DOI Secretarial Order 

3289, Climate Change Response Strategy, NPS Climate Change Action Plan 2012–2014, PWR 

Climate Change Response Strategy, and PWR Vision for Climate Change.

Desired Conditions

(Source: Secretarial Order 3226)

The park would work together with other federal, state, tribal, and local governments, and 

private landowner partners to develop strategies at multiple scales, including landscape-level 

strategies, for understanding and responding to climate change impacts.

Reserve staff considers and analyzes potential climate change impacts when undertaking longrange planning exercises, setting priorities for scientific research and investigations, and/or when 

making major decisions affecting natural and cultural resources.

The park would engage in partnerships to implement projects and activities that contribute to the 

conservation of species, natural communities, and lands and waters placed at risk by changing 

climate conditions.

(Source: Secretarial Order 3289)

Continue to provide and foster state-of-the art science to better understand the impacts of 

climate change and to develop science-based adaptive management strategies for natural and 

cultural resource managers.

Continue to minimize the park’s contributions to climate change and implement strategies 

to improve sustainability and energy efficiency, and decrease the park’s carbon footprint and 

consumption of resources.

•  Develop, prioritize, and implement management strategies to preserve climate-sensitive 

cultural resources.

Include climate-related vulnerability assessments in project approval and funding decisions.

Enhance the sustainable maintenance, design, and construction of park infrastructure.

Substantially reduce the National Park System’s carbon footprint from 2008 levels by 2016 

through aggressive commitment to greener operations.

Integrate climate change mitigation into NPS business practices and culture.

Incorporate biological carbon sequestration as a mitigation option where it is consistent with the 

NPS mission.

Coordinate and distribute climate change information throughout the National Park Service.

Increase climate change knowledge and understanding within the National Park Service.

Provide external communications about the implications of climate change and the NPS response.

Model and communicate sustainable practices that lead by example.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Climate Change Climate Change

Potential Management Strategies

(Source: PWR Vision for Climate Change)

•  Meet or exceed the requirements of EO 13423.

•  Meet or exceed the goals of the Federal Green Challenge.

•  Follow regional policy and guidance on sustainable energy, water, fuel, fleet, buildings, waste, 

and purchasing practices.

•  Inventory park emissions, develop climate action plans, and implement climate friendly actions 

within the Environmental Management Systems framework.

(Source: NPS Climate Change Response Strategy)

•  Use the best available scientific data and knowledge to inform decision-making in regard to 

climate change.

•  Collaborate with partners to develop, test, and distribute the best results from climate change 

models to inform NPS activities.

•  Work with others to inventory and monitor key attributes of the natural resources, cultural 

resources, and visitor experiences likely to be impacted by climate change.

•  Systematically assess the vulnerability of these resources to climate change.

•  Acquire, provide, and apply scientific information to reduce the National Park System’s 

carbon footprint.

•  Incorporate climate change considerations and responses in all levels of the NPS 

planning framework.

•  Implement adaptation strategies that promote ecosystem resilience and enhance restoration, 

conservation, and preservation of park natural resources.

•  Develop, prioritize, and implement management strategies to preserve climate-sensitive 

cultural resources.

•  Include climate-related vulnerability assessments in project approval and funding decisions.

•  Enhance the sustainable maintenance, design, and construction of park infrastructure.

•  Substantially reduce the National Park System’s carbon footprint from 2008 levels by 2016 

through aggressive commitment to greener operations.

•  Integrate climate change mitigation into NPS business practices and culture.

•  Incorporate biological carbon sequestration as a mitigation option where it is consistent with 

the NPS mission.

•  Coordinate and distribute climate change information throughout the National Park Service.

•  Increase climate change knowledge and understanding within the National Park Service.

•  Provide external communications about the implications of climate change and the 

NPS response.

•  Model and communicate sustainable practices that lead by example.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Visitor Use and 

Recreation Visitor Opportunities

Law and Policy Source

The NPS Organic Act; NPS General Authorities Act; Code of Federal Regulations, Title 36; 

Americans with Disabilities Act; Architectural Barriers Act; Rehabilitation Act; and NPS 

Management Policies 2006 (§1.4, 8.1) all address the importance of national park units being 

available to all Americans to enjoy and experience. Current laws, regulations, and policies leave 

considerable room for judgment about the best mix of types and levels of visitor use activities, 

programs, and facilities. For this reason, most decisions related to visitor experience and use 

are addressed in the alternatives. However, all visitor use of the national park system must be 

consistent with the following guidelines.

Desired Conditions

Reserve resources are conserved unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations. Visitors 

have opportunities for forms of enjoyment that are uniquely suited and appropriate to the 

superlative natural and cultural resources found in the Reserve. No activities occur that would 

cause derogation of the values and purposes for which the Reserve has been established.

Visitors will have opportunities to understand and appreciate the significance of the Reserve and 

its resources, and to develop a personal stewardship ethic.

To the extent feasible, programs, services, and facilities in the Reserve are accessible to and usable 

by all people, including those with disabilities.

For all zones or districts in the Reserve, the types and levels of visitor use are consistent with the 

desired resource and visitor experience conditions prescribed for those areas.

The Reserve visitor is able to obtain visitor orientation and trip-planning information through a 

variety of media. Educational programs are available.

Frontcountry day use visitation and overnight facilities are provided in some developed areas. 

Roads, trails, campgrounds, and related facilities are provided, but locations and numbers may be 

modified for resource protection, restoration, visitor experience, or increased visitation.

The level and type of commercial guided activities would be managed to protect Reserve 

resources and the visitor experience.

Potential Management Strategies

•  For all zones, districts, or other logical management divisions in the Reserve, identify visitor 

carrying capacities for managing public use and ways to monitor and address unacceptable 

impacts on Reserve resources and visitor experiences.

•  Monitor visitor comments on issues such as crowding, encounters with other visitors in the 

backcountry, availability of campsites at busy times of the year, and availability of parking.

•  Conduct periodic visitor surveys to stay informed of changing visitor demographics and 

desires to better tailor programs to visitor needs and desires.

•  Develop outreach programs for and with schools, tribes, and community organizations.

•  Provide a variety of educational opportunities in the Reserve with continued facility-based 

contacts and guided activities. Web-based education would be provided. Some activities 

could be for a fee.

•  Coordinate educational programs with partners and focus on improving the general 

understanding of Reserve natural and cultural resources, biodiversity, the protection of 

resources and natural processes, research, stewardship, Reserve values, and recreational and 

visitor opportunities.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Visitor Use and 

Recreation Public Health and Safety

Law and Policy Source

NPS Management Policies 2006 (§8.2.5) states that the saving of human life would take 

precedence over all other management actions as the National Park Service strives to protect 

human life and provide for injury-free visits. Other federal statutes and regulations that apply to 

the protection of public health and safety include Director’s Order 50B: Occupational Safety and 

Health Program and Reference Manual 50B; Director’s Order 58: Structural Fire Management

and Reference Manual 58; Director’s Order 83: Public Health and associated reference manuals; 

Director’s Order 51: Emergency Medical Services and NPS Emergency Medical Services Reference 

Manual; Director’s Order 13B: Solid and Hazardous Waste Management and the accompanying 

reference manual; and OSHA 29CFR.

Desired Conditions

While recognizing that there are limitations on its capability to totally eliminate all hazards, the 

National Park Service and its partners, contractors, and cooperators work together to provide a 

safe and healthful environment for visitors and employees. The Reserve staff strives to identify 

recognizable threats to safety and health and protect property by applying nationally accepted 

standards. Consistent with mandates and nonimpairment, the Reserve staff reduces or removes 

known hazards or applies appropriate mitigating measures, such as closures, guarding, gating, 

education, and other actions.

Potential Management Strategies

•  A documented safety program would be maintained in the Reserve to address health and 

safety concerns and identify appropriate levels of action and activities.

•  Maintenance efforts would continue to ensure that all potable water systems and wastewater 

systems in the Reserve would continue to meet state water quality standards and will follow 

state water testing procedures as referenced in the Reserve’s 2009 operation plan and 

guidelines for management.

•  Interpretive signs and materials would be provided as appropriate to notify visitors of potential 

safety concerns, hazards, and procedures to help provide for a safe visit to the Reserve and 

to ensure visitors are aware of the possible risks of certain activities. Reserve staff would 

continue to work with local emergency and public health officials to make reasonable efforts 

to search for lost persons and rescue sick, injured, or stranded persons.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Management and 

Operations

Transportation 

Law and Policy Source

NPS Management Policies 2006 (§9.2) calls for NPS managers to identify solutions to 

transportation issues that preserve natural and cultural resources while providing a highquality visitor experience. Management decisions regarding transportation generally require a 

comprehensive alternatives analysis and thorough understanding of their consequences. The 

location, type, and design of multimodal transportation facilities (such as roads, bridges, parking 

areas, sidewalks, bikeways, pedestrian trails, transit centers, and shelters) strongly influence the 

quality of the visitor experience and the preservation of park unit resources.

Desired Conditions

Multimodal transportation facilities in the Reserve provide access for the protection, use, and 

enjoyment of the Reserve’s resources.

Multimodal transportation facilities preserve the integrity of the surroundings; respect ecological 

processes; protect natural, cultural and scenic resources; and provide the highest visual quality 

and a rewarding visitor experience.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Reserve staff would participate in transportation studies and planning processes that may 

result in links to the Reserve or impacts on Reserve resources. Reserve management would 

work closely with other federal agencies (such as the U.S. Department of Transportation 

and the Federal Highway Administration); tribal, state, and local governments (such as the 

Idaho Department of Transportation); regional planning bodies; citizen groups; and others 

to enhance partnering and funding opportunities and to encourage effective regional 

transportation planning.

•  In general, the preferred modes of transportation would be those that contribute to 

maximum visitor enjoyment of and minimum adverse impacts on Reserve resources and 

values. Before a decision is made to design, construct, expand, or upgrade transportation 

access to or within the Reserve, nonconstruction alternatives—such as distributing visitors 

to alternative locations—would be fully explored. If nonconstruction alternatives would not 

achieve satisfactory results, then a development solution should consider whether the project

» is appropriate and necessary to meet management needs

» is designed with extreme care and sensitivity to the landscape through which it passes

» would not cause adverse impacts to natural and cultural resources, and would minimize or 

mitigate those impacts that cannot be avoided

» reduces traffic congestion, noise, air pollution, and adverse effects on Reserve resources 

and values

» would not violate federal, state, or local air pollution control plans or regulations

» would not cause use in the areas to exceed the areas’ user capacity

» incorporates the principles of energy conservation and sustainability

» is able to demonstrate financial and operational sustainability

» incorporates universal design principles to provide for accessibility for all people, including 

those with disabilities

» takes maximum advantage of interpretive opportunities and scenic values

» is based on a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach that is fully consistent with 

the Reserve’s general management plan and asset management plan

» enhances visitor experience by offering new or improved interpretive or visitor opportunities, by simplifying travel within the Reserve, or by making it easier or safer to see features 

within the Reserve

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Management and 

Operations

Utilities and Communication Facilities

Law and Policy Source

The Telecommunications Act of 1996 directs all federal agencies to assist in the national 

goal of achieving a seamless telecommunications system throughout the United States by 

accommodating requests by telecommunication companies for the use of property, rights-of-way, 

and easements to the extent allowable under each agency’s mission. The National Park Service is 

legally obligated to permit telecommunication infrastructure in park units if such facilities can be 

structured to avoid interference with park unit purposes.

Rights-of-way for utilities to pass over, under, or through NPS property may be issued only 

pursuant to specific statutory authority, and generally only if there is no practicable alternative to 

such use of NPS lands. Statutory authorities in 16 USC 5 and in NPS Management Policies 2006 

(§8.6.4) provide guidance on these rights-of-way. City of Rocks National Reserve has powerline 

rights-of-way located along the county road through most of the Reserve.

Desired Conditions

Reserve resources or public enjoyment of the Reserve are not denigrated by nonconforming uses.

Telecommunication structures are permitted in the Reserve to the extent they do not jeopardize 

the Reserve’s mission and resources.

No new nonconforming use or rights-of-way are permitted through the Reserve without 

specific statutory authority and approval by the director of the National Park Service or his/

her representative, and are permitted only if there is no practicable alternative to such use of 

NPS lands.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Work with service companies, local communities, and the public to locate new utility lines and 

maintain existing lines so that there is minimal effect on Reserve resources.

•  Place new or reconstructed utilities and communications infrastructure with existing structures 

and along roadways or other established corridors in developed areas, if infrastructure is 

necessary and there are no other options.

•  For reconstruction or extension into undisturbed areas, select routes that minimize impacts on 

the Reserve’s natural, cultural, and visual resources.

•  Place utility lines underground to the maximum extent possible, away from sensitive 

resources.

•  Follow NPS policies in processing applications for commercial telecommunications facilities.

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Table 2. Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived

from Laws, Regulations, and Policies

Management and 

Operations

Relations with Private and Public Organizations, Owners of Adjacent Land, and 

Governmental Agencies

Law and Policy Source

NPS Management Policies 2006 (§1.6) stresses the need for cooperative conservation beyond 

park boundaries. This cooperation is necessary in order for the National Park Service to fulfill its 

mandate to preserve the natural and cultural resources unimpaired for future generations. Local 

and regional cooperation may involve other federal agencies, tribal, state, and local governments, 

neighboring landowners, and nongovernmental and private sector organizations.

Desired Conditions

City of Rocks National Reserve is managed as part of a greater ecological, social, economic, and 

cultural system.

Good relations are maintained with adjacent landowners, such as the U.S. Forest Service, Bureau 

of Land Management, surrounding communities, and private and public groups that affect, and 

are affected by the Reserve.

The Reserve is managed proactively to resolve external issues and concerns and ensure that the 

resources and values of the Reserve are not compromised.

Because the Reserve is an integral part of a larger regional environment, the Reserve staff works 

cooperatively with others to anticipate, avoid, and resolve potential conflicts, protect Reserve

resources, and address mutual interests in the quality of life for community residents. Regional 

cooperation involves federal, state, and local agencies, American Indian tribes, neighboring 

landowners, and all other concerned parties.

Potential Management Strategies

•  Continue to establish and foster partnerships with public and private organizations to achieve 

the purposes and missions of the Reserve. Partnerships would continue to be sought for 

resource protection, research, education, and visitor enjoyment purposes.

•  To foster a spirit of cooperation with neighbors and encourage compatible adjacent land uses, 

continue to keep landowners, land managers, local governments, and the public informed 

about management activities. Periodic consultations would continue with landowners who 

might be affected by visitors and management actions.

•  Continue to respond promptly to conflicts that arise over Reserve activities, visitor access, and 

proposed activities and developments on adjacent lands that could affect the Reserve.

•  Provide technical and management assistance to landowners to address issues of mutual 

interest. Reserve staff would continue to work closely with adjacent landowners, local, state, 

and federal agencies, and tribal governments whose programs affect, or are affected by 

activities in the Reserve.

•  Reserve managers would continue to pursue cooperative regional planning whenever possible 

to integrate the unit into issues of regional concern.

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Chapter 3

Alternatives, Including the Preferred Alternative

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Chapter 3: Alternatives

In spring 2011, the general management planning team, composed of staff from the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation and the National Park Service, developed management alternatives for City of Rocks National 

Reserve, incorporating public responses from newsletters and public meetings. The National Environmental 

Policy Act and NPS planning regulations require the formulation of a reasonable range of alternatives 

that address identified planning issues and management concerns described in the “Purpose of the General 

Management Plan” and “Need for the General Management Plan” sections in chapter 1.

FORMULATION OF 

ALTERNATIVES

The development of alternatives for the future 

of City of Rocks National Reserve is based 

on the purpose of the Reserve, including 

protection of the scenic qualities and attributes 

of the California Trail landscape, maintaining 

the historic rural setting, and preserving the 

granite features associated with the national 

natural landmark through cooperative efforts. 

These cooperative efforts rely on local citizens, 

Cassia County, the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation, and the National Park Service. 

The alternatives define and present proposed 

strategies for the protection, preservation, and 

management of shared values at City of Rocks 

National Reserve.

All the alternatives presented in this draft GMP/

EIS meet both the spirit and the intent of the 

law establishing the Reserve. The alternatives 

each provide for the long-term protection of the 

Reserve’s resources and the public enjoyment 

of those resources in a way that is cognizant and 

respectful of private property.

The alternatives are based on information about 

the Reserve’s resources and visitor use, as well 

as from IDPR and NPS sources, including 

the public, federal and state agencies, and 

stakeholder groups. Each of the alternatives 

supports and is consistent with the Reserve’s 

purpose and significance, desired future 

conditions, and current laws, regulations, and 

policies. The alternatives avoid unacceptable 

resource impacts and respond to issues or 

concerns raised by the public during the 

scoping and preliminary alternatives phases of 

the project.

The alternatives vary in how management 

zones are applied geographically, according 

to the overall concept of the alternative. The 

alternatives also vary in the management 

prescriptions, or actions, that the Reserve would 

take to achieve the desired conditions for various 

key resources.

Four alternatives are described in this draft 

GMP/EIS:

Alternative A: the No Action Alternative 

(Continue Current Management) assumes that 

current management, programming, facilities, 

staffing, and funding would generally continue at 

their current levels and that existing plans would 

be implemented.

Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks is the IDPR 

and NPS preferred alternative. This alternative 

would focus on the spectacular scenic quality, 

geology, biological richness, and cultural 

landscape experienced by past and present 

visitors to emphasize a backcountry-type 

visitor experience that would allow for selfdiscovery within a minimally developed western 

outdoor environment.

Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship would 

protect resources through research activities, 

educational opportunities, and partnerships 

by emphasizing the national significance of 

the Reserve.

Alternative D: Treasured Landscapes Inspiring 

Stories would tell the stories of the Reserve 

through the people who pass through, live, and 

recreate here by focusing on the California Trail 

and the ranching heritage and by emphasizing a 

front country and day-use experience with more 

formal and structured recreational opportunities 

and programs.

Wide shot of rock arches.

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These alternatives would provide guidance 

to Reserve managers about which resource 

conditions and visitor uses and experiences 

should be achieved rather than the details of 

how these conditions and experiences should be 

achieved.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE 

PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE

The preferred alternative is the alternative 

that the National Park Service and Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation have 

determined at this time would best fulfill 

their mission and responsibilities. The 

preferred alternative was identified following 

an initial assessment of the impacts of the 

alternatives, consultation with the Bureau of 

Land Management, and the public’s ideas and 

preferences.

Identification of the environmentally preferable 

alternative, as required by Director’s Order 

12: Conservation Planning, Environmental 

Impact Analysis, and Decision-making and 

the accompanying DO-12 Handbook and for 

consistency with section 101 of the National 

Environmental Policy Act as required by the 

Council on Environmental Quality, is discussed 

at the end of this chapter.

CONSIDERATION OF 

BOUNDARY ADJUSTMENTS

Congress directed the National Park Service 

to consider “indications of potential boundary 

modifications” in the development of general 

management plans for national park units. 

Park boundaries are often drawn to reflect a 

wide range of practical considerations at one 

point in time; therefore, they do not necessarily 

reflect natural or cultural resource features, 

administrative considerations, or changing land 

uses.

The 1996 City of Rocks National Reserve 

Comprehensive Management Plan, Development 

Concept Plan and Environmental Impact 

Statement identified important resources 

adjacent to the Reserve. The planning team 

has explored different boundary options that 

would facilitate resource protection, enhance 

visitor experience, and simplify management 

of these resources. Although the preferred 

alternative does not contain a boundary 

adjustment, two of the action alternatives in 

this draft GMP (alternatives C and D) propose 

boundary modifications with these issues in 

mind. Alternative C also includes an option 

for cooperative management with adjacent 

land management agencies (U.S. Forest 

Service and Bureau of Land Management) and 

private landowners.

The criteria for potential boundary adjustments 

state that boundary adjustments may be 

recommended for the following purposes, 

namely to:

•	 Protect significant resources and values, 

or enhance opportunities for public 

enjoyment related to park purposes.

•	 Address operational and management 

issues, such as the need for access or the 

need for boundaries to correspond to 

logical boundary delineations such as 

topographic or other natural features or 

roads.

•	 Otherwise protect park resources that are 

critical to fulfilling park purposes 

(NPS 2006a, sec. 3.5).

Potential boundary adjustments must also 

be feasible to administer, considering size, 

configuration, ownership, costs, and other 

factors. The analysis of boundary adjustments 

based on these criteria can be found in 

Appendix E. 

The boundary of a national park system unit 

may be modified only as authorized by law; 

therefore, although boundary adjustments 

are recommended in some of the alternatives, 

the boundary adjustment would need to be 

approved by Congress before implementation. 

Where a boundary adjustment is part of the 

alternative selected for implementation, the 

National Park Service will recommend it to 

the Secretary of the Interior for legislative or 

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administrative action. Existing NPS lands and 

any land interests acquired by the National Park 

Service in the Reserve would remain in federal 

(NPS) ownership and jurisdiction.

USER CAPACITY

General management plans for national park 

system units are required by law to identify and 

address implementation commitments for user 

capacity, also known as carrying capacity. The 

National Park Service defines user capacity as 

the types and levels of visitor use that can be 

accommodated while sustaining the quality 

of park resources and visitor experiences 

consistent with the purposes of the park unit. 

Managing user capacity in national park units is 

complex and depends not only on the number 

of visitors, but also on where the visitors go, 

what they do, and the “footprints” they leave 

behind. An expanded discussion on user 

capacity is located at the end of this chapter.

RANGE OF ALTERNATIVES 

CONSIDERED

MANAGEMENT ZONES USED IN 

THE ALTERNATIVES

Management zones define specific resource 

conditions and visitor experiences to be 

achieved and maintained in each particular area 

of City of Rocks National Reserve. Each zone 

includes the types of activities and facilities that 

are appropriate in that management zone.

Unlike most national park units that are entirely 

owned and managed by the National Park 

Service, approximately a third of the land within 

the Reserve is in private ownership where local 

county zoning and regulations prevail. On 

private land, there would be no public visitation 

(unless it occurred with the landowners’ 

permission) or activities or facilities. Private 

owners would continue to be stewards on their 

own lands with NPS and IDPR assistance. 

Congress expected the Reserve to be zoned 

according to use and resource preservation—the 

enabling legislation for the Reserve called for 

zoning areas within the Reserve that would be 

devoted to public use and development; historic 

and natural preservation; and private use subject 

to appropriate local ordinances designed to 

protect the historic rural setting.

For the Reserve, six management zones were 

developed by the planning team. These include 

the following:

•	 Visitor Facilities and Access Zone

•	 Transition Zone

•	 Natural Zone

•	 Research Natural Area Zone

•	 Historic Rural Setting Zone

•	 California Trail Zone

These zones form the basis of the general 

management plan’s alternatives and are applied 

to different geographic locations or areas of the 

Reserve in alternatives B, C, and D. In alternative 

A, the zones were taken from the Reserve’s 1996 

comprehensive management plan. Each zone 

gives a general level of management guidance or 

direction.

For alternatives B, C, and D, management zone 

boundaries were assigned according to the 

overall concept of each alternative. For example, 

for an alternative whose overall concept 

emphasizes research and stewardship, a larger 

Research Natural Area Zone might make sense. 

For an alternative that emphasizes the historical 

significance of the Reserve, larger California 

Trail and Historic Rural Setting Zones would be 

appropriate.

The management zones for City of Rocks 

National Reserve are presented in “Table 

3. Management Zones.” For each zone, the 

table depicts the zone concept; the natural 

and cultural resource conditions; special uses 

such as grazing, hunting and trapping, and 

communication facilities; visitor experience; and 

facilities and operations.

In addition to the management zones, 

park managers would continue to use the 

Superintendent’s Compendium (36 CRF 2.4). 

The compendium is a list of designations, 

closures, requirements, and other restrictions 

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imposed under the discretionary authority of 

the superintendent as provided in Title 36 of the 

Code of Federal Regulations.

ACTIONS COMMON TO 

ALL ALTERNATIVES

The following actions would be common to 

all of the GMP alternatives for City of Rocks 

National Reserve, including alternative A, the 

No Action Alternative:

Reserve Management and Operations

•	 City of Rocks National Reserve is a unit 

of the national park system managed 

by the Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation under Cooperative Agreement 

1443-CA9000-96-0002.

•	 Private uses on private lands would 

continue to be under the jurisdiction of 

Cassia County.

•	 Reserve operations (administration 

and maintenance) would continue to 

be located at the Castle Rocks State 

Park Administrative Unit in Almo. This 

would include employee offices, the 

library, maintenance shop, and other 

administrative functions.

•	 The Reserve would continue to 

offer camping through a national 

campsite reservation system (currently 

Reserve America).

•	 The Reserve would continue to work 

with adjacent landowners and citizens on 

issues of mutual concern.

•	 The Reserve would seek out partnering 

opportunities with surrounding land 

management agencies to pursue goals of 

mutual interest.

Natural Resources

•	 To better protect air quality, the Reserve 

would encourage the State of Idaho to 

designate the City of Rocks National 

Reserve as a Class I area instead of 

Class II. Redesignation would improve 

protection of air quality from major new 

sources of air pollution.

•	 The Reserve would continue to work with 

the Idaho Department of Environmental 

Quality, Idaho Department of Fish and 

Game, the NPS Upper Columbia Basin 

Network Inventory and Monitoring 

Program (UCBN I&M), and the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service (USFWS) to monitor 

water quality.

Cultural Resources

•	 Museum collections would continue 

to be curated and stored at Hagerman 

Fossil Beds National Monument in 

the paleontological laboratory and 

collections facility.

•	 Reserve staff would remove the existing 

historic water impoundment #1 at Circle 

Creek and restore the riparian area to 

natural conditions as seen by California 

Trail emigrants. This action is consistent 

with the national historic landmark 

designation and its focus on the California 

Trail era.

Special Uses and Designations

•	 The Reserve would recommend that 

Cassia County extend its Historical 

Preservation Zone to encompass the 

entire Reserve to more fully protect 

its cultural and natural resources. The 

Historical Preservation Zone limits 

existing landowners to one residence and 

land use consistent with that of 1988 and 

earlier. A portion of the southeast section 

of the Reserve was left out of the original 

zoning and it is this section that the 

Reserve would propose including.

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Table 3. Manage

ment Zones

Visitor Facilities and

Access Zone

Transition Zone

N

atural Zone

Research

N

atural

Area Zone

Historic

Rural

Setting Zone

California Trail Zone

The Visitor Facilities and Access Zone encompasses a variety of facilities that support the highest visitor capacity within the Reserve and serves as an access point for experiencing the Reserve.

The Transition Zone balances recreation with the protection of resources. It provides a more geographically dispersed recreational experience, offering scenic vistas and a sense of open, natural character while providing minimal developed comforts.

The Natural Zone preserves natural features, natural processes, diversity, and ecological values and provides for compatible recreational uses.

The Research Natural Area Zone preserves outstanding natural features, natural processes, diversity, and ecological values, and provides for nonmanipulative research. Activities will be restricted to nonmanipulative research, education, and other activities that will not detract from the area’s research values, according to NPS policies.

The Historic Rural Setting Zone preserves the western rural setting and perpetuates the visual character of historic ranching activities on the landscape.

The California Trail Zone preserves and interprets the major landmarks, trail remnants, inscription rocks, and historically significant viewsheds associated with the California National Historic Trail.

Overall Conditions

Character-defining features of the national historic landmark and California National Historic Trail (if trail resources occur in this zone) are preserved. When new developments occur to accommodate visitor use, administration, and safety, they are undertaken in a manner compatible with the historically significant values of the Reserve.

Character-defining features of the national historic landmark are preserved. Preservation and interpretation of cultural resources are integrated into the development of all recreational facilities and visitor experience goals. In the rare occurrence that modifications to cultural resources occur to accommodate visitor use and safety, they are undertaken in a manner compatible with the historically significant values of the Reserve.

Actions for protection or restoration of natural resources are undertaken in a manner compatible with the historically significant values of the Reserve. Documentation and noninvasive data recovery of archeological resources are undertaken if loss of cultural resources due to natural processes is imminent.

Actions for protection of natural resources are undertaken in a manner compatible with the historically significant values of the Reserve. Documentation and noninvasive data recovery of archeological resources are undertaken if loss of cultural resources due to natural processes is imminent.

The western rural setting and visual character of historic ranching activities are preserved and perpetuated. When new developments occur to accommodate 

ranching activities, visitor use, and safety, they are undertaken in a manner compatible with the visual characteristics of the historic rural setting.

Cultural resources and values associated with the California National Historic Trail receive priority over other resource and management objectives. Wagon trail remnants, inscription rocks, culturally significant natural features, archeological sites, and historically significant viewsheds are preserved and interpreted.

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Table 3. Manage

ment Zones

Visitor Facilities and

Access Zone

Transition Zone

N

atural Zone

Research

N

atural

Area Zone

Historic

Rural

Setting Zone

California Trail Zone

Buildings and StructuresBuildings and structures on the Reserve postdate the period of significance for the national historic landmark (1843–82). These structures are associated with mining and homesteading activities and provide opportunities for interpretation of the broader history of use in the Reserve (Nicholson Ranch, Moon Homestead, mining sites).

If structures exist in this zone, they are stabilized near visitor facilities and operations to ensure visitor safety. Select structures are interpreted for their association with earlier land uses in the Reserve, such as mining, ranching, and homesteading.

If structures exist in this zone, they are stabilized near visitor facilities and operations to ensure visitor safety. Select structures are interpreted for their association with earlier land uses in the Reserve, such as mining, ranching, and homesteading.

Structures that exist in this zone are documented and stabilized or left to natural processes. Any preservation actions are determined on a caseby-case basis, depending on the condition, function, and associated interpretive values of the structure.

Structures that exist in this zone are documented and left to natural processes.

Existing buildings and structures would receive historic preservation treatment in support of interpretive objectives for the historic rural setting.

Existing buildings and structures that post-date the period of the California Trail could be stabilized and interpreted for their association with later periods of land use in the Reserve.

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Table 3. Manage

ment Zones

Visitor Facilities and

Access Zone

Transition Zone

N

atural Zone

Research

N

atural

Area Zone

Historic

Rural

Setting Zone

California Trail Zone

Cultural LandscapesCalifornia National Historic Trail, lands within the national historic landmark boundary, and contributing resources associated with the national historic landmark including viewsheds, wagon ruts, inscription rocks, and culturally significant natural features.(There are also cultural landscape features associated with later periods, such as fence lines, corrals, trails, mining landscapes, and water works.)

Visitor facilities, including interpretive structures and infrastructure required for Reserve management and operations, are sited and designed so that they do not adversely impact significant resources of the California Trail corridor, such as historic viewsheds, trail ruts, inscription rocks, and natural features with cultural values.New facilities and land uses are located in a manner that supports preservation of the rural character of the Reserve to the degree possible.

Cultural landscape resources of the California Trail are preserved when planning or implementing new developments related to recreational activities.The rural character of the Reserve—including existing fence lines, county roads, and open character of the Reserve landscape—are maintained to the degree possible. All new facilities and uses are designed to be compatible with the rural character of the Reserve.

Cultural landscape resources, including culturally important vegetation (e.g., pinyon pine) are managed to maintain historically significant character and cultural values adjacent to the California Trail corridor.Cultural landscape resources related to the historic rural setting of the Reserve are managed on a case-by-case basis. In most cases, built features such as fences would be stabilized or repaired. In other cases, where the condition, function, or resource value of the structure is not significant, the feature would be documented and removed or managed to allow natural processes to prevail.

Cultural landscape resources in this zone are limited. Those that do occur are protected and managed according to NPS policy.

Cultural landscape resources associated with the California Trail corridor are preserved and stabilized.Cultural landscape features associated with grazing, such as fence lines, troughs, enclosures, informal roads and trails, etc., are stabilized and managed to the degree they support and enhance the historic rural setting of the Reserve.

Cultural landscape resources associated with the California National Historic Trail and trail corridor are stabilized and preserved.The addition of new structures within the national historic landmark, including small scale features such as interpretive signs, is considered within the context of the specific and cumulative impacts 

to the visual character and physical integrity of the trail corridor.Cultural landscape features associated with the historic rural character of the Reserve such as fence lines would be considered for removal on a case-bycase basis as the need for fencing changes (fences are not part of the historic period).

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Table 3. Manage

ment Zones

Visitor Facilities and

Access Zone

Transition Zone

N

atural Zone

Research

N

atural

Area Zone

Historic

Rural

Setting Zone

California Trail Zone

Archeological Resources

Visitor facilities and operations are sited and designed so that they do not adversely impact archeological sites. Particular consideration is given to cumulative impacts.Archeological sites are preserved for their research values. Operational activities do not impede preservation strategies for archeological resources.

Actions for development of visitor services and the protection or restoration of natural resources are undertaken in a manner compatible with the preservation of archeological sites. Particular consideration is given to cumulative impacts.

Actions for protection or restoration of natural resources are undertaken in a manner compatible with the preservation of archeological sites. 

Documentation and noninvasive data recovery of archeological resources are undertaken if loss of cultural resources due to natural processes is imminent. Research into the effect of natural processes on archeological sites may occur.

Documentation and data recovery of archeological resources are undertaken, if appropriate, for furthering the understanding of the history of the Reserve.Replacement-in-kind of elements that require maintenance such as fences is allowed.All archeological sites are preserved.

Documentation and data recovery of archeological resources are undertaken, if appropriate, for furthering the understanding of the history of the Reserve.The preservation of extant cultural resources related to the California National Historic Trail take precedence. (Trail ruts will not be excavated to explore a prehistoric site).All archeological sites are preserved.

Overall Conditions

Natural resources are protected but may be modified in less sensitive locations for visitor use, park operations, or administrative use. 

Natural resources are protected and retain their integrity but may be modified in less sensitive locations for visitor use and resource protection.

Natural resources are protected and retained in as pristine a condition as possible. This zone supports resource protection.

Natural resources are protected and retained in as pristine a condition as possible. This zone supports nonmanipulative research and resource protection.

Natural resources are protected but may be modified in appropriate locations to support important cultural resources and their interpretation

Natural resources are protected but may be modified in appropriate locations to support important cultural resources and their interpretation.

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Table 3. Manage

ment Zones

Visitor Facilities and

Access Zone

Transition Zone

N

atural Zone

Research

N

atural

Area Zone

Historic

Rural

Setting Zone

California Trail Zone

Vegetation and Wildlife

Native vegetation communities and wildlife habitat are mostly intact, but may be modified by development and high visitor use in suitable areas. In developed settings native vegetation landscaping will be used. Efforts to suppress nonnative invasive species are focused on species that have the most severe adverse impacts on native communities.Special status species and associated habitats may be actively managed to perpetuate these species.

Native vegetation communities and wildlife habitat are mostly intact, but may be modified. Nonnative invasive species are managed with emphasis on species that have the most severe adverse impacts on native communities.Special status species and associated habitats may be actively managed to perpetuate these species.

Native vegetation communities and wildlife habitat are mostly intact, but may be minimally modified. Nonnative invasive species are managed with emphasis on species that have the most severe adverse impacts on native communities.Special status species and associated habitats may be actively managed to perpetuate these species.

Native vegetation communities and wildlife communities are intact. This area is managed to allow for natural processes.Special status species and associated habitats may be actively managed to perpetuate these species.

Native vegetation communities and wildlife habitat are mostly intact, but may be minimally modified to protect cultural resources. Nonnative invasive species are managed with emphasis on species that have the most severe impacts on native communities. Vegetation may be modified to enhance the historical setting.Special status species and associated habitats may be actively managed to perpetuate these species.

Native vegetation communities and wildlife habitat are mostly intact, but may be minimally modified to protect cultural resources. Nonnative invasive species are managed with emphasis on species that have the most severe impacts on native communities. Vegetation may be modified to enhance the historic character and environmental setting of the trail corridor.Special status species and associated habitats may be actively managed to perpetuate these species.

Geological Resources and Soils

Geologic features and soils are protected and geologic processes continue. Impacted areas, including areas adversely affected by incompatible development or visitor use, are restored to the greatest extent possible. Infrastructure is designed or relocated to avoid geologic features, hazards, and erosion (both causal and effectual).

Geologic features and soils are protected and geologic processes continue. Impacted areas are restored to the greatest extent possible. Infrastructure is designed or relocated 

to avoid geologic features, hazards, and erosion (both causal and effectual).

Geologic features and soil are protected and geologic processes continue. Impacted areas are restored to the greatest extent possible. Infrastructure is designed or relocated to avoid geologic features, hazards, and erosion (both causal and effectual).

Geologic features and soil are protected and geologic processes continue.

Geologic features and soil are protected and geologic processes continue. Some alteration or intervention in geologic processes on public lands may occur to protect cultural resources. Impacted areas on public lands are restored to the greatest extent possible consistent with cultural resource protection.

Geologic features and soil are protected and geologic processes continue. Some alteration or intervention in geologic processes may occur to protect cultural resources (such as removing or stabilizing a fragile or hazardous geologic feature). Impacted areas are restored to the greatest extent possible consistent with cultural resource protection and visitor safety.

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Table 3. Manage

ment Zones

Visitor Facilities and

Access Zone

Transition Zone

N

atural Zone

Research

N

atural

Area Zone

Historic

Rural

Setting Zone

California Trail Zone

Hydrologic Systems

Natural hydrologic systems and processes are left unimpeded except where stabilization and management are needed to protect significant resources. Where possible, infrastructure is designed or relocated to minimize impacts on hydrologic systems and restore natural functions.

Natural hydrologic systems and processes are left unimpeded except where stabilization and management are needed to protect significant resources. Where possible, infrastructure is designed or relocated to minimize impacts on hydrologic systems and restore natural functions.

Natural hydrologic systems and processes are primarily left unimpeded except where stabilization and management are needed to protect significant resources. Where possible, infrastructure is designed or relocated to minimize impacts on hydrologic systems and restore natural functions.

Natural hydrologic systems and processes are left unimpeded, unless mitigation action is required under NPS policies or to meet purposes of the Research Natural Area.

Natural hydrologic systems and processes are left unimpeded except where stabilization and management are needed on public lands to protect cultural and natural resources. Where possible on public lands, infrastructure is designed or relocated to minimize impacts on hydrologic systems and restore natural hydrologic functions.

Natural hydrologic systems and processes are left unimpeded except where stabilization and management are needed on public lands to protect cultural and natural resources. Where possible, infrastructure is designed or relocated to minimize impacts on natural hydrology.

Soundscape An intact acoustical 

environment is experienced at certain locations. New facilities are sited and designed to minimize impacts on the acoustical environment. Natural sounds are generally audible but sounds from visitor and park activities can be heard. Wildlife may be disturbed by noise.

The acoustical environment is largely intact. Natural sounds dominate; however, sounds from visitor use and park operations may be heard. Wildlife may be disturbed by noise.

The acoustical environment is largely intact. Natural sounds dominate; however, distant artificial sounds may intrude occasionally. Wildlife habitats are free or nearly free of intrusive noise.

The acoustical environment is intact. Natural sounds dominate, and distant artificial sounds are rarely heard. Wildlife habitats are free of noise.

Natural sounds dominate; however, some noise may intrude from visitor and park operations. Historically appropriate sounds from the period of significance may modify the otherwise intact acoustical environment.

Natural sounds dominate; however, some noise may intrude from visitor and park 

operations. Historically appropriate sounds (such as cattle lowing) from the period of significance may modify the otherwise intact acoustical environment.

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Table 3. Manage

ment Zones

Visitor Facilities and

Access Zone

Transition Zone

N

atural Zone

Research

N

atural

Area Zone

Historic

Rural

Setting Zone

California Trail Zone

Night Sky An intact night sky 

can be experienced at certain locations. No artificial lighting is present, although lighting from developed areas may be visible from some locations. New public facilities within the Reserve are sited and designed without lighting. Facilities outside the Reserve boundary are sited and designed using best management practices for outdoor lighting.

The night sky is largely intact. No artificial lighting is present although lighting from developed areas may be visible from some locations.

The night sky is largely intact. No artificial outdoor lighting is present although lighting from developed areas may be visible from some locations.

The night sky is intact. No artificial outdoor lighting is present though distant lighting outside the Reserve may be visible from some locations.

No artificial outdoor lighting is present though distant lighting outside the Reserve may be visible from some locations.

No artificial outdoor lighting is present though distant lighting may be visible from some locations.

Air Quality Reserve operations 

minimize air pollution emissions. 

Reserve operations minimize air pollution emissions.

No air pollution emissions are evident from Reserve operations. The Reserve maximizes its carbon sequestration (the uptake and storage of atmospheric carbon in soils, forests, and other vegetation) potential as appropriate.

No air pollution emissions are evident from Reserve operations. The Reserve maximizes its carbon sequestration potential as appropriate.

Reserve operations minimize air pollution emissions and maintain carbon sequestration potential.

Reserve operations minimize air pollution emissions and maintain carbon sequestration potential.

Hunting and Trapping

Hunting and trapping are prohibited in this zone due to safety considerations associated with high visitor use.

Hunting and trapping are allowed in this zone subject to state regulations, but may be limited, due to visitor safety. Landowner permission is required to hunt or trap on private land in the Reserve.

Hunting and trapping are allowed in this zone subject to state regulations. Landowner permission is required to hunt or trap on private land in the Reserve.

Hunting and trapping are prohibited in the Research Natural Area consistent with NPS policy for research natural areas.

Hunting and trapping are allowed in this zone subject to state regulations. Landowner permission is required to hunt or trap on private land in the Reserve.

Hunting and trapping are allowed in this zone subject to state regulations except near structures and roads. Landowner permission is required to hunt or trap on private land in the Reserve.

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Table 3. Manage

ment Zones

Visitor Facilities and

Access Zone

Transition Zone

N

atural Zone

Research

N

atural

Area Zone

Historic

Rural

Setting Zone

California Trail Zone

Grazing Trailing of cattle and 

pasturing in allotments (such as at Bread Loaves and Finger Rock) is allowed in this zone, though not in riparian and wetland areas.

Grazing in designated allotments and trailing of cattle are allowed in this zone, though not in riparian and wetland areas.

Although grazing in designated allotments and trailing of cattle are allowed in this zone, steps would be taken to ensure that it does not occur in riparian and wetland areas.

Grazing is prohibited in the Research Natural Area consistent with NPS policy for research natural areas.

Grazing in designated allotments is allowed in this zone, though not in riparian and wetland areas.

Grazing in designated allotments is allowed in this zone, though not in riparian and wetland areas. Allotments may be reduced or eliminated over time where feasible and consistent with cultural resources protection.

Communication Facilities

Cell towers and other communication facilities are not allowed in this zone.

Cell towers and other communication facilities are not allowed in this zone.

Cell towers and other communication facilities, except for a park repeater station, are not allowed in this zone.

Cell towers and other communication facilities are prohibited in the Research Natural Area consistent with NPS policy for these areas.

Cell towers and other communication facilities are not allowed in this  one.

Cell towers and other communication facilities are not allowed in this zone.

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Table 3. Manage

ment Zones

Visitor Facilities and

Access Zone

Transition Zone

N

atural Zone

Research

N

atural

Area Zone

Historic

Rural

Setting Zone

California Trail Zone

Overall Conditions

This zone is managed for visitor access and a wide range of selfdirected and guided visitor activities, including education and interpretation, recreation, and orientation. Appropriate uses include camping, trail use, climbing, photography, and wildlife viewing.

This zone provides visitors with opportunities for unstructured and selfguided experiences, as well as guided walks and hikes. Appropriate activities include trail use, climbing, dispersed camping, photography, and wildlife viewing.

Visitors in this zone experience solitude, natural sounds, a sense of remoteness, selfreliance, and discovery. Visitor activities are generally unstructured and self-guided and include trail use, backcountry camping by permit, and climbing with an emphasis on traditional climbing, photography, and wildlife viewing.

In this zone, protection of resources is paramount. Although visitor access is limited, it is allowed if not disruptive to research or protection activities.

Visitors in this zone have the opportunity to observe traditional ranching activities as well as remnant structures associated with ranching heritage. Visitor activities include unstructured experiences such as trail use, interpretation, and educational opportunities to view ranching operations on both public and private lands. Access to private land, however, requires landowner permission.

This zone provides the opportunity for visitors to imagine the emigrant experience on the California Trail. Visitors have the opportunity to observe inscription rocks, landmarks, and viewsheds that evoke the feelings and experiences of emigrants traveling the California Trail. Trail ruts and other trail remnants provide an opportunity for education and interpretation of the California Trail. Interpretation, education, and recreation that complement the historic setting would occur here.

Climbing Climbers must propose 

new fixed anchor routes through a permit process. No permit is needed for traditional climbing.

Climbers must propose new fixed anchor routes through a permit process. No permit is needed for traditional climbing.

Climbers must propose new fixed anchor routes through a permit process. No permit is needed for traditional climbing. Modifications to existing routes could be made to protect resources.

Access to all existing routes (fixed anchor and traditional) is allowed. No new fixed anchor proposals will be accepted. Traditional climbing is allowed as long as it does not interfere with ongoing research activity.

Climbers must propose new fixed anchor routes through a permit process. No permit is needed for traditional climbing.

There are no fixed anchors in the California Trail Zone. No climbing of technical routes is allowed in the California Trail Zone. Signature Rocks or rocks with 

inscriptions (e.g., Camp Rock, Register Rock) are closed to all climbing, including bouldering and scrambling. Scrambling is allowed on rocks without signatures in the California Trail Zone.

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Table 3. Manage

ment Zones

Visitor Facilities and

Access Zone

Transition Zone

N

atural Zone

Research

N

atural

Area Zone

Historic

Rural

Setting Zone

California Trail Zone

Overall Conditions

The existing public and administrative road corridors in this zone provide access to concentrated recreational facilities including campsites, parking, restrooms, trailheads and trails, developed staging areas, fixed anchor hardware, picnic areas, corrals, kiosks, signs, and interpretive waysides. This zone also includes facilities that support park operations such as utilities (wells, underground power lines, etc.).

Development is modest in this zone. There is no motorized access in this zone, except for administrative use and private landowner access. This zone allows for dispersed recreational facilities, including walk-in campsites, trails and trail infrastructure, trail signage, waysides, fencing and corrals, developed staging areas for climbing, and fixed anchor hardware. This zone includes primitive administrative road/access for administrative and emergency response.

This zone is limited to minimal facilities consistent with natural resource protection. Facilities include trails and trail infrastructure, fencing, water troughs, and waysides. Existing public, private and administrative roads are allowed in this zone and some primitive roads would be removed where possible.

No development is allowed in this zone. The boundary of this zone is fenced where necessary to exclude cattle. No new trails will be allowed.

Development is minimal in this zone. Existing public, private, and administrative roads are allowed in this zone. Fencing, corrals, water troughs, trails and their associated elements, trail signage, and waysides are allowed in this zone.

This zone has limited development to protect California Trail resources and to provide for visitor access, education, and interpretation. Existing public and administrative roads are allowed. Some primitive roads would be removed, where possible, if private lands were acquired. Utilities would continue to be placed underground. This zone allows for small-scale parking areas, waysides, road signs, and interpretive and informational signage. Foot and equestrian trails may be appropriate. Administrative fencing is allowed and historic fences will be removed when obsolete. No further development is allowed.

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•	 Section 36 of the Reserve was designated 

a state park in 1957 (called City of Rocks 

State Park) and is technically a state 

park within the National Reserve. In all 

alternatives, Section 36 would continue 

to be a state-owned parcel within the 

Reserve (see “Figure 2. Land Ownership 

and Management”).

•	 The Reserve would continue to allow 

noncommercial pinyon nut gathering 

(as outlined in the Superintendent’s 

Compendium and 36 CFR Section 2.1) 

and hunting (as regulated by Idaho 

Department of Fish and Game).

•	 Hunting and trapping within the Reserve 

are allowed by legislation under the 

jurisdiction of the Idaho Department of 

Fish and Game. It is permitted within 

certain public areas of the Reserve and 

within private lands in the Reserve with 

prior permission of the landowner. To 

better educate hunters and trappers about 

areas available within the Reserve and to 

establish sustainable levels of hunting, the 

Reserve would work with the department.

•	 The Reserve would update the national 

natural landmark designation to 

encompass other significant features in 

the Reserve.

•	 The Reserve would update the national 

historic landmark designation to 

encompass other significant features in 

the Reserve.

•	 The Reserve would encourage Cassia 

County to support national scenic byway 

designation for the existing City of 

Rocks Back Country Byway. If nationally 

designated, federal funding for byway 

projects could be sought.

Visitor Use

•	 The Reserve would continue to provide 

opportunities for traditional recreational 

activities such as hiking, biking, horseback 

riding, birding, climbing, and pinyon 

nut gathering.

•	 The Reserve would continue to offer 

youth programs such as the Youth 

Conservation Corps (YCC) program 

and day camps, student internships, 

Junior Ranger programs, and other 

special events.

•	 The ban on technical climbing at Twin 

Sisters would continue.

ALTERNATIVE A: NO ACTION 

ALTERNATIVE (CONTINUE CURRENT 

MANAGEMENT)

General Description

Under alternative A, existing programming, 

facilities, staffing, and funding would generally 

continue at current levels to protect the values 

of the Reserve. There would be no major 

changes in current management or visitor 

use. Implementation of currently approved 

plans would continue as funding allows. This 

alternative provides the baseline for evaluating 

actions and impacts in other alternatives.

Management Zones Applied to the No 

Action Alternative

Because alternative A is a continuation of 

current management, this alternative would 

continue to rely on the management zones 

from the Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive 

management plan and would not use the new 

management zoning shown in table 3. The 1996 

comprehensive management plan contains 

three main zones and two subzones. The main 

zones include:

•	 Historic and Natural Preservation Zone 

with two subzones (California Trail 

Subzone and Natural Area Subzone)

•	 Historic Rural Setting Zone

•	 Public Use and Development Zone

For alternative A, the specific configuration of 

the management zones is provided in “Figure 5. 

Alternative A: No Action Alternative.”

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94

Figure 5. Alternative A: No Action Alternative

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Historic and Natural Preservation Zone

This zone would contain lands where the 

preservation and public appreciation of cultural 

and natural resource values would be the 

predominant concern. This zone would include 

subzones for the California Trail and major rock 

outcrops—the two exceptional resource values 

for the Reserve.

California Trail Subzone

The management intent of this zone is to 

preserve the major landmarks, trail remnants, and 

inscription rocks associated with the California 

Trail (including the Salt Lake Alternate) and to 

give visitors the opportunity to walk alongside the 

entire length of the California Trail and within the 

Circle Creek encampment area.

Natural Area Subzone

The management intent of this zone is to preserve 

the exceptional natural resource values of the 

Reserve and to provide for recreational activities 

where appropriate. Areas included within 

this zone would be the crescent-shaped rock 

outcrops of the Circle Creek Basin, the ridgeline 

and northern slopes of the Reserve, the Research 

Natural Area, and most of the Indian Grove and 

Graham Peak areas. Use of the areas would focus 

on natural resource preservation.

Historic Rural Setting Zone

Most of the private lands in the reserve, along 

with some public lands outside the Historic and 

Natural Preservation Zone, would be in this zone. 

The management intent would be to preserve the 

historic rural setting and to perpetuate ongoing 

ranching activities that capture the rural character 

of the Reserve at the time of its establishment.

Public Use and Development Zone

The management intent of this zone would be to 

provide the facilities needed to support visitor 

use and reserve operations without degrading the 

values the reserve was established to preserve.

Zoning Application

The northern portion of the Reserve is zoned in 

the Natural Area Subzone to include most of the 

granite rock outcrops, the Research Natural Area, 

and camping and recreational-designated lands 

around the rim that encircles Circle Creek Basin.

The California Trail Subzone includes a halfmile corridor around the California and Salt 

Lake Alternate trails, encompassing the major 

landmarks, trail remnants, and inscription rocks 

associated with the trails. The Circle Creek 

encampment area, Twin Sisters formation, and 

Pinnacles Pass are also included in this zone.

Surrounding the California Trail Subzone in 

the southern portion of the Reserve and along 

the west side is the Historic Rural Setting 

Zone. This zone encompasses lands used for 

ranching operations at the time the Reserve 

was established.

The Public Use and Development Zone includes 

roads to support facilities. This zone follows the 

main Reserve road system.

The Reserve management zoning map from 

the comprehensive management plan shows no 

zoning along the eastern boundary of the Reserve 

on Smoky Mountain, which may have been a 

map error.

For Alternative A, the specific configuration of 

the management zones is provided in “Figure 5. 

Alternative A: No Action Alternative.”

Natural Resource Management

Under alternative A, natural resource 

preservation and protection would continue to 

be a high priority for management of the Reserve. 

The natural resource program focus would 

continue to be on the inventory and monitoring 

of natural resources working with the NPS Upper 

Columbia Basin Network. As opportunities arise, 

Reserve staff would continue to conduct research 

and resource management projects, inventories, 

and monitoring. Reserve staff would continue 

to proactively preserve features associated 

with the Cassia Silent City of Rocks National 

Natural Landmark.

Through active management, the Reserve 

would continue to promote and ensure longterm stewardship and preservation of natural 

resources. Management would be based on the 

significance of protecting biological diversity 

within the Reserve and its role in regional 

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ecological health. Reserve staff would continue 

to consider actions that allow or restore natural 

processes within an ecosystem context.

Climate and Air Quality

Air quality measurements indicate that southern 

Idaho has some of the best air quality in the 

continental United States. Because clear airsheds 

are a fundamental resource value of the Reserve, 

staff would continue to minimize air pollution 

from Reserve operations. The Reserve would 

also maintain current meteorological monitoring 

activities and continue to collect weather 

and climate information through the remote 

automated weather station.

In alternative A, the Reserve would continue 

to interpret and monitor the effects of humancaused climate change in the Northern Basin 

and Range Province at City of Rocks and work 

toward increasing fuel and energy efficiency. The 

Reserve would implement actions outlined in 

its climate action plan to reduce greenhouse gas 

emissions (Reserve 2010c). The Reserve would 

continue to allow and support existing climate 

change research within the Reserve.

Water Quality

(See “Natural Resources” in the “Actions 

Common to All Alternatives” section.)

Geology and Soils

Cassia Silent City of Rocks National Natural 

Landmark (NNL) contains nationally significant 

geological and scenic values. Because the NNL 

findings have not been updated since the Cassia 

Silent City of Rocks National Natural Landmark 

was designated in 1974 (Jones 1973), the Reserve 

would conduct an inventory of pinnacles and 

sensitive rock features.

To ensure protection of these nationally 

significant rock formations, an inventory and 

monitoring program would be developed from 

which mitigation actions could be identified. The 

inventory process would concentrate on locating 

fragile rock formations and identifying impacts 

on all rock surfaces from visitor activities, 

particularly the use of climbing equipment and 

scrambling activities.

Monitoring would determine if impacts over 

time are significantly altering the natural state 

of the rock surfaces, accelerating erosion 

processes, or breaking fragile rock features. The 

photo survey of fragile rock formations and 

weathering features—conducted in 1997–98 and 

entered into GIS—could be used as a benchmark 

for monitoring.

The disintegrating granite soils that are 

widespread within the Reserve contribute to 

erosion and gully formation, both within and 

beyond the road corridors. Reserve staff would 

use current best management practices to 

mitigate soil erosion.

Vegetation and Fire

Native plant communities would continue to 

be preserved. The Reserve would maintain 

current levels of vegetation inventory and 

would conduct limited monitoring as needed, 

or as indicated by the UCBN I&M program. 

The invasive plant management plan would 

continue to be used to refine park priority areas 

for control of nonnative invasive plants (NPS 

2011). In addition, Reserve staff would develop 

a vegetation management plan for the Reserve 

that would be coordinated with an updated fire 

management plan.

The fire management plan would be used to 

identify where and how fuels should be treated 

to reduce the damaging impacts of wildfire on 

the Reserve’s natural and cultural resources, to 

protect visitors and infrastructure, and to reduce 

the impact of wildfire on adjacent communities 

and private land. The plan would also identify 

where post-wildfire emergency stabilization and 

rehabilitation may be needed to mitigate impacts 

from wildfire on the Reserve’s resources.

The Reserve would continue to follow the 

current fire management strategy of suppressing 

wildfires entering or originating in the Reserve 

using an aggressive initial response.

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Wildlife

The Reserve would maintain current levels of 

wildlife inventory activities and would conduct 

limited monitoring as needed. To keep hunting 

and trapping within the Reserve at sustainable 

levels, the Reserve would continue to work with 

the Idaho Department of Fish and Game.

Soundscapes and Lightscapes

Natural sounds are one of the fundamental 

resources and values of the Reserve, which 

is also known as the “Silent City of Rocks.” 

Acoustical monitoring was conducted in 2008 

and 2009 at nine sites within the Reserve. In 

alternative A, with assistance from the NPS 

Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division, the 

Reserve would consider conducting additional 

monitoring in other areas of the Reserve, if 

needed. In addition, the Reserve would develop 

a long-term monitoring protocol and monitor 

the same sites again after implementation of the 

GMP to compare any changes.

Natural lightscape is defined as the natural 

resources and values that exist in the absence 

of human-caused light. In alternative A, the 

natural lightscape of the Reserve would be 

preserved. At this time, there are no permanent 

artificial lights within the Reserve boundary. 

The Reserve would work cooperatively to 

reduce reflective light using best management 

practices on adjacent state-owned lands. An 

inventory of night sky quality and characteristics 

in the Reserve would also be conducted with 

assistance from the NPS Natural Sounds and 

Night Skies Division.

Cultural Resource Management

Under alternative A, cultural resource 

preservation and protection would continue 

to be a high priority for management of the 

Reserve. The Reserve would continue to 

promote and ensure long-term stewardship and 

preservation of cultural resources through active 

management. Reserve staff would continue to 

conduct research and resource management 

projects, inventories, and monitoring as 

opportunities arise, and would also work 

with private landowners within the Reserve. 

As one of the highest priorities, Reserve staff 

would continue to preserve California Trail-era 

resources associated with the City of Rocks 

National Historic Landmark in accordance with 

The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the 

Treatment of Historic Properties (NPS 1992).

Other cultural resources relate to homesteading, 

mining, and ranching after the California 

Trail era, and American Indian use before the 

California Trail era. The National Park Service 

and the Reserve superintendent would continue 

to work closely with the Shoshone-Bannock 

Tribes to continue their traditional activities 

within the Reserve, including gathering of 

pinyon nuts.

Archeology

Reserve staff would continue to conduct 

archeological projects to research, identify, and 

document resources. Surveys and testing would 

continue at both prehistoric and historic sites to 

provide information on early occupation of City 

of Rocks.

Cultural Landscape

In alternative A, Reserve staff would continue 

to document features, such as emigrant 

inscriptions, trail ruts, and landscape 

characteristics associated with the California 

National Historic Trail corridor to ensure they 

would remain in good condition. Appropriate 

preservation treatments would be selected and 

implemented in accordance with The Secretary 

of the Interior’s Standards for the Treatment of 

Historic Properties. In addition, Reserve staff 

would work in partnership with stakeholders to 

clarify the route of the California Trail corridor 

using remote sensing technology.

Features such as remnants of homesteads, as 

well as archival and museum objects associated 

with mining, homesteading, and ranching, 

would continue to remain in good condition. 

Appropriate preservation treatment would be 

carried out in accordance with The Secretary 

of the Interior’s Standards for the Treatment of 

Historic Properties. For those features located on 

private land, such as the Nicholson Ranch and 

the Moon Homestead site, the Reserve would 

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work in partnership with existing landowners 

for preservation treatments, as interest and 

opportunities arise.

Special Designations

Hunting and Trapping

(See “Special Uses and Designations” in the 

“Actions Common to All Alternatives” section 

and “Table 3. Management Zones.”)

Grazing

Livestock grazing in the Reserve would be 

maintained at current levels. Grazing would be 

limited to those management zones identified in 

the Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive management 

plan as appropriate for grazing. Total animal 

unit months would not exceed the 1991 level 

of use and could be reduced or modified, if 

necessary, for the protection of natural and 

cultural resources. Land acquired by the 

National Park Service where grazing is vacated 

by the landowner would not be made available 

to new grazing permittees. Instead, based on the 

grazing management plan, at the discretion of 

the superintendent, these lands may be used for 

authorized grazing of livestock by the remaining 

grazing permittees.

The Reserve would update the current grazing 

management plan to reflect acquisition of private 

lands since 1997. Because implementation of 

the grazing management plan recommendations 

may affect wetlands within the Reserve, if 

implemented these actions would need to be 

addressed in a future NPS wetlands statement 

of findings. This would ensure that the update 

to the grazing management plan complies 

with Executive Order 11990, “Protection 

of Wetlands.”

The updated plan would enable livestock grazing 

to continue in the Reserve at an economically 

viable level for the permittees, while meeting 

long-range goals to preserve and protect the 

significant natural and cultural resources and 

the scenic quality of the Reserve. As called for by 

the comprehensive management plan, grazing 

in wetland and riparian areas would continue 

to be systematically eliminated and grazing 

would continue to be prohibited in the Research 

Natural Area. Cattle would be excluded from 

wetland and riparian areas through a variety 

of means, such as by providing alternate water 

sources or adding fencing, as appropriate.

Grazing Improvements or Changes in 

the Reserve Since 1989

•	 14% reduction in public lands grazed 

in the Reserve

•	 4% reduction in animal unit months

•	 Indian Grove wetlands fenced to cattle

•	 Some springs fenced to exclude cattle

•	 Elimination of grazing in Lower 

Circle Creek

•	 Circle Creek Allotment permanently 

closed, fences removed to restore 

cultural landscape

•	 NPS purchase of properties allowed 

dispersal of animal unit months over a 

larger land area

Research Natural Area

The Research Natural Area contains unique 

geologic formations and is the northern limit 

of the pinyon-juniper forest type in North 

America, exhibiting high-quality native 

vegetation and old-growth tree stands. The 

Research Natural Area is part of a cougar 

migration corridor, and its geologic formations 

provide important habitat for species such as 

bats (see the “Mammals” section in “Chapter 4: 

Affected Environment”).

Reserve staff would maintain the existing 

312-acre Research Natural Area and continue 

to manage it for its outstanding natural 

features, natural processes, natural diversity, 

and ecological values. There would be some 

modifications to the existing allotment along the 

western boundary of the Research Natural Area 

by working with the current permittee to remove 

the unintentional overlapping grazing allotment 

from the RNA boundary.

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Hunting and trapping would also continue to 

be excluded from the Research Natural Area 

according to NPS Natural Resource Management 

Reference Manual 77 (NPS 2004a).

Natural Historic Landmark

(See “Special Uses and Designations” in the 

“Actions Common to All Alternatives” section 

and “Table 3: Management Zones.”)

National Natural Landmark

(See “Special Uses and Designations” in the 

“Actions Common to All Alternatives” section 

and “Table 3: Management Zones.”)

Section 36

(See “Special Uses and Designations” in the 

“Actions Common to All Alternatives” section 

and “Table 3: Management Zones.”)

Interpretation and Education

The Reserve would continue to provide 

interpretive and educational opportunities on 

the various City of Rocks interpretive themes 

at the current visitor center as well as through 

existing waysides, kiosks, brochures, special 

events, and the internet. Current wayside 

exhibits in the Reserve would be maintained to 

NPS standards.

The City of Rocks National Reserve visitor 

center would continue to provide brochures, 

maps, educational gifts, and souvenirs related to 

the resources of City of Rocks.

Reserve staff would continue to work with other 

organizations that use the Reserve as a place to 

teach, including colleges and universities (such 

as geology and recreational programs), nonprofit 

organizations (such as the National Outdoor 

Leadership School, Boy and Girl Scouts of 

America, the Access Fund, and the OregonCalifornia Trail Association), environmental 

organizations, and educational institutions.

Interpretive Programs

Reserve staff would continue to conduct a 

variety of interpretive programs and special 

events and provide educational materials and 

activities for visitors, including arranging for 

guest speakers. Land use activities and features 

associated with mining, homesteading, and 

ranching, such as the Nicholson Ranch and the 

Moon Homestead site, would continue to be 

interpreted to the public on a limited basis as 

opportunities arise.

Youth

Activities for youth would continue to be 

available. Reserve staff would continue to 

sponsor student internships, Junior Ranger 

programs, and the Youth Conservation Corps 

program, in addition to holding other special 

events and programs for youth. Winter and 

summer youth day camps would also continue 

to be provided, pending available staffing 

and funding.

Visitor Experience

The multitude of dramatic granite rock 

formations and the topography of the rural 

landscape provide a wide array of recreational 

opportunities for Reserve visitors. In alternative 

A, the Reserve would continue to offer its 

current level of visitor services. The Reserve 

would continue to provide a diversity of uses 

consistent with administrative policies and 

resource protection.

Recreational Opportunities

Traditional recreational activities such as hiking, 

biking, horseback riding, birding, and climbing 

would continue to be accommodated at the 

Reserve. Activities, such as climbing, would 

continue to be limited at times for occasional 

seasonal closures to protect nesting wildlife.

Reserve staff would update the 1998 climbing 

management plan (Reserve 1998a) to better 

address user capacity and to implement 

any changes resulting from this general 

management plan.

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Trails

The current trail system would be maintained.

Climbing

Climbing in the Reserve would continue 

to be managed under the 1998 climbing 

management plan.

Equestrian Staging

The Reserve would continue to provide 

equestrian camping and staging at Smoky 

Mountain Campground and at the Juniper 

group campsite within the Reserve.

Commercial Visitor Services

In the No Action Alternative, commercial guides 

and outfitters would continue to provide rock 

climbing and horseback riding services to 

visitors. The overall type and level of permitted 

guides and outfitters currently operating within 

the Reserve would be maintained (see “Chapter 

4: Affected Environment” for more detailed 

information on commercial services).

NPS Visitor and Administrative Facilities

Reserve Campsites

The Reserve would continue to offer camping 

opportunities within the Reserve through a 

reservation system, and would generally retain 

the same number of sites and camping areas.

Visitor Facilities

Reserve staff would maintain the array of 

existing waysides, kiosks, exhibits, and vault 

toilets within the Reserve and would replace or 

add to these as needed to support existing or 

planned operations.

Reserve Roads

Access for motorized and nonmotorized 

transportation would continue to be provided 

on existing Reserve-managed roads, such as 

Circle Creek Overlook Road and Logger Springs 

Road (see the “Cassia County Road Network” 

section below for additional discussion 

of roads).

Partnerships

IDPR Visitor and Administrative Facilities

Visitor Center

In the short term, the temporary existing visitor 

center with its administrative and visitor services 

functions would remain located within the 

Castle Rocks State Park Administrative Unit in 

Almo, on state-owned land. This small, centuryold house would continue to serve as the main 

visitor center for the Reserve and Castle Rocks 

State Park. The space in the visitor center totals 

1,035 square feet (621 square feet downstairs 

and 414 square feet upstairs), which would 

continue to be insufficient to meet the needs 

of the more than 100,000 annual visitors to 

the Reserve and Castle Rocks State Park or to 

provide offices for the current staff. This small, 

poorly-configured house would continue to 

provide office space for: all administrative tasks; 

five permanent and some seasonal and visiting 

staff (working in library and co-using existing 

offices); visitor information and backcountry 

registration; film viewing area; and retail store.

In the long-term, the Idaho Department of 

Parks and Recreation would seek to develop a 

permanent visitor center on state-leased BLM 

land near Smoky Mountain as approved in the 

Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive management plan 

and in the 2006 Castle Rocks State Park Master 

Plan. It is also part of the BLM lease agreement.

The proposed 9,500-square-foot visitor 

center would include a lobby with a staffed 

information desk, a backcountry registration 

area, a small retail sales area, exhibit space 

and museum, a small theater seating up to 70, 

restrooms, a multipurpose room, interpretive 

staff offices, and adjacent parking as described 

in the comprehensive management plan 

(Reserve 1996a).

According to the 2006 Castle Rocks State Park 

Master Plan, a replacement visitor center would 

be shared by Castle Rocks State Park and the 

Reserve and would be the main point of visitor 

contact. The 2006 plan estimated costs for this 

visitor center at $2.2 million ($2.5 million in 

2012 dollars) and mentions the inclusion of an 

indoor theater for interpretation (IDPR 2006).

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The National Park Service does not have 

funding programmed for any capital 

contribution to this visitor center, and based 

on recent construction budget appropriations, 

is unlikely to be able to obtain funding in the 

foreseeable future. NPS capital investments in 

this proposed structure are further complicated 

by policies that prohibit funding for structures 

outside NPS boundaries; the proposed site 

near Smoky Mountain is not within the 

Reserve boundary. The Idaho Department of 

Parks and Recreation, however, may proceed 

with development of a replacement visitor 

center if state funds become available. If so, 

the National Park Service would continue to 

provide operations and maintenance support 

and could provide design consultation, or 

assistance if requested by the Idaho Department 

of Parks and Recreation through the existing 

cooperative agreement.

Administration

(See “Reserve Management and 

Operations” in the “Actions Common to All 

Alternatives” section.)

Maintenance

(See “Reserve Management and 

Operations” in the “Actions Common to All 

Alternatives” section.)

Employee Housing

The Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

would continue to provide limited employee 

housing in the two employee residences and 

four campsites for volunteers at the Castle Rocks 

State Park Administrative Unit.

Smoky Mountain Campground

Smoky Mountain Campground, located on land 

leased by the state from the Bureau of Land 

Management, would continue to serve as the 

main campground for recreational vehicles, 

equestrians, and others camping outside and 

adjacent to the Reserve.

Because it was approved in the 1996 

comprehensive management plan and 2006 

Castle Rocks State Park Master Plan, the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation may 

decide to proceed with the development of 

the phase II additional camping loop on the 

BLM lease in cooperation with the Bureau of 

Land Management, as described in the current 

lease agreement. This additional loop would 

provide needed campsites within the Reserve 

during the peak season. In alternative A, this 

development is envisioned as a paved loop with 

campsites primarily for recreational vehicles 

similar to the existing campground loop of 38 

campsites. Infrastructure—such as power and a 

water supply—already exists and would include 

an accessible toilet and additional showers if 

the water supply is adequate. The second loop 

would contain up to 62 additional campsites 

(to equal the 100 campsites called for in the 

comprehensive management plan and approved 

by the lease agreement).

The exact location of the second campground 

loop in the Recreation and Public Purpose 

(R&PP) lease would be determined based on 

analysis of potential impacts on resources. In 

addition, the second campground loop would 

be designed to minimize any visual impacts. 

Tree cover would be maintained or added to 

screen campsites from each other and from the 

California Trail corridor, where possible.

Similar to the proposed visitor center, although 

the Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

would fund the construction of the new 

campground loop and amenities, the National 

Park Service would continue to provide 

operations and maintenance support through 

the existing cooperative agreement. NPS 

assistance could also include design consultation 

or assistance.

Visitor Facilities

The Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

would continue to maintain existing waysides, 

kiosks, exhibits, and vault toilets located on 

NPS- and state-owned land.

Cassia County Road Network

Cassia County owns and maintains the two 

unpaved county roads—City of Rocks Road and 

Twin Sisters Road—through the Reserve that 

are part of the designated City of Rocks Back 

Country Byway. The Reserve would encourage 

Cassia County to maintain these roads to 

ensure a park-like feel and a safe, scenic driving 

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experience using the historic road alignment 

to the extent possible. This would include 

keeping the roads through the Reserve unpaved. 

The National Park Service and the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation would 

continue to work cooperatively with the county 

on visitor safety, signage, and information.

All-terrain vehicles (ATVs) and dirt bikes are 

allowed on county roads and Reserve roads, 

including Logger Springs Road (owned by the 

National Park Service), which accesses USFS 

land north of the Reserve. The National Park 

Service and the Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation would also continue to work with the 

Cassia County to maintain jurisdictional county 

roads within the Reserve, as needed.

Other Partnerships

Reserve staff would continue to work with 

adjacent landowners and landowners within the 

Reserve on resource protection and visitor use 

issues of mutual concern.

Environmental Sustainability

The National Park Service and the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation would 

continue to partner to reduce energy use and to 

undertake other practices that would contribute 

to making the Reserve more environmentally 

sustainable. The Idaho Department of 

Parks and Recreation would continue its 

recycling program. The Reserve would pursue 

implementation of energy efficiency actions 

outlined in its climate action plan (Reserve 

2010c), and would follow sustainability 

guidelines set forth in the NPS Green Parks Plan 

(NPS 2012c). In addition, the National Park 

Service would encourage the Idaho Department 

of Parks and Recreation to implement NPS 

Management Policies 2006, which require new 

visitor centers or major visitor services facilities 

to meet LEED (Leadership in Energy and 

Environmental Design) standards at a minimum 

rating level of silver.

Reserve Boundary

The existing Reserve boundary would be 

maintained. There would be no boundary 

modification under alternative A.

Operations

Staffing

Alternative A assumes current staffing levels 

would be maintained at seven classified full-time 

equivalent employees (FTEs). One FTE is one 

person working 40 hours per week for one year, 

or the equivalent. The total number of FTEs is 

the number of staff required to maintain the 

assets of City of Rocks National Reserve at an 

appropriate level, provide acceptable visitor 

services, protect resources, and generally 

support Reserve operations. The percentage of 

funding for each position provided by the 

National Park Service and the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation is 

stipulated in the current 2014 operation plan 

and guidelines for management and is listed in 

the following table under Funding Agency. The 

table does not include seasonal staffing, which 

would vary depending on needs and 

funding allocations.

*FTE percentages between IDPR and NPS are stated in the “2014 

Operation Plan and Guidelines for the Management of City of Rocks 

National Reserve (CIRO).”

Table 4. Alternative A, Staffing

Position IDPR NPS

Park Manager III 100%

Assistant Park Manager 100%

Maintenance Foreman 75% 25%

Climbing Ranger 25% 75%

Park Ranger – Visitor Services 100%

Park Ranger – Natural Resources 50% 50%

Park Ranger – Cultural Resources 100%

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Estimated Costs

The implementation of the approved plan, no 

matter which alternative is selected, would 

depend on future NPS funding levels and 

servicewide priorities, and on partnership 

funds, time, and effort. The approval of a general 

management plan does not guarantee that 

funding and staffing needed to implement the 

plan would be forthcoming. Full implementation 

of the plan could be many years in the future.

Annual Operating Costs

Annual operating costs are the total costs per 

year for maintenance and operations associated 

with alternative A, including utilities, supplies, 

staff salaries and benefits, leasing, and other 

materials. Cost and staffing estimates assume 

that the alternative is fully implemented as 

described in the narrative.

FTE salaries and benefits are included in the 

annual operating costs.

One-time Costs

For the No Action Alternative, one-time facility 

costs (table 5) would include costs associated 

with projects already approved and fully funded. 

However, because the proposed visitor center 

would be constructed by the Idaho Department 

of Parks and Recreation on BLM-leased land 

and has been approved in the Reserve’s 1996 

comprehensive management plan and the 2006 

Castle Rocks State Park Master Plan, $2.5 million 

is included here with funding assigned to the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation. It 

is fully recognized that the Idaho Department 

of Parks and Recreation, in cooperation with 

the National Park Service, would seek out a 

variety of potential funding sources to support 

the design and development of the approved 

visitor center facility. This would include, 

but not be limited to, exploring funding 

potential through the Federal Transportation 

Enhancement Program, private charitable 

foundations, and other potential sources of 

support. In addition, the No Action Alternative 

would include an additional $4.6 million from 

the Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

for the construction of 62 new sites (primarily 

RV sites) on a new paved loop at Smoky 

Mountain Campground.

One-time nonfacility costs would include 

actions for the preservation of cultural or 

natural resources not related to facilities, the 

development of visitor use tools not related to 

facilities, and other park management activities 

that would require substantial funding above 

park annual operating costs. Examples include 

Facility Management Software System (FMSS) 

support, Volunteer In Park (VIP) grants, Youth 

Conservation Corps programs, and maintenance 

and rehabilitation of trails.

Program Support costs include technology, 

grants, development of plans, or other program 

support.

These costs are in 2012 dollars and are based on 

general “Class C” estimates for site development 

and construction. (According to the 2011 NPS 

Cost Estimating Requirements Handbook, 

Class C construction cost estimates are used for 

alternatives and are referred to as conceptual 

estimates by the design and construction 

industry. These estimates are generally prepared 

without a fully defined scope of work. They are 

general in nature and representative of a broadbased vision rather than focused on specific 

details.) Prior to submitting funding requests 

for the design and construction phases, “Class 

B” estimates are required, based on detailed site 

and facility designs.

Prioritizing Actions in Alternative A

Actions in alternative A would continue to be 

prioritized or ranked in importance as either 

high priority (1) or low priority (2). High priority 

actions address immediate threats and needs 

(requirements by mission, policy, and purpose) 

or address promises made in the past to the 

public such as development of an equestrian 

staging area.

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Low priority actions would address visitor 

opportunities and experiences, such as 

enhanced facilities, and would depend on 

sustained funding.

Deferred Maintenance Offset

Deferred maintenance is maintenance and 

repair activities that were not performed when 

they should have been or were scheduled and 

which, therefore, are put off or delayed for a 

future period. Maintenance and repairs are 

activities directed toward keeping fixed assets 

in an acceptable condition. Total costs for 

deferred maintenance offset in alternative A are 

listed in table 5. Deferred maintenance costs 

would “offset” the total one-time costs. For 

example, the total one-time costs are $7,155,500, 

which would be reduced to $7,132,500 after 

considering the deferred maintenance offset 

of $23,000.

Cost estimates for alternative A are identified 

in table 6.

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Table 5. 

Summary

of One-time Cost for

Alternative A, N

o

Action

Alternative (

Continuation

of Current Manage

ment)

Location

Project Progra

m

Support

Facility

Rehabilitation/

Replace

ment

Resource

Manage

ment New

Construction

Priority*

Deferred

Maintenance

Offset

Alternative A

Reservewide FMSS support $8,000 1

VIP grant $3,000 1Youth Conservation Corps $7,500 1Public Land Corps maintain and rehabilitate trails

$25,000 1 -$23,000

DM Subtotal Trails -$23,000Smoky Mountain Campground

Smoky Mountain Campground, 62 sites

$4,600,000++ 2

DM SubtotalBLM R&PP Lease Site CRMP approved visitor facility $2,512,000++ 2DM SubtotalTotal Cost by Categories

$43,500 $2,512,000 $4,600,000 -$23,000

Total Priority 1 Costs $43,500Total Priority 2 Costs $7,112,000Total One-Time Improvement Cost of Alternative**

$7,155,500

Deferred Maintenance Offset

$23,000

*Priority 1 projects include projects that emphasize resource protection, threats, and visitor safety. Priority 2 projects include all other projects important to the full implementation 

of the alternative, including those that address visitor opportunities and experiences such as enhanced facilities as funding allows and could be sustained. Costs are in 2012 dollars.

**Total Capital Cost includes total Priority 1 and Priority 2 costs but does not include a reduction for Deferred Maintenance Offset.++IDPR costs. 

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Table 6. Alternative A, Summary of Costs*

Category Costs

Annual Operating Costs **

Existing Base Funding $698,647

New Personnel Costs -

Total Annual Operating Costs $698,647

Personnel FTE

Permanent 7

One-time Costs

Total Existing Project Costs $43,500

One-Time Nonfacility Costs

Program Support $43,500

Priority 1***

Priority 2

Resource Management $0

Priority 1 $0

Priority 2 $0

Total Nonfacility Costs $43,500

One-Time Facility Costs

New Construction $4,600,000

Priority 1 $0

Priority 2 $4,600,000++

Facility Rehabilitation $2,512,000

Priority 1 $2,512,000++

Priority 2 $0

Total Facility Project Costs $7,112,000

Total Priority 1 Costs $43,500

Total Priority 2 Costs $7,112,000

Total One-Time Costs $7,155,500

Deferred Maintenance Offset $23,000

*Figures are rounded.

**Does not include funding for Castle Rocks State Park, 

although some costs support both the Reserve and the state 

park: for example, some staff positions and the visitor center.

***Actions in alternative A would be prioritized or ranked 

in importance as either high priority (1) or low priority (2). 

High priority actions address immediate threats and needs 

(requirements by mission, policy, and purpose) or address 

promises made in the past to the public such as development 

of an equestrian staging area. Low priority actions address 

visitor opportunities and experiences such as enhanced 

facilities, as funding allows and could be sustained.

++IDPR costs. 

ALTERNATIVE B: SILENT CITY OF 

ROCKS, PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE

General Description

Alternative B has been identified as the preferred 

alternative for both the Idaho Department of 

Parks and Recreation and the National Park 

Service. In this alternative, the spectacular 

scenic quality, geology, biological diversity, and 

cultural landscape experienced by pioneers, 

early settlers, and contemporary visitors would 

be highlighted. Alternative B would emphasize 

a backcountry-type visitor experience that 

allows for self-discovery, self-reliance, selfdetermination, and the freedom to take risks. 

This alternative would encourage self-directed 

exploration of the Reserve’s western landscape 

and facilitate individual discovery to evoke a 

powerful connection to the Reserve and its 

history. Visitors would be immersed in the 

western experience and inspired by the open 

landscapes and wildness of the outdoors.

Management Zones Applied to 

Alternative B

The management zones for alternative B are 

taken from “Table 3. Management Zones.” 

Specific geographic (mapping) configuration of 

the management zones is provided in “Figure 6. 

Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks.”

In alternative B, the Visitor Facilities and 

Access Zone would be confined to the current 

developed recreational facility areas in the 

Reserve, such as the campsites located along 

the rim above Circle Creek Basin, Finger Rock, 

Twin Sisters, and the Juniper group campsite. It 

also would include the Circle Creek Overlook. 

Facilities for visitors, such as restrooms, parking, 

and picnic areas, would also be located in 

this zone.

The Transition Zone would be applied to an area 

surrounding the Visitor Facilities and Access 

Zone. The Transition Zone would include 

dispersed recreational facilities such as walkin campsites, trails, waysides, and a proposed 

equestrian staging area on the west side of 

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the Reserve to complement the equestrian 

staging area at Smoky Mountain Campground. 

This zone stretches from Bread Loaves to the 

California Trail corridor.

In alternative B, the Natural Zone would 

include the higher rocky elevation lands at the 

northern end of the Reserve surrounding the 

Research Natural Area and Circle Creek Basin 

and those to the southeast along the flanks of 

Smoky Mountain.

The Research Natural Area Zone would be 

slightly larger in alternative B than the No 

Action Alternative, to more closely follow 

terrain features, which would aid on-theground management.

The Historic Rural Setting Zone would be 

applied to Circle Creek Basin and the ranchlands 

in the southwest of the Reserve. To allow for no 

net loss of technical climbing, a finger of this 

zone would also extend north of Twin Sisters to 

allow for technical climbing, but would continue 

to exclude technical climbing on the Twin Sisters 

formation, in accordance with the existing 

ban on technical climbing in this area. Taken 

altogether, alternative B has the largest combined 

Historic Rural Setting and Natural Zones, which 

would facilitate the backcountry-type visitor 

experience intended in this alternative concept.

The California Trail Zone would primarily be 

confined to a one-half-mile corridor along the 

northern alignment of the California National 

Historic Trail, but would also be extended to 

include the Twin Sisters area, register rocks 

(rocks with inscriptions), the Salt Lake Alternate, 

and other California Trail-defining features, 

including the southern trail offshoot on the 

eastern side of the Reserve, in order to limit 

fixed-anchor climbing and maintain a lessdeveloped, rural character in these key areas.

Natural Resource Management

Management of natural resources would be 

the same as in alternative A with ongoing 

inventory and monitoring of natural resources 

to better understand their significance and 

promote their stewardship in an ecosystem 

context. Reserve staff would also increase 

public understanding of resources through 

the application and dissemination of research. 

In addition, a resource stewardship strategy 

would be produced to guide natural and cultural 

resource  management.

Climate and Air Quality

In alternative B, the Reserve would maintain 

meteorological monitoring activities and 

conduct periodic particulate matter and ozone 

monitoring. Reserve staff would be proactive in 

raising awareness of air pollution sources within 

and near the Reserve’s airshed. To maintain air 

quality, the Reserve would continue to minimize 

air pollution from operations and to provide 

public outreach and education regarding 

existing and potential air pollution impacts to 

the Reserve.

Alternative B would implement the same climate 

change mitigation, research, and interpretation 

strategies outlined in alternative A, including 

interpretation of the effects of climate change 

and implementing the Reserve climate action 

plan to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In 

addition, the minimal development emphasis 

in alternative B would provide for a lower 

facility-related energy and carbon footprint. 

To further reduce carbon emissions, Reserve 

staff would maximize energy efficiency, 

conservation, and sustainability associated with 

any new development. Alternative B would 

also encourage RNA research that analyzes 

the impacts of climate change on different 

vegetation types over time.

Water Quality

(See Natural Resources in the “Actions 

Common to All Alternatives” section.)

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Figure 6. Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks

ÆQ

Smoky Mountain

Campground

USFS

BLM

State

BLM

BLM

BLM

State

BLM

BLM

BLM

BLM

Idaho

State

Parks

Idaho State Parks

BLM

BLM

TWIN

SISTERS

CIRCLE

CREEK

BASIN

CASTLE

GRAHAM ROCK

PEAK

D D

Almo

BLM

BLM

BLM

Visitor Facilities & Access Zone

Transition Zone

Natural Zone

Research Natural Area Zone

Historic Rural Setting Zone

California Trail Zone

Private Lands

California National Historic Trail

California National Historic Trail

Corridor (1/4 Mile Buffer Per Side)

Reserve Boundary

Roads

Produced by: NPS - PWR GIS

Date Created: September, 2014

Data Sources: BLM - BLM, USFS and State Land

 NPS - California National Historic Trail,

 Management Zones, Reserve

 Boundary and Roads

 USGS - Shaded Relief

Figure 6

N:\GIS_Maps\Parks\CIRO\GMP\AlternativeB.mxd

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City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/EIS

Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative)

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Geology and Soils

As in alternative A, the Reserve would conduct 

an inventory of rock features associated with the 

national natural landmark.

To prevent erosion and gully formation in 

disintegrating granite soils, the Reserve would 

improve drainage on existing roads and trails by 

facilitating sheet flow, rather than concentrating 

water flow. New trail and facility construction 

would use best management practices to 

minimize erosion. (Best management practices 

apply the most current means and technologies 

available to not only comply with environmental 

regulations, but also achieve a superior level 

of adherence to environmental standards.) 

The Reserve would develop road standards for 

Reserve roads located on disintegrating granite 

soils and work with the county to improve road 

maintenance standards on county maintained 

roads within the Reserve.

Vegetation and Fire

In alternative B, vegetation management actions 

would be the same as in alternative A.

Fire management actions would be the same as 

in alternative A, plus the Reserve would update 

the fire management plan and would consider a 

full range of fire management strategies within 

the Reserve.

A contingency plan would also be developed to 

identify areas where high fire intensity and postfire erosion events could affect infrastructure 

due to increased water runoff and highly 

erodible granitic soils.

Wildlife

Unlike alternative A, where only specific wildlife 

species would be inventoried, in alternative B 

the Reserve would conduct a systematic wildlife 

inventory to increase natural resources baseline 

information through research and field inquiry. 

This information would be used to update and 

prioritize the Project Management Information 

System (PMIS) funding requests related 

to wildlife.

The Reserve would develop and implement 

a wildlife monitoring plan to detect longterm population change and guide ongoing 

management of populations and habitats. The 

Reserve would collaborate with federal, state, 

county, and private entities to determine the 

feasibility of reintroducing extirpated wildlife, 

such as pygmy rabbit, pronghorn, and peregrine 

falcon.

Soundscapes and Lightscapes

Soundscapes would be treated the same as in 

alternative A. In addition, Reserve staff with 

assistance from the Natural Sounds and Night 

Skies Division would prepare and implement 

a soundscapes management plan to protect 

the natural sounds of the Reserve and reduce 

noise-generating activities, such as maintenance 

vehicles and equipment, lawn mowers, leaf 

blowers, and other human-caused noise. 

The Reserve would also consult with the U.S. 

Department of Defense to reduce noise impacts 

from military overflights.

Lightscapes would be treated the same as in 

alternative A. In addition, Reserve staff would 

work with the NPS Night Sky program to 

develop a plan to maintain and interpret the 

night sky.

Cultural Resources Management

Cultural resource management in alternative 

B would be the same as in alternative A. 

Reserve staff would also work to increase 

public understanding of resources through 

the application and dissemination of research. 

In addition, a resource stewardship strategy 

would be produced to guide natural and cultural 

resource management.

Archeology

Archeological management would be the same 

as in alternative A, plus Reserve staff would 

provide additional waysides and self-guided 

materials to promote visitor understanding of 

archeological resources.

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City of Rocks National Reserve is one of the best 

locations for viewing extant wagon ruts from 

the California Trail era. To improve preservation 

of these, the Reserve would develop an 

archeological management plan to determine 

the best way to manage California Trail ruts.

Recent archeological survey and testing at 

City of Rocks National Reserve adjacent lands 

has revealed a high density of prehistoric 

sites and isolated artifacts. These sites and 

artifacts have value to tribes affiliated with the 

area as well as for scientific understanding 

of the human past. Because of the emerging 

pattern of human occupation in the area, 

there is a need to assess sites and archeological 

landscapes that are vulnerable to impacts from 

the current use of the area. The development 

of an archeological district would improve 

stewardship of prehistoric sites and isolated 

artifacts by delineating areas that could require 

a higher degree of management oversight. 

Under alternative B, the Reserve would work 

with partners to develop an archeological 

district outlining management zones for known 

archeological resources to ensure appropriate 

stewardship of such resources.

Cultural Landscape

The treatment of the cultural landscape of 

the California Trail would be the same as in 

alternative A. In addition, Reserve staff would 

conduct a condition assessment and evaluate 

and monitor features associated with the 

California Trail corridor to detect changes over 

time and to diminish impacts. The Reserve 

would also develop a treatment plan for features 

associated with the California Trail corridor to 

ensure they remain in good condition through 

preservation treatment in accordance with 

The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the 

Treatment of Historic Properties. Stabilization and 

preservation would be the baseline treatment 

until a specific treatment (implementation) plan 

is developed.

As in alternative A, the Reserve would work in 

partnership with private landowners within the 

Reserve and with stakeholders to clarify the 

route of the California Trail corridor.

In alternative B, the Reserve would also protect, 

stabilize, and preserve land use patterns and 

features associated with mining, homesteading, 

and ranching on public lands in accordance 

with The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for 

the Treatment of Historic Properties. For those 

features within the Reserve on private land, 

such as the Nicholson Ranch and the Moon 

Homestead, Reserve staff would collaborate with 

landowners to protect, stabilize, and preserve 

land use patterns and features associated with 

mining, homesteading, and ranching, whenever 

possible. The Reserve would also interpret key 

features through on and off-site media.

Special Designations

Hunting and Trapping

(See “Special Uses and Designations” in the 

“Actions Common to All Alternatives” section 

and “Table 3. Management Zones.”)

Grazing

Livestock grazing in the Reserve is allowed in 

all management zones except in the Research 

Natural Area Zone. Grazing in wetland 

and riparian areas would be systematically 

eliminated. Cattle would be excluded from 

wetland and riparian areas through a variety 

of means, such as by providing alternate water 

sources or adding fencing, as appropriate.

In alternative B, grazing would continue within 

the Reserve but would be reduced over time as 

permittees discontinue requests for permits due 

to changing business models or abandonment. 

The presence of cattle on the landscape 

would continue, but total head and animal 

unit months would be expected to decrease 

over time through attrition. Attrition would be 

voluntarily initiated by permittees, not Reserve 

management.

As opportunities arise, grazing allotments 

could be reorganized to achieve maximum 

benefits for both natural and cultural resources. 

As allotments are discontinued, increased 

protection of the California Trail Zone would 

be emphasized and cattle grazing would be 

reduced or eliminated in the Visitor Facilities 

and Access Zone.

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The grazing management plan would be 

updated to reflect these changes. Because 

implementation of the grazing management plan 

recommendations may affect wetlands within 

the Reserve, if implemented these actions would 

need to be addressed in a future NPS wetlands 

statement of findings. This would ensure that the 

update to the grazing management plan complies 

with Executive Order 11990, “Protection of 

Wetlands.”

Research Natural Area

In alternative B, the Reserve would refine 

the boundary of the Research Natural Area 

to conform to landscape features to increase 

management efficiency and to encompass a 

greater variety of high-quality terrain features. 

This boundary refinement would maintain 

grazing where grazing is currently occurring. 

This expansion would add three small areas to 

the south (part of the boundary refinement) 

and a high elevation valley to the northwest, 

for a total of 485 acres. Expansion of the 

Research Natural Area would occur in areas 

of steep terrain that cattle cannot easily access. 

Expanding the Research Natural Area would 

increase available wildlife habitat for several 

Idaho Sensitive Species. There would also be 

more opportunities for visitors to explore an 

area of southern Idaho in its natural condition 

with few human impacts.

As in alternative A, hunting and trapping would 

continue to be excluded in the Research Natural 

Area according to NPS Natural Resource 

Management Reference Manual 77. There 

would be some modifications to the existing 

allotment along the western boundary of the 

Research Natural Area by working with the 

current permittee to remove the overlapping 

grazing allotment from the Research Natural 

Area.

Natural Historic Landmark

(See “Special Uses and Designations” in the 

“Actions Common to All Alternatives” section 

and “Table 3. Management Zones.”)

National Natural Landmark

(See “Special Uses and Designations” in the 

“Actions Common to All Alternatives” section 

and “Table 3. Management Zones.”)

Section 36

(See “Special Uses and Designations” in the 

“Actions Common to All Alternatives” section 

and “Table 3. Management Zones.”)

Interpretation and Education

The primary concept for interpretation and 

education would be the same as in alternative 

A; however, in alternative B, the Reserve would 

also provide more self-guided booklets and 

brochures, as well as additional self-directed 

interpretive and educational opportunities at the 

existing visitor center, more waysides and kiosks, 

and more online information. Nonpersonal 

interpretive media would be expanded and there 

would be less emphasis on staff presence, guided 

programs, and tours.

Because some visitors may not stop at the visitor 

center, an unstaffed kiosk would be constructed 

at Smoky Mountain Campground and at Bath 

Rock within the Reserve to improve orientation 

for visitors and to provide self-guided materials 

about the Reserve. More emphasis would also be 

placed on providing information and orientation 

materials in advance, using the internet and 

other electronic media.

Interpretive Programs

Interpretive programs would be the same 

as in alternative A. In addition, the Reserve 

would incorporate tribal perspectives and 

involvement into interpretive programming. 

Reserve neighbors would be encouraged to 

participate in interpretation and would be given 

opportunities to tell their stories about the 

Reserve. Interpretation would also incorporate 

information provided by researchers studying 

the Reserve’s resources and stories.

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This alternative would support an extended 

outreach program to schools and other 

educational organizations that would inspire 

more students to visit, experience, and 

learn about the Reserve’s spectacular scenic 

quality, geology, biological richness, and 

cultural landscape.

Reserve staff would work with the NPS Pacific 

West Region and Harpers Ferry Center staff to 

develop a long-range interpretive plan based on 

the interpretive themes developed in the City of 

Rocks National Reserve Foundation Document. 

(See “Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and 

Management.”)

New programs, such as an artist-in-residence 

program, would bring educational opportunities 

to the Reserve and local community. These 

programs would link with partners to encourage 

self-expression and connection to the Reserve’s 

resources through art, photography, and writing. 

This alternative would also emphasize off-site 

interpretation such as the Parks as Classroom 

program, where park rangers visit area schools 

and lead programs on Reserve and regional 

cultural and natural resource topics.

Youth

Youth activities would be the same as in 

alternative A, plus the Reserve would offer ageappropriate outdoor learning opportunities for 

recreation that provide youth with challenging 

experiences in a supportive environment, such 

as climbing or wilderness-type experiences.

Visitor Experience

Alternative B would provide for a backcountrytype visitor experience emphasizing solitude 

and self-discovery. In this alternative, visitors 

would predominantly experience the Reserve 

on their own, using self-guided waysides and 

interpretive materials.

Recreation Opportunities

Recreational opportunities would be the same as 

in alternative A.

Trails

As in alternative A, the current trail system 

would be maintained. In alternative B, a new 

trail would be developed for hiking, bicycling, 

and equestrian use within the Reserve (“Figure 

7. Trail Addition for Alternative B”). The 

proposed trail would begin at the end of the 

California Trail hiking trail, near Nicholson 

Ranch, and eventually connect with the Tea 

Kettle Trail. The route of the trail could keep to 

the east and south of the City of Rocks Road, 

and then cross over the Twin Sisters Road just 

below its intersection with the City of Rocks 

Road. This new trail would allow visitors to 

explore signature rocks and the California Trail 

corridor without having to drive, walk, or bike 

along the road. Hikers wanting to hike to the 

summit of Smoky Mountain could continue to 

use the existing road from Smoky Mountain 

Campground across BLM-managed land.

In addition, in alternative B, the Reserve would 

develop a trails management plan to consider 

modifications for trail improvements within the 

Reserve and to explore the creation of new trail 

connections in partnership with adjacent land 

management agencies, such as the Bureau of 

Land Management and the U.S. Forest Service. 

New trail connections could include a possible 

link to Castle Rocks State Park and the USFS 

Independence Lake area.

Climbing

Climbing management would be the same as in 

alternative A, plus the Reserve would update the 

climbing management plan.

Equestrian Staging

As in alternative A, the Reserve would continue 

to provide equestrian camping and staging at 

Smoky Mountain Campground (to the east and 

outside the Reserve) and at the Juniper group 

campsite (to the south) within the Reserve.

Over the years equestrians have expressed 

interest in developing an equestrian staging 

area on the west side of the Reserve that 

would give riders easier access to trails on the 

west side. It would also improve safety and 

resource degradation created by the current 

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indiscriminate trailer parking along the county 

road. A preliminary analysis of site suitability 

for equestrian staging facilities was conducted 

in 2005. (For more information about the 

preliminary analysis, see “Equestrian Use” 

under the “Visitor Use and Recreation” section 

in “Chapter 4: Affected Environment.”)

In alternative B, the Reserve would develop an 

equestrian staging area for day-use parking near 

the Bread Loaves intersection to supplement 

the equestrian camping provided at Smoky 

Mountain Campground and the Juniper 

group campsite. This development would be 

located out of the California Trail viewshed in 

a concealed, flat area and would connect to the 

North Fork Trail for equestrian users. Planned 

development could include a loop road spur 

off City of Rocks Road with parking for three to 

five horse trailers. This location would be close 

to existing water and restrooms. Signage would 

be minimal and no additional facilities would 

be provided.

If additional studies show the Bread Loaves 

area is not suitable for this use, Elephant Rock 

is another potential site that met the 2005 

preliminary evaluation criteria for an equestrian 

staging area. A staging area could be sited behind 

Elephant Rock off the unpaved road spur. This 

area provides good drainage and concealment of 

vehicles from the California Trail viewshed.

Specific locations would be further explored 

and analyzed in an implementation plan 

following a Record of Decision for this GMP 

and in close consultation with the State Historic 

Preservation Office and Advisory Council on 

Historic Preservation.

Commercial Visitor Services

Commercial visitor services would be increased 

to accommodate more youth camps, climbing, 

and horseback riding opportunities within 

the Reserve, especially those providing more 

wilderness-type experiences.

NPS Visitor and Administrative Facilities

Reserve Campsites

In alternative B, camping in the Reserve would 

be reconfigured to address resource impacts 

and visual and safety issues based on the 

recommendations of the Rim Development 

Concept Plan for City of Rocks National Reserve 

(Appendix D). Evaluation for this development 

concept plan was conducted by members of the 

planning team during summer 2010 as part of 

the GMP, primarily to analyze camping in the 

rim area of the Reserve to guide future visitor 

use and facility needs in this highly used area. 

Most campsites in the Reserve are located along 

the southern and western rim of Circle Creek 

Basin (known as “the Rim”). These sites offer 

prime views of the pinnacles as well as more 

expansive views of Granite Ridge that completes 

the northern encirclement of the basin.

As described in more detail in the development 

concept plan, 9 campsites would be converted 

to picnicking or day use parking, 13 campsites 

would be closed and rehabilitated, and 22 

new campsites would be added, resulting in 

improved resource protection and visitor safety 

with no net loss of the 64 campsites currently 

within the Reserve. Strategies for campsite 

closure, conversion to picnicking, or new 

development are based on analysis of existing 

user conflicts, safety and maintenance issues, 

resource impacts, parking needs, location and 

access to vault toilets, interpretive trails, site 

circulation conflicts, undesirable site locations, 

and picnicking opportunities (“Appendix D: 

Rim Development Concept Plan for City of 

Rocks National Reserve”).

Visitor Facilities

Management of visitor facilities inside the 

Reserve boundary would be the same as 

alternative A. In addition, the Reserve would 

develop additional waysides and exhibits based 

on the interpretive themes as well as on various 

topics promoting self-learning and discovery. 

Two unstaffed kiosks would be constructed 

at Bath Rock and at the Smoky Mountain 

Campground to improve orientation for visitors 

and to provide self-guided materials to visitors 

who do not stop at the visitor center.

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Figure 7. Trail Addition for Alternative B

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S M O K Y M O U N T A I N

Elephant Rock

Treasure Rock Camp

Rock

Register

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Mountain

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Equestrian Trail

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South Fork

Flaming

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Bum b lie Trail

Str pi e Rock

Loop

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Circle

Creek

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Circle Creek

Jackson's

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Tea Kettle Trail

City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/EIS

Trail Addition for Alternative B

Proposed Trail

Existing Trails -

Foot

Existing Trails -

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Existing Trails -

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California National

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Data Sources: NPS - Reserve Boundary, Roads, Rocks and Trails

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Figure 7

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Location within the Reserve.

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Reserve Roads

Reserve management of roads would be the 

same as in alternative A. In addition, the Reserve 

would develop a turnaround area adjacent to 

USFS-managed land at the north end of Logger 

Springs Road. Logger Springs Road is a onelane, unpaved, access road into the Sawtooth 

National Forest from City of Rocks Road. It 

provides access to expansive views because 

of its high elevation gain and sheer drop-offs 

along parts of the road. Providing a designated 

turnaround would protect adjacent resources 

and allow visitors to safely reverse direction 

without having to back down the road or 

continue into the national forest to turn around.

Partnerships

IDPR Visitor and Administrative Facilities

Visitor Center

In alternative B, the large visitor center 

envisioned in the Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive 

management plan would not be built. Instead, 

emphasis would be on visitor preplanning 

through the internet and community outreach, 

as well as by using self-guided exhibits and 

interpretive materials within the Reserve.

Visitor contact for the Reserve and Castle Rocks 

State Park would continue to occur at the 

administrative site in Almo at the existing visitor 

center/ headquarters building. Construction 

of a new visitor contact station on a portion 

of the same state-owned property would be 

considered in order to provide adequate space 

for necessary functions. The facilities would 

then be reconfigured to provide additional space 

and a better separation of uses, keeping space 

for existing functions, including a small retail 

and book sales area, a small area for viewing the 

Reserve film, a staffed visitor information desk, 

restrooms, and limited exhibits.

As agreed in the “2014 Operation Plan and 

Guidelines for the Management of City of Rocks 

National Reserve (CIRO),” development of 

facilities outside the Reserve would continue to 

be the responsibility of the Idaho Department of 

Parks and Recreation. In this alternative, should 

the Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

choose to pursue remodeling, it would fund 

all construction associated with the project. 

The National Park Service would continue 

operations and maintenance support through 

the existing cooperative agreement. This could 

include design consultation, participating in 

funding exhibits and interpretation, or other 

assistance if requested by the Idaho Department 

of Parks and Recreation.

In the long term, if lands and funds become 

available, the Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation could consider building a visitor 

center at the R&PP lease as called for by the 

2006 Castle Rocks State Park Master Plan and 

the Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive management 

plan (see description in alternative A).

In addition, the development of unstaffed 

kiosks at Bath Rock and at Smoky Mountain 

Campground would provide additional visitor 

information and orientation to those visitors 

who do not stop at the visitor center.

Administration

(See “Reserve Management and 

Operations” in the “Actions Common to All 

Alternatives” section.)

Maintenance

(See “Reserve Management and 

Operations” in the “Actions Common to All 

Alternatives” section.)

Employee Housing

Housing for employees would be the same as in 

alternative A.

Smoky Mountain Campground

In alternative B, the National Park Service would 

partner with the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation to develop a primitive group 

camping area for approximately 50–70 people 

for social camping, including tent campsites on 

the existing BLM R&PP lease in cooperation 

with the Bureau of Land Management. This 

additional camping area would provide needed 

camping opportunities adjacent to the Reserve 

during the peak season. The road to the group 

camping area would probably be gravel and 

unpaved. Infrastructure would be limited to two 

or three additional vault toilets, a communal 

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parking area, and a source of water. Because 

there would be less infrastructure, it is likely that 

camping would be made available for a lower 

fee than the original sites at Smoky Mountain 

Campground. Providing a less expensive 

camping option may reduce the amount of 

dispersed camping on BLM managed lands 

adjacent to the existing campground.

The exact location of the second campground 

loop would be determined based on analysis 

of potential impacts on resources. In addition, 

siting of the primitive group camp would be 

designed to minimize visual impacts. Tree 

cover would be maintained or added to screen 

campsites, where possible.

As proposed in the Reserve’s 1996 

comprehensive management plan, the National 

Park Service would partner with the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation to 

construct an amphitheater for evening programs 

and interpretive activities. The amphitheater 

would be located at Smoky Mountain 

Campground in an area without sensitive 

resources. The amphitheater would have seating 

capacity for approximately 70 people and would 

be designed to comply with the Americans with 

Disabilities Act / Architectural Barriers Act 

(ADA/ABA) accessibility standards. A simple 

design could consist of benches surrounding a 

fire ring for storytelling, with minimal lighting 

to protect night sky viewing. The amphitheater 

could also include the capability for multimedia 

presentations and be available to the local 

community for compatible programming.

The National Park Service would also partner 

with the Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation to add an unstaffed information 

kiosk at the campground entrance to provide 

interpretive information and materials for selfdirected visitor orientation.

As noted elsewhere, although the National 

Park Service could not help fund construction 

of state-owned facilities, it would continue to 

provide operations and maintenance support 

and could provide design consultation or 

assistance if requested by the Idaho Department 

of Parks and Recreation through the existing 

cooperative agreement.

Cassia County Road Network

In alternative B, the National Park Service 

would consider opportunities for ownership 

or management of the county roads through 

the Reserve to provide maintenance assistance 

to Cassia County and to ensure county road 

maintenance practices contribute to NPS 

road standards and character. The standards 

would include maintaining these roads to 

ensure a park-like feel and a safe, scenic driving 

experience using the historic road alignment 

to the extent possible. It would also include 

keeping the roads throughout the Reserve 

unpaved. In addition, the National Park 

Service and the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation would promote opportunities 

to improve engineering, erosion control, and 

dust abatement.

The National Park Service and the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation would 

work with Cassia County to lower speed 

limits along county roads within the Reserve 

to improve visitor experience and safety. 

Many visitors walk alongside the county road 

between campsites, on the way to trailheads, or 

while recreating.

The Reserve would partner with the county 

to better control water flow off county roads, 

specifically to encourage water to disperse rather 

than concentrate, thereby reducing the potential 

for gullying and erosion.

Other Partnerships

The Reserve would develop partnerships with 

adjacent land managers and private landowners 

to extend trail connections and provide a 

continuum of recreational experiences. These 

could include trails that connect to the USFSand BLM-managed lands and Castle Rocks 

State Park.

Reserve staff would partner with schools to 

develop outreach and curriculum materials to 

promote interest in and understanding of the 

Reserve’s cultural and natural resources.

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Environmental Sustainability

As in alternative A, the Reserve would pursue 

implementation of energy-efficient actions 

outlined in its climate action plan and would 

follow sustainability guidelines set forth in the 

NPS Green Parks Plan. Reserve staff would 

maximize energy efficiency, conservation, 

and sustainability associated with any new 

development. Overall, there would be lower 

facility-related energy and carbon footprint 

costs associated with the minimal development 

of new facilities in alternative B.

Reserve Boundary

There would be no change to the existing 

Reserve boundary.

At the southern boundary of the Reserve, the 

National Park Service would encourage Cassia 

County and private landowners to protect the 

California National Historic Trail corridor 

from the southwest corner of the Reserve to 

Granite Pass, which was the next stop for the 

pioneers traveling on the California Trail from 

the Circle Creek encampment. Although no 

boundary revision is proposed for this section 

of the California Trail corridor, opportunities 

to commemorate and protect this outstanding 

section of the California Trail could be explored. 

Landscape protection at the southwest corner 

of the Reserve would be accomplished, if 

possible, through voluntary granting and sale 

of California National Historic Trail easements 

by willing sellers to the Bureau of Land 

Management, the National Park Service, or a 

private land trust.

Operations

Staffing

Alternative B would propose 3 additional fulltime equivalent positions, for a total of 10 FTEs. 

New positions would include an additional 

interpretive specialist, one visitor protection 

specialist (law enforcement ranger), and an 

additional maintenance worker. Due to the 

existing budget climate for both the National 

Park Service and the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation, it is assumed that the National 

Park Service would provide full funding for all 

The percentage of funding for each position 

supplied by the National Park Service and the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation is 

found in the following table. Table 7 does not 

include seasonal staffing, which would vary 

depending on needs and funding allocations.

Table 7. Alternative B, Staffing

Position IDPR NPS

Park Manager III 100%

Assistant Park Manager 100%

Maintenance Foreman 75% 25%

Climbing Ranger 25% 75%

Park Ranger – Visitor Services 100%

Park Ranger – Natural Resources 50% 50%

Park Ranger – Cultural Resources 100%

*FTE percentages between IDPR and NPS are stated in the 

“2014 Operation Plan and Guidelines for the Management of 

City of Rocks National Reserve (CIRO).”

Estimated Costs

The implementation of the approved plan, no 

matter which alternative is selected, would 

depend on future NPS funding levels and 

servicewide priorities, and on partnership 

funds, time, and effort. The approval of a general 

management plan does not guarantee that 

funding and staffing needed to implement the 

plan would be forthcoming. Full implementation 

of the plan could be many years in the future.

Annual Operating Costs

Annual operating costs are the total costs per 

year for maintenance and operations associated 

with each alternative, including utilities, 

supplies, staff salaries and benefits, leasing, 

and other materials. Cost and staffing estimates 

assume that the alternative is fully implemented 

as described in the narrative.

FTE salaries and benefits are included in the 

annual operating costs.

One-time Costs

One-time facility costs (table 8) include costs 

for the design, construction, rehabilitation, and 

restoration of facilities including visitor facilities, 

roads, parking, and visitor facilities. The one3 through 5_CIRO_DGMP_031515.indd 117 3/17/2015 10:41:25 
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three new positions.

time costs for alternative B would include 

costs such as rehabilitating the existing visitor 

center, constructing a group camping area and 

amphitheater at Smoky Mountain Campground, 

developing an equestrian staging area, and 

reconfiguring the Reserve’s campsites.

One-time nonfacility costs include actions for 

the preservation of cultural or natural resources 

not related to facilities, the development 

of visitor use tools not related to facilities, 

and other park management activities that 

would require substantial funding above 

park annual operating costs such as updating 

management plans.

Program support costs include technology, 

grants, development of plans, or other program 

support.

These costs are in 2012 dollars and are based on 

general “Class C” estimates for site development 

and construction. (According to the 2011 NPS 

Cost Estimating Requirements Handbook, 

Class C construction cost estimates are used for 

alternatives and are referred to as conceptual 

estimates by the design and construction 

industry. These estimates are generally prepared 

without a fully defined scope of work. They are 

general in nature and representative of a broadbased vision rather than focused on specific 

details.) Prior to submitting funding requests 

for the design and construction phases, “Class 

B” estimates are required, based on detailed site 

and facility designs.

Deferred Maintenance Offset

Deferred maintenance is maintenance and 

repair activities that were not performed when 

they should have been or were scheduled and 

which, therefore, are put off or delayed for a 

future period. Maintenance and repairs are 

activities directed toward keeping fixed assets 

in an acceptable condition. Total costs for 

deferred maintenance offset in alternative A are 

listed in table 8. Deferred maintenance costs 

would “offset” the total one-time costs. For 

example, the total one-time costs are $3,573,500, 

which would be reduced to $3,550,537 after 

considering the deferred maintenance offset 

of $23,000.

Prioritizing Actions in Alternative B

Actions in alternative B would be prioritized or 

ranked in importance as either high priority (1) 

or low priority (2). High priority actions address 

immediate threats and needs (requirements 

by mission, policy, and purpose) or address 

promises made in the past to the public such as 

development of an equestrian staging area.

Low priority actions would address visitor 

opportunities and experiences, such as 

enhanced facilities, and would depend on 

sustained funding.

Cost estimates for alternative B are identified 

in table 9.

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Table 8. 

Summary

of One-time Cost for

Alternative

B, Preferred

Alternative

Location

Project Progra

m

Support

Facility

Rehabilitation/

Replace

ment

Resource

Manage

ment

New

Construction

Priority*

Deferred

Maintenance

Offset

Alternative B

Reservewide Update the fire management plan $35,000 1

Prepare soundscapes management plan $34,000 2

Conduct a wildlife inventory; develop and implement a monitoring plan

$85,000 2

Develop an archeological management plan to manage California Trail ruts

$45,000 1

Monitor and develop a treatment plan for features within the California Trail corridor

$60,000 1

Develop a long-range interpretive plan $40,000 1Develop a trails management plan to consider modifications for trail improvement

$50,000 2

Trail from California Trail to Tea Kettle: 11,853 feet $60,000 2

Construct additional unstaffed kiosks at Reserve entrances and Reserve campground

$80,000 2

Develop a turnaround area at the north end of Logger Springs Road

$5,000 1

Reconfigure camping in the Reserve to address safety and resource issues

$1,050,000 1

Outreach primarily through technology: podcasts, equipment, software, photographs, video, and other improvements

$75,000 1

DM Subtotal Trails -$23,000

Research Natural Area

Fencing needs for RNA boundary changes; refine the boundary of the Research Natural Area to conform to landscape features. Includes addition of three small areas of 485 acres

$30,000 1

DM SubtotalBread Loaves Develop an additional equestrian staging area in the 

Reserve near the Bread Loaves intersection

$120,000 1

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Location

Project Progra

m

Support

Facility

Rehabilitation/

Replace

ment

Resource

Manage

ment

New

Construction

Priority*

Deferred

Maintenance

Offset

DM SubtotalSmoky Mountain Campground

Develop primitive group camp sites for 50-70 people $990,000 2Partner with IDPR to construct an amphitheater at campground for ranger programs

$75,000 1

Add an unstaffed information kiosk $20,000 2

DM SubtotalAdministrative Complex

Reconfigure existing administration building $690,000++ 2

Construct new visitor information kiosk $20,000 2

DM SubtotalTotal Cost by Categories

$225,000 $2,730,000 $229,000 $380,000 -$23,000

Total Priority 1 Costs

$1,535,000

Total Priority 2 Costs

$2,029,000

Total Existing Project Costs

$43,500

Total One-Time Improvement Cost of Alternative**

$3,607,500

Deferred Maintenance Offset

$23,000

*Priority 1 projects include projects that emphasize resource protection, threats, and visitor safety. Priority 2 projects include all other projects important to the full implementation of the alternative, including those that address visitor opportunities and experiences such as enhanced facilities as funding allows and could be sustained. Costs are in 2012 dollars.**Total Capital Cost includes total Priority 1 and Priority 2 costs but does not include a reduction for Deferred Maintenance Offset.++IDPR costs. 

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Table 9. Alternative B, Summary of Costs*

Category Costs

Annual Operating Costs**

Existing Base Funding $698,647

New Personnel Costs $140,000

Total Annual Operating Costs $838,647

Personnel FTE

Permanent 10 (+3)

One-Time Costs

Total Existing Project Costs $43,500

One-Time Nonfacility Costs

Program Support $225,000

Priority 1*** $175,000

Priority 2 $50,000

Resource Management $229,000

Priority 1 $110,000

Priority 2 $119,000

Total One-Time Nonfacility Cost $454,000

One-Time Facility Costs

New Construction $380,000

Priority 1 $200,000

Priority 2 $180,000

Facility Rehabilitation $2,730,000++

Priority 1 $1,050,000

Priority 2 $1,680,000

Total One-Time Facility Cost $3,110,000

Total Priority 1 Costs $1,535,000

Total Priority 2 Costs $2,029,000

Total One-Time Costs $3,607,500

Deferred Maintenance Offset $23,000

*Figures are rounded.

**Does not include funding for Castle Rocks State Park, 

although some costs support both the Reserve and the state 

park, for example, some staff and the visitor center.

*** Actions in alternative B would be prioritized or ranked 

in importance as either high priority (1) or low priority (2). 

High priority actions address immediate threats and needs 

(requirements by mission, policy and purpose) or address 

promises made in the past to the public such as development 

of an equestrian staging area. Low priority actions address 

visitor opportunities and experiences such as enhanced 

facilities as funding allows and could be sustained.

++Includes $690,000 of IDPR costs. 

ALTERNATIVE C: A STAGE FOR 

STEWARDSHIP

General Description

Alternative C would protect resources by 

encouraging research activities; enhancing 

educational and interpretive opportunities; 

and forging partnerships with educational 

institutions, agencies, organizations, private 

landowners, and park visitors. Visitors would 

be provided with a variety of opportunities to 

learn about and experience the California Trail 

history and the many natural wonders within 

the Reserve. The Reserve would be recognized 

as part of a much larger area of protected 

lands, one that provides a stage for fostering 

improved understanding of resources across the 

broader landscape. Several major initiatives—

America’s Great Outdoors: A Promise to Future 

Generations (2011); the National Parks Second 

Century Commission Report, Advancing the 

National Park Idea (2009); and The Future 

of America’s National Parks (the Centennial 

Report 2007)—place value on protecting 

regional landscapes. Regional landscape 

conservation efforts, such as protecting natural 

and cultural landscapes within the context of the 

broader ecosystems they are part of, could occur 

through actions proposed in alternative C.

Management Zones Applied to 

Alternative C

The management zones for alternative C are 

taken from “Table 3. Management Zones.” The 

specific configuration of the management zones 

is provided in “Figure 8. Alternative C: A Stage 

for Stewardship.”

In alternative C, the Visitor Facilities and Access 

Zone would be applied in the same area as in 

alternative B, maintaining a small footprint for 

developed areas.

The Transition Zone would be applied to 

the same areas as alternative B in the same 

configuration, except for the extreme east 

boundary, which would not extend all the way 

to the California Trail Zone but would instead 

connect with the Natural Zone.

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Figure 8. Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship

ÆQ

Proposed Outdoor

Learning Center

Proposed

Visitor

Center

Smoky

Mountain

Campground

USFS

BLM

State

BLM

BLM

BLM

State

BLM

BLM

BLM

BLM

Idaho

State

Parks

Idaho State Parks

BLM

BLM

TWIN

SISTERS

CIRCLE

CREEK

BASIN

CASTLE

GRAHAM ROCK

PEAK

D D

Almo

BLM

BLM

BLM

Visitor Facilities & Access Zone

Transition Zone

Natural Zone

Research Natural Area Zone

Historic Rural Setting Zone

California Trail Zone

Proposed Boundary Addition

Private Lands

California National Historic Trail

California National Historic Trail

Corridor (1/4 Mile Buffer Per Side)

Reserve Boundary

Roads

Produced by: NPS - PWR GIS

Date Created: September, 2014

Data Sources: BLM - BLM, USFS and State Land

 NPS - California National Historic Trail,

 Management Zones, Proposed

 Visitor and Outdoor Learning

 Centers, Reserve Boundary and Roads

 USGS - Shaded Relief

Figure 8

N:\GIS_Maps\Parks\CIRO\GMP\AlternativeC.mxd

0 0.25 0.5

Miles

o

City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/EIS

Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship

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In alternative C, the Natural Zone covers 

the largest area to express the concept of 

stewardship and emphasis on promoting natural 

processes. This zone would include the higher 

rocky elevation lands to the north, east, and west 

of the Reserve and would also include more 

pinyon forested lands, former burned areas 

undergoing natural rejuvenation, and Indian 

Grove with its varying vegetation. A finger of 

the Natural Zone would extend north of Twin 

Sisters to allow for technical climbing in the area, 

but not on the Twin Sisters formation, itself.

To protect natural processes and habitat and to 

facilitate research and education, the Research 

Natural Area Zone in alternative C would be 

the largest Research Natural Area Zone in the 

alternatives. This zone would be expanded 

southeast toward the Reserve boundary to 

capture a greater elevational range of old-growth 

pinyon-juniper forest and rock outcrops.

The Historic Rural Setting Zone would be 

applied to the lower elevation areas exhibiting 

evidence of ranching operations. This zone 

would include some areas viewed by emigrants 

traveling along the California Trail.

The California Trail Zone is largest in alternative 

C and would include more of the California 

Trail resources: the one-half mile California 

Trail corridor and southern offshoot; the three 

basins that were used by emigrants for camping 

and extracting resources during the California 

Trail era; and Pinnacle Pass, register rocks, Twin 

Sisters, and the Salt Lake Alternate Trail.

Natural Resource Management

Alternative C would enable long-term 

stewardship and preservation of natural 

resources within the context of a functioning 

ecosystem that is part of the broader landscape, 

including ecosystem processes, air quality, 

soundscapes, dark night skies, water resources, 

vegetation, and wildlife. Restoring connectivity 

between ecosystems and reducing fragmentation 

would allow ecosystems to adjust and adapt, 

thus increasing their resilience to fire, drought, 

invasive species, wildlife, changing water 

supplies, and impacts associated with climate 

change. The Reserve is well-suited to lead this 

landscape-scale integration and protection in 

the Basin and Range physiographic province.

Natural resource management would be the 

same as in alternative A, plus Reserve staff would 

increase public understanding of resources 

through the application and dissemination 

of research. This includes recognizing the 

significance of protecting biological diversity 

within the Reserve and the role it plays in 

the ecological health of the entire region. 

Emphasis would be placed on management 

actions that promote biodiversity within the 

Reserve. Working with partners, the Reserve 

would advocate for natural processes on 

lands throughout and adjacent to the Reserve, 

regardless of ownership.

Reserve staff would continue to work with the 

UCBN I&M program and with educational 

institutions, agencies, organizations, private 

landowners, tribes, and private partners to 

promote ecosystem processes within the Reserve 

and on surrounding public lands. A resource 

stewardship strategy would be produced to 

guide natural and cultural resource management 

as part of alternative C.

Climate and Air Quality

Actions associated with air quality management 

would be the same as alternative B.

Alternative C would emphasize enhanced 

research opportunities on landscape-scale 

natural resource topics, including climate 

change. The expanded Research Natural Area 

would provide and protect additional flora 

and fauna species for research, including the 

opportunity for paired studies to compare and 

contrast species’ adaptation to changing natural 

conditions. By establishing active partnerships, 

this alternative would promote climate change 

research and enhance public understanding by 

sharing the results.

Contingency plans would be developed to 

address instances of high-intensity fire or 

increased erosion, each of which could increase 

as the climate changes.

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Facilities and transportation options would be 

designed with sustainability and a low carbon 

footprint. The Reserve would encourage 

development of a privately operated shuttle 

system linking Castle Rocks State Park to the 

Reserve. Rather than building new housing 

units, the Reserve would work with partners 

to encourage nearby communities to provide 

housing for employees, researchers, and visiting 

scholars.

Water Quality

(See “Natural Resources” in the “Actions 

Common to All Alternatives” section.)

Geology and Soils

Reserve staff would work with partners to 

conduct an inventory of pinnacles and sensitive 

rock features within the national natural 

landmark.

Management of soils and erosion would be the 

same as in alternative B.

Vegetation and Fire

In alternative C, native plant species within 

the Reserve—such as aspen and Simpson’s 

hedgehog cacti in high-elevation areas—would 

continue to be protected. The Reserve would 

work with partners, neighbors, and volunteers 

to implement the invasive plant management 

plan, refining park priority areas for control of 

nonnative invasive plants. The Reserve would 

also develop a vegetation management plan.

Fire management would be the same as in 

alternative B.

Wildlife

Wildlife management actions would be the 

same as in alternative B. In addition, the 

Reserve would seek partnerships with other 

agencies to better understand how wildlife 

use the Reserve and surrounding lands. The 

National Park Service would seek funding to 

address monitoring questions related to the 

status and trends of species composition for 

birds, mammals, and other relevant wildlife. 

Funding would be sought to research topics 

such as the status and trends of Idaho Sensitive 

Species, threatened and endangered species, 

and extirpated species, and to determine which 

actions the Reserve should undertake so as to 

address study results.

Soundscapes and Lightscapes

Soundscape and lightscape management would 

be the same as in alternative B.

Cultural Resource Management

Under alternative C, cultural resources 

preservation and protection would continue 

to be a high priority for management of the 

Reserve. The Reserve would continue to 

promote and ensure long-term stewardship and 

preservation through active management and 

increase the understanding of cultural resources 

through the application and dissemination 

of research. Research topics could include 

the Kelton-Boise stage station, ethnography, 

oral histories of ranching families, and an 

administrative history of the area.

Reserve staff would continue to conduct 

research and resource management projects, 

inventories, and monitoring and work with 

landowners within the Reserve on nonNPS lands as opportunities arise. A resource 

stewardship strategy would be produced to 

guide natural and cultural resource management. 

As one of the highest priorities, the Reserve 

would continue to preserve California Trail-era 

resources associated with the City of Rocks 

National Historic Landmark in accordance with 

The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the 

Treatment of Historic Properties. Alternative C 

would include an additional 1.1 miles of the 

California National Historic Trail through a 

proposed boundary expansion.

The Reserve would continue to work closely 

with the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes to continue 

their traditional activities within the Reserve, 

including gathering of pinyon nuts.

Archeology

Archeological management would be the 

same as in alternative A, plus Reserve staff 

would encourage partners to participate in the 

identification, documentation, and research of 

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archeological resources within the Reserve. The 

Reserve would conduct hands-on investigation 

and research archeological resources in 

collaboration with partners, who could include 

educational institutions, agencies, organizations, 

tribes, and private landowners. Reserve staff 

would promote collaboration with partners and 

universities to improve understanding of early 

human use and adaptation in the region.

As in alternative B, Reserve staff would 

develop an archeological management plan to 

manage California Trail ruts and support the 

development of an archeological district to 

ensure appropriate stewardship of prehistoric 

sites and isolated artifacts by delineating zones 

that require a higher degree of management 

sensitivity.

Cultural Landscapes

Treatment of cultural landscapes would be 

the same as in alternative B. In addition, 

Reserve staff would work with partners and 

the State Historic Preservation Office to 

research the potential for establishing a historic 

district associated with the homesteading 

era throughout the larger valley landscape. 

This would connect the story and resources 

associated with homesteading within the 

Reserve to the larger story of homesteading in 

the region.

Special Designations

Hunting and Trapping

(See “Special Uses and Designations” in the 

“Actions Common to All Alternatives” section 

and “Table 3. Management Zones.”)

Grazing

In alternative C, grazing on public lands could be 

voluntarily eliminated over time within the life 

span of the GMP. Encouraging the elimination 

of grazing in alternative C would be consistent 

with the concept of stewardship and the 

emphasis on promoting natural processes and 

biodiversity in this alternative.

When the Reserve was created, the National 

Park Service permitted the continuation 

of grazing based on the regional solicitor’s 

opinion that livestock grazing could be viewed 

as maintaining the historic scene. Over the 

years, the National Park Service has evaluated 

the damage to natural resources that grazing 

has caused, in particular impacts on wetland 

and riparian areas and trampling of vegetation 

resulting in establishment of nonnative plant 

species. Alternative C addresses the potential 

adverse impacts on environmental values and 

on natural and cultural resources by voluntarily 

phasing out grazing over the lifetime of this plan.

To facilitate removal of grazing, a voluntary 

federal grazing permit buyout program 

would be initiated (similar to programs that 

have accomplished this elsewhere on federal 

lands [see sidebar]). This buyout would allow 

permittees to exchange their permits for 

compensation from conservation organizations. 

The benefits would include: permittees receiving 

compensation by relinquishing their permit; 

saving money for taxpayers by decreasing costs 

associated with subsidizing the federal livestock 

program for these grazing allotments; reducing 

related management costs by the National Park 

Service and the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation; removing adverse impacts 

on natural and cultural resources, such as the 

California National Historic Trail; and protecting 

and enhancing the Research Natural Area, 

riparian, and wetland areas. Management zoning 

would continue to guide grazing until grazing is 

voluntarily eliminated. At this point, livestock 

grazing and trailing would not apply to the 

management zones.

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The grazing management plan would be 

updated to reflect these changes. Because 

implementation of the grazing management plan 

recommendations may affect wetlands within 

the Reserve, if implemented these actions would 

need to be addressed in a future NPS wetlands 

statement of findings. This would ensure that the 

update to the grazing management plan complies 

with Executive Order 11990, “Protection 

of Wetlands.”

Grazing Permit Retirement in Great Basin

National Park

Great Basin National Park was the setting 

for a voluntary federal grazing permit 

buyout program. In 1996, under the 

leadership of Senator Harry Reid (DNV), and with the support of the entire 

Nevada delegation (two Republicans, two 

Democrats), Congress amended the law 

that established Great Basin National Park 

to allow permittees to donate their grazing 

permits for allotments inside the park back 

to the National Park Service (16 U.S.C. § 

410mm-1(f)(2)). In 1999, three permittees 

agreed to relinquish their permits for 

cattle grazing in the park and part of the 

adjacent Mt. Moriah Wilderness Area in 

exchange for compensation from a host 

of conservation organizations, an effort 

led by The Conservation Fund. Permits 

were retired on NPS and related USFS and 

BLM-managed lands. The buyout program 

was supported by the Nevada Cattlemen’s 

Association, the Nevada Commission on 

Tourism, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service. A total of 2,429 AUM on 101,000 

acres were retired for approximately $2.20 

per acre or $90.61 per AUM.

Later, the National Public Lands Grazing 

Campaign used the Great Basin example, 

among others, as a model for a proposed 

national voluntary federal grazing permit 

buyout program. This proposed permit 

buyout legislation, if enacted, would 

compensate private landowners grazing on 

federal public lands at approximately $175 

per AUM.

Research Natural Area

In alternative C, Reserve management would 

refine the boundary of the Research Natural 

Area to conform to landscape features to increase 

management efficiency and to encompass a 

greater variety of high-quality terrain features. 

No grazing allotments would be affected. This 

boundary refinement would maintain grazing 

where it is currently occurring and add three 

small areas in the south and a high-elevation 

valley in the northwest to the Research Natural 

Area.

The Research Natural Area would also be 

expanded to the southeast toward the Reserve 

boundary to encompass a greater elevational 

range of old-growth pinyon-juniper forest 

and rock outcrops. The revised acreage would 

total 693 acres. Expanding the RNA boundary 

would include additional habitat for some Idaho 

Sensitive Species, including pinyon mouse and 

cliff chipmunk. The revised boundary would 

also offer more opportunities for researchers 

to conduct studies in an area where few human 

impacts are present.

As in the other alternatives, hunting and trapping 

would continue to be excluded from the 

Research Natural Area according to NPS Natural 

Resource Management Reference Manual 77. 

As in the other alternatives, there would be 

modifications to the existing allotment along the 

western boundary of the Research Natural Area 

to remove the unintentional overlapping grazing 

allotment from the Research Natural Area. 

The Reserve would work with the permittee to 

remove this overlap.

Natural Historic Landmark

(See “Special Uses and Designations” in the 

“Actions Common to All Alternatives” section 

and “Table 3. Management Zones.”)

National Natural Landmark

(See “Special Uses and Designations” in the 

“Actions Common to All Alternatives” section 

and “Table 3. Management Zones.”)

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Section 36

(See “Special Uses and Designations” in the 

“Actions Common to All Alternatives” section 

and “Table 3. Management Zones.”)

Interpretation and Education

Interpretation and education would be the same 

as in alternative A. In addition, the Reserve would 

be used as a “classroom” to study the Northern 

Basin and Range ecosystem. More interpretive 

and educational programs would be provided 

primarily through the proposed visitor center and 

the outdoor learning center, including guided 

walks and talks, and exposure to the Reserve’s 

natural and cultural environment. There would 

be opportunities for both structured and 

unstructured activities including self-guided and 

group discovery activities.

Information provided by researchers would 

inform and educate visitors in a variety of ways 

through articles, presentations, classes, lectures, 

field trips, and on-site field work. Researchers 

working in the area would be encouraged to 

provide summaries of their research at the visitor 

center and during evening talks at the visitor 

center.

Interpretation and education could also be 

provided by other non-NPS entities and partners, 

such as educational institutions or members of 

the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes.

Visitors would participate in stewardship 

activities that contribute to the preservation of 

nationally significant resources, such as geology 

and the California National Historic Trail.

Interpretive Programs

As in alternative A, Reserve staff would continue 

to conduct a variety of interpretive programs and 

special events and provide educational materials 

and activities for visitors. In addition, interpretive 

programs would focus on immersion, handson experiential learning, and environmental 

stewardship.

The Reserve would also improve dissemination 

of natural, cultural, and archeological research 

findings through various on-site and outreach 

programs, located at the visitor center, the 

outdoor learning center, and in local schools. The 

Reserve would work to integrate learning and 

research through living labs, institutes, and field 

schools, and would partner with federal, state, 

tribal, and private partners, such as universities 

and institutes. Interpretive programs would be 

designed to educate visitors about the Reserve’s 

national significance. These educational 

programs would be designed to transfer 

knowledge and engender stewardship in future 

generations.

The primary purpose of the Research Natural 

Area is research and the area would be managed 

to ensure minimal interference for research 

activities. If appropriate, interpretation would 

primarily be provided off-site, except in cases 

where well-supervised, on-site interpretation of 

ongoing research is possible.

As in alternative B, Reserve staff would work with 

the NPS Pacific West Region and Harpers Ferry 

Center staff to develop a long-range interpretive 

plan based on the interpretive themes developed 

in the City of Rocks National Reserve Foundation 

Document. (See “Chapter 2: Foundation for 

Planning and Management.”)

Youth

Education and interpretation for youth would 

be the same as in alternative A. In addition, the 

Reserve would provide youth-focused classes, 

field trips, and programs on natural and cultural 

resources at the outdoor learning center on 

Smoky Mountain. Reserve staff would encourage 

researchers to tailor programs about their 

research to a variety of age groups.

Visitor Experience

In alternative C, the Reserve would engage 

visitors in research, learning, and stewardship 

opportunities through new research, science, and 

education programs and facilities. This would 

be accomplished through new opportunities 

for learning and at facilities such as the outdoor 

learning center and the replacement visitor 

center.

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Recreation Opportunities

Recreational opportunities would be the same as 

in alternative A.

Trails

Actions associated with trails would be the same 

as in alternative B, except that the Reserve would 

work with the Bureau of Land Management to 

establish a formal hiking trail to the summit of 

Smoky Mountain from the Smoky Mountain 

Campground (“Figure 9. Trail Additions for 

Alternatives C and D”).

Climbing

Climbing management would be the same as in 

alternative B.

Equestrian Staging Area

Development of the equestrian staging area 

would be the same as in alternative B.

Commercial Visitor Services

Commercial visitor services would be the same 

as alternative A. In addition, the Reserve would 

encourage the development of a privately 

operated shuttle service by a private entity to 

link the Reserve and Castle Rocks State Park 

with potential stops at Castle Rocks Lodge, the 

visitor center, Bath Rock, Bread Loaves, and 

Circle Creek Overlook.

NPS Visitor and Administrative Facilities

Visitor Center

In alternative C, the Reserve would develop 

a smaller, more cost-effective version of the 

visitor center approved in the Reserve’s 1996 

comprehensive management plan and the 

2006 Castle Rocks State Park Master Plan. The 

National Park Service would partner with the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation to 

develop a visitor center within the expanded 

boundary close to the Almo entrance to the 

Reserve. The visitor center could be located on 

the existing R&PP lease with the Bureau of Land 

Management and approved in the Reserve’s 

comprehensive management plan. Since Castle 

Rocks State Park was developed subsequent to 

the approved 1996 Reserve’s comprehensive 

management plan, this visitor center would 

serve as a facility for both the Reserve and Castle 

Rocks State Park. The rationale for the visitor 

center is based on the isolation of the Reserve 

from other interpretive facilities and the need to 

provide more formal exhibits and programs to 

visitors for both the Reserve and Castle Rocks 

State Park.

Based on the “2014 Operation Plan and 

Guidelines for the Management of City of Rocks 

National Reserve (CIRO),” all new facilities 

inside the Reserve boundaries will be sited 

and developed in accordance with NPS design 

guidelines. Reserve planning and development 

will conform to applicable guidelines, policies, 

and laws to ensure that natural and cultural 

resource values are protected. The National 

Park Service will provide technical assistance, 

plan designs, standards, reviews, and on-site 

expertise on development projects inside of 

the Reserve boundaries as stated and properly 

funded in the project documents.

At approximately 2,600 square feet, this visitor 

center would be smaller than the visitor center 

proposed in either alternative A (the longterm proposal) or alternative D. This smaller 

footprint would improve cost savings and energy 

efficiency. The visitor center would include a 

lobby with a staffed information desk, small 

retail sales area, interpretive exhibits, research 

office, interpretive staff offices, a combined 

multipurpose room/theater with movable chairs 

for up to 40 people (allowing for flexibility in use 

and function), and space to include interpretive 

media, restrooms, and adjacent parking. 

Outdoor exhibits could be provided and would 

be helpful in orienting visitors when the visitor 

center is closed or unstaffed.

The National Park Service, in cooperation 

with the Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation and the Idaho Department of 

Transportation, would seek a variety of funding 

sources to support the design and development 

of the visitor center. This could include use 

of transportation enhancement funds, grants 

from private foundations, and other sources in 

addition to traditional funding sources.

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Figure 9. Trail Additions for Alternatives C and D

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Geo

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North

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Elephant Rock

City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/EIS

Trail Additions for Alternatives C and D

Proposed Trails

Existing Trails -

Foot

Existing Trails -

Foot/Horse

Existing Trails -

Foot/Horse/Bike

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Roads

Reserve

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Produced by: NPS - PWR GIS

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Figure 9 N:\GIS_Maps\Parks\CIRO\GMP\TrailAdditionsAltsCandD.mxd o

Location within the Reserve.

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Reserve staff, as well as volunteers, would work 

at the information desk. The visitor center would 

be built using local materials from the immediate 

region or modern materials that blend with 

local colors and landscapes and incorporate 

sustainable design principles to reduce heating 

and cooling costs. The visitor center would 

feature native plant landscaping.

Outdoor Learning Center

In alternative C, an outdoor learning center 

would be developed to immerse students and 

visitors in direct contact with nature through 

outdoor experiences emphasizing exploration, 

reflection, and stewardship. The learning center 

would connect people, nature, and community 

through science, art, and the hands-on study 

of natural and cultural history within the larger 

Northern Basin and Range ecoregion.

The outdoor learning center could be located 

about one-half mile south of Smoky Mountain 

Campground or in another suitable area. If 

Smoky Mountain was used, it is intended that 

the outdoor learning center would be accessed 

along the existing road past the campground and 

would be constructed in a formerly disturbed 

(woodcutting) area.

Formal development of facilities and services 

would be limited and minimal. The outdoor 

learning center could include a group of 

approximately five to six yurts or temporary 

outdoor shelters that would provide 

accommodations for approximately 30 people. 

The shelters would be used by students or family 

groups participating in activities associated with 

the learning center but could also be used by 

visiting researchers. To accommodate groups, a 

covered shelter or well-designed pavilion would 

be developed to allow approximately 30 people 

to meet during inclement weather. Facilities 

would include electricity, data connection, and 

possibly water. To ensure protection of the night 

sky, no outdoor lighting would be provided. An 

existing road with dispersed parking is already 

on-site and could serve the future outdoor 

learning center.

If the outdoor learning center is located within 

the expanded boundary, the National Park 

Service would be authorized to expend funds for 

the construction of the outdoor learning center 

and amenities. Funding requests would compete 

through the normal procedures with all other 

NPS funding requests. (If the outdoor learning 

center is located outside the Reserve boundary 

NPS policy would not allow NPS funds to be 

used for construction.)

Smoky Mountain Campground

In alternative C, Smoky Mountain Campground 

would be located within the expanded Reserve 

boundary. A second camping loop would be 

added to the existing campground loop, with 

up to 62 additional campsites. This additional 

loop would provide needed campsites within 

the Reserve during the peak season. The second 

campground loop would add to the standard 

amenities that currently exist in the campground 

and could also include social camping 

opportunities, where camping areas for multiple 

tents and picnic tables would be made available. 

Additional facilities would include two or 

three additional vault toilets and could include 

showers if a sufficient water supply is available.

The exact location of the second campground 

loop would be determined based on analysis 

of potential impacts on resources. The second 

campground loop would be designed to 

minimize visual impacts. Tree cover would 

be maintained or added to screen campsites, 

where possible.

As in alternative B, an amphitheater at Smoky 

Mountain Campground to seat approximately 

70 people would be constructed to provide for 

evening interpretive and research programs. 

The design would be simple and would meet 

ADA/ABA accessibility standards. The design 

could consist of benches surrounding a fire 

ring for storytelling with minimal lighting 

in order to protect night sky viewing. The 

amphitheater could have the capability for 

multimedia presentations and be made available 

to the local community, depending on use 

for the Reserve. This proposal for a second 

campground loop and amphitheater was also 

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Visitor Facilities

Alternative C would call for development 

of additional waysides and exhibits based 

on interpretive themes and various topics to 

promote education, research, and protection of 

nationally significant resources.

approved in the Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive 

management  plan.

Partnering or shared funding arrangements 

would be sought for construction of the 

amphitheater, additional campground loop, 

and amenities.

Reserve Campsites

Reconfiguration of the Reserve’s campsites 

would be the same as alternative B (see 

“Appendix D: Rim Development Concept Plan 

for City of Rocks National Reserve”).

Visitor Facilities

In alternative C, Reserve staff would develop 

waysides and exhibits based on interpretive 

themes and various topics to promote 

education, research, and protection of nationally 

significant resources.

Reserve Roads

Reserve management of roads, including the 

development of a turnaround area at the end of 

Logger Springs Road, would be the same as in 

alternative B.

Partnerships

IDPR Visitor and Administrative Facilities

Administration

(See “Reserve Management and 

Operations” in the “Actions Common to All 

Alternatives” section.)

Maintenance

(See “Reserve Management and 

Operations” in the “Actions Common to All 

Alternatives” section.)

Employee Housing

In alternative C, the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation would continue to provide 

limited employee housing at the Castle Rocks 

State Park Administrative Unit. In addition, the 

Reserve would work with partners to encourage 

nearby communities in southern Cassia 

County to provide housing for researchers and 

visiting scholars.

Cassia County Road Network

Management recommendations for countyowned roads would be the same as in 

alternative B.

Other Partnerships

Reserve partners include universities, federal 

and state agencies, nonprofit organizations, 

institutes, local landowners, and tribes. The 

UCBN I&M program and the Cooperative 

Ecosystem Studies Unit (CESU) would continue 

to be involved in research. The Reserve would 

work with agencies to promote research and 

provide outreach and education programs 

across the larger landscape. Reserve staff would 

encourage researchers to present programs for 

the public at the visitor center. Research would 

be conducted with partners on relevant topics 

such as fire, drought, invasive species, wildlife, 

changing water supplies, climate change, night 

skies, and soundscapes. Reserve staff would also 

work with adjacent landowners on resource 

protection areas of mutual concern.

Environmental Sustainability

The energy efficiency and environmental 

sustainability strategy of alternative C would 

incorporate the same actions as in alternative B, 

with the enhancements discussed below.

Although this alternative includes a replacement 

visitor center and an outdoor learning center, 

these facilities would both employ sustainable 

design techniques to minimize environmental 

impacts, including carbon footprint. The visitor 

center would include local materials, energyefficient design, and sustainable native plant 

landscaping features. The outdoor learning 

center would occupy a minimal footprint, 

provide a dual education and housing function 

for visiting students, researchers, or others and 

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would be focused on connecting visitors to their 

natural, outdoor surroundings rather than on 

providing a formal indoor space.

In alternative C, development on NPS land 

would include improvements in energy 

efficiency and reduction in greenhouse gas 

emissions for both the building envelope and 

the mechanical systems supporting the facility. 

Maximum energy efficiency would be achieved, 

if possible, using solar thermal and photovoltaic 

applications, appropriate insulation and 

glazing strategies, energy-efficient lighting and 

appliances, and renewable energy technology. 

Energy-efficient construction projects would be 

used as an educational opportunity for visitors.

Reserve Boundary

Alternative C would propose a boundary 

modification to add viewsheds associated with 

the cultural landscape, portions of the California 

National Historic Trail, and old-growth 

pinyon-juniper forest into the Reserve at the 

east boundary. Smoky Mountain Campground 

and the outdoor learning center, as well as the 

land currently leased to the state by the Bureau 

of Land Management, would be included 

in this proposed boundary. In addition, two 

private parcels of land would be included. 

Congressional legislation would be necessary to 

authorize a modification of the existing Reserve 

boundary (see “Figure 8. Alternative C: A Stage 

for Stewardship”).

If authorized by Congress, the identified 

federal lands now managed by the Bureau of 

Land Management would be administratively 

transferred within the Department of the 

Interior from the Bureau of Land Management 

to the National Park Service. Acquisition of 

full or partial interest by the National Park 

Service in the two private parcels included in 

the revised boundary under this alternative 

would be restricted to an opportunity purchase 

situation through a voluntary sale of land or 

scenic easements to the National Park Service. 

This means that the acquisition would occur 

only if the landowner was willing to sell, and 

if adequate funding to support the purchase 

was available. Cassia County would continue 

to retain jurisdiction over all remaining private 

lands within the Reserve boundary. If the 

boundary expansion is approved by Congress, 

the Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

would relinquish its R&PP lease with the Bureau 

of Land Management because the currently 

leased land would transfer to NPS management.

This boundary modification would include 

an addition of 4,247 acres, including 652 

acres (15%) in two private parcels and 3,595 

acres (85%) managed by the Bureau of 

Land Management.

Changing from BLM to NPS management 

would change the management emphasis. The 

missions of the National Park Service and the 

Bureau of Land Management are different. 

Although both agencies provide public services 

and products, the Bureau of Land Management 

manages land under the Federal Land Policy 

and Management Act of 1976, as amended 

(FLPMA). This act established a multiple-use 

mandate for the Bureau of Land Management 

to serve present and future generations. The 

National Park Service manages land under 

the Organic Act of 1916. Based on this act, the 

National Park Service preserves unimpaired 

the natural and cultural resources and values 

of the national park system for the enjoyment, 

education, and inspiration of this and future 

generations. The National Park Service also 

cooperates with partners to extend the benefits 

of natural and cultural resource conservation 

and outdoor recreation throughout this country 

and the world. Specifically, the NPS mandate 

for land management is for preservation while 

the BLM mandate for land management is 

based on multiple use. In practice, this means 

that the National Park Service allows for 

fewer adverse effects on resources under its 

management jurisdiction.

Although there are no active mining claims or 

geothermal leases located on the BLM lands 

proposed for inclusion within the Reserve 

boundary, the area is open to mining claims and 

mineral sales unless these lands are withdrawn 

from mineral entry through the BLM realty 

processes (BLM 2012b).

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At the southern boundary of the Reserve, the 

National Park Service would encourage Cassia 

County and private landowners to protect the 

California Trail corridor from the southwest 

corner of the Reserve to Granite Pass, which 

was the next stop for the pioneers traveling 

on the California Trail from the Circle Creek 

encampment. Although no boundary revision is 

proposed for this section of the California Trail 

corridor, opportunities to explore other ways 

to commemorate and protect this outstanding 

section of the California Trail would be 

explored. Landscape protection at the southwest 

corner of the Reserve would be accomplished, 

if possible, through voluntary sale of California 

National Historic Trail easements by willing 

sellers and acquisition by the Bureau of Land 

Management, the National Park Service, or a 

nonprofit land trust.

The Reserve would seek to partner with adjacent 

landowners and agencies to work together on 

common issues or areas of mutual interest such 

as nonnative plants, climate change, California 

National Historic Trail, Smoky Mountain pinyon 

forest. In particular, the National Park Service 

could cooperate or partner with the Bureau 

of Land Management on projects of mutual 

interest using the recently approved Service 

First authority. Service First is a partnership 

authority among four agencies: Bureau of Land 

Management, U.S. Forest Service, National Park 

Service, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

(Public Law 112-74).

Modification of the boundary in alternative 

C would incorporate portions of Idaho’s only 

pinyon pine forest ecosystem into the Reserve. 

An additional 1.1 miles of the California 

National Historic Trail would also become 

part of the Reserve. In addition, the boundary 

modification would allow the Reserve to 

coordinate and manage increased recreational 

use and impacts in areas currently outside its 

jurisdiction—such as dispersed camping around 

Smoky Mountain Campground—which could 

reduce the threat of human-caused wildfires. 

Bringing the proposed sites of the visitor center, 

outdoor learning center, and Smoky Mountain 

Campground into the Reserve boundary would 

also make it allowable for the National Park 

Service to share in the development costs 

of facilities.

Operations

Staffing

Alternative C would implement the current 

staffing level of seven FTEs plus five additional 

full-time FTEs. New positions would include 

two interpretive specialists, one visitor 

protection specialist (law enforcement ranger), 

one maintenance worker, and one education 

specialist. The second interpretive position 

would be added to address the increased 

capacity at the new visitor center and the 

increased emphasis on partnerships. The 

education specialist would be needed for the 

outdoor learning center. Due to the existing 

budget climate for both the National Park 

Service and the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation, it is assumed that the National 

Park Service would provide full funding for all 

new positions.

The percentage of funding for each position 

supplied by the National Park Service and the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

is represented in the following table under 

Funding Agency. Table 10 does not include 

seasonal staffing, which would vary depending 

on needs and funding allocations.

Table 10. Alternative C, Staffing

Position Funding 

Agency

FTE 

(Existing)

Park Manager III 100%

Assistant Park Manager 100%

Maintenance Foreman 75% 25%

Climbing Ranger 25% 75%

Park Ranger – Visitor Services 100%

Park Ranger – Natural Resources 50% 50%

Park Ranger – Cultural Resources 100%

*FTE percentages between IDPR and NPS are stated in the 

“2014 Operation Plan and Guidelines for the Management of 

City of Rocks National Reserve (CIRO).”

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Estimated Costs

No matter which alternative is selected, the 

implementation of the approved plan would 

depend on future NPS funding levels and 

servicewide priorities, and on partnership 

funds, time, and effort. The approval of a general 

management plan does not guarantee that 

funding and staffing needed to implement the 

plan would be forthcoming. Full implementation 

of the plan could take many years.

Annual Operating Costs

Annual operating costs are the total costs per 

year for maintenance and operations associated 

with each alternative, including utilities, 

supplies, staff salaries and benefits, leasing, 

and other materials. Cost and staffing estimates 

assume that the alternative is fully implemented 

as described in the narrative.

FTE salaries and benefits are included in the 

annual operating costs.

One-time Costs

One-time facility costs (table 11) include costs 

for the design, construction, rehabilitation, 

and adaptive reuse of facilities, including 

visitor facilities, roads, parking, and support 

facilities. The one-time costs for alternative 

C would include costs associated with the 

development of the equestrian staging area, 

reconfiguration of the Reserve campsites, and 

constructing a replacement visitor center, the 

outdoor learning center, amphitheater, and the 

second campground loop (with an emphasis 

on group tent camping) at Smoky Mountain 

Campground.

One-time-no-facility costs include actions for 

the preservation of cultural or natural resources 

not related to facilities, the development of 

visitor use tools not related to facilities, and 

other park management activities that would 

require substantial funding above annual 

operating costs. Examples include updating 

management plans.

Program support costs include technology, 

grants, development of plans, or other program 

support.

These costs are in 2012 dollars and are based on 

general “Class C” estimates for site development 

and construction. (According to the 2011 NPS 

Cost Estimating Requirements Handbook, 

Class C construction cost estimates are used for 

alternatives and are referred to as conceptual 

estimates by the design and construction 

industry. These estimates are generally prepared 

without a fully defined scope of work. They are 

general in nature and representative of a broad 

based vision rather than focused on specific 

details.) Prior to submitting funding requests 

for the design and construction phases, “Class 

B” estimates are required, based on detailed site 

and facility designs.

Deferred Maintenance Offset

Deferred maintenance is maintenance and 

repair activities that were not performed when 

they should have been or were scheduled to 

be and which, therefore, are put off or delayed 

for a future period. Maintenance and repairs 

are activities directed toward keeping fixed 

assets in an acceptable condition. Total costs for 

deferred maintenance offset in alternative A are 

listed in table 11. Deferred maintenance costs 

would “offset” the total one-time costs. For 

example, the total one-time costs are $6,602,500, 

which would be reduced to $6,579,500 after 

considering the deferred maintenance offset 

of $23,000.

Prioritizing Actions in Alternative C

Actions in alternative C would be prioritized or 

ranked in importance as either high priority (1) 

or low priority (2). High priority actions address 

immediate threats and needs (requirements 

by mission, policy, and purpose) or address 

promises made in the past to the public such as 

development of an equestrian staging area.

Low priority actions would address visitor 

opportunities and experiences, such as 

enhanced facilities, and would depend on 

sustained funding.

Cost estimates for alternative C are identified in 

table 12.

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Table 11. 

Summary

of One-time Cost for

Alternative C

Location

Project Progra

m

Support

Facility

Rehabilitation/

Replace

ment

Resource

Manage

ment

New

Construction

Priority*

Deferred

Maintenance

Offset

Alternative CReservewide Update the fire management plan $35,000 1

Prepare soundscapes management plan $34,000 2Conduct a wildlife inventory; develop and implement a monitoring plan; conduct an inventory in area around reserve

$105,000 2

Develop an archeological management plan to manage California Trail ruts

$45,000 1

Monitor and develop a treatment plan for features within the California Trail corridor

$60,000 1

Develop a long-range interpretive plan $40,000 1Develop a trails management plan to consider modifications for trail improvement

$50,000 2

Trail from California Trail to Tea Kettle: 11,853 feet $60,000 2Reconfigure camping in the Reserve to address safety and resource issues

$1,050,000 1

Develop a turnaround area at the north end of Logger Springs Road

$5,000 1

DM Subtotal -$23,000

Research Natural Area

Refine the boundary of the Research Natural Area to conform to landscape features; includes addition of three small areas of 693 acres

$30,000 1

DM SubtotalBread Loaves Develop an additional equestrian staging area in 

the Reserve near the Bread Loaves intersection (or Elephant Rock)

$120,000 1

DM SubtotalSmoky Mountain Campground

Expand campground by 62 additional campsites (group tent camping emphasis)

$1,030,000++ 2

Partner with IDPR to construct an amphitheater at campground for ranger programs

$75,000 1

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Location

Project Progra

m

Support

Facility

Rehabilitation/

Replace

ment

Resource

Manage

ment

New

Construction

Priority*

Deferred

Maintenance

Offset

Construct outdoor learning center with limited development of facilities and services

$720,000++ 2

Develop a formal trail from Smoky Mountain Campground to the summit of Smoky Mountain: 10,653 feet

$60,000 2

DM SubtotalVisitor Center Partner with IDPR and others to develop and comanage a visitor center near the Almo entrance; 

facility would include interpretation, a small theater, a multipurpose room, work space, outdoor exhibits, and a parking area

$3,040,000++ 1

DM Subtotal

Total Cost by Categories

$369,000 $5,120,000 $30,000 $1,040,000 -$23,000

Total Priority 1 Costs

$4,500,000

Total Priority 2 Costs

$2,059,000

Total Existing Project Costs

$43,500

Total One-Time Improvement Cost of Alternative**

$6,602,500

Deferred Maintenance Offset

$23,000

*Priority 1 projects include projects that emphasize resource protection, threats, and visitor safety. Priority 2 projects include all other projects important to the full implementation of the alternative, including those that address visitor opportunities and experiences such as enhanced facilities as funding allows and could be sustained. Costs are in 2012 dollars.**Total Capital Cost includes total Priority 1 and Priority 2 costs but does not include a reduction for Deferred Maintenance Offset.++IDPR costs.

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Table 12. Alternative C, Summary of Costs*

Category Costs

Annual Operating Costs

Existing Base Funding $698,647

New Personnel Costs $240,000

Total Annual Operating Costs $938,647

Personnel FTE

Permanent 12 (+5)

One-Time Costs

Total Existing Project Costs $43,500

One-Time Nonfacility Costs

Program Support $369,000

Priority 1** $180,000

Priority 2*** $189,000

Resource Management $30,000

Priority 1 $30,000

Priority 2 $0

Total One-Time Nonfacility Cost $399,000

One-Time Facility Costs

New Construction $1,040,000

Priority 1 $200,000

Priority 2 $840,000++

Facility Rehabilitation $5,120,000

Priority 1 $4,090,000++

Priority 2 $1,030,000++

Total One-Time Facility Cost $6,160,000

Total Priority 1 Costs $4,500,000

Total Priority 2 Costs $2,059,000

Total One-Time Costs $6,602,500

Deferred Maintenance Offset $23,000

*Figures are rounded.

**Does not include funding for Castle Rocks State Park, 

although some costs support both the Reserve and the state 

park: for example, some staff and the visitor center.

***Actions in alternative C would be prioritized or ranked 

in importance as either high priority (1) or low priority (2). 

High priority actions address immediate threats and needs 

(requirements by mission, policy and purpose) or address 

promises made in the past to the public such as development 

of an equestrian staging area. Low priority actions address 

visitor opportunities and experiences such as enhanced 

facilities as funding allows and could be sustained.

++Includes IDPR costs as follows: $3,040,000 Priority 1 

Facility Rehabilitation/Replacement for the visitor center, 

$1,030,000 Priority 2 Facility Rehabilitation/Replacement for 

Smoky Mountain campground, and $720,000 Priority 2 New 

Construction for the outdoor learning center. 

ALTERNATIVE D: TREASURED 

LANDSCAPES INSPIRING STORIES

General Description

Alternative D would focus on protecting the 

important cultural, scenic, and geological 

landscapes of City of Rocks and would use 

these landscapes as a setting to tell the rich 

stories of the Reserve. This would include the 

stories of those who have historically used the 

land, those who passed through on their way 

to California, and those who live, work, and 

recreate in the Reserve today. Visitors would 

gain a deeper understanding of the Reserve’s 

resources through more formal and structured 

recreational opportunities and programs. This 

alternative emphasizes a frontcountry day-use 

visitor experience for individuals, as well as 

for groups of various sizes and composition. It 

would encourage interaction and immersion by 

different user groups in the cultural and natural 

setting of the Reserve by providing enhanced 

opportunities to learn, recreate, and enjoy the 

special place that is the City of Rocks.

Management Zones Applied to 

Alternative D

The management zones for alternative D are 

taken from “Table 3. Management Zones.” 

The specific configuration (mapping) of the 

management zones is provided in “Figure 

10. Alternative D: Treasured Landscapes 

Inspiring Stories.”

In alternative D, because of the emphasis on 

a frontcountry day use visitor experience, the 

Visitor Facilities and Access and Transition 

Zones would be larger than in the other 

alternatives. The Visitor Facilities and Access 

Zone would be a continuous zone from Bath 

Rock to the California Trail Zone, with small 

areas at Finger Rock, Twin Sisters, Circle Creek 

Overlook, and the Juniper group campsite. 

Facilities for visitors, such as restrooms, parking, 

and picnic areas, would be located in this zone.

The Transition Zone would be applied to an area 

surrounding the Visitor Facilities and Access

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Zone on the west and northeast, which would 

allow for additional dispersed recreational 

facilities such as walk-in campsites, trails, 

waysides, and the proposed equestrian staging 

area. This zone would stretch from Bread Loaves 

to the California Trail corridor.

In alternative D, the Natural Zone would be 

similar to alternative C, but slightly smaller. This 

zone would include the higher rocky elevation 

lands at the north, east, and west, as well as a 

small area on the south end of the Reserve.

As in alternative B, the Research Natural Area 

Zone would be applied to refine the RNA 

boundary, allowing it to more closely follow 

terrain features, which would aid on-theground management.

The Historic Rural Setting Zone would be 

applied to the northern portion of Circle Creek 

Basin and the ranchlands in the southwest part 

of the Reserve. This zone would include areas 

with open rangeland.

Alternative D has the smallest California 

Trail Zone of the four alternatives, primarily 

containing the one-half mile California Trail 

corridor and southern offshoot, and including a 

portion of Circle Creek Basin.

Natural Resource Management

Natural resource management would be the 

same as in alternative A. In addition, a resource 

stewardship strategy would be developed to 

guide natural and cultural resource management.

Climate and Air Quality

Management of air quality would be the same as 

in alternative C.

Management of actions associated with climate 

change mitigation, research, and interpretation 

would be the same as alternative B, plus the 

Reserve would encourage commercial visitor 

services guides to use vehicles with alternative 

fuels to limit emissions within the Reserve and at 

Castle Rocks State Park. The Reserve would also 

encourage visitor activities that promote walking 

or hiking, rather than driving.

Geology and Soils

In alternative D, management of geological 

resources would be the same as in alternative C.

Management of soils would be the same as in 

alternative B.

Vegetation and Fire

Vegetation management would be the same as 

alternative C.

Fire management would be the same as 

alternative B.

Wildlife

Wildlife management would be the same as 

alternative A.

Soundscapes and Lightscapes

Management of soundscapes and lightscapes 

would be the same as alternative B.

Cultural Resource Management

Cultural resources would be enhanced through 

active management. The Reserve would provide 

visitors with a direct experience of the cultural 

history of the area. The Reserve would focus 

on stabilization and preservation treatments to 

enhance interpretation of historic structures and 

cultural landscape features. California Trail-era 

resources associated with the national historic 

landmark would be preserved in accordance 

with The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for 

the Treatment of Historic Properties. Alternative 

D would add an additional 1.1 miles of the 

California National Historic Trail under NPS 

management through boundary expansion. In 

addition, a resource stewardship strategy would 

be developed to guide natural and cultural 

resource management.

Archeology

Management of archeological resources would 

be the same as in alternative A. In addition, 

Reserve staff would conduct archeological 

projects to research, identify, and document 

resources. To promote visitor understanding of 

archeological resources, Reserve staff would 

conduct demonstration projects.

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Figure 10. Alternative D: Treasured Landscapes Inspiring Stories

ÆQ

USFS

BLM

State

BLM

BLM

BLM

State

BLM

BLM

BLM

Idaho

State

Parks

Idaho State Parks

BLM

Trail Easement

to Granite Pass

Smoky Mountain

Campground

BLM

TWIN

SISTERS

CIRCLE

CREEK

BASIN

CASTLE GRAHAM ROCK

PEAK

D D

Almo

BLM

BLM

BLM

BLM

Visitor Facilities & Access Zone

Transition Zone

Natural Zone

Research Natural Area Zone

Historic Rural Setting Zone

California Trail Zone

Proposed Boundary Addition

Private Lands

California National Historic Trail

California National Historic Trail

Corridor (1/4 Mile Buffer Per Side)

Reserve Boundary

Roads

Produced by: NPS - PWR GIS

Date Created: September, 2014

Data Sources: BLM - BLM, USFS and State Land

 NPS - California National Historic Trail, 

 Management Zones, Reserve

 Boundary and Roads

 USGS - Shaded Relief

Figure 10

N:\GIS_Maps\Parks\CIRO\GMP\AlternativeD.mxd

0 0.25 0.5

Miles

o

City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/EIS

Alternative D: Treasured Landscapes Inspiring Stories

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As in alternative B, the Reserve would develop 

an archeological management plan to manage 

California Trail ruts.

Cultural Landscapes

Treatment of cultural landscapes would be the 

same as in alternative B, including treatment of 

mining, homesteading, and ranching features and 

activities.

Special Designations

Hunting and Trapping

(See “Special Uses and Designations” in the 

“Actions Common to All Alternatives” section 

and “Table 3. Management Zones.”)

Grazing

Livestock grazing in the Reserve is allowed in 

all management zones except in the Research 

National Area Zone. Grazing in wetland and 

riparian areas would be systematically eliminated 

and grazing would continue to be prohibited 

in the Research Natural Area. Cattle would be 

excluded from these riparian areas through a 

variety of means, such as by providing alternate 

water sources or adding fencing, as appropriate.

The Reserve would work with permittees to 

provide visitor interpretive opportunities and 

participation in grazing management activities. 

These could include participating in cattle drives, 

mending or constructing fences, monitoring 

grazing allotments, participating in branding 

demonstrations, and other activities.

Grazing permits would continue to be renewed 

in all zones (except the Research Natural Area 

Zone) unless there is permittee abandonment or 

consistent failure to comply with conditions of 

the permit.

To minimize visitor conflicts, the Reserve would 

also consider removing cattle pasturing from 

the Visitor Facilities and Access Zone where 

possible. This could result in a slight reduction in 

grazing from reconfiguring existing allotments. 

As in other alternatives, the grazing management 

plan would be updated to reflect these changes. 

Because implementation of the grazing 

management plan recommendations may affect 

wetlands within the Reserve, if implemented 

these actions would need to be addressed in a 

future NPS wetlands statement of findings. This 

would ensure that the update to the grazing 

management plan complies with Executive Order 

11990, “Protection of Wetlands.”

Research Natural Area

Management and delineation of the Research 

Natural Area would be the same as alternative B.

Natural Historic Landmark

(See “Special Uses and Designations” in the 

“Actions Common to All Alternatives” section 

and “Table 3. Management Zones.”)

National Natural Landmark

(See “Special Uses and Designations” in the 

“Actions Common to All Alternatives” section 

and “Table 3. Management Zones.”)

Section 36

(See “Special Uses and Designations” in the 

“Actions Common to All Alternatives” section 

and “Table 3. Management Zones.”)

Interpretation and Education

Interpretation and education would be expanded 

beyond alternative A to include enhanced on-site 

personal interpretive and educational programs 

featuring staff, partners, and volunteers in 

various special events. Special events could 

include heritage events celebrating California 

Trail history with horse and wagon rides and 

Dutch oven suppers along the trail; trail rides 

and local speakers at campfires discussing 

the area’s ranching history; commemorating 

American Indian traditions through art, music, 

and inspiring talks by native peoples; and/or 

stories of the settlement of the Almo area told by 

descendants of the pioneers.

Activities related to natural resources could 

include ranger-led or field expert-led nature 

hikes, night sky viewing opportunities, geology 

field schools, and on-site hunter education 

programs based on sound wildlife management 

principles. Special events could allow diverse 

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groups to learn about and explore the Reserve, 

and local outfitters could provide food and 

accommodations for some of these programs.

Alternative D would allow opportunities for 

visitors to engage in on-site living history 

activities and demonstration projects to learn 

about archeology and other cultural resources. 

Programs would focus on the California Trail 

and ranching heritage. Some of these activities 

would be provided at the proposed full-service 

visitor center and some through commercial 

visitor services.

The Reserve would work with permittees to 

provide interpretive opportunities and visitor 

participation in grazing management activities. 

This could include participating in cattle drives, 

mending or constructing fences, monitoring 

grazing allotments, participating in branding 

demonstrations, and other activities.

Interpretive Programs

Interpretive programs would be expanded 

and the Reserve would conduct a variety of 

programs and activities to promote experiential 

and heritage learning and recreation, including 

outreach to youth and new visitors.

Alternative D would expand interpretive 

and educational programming to emphasize 

the natural and cultural history of City of 

Rocks including site-specific interpretation 

where appropriate.

There would be more guided walks and talks 

on a variety of natural and cultural themes. 

Alternative D could include increased staffled and nonprofit-led immersive experiences 

(in depth fee interpretation [interpretation 

at an additional cost], such as weekend 

programming). The Parks as Classrooms 

program and activities such as satellite 

broadcasts on park theme topics would 

be expanded. As with other interpretive 

programming, these educational programs 

would be designed to transfer knowledge and 

engender stewardship in future generations.

A long-range interpretive plan would be 

developed based on the interpretive themes in the 

foundation document.

Youth

Activities for youth would include those in 

alternative A, but would be expanded to 

engage youth and new visitors in programs and 

opportunities, such as Parks as Classrooms or a 

climbing school. Youth would also be encouraged 

to participate in citizen stewardship activities 

such as trail maintenance or other park projects.

Visitor Experience

In alternative D, the Reserve would emphasize a 

frontcountry, day-use experience with a focus on 

group activities and formal education. The wide 

range of recreational opportunities and learning 

experiences would appeal to a broad range of 

visitors.

Recreational Opportunities

The current array of recreational opportunities 

would be expanded to include additional dayuse activities, such as more walks and hikes, 

horseback riding, and biking opportunities.

Trails

Actions associated with trails would be the same 

as in alternative C (see “Figure 9. Trail Additions 

for Alternatives C and D”).

Climbing

Climbing management actions would be the same 

as in alternative B.

Equestrian Staging

Development of equestrian staging would be the 

same as alternative B.

Commercial Visitor Services

There would be more potential for commercial 

visitor services and activities in this alternative 

compared to alternatives A, B, and C. Programs 

could include fee interpretation and education 

provided by partners, including organizations, 

academic institutions, agencies, community 

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members, and tribal representatives. Educational 

programs could feature painting or writing 

workshops, field schools, classes, and guided 

recreational activities.

Commercial visitor services could provide 

opportunities for on-site living history cultural 

activities and demonstration projects that focus 

on the California Trail, ranching heritage, and 

significant resources such as prehistory or 

historic archeology.

NPS Visitor and Administrative Facilities

Visitor Center

In alternative D, a combined City of Rocks 

National Reserve / Castle Rocks State Park visitor 

center would be developed as called for by the 

Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive management plan 

and Castle Rocks State Park Master Plan. This 

full-service visitor center facility would be the 

same as in alternative A and would be located 

within the expanded boundary, close to the Almo 

entrance of the Reserve. In addition (and not part 

of alternative A), an outdoor plaza / ”after hours” 

orientation area could also be developed as part 

of the visitor center design. This outdoor plaza 

would serve the function as an amphitheater 

and could be used for outdoor classroom space, 

interpretive programs, or special events.

Based on the continued NPS/IDPR partnership, 

the National Park Service would design and 

develop the visitor center. The Idaho Department 

of Parks and Recreation would continue to 

manage visitor center operations according to 

the existing cooperative agreement. Transfer of 

the visitor center property from the Bureau of 

Land Management to the National Park Service, 

if authorized by Congress, would require the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

to relinquish its R&PP lease with the Bureau 

of Land Management. A variety of funding 

sources could be used to support the design and 

development of the visitor center. Among these 

could be transportation enhancement funds, 

grants from private foundations, and others, in 

addition to those that the National Park Service 

or the Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

may provide.

The visitor center location would be evaluated 

for feasibility and compatibility with the 

landscape and resources through additional 

environmental impact analysis. A design team 

would also be encouraged to evaluate other 

nearby potential sites. Access, traffic, and parking 

opportunities, as well as viewsheds to and from 

the visitor center, would be considered.

As in the other alternatives, the National 

Park Service would use local materials from 

the immediate region or modern materials 

that blend with local colors and landscapes. 

Sustainable design principles would be used to 

reduce the total costs of heating and cooling and 

feature native plant landscaping.

Smoky Mountain Campground

In alternative D, Smoky Mountain Campground 

would be located within the proposed expanded 

Reserve boundary. Another campground 

loop would be added with up to 62 additional 

campsites. The second campground loop would 

be paved and provide for a mixture of tent and 

RV camping but the emphasis would be on 

individual tent camping. Infrastructure, such 

as power and a water supply, already exists and 

more showers and toilets could be added based 

on the availability of water.

An amphitheater would be constructed at the 

campground to provide for ranger programs.

The exact location of the second campground 

loop would be determined based on analysis of 

potential impacts on resources and would be 

designed to minimize visual impacts. Tree cover 

would be maintained or added to screen around 

campsites, where possible.

As with the proposed visitor center, if the Bureau 

of Land Management transferred ownership 

of the campground area to the National Park 

Service, the Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation would relinquish its R&PP lease with 

the Bureau of Land Management for Smoky 

Mountain Campground. This would allow the 

National Park Service to fund the campground 

loop and amenities. The Idaho Department of 

Parks and Recreation would probably continue 

to operate the campground according to 

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the existing cooperative agreement and the 

operation plan and guidelines for management. 

Campground fees would be retained by the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation for 

the operation of the Reserve.

Reserve Campsites

The reconfiguration of Reserve campsites 

would be the same as alternative B (see 

“Appendix D: Rim Development Concept Plan 

for City of Rocks National Reserve”).

Visitor Facilities

The Reserve would develop additional waysides 

and exhibits based on interpretive themes and 

other relevant topics. More vault toilets and 

additional parking areas would be constructed 

as needed for increased day-use activities.

Reserve Roads

Management of Reserve roads would be the 

same as in alternative A. In addition, to safely 

accommodate a few cars and enable people to 

turn around off the narrow road and protect 

adjacent resources, parking at the Indian Grove 

Overlook off Logger Springs Road would 

be formalized with a designated area and 

parking spaces.

Partnerships

IDPR Visitor and Administrative Facilities

Administration

(See “Reserve Management and 

Operations” in the “Actions Common to All 

Alternatives” section.)

Maintenance

(See “Reserve Management and 

Operations” in the “Actions Common to All 

Alternatives” section.)

Employee Housing

The Reserve would encourage local 

communities in southern Cassia County 

to provide additional housing for seasonal 

employees.

Cassia County Road Network

Management of Cassia County roads would be 

the same as in alternative B.

Other Partnerships

In addition to offering expanded programming, 

the Reserve would partner with others for 

interpretation, outreach, and education. 

Partnerships with adjacent land managers 

to expand trail connections and provide a 

continuum of recreational experiences would 

also be developed. The Reserve would build 

relationships with partners, user groups, 

and tribes to emphasize citizen stewardship 

activities and to encourage them to share their 

connections and stories with each other and 

the public.

Environmental Sustainability

The energy efficiency and environmental 

sustainability strategy of alternative D would be 

the same as in alternative B.

Reserve Boundary

In alternative D, the National Park Service 

would propose a boundary modification to 

add scenic resources, portions of the California 

National Historic Trail, and the pinyon-juniper 

forest into the Reserve at the east boundary. 

Smoky Mountain Campground and land 

currently leased to the state by the Bureau of 

Land Management would be included in this 

proposed boundary.

As in alternative C, if authorized by Congress, 

the identified federal lands now managed 

by the Bureau of Land Management would 

be administratively transferred within the 

Department of the Interior from the Bureau 

of Land Management to the National Park 

Service (see “Figure 10. Alternative D: Treasured 

Landscapes Inspiring Stories”). Acquisition of 

a full or partial interest, if any, by the National 

Park Service in the two private parcels included 

in the revised boundary under this alternative 

would be restricted to an opportunity purchase 

situation through a voluntary sale of land or 

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scenic easements to the National Park Service. 

This means that the acquisition would occur 

only if the landowner was willing to sell, and 

if adequate funding to support the purchase 

was available. Cassia County would continue 

to retain jurisdiction over all remaining private 

lands within the Reserve boundary.

This boundary modification would include an 

additional 4,247 acres of land: 652 acres (15%) 

in two private parcels and 3,595 acres (85%) 

managed by the Bureau of Land Management.

Changing from BLM to NPS management of 

these lands would change the management 

emphasis. The missions of the National Park 

Service and the Bureau of Land Management are 

different. Although both agencies provide public 

services and products, the Bureau of Land 

Management manages land under the Federal 

Land Policy and Management Act of 1976, as 

amended. This act established a multiple-use 

mandate for the Bureau of Land Management 

to serve present and future generations. The 

National Park Service manages land under 

the Organic Act of 1916. Based on this act, the 

National Park Service preserves unimpaired 

the natural and cultural resources and values 

of the national park system for the enjoyment, 

education, and inspiration of this and future 

generations. The National Park Service also 

cooperates with partners to extend the benefits 

of natural and cultural resource conservation 

and outdoor recreation throughout this country 

and the world. Specifically, the NPS mandate for 

land management is for preservation while the 

BLM mandate for land management is based 

on multiple use. In practice, this means that the 

National Park Service allows for fewer adverse 

effects on resources under its management 

jurisdiction.

As in alternatives B and C, at the southwest 

boundary of the Reserve, the National Park 

Service would encourage Cassia County and 

private landowners to protect the California 

Trail corridor from the southwest corner of the 

Reserve to Granite Pass.

Although there are no active mining claims or 

geothermal leases located on the BLM lands 

proposed for inclusion within the Reserve 

boundary, the area is open to mining claims and 

mineral sales unless these lands are withdrawn 

from mineral entry through the BLM realty 

processes (BLM 2012b).

In alternative D, modification of the boundary 

would include:

•	 Adding portions of Idaho’s only pinyon 

pine forest ecosystem

•	 Adding another 1.1 miles of the California 

National Historic Trail to the Reserve

•	 Enabling the Reserve to coordinate and 

manage increased recreational use and 

impacts—such as dispersed camping 

around Smoky Mountain Campground—

which could reduce the threat of humancaused wildfires

•	 Providing the National Park Service an 

opportunity to share in the development 

costs of recreational facilities at Smoky 

Mountain Campground.

Operations

Staffing

Alternative D would require 5 additional FTEs 

for a total of 12 full-time staff.

New NPS positions needed to implement 

alternative D would include two interpretive 

specialists, one visitor protection specialist 

(law enforcement ranger), one maintenance 

worker, and one education specialist / volunteer 

coordinator. The second interpretive position 

would be used to address the increased capacity 

at the new visitor center and increased emphasis 

on front-line interpretation. The education 

specialist / volunteer coordinator would be 

needed to address more formal, structured 

recreational and educational programs. To 

address additional infrastructure needs, an 

additional maintenance position would be 

sought. Due to the existing budget climate for 

both the National Park Service and the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation, it is 

assumed that the National Park Service would 

provide full funding for all new positions.

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The percentages of funding for each position 

supplied by the National Park Service and the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

are represented in the following table under 

Funding Agency. Table 13 does not include 

seasonal staffing, which would vary depending 

on needs and funding allocations.

Table 13. Alternative D, Staffing

Position IDPR NPS New FTE

Park Manager III 100%

Assistant Park Manager 100%

Maintenance Foreman 75% 25% 1 (100% 

NPS)

Climbing Ranger 25% 75%

Park Ranger – Visitor 

Services

100% 1 (100% 

NPS)

Park Ranger – Natural 

Resources

50% 50%

Park Ranger – Cultural 

Resources

100%

Park Ranger –

Interpretation

2 (100% 

NPS)

Education Specialist /

Volunteer Coordinator

1 (100% 

NPS)

*FTE percentages between IDPR and NPS are stated in the 

“2014 Operation Plan and Guidelines for the Management of 

City of Rocks National Reserve (CIRO).”

Estimated Costs

No matter which alternative is selected, the 

implementation of the approved plan would 

depend on future NPS funding levels and 

servicewide priorities, and on partnership 

funds, time, and effort. The approval of a general 

management plan does not guarantee that 

funding and staffing needed to implement the 

plan would be forthcoming. Full implementation 

of the plan could take many years.

Annual Operating Costs

Annual operating costs are the total costs per 

year for maintenance and operations associated 

with each alternative, including utilities, 

supplies, staff salaries and benefits, leasing, 

and other materials. Cost and staffing estimates 

assume that the alternative is fully implemented 

as described in the narrative.

FTE salaries and benefits are included in the 

annual operating costs.

One-time Costs

One-time facility costs (table 14) include those 

costs for the design, construction, rehabilitation 

and adaptive reuse of facilities including visitor 

facilities, roads, parking, and support facilities. 

The one-time costs for alternative D would 

include costs associated with the development 

of the equestrian staging area, reconfiguration 

of the Reserve campsites, and constructing a 

replacement visitor center and the additional 

campground loop (with an emphasis on 

individual tent camping) and amphitheater at 

Smoky Mountain Campground.

One-time nonfacility costs include actions for 

the preservation of cultural or natural resources 

not related to facilities, the development of 

visitor use tools not related to facilities, and 

other park management activities that would 

require substantial funding above annual 

operating costs. Examples include updating 

management plans.

Program support costs include technology, 

grants, development of plans, or other program 

support.

These costs are in 2012 dollars and are based on 

general “Class C” estimates for site development 

and construction. (According to the 2011 NPS 

Cost Estimating Requirements Handbook, 

Class C construction cost estimates are used for 

alternatives and are referred to as conceptual 

estimates by the design and construction 

industry. These estimates are generally prepared 

without a fully defined scope of work. They are 

general in nature and representative of a broadbased vision rather than focused on specific 

details.) Prior to submitting funding requests 

for the design and construction phases, “Class 

B” estimates are required, based on detailed site 

and facility designs.

Deferred Maintenance Offset

Deferred maintenance is maintenance and 

repair activities that were not performed when 

they should have been or were scheduled to be 

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and which, therefore, are put off or delayed for 

a future period. Maintenance and repairs are 

activities directed toward keeping fixed assets in 

an acceptable condition. Total costs for deferred 

maintenance offset in alternative A are listed 

in table 14. Deferred maintenance costs would 

“offset” the total one-time costs. For example, 

the total one-time costs are $10,793,500, 

which would be reduced to $10,770,500 after 

considering the deferred maintenance offset 

of $23,000.

Prioritizing Actions in Alternative D

As in the other alternatives, actions in alternative 

D would be prioritized or ranked in importance 

as either high priority (1) or low priority (2). 

High priority actions address immediate threats 

and needs (requirements by mission, policy, 

and purpose) or address promises made in the 

past to the public such as development of an 

equestrian staging area.

Low priority actions would address visitor 

opportunities and experiences, such as 

enhanced facilities, and would depend on 

sustained funding.

Cost estimates for alternative D are identified in 

table 15.

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Table 14. 

Summary

of One-time Cost for

Alternative D

Location

Project Progra

m

Support

Facility

Rehabilitation / 

Replace

ment

Resource

Manage

ment

New

Construction

Priority*

Deferred

Maintenance

Offset

Alternative D

Reservewide Update the fire management plan $35,000 1

Prepare soundscapes management plan $34,000 2Develop an archeological management plan to manage California Trail ruts

$45,000 1

Monitor and develop a treatment plan for features within the California Trail corridor

$60,000 1

Develop a long-range interpretive plan $40,000 1Develop a trails management plan to consider modifications for trail improvement

$50,000 1

Trail from California Trail to Tea Kettle: 11,853 feet $60,000 2

Reconfigure camping in the Reserve to address safety and resource issues

$1,050,000 1

Engage youth in programs and opportunities such as classrooms or a climbing school

$10,000 1

Encourage youth participation in citizen stewardship activities such as trail maintenance or other park projects

$10,000 1

Construct additional vault toilets for increased day-use activities

$41,000 2

Formalize parking at the Indian Grove Overlook $10,000 2

DM Subtotal -$23,000Research Natural Area

Refine the boundary of the Research Natural Area to conform to landscape features; includes addition of three small areas of 485 acres

$30,000 1

DM SubtotalBread Loaves Develop an additional equestrian staging area in the 

Reserve near the Bread Loaves intersection

$120,000 1

DM SubtotalSmoky Mountain Campground

Expand campground by 62 additional campsites (with an emphasis on individual tent camping) 

$3,520,000 2

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Location

Project Progra

m

Support

Facility

Rehabilitation / 

Replace

ment

Resource

Manage

ment

New

Construction

Priority*

Deferred

Maintenance

Offset

Partner with IDPR to construct an amphitheater at campground for ranger programs

$75,000 1

Develop a formal trail from Smoky Mountain Campground to the summit of Smoky Mountain: 10,653 feet

$60,000 2

DM SubtotalVisitor Center Partner with IDPR to develop and co-manage a fullservice visitor center within the expanded boundary close 

to the Reserve entrance; includes interpretation, theater, multi-purpose room, work space, parking area and outdoor gathering area for formal programs

$5,500,000 2

DM SubtotalTotal Cost by Categories

$284,000 $10,080,000 $30,000 $356,000 -$23,000

Total Priority 1 Costs

$1,525,000

Total Priority 2 Costs

$9,225,000

Total Existing Project Costs

$43,500

Total One-Time Improvement Cost of Alternative**

$10,793,500

Deferred Maintenance Offset

$23,000

*Priority 1 projects include projects that emphasize resource protection, threats, and visitor safety. Priority 2 projects include all other projects important to the full implementation of the alternative, including those that address visitor opportunities and experiences such as enhanced facilities as funding allows and could be sustained. Costs are in 2012 dollars.**Total Capital Cost includes total Priority 1 and Priority 2 costs but does not include a reduction for Deferred Maintenance Offset.

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USER CAPACITY

OVERVIEW

In managing for user capacity, the City of Rocks 

National Reserve staff and partners rely on 

a variety of management tools and strategies 

rather than relying solely on regulating the 

number of people in the Reserve. In addition, 

the ever-changing nature of visitor use requires 

a deliberate and adaptive approach to user 

capacity management.

The foundations for making user capacity 

decisions in this draft GMP/EIS are the purpose, 

significance, special mandates, and management 

zones associated with the park. The purpose, 

significance, and special mandates define 

why the park was established and identify the 

most important resources, values, and visitor 

opportunities that would be protected and 

provided. The management zones in each 

action alternative describe the desired resource 

conditions and visitor experiences, including 

appropriate types of activities and general 

use levels, for different locations throughout 

the Reserve. The zones, as applied in the 

alternatives, are consistent with, and would help 

the National Park Service achieve, its specific 

purpose, significance, and special mandates. As 

part of the NPS commitment to implementing 

user capacity, the Reserve staff would abide by 

these directives for guiding the types and levels 

of visitor use that would be accommodated in 

order to sustain the quality of Reserve resources 

and visitor experiences consistent with the 

purposes of the Reserve.

In addition to these important directives, this 

GMP includes indicators and standards for 

City of Rocks National Reserve. Indicators 

and standards are measureable variables 

that would be monitored to track changes in 

resource conditions and visitor experiences. 

The indicators and standards help the National 

Park Service ensure that desired conditions are 

being attained, supporting the fulfillment of 

the Reserve’s legislative and policy mandates. 

The draft GMP/EIS also identifies the types 

of management actions that would be taken to 

achieve desired conditions and related legislative 

and policy mandates.

Table 16 includes the indicators, standards, and 

potential future management and monitoring 

strategies, allocated by management zones, 

that would be implemented as a result of this 

planning effort. The planning team considered 

many potential issues and related indicators 

that would identify impacts of concern, but 

those described below were considered 

the most important, given the significance 

and vulnerability of the resource or visitor 

experience affected by visitor use. The planning 

team also reviewed the experiences of other 

parks with similar issues to help identify 

meaningful indicators. Standards that represent 

the minimum acceptable condition for each 

indicator were then assigned, taking into 

consideration the qualitative descriptions of the 

desired conditions, data on existing conditions, 

relevant research studies, staff management 

experience, and scoping on public preferences.

User capacity decision-making is a form 

of adaptive management (“Figure 11. User 

Capacity Framework”) in that it is an iterative 

process in which management decisions 

are continuously informed and improved. 

Indicators are monitored, and adjustments 

are made as appropriate. As monitoring of 

conditions continues, managers may decide 

to modify or add indicators if better ways 

are found to measure important changes in 

resource and social conditions. Information on 

the NPS monitoring efforts, related visitor use 

management actions, and any changes to the 

indicators and standards would be available 

to the public through the most appropriate 

and effective outreach method chosen by the 

Reserve. It should be noted that revisions to 

indicators and standards would potentially 

be subject to analysis under the National 

Environmental Policy Act, the National Historic 

Preservation Act, and conformance to other 

laws, regulations, and policies.

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Table 15. Alternative D, Summary of Costs*

Category Costs

Annual Operating Costs

Existing Base Funding $698,647

New Personnel Costs $240,000

Total Annual Operating Costs $938,647

Personnel FTE

Permanent 12 (+5)

One-Time Costs

Total Existing Project Costs $43,500

One-Time Nonfacility Costs

Program Support $284,000

Priority 1** $250,000

Priority 2*** $34,000

Resource Management $30,000

Priority 1 $30,000

Priority 2 $0

Total One-Time Nonfacility Cost $314,000

One-Time Facility Costs

New Construction $356,000

Priority 1 $195,000

Priority 2 $161,000

Facility Rehabilitation $10,080,000

Priority 1 $1,050,000

Priority 2 $9,030,000

Total One-Time Facility Cost $10,436,000

Total Priority 1 Costs $1,525,000

Total Priority 2 Costs $9,225,000

Total One-Time Costs $10,793,500

Deferred Maintenance Offset $23,000

*Figures are rounded

**Does not include funding for Castle Rocks State Park, 

although some costs support both the Reserve and the state 

park: for example, some staff and the visitor center.

***Actions in alternative D would be prioritized or ranked 

in importance as either high priority (1) or low priority (2). 

High priority actions address immediate threats and needs 

(requirements by mission, policy and purpose) or address 

promises made in the past to the public such as development 

of an equestrian staging area. Low priority actions address 

visitor opportunities and experiences such as enhanced 

facilities as funding allows and could be sustained.

Program Support represents costs such as development of 

plans (long-range interpretive plan, cultural and natural 

resource plans), technology, grants or other program support.

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Table 16. Indicators, Standards, Manage

ment Strategies, and Monitoring

Strategies

Indicator What Does the Indicator Measure? Zone Standard Management Strategies Related Monitoring Strategies

Possible: Linear feet, width, depth, and grade of disturbed vegetation (unwanted visitor-created trails) due to foot traffic.

Vegetation and soil impacts due to foot traffic (i.e., unwanted visitor-created trails).

Visitor Facilities and Access Zone

Visitor-created trails would constitute no more than 20% of the linear feet of the total trails in the park. (This may need to be adapted after baseline assessment.)

•  Education (language about 

the importance of staying on trails).

•  Signage.•  Natural barriers.•  Erosion control measures.•  Brush out areas.•  Close off areas.•  Formalize trails that could be 

deemed appropriate.

•  Do a baseline validation 

every 3 years.

•  Overlap with campsite 

assessment efforts where applicable.

Transition Zone Visitor-created trails would 

constitute no more than 10% of the linear feet of the total trails in the park. (This may need to be adapted after baseline assessment.)

•  Same •  Do a baseline validation 

every 5 years.

Number of total days that campsites are 95% –100% full during peak season (mid-May to mid-October).

Measure how often campsites are at full capacity and may affect visitor experience.

Visitor Facilities and Access Zone

No more than 9 days total that campsites are at 95%– 100% full during peak season (mid-May to mid-October).

•  Increase education for visitors 

preplanning their camping visits.

•  Encourage people to use 

other camping opportunities or facilities (private or public), including in other zones within the Reserve or areas outside the Reserve.

•  Market strategies to promote 

midweek (Tuesday–Thursday) camping (e.g., discounts).

•  Improve the ReserveAmerica 

website, so that it tells people when the campsite is full.

•  Reserve posts signs when 

campsites are full (signs at the entrance to loop or at the entrance to the Reserve).

•  Daily arrival list tells if 

campground is full.

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Table 16. Indicators, Standards, Manage

ment Strategies, and Monitoring

Strategies

Indicator What Does the Indicator Measure? Zone Standard Management Strategies Related Monitoring Strategies

Number of visitor complaints via comment cards or reports to camp host or rangers about not finding place to picnic or finding someone parking in their campsite.

Day and overnight visitor conflicts (i.e., day users are walking through campsites and parking in overnight camping parking areas).

Visitor Facilities and Access Zone

No more than 3 complaints per day.

•  Reserve staff would help 

direct traffic.

•  Education: encourage people 

to use other picnic areas that are not typically full.

•  Monitor number of 

complaints.

Number of dog depressions dug at climbing staging areas.

Vegetation and soil impacts due to dog traffic (especially at climbing staging areas).

Visitor Facilities and Access ZoneTransition ZoneNatural ZoneRNA ZoneHistoric RuralSetting Zone

All zones except RNA: No more than 50% of climbing staging areas have more than 2 dog depressions.RNA Zone: No more than 25% of climbing staging areas have more than 2 dog depressions.

•  Educate dog owners.•  Provide a kiosk with 

information about responsible dog use.

•  Signs remind that unattended 

dogs are not allowed.

•  Redesign fences to reduce or 

eliminate problem.

•  Require a permit to allow 

dogs in the Reserve.

•  Do not allow dogs.

•  Need baseline number 

of dog depressions at each climbing staging area.

•  Annual monitoring 

would occur.

Number of incident reports, written warnings, comment cards, and verbal complaints relating to dog incidents (e.g., dogs off leash, dog fights, dog bites, barking).

Nuisance dogs (e.g., digging, off-leash, fights, waste, etc.).

All Zones Visitor Facilities and Access Zone:

During peak season there would be no more than 2 citations, written warnings, or complaints per week.All other zones:During peak season there would be no more than 1 citation, written warning, or complaint per week.

•  Continuing education.•  Improved or increased 

signage.

•  Ranger patrols.•  Enforcement.

•  Ranger/employee 

patrols.

•  Accounts of warnings 

and citations.

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Table 16. Indicators, Standards, Manage

ment Strategies, and Monitoring

Strategies

Indicator What Does the Indicator Measure? Zone Standard Management Strategies Related Monitoring Strategies

Number of vehicles parked in undesignated areas per day during peak periods on the county road.

Social and natural resource impacts: measuring the number of vehicles in undesignated areas prevents damage to vegetation and soils, minimizes safety hazards, and ensures compliance with parking regulations.

Visitor Facilities ZoneTransition ZoneNatural ZoneHistoric Rural Setting ZoneCalifornia Trail Zone

No more than 5 vehicles are allowed to overflow into the county road from designated parking areas.

•  Educate the public.•  Collaborate with the county.•  Educate the Roads Foreman, 

the County Deputy, and Cache Peak Civic Association (in this order).

•  Involve the Quick Response 

Unit.

•  Partner and identify new 

parking areas along the county road.

•  When 3 or more vehicles 

overflow onto the county road from designated parking areas, the Reserve would call County.

•  Monitor during peakuse days (weekends/

holidays).

•  Monitor mid-May to 

mid-October.

•  Ensure regular ranger 

patrol (2 patrols per day).

•  Restroom staff could 

also monitor parking when they are working.

•  Monitor number of 

incidents of parking on vegetation.

Number of vehicles parked in undesignated areas per day during peak periods on Reserve roads.

Social and natural resource impacts: measuring the number of vehicles in undesignated areas prevents damage to vegetation and soils, minimizes safety hazards, and ensures compliance with parking regulations.

All zones except RNA (no cars allowed in RNA Zone)

No vehicles are allowed to overflow from designated parking areas into undesignated areas.

•  Education of partners.•  Temporary signs.•  Add car bumpers to designate 

parking spaces in parking lots / campsites.

•  Improvement of parking.•  Provide more parking in some 

places.

•  Assisted parking by staff in 

problem areas.

•  The first incident of parking 

on vegetation would trigger a written warning or citation.

•  When 5 vehicle written 

warnings or citations are given at the same location in the same year, the Reserve would consider parking lot redesign.

•  Monitor during peak 

use days (weekends/holidays).

•  Mid-May to midOctober.•  Ensure regular ranger 

patrol (2 patrols per day).

•  Restroom staff could 

also monitor parking when they are working.

•  Monitor number of 

incidents of parking on vegetation.

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Table 16. Indicators, Standards, Manage

ment Strategies, and Monitoring

Strategies

Indicator What Does the Indicator Measure? Zone Standard Management Strategies Related Monitoring Strategies

Number of occurrences of unsafe driving, as logged by visitor complaints, complaints to ranger, and comment cards.

Measure how often unsafe driving might occur, considering road and weather conditions.

County-owned roads in all zones (N/A in the RNA Zone)

No more than 3 visitor complaints per day.

•  Call county to dispatch county 

sheriff.

•  Tally the complaints.

NPS jurisdictional roads in all zones (N/A in the RNA Zone)

No more than 2 visitor complaints per day.

•  Educate visitors about 

regulations.

•  Dispatch a Reserve staff 

member to minimize the problem and/or be visible to visitors.

•  Post speed limits.•  Issue citations.

•  Tally the complaints.

Number of incidents of graffiti, ground disturbance, damage to structures, or loss of historic fabric, as logged by complaints, reports to ranger, and ranger observation.

Incidents of damage to cultural resources.

All zones All sites maintained to at least 

“good” condition under annual assessment guidelines.No more than an average of 3 incidences over 5 years.

•  Educate the public.•  Signage.•  Patrol and presence.•  Increase ranger patrols in 

specific high-use areas.

•  Fencing where appropriate.

•  Annual condition 

assessments.

•  Patrols.

Number of complaints relating to noise intrusions as logged by incident reports, complaints, and comment cards (particularly in campsites).

Measures noise around campsites.

Visitor Facilities and Access Zone

No more than 1 report, citation, complaint, or warning per season (April–October).

•  Education.•  Signs on kiosks, information 

on pamphlets, information on ReserveAmerica.

•  Patrols by rangers/employees.•  Contacting visitors.

•  Documentation of noise 

to observe whether it changes over time.

•  Patrols by rangers/

employees.

•  May need to conduct 

patrols during the quiet hours.

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Table 16. Indicators, Standards, Manage

ment Strategies, and Monitoring

Strategies

Indicator What Does the Indicator Measure? Zone Standard Management Strategies Related Monitoring Strategies

Number of groups/people waiting to climb a route outside of the staging area per day.

Measure how many people have to wait to climb.

Visitor Facilities and Access ZoneTransition ZoneNatural ZoneRNA Zone

No more than 2 groups waiting to climb a route outside of a staging area at a time.

•  Education to encourage 

people to wait in already disturbed areas.

•  Education that would identify 

other available routes in the same climbing class.

•  Education to disperse use 

to more durable areas or to unused areas.

•  Ranger would encourage 

visitors to move to other areas.

•  Ranger observations 

when patrolling (2 patrols per day).

•  Restroom staff could 

also monitor climbing wait periods when they are working.

Number of human waste/toilet paper sightings by ranger during patrol in problem areas (counted twice per season).

Measuring how often people might encounter human waste.

Visitor Facilities and Access ZoneTransition Zone

No more than 1 sighting of human waste in a known problem area.

•  Education about restroom 

locations.

•  Education on Leave No Trace 

strategies.

•  Possibly add new concrete 

vault toilets.

•  Management strategies 

would depend on severity of problem.

•  Ranger patrols in 

problem areas (2 patrols per day (did we mean 2 patrols per year?).

•  Restroom staff could 

also monitor for human waste when they are working.

Campsite condition class assessment as assessed annually in FMSS.

See protocols in FMSS. See locations in 

FMSS.

See protocols in FMSS. •  See protocols in FMSS. •  See protocols in FMSS.

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 FIGURE 11. USER CAPACITY FRAMEWORK

Indicators and Standards

The priority indicators for City of Rocks 

National Reserve are associated with the 

following issues:

• Visitor-created trails (vegetation and soil 

impacts due to foot traffi c)

• Full campsites

• Day and overnight use confl icts

• Vegetation and soil impacts (caused by 

dogs at climbing staging areas)

• Nuisance dogs (digging, off leash, 

fi ghts, waste)

Park Purpose & Significance

Desired Conditions

Indicators & Standards

Indicators & Standards

Standard

Exceeded

Standard

Exceeded

No

Standard

Exceeded

No

Standard

Exceeded

Monitoring & Research of Standards

Management Action Warranted No Management Action Needed

Revise/Take New 

Management Action

• Vehicles parked in undesignated areas on 

county and reserve roads

• Unsafe driving conditions

• Incidents of damage to cultural resources

• Noise around campsites

• Wait time for climbing routes

• Human waste

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Visitor-created Trails

The proliferation of visitor-created trails at 

the Reserve has become an issue of concern, 

especially pertaining to trails leaving campsites 

and going into the surrounding areas. 

Addressing the expansion of visitor-created 

trails is considered a high priority due to 

associated impacts such as vegetation loss and 

soil impacts. The indicator for visitor-created 

trails is based on a modified version of a trail 

condition class system developed by Jeff Marion 

of the U.S. Geological Survey (Marion and 

Hockett 2008). Depending on the level of impact 

for each trail of concern, measurements for 

this indicator may include linear feet, width, 

depth, and grade of disturbed vegetation. The 

standard for this indicator specifies that visitorcreated trails would constitute no more than 

20% of the total linear feet of trails in the park. 

The Reserve staff has not conducted an initial 

baseline assessment for visitor-created trails and 

would plan to do a baseline validation of visitorcreated trails every three years once monitoring 

begins. The standard may need to be adapted 

after the baseline assessment to ensure that 

trail condition is being adequately protected 

with this monitoring framework. Monitoring 

efforts would overlap with campsite assessments 

where applicable.

As part of the Rim Development Concept Plan for 

City of Rocks National Reserve (Appendix D), the 

National Park Service would place barriers in 

front of visitor-created trails at certain campsites 

to minimize their continued use and would 

restore the area’s natural resources. If standards 

are exceeded for visitor-created trails, the 

Reserve staff would increase education about 

the need to follow existing paths to campsites 

and staying on the trail. Appropriate preventative 

measures would be taken, such as increasing 

signage about trails, creating natural barriers and 

erosion control measures, brushing out areas, 

closing off areas if needed, and formalizing trails 

that are considered appropriate.

Campsites Full

The Reserve maintains 64 standard campsites, 

which are located in and among the granite 

formations, with easy access to trails and vistas. 

Most sites include a tent pad, picnic table, and 

fire ring. Campsites may be reserved online 

nine months in advance for May 1 through 

September 30use, or they can be obtained on 

a first-come, first-served basis year-round. 

Because of the easy access to trails and climbing 

routes, most of the campsites are full on 

weekends during the peak season (mid-May 

through mid-October) and are often full during 

the week in June. Because campsites are in 

high demand during peak season, Reserve staff 

would like to ensure that campers have every 

opportunity to plan ahead to obtain campsites, 

or to gain access and information about nearby 

camping opportunities outside of the Reserve. 

The indicator variable that would be monitored 

is the number of days that campsites are 95%–

100% full, and the associated standard specifies 

that there would be no more than nine days 

when campsites are 95%–100% full during the 

peak season (mid-May through mid-October). 

Management strategies include improved 

information for pre-trip planning, providing 

information about Reserve and nearby camping 

facilities, encouraging camping during nonpeak 

times such as mid-week, placing informative 

signs at the entrance, fee stations, or at the 

visitor center when the campsites are full, and 

possibly providing incentives such as discounts 

at campsites for those who pre-plan or travel 

during nonpeak times.

Day and Overnight Visitor Conflicts

In addition to campsites filling up during peak 

season, conflicts between day and overnight 

visitors have become an issue in areas where 

there is minimal parking for both user groups. 

For example, because some of the current 

trailheads are located near campsites, day 

users will park at campsites and walk through 

the campsites to gain access to the trail. Some 

of these issues are addressed in the Rim 

development concept plan. Changes would 

include providing additional parking and access 

to trailheads so visitors would not need to walk 

through campsites to gain access.

Another day- and overnight-use conflict occurs 

when day visitors picnic in campsites and 

use overnight spots for day-use parking. The 

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indicator variable that would be monitored is 

the number of visitor complaints via comment 

cards and reports to camp hosts or rangers 

(about not being able to find a place to picnic 

or having someone park in their campsite spot). 

The standard has been set to no more than three 

complaints per day. Reserve staff would monitor 

the number of complaints related to day- and 

overnight-visitor conflicts. Management 

strategies include increased staff presence to 

guide visitors to appropriate locations, updated 

maps, and increased education about day- and 

overnight-use designations.

Vegetation and Soil Impacts Caused by 

Dogs at Climbing Staging Areas

The number of depressions caused by dogs 

digging at climbing staging areas has become 

an increasing concern. Some visitors bring dogs 

with them to climbing staging areas and then tie 

them to a post in the staging area while climbing. 

As a result, unattended dogs have impacted the 

vegetation and soils in and around the staging 

areas. Additionally, some territorial dogs have 

intimidated other visitors, preventing them 

from approaching these areas. Although there 

are no baseline data for the number of dog 

depressions dug, Reserve staff has estimated that 

there are currently about 2 to 15 depressions 

at most of the climbing staging areas. This level 

of impact has been deemed unacceptable, and 

Reserve staff would like to greatly reduce these 

impacts. Initial baseline condition assessment 

and monitoring is needed to establish a more 

thorough understanding of impacts, and 

annual monitoring would occur thereafter 

until conditions reach an acceptable level. The 

standard developed for all zones except for the 

Research Natural Area is that no more than 50% 

of climbing staging areas would have more than 

two dog depressions. For the Research Natural 

Area Zone, no more than 25% of climbing 

staging areas would have more than two dog 

depressions. To correct this problem, Reserve 

staff would like to increase education for dog 

owners. A new kiosk would be developed to 

inform owners about responsible recreational 

practices with dogs and remind visitors that 

leaving dogs unattended while climbing is 

unacceptable. More stringent strategies to 

address these impacts could eventually include 

redesigning fences at staging areas, requiring 

a permit to bring dogs to the Reserve, and 

not allowing dogs, all of which would initiate 

restoration at impacted sites.

Nuisance Dogs

Dogs at the Reserve may be perceived as causing 

a nuisance when pet owners do not follow 

posted rules about appropriate recreational use 

with pets. Examples of nuisance include dogs 

off leash, fighting and biting dogs, dogs digging 

depressions, barking dogs, dog waste left on 

the ground, and dogs chasing cattle in public 

grazing allotments and on adjacent private 

lands. The Reserve staff would like to track these 

issues by documenting the number of received 

incident reports, written warnings, comment 

cards, and verbal complaints relating to dog 

incidents. In the Visitor Facilities and Access 

Zone, the standard specifies that no more than 

two citations (written warnings or complaints) 

should be issued per week during the peak 

season. In all other zones, no more than one 

citation should occur per week. Management 

strategies to help improve dog etiquette include 

continuing and improving education about 

dog rules and regulations, ranger patrols, 

and enforcement.

Vehicles Parked in Undesignated Areas on 

County and Reserve Roads

Vehicles parked outside of designated areas 

have become a problem on Reserve roads and 

on Cassia County roads that pass through 

the Reserve, especially during peak season. 

By monitoring and managing the number of 

vehicles parked in undesignated areas, the 

Reserve staff would gain a better understanding 

of damage to vegetation and soils, minimize 

safety hazards, reduce crowding and visual 

impacts on the City of Rocks Back Country 

Byway, and ensure compliance with parking 

regulations.

Managing undesignated parking along Cassia 

County roads would also require collaboration 

with and support from the Cassia County 

Commissioners. The board has acknowledged 

that parking and pedestrians along the road is 

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an issue of concern and has requested that the 

National Park Service create more adequate 

parking outside of the county right-of-way. 

Cassia County Road and Bridge Department 

is also working on a transportation study that 

will examine traffic counts and speeds in the 

area and could coordinate with the National 

Park Service on these efforts (Cassia County, 

McMurray email 2011).

Parking issues are addressed, in part, in the Rim 

development concept plan. Because there is 

limited access and parking at certain trailheads, 

the development concept plan would initiate 

parking lot redesign recommendations that 

would eventually lead to development of new 

parking spaces where appropriate. After the 

transportation study and parking lot redesign 

have occurred, the Reserve staff would initiate a 

program of monitoring the number of vehicles 

in undesignated areas during peak-use days (on 

weekends and holidays). For the county roads, 

the standard specifies that no more than five 

vehicles should be allowed to overflow onto the 

county road from designated parking areas. On 

the Reserve roads, no vehicles would be allowed 

to overflow from the designated parking areas. 

Additional management strategies for county 

roads include collaborating with and gaining 

consensus and support from county officials to 

manage parking, and educating the public about 

appropriate designated parking. Additional 

management strategies for Reserve roads include 

educating partners, installing temporary signs, 

adding parking bumpers to clearly designate 

parking spaces, increasing available parking 

where appropriate, and issuing parking citations 

if necessary.

Unsafe Driving Conditions

In addition to problems posed by vehicles 

parked along roads in the Reserve, some 

people perceive driving conditions to be 

unsafe. This perception could be related to a 

variety of factors, such as speed of vehicles; 

people walking, horseback riding, and biking 

on roadways with vehicles; and blind corners 

combined with people and vehicles sharing the 

roadway. Even when drivers are within the speed 

limit, driving conditions may still seem unsafe, 

especially to visitors who are not used to speeds 

up to 55 miles per hour on dirt roads (the county 

speed limit is 55 miles per hour unless otherwise 

posted). Because the Cassia County Sheriff’s 

Office reporting area is significantly larger than 

the Reserve itself, it can be difficult to determine 

if traffic violations occurred inside or outside 

the Reserve boundary upon review of the basic 

violation reports.

The following data has been provided by the 

sheriff’s office for 2009–2011 and include 

references to the Reserve: 17 cases with reports, 

9 citations, and 14 traffic stops. There have been 

four accidents reported since 2002, and the 

previously mentioned proposed transportation 

study should provide useful information 

pertaining to speeds on the roads.

The Reserve staff would monitor the perception 

of unsafe conditions by tallying the number 

of complaints received on NPS- and countyowned roads. The standard specifies that there 

would be no more than three visitor complaints 

per day on county roads, and no more than two 

visitor complaints per day on NPS jurisdictional 

roads. If conditions approach standards on the 

county roads, Reserve staff would contact the 

county sheriff’s office for support. If conditions 

approach standards on NPS-managed roads, 

education would be increased to better inform 

visitors about regulations, a Reserve vehicle 

would be dispatched and made visible to 

minimize problems, speed limits would be 

posted in problem areas, and citations would be 

issued as necessary.

Incidents of Damage to Cultural Resources

Visitor use impacts on cultural resources include 

wear on historic structures, unintentional 

disturbances, and vandalism to archeological 

resources and historic structures. Cultural 

resources are nonrenewable, so impacts—

especially those resulting from unintentional 

behaviors such as inadvertent disturbance 

or wear and tear, or intentional behaviors 

such as vandalism—must be minimized to the 

extent possible.

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For indicators and standards related to cultural 

resource preservation, Reserve staff would 

refer to the protocols outlined in the condition 

assessments that are included in NPS cultural 

resource databases. These databases have 

measurable parameters that allow cultural 

resource specialists to determine the physical 

condition and integrity of park cultural 

resources, include a monitoring component, 

and they are updated periodically. The List of 

Classified Structures (LCS), Cultural Landscape 

Inventory (CLI), and Archeological Sites 

Management Information System (ASMIS) 

databases provide measures of the physical 

condition of a resource and its cultural/historical 

significance (documenting the character, 

material, and integrity of the cultural resource).

The List of Classified Structures is an evaluated 

inventory of all historic and prehistoric 

structures that have historical, architectural, and/

or engineering significance within parks of the 

national park system in which the National Park 

Service has, or plans to acquire, any enforceable 

legal interest. Structures are constructed works 

that serve some form of human activity and 

that generally are immovable. They include 

buildings and monuments, dams, millraces and 

canals, nautical vessels, bridges, tunnels and 

roads, railroad locomotives, rolling stock and 

track, stockades and fences, defensive works, 

temple mounds and kivas, ruins of all structural 

types that still have integrity as structures, and 

outdoor sculpture.

The CLI database is a comprehensive inventory 

of all culturally and historically significant 

landscapes within the national park system. 

The Cultural Landscape Inventory records 

the location, historical development, existing 

conditions, and management categories for 

maintaining the landscape as a cultural resource. 

A condition assessment of the cultural landscape 

is updated every six years to ensure that the 

inventory record is complete, accurate, and 

reliable. The condition assessment describes 

the current condition of the landscape and 

any impacts that may have an effect on the 

resources that contribute to the significance 

of the landscape and recommends corrective 

actions to stabilize and preserve the landscape. 

Each completed inventory is stored in the 

national CLI database in Washington, D.C., 

and in the regional database at the Olmsted 

Center for Landscape Preservation. The 

Cultural Landscape Inventory is accessible 

to the National Park Service through an 

intranet website.

The Archeological Sites Management 

Information System is a NPS database for 

the registration and management of park 

prehistoric and historic archeological 

resources. It supports archeological resources 

preservation, protection, planning, and 

decision-making by park managers, resource 

professionals, and the Washington Office. 

ASMIS records contain data on site location, 

description, significance, condition, threats, 

and management requirements for known 

park archeological sites. The indicator for 

human impacts to archeological resources and 

other cultural resources is based on existing 

monitoring protocols.

To assess resource conditions and the level of 

visitor-use impacts on cultural resources, staff 

would track the number of incidents of graffiti, 

ground disturbance, damage to structures, and 

loss of historical fabric. Incidents would be 

tracked by monitoring complaints, reports to 

rangers, and ranger observations. No more than 

an average of three incidences should occur over 

a five-year period with monthly monitoring. To 

ensure that this standard is maintained, visitor 

education and enforcement of park regulations 

would be continued, and closure of particularly 

vulnerable areas would be considered using 

fencing where appropriate. Increased patrols 

and ranger presence would also be considered 

for high-use areas where cultural resources are 

known to exist.

Noise around Campsites

Given the proximity of campsites to each other 

and high levels of visitor use at those sites, the 

number of complaints received about visitorcaused noise was established as a priority 

indicator. Visitor-caused noise can affect the 

natural soundscape by disrupting wildlife, and 

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it can significantly impact visitor experience. 

A 1998 survey of the American public revealed 

that 72% of respondents believed that providing 

opportunities to experience natural quiet and 

the sounds of nature was a very important 

reason to have national parks, while another 

23% thought that it was somewhat important 

(Haas and Wakefield 1998). In another survey 

specific to park visitors, 91% of respondents 

considered enjoyment of natural quiet and the 

sounds of nature to be compelling reasons to 

visit national parks (McDonald, Baumgartner, 

and Iachan 1995).

Baseline conditions for much of the Reserve’s 

soundscape were characterized through 

comprehensive acoustical monitoring in 2008 

and 2009 (NPS 2010). This study determined 

current acoustical conditions at City of Rocks 

National Reserve. Results included measures 

of existing ambient levels, calculations of 

sound source durations, and estimates of 

natural ambient levels. It was determined that 

human-caused sounds were audible between 

1.9% and 20.2% of the time, depending on the 

site. Vehicles, voices, and domestic animals 

were frequently audible, but aircraft was the 

largest contributor of human-caused sound. 

More specifically, commercial jets were audible 

between 1.8% and 18.6% of the time. These 

results confirmed that visitor-caused noise is not 

currently a parkwide issue. Therefore, Reserve 

staff established a soundscape indicator specific 

to campsites in order to address areas where 

noise has become an issue of concern. The 

Reserve staff would track the number of visitor 

complaints related to visitor-caused noise, 

particularly in the campgrounds, as logged 

by incident reports, general complaints, and 

comment cards. The standard has been set to 

no more than one report, citation, complaint, or 

warning per season. If conditions approach the 

standard, Reserve staff would increase education 

about the importance of natural soundscapes 

at the Reserve. Information could be shared 

via signs and kiosks, pamphlets, and on the 

ReserveAmerica campsite reservation system. In 

an effort to maintain and improve soundscapes 

near the campgrounds, rangers would patrol 

areas of concern and contact visitors who are 

creating noise in campsites.

Wait Time for Climbing Routes

Part of the significance of the Reserve is that 

it provides one of the highest quality granite 

face-climbing areas in the United States. The 

geological features—consisting of granite spires 

ranging in height from 30 to 300 feet—are 

internationally renowned for rock climbing. 

These spires, carved out of the landscape by 

wind, rain, and snow, feature textured rock that 

is ideal for climbing. With about 700 developed 

routes in the area (including routes in nearby 

Castle Rocks State Park), they span a broad 

spectrum of features and challenges that require 

a full range of technique and style not usually 

found in one climbing area. The Reserve offers a 

mixture of moderate and advanced climbs, often 

found side by side. Because of the popularity 

and proximity of routes, queuing at staging areas 

has become a priority indicator for monitoring 

in several key locations such as Bath Rock and 

Elephant Rock.

Reserve staff would monitor the number of 

groups waiting in line for climbing routes to 

ensure that visitors are having high-quality 

experiences and that resources are not being 

damaged due to high-density use. The standard 

specifies that no more than two groups would 

wait outside of the staging area at one time to 

climb a route. If conditions approach standards, 

management strategies would be employed. 

Strategies include encouraging climbers to 

wait in already disturbed areas, and creating 

educational materials to inform climbers about 

similar routes in other areas of the Reserve. 

Finally, rangers would rove climbing areas and 

encourage dispersed use on similar climbing 

routes in various areas of the Reserve.

Human Waste

Incidences of improperly disposed human waste 

have decreased since the establishment of the 

Reserve, due to the construction of restroom 

facilities in higher-use areas. There are still some 

locations, however, where visitors are disposing 

of human waste and toilet paper improperly. 

Ensuring that visitors dispose of waste properly 

would enhance the visitor experience, reduce 

impacts on vegetation, and create a healthy and 

safe environment for visitors at the Reserve. The 

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Reserve staff would track the number of human 

waste / toilet paper sightings via ranger patrol in 

problem areas and would monitor conditions 

twice a year. The standard specifies no more 

than one sighting of human waste or toilet 

paper in known problem areas. Management 

strategies to continue improving conditions 

include increasing awareness of how to access 

restrooms, education on Leave No Trace 

principles, and adding new restroom facilities if 

needed and appropriate.

LONG-TERM USER CAPACITY 

MONITORING

The staff would continue monitoring use 

levels and patterns throughout the Reserve. In 

addition, the Reserve staff would monitor these 

user capacity indicators. The rigor of monitoring 

the indicators (i.e., frequency of monitoring 

cycles and amount of geographic area 

monitored) might vary considerably depending 

on how close existing conditions are to the 

standards. If the existing conditions are far from 

exceeding the standard, the rigor of monitoring 

might be less than if the existing conditions are 

close to or trending toward the standard.

Initial monitoring would determine if the 

indicators are accurately measuring the 

conditions of concern and if the standards truly 

represent the minimally acceptable condition 

of the indicator. Reserve staff might decide to 

modify the indicators or standards and revise 

the monitoring program if better ways are found 

to measure changes caused by visitor use. Most 

of these types of changes should be made within 

the first several years of initiating monitoring. 

After this initial testing period, adjustments 

would be less likely to occur. Finally, if use 

levels and patterns change appreciably, Reserve 

staff might need to identify new indicators to 

ensure that desired conditions are achieved and 

maintained. This iterative learning and refining 

process is a strength of the NPS user capacity 

management program.

Mitigation Measures

See individual environmental impact 

analysis sections under “Chapter 5: 

Environmental Consequences.”

Applicable environmental impact avoidance, 

minimization, and mitigation measures would be 

implemented under a future selected alternative, 

and this has been taken into consideration in the 

environmental impact analysis. Future mitigation 

measures may also be developed in response to 

formal and informal consultation on proposed 

actions and may augment the listed measures.

NEEDED FUTURE STUDIES 

AND PLANS

Implementation of the actions and 

developments proposed within the GMP is 

dependent upon funding available at the time 

of need. The approval of this GMP does not 

guarantee that the funding and staffing needed 

to implement the plan would be forthcoming.

In addition to funding, implementation of the 

preferred alternative also could be affected 

by other factors. More detailed planning 

and environmental documentation may be 

completed, as appropriate, before some of the 

actions would be carried out.

The following list includes some of the 

plans and studies needed to implement the 

preferred alternative.

•	 Develop a resource stewardship strategy 

for natural and cultural resources

•	 Update the fire management plan, 

including a contingency plan to address 

high fire/erosion areas

•	 Update the grazing management plan

•	 Update the climbing management plan

•	 Prepare a soundscape management plan

•	 Develop an archeological management 

plan to manage the California Trail ruts

•	 Monitor and develop a treatment 

plan for features within the California 

Trail corridor

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•	 Develop a long-range interpretive plan

•	 Develop a trails management plan

•	 Conduct an inventory of fragile rock 

features/pinnacles

•	 Develop a vegetation management plan

•	 Develop a wildlife monitoring plan

•	 Develop a soundscapes management plan

•	 Develop a plan to maintain and interpret 

the night sky

•	 Develop a treatment plan for California 

Trail features

•	 Create a design for a new equestrian 

staging area (at Bread Loaves or another 

location on the west side)

•	 Create a design for the Logger Springs 

Turnaround

•	 Design a hiking trail to link California 

Trail resources

•	 Create a design for the Smoky Mountain 

Campground expansion

•	 Create a design for the visitor 

contact station

Identification of the Environmentally 

Preferable Alternative

Implementing NEPA regulations promulgated 

by the Council on Environmental Quality 

(CEQ) require that agencies identify “the 

alternative or alternatives which were 

considered to be environmentally preferable.” 

The environmentally preferable alternative is 

“the alternative that causes the least damage 

to the biological and physical environment”; 

it also means the alternative that best protects, 

preserves, and enhances historic, cultural, and 

natural resources (46 FR 18026 - 18038).

According to Director’s Order 12, through 

identification of the environmentally preferable 

alternative, the National Park Service and the 

public are faced with determining the relative 

merits of the choices before them as represented 

among the alternatives and must clearly state 

through the decision-making process what 

values and policies were used in reaching 

a decision.

“Environmentally preferable” is defined as 

the alternative that will promote the national 

environmental policy as expressed in section 

101 of the National Environmental Policy Act, 

including:

•	 Fulfilling the responsibilities of each 

generation as trustee of the environment 

for succeeding generations;

•	 Ensuring for all generations safe, healthful, 

productive, and esthetically and culturally 

pleasing surroundings;

•	 Attaining the widest range of beneficial 

uses of the environment without 

degradation, risk of health or safety, 

or other undesirable and unintended 

consequences;

•	 Preserving important historic, cultural and 

natural aspects of our national heritage 

and maintaining, wherever possible, an 

environment that supports diversity and 

variety of individual choice;

•	 Achieving a balance between population 

and resource use that will permit high 

standards of living and a wide sharing of 

life’s amenities; and

•	 Enhancing the quality of renewable 

resources and approaching the maximum 

attainable recycling of depletable 

resources (NEPA Section 101[b]).

As shown through the analysis below, the 

environmentally preferable alternative is 

alternative C.

Consistency with NEPA Section 101(b)

[C and D] Fulfilling the responsibilities 

of each generation as trustee of the 

environment for succeeding generations: 

All alternatives (A–D) would fulfill this CEQ 

criterion because the National Park Service 

is required by law and policy to minimize its 

impacts on the environment and to preserve 

natural, cultural, and other park resources 

without impairment in its management of 

national parks, including City of Rocks National 

Reserve. All of the alternatives would result in 

consistency for ongoing management of the 

Reserve and would result in opportunities for 

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infrastructure to continue to be developed 

outside the Reserve (alternatives A and B) or 

outside the original boundary of the Reserve 

(alternatives C and D). Because alternatives C 

and D could add to the area included in the 

Reserve, including additional protection for the 

California Trail, the reason for its establishment, 

these alternatives would best meet CEQ 

criterion 1.

[B, C, and D] Ensuring for all generations 

safe, healthful, productive, and 

esthetically and culturally pleasing 

surroundings: All alternatives would meet 

this CEQ criterion by minimizing impacts 

through implementation of mitigation 

measures, including impact avoidance and best 

management practices. Because alternatives 

B, C, and D would provide a safer way to 

access California Trail resources by providing 

a new trail to link these, they would improve 

opportunities for safe visitor experiences. 

Similarly, constructing a turnaround at the 

Indian Grove overlook and working with the 

county on road speed and parking issues would 

similarly benefit visitor experience. Therefore 

alternatives B, C, and D would best meet 

this criterion.

[C] Attaining the widest range of 

beneficial uses of the environment 

without degradation, risk of health 

or safety, or other undesirable and 

unintended consequences: Beneficial 

uses in all alternatives would include ongoing 

resource preservation and recreational use in the 

Reserve. Alternatives B, C, and D would offer the 

greatest beneficial effects on safety. Alternatives 

A and B would probably have the fewest overall 

impacts, whereas alternative C would probably 

include the greatest resource preservation and 

alternatives C and D would most improve visitor 

use opportunities. Therefore, alternative C 

would probably best meet this criterion.

[C] Preserving important historic, 

cultural, and natural aspects of our 

national heritage and maintaining, 

wherever possible, an environment 

that supports diversity and variety of 

individual choice: Alternatives A–D would 

preserve historic, cultural and natural aspects 

of our nation’s heritage. Because the California 

Trail would be afforded greater protection 

in alternatives B–D, these alternatives would 

better meet this criterion. Of alternatives B–D, 

alternative C would best meet this criterion 

by providing for safety and by providing the 

largest California Trail Zone. Alternative C 

would also allow for a wide range of visitor use 

opportunities.

[C] Achieving a balance between 

population and resource use that will 

permit high standards of living and 

a wide sharing of life’s amenities:

All alternatives would meet this criterion. 

Alternatives A, C, and D would greatly improve 

visitor services by providing an expanded visitor 

center and would offer more improvements 

over alternative B. Because alternative C would 

offer the most visitor services, especially for 

children and researchers by providing an 

outdoor education pavilion and cabins and an 

amphitheater, alternative C would best meet this 

criterion.

[B] Enhancing the quality of renewable 

resources and approaching the maximum 

attainable recycling of depletable 

resources: All alternatives (A–D) would meet 

this CEQ criterion because new construction 

would meet LEED standards to allow for silver 

or better certification. Of these alternatives, 

alternative B would offer a slight advantage for 

this criterion because it would employ the least 

construction, relying instead on the reuse of 

the existing visitor center house and on getting 

information to visitors via online media rather 

than through built facilities.

While all of the alternatives (A–D) meet all 

of the above criteria, alternative C best meets 

most of the criteria. Although alternatives B and 

D each meet one or more of the criteria best 

(alternative B best meets two of the criteria and 

alternative D best meets two of the criteria), 

alternative C best meets five of the six criteria. 

Therefore alternative C is the environmentally 

preferable alternative.

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Actions and Alternatives Considered But 

Dismissed

•	 Under the National Environmental Policy 

Act and the CEQ memorandum, “Forty 

Most Asked Questions Concerning 

CEQ’s National Environmental Policy 

Act Regulations,” alternatives may be 

eliminated from detailed study based on 

the following reasons [40 CFR 1502.14 

(a)]:

•	 Technical or economic infeasibility

•	 Inability to meet project objectives or 

resolve need for the project

•	 Duplicate other less environmentally 

damaging alternatives

•	 Conflict with an up-to-date valid plan, 

statement of purpose and significance, or 

other policy, and therefore would require 

a major change in that plan or policy 

to implement

•	 Environmental impacts are too great

The following alternatives or variations were 

considered during the planning process, but 

were rejected because they met one of the 

above criteria.

Technical Rock Climbing on the Twin Sisters 

Rock Formation

Because of cultural resource concerns, the 

climbing ban on Twin Sisters was an action 

proposed in the Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive 

management plan and later solidified in the 

1998 City of Rocks National Reserve Climbing 

Management Plan and Environmental 

Assessment. The climbing closure on Twin Sisters 

was subsequently challenged by the Access 

Fund in November 1998. In 2000, the Chief U.S. 

Magistrate made summary judgments on the 

closure, ruling in favor of the Department of the 

Interior and the National Park Service.

Members of the GMP planning team met in 

2006 for an internal review of the 1998 climbing 

management plan. During that meeting, the 

team discussed the climbing ban on Twin Sisters 

as part of a then-proposed amendment to the 

1996 comprehensive management plan. The 

planning team determined that there was no 

new information or overriding reason(s) to 

reopen Twin Sisters to climbing. In fact, one of 

the primary reasons for opposing the ban had 

been recently quelled by the opening of new 

multi-pitch climbs at Castle Rocks State Park. 

(When the ban was first imposed, Twin Sisters 

contained some of the few available multi-pitch 

climbs: the closing of these climbs was one of 

the main objections cited by those opposing 

the ban.)

In addition, the cultural resource concerns 

identified in the original ban are still present. 

The conclusion of the planning team, therefore, 

was to maintain the closure of Twin Sisters 

to technical rock climbing (Reserve 2006b). 

Opening the Twin Sisters rock formation to 

climbing was rejected because the closure is 

based on long-standing policy related to stillcurrent concerns for protection of cultural 

resources, it has been in effect for more than 15 

years, and it is supported by judicial review.

Eliminating the Research Natural Area

Preliminary comments on the alternatives 

included a desire by some members of the public 

to eliminate the Research Natural Area from the 

Reserve. They noted that the Research Natural 

Area did not serve a purpose and impacted 

landowners’ ability to graze livestock there. 

However, the Research Natural Area is steep and 

exhibits a rugged terrain with dense vegetation 

and forest with little livestock entry.

A field survey and report conducted in 2010 

by Northwest Management, Inc., for the 

National Park Service concluded that the 

Research Natural Area continues to meet the 

purpose for which it was originally established 

and recommended RNA expansion (see the 

“City of Rocks National Reserve—Research 

Natural Area” section under “National Park 

Service Plans” in “Chapter 1: Introduction 

and Background”). Because of its designated 

purpose, the Research Natural Area is not 

considered to be part of any grazing allotment 

and grazing in a research natural area is not 

allowed according to NPS policy. There is, 

however, a slight overlap on the west side of the 

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Research Natural Area between one allotment 

and the RNA boundary. Under this GMP, the 

overlap would be corrected in alternatives B, 

C, and D by working with the permittee. As a 

result of the study, the Research Natural Area 

was retained.

Immediately Eliminating Grazing

Although the legislation establishing the Reserve 

is silent as to grazing, there was considerable 

discussion about its importance to the area 

in the hearings that occurred preceding the 

Reserve’s establishment and, as a result, it was 

presumed compatible with the intent of the 

Reserve, especially associated with maintaining 

the “historic rural setting” that does appear 

in the legislation establishing the Reserve. 

Therefore grazing on public lands in the Reserve 

has occurred since its establishment.

In the 25 years since establishment, however, 

grazing has also continued to occur on private 

lands within the Reserve, effectively maintaining 

the historic rural setting. Because the Reserve 

is unlikely to acquire all of the private lands 

where grazing currently occurs, this use is 

expected to continue. Concurrently, grazing 

on public lands has continued to have adverse 

effects on vegetation, water quantity, wildlife 

and wetlands and to some extent on cultural 

resources. Therefore to improve natural and 

cultural resources stewardship and to reduce 

overall impacts on resources, this plan includes 

an alternative to phase out grazing over the 

next 20 years and/or the lifetime of the GMP. 

Immediately phasing out grazing, however, 

would have greater adverse socioeconomic and 

other impacts on current permittees and park 

operations and has thus been dismissed from 

additional consideration.

Relocating Camping along the Rim

Preliminary comments on the alternatives 

suggested relocating camping along the rim 

to the south side of the road. This action was 

considered; however, it was rejected because 

there is inadequate space to relocate the 

current number of campsites to the south of 

the road and because relocating this number of 

campsites would adversely affect views from the 

California Trail. Unlike other camping located 

within the viewshed, this would be noticeable 

and would contain a variety of impacts that 

could not be screened. The actions described 

in the Rim development concept plan (as 

proposed in alternatives B, C, and D) would 

improve the camping experience, including 

increasing safety and resolving day-use and 

overnight use conflicts (see “Appendix D: Rim 

Development Concept Plan for City of Rocks 

National Reserve”). Therefore, this proposal was 

rejected because relocating the campsites along 

the rim would have greater impacts than other 

alternatives that would offer similar benefits.

Providing Backcountry Standards

The planning team considered crafting 

backcountry user capacity standards in the 

Indian Grove area, which is a permitted 

backcountry camping area. Analysis of areas 

within the Indian Grove area located more 

than one mile from a trailhead was performed, 

but because there is little area within the 

Reserve that is located more than one mile 

from a trailhead, development of backcountry 

standards was considered but dismissed.

Removing Camping within the California 

Trail Zone

Camping is considered a traditional use and is 

compatible with the national historic landmark 

because it occurred during the historic period 

(1833–42). The location of the group camp 

and other campsites within the California 

Trail Zone would be out of the road corridor 

viewshed; therefore camping would continue to 

be allowed.

Preventing Rock Scrambling within the 

California Trail Zone

Rock scrambling, unlike modern-day climbing, 

is considered an historic use. Therefore rock 

scrambling is compatible with and would be 

permitted within the California Trail Zone, 

except where prohibited on inscription rocks.

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Removing Fixed Climbing Routes in the 

Research Natural Area Zone

Although the Research Natural Area is meant 

to be a natural area, over time some fixed 

climbing routes were established along its 

periphery. Fixed routes would be allowed to 

remain because bolting improved safety in some 

areas. Fixed routes also direct climbs so that 

attendant impacts are confined. Because the 

Research Natural Area is meant to be a study 

area, however, no new fixed anchor proposals 

would be accepted. Traditional climbing and 

sport climbing of existing bolted routes would 

continue to be allowed as long as it does not 

interfere with ongoing research activity.

Allowing Recreational Motorized Use in the 

Reserve

Because the main Reserve roads are owned 

and maintained by Cassia County, recreational 

motorized vehicles (all-terrain vehicles, utility 

task vehicles, and dirt bikes) are allowed, 

and the National Park Service and the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation do not 

have the authority to restrict these.

Eliminating Employee Housing

Initially, employee housing at the Castle 

Rocks State Park Administrative Unit was 

provided because there were few available 

inexpensive rentals and homes for purchase in 

surrounding local communities. Although the 

action alternatives propose working with local 

communities within commuting distance of the 

Reserve, existing and planned employee housing 

would continue to be provided because there is 

still too little affordable housing available in the 

surrounding communities.

Developing a Replacement Visitor Center 

within the Existing Reserve Boundary

NPS Management Policies 2006 state that 

“whenever feasible and when authorized by 

Congress, major park facilities—especially 

those that can be shared with other entities—

should be developed outside park boundaries” 

(§9.1.1.2, “Integration of Facilities into the 

Park Environment”). The reasons for this are 

many, but in the case of City of Rocks National 

Reserve, siting a visitor center outside the 

Reserve would have greater beneficial and fewer 

adverse effects than locating it within the current 

Reserve. Locating a visitor center outside the 

boundary would reduce construction within it, 

thus having fewer impacts, and it would increase 

choices for visitors by allowing the visitor center 

to serve both the Reserve and Castle Rocks 

State Park. This action would also fulfill another 

section of Management Policies 2006 that states: 

“where possible, appropriate, and authorized, 

the Park Service will cooperatively establish and 

maintain administration/information facilities 

with other federal, state, or local entities.”

The Idaho State Historic Preservation Office 

has concerns about locating any development 

in the Reserve within the national historic 

landmark and especially within view from the 

California National Historic Trail. In addition 

the remaining areas of the Reserve not in 

the national historic landmark are small and 

would not be suitable to place the necessary 

infrastructure that a visitor center would require. 

Although the current Reserve boundary does 

not contain a suitable location for a visitor center 

without major adverse impacts, if the boundary 

was modified as called for by alternatives C or D, 

the proposed visitor center in those alternatives 

would then be within the authorized boundary 

of the Reserve.

Constructing Equestrian Facilities at Other 

Locations

Although several locations other than Bread 

Loaves or Elephant Rock were considered for 

providing equestrian facilities, these either did 

not have enough space or would have greater 

impacts, had soil compaction or water resource 

issues, or they would not improve the ability of 

the Reserve to improve equestrian access to the 

west side (they did not meet the identified need). 

Therefore these other locations were dismissed 

from further consideration.

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Providing an Escape Route for Smoky 

Mountain Campground

Under alternatives C and D, Smoky Mountain 

Campground is proposed to become part of 

the Reserve. If this occurs, this area would be 

included in an updated fire management plan 

for the Reserve. Current IDPR plans associated 

with the area and public comments during 

scoping have identified safety issues including 

the potential need for escape should a wildfire 

threaten the site. Based on consultation with 

emergency response agencies, a route has been 

identified and has been incorporated into 

campground operations protocol. Because, 

however, the campground area continues to 

be managed by the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation through their R&PP BLM 

lease, proposed actions associated with the 

Smoky Mountain Campground are limited to 

identifying the overall vision for the site. As a 

result, this is an operational and implementation 

issue, rather than a GMP issue. As a result, 

developing an escape route for Smoky Mountain 

Campground has been dismissed from further 

consideration.

Retaining Circle Creek Impoundment

Retaining the Circle Creek impoundment #1 

was considered and dismissed by the planning 

team because analysis of the Circle Creek 

impoundment and irrigation network has 

indicated that although it may have functioned 

in the past, it has not been in use for a long time 

and does not possess local or regional integrity 

associated with its former use. Furthermore, it 

no longer functions as it was initially conceived 

and built. Circle Creek passes through a 

culvert under the City of Rocks Road near the 

Nicholson Ranch house. Stream flow is then 

diverted into an irrigation channel, constructed 

in the early 1950s that subsequently blew out 

in the mid-1960s, returning stream flow back 

into Circle Creek. Repairs were never made 

to the irrigation system and the ditch—now 

deeply incised with unstable side walls and 

ingrown with vegetation—presents a fall hazard 

to hikers and equestrian riders who may step 

away from the California Trail hiking trail. 

Because it is located within the boundary of the 

national historic landmark and because it is an 

important riparian area, ecological restoration 

of the impoundment site would have long-term 

beneficial impacts on both natural and cultural 

resources and no effect on historic resources. 

Restoration of the irrigation network to natural 

slopes would mitigate a public safety issue. 

Retaining the impoundment and irrigation 

network would continue to adversely affect both 

natural and cultural resources (see the “Physical 

Resources: Impacts on Water Resources” section 

in “Chapter 4: Environmental Consequences” 

and “Cultural Resources” in the “Actions 

Common to All Alternatives” in this chapter).

Expanding the California Trail Zone to 

Encompass the Twin Sisters Area

Expanding the California Trail Zone to 

encompass the Twin Sisters area was considered 

but dismissed because the proposed Visitor 

Facilities and Access Zone allows the 

continuation of existing uses, such as camping. 

As noted above, camping is considered 

compatible with the California Trail. There may 

be a need to expand parking in this area for 

public access to nearby features. If impacts from 

use of the campsites by large vehicles continue 

to occur, the Reserve could choose to restrict 

the length of vehicles for these campsites (see 

“Technical Rock Climbing on the Twin Sisters 

Rock Formation” in this section).

Returning the Leased Lands to the BLM

Returning leased lands to the Bureau of Land 

Management by the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation was considered but dismissed. 

The Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

has assumed a large financial investment on 

the leased BLM lands in the development of a 

campground for visitors. Also, the development 

of facilities outside of park units with partners is 

in keeping with NPS policies.

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SUMMARY OF COSTS

The costs of implementing the alternatives 

are summarized in table 17. To estimate costs, 

general assumptions were made regarding 

the amount and size of development. These 

assumptions were then carried across all 

alternatives so the alternatives could be 

compared. Costs identified in the draft GMP 

are not intended to replace more detailed 

consideration of needs, sizes, and amounts of 

future development, nor should these costs 

be used as a basis for funding requests or 

budgeting. The costs represented below only 

identify NPS capital development costs and 

include contributions by the Idaho Department 

of Parks and Recreation, where appropriate, that 

would probably offset costs.

The GMP is a long-term plan (15–20 years). 

Within the framework of the plan, Reserve 

managers would take incremental steps to reach 

management goals and objectives. Although 

some of the actions could be accomplished 

with little or no funding, some actions would 

require more detailed implementation plans, 

site-specific environmental impact analysis, and 

additional funds. The National Park Service and 

the Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

would actively seek alternative sources of 

funding, but there is no guarantee that all the 

components of the plan would be implemented 

during that time frame.

The National Park Service will also evaluate 

proposed facility investments prior to project 

approvals using the best scientific information 

available related to climate change and other 

possible scenarios to ensure the long-term 

sustainability of these investments. Due to 

potential vulnerability of some of the park’s 

facilities, it is feasible that the National Park 

Service may conclude that such investments 

would be unwise. In such a case, other options 

for meeting the need could be considered, or the 

National Park Service could elect not to pursue 

implementation of that project.

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Table 17. Summary of Comparative Costs*

Alternative A Alternative B Alternative C Alternative D

Annual Operating Costs 

**

Existing Base Funding $698,647 $698,647 $698,647 $698,647

New Personnel Costs - $140,000 $240,000 $240,000

Total Annual Operating 

Costs

$698,647 $838,647 $938,647 $938,647

Personnel FTE FTE FTE FTE

Permanent 7 10 (+3) 12 (+5) 12 (+5)

One-time Costs 

Total Existing Project Costs $43,500 $43,500 $43,500 $43,500

One-Time Nonfacility Costs

Program Support $43,500 $225,000 $369,000 $284,000

Priority 1*** $175,000 $180,000 $250,000

Priority 2 $50,000 $189,000 $34,000

Resource Management $229,000 $30,000 $30,000

Priority 1 $110,000 $30,000 $30,000

Priority 2 $119,000 0 0

Total One-Time 

Nonfacility Costs

$43,500 $454,000 $399,000 $314,000

One-Time Facility Costs

New Construction $4,600,000 $380,000 $1,040,000 $356,000

Priority 1 $200,000 $200,000 $195,000

Priority 2 $4,600,000 $180,000 $840,000 $161,000

Facility Rehabilitation $2,512,000 $2,730,000 $5,120,000 $10,080,000

Priority 1 $2,512,000 $1,050,000 $4,090,000 $1,050,000

Priority 2 $1,680,000 $1,030,000 $9,030,000

Total One-Time Facility 

Costs

$7,112,000 $3,110,000 $6,160,000 $10,436,000

Total Priority 1 Costs $43,500 $1,535,000 $4,500,000 $1,525,000

Total Priority 2 Costs $7,112,000 $1,995,000 $2,059,000 $9,225,000

Total One-Time Costs $7,155,500 $3,573,500 $6,602,500 $10,793,500

Deferred Maintenance Offset $23,000 $23,000 $23,000 $23,000

*Figures are rounded and are FY 2012 dollars.

**Does not include funding for Castle Rocks State Park, although some costs support both the Reserve and the state park: for example, some 

staff and the visitor center.

***Actions in alternatives B–D would be prioritized or ranked in importance as either high priority (1) or low priority (2). High priority actions 

address immediate threats and needs (requirements by mission, policy, and purpose) or address promises made in the past to the public, such 

as development of an equestrian staging area. Low priority actions address visitor opportunities and experiences, such as enhanced facilities as 

funding allows and could be sustained.

Program Support represents costs such as development of plans (long-range interpretive plan, cultural and natural resource plans), technology, 

grants or other program support.

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Summary of Alternatives“Table 18. Summary of Alternatives” summarizes the individual actions for each alternative, including those actions that are common to all the alternatives.

Table 18. 

Summary

of Alternatives

Topic Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Alternative Concept Alternative A: the No Action 

Alternative would assume that current management, programming, facilities, staffing, and funding would generally continue at their current levels and that existing plans would be implemented.

Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks would focus on the spectacular scenic quality, geology, biological richness, and cultural landscape experienced by past and present visitors to emphasize a backcountrytype visitor experience that would allow for self-discovery within a minimally developed western outdoor environment.

Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship (preferred alternative) would protect resources through research activities, educational opportunities, and partnerships by emphasizing the national significance of the Reserve.

Alternative D: Treasured Landscapes Inspiring Stories would tell the stories of the Reserve through the people who pass through, live, and recreate here by focusing on the California Trail and the ranching heritage and by emphasizing a frontcountry and day-use experience with more formal and structured recreational opportunities and programs.

Natural ResourcesPrimary Concept Continue high-quality resource 

preservation and protection. Focus on inventory and monitoring working with the UCBN I&M program. Continue to conduct research and resource projects, inventories, and monitoring.

Same as alternative A, plus increase public understanding of resources through the application and dissemination of research. Develop a resource stewardship strategy to guide natural resources management.

Same as alternative A, plus increase public understanding of resources through the application and dissemination of research. Work with partners to advocate for natural processes on lands throughout and adjacent to the Reserve regardless of ownership. Emphasis on stewardship within a larger functioning ecosystem, connectivity on a landscape scale. Develop a resource stewardship strategy to guide natural resources.

Same as alternative A, plus develop a resource stewardship strategy to guide natural resources.

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Table 18. 

Summary

of Alternatives

Topic Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Climate and Air Quality

Maintain current meteorological monitoring activities. Minimize air pollution from Reserve operations and continue to collect weather climate information.Continue to interpret and monitor effects of human-caused climate change in the Northern Basin and Range Province and work toward increasing fuel and energy efficiency.

Maintain meteorological monitoring activities and conduct periodic particulate matter monitoring. Raise awareness of air contaminant sources within and near the Reserve’s airshed. Minimize air pollution from Reserve operations through public outreach and education.Same as alternative A for climate change, plus promote minimal development or rehabilitation of facilities to lower facility-related energy and carbon footprint. Maximize energy efficiency, conservation, and sustainability associated with new development. Facilitate research in the Research Natural Area to study impacts of climate change.

Same as alternative B.Emphasize enhanced research opportunities on landscape-scale natural resource topics such as climate change. Facilitate research in the Research Natural Area to study climate change and adaptation. Design facilities and transportation options with sustainability and low carbon footprint.

Same as alternative C for air quality.Same as alternative B for climate change, plus encourage commercial visitor services guides to use vehicles with alternative fuels to limit emissions within the Reserve and at Castle Rocks State Park. Encourage activities such as walking and hiking rather than driving.

Air Quality(Common to All)

Encourage the state of Idaho to designate the City of Rocks National Reserve as a Class I area instead of Class II, because redesignation would improve protection of air quality from major new sources of air pollution. Incorporate outreach and education regarding existing and potential air pollution impacts on the Reserve into all action alternatives.

Water Quality(Common to All)

Continue to work with the Idaho Department of Environmental Quality, Idaho Department of Fish and Game, the NPS UCBN I&M Program, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to monitor water quality.

Geology and Soils Conduct inventory of pinnacles 

and sensitive rock features in the national natural landmark.Mitigate soil erosion using current best management practices.

Same as alternative A for geology.Improve soil drainage on existing roads and trails by facilitating sheet flow. Use best management practices to minimize erosion. Develop road standards for Reserve roads on disintegrating granite soils and work with county to improve standards on county maintained roads.

Work with partners to update the inventory of pinnacles and granite spires in the national natural landmark.Same as alternative B for soils.

Same as alternative C for geology.Same as alternative B for soils.

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Table 18. 

Summary

of Alternatives

Topic Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Vegetation and Fire Use the invasive plant management 

plan to refine park priority areas for control of nonnative invasive plants. Develop a vegetation management plan.Update the fire management plan to reduce the damaging impacts of unwanted wildfire and identify where post-wildfire emergency stabilization and rehabilitation may be required to mitigate impacts from wildfire to the Reserve’s resources. 

Same as alternative A for vegetation.Same as alternative A for fire, plus update the fire management plan to consider a full range of fire management strategies. Identify areas where high fire intensity and post-fire erosion events could affect infrastructure due to increased water runoff and highly erodible granitic soils.

Work with partners, neighbors, and volunteers to implement the invasive plant management plan to refine park priority areas for control of nonnative invasive plants. Develop a vegetation management plan for the Reserve.Same as alternative B for fire.

Same as alternative C for vegetation.Same as alternative B for fire.

Wildlife Maintain current levels of wildlife 

inventory activities and conduct limited monitoring as needed, or as indicated by the UCBN I&M network.

Conduct a systematic wildlife inventory. Develop and implement a monitoring plan to detect population change and to guide management. Collaborate with partners to determine the feasibility of reintroducing extirpated animals.

Same as alternative B, plus involve partners and agencies in a wildlife inventory of the larger landscape surrounding the Reserve. Seek funding to address monitoring questions related to the status and trends of wildlife species composition and to research topics related to status and trends of Idaho Sensitive Species, threatened and endangered species and extirpated species.

Same as alternative A.

Soundscapes and Lightscapes

Consider additional monitoring of soundscapes in other areas of the Reserve and develop a longterm monitoring protocol. Work cooperatively to reduce reflective light using best management practices on adjacent state lands. Conduct inventory of night sky quality and characteristics in the Reserve.

Same as alternative A for soundscapes, plus prepare and implement a soundscapes management plan to protect the natural sounds. Consult with the Department of Defense to reduce noise impacts from military overflights.Same as alternative A for lightscapes, plus work with the NPS Night Sky program to develop a plan to maintain and interpret the night sky.

Same as alternative B for soundscapes.Same as alternative B for lightscapes.

Same as alternative B for soundscapes.Same as alternative B for lightscapes.

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Table 18. 

Summary

of Alternatives

Topic Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Cultural ResourcesPrimary Concept Continue high-quality resource 

preservation and protection. Continue to conduct research and resource management projects, inventories, and monitoring as opportunities arise. Preserve California Trail-era resources associated with the national historic landmark. Work closely with Shoshone-Bannock Tribes to continue their traditional activities within the Reserve, including pinyon nut gathering.

Same as alternative A, plus increase the understanding of cultural resources through the application and dissemination of research. Develop a resource stewardship strategy to guide cultural resources.

Promote and ensure long-term stewardship and preservation through active management and increase the understanding of cultural resources through the application and dissemination of research. Conduct research and resource management projects, inventories, and monitoring and work with landowners within the Reserve on non-NPS owned land. Preserve California Trail-era resources associated with the national historic landmark. Include an additional 1.1 mile of the California National Historic Trail within the new Reserve boundary to the east. Develop a resource stewardship strategy to guide cultural resources.

Provide visitors a direct experience of the cultural history of the area. Focus on stabilization and preservation treatments to enhance interpretation of historic structures and cultural landscape features. Preserve California Trailera resources associated with the national historic landmark. Include an additional 1.1 mile of the California National Historic Trail within the new Reserve boundary to the east. Develop a resource stewardship strategy to guide cultural resources.

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Table 18. 

Summary

of Alternatives

Topic Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Archeology Conduct archeological projects to 

research, identify, and document resources. Continue surveys and testing prehistoric and historic sites to provide information on early occupation of City of Rocks.

Same as alternative A, plus provide waysides and self-guided materials to promote visitor understanding of archeological resources. Develop an archeological management plan to manage California Trail ruts.With partners, develop an archeological district showing management zones for known archeological resources to ensure appropriate stewardship of prehistoric sites and isolated artifacts.

Same as alternative A, plus encourage participation in the identification, documentation, and research of archeological resources within the Reserve. Conduct hands-on investigation and research of archeological resources in collaboration with partners. Promote cooperation with partners and universities to improve understanding of early human use and adaptation in the region. Develop an archeological management plan to manage California Trail ruts.With partners, develop an archeological district showing management zones for known archeological resources to ensure appropriate stewardship of prehistoric sites and isolated artifacts.

Same as alternative A, plus conduct archeological projects to research, identify, and document resources. Conduct demonstration projects to promote visitor understanding about archeological resources. Develop an archeological management plan to manage California Trail ruts.

Cultural Landscape Document features associated with 

California Trail corridor and ensure they remain in a good condition through appropriate preservation treatment. Work in partnership with private landowners within the Reserve and stakeholders to clarify the route of the California Trail corridor. Where appropriate, continue to maintain and preserve features associated with mining, homesteading, and ranching.

Same as alternative A, plus conduct condition assessment and evaluate and monitor features associated with California Trail corridor.Develop a treatment plan for features associated with the California Trail corridor and ensure they remain in good condition through appropriate preservation treatment.Preserve and interpret historically important activities and features associated with mining, homesteading, and ranching on public land.

Same as alternative B, plus work with partners to research the potential for establishing a historic district associated with the homesteading era throughout the larger valley landscape.

Same as alternative B for cultural landscapes.

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Table 18. 

Summary

of Alternatives

Topic Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Museum Collections(Common to All)

Continue to curate and store museum collections at Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument in the paleontological laboratory and collection facility.

Circle Creek Impoundment Area(Common to All)

Remove the existing historic water impoundment #1 at Circle Creek and restore the riparian area to natural conditions as seen by California Trail emigrants. This action is consistent with the national historic landmark designation and its focus on the California Trail era.

Special Uses and DesignationsGrazing Update the current grazing 

management plan to reflect new acquisition of private lands. Limit livestock grazing to those management zones identified in the Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive management plan. Keep total animal unit months to the 1991 level of use. Reduce or modify if necessary for the protection of resources.Prohibit grazing in the Research Natural Area and systematically eliminate grazing in wetland and riparian areas.

Update the current grazing management plan. Allow livestock grazing in all management zones identified in this GMP except for the Research Natural Area Zone. Reduce grazing over time as permittees discontinue requests for permits due to changing business models or abandonment. Expect total head and animal unit months to decrease over time through attrition (initiated by permittees not Reserve management). Reorganize allotments, as opportunities arise, to achieve maximum benefits for resources and emphasize increased protection of the California Trail Zone. Reduce or eliminate cattle grazing in the Visitor Facilities and Access Zone.Systematically eliminate grazing in wetland and riparian areas.

Update the current grazing management plan. Eliminate livestock grazing over time on a voluntary basis within the life span of this GMP. Facilitate removal of grazing by establishing a voluntary federal grazing permit buyout program to allow permittees to exchange their permits for compensation from conservation organizations.Emphasize protection and enhancement of the Research Natural Area and wetland and riparian areas. 

Update the current grazing management plan. Work with permittees to provide interpretive opportunities and participation in livestock grazing management activities. Continue to renew grazing permits in all zones, except for the Research Natural Area Zone, unless there is permittee abandonment or consistent failure to comply with conditions of the permit. Consider removing pasturing of cattle from the Visitor Use and Access Zone where possible.Systematically eliminate grazing in wetland and riparian areas.

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Table 18. 

Summary

of Alternatives

Topic Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Research Natural Area

Maintain the existing 312-acre RNA boundary and continue to manage for outstanding features, processes, diversity, and values. Modify existing allotment along the western boundary of the Research Natural Area by working with permittee to remove overlap of grazing allotment from the Research Natural Area.

Refine the boundary of the Research Natural Area to conform to landscape features. Add three small areas to the south and a high-elevation valley to the northwest for a total of 485 acres. Modify existing allotment along the western boundary by working with permittee to remove overlap of grazing allotment from the Research Natural Area.

Refine the boundary of the Research Natural Area to conform to landscape features. Add three small areas to the south and a highelevation valley to the northwest and expand the RNA boundary to the southeast to include additional species habitat for some Idaho Sensitive Species. The expansion of the Research Natural Area would total 693 acres. No grazing allotments would be affected. Modify existing allotment along the western boundary by working with permittee to remove overlap of grazing allotment from the Research Natural Area.

Same as alternative B.

Historical Preservation Zone(Common to All)

Recommend that Cassia County extend the Historical Preservation Zone to cover the entire Reserve to fully protect its cultural and natural resources. The Historical Preservation Zone limits existing landowners to one residence and land use consistent with that of 1988 and earlier. A portion of the southeast section of the Reserve was left out in the original zoning, and it is this section that the Reserve would propose including.

Section 36(Common to All)

Maintain Section 36 as a state-owned parcel within the Reserve. Section 36 of the Reserve was designated a state park in 1957 (called City of Rocks State Park) and is technically a state park within the National Reserve.

Hunting and Gathering(Common to All)

The Reserve would continue to allow noncommercial pinyon nut gathering (as outlined in the Superintendent’s Compendium and 36 CFR Section 2.1) and hunting (as regulated by Idaho Department of Fish and Game).

Hunting and Trapping(Common to All)

Work with the Idaho Department of Fish and Game to better educate hunters and trappers on areas available within the Reserve and to establish sustainable levels of hunting. Hunting and trapping within the Reserve are allowed by legislation under the jurisdiction of the Idaho Department of Fish and Game. It is permitted within certain public areas of the Reserve and within private lands in the Reserve with prior permission of the landowner.

National Natural Landmark(Common to All)

Update the NNL designation to encompass other significant features in the Reserve.

National Historic Landmark(Common to All)

Update the NHL designation to encompass other significant features in the Reserve.

National Scenic Byway(Common to All)

Encourage Cassia County to support national scenic byway designation of the existing City of Rocks Back Country Byway. If nationally designated, federal funding for byway projects could be sought.

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Table 18. 

Summary

of Alternatives

Topic Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Interpretation and EducationPrimary Concept Continue to provide interpretative 

and educational opportunities at the existing visitor center as well as through waysides, kiosks, brochures, special events, and the internet. Maintain current wayside exhibits to NPS standards. Continue to work with other organizations that use the Reserve as a place to teach.

Same as alternative A, plus provide more self-guided materials and interpretive and educational opportunities at the visitor contact station, waysides, kiosks, and internet. Provide less emphasis on staff presence, guided programs, and tours. Educate visitors with information provided by researchers.

Same as alternative A, plus use Reserve as a classroom to study the Northern Basin and Range ecosystem. Provide more interpretative and educational programs primarily through the proposed visitor center, the outdoor learning center, guided walks and talks, and exposure to the Reserve’s environment.Educate visitors with information provided by researchers. Offer interpretation and education by other non-NPS entities and partners. Immerse visitors in stewardship activities that contribute to preservation of nationally significant resources.

Expand beyond the actions of alternative A to feature onsite personal interpretative and educational programs to offer special events, living history, heritage tourism for group activities/packages, guided walks, talks, trail rides, tours, and general outreach. Allow opportunities for visitors to engage in on-site living history activities and demonstration projects to learn about resources, including archeology. Focus programs on the California Trail and ranching heritage. Provide some of these activities at the visitor center and/or through commercial visitor services.

Interpretive Programs

Continue to conduct a variety of programs and special events, and provide educational materials and activities for visitors. Continue to interpret mining, homesteading, and ranching features to the public on a limited basis as opportunities arise.

Same as alternative A, plus incorporate tribal perspectives and neighbors’ stories about the Reserve into interpretive programming. Support an extended outreach program to schools. Develop a long-range interpretive plan. Provide off-site interpretive programs.

Same as alternative A, the focus would be on immersion, handson experiential learning, and environmental stewardship. Disseminate natural, cultural, and archeological research findings through various on-site and outreach programs. Integrate learning and research through living labs, institutes, and field schools. Partner with federal, state, tribal, and private partners, such as universities and institutes. Conduct programs that reflect and educate visitors about the Reserve’s national significance. Develop a long-range interpretive plan.

Expand interpretive programs to promote experiential and heritage learning and recreation, including outreach to youth and new visitors. Emphasize the natural and cultural history of City of Rocks including site-specific interpretation. Provide guided walks and talks on a variety of themes. Include increased staffled and nonprofit-led immersive experiences for a fee. Expand Parks as Classrooms program and other satellite broadcasts on park themes. Develop a long-range interpretive plan.

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Table 18. 

Summary

of Alternatives

Topic Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Youth Continue to sponsor student 

internships, Junior Ranger programs and the Youth Conservation Corps programs, and other special events and programs for youth. Provide winter and summer youth day camps, pending staffing and funding.

Same as alternative A, plus offer age-appropriate outdoor learning opportunities for recreation that provide youth with challenging experiences in a supportive environment.

Same as alternative A, plus provide youth-focused classes, field trips, and programs at the outdoor learning center. Encourage researchers to deliver programs about their research to a variety of age groups.

Include those activities in alternative A but expand to engage youth and new visitors in programs and opportunities such as Parks as Classrooms or a climbing school. Encourage youth to participate in citizen stewardship activities such as trail maintenance or other park projects.

Youth Programs(Common to All)

Continue to offer youth programs such as the Youth Conservation Corps program and day camps, student internships, Junior Ranger programs, and other special events.

Visitor ExperiencePrimary Concept Continue current visitor service 

levels. Provide for a diversity of uses consistent with administrative policies and resource protection.

Provide for a backcountry-type visitor experience emphasizing solitude and self-discovery.

Engage visitors in research, learning, and stewardship opportunities through new research, science, and education programs and facilities.

Emphasize a frontcountry, day-use experience with a focus on group activities and formal education.

Recreational Opportunities

Continue to provide opportunities for traditional recreational activities such as hiking, biking, horseback riding, bird watching, climbing, and pinyon nut gathering. Update the climbing management plan.

Same as alternative A. Same as alternative A. The current array of recreational 

opportunities would be expanded to include additional day-use activities, such as more walks and hikes, horseback riding, and biking opportunities.

Trails Maintain the current trail system. Same as alternative A, plus develop 

a trails management plan to improve trails within the Reserve. Develop a new trail for hiking, bicycling, and equestrian use within the Reserve beginning near the Nicholson Ranch and connecting with the Tea Kettle Trail to allow visitors to experience the California Trail corridor. Explore the creation of new trail connections in partnership with adjacent land management agencies. Consider a possible trail connection to Castle Rocks State Park and the USFS Independence Lake area.

Same as alternative B except that a formal trail would be developed to the summit of Smoky Mountain from the Smoky Mountain Campground in cooperation with the Bureau of Land Management.

Same as alternative C.

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Table 18. 

Summary

of Alternatives

Topic Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Climbing Continue to manage climbing under 

the 1998 climbing management plan.

Same as alternative A, plus update the climbing management plan.

Same as alternative B. Same as alternative B.

Climbing (Common to All)

Continue the ban on technical climbing at Twin Sisters.

Equestrian Staging Continue to provide equestrian 

camping and staging at Smoky Mountain Campground and at the Juniper campsite within the Reserve.

Same as alternative A, plus develop an equestrian staging area for parking and staging horse trailers in the Reserve near the Bread Loaves intersection (or at Elephant Rock) to access the west side of the Reserve.

Same as alternative B. Same as alternative B.

Commercial Visitor ServicesCommercial Services

Maintain the overall type and level of permitted guides and outfitters currently operating within the Reserve.

Increase commercial services to provide for more youth camps, climbing, and horseback riding opportunities.

Same as alternative A, plus encourage the development of a privately operated shuttle service by a private entity linking the Reserve and Castle Rocks State Park.

Allow for more commercial visitor services and activities. Include fee interpretation and education programs provided by partners and other groups. Could provide opportunities for on-site living history cultural activities and demonstration projects.

Visitor and Administrative FacilitiesReserve Campsites Continue to offer camping 

opportunities within the Reserve through a reservation system. Retain the current numbers of sites and camping areas within the Reserve.

Reconfigure camping in the Reserve to address safety and resource issues. Implement the recommendations of the Rim development concept plan.

Same as alternative B. Same as alternative B.

Visitor Facilities Maintain existing waysides, kiosks, 

exhibits, and vault toilets. Replace or add to these as needed to support existing or planned operations.

Same as alternative A, but develop additional waysides and exhibits based on interpretive themes and various other topics to promote selflearning and discovery.Construct additional unstaffed kiosks with information at Bath Rock and at Smoky Mountain Campground to improve orientation and provide self-guided materials about the Reserve.

Develop additional waysides and exhibits based on interpretive themes and various topics to promote education, research, and protection of nationally significant resources.

Develop additional waysides and exhibits based on interpretive themes and other relevant topics. Construct additional vault toilets and additional parking areas as needed for increased day use activities.

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Table 18. 

Summary

of Alternatives

Topic Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Reserve Roads Continue to provide access for 

motorized and nonmotorized transportation. Retain existing roads.

Same as alternative A, plus develop a turnaround area within the Reserve boundary at the north end of Logger Springs Road adjacent to USFS land for safety and resource protection.

Same as alternative B. Same as alternative A, plus formalize 

parking at the Indian Grove Overlook off Logger Springs Road with a designated area and parking spaces to safely accommodate a few cars and enable people to turn around off the narrow road.

Visitor Center In the short term, retain the 

temporary existing visitor center with administrative and visitor services functions located within the Castle Rocks State Park Administrative Unit in Almo, on state-owned land.In the long term, seek to develop a permanent visitor center on state-leased BLM land near Smoky Mountain as approved in the 1996 comprehensive management plan and the Castle Rocks State Park Master Plan. (Though the National Park Service does not have funding programmed for any capital contribution tothis visitor center, the Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation may proceed with development if state funds become available. The National Park Service would continue to provide support and design consultation, or other assistance.)

Instead of building a new visitor center, emphasize visitor preplanning through the internet and community outreach. Reconfigure the existing visitor center or provide a separate visitor contact station to provide additional space and a better separation of uses and functions on state land. Provide unstaffed kiosks at Bath Rock and at Smoky Mountain Campground to orient visitors who do not stop at existing visitor center. In the long term, if lands become available, the Reserve could consider building a visitor center at the R&PP lease.

Develop and implement a more cost-effective version (2,600 square feet) of the visitor center approved in the 1996 comprehensive management plan and the Castle Rocks State Park Master Plan. Locate the proposed visitor center near the Almo entrance within an expanded Reserve boundary (if authorized by Congress).

Develop and implement a permanent visitor center as approved in the Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive management plan and the Castle Rocks State Park Master Plan. Locate the proposed visitor center near the Almo entrance within an expanded Reserve boundary (if authorized by Congress).

Employee Housing Continue to provide limited 

employee housing at the Castle Rocks State Park Administrative Unit.

Same as alternative A. Work with partners to encourage 

local communities in southern Cassia County to provide housing for researchers and visiting scholars.

Encourage local communities in southern Cassia County to provide additional housing for seasonal employees.

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Table 18. 

Summary

of Alternatives

Topic Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Smoky Mountain Campground

Continue to use as the main campground for recreational vehicles, equestrians, and other camping outside the Reserve. In cooperation with the Bureau of Land Management, develop the Phase II additional camping loop on the R&PP lease for up to 62 additional campsites as approved in the 1996 CMP and 2006 Castle Rocks State Park Master Plan. Add an accessible toilet and additional showers based on availability of water.

In cooperation with the Bureau of Land Management, the National Park Service and the Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation would partner to develop a low-cost primitive group camping area on the R&PP lease for social camping (50–70 people), including some tent campsites. Add two to three toilets and a communal parking area. Construct an amphitheater for evening programs and interpretive activities. Add an unstaffed information kiosk for self-directed visitor orientation.

Propose a Reserve boundary modification that includes Smoky Mountain Campground, which would require the state to relinquish its lease with the Bureau of Land Management. Include the Phase II additional camping loop for up to 62 additional campsites as approved in the Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive management plan and 2006 Castle Rocks State Park Master Plan and include social camping opportunities. Add toilets and additional showers based on availability of water. Construct an amphitheater for evening programs and interpretive activities.

Propose a Reserve boundary modification that includes Smoky Mountain Campground, which would require the state to relinquish its R&PP lease with the Bureau of Land Management. Include the Phase II additional camping loop for up to 62 additional campsites as approved in the 1996 comprehensive management plan and 2006 Castle Rocks State Park Master Plan and include more individual tent campsites. Add toilets and additional showers based on availability of water

Outdoor Learning Center

N/A N/A Develop an outdoor learning 

center to immerse students and visitors in nature through outdoor experiences. Construct the outdoor learning center near Smoky Mountain Campground. Limit formal development of facilities and services to five to six yurts or temporary outdoor shelters to house approximately 30 people. Provide a covered shelter or well-designed pavilion to meet out of the weather.

N/A

Reserve Management and OperationsManagement(Common to All)

Continue to manage City of Rocks National Reserve as a unit of the national park system managed by the Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation under Cooperative Agreement 1443-CA9000-96-0002.

Private Land Uses(Common to All)

Private uses on private lands would continue under the jurisdiction of Cassia County.

Operations(Common to All)

Continue to locate Reserve operations (administration and maintenance) at the Castle Rocks State Park Administrative Unit in Almo. This would include employee offices, the library, maintenance shop, and other administrative functions.

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Table 18. 

Summary

of Alternatives

Topic Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Reservations(Common to All)

Continue to offer camping through a national campsite reservation system (currently ReserveAmerica).

Cooperation(Common to All)

Continue to work with adjacent landowners and citizens on issues of mutual concern.

PartnershipsCassia County Road Network

Continue to work with Cassia County to maintain jurisdictional county roads (City of Rocks Road is designated as part of City of Rocks Back Country Byway) within the Reserve. Encourage the county to maintain these roads to NPS standards and to keep the roads through the Reserve unpaved. Continue to work cooperatively with the county on visitor safety, signage, and information.

Consider opportunities for NPS ownership or management of the county road through the Reserve to provide maintenance assistance to the county and/or to ensure county road maintenance practices contribute to NPS road standards and character. Work with the county to lower speed limits and to better control water flow off county roads.

Same as alternative B. Same as alternative B.

Other Partnerships Work with adjacent and Reserve 

landowners on resource protection and visitor use issues of mutual concern.

Develop partnerships with adjacent land managers to extend trail connections and to provide a continuum of recreational experiences. Include trails that connect to the lands managed by the U.S. Forest Service, Castle Rocks State Park, and the Bureau of Land Management.

Partner with universities, federal and state agencies, institutes, nonprofit organizations, local landowners, tribes, the UCBN I&M program, and the Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit on various resource issues. Work with agencies to promote research and provide outreach and education programs across the larger landscape. Reserve staff would encourage researchers to give programs for the public at the visitor center. Work with adjacent and Reserve landowners on resource protection areas of mutual concern.

Partner with others for interpretation, outreach, and education, and develop partnerships with adjacent land managers to expand trail connections and provide a continuum of recreational experiences. Build relationships with partners, user groups, and tribes to emphasize citizen stewardship activities and to encourage them to share their connections and stories with each other and the public.

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Table 18. 

Summary

of Alternatives

Topic Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Environmental Sustainability

Continue to reduce energy use and to undertake other practices that would contribute to making the Reserve environmentally sustainable. Continue recycling program, pursue implementation of energy efficiency actions, and follow NPS sustainability guidelines.

Same as alternative A, plus pursue implementation of energy-efficient actions outlined in the NPS climate action plan and NPS sustainability guidelines. Maximum energy efficiency, conservation, and sustainability associated with any new development.

Same as alternative B, plusthe visitor center and outdoor learning center would both employ sustainable design techniques to minimize environmental impacts, including carbon footprint.Development on NPS land would include improvements in energy efficiency and reduction in greenhouse gas emissions for both the building envelope and the mechanical systems supporting the facility. Energy-efficient construction projects would be used as an educational opportunity for visitors.

Same as alternative B.

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Table 18. 

Summary

of Alternatives

Topic Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

BoundaryBoundary Maintain existing boundary. Same as alternative A, plus 

encourage Cassia County and private landowners to explore ways to commemorate and protect the California Trail corridor from the southwest corner of the Reserve to Granite Pass.

Propose a boundary modification (4,247 acres) to add scenic resources, viewsheds associated with the cultural landscape, and portions of the California National Historic Trail at the eastern boundary of the Reserve. Include Smoky Mountain Campground, the outdoor learning center, and the land currently leased to the state by the Bureau of Land Management. Encourage Cassia County and private landowners to commemorate and protect the California Trail corridor from the southwest corner of the Reserve to Granite Pass. Maximize federal and state funding to support resource issues of mutual concern, such as fire and hazard fuel reduction, management of nonnative invasive plants and wildlife, trail connections to public lands, and climate change research or responses. Focus implementation on collaboration with others including use of Service First authority.

Propose a boundary modification (4,247 acres) to add scenic resources and portions of the California National Historic Trail at the eastern boundary of the Reserve and include Smoky Mountain Campground and the land currently leased to the state by the Bureau of Land Management. Encourage Cassia County and private landowners to commemorate and protect the California Trail corridor from the southwest corner of the Reserve to Granite Pass.

StaffingStaffing Maintain staffing levels at 7 classified 

full-time equivalent employees:1 interpretive and education specialist1 maintenance worker2 management and administration positions1 resource management (cultural)1 resource management (natural)1 climbing ranger

Same staff as alternative A, plus add 3 new positions:1 interpretive and education specialist1 visitor protection ranger1 maintenance worker(100% funded by NPS)

Same staff as alternative A, plus add 5 new positions:1 interpretive and education specialist1 visitor protection ranger1 maintenance worker(100% funded by NPS)

Same staff as alternative A, plus add 5 new positions:2 interpretive and education specialists1 visitor protection ranger1 maintenance worker1 education specialist/volunteer coordinator(100% funded by NPS)

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Summary of Impacts“Table 19. Summary of Impacts” summarizes the impacts for each alternative. “Chapter 6: Environmental Consequences” contains a full description of impacts.

Table 19. 

Summary

of Impacts

Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stew- ardship (Environmentally Preferred Alternative) Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Alternative A: the No Action Alternative would assume that current management, programming, facilities, staffing, and funding would generally continue at their current levels and that existing plans would be implemented.

Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks would focus on the spectacular scenic quality, geology, biological richness, and cultural landscape experienced by past and present visitors to emphasize a backcountry-type visitor experience that would allow for self-discovery within a minimally developed western outdoor environment.

Alternative C: A Stage for Stewardship (preferred alternative) would protect resources through research activities, educational opportunities, and partnerships by emphasizing the national significance of the Reserve.

Alternative D: Treasured Landscapes Inspiring Stories would tell the stories of the Reserve through the people who pass through, live, and recreate here by focusing on the California Trail and the ranching heritage and by emphasizing a frontcountry and day-use experience with more formal and structured recreational opportunities and programs.

Land UseMinor to moderate long-term beneficial effects and minor to moderate localized adverse effects.Continued minor to moderate cumulative adverse and minor to moderate beneficial effects.

Long-term moderate beneficial effects coupled with long-term minor to moderate adverse effects.Minor to moderate cumulative adverse and moderate beneficial effects.

Similar to alternative B with more moderate adverse and minor to moderate beneficial effects.Minor to moderate cumulative adverse and moderate beneficial effects.

Similar to alternative B with more moderate adverse effects.Minor to moderate cumulative adverse and moderate beneficial effects.

Air QualityNegligible to moderate short-term localized adverse and minor long-term beneficial impacts.Negligible to minor cumulative adverse and beneficial effects.

Increased range of minor to moderate localized adverse impacts coupled with minor long-term beneficial effects.Slight reduction in cumulative adverse effects compared to alternative A.

Similar to alternative B with slightly more beneficial effects.Cumulative beneficial effects would increase compared to alternative A.

Same as alternative B.Cumulative beneficial effects would increase compared to alternative A.

LightscapesLong-term negligible to minor adverse and beneficial effects.Potential decrease in cumulative effects.

Same as alternative A. Same as alternative A. Same as alternative A.

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Table 19. 

Summary

of Impacts

Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stew- ardship (Environmentally Preferred Alternative) Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

SoundscapesLocalized long-term negligible to minor adverse effects. Localized short-term negligible to moderate, with some potential for intermittent major effects.Minor cumulative adverse effects.

Similar to alternative A with reduced short-term effects.

Same as alternative A. Same as alternative A.

Geology and SoilsRange of negligible to moderate localized adverse and minor to moderate long-term beneficial effects.Continuing minor to moderate localized and negligible to minor cumulative beneficial effects.

Similar to alternative A with fewer adverse effects and more beneficial effects.Cumulative effects same as alternative A.

Similar to alternative A with more beneficial effects.Cumulative effects same as alternative A.

Similar to alternative A.Cumulative effects same as alternative A.

Water Resources: Hydrology and Water QuantityNegligible to moderate localized adverse effects.Minor to moderate cumulative adverse effects.

Similar to alternative A with minor longterm localized adverse and potential beneficial effects.Cumulative effects similar to alternative A with potential for reduction.

Same as alternative B with potential for more beneficial effects.Potential reduction in cumulative effects similar to but greater than in alternative B.

Similar to alternative A with more potential for additional localized moderate adverse effects.Cumulative effects same as alternative A.

Water Resources: Water QualityShort- and long-term minor adverse impacts, some localized moderate impacts. Minor beneficial effects.Minor to moderate adverse cumulative effects combined with negligible to minor beneficial effects.

Same as alternative A. Same as alternative A. Same as alternative A.

Water Resources: WetlandsShort-term minor to moderate or major localized adverse and long-term negligible to moderate beneficial effects.Minor to moderate localized cumulative adverse and negligible to moderate cumulative beneficial effects.

Short- and long-term minor to moderate or major localized adverse and negligible to moderate long-term beneficial effects (more than alternative D).Minor cumulative adverse and negligible to moderate cumulative beneficial effects.

Impacts similar to alternative B, but beneficial impacts could be greater.Cumulative impacts similar to alternative B but could be reduced.

Impacts same as alternative A.Cumulative impacts slightly reduced compared to alternative A.

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Table 19. 

Summary

of Impacts

Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stew- ardship (Environmentally Preferred Alternative) Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Vegetation

Negligible to major long-term localized adverse impacts and minor to moderate beneficial impacts.Moderate cumulative (including major localized) adverse impacts.

Negligible to major short- and long-term localized adverse impacts and short- and long-term minor to moderate beneficial impacts with potential for reduction of major impacts to moderate.Moderate cumulative (including major localized) adverse impacts with some potential for reduction.

Similar to alternative B, with more potential for reduction of major impacts to moderate.Moderate cumulative (including major localized) adverse impacts with some potential for reduction.

Same as alternative A.Moderate cumulative (including major localized) adverse impacts.

Wildlife

Negligible to moderate localized adverse impacts.Continuing minor to moderate cumulative adverse effects.

Same as alternative A plus negligible to moderate localized beneficial impacts.Continuing minor to moderate cumulative adverse effects. Little contribution to cumulative effects. Negligible to minor cumulative beneficial effects.

Similar to alternative B with more beneficial impacts.Cumulative effects same as alternative B.

Similar to alternative D with more adverse impacts.Cumulative effects same as alternative B.

Special Status Species

No effect on federally listed species. May affect, not likely to adversely affect candidate species.No effect or minor adverse and beneficial effects on some federal and state sensitive species.Negligible to minor contributions to cumulative effects.

Same as alternative A. Same as alternative A. Same as alternative A.

Cultural Resources: Prehistoric and Historic Archeology

No adverse effect.Negligible to minor cumulative adverse effects (no adverse effect).

Same as alternative A.Minor cumulative adverse effects (no adverse effect).

Same as alternative B. Same as alternative B.

Cultural Resources: Cultural Landscapes

No adverse effect.Minor to moderate cumulative adverse and minor beneficial effects.

Same as alternative A.Minor to moderate cumulative adverse and beneficial effects.

Same as alternative B. Same as alternative B.

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Table 19. 

Summary

of Impacts

Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stew- ardship (Environmentally Preferred Alternative) Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Visitor Experience: Access and Transportation

Minor to moderate localized adverse effects combined with minor beneficial effects.Minor to moderate cumulative adverse effects and minor beneficial effects.

Minor to moderate localized adverse and beneficial effects on some visitors.Minor cumulative adverse effects and minor to moderate beneficial effects.

Same as alternative B.Minor cumulative adverse effects and minor to moderate beneficial effects (more than in alternative B).

Same as alternative B.Minor cumulative adverse effects and minor to moderate beneficial effects (more than in alternative B).

Visitor Experience: Visitor Use Opportunities

Minor to moderate beneficial effects.Minor to moderate cumulative beneficial effects.

Same as alternative A.Moderate cumulative beneficial effects.

Minor to moderate beneficial effects (more than in other alternatives).Cumulative effects same as alternative B.

Minor to moderate beneficial effects (more than alternatives A and B).Cumulative effects same as alternative B.

Visitor Experience: Interpretation and Education

Minor long-term beneficial effects.Minor to moderate cumulative beneficial effects.

Minor long-term beneficial effects.Minor cumulative beneficial effects.

Moderate long-term beneficial effects.Moderate cumulative beneficial effects.

Moderate long-term beneficial effects.Moderate cumulative beneficial effects (less than alternative C).

Visitor Experience: Visitor and Employee Safety

Potential for negligible to minor adverse effects.Minor cumulative beneficial effects.

Potential for negligible to minor adverse effects. Long-term beneficial effects.Cumulative effects same as alternative A.

Same as alternative B.Cumulative effects same as alternative A.

Same as alternative B.Cumulative effects same as alternative A.

Visitor Experience: Scenic Resources

Negligible to minor long-term beneficial effects.Negligible to minor cumulative beneficial effects.

Minor to moderate localized long-term beneficial effects.Minor cumulative beneficial effects.

Minor to moderate localized long-term beneficial effects.Cumulative effects same as alternative B.

Minor to moderate localized long-term beneficial effects.Cumulative effects same as alternative B.

Park Operations and Partnerships

Minor to moderate adverse and long-term moderate beneficial effects.Minor to moderate cumulative adverse and beneficial effects.

Similar to alternative A with slightly improved beneficial effects.Cumulative effects same as alternative A.

Similar to alternative A with more beneficial effects.Cumulative effects same as alternative A.

Same as alternative C.Cumulative effects same as alternative A.

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Table 19. 

Summary

of Impacts

Alternative A: No Action Alternative B: Silent City of Rocks (Preferred Alternative) Alternative C: A Stage for Stew- ardship (Environmentally Preferred Alternative) Alternative D: Treasured Land- scapes Inspiring Stories

Socioeconomics

Long-term negligible to minor adverse and beneficial effects.Negligible to moderate localized cumulative beneficial effects.

Long-term negligible to minor adverse and beneficial effects.Negligible to minor cumulative adverse effects. Negligible to moderate localized cumulative beneficial effects.

Long-term negligible to minor adverse and beneficial effects.Minor cumulative adverse and negligible to moderate localized cumulative beneficial effects.

Long-term negligible to minor adverse and beneficial effects.Cumulative beneficial effects same as alternative C.

Special Uses and Designations: Grazing and Livestock Trailing

Negligible to minor adverse effects on grazing. No effect on livestock trailing.Negligible to minor cumulative adverse effects.

Same as alternative A.Minor to moderate cumulative adverse effects on grazing and negligible adverse effects on livestock trailing.

Minor to moderate adverse effects on grazing. No effect on livestock trailing.Cumulative impacts similar to alternative B with potential for more impacts.

Same as alternative A.Cumulative impacts similar to alternative A.

Special Uses and Designations: National Natural Landmark

Minor to moderate long-term beneficial and localized adverse effects.Minor cumulative beneficial effects.

Same as alternative A.Minor to moderate cumulative beneficial effects.

Similar to alternative A with more beneficial effects.Cumulative beneficial effects same as alternative B.

Same as alternative C.Cumulative beneficial effects same as alternative B.

Special Uses and Designations: National Historic Landmark

(Same as Cultural Landscapes)

Special Uses and Designations: National Historic Trail

Minor beneficial effects.Cumulative effects same as cultural landscapes.

Minor beneficial effects.Cumulative effects same as cultural landscapes.

Similar to alternatives A and B with additional beneficial effects.Cumulative effects same as cultural landscapes.

Same as alternative CCumulative effects same as cultural landscapes.

Special Uses and Designations: Research Natural Area

Long-term minor adverse and minor to moderate beneficial effects.Cumulative effects same as land use.

Similar to alternative A with fewer adverse effects.

Similar to alternative A with fewer adverse and more beneficial effects.

Same as alternative C.

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Chapter 4

The Affected Environment

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Chapter 4: The Affected Environment

The purpose of this chapter is to describe 

the physical, biological, cultural, and social 

environments of City of Rocks National Reserve, 

including human uses that could be affected from 

implementing any of the alternatives described 

in the preceding chapter. Although this chapter 

contains topics that were identified as important 

issues by the public and land management 

agencies during scoping, it also contains 

additional background data relevant to Reserve 

managers and a broader audience.

LAND USE AND 

OWNERSHIP PATTERNS

City of Rocks National Reserve encompasses 

approximately 14,407 acres. Most of the private 

land within and surrounding the Reserve is 

used for domestic livestock grazing, which is 

important to the regional economy. Most of the 

public lands are divided into grazing allotments, 

which are relied upon heavily by local ranchers 

(“Figure 12. Grazing Allotments”). Currently 

there are seven permittees grazing cattle on 

6,981 acres of public land in the Reserve, with an 

estimated 504 active animal unit months in eight 

allotments. Livestock are grazed on another 

4,000 acres of privately owned land. Grazing 

is excluded from the remaining 2,331 acres 

of public land in the Research Natural Area, 

state-owned section 36, and other federal land 

not within a grazing allotment. Area ranchers 

frequently trail cattle across the Reserve from 

one allotment to another. Cattle operations in 

the Reserve contribute to a western rural setting 

that imparts an increasingly rare ambience 

and scenic quality reminiscent of the old 

American West.

At the time of the Reserve’s designation in 1988, 

the ratio of private to public land within the 

Reserve was about 50/50. Public Law 100-696 

provided a way for private landowners to sell 

to the United States due to hardship of the 

designation. The United States has purchased 

and traded property from willing sellers within 

the Reserve to increase public land holdings 

by more than 2,313 acres, while preserving 

the integrity of private land. This has allowed 

for increased interpretive and recreational 

opportunities and better placement and rotation 

of grazing, as well as protection of wetlands and 

resources of significance within the Reserve.

In 1999, the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation entered into a Recreation 

and Public Purpose lease with the Bureau of 

Land Management for the development of 

a campground and visitor center outside the 

boundaries of the Reserve. The developed 

campground, Smoky Mountain Campground, 

offers 38 individual serviced campsites nestled 

within Idaho’s largest pinyon pine forest. Six of 

the sites are designated for equestrian users and 

include corrals. The campground also includes 

an equestrian trail head, restrooms, showers, 

and an RV dump station.

FARMING

There has been virtually no active crop 

farming in the Reserve for decades, though 

crop farming does continue in the adjacent 

valleys. Most ranching operations are cow/

calf operations, which include growing hay 

(alfalfa and native wild hay) and grain to feed 

livestock during winter months after cattle 

return from summer rangelands. In 1978 Sharp 

and Sanders explained why City of Rocks and 

the surrounding area was important to the selfsufficiency of local ranches:

Wide shot of rock arches.

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Figure 12. Grazing Allotments

Tracy Lane

Heath Canyon

Trail

Canyon

Kempton

Smoky Mountain

(BLM Administered)

Bath Rock

Emery Canyon

Graham Creek

TWIN

SISTERS

CIRCLE

CREEK

BASIN

CASTLE

GRAHAM ROCK

PEAK

D D

City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/EIS

Grazing Allotments

Reserve

Boundary

Sections

Fences

Roads 0 0.5 1

Miles

Produced by: NPS - PWR GIS

Date Created: July, 2014

Data Sources: NPS - Fences, Grazing Allotments, Reserve

 Boundary and Roads

 BLM - Section Lines

 USGS - Shaded Relief

Figure 22

N:\GIS_Maps\Parks\CIRO\GMP\GrazingAllotments.mxd

o This map depicts the areas actually

grazed within City of Rocks National

Reserve. These allotment boundaries

may extend outside of the Reserve and

may differ from the actual grazing

allotment boundaries granted by the

BLM.

12

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“The physical features of City of Rocks and 

surrounding valleys and mountains create an 

environment well suited to the production of 

livestock. The mountain areas provide ample 

summer grazing, foothills and plateau lands 

sustain animals during the spring and fall, the 

lower valleys and irrigated lands furnish feed 

and forage through the winter months. The 

interrelationship of private and public lands is 

such that if any part of the cyclic grazing pattern 

is removed, it would be difficult for a ranch to 

continue to operate” (Sharp and Sanders 

1978: p. 29).

LIVESTOCK

Livestock grazing in the Reserve is managed in 

order to maintain the western rural setting and 

character of the landscape from 1878–1988. 

No increases in animal unit months have been 

added to the grazing program. Fences have been 

realigned, removed, and maintained to facilitate 

better management of the livestock grazing 

program. Fences no longer in use are removed. 

Research continues to determine vegetative 

health and viability of plant communities 

as it relates to the livestock presence in the 

Reserve. There are still occasional cattle drives 

through the Reserve during the spring and fall 

migration of the livestock. An updated grazing 

management plan is being implemented for a 

more sustainable rotation and management 

program for grazing in the Reserve.

MINING

The history of mining at the Reserve has not 

been fully researched. Geologically, the Almo 

pluton is similar to the larger Idaho Batholith 

in Northern Idaho. This prompted prospectors 

in the early 20th century to explore the City of 

Rocks area in hopes of discovering valuable 

minerals and metals. Deposits of metal have 

been found near the Reserve in the Black 

Pine Mountains to the east and in the Albion 

Mountains to the north and west. Inside 

the Reserve boundaries several mica mines 

produced small quantities of mica. In 1993, the 

Bureau of Mines completed a mineral resource 

investigation of the Cache Peak study area 

(Bureau of Mines 1993). This study area lies to 

the north of the current Reserve boundaries. 

The report lists many previous studies including 

works concerning the economic geology of 

the region and the mineral resource potential 

of the area. The Idaho State Historical Society 

published Mining Idaho’s History: Metal Mining 

in Idaho 1860–1960: A Mining Context for Idaho

(McKay 2011). This work provides a general 

overview of mining in Idaho.

Between 1988 and the present, NPS and IDPR 

staff have roamed throughout the Reserve 

discovering small scale prospecting/mining 

features. There are four known mica mines 

on the west edge of the Twin Sisters Basin and 

several other small mining features scattered 

throughout the Reserve. These features would 

have been created in the early to mid-20th 

century. It is believed that all operations ceased 

by 1950 as the quantities of product were small 

and the locations remote from markets. In 1990, 

Sidney Covington completed a report on the 

Marie Lynn Placer Mining Claim (Covington 

1990). This claim is located on the west edge of 

the Reserve. In the 1990s, a private landowner 

in the Reserve set up an exploratory well for oil 

and/or gas in the west end of Circle Creek Basin. 

The well did not produce and the equipment 

was removed by 2000. In 2006, during the sale of 

the Laughmiller property within the Reserve, a 

claim was made in hopes of increasing the land 

value but the claim was not valid and the land 

sale proceeded without additional cost to the 

National Park Service.

In 2011, the National Park Service funded 

a project to document abandon mining 

areas within NPS national park units. The 

crew documented the locations of mining 

areas known to the Reserve staff at the time. 

Discussions with NPS regional personnel after 

the crew left reveled the existence of additional 

locations. These locations will be documented 

and added to the NPS database. Currently, there 

are mining features entered in the database.

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LAND USE OF CASSIA COUNTY AND 

LOCAL COMMUNITIES

The nonfederal lands surrounding the Reserve 

are zoned for multiple use and used primarily 

for agricultural, and livestock production. The 

gateway businesses have developed within 

the nearby communities in response to an 

increase in park visitors and scenic byway 

improvements. The most significant business 

development is occurring in Albion and Almo. 

These businesses include food service, lodging, 

fuel and convenience stores, and a hot springs 

swimming facility.

Land ownership adjacent to the Reserve remains 

traditional ranching by local families or those 

who continue agricultural uses. Cassia County 

land use patterns and ownership are illustrated 

in table 20 below.

Cassia County recognizes and encourages 

agriculture as its primary economic base but 

also supports manufacturing and processing 

industries to develop a strong job market 

and a diversified local economy. The county 

encourages location of well-planned commercial 

and industrial development in or around 

existing cities and not on prime agricultural land 

unless absolutely required.

The county’s land use and ownership patterns 

generally reflect that of the region. Rangeland 

covers 68% of the county, and 28% of the land 

is used for agriculture. Fifty-seven percent of the 

county’s land is controlled by federal agencies 

and 40% is privately owned. Unincorporated 

lands of Cassia County are zoned by the 

county as multiple use zones. Zoning of 

incorporated lands is the responsibility of the 

incorporated units.

SPECIAL DESIGNATIONS

Before the Reserve was established, the national 

significance of this site and its special natural 

and cultural resources were recognized by the 

local community and people from outside the 

region who had visited and been inspired by 

their experiences at City of Rocks. As a result, 

and through additional research and analysis, a 

national historic landmark and a national natural 

landmark were established. Additionally, Cassia 

County zoned a large portion of the Reserve 

as a Historical Preservation Zone (HPZ). 

Much of the lands with NHL, NNL, and HPZ 

designation are within the boundary of the 

Reserve; however, each of these designations 

covers a slightly different area of land, and 

none covers the entire expanse of the Reserve 

(“Figure 4. Designations”).

LOCAL ZONING

Much of the land within and surrounding the 

Reserve is public land, either under federal 

(BLM, NPS, or USFS) ownership or belonging 

to the State of Idaho. Non-public lands within 

the Reserve are subject to Cassia County zoning. 

Adjacent lands in the unincorporated area are 

also under Cassia County zoning laws (“Figure 

13. Cassia County Zoning”). According to the 

Cassia County Comprehensive Plan, zoning 

within and adjacent to the Reserve includes both 

Historical Preservation and Multiple Use Zones 

(Cassia County 2006). While most of the Reserve 

is within the designated Historical Preservation 

Zone, a portion in the southeast corner of the 

Reserve is a Multiple Use Zone. The Historical 

Preservation Zone limits development to 

one dwelling unit per owner of record at the 

Reserve’s establishment, subject to county 

design guidelines, to preserve the historic rural 

character of the area. The Multiple Use Zone 

is a designation applied to remote, nonprime 

production land areas that are used primarily for 

other agriculture and livestock/wildlife forage 

production and requires only a conditional use 

permit for residential development.

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Figure 13. Cassia County Zoning

TWIN

SISTERS

CIRCLE

CREEK

BASIN

CASTLE

GRAHAM ROCK

PEAK

D D

Almo

City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/EIS

Cassia County Zoning

Agricultural Residential

Cities Communities

Electrical Transmission Corridor

Historical Preservation Zone

Multiple Use

Reserve Boundary

Roads

0 0.5 1

Miles

Produced by: NPS - PWR GIS

Date Created: July, 2014

Data Sources: Cassia County - Zones

 NPS - Reserve Boundary and Roads

 USGS - Shaded Relief

Figure 23

N:\GIS_Maps\Parks\CIRO\GMP\Zoning.mxd o

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Table 20. County Profiles of Idaho-Cassia

Land Ownership Acres Percent of Total Land Ownership

Federal Land 925,150 56.3%

BLM 516,060

USFS 387,053

Other 22,037

State Land 51,670 3.1%

Endowment Land 50,129

Fish & Game 901

Parks & Recreation 640

University of Idaho Land 0

Private Land 663,408 40.4%

County Land 1,800 0.1%*

Municipal Land 596 -

Total 1,642,624 99.9%

Land Use** Acres Percent Total

Urban Land 7,100 0.4%

Agriculture 453,300 27.7%

Rangeland 1,113,000 67.9%

Forest 46,400 2.8%

Water 10,200 0.6%

Wetland 0 0.0%

Barren Land 8,400 0.5%

Tundra 0 0.0%

Perennial Snow 0 0.0%

Total 1,638,400 100.0%

*0.1% represents city and county land combined.

**Land use based on USGS land use cover/classification system. The water category and the rounding and estimating of satellite-based 

data usually results in slightly higher totals for land use.

Source: County Profiles of Idaho-Cassia, Idaho Commerce and Labor Department.

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NATURAL RESOURCES

CLIMATE AND AIR QUALITY

Climate

City of Rocks National Reserve is located in 

south-central Idaho on the northern edge of the 

Basin and Range physiographic province, about 

5 miles (8 km) north of the Utah border. The 

Basin and Range province is a vast physiographic 

region defined by a unique topographic 

expression. Basin and Range topography is 

characterized by abrupt changes in elevation, 

alternating between narrow faulted mountain 

chains and flat arid valleys or basins. The Basin 

and Range province is effectively cut off from 

the westerly flow of Pacific moisture due to 

orographic uplift by the Sierra and Cascades 

ranges, which causes cooling and precipitates 

much of the moisture out of crossing air 

masses. The result is a Dry Steppe cold climate 

classification for most of the Basin and Range. 

The climate is typical of middle latitude, semiarid lands where evaporation potential exceeds 

precipitation throughout the year.

Average maximum temperature is based on 30 

years of data (between 1961 and 1990) and 

average rainfall is based on 21 years of data 

(between 1963 and 1995), see Table 21 (Average 

Maximum Temperature) and Table 22 

(Average Rainfall).

(WorldClimate 2011)

Summers are generally dry with wide 

temperature ranges, where nighttime lows 

occasionally approach freezing and midday 

highs can be near 90°F (31.7°C). Ten to 15 inches 

(25.4 to 38.1 cm) of precipitation falls mostly in 

the spring; however, August and September also 

see afternoon thundershowers.

Precipitation in the City of Rocks National 

Reserve was modeled by the Oregon State 

University PRISM program (PRISM 2011), a 

model used by the USDA Natural Resources 

Conservation Service (NRCS) to provide 

baseline data for many of their programs. It 

shows a general southwest to northeast trend 

line that approximately follows the orientation 

of the Albion Mountains. To the east of this line 

the area is drier with precipitation increasing 

rapidly to the northwest as elevation increases. 

Below about 6,800 feet, the precipitation ranges 

from about 14 to 16 inches, the average annual 

air temperature is about 42° Fahrenheit (F), 

and the frost-free period is about 80 days. From 

6,800 feet to about 7,400 feet, the precipitation 

rises to about 22 inches, the average annual air 

temperature decreases to about 40°F, and the 

frost-free period decreases to about 65 days. 

At elevations above 7,400 feet to the Reserve 

maximum of about 8,867 feet on top of Graham 

Peak, the precipitation increases to about 25 

inches, the average annual air temperature is 

about 38°F, and the frost-free period is about 

45 days.

Table 21. Average Maximum Temperature

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year

°C 2.5 6.0 10.3 15.9 20.7 26.3 31.7 31.0 25.0 18.3 9.1 3.3 16.7

°F 36.5 42.8 50.5 60.6 69.3 79.3 89.1 87.8 77.0 64.9 48.4 37.9 62.1

Table 22. Average Rainfall

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year

mm 18.6 15.5 26.0 27.8 41.0 31.0 23.6 26.6 24.4 20.6 22.3 19.3 297.7

inches 0.7 0.6 1.0 1.1 1.6 1.2 0.9 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.9 0.8 11.7

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Air Quality

Air pollution not only affects the quality of the 

air we breathe but can also impact the quality 

of scenic views and virtually every aspect of 

an ecosystem, from soil and water quality, to 

the health, vigor, and status of vegetation and 

wildlife. For example, nitrogen (N) and sulfur 

(S) compounds deposited from air pollution 

can harm soils, vegetation, lakes, and streams 

through acidification or fertilization, resulting 

in disruption of nutrient cycling, changes in 

species composition, and loss of biodiversity. 

Pollutant particles in the atmosphere scatter and 

absorb light, creating a haze that impairs scenic 

park views.

Air pollutants emitted in or near the Reserve 

could be those that affect visibility (nitrogen 

oxides, sulfur oxides, and particulates), those 

that affect human health (hydrocarbons, ozone 

precursors, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, 

particulates, and air toxics), and/or those that 

affect ecosystems (ozone, acidic deposition 

of nitrogen and sulfur, nitrogen nutrient 

enrichment, and air toxics). Resources that are 

sensitive to air pollution are called air quality 

related values (AQRVs).

The primary factors that determine air quality 

in the Reserve are the location of air pollutant 

sources, the types and amounts of pollutants 

emitted, meteorological conditions, and 

topographic features. Atmospheric conditions 

such as wind speed, wind direction, and air 

temperature gradients interact with the physical 

features of the landscape to determine the 

movement and dispersal of air pollutants.

The National Park Service tracks air quality 

conditions through national pollutant 

monitoring networks. However many parks, 

such as City of Rocks National Reserve, do not 

have onsite monitoring equipment. For this 

reason, the NPS Air Resources Division (ARD) 

interpolates pollutant monitoring data from 

the national networks to estimate air quality 

conditions in parks without monitors (see 

“Interpolated Air Quality Parameters” below). 

The National Park Service uses ambient air 

quality data, ecological effects studies, and risk 

assessments to assess the condition of air quality 

related values in parks.

National Ambient Air Quality Standards

The federal Clean Air Act (CAA) requires the 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to 

identify National Ambient Air Quality Standards 

(NAAQS) protective of public health (primary 

standards) and welfare (secondary standards). 

The Environmental Protection Agency has 

established NAAQS for six “criteria” pollutants: 

ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, 

sulfur dioxide, particulate matter particles 

smaller than 10 microns in diameter (PM10) and 

particles smaller than 2.5 microns in diameter 

(PM2.5), and lead. The Environmental Protection 

Agency has also classified air basins, or portions 

thereof, as either attainment, nonattainment,

or unclassified for each criteria air pollutant, 

based on whether or not the NAAQS have 

been achieved. The Reserve is located in 

Cassia County, which is regulated by the Idaho 

Department of Environmental Quality (IDEQ). 

Cassia County is “unclassified” for all NAAQS 

because no monitoring of criteria pollutants 

exists in the area. Table 23 provides a list of 

the National Ambient Air Quality Standards 

(EPA 2011).

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NPS Policy

Section 4.7.1, “Air Quality,” of NPS Management 

Policies 2006 defines the NPS responsibility to 

protect air quality and related values under both 

the 1916 Organic Act and the federal Clean Air 

Act. In accordance with this policy, the Reserve 

will seek to perpetuate the best possible air 

quality to (1) preserve natural resources and 

systems; (2) preserve cultural resources; and (3) 

sustain visitor enjoyment, human health, and 

scenic vistas. Vegetation, visibility, water quality, 

wildlife, historic and prehistoric structures and 

objects, cultural landscapes, and most other 

elements of the Reserve environment may be 

impacted by air pollution and are considered to 

be air quality-related values. The Reserve will 

actively promote and pursue measures to protect 

these values from the adverse impacts of air 

pollution. As noted in Management Policies 2006, 

in cases of doubt as to the impacts of existing 

or potential air pollution on park resources, 

the service will err on the side of protecting air 

quality and related values for future generations. 

City of Rocks National Reserve is classified by 

the Clean Air Act as a Class II air quality area (42 

U.S.C. 7401 et seq.).

Table 23. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (as of October 2012)

Primary Standards Secondary Standards

Pollutant Level Averaging Time Level Averaging Time

Carbon 

Monoxide

9 ppm 8-hour (1) None

35 ppm 1-hour (1)

Lead 0.15 μg/m3 (2) Rolling 3-Month Average Same as Primary

Nitrogen 

Dioxide

0.53 ppm Annual 

(Arithmetic Average)

Same as Primary

0.100 ppm 1-hour (4) None

Particulate 

Matter (PM10)

150 μg/m3 24-hour (5) Same as Primary

Particulate 

Matter (PM2.5)

15.0 μg/m3 Annual (6) 

(Arithmetic Average)

Same as Primary

35 μg/m3 24-hour (7) Same as Primary

Ozone 0.075 ppm 8-hour (8) Same as Primary

Sulfur 

Dioxide

0.075 ppm 1-hour* 0.5 ppm 3-hour (1)

(1) Not to be exceeded more than once per year.

(2) Not to be exceeded.

(4) The 3-year average of the 98th percentile of the daily maximum 1-hour average must not exceed 0.100 ppm.

(5) Not to be exceeded more than once per year on average over 3 years.

(6) The 3-year average of the weighted annual mean must not exceed 15.0 μg/m3.

(7) The 3-year average of the 98th percentile of 24-hour concentrations must not exceed 35 μg/m3.

(8) The 3-year average of the fourth-highest daily maximum 8-hour average must not exceed 0.075 ppm.

* 99th percentile of 1-hour daily maximum concentrations, averaged over 3 years.

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Air Quality Monitoring

There are no permanent onsite air quality 

monitors in the Reserve. In 2004, the National 

Park Service conducted passive ozone 

monitoring at the Reserve June through 

September. Samples were collected on a weekly 

basis, providing a general idea of the average 

weekly ozone concentrations in the Reserve. 

Ozone concentrations ranged from a low of 

0.037 parts per million (ppm) in late September 

to a high of 0.056 ppm in late July, with a 

summertime average of 0.046 ppm. Because 

ozone concentrations are typically quite variable, 

often with significant diurnal swings, passive 

ozone data are difficult to compare to other 

criteria methods of measuring ozone, which are 

calculated based on shorter averaging times. 

While useful, the passive ozone data did not 

provide the Reserve with enough information 

to determine the actual ozone threat to plants 

or humans.

A portable monitor collected ozone data at 

the Reserve throughout the summer of 2010 

and during May and June of 2011. Portable 

monitoring data can be compared to the 

NAAQS. The fourth highest daily maximum 

eight-hour ozone concentrations were 0.060 

ppm in 2010 and 0.059 ppm in 2011. While 

the concentrations are below the NAAQS of 

0.075 ppm, 0.060 ppm is within 80% of the 

standard, meaning concentrations are high 

enough to affect people who are sensitive to 

ozone (Ray 2011). Further, studies show that 

some plant species are more sensitive to ozone 

than humans.

Interpolated Air Quality Parameters

Interpolation is a method of constructing 

new data points within the range of a discrete 

set of known data points. Using ozone, acid 

deposition, and visibility data from existing 

ambient air quality monitoring networks, 

the “2006–2010 5-Year Average Air Quality 

Estimates” provides estimates of air quality 

information for areas without onsite ambient 

monitoring data (NPS 2012a).

Ozone

The interpolated 2006–2010 average of the 

annual fourth-highest eight-hour concentration 

in the Reserve is 0.072ppm. In addition to 

the interpolated estimates, Washington State 

University estimates ozone concentrations in the 

Northwest using the Community Multiscale Air 

 

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Quality modeling system (CMAQ). The 

following three CMAQ maps depict the modeled 

highest eight-hour average ozone concentrations 

for July 2008, August 2008, and July 2009, and 

portray values that are consistent with the 

interpolated values calculated by the National 

Park Service from monitored data.

While it is not known how representative the 

two summers of portable monitoring data 

are, they indicate that interpolations and 

CMAQ modeling may overestimate ozone 

concentrations at the Reserve (NPS 2010).

Some types of vegetation are more sensitive 

to the harmful effects of ozone and can 

exhibit foliar injury at exposure levels lower 

than the human health-based NAAQS. Foliar 

ozone injury on broadleaf plants is generally 

categorized by increasing levels of severity as 

stipple (small dots), chlorosis (yellow mottling), 

fleck, and bifacial necrosis (cell death). Three 

plant species in the Reserve, serviceberry 

(Amelanchier alnifolia), quaking aspen (Populus 

tremuloides), and Scouler’s willow (Salix 

scouleriana) have been identified as being 

sensitive to ozone exposure (NPS 2006b).

A 2004 ozone risk assessment for the Reserve 

ranked the risk of foliar ozone injury as 

moderate using two indices, the W126 and 

SUM06, which were developed based on plant 

response to ozone. The NPS Air Resources 

Division also calculates interpolated W126 

and SUM06 values for the Reserve. The 

interpolated 2006–2010 average W126 is 14.4 

parts per million-hours (ppm-hrs) and the 

interpolated average SUM06 is 17.9 ppm-hrs at 

the Reserve, suggesting that sensitive vegetation 

could be at risk for foliar injury. However, sitespecific surveys would need to be completed 

to determine whether injury is occurring in 

this park.

Acid Deposition

The deposition of acidic materials from the 

atmosphere to Earth’s surface occurs in both 

wet and dry forms as rain, snow, fog, dry 

particles, and gases. A 2011 risk assessment 

(Sullivan et al. 2011), which evaluated the 

relative risk of nitrogen enrichment effects 

on park ecosystems, found that existing plant 

communities in the Reserve may be sensitive to 

nitrogen deposition but that the overall risk from 

N deposition is low, due in part to relatively low 

pollutant exposures.

Deposition is reported in kilograms per 

hectare per year (kg/ha/yr) for sulfur and 

nitrogen. Deposition loading is computed by 

multiplying the precipitation-weighted mean ion 

concentration (in milligrams per liter—mg/L) for 

samples by the total precipitation amount for the 

summary period. The interpolated 2006–2010 

wet deposition at the Reserve for sulfur is 0.8 

kg/ha/yr, and for nitrogen it is 2.1 kg/ha/yr. This 

information suggests that nitrogen deposition 

may be a moderate concern in the Reserve if 

regional nitrogen deposition increases, but that 

sulfur deposition is not currently a concern 

(NPS 2010).

Particulate Matter

The term “particulate matter” (PM) includes 

both solid particles and liquid droplets found 

in air. Many human-caused and natural sources 

emit particulate matter directly or emit other 

pollutants that react in the atmosphere to 

form particulate matter. These solid and liquid 

particles come in a wide range of sizes. Particles 

less than 2.5 microns in diameter (PM2.5) are 

referred to as “fine” particles and are believed to 

pose the greatest health risks. Because of their 

small size (less than one-seventh the average 

width of a human hair), fine particles can lodge 

deeply into the lungs. Interpolated 24-hr PM2.5

concentrations at the Reserve are 10.1–11.6 

micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m3), which is 

less than the NAAQS of 35 μg/m3 (NPS 2012a).

Visibility Conditions

Visibility is degraded when light is scattered by 

tiny particles in the air, which reduces the clarity 

and color of what we see. This is referred to as 

haze and is often worse when the air is humid. 

Haze degrades visibility in many scenic areas. 

Air pollutants that contribute to fine-particle 

formation and haze come from a variety of 

natural and manmade sources. Visibility is often 

reported using a haze index called the deciview. 

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To assess the visibility condition at a park, the 

National Park Service determines the deciview 

difference between measured visibility and 

calculated natural visibility (i.e., without humancaused impairment). Interpolated visibility for 

2006–2010 at the Reserve indicates that, on 

average, visibility at the Reserve is 30% hazier 

than natural conditions.

Air Pollution Emissions

Air pollution emissions are the gases and 

particles that are put into the air or emitted by 

various pollution sources. Mobile and stationary 

sources of greenhouse gas and criteria air 

pollutant emissions have been calculated for the 

energy, transportation, waste, and water sectors 

of the Reserve. Baseline emission sources for 

the Reserve break down to 43% transportation, 

34% energy use, and 23% waste (NPS 2010c). 

For a description of the Reserve’s operational 

emissions and regional emissions and sources, 

see table 24.

Table 24. 2007 Baseline Emission Results for City of Rocks National Reserve – Metric Tons Carbon Dioxide

Equivalent (MTCO2E)

Park Unit Stationary 

Source

Purchased 

Electricity

Mobile 

Source

Refrigeration Waste Other GHG 

Sources

Gross 

Emissions

Net 

Emissions

Operations 18 0 23 0 12 0 53 53

Visitors 0 0 82 0 0 0 82 82

Other Permitted 

Activities

8 0 51 2 0 13 74 74

Gross Emissions 26 0 156 2 12 13 209 209

Net Emissions* 26 0 156 2 12 13 209 209

*Net Emissions = Gross Emissions - Carbon Sequestration

Operational Data

Stationary Combustion: 3,058 gallons of propane 

Purchased Electricity: 53,856 kilowatt hours 

Mobile Combustion: 174,489 vehicle miles traveled (Visitors) 

Solid Waste: 32 short tons (NPS CLIP Tool Report April 2010)

Carbon Neutral Vision

The NPS Pacific West Region has a vision for 

park operations to be carbon neutral by 2016. 

To help achieve this vision, the Reserve has 

developed a climate action plan that outlines 

actions for conserving energy and water, 

increasing efficiency and reducing waste, 

promoting renewable energy, and educating 

visitors on how they can help the region achieve 

its goal (Reserve 2010c). Future emissions will 

be compared to the 2008 baseline emissions 

inventory. The Reserve has set an annual 

emission reductions target at 30%.

City of Rocks National Reserve 

Emissions Inventory

City of Rocks National Reserve’s 2007 

carbon footprint was analyzed using the 

Climate Leadership in Parks (CLIP) tool 

(Module 1), a greenhouse gas emissions 

inventory model jointly developed by the 

Environmental Protection Agency and the 

National Park Service. Data used to perform the 

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calculations included the amount of electricity 

purchased, waste sent to the landfill, and fuels 

consumed. The baseline findings show that 

transportation was the largest contributor to 

total greenhouse gas emissions for the Reserve 

(75% of emissions). Energy was the next highest 

contributor, with 12% of emissions. Solid waste 

and other emissions sources (e.g., stationary 

combustion and refrigeration) contributed 

7% and 6% to overall Reserve emissions, 

respectively. When only park operations were 

taken into consideration, transportation was still 

the highest greenhouse gas emitter, accounting 

for 43% of operational emissions. Energy and 

waste disposal contribute the remaining 34% 

and 23% of emissions, respectively. These 

findings provide an initial look at the carbon 

footprint of City of Rocks National Reserve. 

Further monitoring and analysis using the 

CLIP tool will be continued into the future and 

compared against the 2007 baseline to track 

progress in reducing the Reserve’s carbon 

footprint. Table 24 lists the baseline emissions 

results for City of Rocks National Reserve.

NATURAL LIGHTSCAPE

As with the acoustical environment and 

soundscape, the natural lightscape is an inherent 

component of “the scenery and the natural 

and historic objects and the wild life therein” 

protected by the National Park Service Organic 

Act of 1916. NPS Management Policies 2006

section 4.10 requires the National Park Service 

to preserve a park unit’s natural lightscape by 

reducing the use of in-park lighting, mitigating 

in-park lighting, and seeking cooperation from 

neighboring communities and partners to 

reduce the intrusion of artificial light into the 

park (NPS 2006a).

Park natural lightscapes are certainly treasured 

for their scenic value, but the importance 

of this resource goes well beyond natural 

scenery. Natural darkness is critical for wildlife, 

especially nocturnal wildlife, because the 

vital characteristics of their habitat include 

darkness. Natural lightscapes can also be part 

of the cultural landscape. Addressing natural 

lightscapes in only their scenic implication or 

human dimension is often inadequate.

The NPS Night Sky Program recognizes that the 

absence of artificial light has an intrinsic value, 

apart from any human experience or identified 

wildlife impact. The natural rhythm of light and 

darkness throughout the day, throughout the 

lunar month, and throughout the seasons is a 

natural process that is both fundamental to the 

ecosystem and to the character of the Reserve’s 

geographic location on the planet.

Characteristics of Light at Night

As with sound, humans perceive light on a 

logarithmic scale. What is viewed as “twice as 

bright” may actually be 4 or 10 times brighter 

in reality. Further complicating our perception 

of light is the natural trait of human eyes to 

dynamically adjust to a wide range of brightness 

levels. This feature of our eyes is what gives 

rise to our ability to dark-adapt, and the issue 

of dark adaptation and transition between 

light and dark areas is especially critical in dark 

ambient environments such as parks. Thus it is 

difficult to say that a certain brightness of light or 

illumination level is “adequate for human vision” 

or “detrimental to dark adaptation” because our 

perception is frequently relative.

Nonetheless, the night sky has a predictable 

absolute brightness. The stars, Milky Way, 

zodiacal light, planets, and transient moonlight 

each add to the total light from the sky. 

Thus when examining impacts on the scenic 

quality of a starry sky, it is then possible to 

articulate thresholds and consequences. Night 

sky brightness is usually measured in stellar 

magnitudes per square arc second (msa), where 

the natural sky at the zenith (the point straight 

overhead which tends to be the darkest spot in 

the sky) is typically 22.0 msa as measured in the 

green color spectrum. In lieu of this logarithmic 

astronomical scale, sky brightness can also be 

expressed in terms of factors of a natural sky. 

So a sky brightness of 1.5 “skies” would be 

caused by 1 unit of natural sky brightness and 

0.5 units of diffuse artificial light (50% brighter 

than natural).

In addition to the diffuse sources of light 

pollution that brighten the night sky, there are 

also point sources of light. Such points of glare 

in the nighttime scene may have a negligible 

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impact on the brightness of the night sky (i.e., 

the diffuse form of artificial light) but may cause 

substantial annoyance or glare. The articulation 

of glare and the establishment of thresholds 

is still being researched. Despite the lack of 

available thresholds, it is unequivocal that a 

relatively modest light can appear brighter than 

the brightest star for miles away and impact the 

natural lightscape. Whether the light is flashing, 

where it is positioned in the landscape, and 

its color will also influence the perception of 

naturalness in a nighttime scene.

The perception of light at night by wildlife is 

extremely varied. Some species are remarkably 

sensitive to light, and their fitness can be 

substantially impacted by small amounts of 

artificial light. Other animals use artificial 

light to their advantage, while still others 

show minimal acknowledgement of artificial 

light. As with human perception, the color 

of the light, the blinking of the light, and its 

position in the landscape are critical. Sea turtle 

hatchlings, for example, can be disoriented 

by both diffuse and point sources of light 

along coastlines and are especially sensitive to 

blue light; migrating passerine birds are often 

disoriented by communications towers and are 

more sensitive to red light; and frogs’ behavior 

can be altered by even occasional sweeps of 

car headlights. Nocturnal insects are often 

attracted to point sources from substantial 

distances and the disruption of their movement 

can subsequently alter bat foraging and the 

pollination of nocturnal flowers. While speciesspecific information is scarce, some patterns are 

emerging in the literature that can be useful to 

guide lightscape management in a specific biome 

or ecoregion.

Lightscape Conditions in the Reserve

The NPS Night Sky Program has developed 

a sophisticated camera system to measure 

the diffuse light in the night sky (Duriscoe, 

Luginbuhl, and Moore 2007). This methodology 

allows for the subtraction of natural light 

sources to accurately track the contributions 

of diffuse artificial light. Although this system 

is optimized for human perception of the night 

sky, it has not yet been used at City of Rocks 

National Reserve.

Nearby analogs, such as Craters of the Moon 

National Monument, combined with satellite 

images and models of light pollution, can be 

used to estimate conditions at the Reserve 

(Cinzano, Falchi, and Elvidge 2001). Using these, 

it is likely that the Reserve rates at Bortle Class 

3 on the Bortle Scale—a qualitative scale relying 

on visual appearance to determine which of the 

1 (pristine) to 9 (urban) classes a night sky falls 

within (Bortle 2001). Similarly, the zenith sky 

brightness estimate is approximately 21.8 msa or 

about 1.2 “skies,” indicating that artificial light 

at the zenith is about 20% greater than natural. 

Under the relatively good air quality conditions 

found in the Reserve, cities as far as 200 miles 

away are probably visible along the horizon.

On August 24, 2009, NPS staff collected some 

measurements with a Unihedron Sky Quality 

Meter, an inexpensive handheld unit that is used 

to rapidly assess a site. Measurements taken at 

10:30 pm and 3:00 am MDT produced measures 

of approximately 21.7 msa, which is consistent 

with the 21.8 estimate noted above, based on 

the standard deviation of Sky Quality Meter’s 

0.15 bias (yielding an actual zenith measure of 

21.85 msa). Thus indications are that zenith sky 

brightness is 15–20% greater than natural and 

likely to fall within Bortle Class 3.

Reliable baseline conditions will be established 

when the NPS Night Sky Program is able to 

take camera measurements at the Reserve. The 

long-term protection of the Reserve’s relatively 

dark night skies demonstrates the need for 

facility lighting to be mitigated and the need for 

the Reserve to actively engage with surrounding 

areas to minimize light pollution where possible. 

Mitigation for park outdoor lighting should 

include the following considerations:

•	 Whether a light should be installed

•	 When the light should be on

•	 Full shielding of the light 

whenever possible

•	 The use of yellow or amber light to reduce 

ecological impact

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•	 Using the minimum light necessary for 

the task, sometimes as low as one-tenth 

of what would be recommended in a 

suburban or urban setting

•	 Using the most energy efficient lamp

By using dark sky-friendly lighting in the 

Reserve, the National Park Service and Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation can more 

effectively encourage similar practices by park 

neighbors.

Experience of Night Sky

The protection of scenery in national park 

units extends to the nighttime as well. Many 

visitors seek out the view of the starry sky from 

national parks, as they have lost the ability to 

see such a sky from their homes due to light 

pollution. Other visitors have minimal affinity 

for astronomy, but the starry night sky serves as 

a backdrop for other pursuits. Maintaining night 

skies is part of keeping parks whole, and the 

scenery of the night includes more than just the 

view upward into the cosmos. The National Park 

Service defines the entirety of scenery at night 

as “natural lightscapes.” A natural lightscape 

is a place or environment characterized by the 

natural rhythm of the sun and moon cycles, 

clean air, and dark nights unperturbed by 

artificial light. It may also include the darkness 

of a cave or the ambience of a cultural scene at 

night. Natural lightscapes, including dark night 

skies, are not only a resource unto themselves 

but are an integral component of countless park 

experiences.

Environments that are naturally dark and mostly 

free from light pollution are very sensitive to 

small incremental additions of artificial light 

at night.

NATURAL SOUNDSCAPE

The natural soundscape is an inherent 

component of “the scenery and the natural 

and historic objects and the wild life therein” 

protected by the NPS Organic Act of 1916. NPS 

Management Policies 2006 (§4.9) requires the 

National Park Service to preserve the park’s 

natural soundscape and to restore the degraded 

soundscape to the natural condition wherever 

possible (NPS 2006a). Additionally, the National 

Park Service is required to prevent or minimize 

degradation of the natural soundscape from 

noise (i.e., inappropriate/undesirable humancaused sound).

Although NPS Management Policies 2006

currently refers to the term “soundscape” as the 

aggregate of all natural sounds that occur in a 

park, the NPS Natural Sounds Program (NSP) 

has updated this term. Because the National 

Park Service works to protect and enhance park 

resources and visitor experiences, the Natural 

Sounds Program differentiates between physical 

sound sources and the human perception of 

those sounds. Currently the Natural Sounds 

Program refers to physical sound resources 

(such as wildlife, waterfalls, wind, rain, and 

cultural or historic sounds), regardless of 

audibility, as the acoustical environment, 

while the human perception of that acoustical 

environment is defined as the soundscape. 

This distinction will allow managers to create 

objectives for safeguarding both the acoustical 

environment and the visitor experience (or 

soundscape).

The National Park Service recognizes the 

acoustical environment as a resource in itself, 

separate from its relationship to wildlife 

and visitors. This section of the document 

focuses specifically on the Reserve’s acoustical 

environment. For a discussion on sound and its 

importance to wildlife and visitor experience, 

please refer to the “Soundscape, Lightscape, and 

Visitor Experience” section in this document.

Characteristics of Sound

Humans perceive sound as an auditory 

sensation created by pressure variations that 

move through a medium such as water or air. 

Sound is measured in terms of amplitude and 

frequency (Harris 1998; Templeton 1997). 

Noise, essentially the negative evaluation of 

sound, is defined as extraneous or undesired 

sound (Morfey 2001). Sound pressure level is 

proportional to sound power and is measured 

in decibels (dB). The decibel is a logarithmic 

scale unit that is commonly used to relate sound 

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pressures to some common reference level, thus 

producing a smaller, more manageable range of 

numbers. The loudness of a sound as heard by 

the human ear is estimated by an A-weighted 

decibel scale, where the A-weighting provides 

a formula for discounting sounds at low (less 

than 1 kHz) and high (greater than 6 kHz) 

frequencies. This adjustment for human hearing 

is expressed as dB(A). For this discussion, the 

A-weighted values are used to describe potential 

effects on the Reserve’s acoustical environment 

and soundscape. Table 25 provides examples 

of A-weighted sound levels (unpublished 

NPS data).

Table 25. Examples of Sound Levels

Reference Sound dB(A) 

Level1

Normal breathing 10

Leaves rustling 20

Crickets (16 feet) 40

Normal conversation (5 feet) 60

2-stroke snowmobile (30 mph at 50 feet) 70

Helicopter landing at 200 feet 80

Heavy truck or loud motorcycle (25 feet) 90

Thunder 100

Military jet (110 feet) 120

Shotgun firing 130

1An increase of 10 dBA represents a perceived (to human 

hearing) doubling of sound pressure level; that means 20 

dBA would be perceived as twice as loud as 10 dBA. Thirty 

dBA would be perceived as four times louder than 10 

dBA, etc.

Acoustical Conditions in the Reserve

Throughout 2008 and 2009, Reserve staff 

conducted acoustical monitoring at nine 

sites within the Reserve. These sites were 

representative of either the dominant vegetation 

zones or management zones in the Reserve (for 

more information on sites contact the Reserve). 

The acoustical monitoring efforts provided 

information on natural and existing ambient 

sound levels and types of sound sources. Natural 

ambient sound level refers to the acoustical 

conditions that exist in the absence of humancaused noise and represents the level from 

which the National Park Service measures 

impacts on the acoustical environment. Existing 

ambient sound level refers to the current sound 

intensity of an area, including both natural and 

human-caused sounds. Natural ambient sound 

levels measured at the nine sites ranged from 

21 to 27 dBA during the day and 18 to 37 dBA 

at night. Louder levels during the nighttime 

hours resulted from increased insect activity. 

Existing ambient sound levels ranged from 21 

to 28 dBA during the day and 18 to 37 dBA at 

night (Reserve 2010a). The similarity between 

the natural and existing ambient sound levels is 

evidence of the quiet nature of the Reserve and 

the dominance of natural sounds therein.

The acoustical environment is vital to the 

function and character of the Reserve. Natural 

sounds include those sounds upon which 

ecological processes and interactions depend. 

Examples of such natural sounds in City of 

Rocks include:

•	 Sounds produced by birds, frogs, or 

insects to define territories or attract mates

•	 Sounds produced by bats to navigate or 

locate prey

•	 Sounds produced by physical processes 

such as wind in the trees, flowing water, 

or thunder

Among the wildlife sounds that can be heard 

in the Reserve are calls made by great horned 

owls, coyotes, common poorwills, common 

nighthawks, western scrub jays, and blackcapped chickadees. Other natural sounds 

include thunderstorms, rain, and rock falls. 

Although natural sounds predominate 

throughout the Reserve, human-caused noise 

has the potential to mask these sounds. Noise 

impacts the acoustical environment much 

as smog impacts the visual environment, 

obscuring the listening horizon for both wildlife 

and visitors. Examples of human-caused 

sounds heard in the Reserve include aircraft 

(such as jets and propeller rotors), vehicles, 

heavy equipment, domestic animals (such 

as cows), and visitors. With the exception of 

one site, monitoring results revealed that the 

most dominant human-caused sound was 

high-altitude commercial jets. Specifically, 

commercial jets were audible between 1.8 and 

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City of Rocks National Reserve DGMP/EIS

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18.6% of the time (over 24 hours), depending 

on the site. At the remaining site, vehicles 

were heard more often than jets. Military jets 

were detected at three of the monitoring sites, 

representing some of the loudest noise events 

(i.e., above 95 dBA) (NPS 2010a).

Despite the presence of various human-caused 

noise intrusions, the Reserve includes a diversity 

of natural sounds that make for a rich and 

spectacular acoustical environment.

Soundscape, Lightscape, and 

Visitor Experience

Experience of Sound

Our ability to see is a powerful tool for 

experiencing our world, but sound adds a 

richness that sight alone cannot provide. 

In many cases, hearing is the only way to 

experience certain aspects of our environment. 

Natural sounds often present the best 

opportunities to find wildlife because animals 

can be heard at much greater distances than 

they can be seen. The opportunity to experience 

an unimpaired acoustical environment is an 

important part of overall visitor experience and 

enjoyment. This perception of the acoustical 

environment represents what is referred to as 

the soundscape (see the “Natural Soundscape” 

section for further clarification on definitions). 

Many natural sounds such as bird songs or 

the rustling of leaves can have a calming and 

relaxing effect. Other sounds such as the chirp of 

crickets or a gentle breeze can trigger memories 

of pleasant past experiences.

Noise can distract visitors from the resources 

and purposes of a park. Increasingly, even 

those parks that appear as they did in a 

historical context do not sound the way they 

once did. Natural sounds are being masked or 

obscured by a wide variety of human-caused 

sounds. Thus, soundscape preservation and 

noise management is a complex aspect of 

achieving the NPS mission of preserving park 

resources unimpaired for the enjoyment of 

future generations.

Visitors to national park units often indicate that 

an important reason for visiting the parks is to 

enjoy the relative quiet that parks can offer. In 

a 1998 survey of the American public, 72% of 

people identified opportunities to experience 

natural quiet and the sounds of nature as an 

important reason for having national parks 

(Haas and Wakefield 1998). Additionally, 91% 

of NPS visitors “consider enjoyment of natural 

quiet and the sounds of nature as compelling 

reasons for visiting national parks” (McDonald, 

Baumgartner, and Iachan 1995). In studies 

of general visitor preferences, respondents 

consistently rate many natural sounds such as 

birds, animals, wind, and water as very pleasing 

(Pilcher, Newman, and Manning 2008). In 2008, 

a visitor survey conducted at the Reserve found 

that 86% of visitors felt that natural quiet and the 

sounds of nature were important resources for 

the National Park Service to protect. In addition, 

75% of visitors surveyed felt that solitude was an 

important resource to protect (Reserve 2009b).

The presence of unwanted, uncharacteristic, 

or inappropriate sounds can interfere with or 

alter the soundscape and degrade the visitor 

experience. Uncharacteristic sounds or sound 

levels affect visitors’ perceptions of solitude 

and tranquility and can generate high levels of 

annoyance. Visitor evaluations of annoyance are 

affected by many factors, including the setting in 

which the sounds occur, the visitors’ recreational 

activities, and their expectations of quiet and 

solitude. Characteristics of the sound also 

contribute to levels of annoyance. Annoyance 

is related to rate of occurrence, duration, 

loudness and sporadic nature of sounds (Pilcher, 

Newman, and Manning 2008).

Impacts on visitors can be quantified at 

particular decibel levels. These impacts could 

include an increase in blood pressure and heart 

rate, sleep interruption, and speech interference. 

If the sound level goes over the particular 

decibel level listed in table 26 the potential for 

the impact in question increases.

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Table 26. Explanation of Sound Level Values

Sound 

Levels 

(dBA)

Relevance

35 Blood pressure and heart rate increase in 

sleeping humans (Haralabidis et al. 2008)

45 World Health Organization’s 

recommendation for maximum noise levels 

inside bedrooms (Berglund, Lindvall, and 

Schwela 1999)

52 Speech interference for interpretive programs 

(EPA 1974)

60 Speech interruption for normal conversation 

(EPA 1974)

GEOLOGY AND SOILS

Setting

The terrain at City of Rocks and nearby Castle 

Rocks showcases exemplary and picturesque 

landforms of granitic spires and domes 

protruding from the slopes of four enclosed 

upland mountain basins, or coves, in the Albion 

Range of southern Idaho (“Figure 14. Geology”). 

Unearthed by weathering and erosion of the 

Almo Pluton, these granite towers vary in size 

and shape and rise upwards of 600 feet above 

the basin floors. The coves are “hollowed 

out” of the City of Rocks anticline, a roughly 

north-trending elongated structural dome, or 

arch, of Archean granite gneiss and overlying 

Proterozoic metasedimentary rocks into which 

the Almo Pluton intruded.

These topographic basins, or coves, are known 

as (from north to south) Big Cove, Circle Creek 

Basin, Twin Sisters Basin, and Emigrant Basin. 

Four smaller upland basins also occur in the 

Reserve. The Castle Rocks rise from the central 

and north side of Big Cove, which is the largest 

of the basins and separated from the others 

by a high ridge of Precambrian granite gneiss 

studded with pinnacles. City of Rocks centers on 

the three other basins, which are also separated 

by spines of rock pinnacles. The anticlinal 

structure of these basins can be observed by 

tracing the curvature of the Elba Quartzite that 

caps most of the surrounding ridges: the fold is 

reflected in the opposite dips of the prominent 

resistant quartzite on the east and west sides of 

the Reserve. The anticline appears to plunge 

south near the south border of the Reserve and 

to plunge north near the north end of the Almo 

Pluton at Castle Rocks, before tightly kinking 

and climbing again northward to form the 

Independence dome.

Three other gneiss-cored structural domes 

overlain by metamorphosed sedimentary rock 

(quartzite and marble) occur in the Albion 

Range. All are aligned in a chain-like fashion 

roughly north-northeast with the City of Rocks 

anticline. To the north, Big Bertha dome and 

Independence dome form topographically high 

promontories that undergird Mt. Harrison and 

Mt. Independence/Cache Peak. The smallest 

dome, Moulton dome, lies just south of the City 

of Rocks anticline and outside the Reserve. 

Of these four structural domes, City of Rocks 

is the largest. Granite of the Almo Pluton is 

exposed only in the southern two domes where 

differential weathering between the granite 

and metamorphic rocks has formed upland 

topographic basins that markedly contrast with 

the high relief of the two northern domes.

Topography

The high point of the Reserve is Graham Peak, 

which, at 8,867 feet, juts about 1,500 feet above 

the nearby pinnacles of Circle Creek Basin 

and about 3,000 feet above the alluvial plains 

of Big Cove, west of Almo. The low point in 

the Reserve is at Circle Creek, on the east side 

of the Reserve, at 5,650 feet in elevation. The 

upland topographic basins in the Reserve drain 

through narrow canyons cut into resistant 

hogback ridges around the perimeter of the 

mountain range. Five basins drain east to the 

Raft River. Two basins lie to the west of the 

crest of the Albion Mountains where one basin, 

Emery Basin, drains into Birch Creek and 

another basin, Trail Creek Basin, drains into 

Junction Creek.

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City of Rocks National Reserve DGMP/EIS

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Figure 14. Geology

?

City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/EIS

Geology

Lineaments

known or certain

Faults

unknown offset/displacement,

known or certain

unknown offset/displacement,

queried

unknown offset/displacement,

concealed and queried

Geologic Units

Alluvium and Younger Stream Deposits

Older Stream Deposits

Alluvial Fan Deposits

Unstable Slopes (colluvium, talus, landslides)

Grus (weathered granite veneer on pediment)

Granite (Almo Pluton)

Granite Gneiss (Green Creek Complex)

Volcanic

Metamorphosed Sedimentary Rocks

Reserve Boundary

Streams

Roads

0 0.5 1

Miles

Produced by: NPS - PWR GIS

Date Created: July, 2014

Data Sources: NPS - Geology, Inner Shaded Relief,

 Reserve Boundary and Roads

 USGS - Outer Shaded Relief

Figure 14

N:\GIS_Maps\Parks\CIRO\GMP\Geology.mxd o

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City of Rocks National Reserve DGMP/EIS

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Geologic History

The Albion Mountains stretch for 30 miles 

between the Idaho-Utah border to the south 

and the Snake River Plain to the north. Many of 

the mountain ranges in the Basin and Range of 

Utah, Nevada, and southeastern Idaho consist 

of unmetamorphosed, fossiliferous Paleozoic 

sedimentary strata. The Albion Range, however, 

is part of the Albion-Raft River–Grouse 

Creek metamorphic core complex, one of 

approximately two dozen metamorphic core 

complexes that extend from northern Mexico 

to southern British Columbia along the crest of 

the North American cordilleran (the system of 

mountain ranges along the western side of the 

Great Plains). The Albion Range exposes some 

of the most highly extended and deeply derived 

rocks of the Basin and Range geologic province 

(Miller 1980). Granite, granitic gneiss, schist 

and amphibolite belonging to the estimated 2.5 

billion-year-old Green Creek Complex are the 

oldest rocks in the range. These basement rocks 

are unconformably overlain by Proterozoic and 

Paleozoic sediments that were metamorphosed 

during thickening of the earth’s crust during the 

Sevier orogeny (Armstrong 1968).

The highland created by the Sevier orogeny 

later collapsed and extended. The formerly 

deep-seated Precambrian rocks then arched into 

broad domes and were structurally unroofed 

along large-scale low-angle normal faults (Miller 

and Bedford 1999). Later, the metamorphic core 

complex was intruded by granite of the Almo 

Pluton. Following emplacement of the granitic 

pluton at depths of approximately six miles, the 

region experienced rapid uplift. A combination 

of low-angle normal faulting and erosion has 

exhumed the Almo Pluton, and now, in the 

western part of the Reserve, rhyolitic ash flow 

tuffs from calderas associated with the nearby 

Yellowstone hot spot overlying the exposed 

granite are visible (Miller et al. 2008).

Most of these rhyolitic rocks were pushed or slid 

to the east on low-angle normal faults (forming 

the Jim Sage and Cottrell Mountains) as the core 

complex continued to rise (Miller et al. 2008). 

More recent uplift of the range has occurred 

along high-angle range-bounding normal faults. 

The present shape of the Albion Mountains 

results primarily from the headward erosion of 

streams that are tributaries of the Raft and Snake 

rivers to the north and east and Birch and Goose 

creeks to the west.

Headward erosion by Raft River tributaries 

eventually breached resistant Proterozoic 

quartzites in the structural domes of the 

southern Albion Mountains. The Tertiary granite 

cores of the domes were much more easily 

weathered, particularly in regions of high joint 

density and hydrothermal alteration. Streams 

differentially eroded the weathered granite, 

leaving behind a spectacular landscape of 

domes, fins, and spires rising out of broad valleys 

in the interior of the range. Well-preserved 

cirques and moraines indicate that the highest 

peaks of the Albion Mountains— Cache Peak 

(10,339 feet) and Mt. Harrison (9,265 feet)—

hosted alpine glaciers during the Pleistocene. 

Extensive areas of hummocky topography on 

the flanks of several peaks and ridges suggest 

that landslides have played an important role 

in the recent geomorphic evolution of the 

Albion Mountains.

Surficial Geology and Active Processes 

(Geologic Hazards)

Active geologic processes are the relatively more 

recent events that have acted on the landscape 

over a variety of climatic and tectonic conditions 

and that provide the best clues to processes 

likely to take place in the next several decades. 

These processes include those posing potential 

geologic hazards and those that are more 

passively forming today’s landscape.

Most of the surficial material in the Reserve 

was deposited as alluvial fans or colluvium. 

Colluvium is a veneer of unsorted rock 

fragments that covers hillslopes. Other types 

of surficial deposits that result from unstable 

slopes (such as landslides, talus, and rock 

falls) also occur to a lesser degree. Alluvial 

processes include sheet wash on hillslopes and 

concentrated flows, flooding, and debris flows 

in stream channels. Intermittent high stream 

flows can accelerate formation of gullies and 

deposition of fans downslope.

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In their respective basins, City of Rocks and 

Castle Rocks are intermittently surrounded by 

at least two stages of alluvial fans—active and 

abandoned. Abandoned fans represent at least 

one older depositional surface. Active fans are 

incised into the older fans on higher, steeper 

slopes before fanning out in the lower elevations 

of the basins. Cobbles and boulders weathered 

from the Elba Quartzite are exposed on the 

surfaces of the fans. Fans play an important 

role in transmitting and storing water, which 

contributes to subsurface weathering of 

the granite.

Colluvial processes and unstable slopes are 

driven by mass-wasting along hillslopes. 

Mass-wasting is the wholesale movement 

of rock and soil downslope by gravity and 

can have destructive consequences. Events 

such as rockfalls and landslides can be rapid 

and extremely powerful, whereas the slow 

movement of landslides and gradual creep 

of rock and soil downslope can be equally 

destructive but not generally catastrophic. The 

slower movement of rock and soil is commonly 

aided by sheetwash, as well as other processes. 

Surficial geologic features subject to mass 

wasting include talus deposits, colluvium, 

landslides, and the steeper areas of alluvial fans. 

An appearance of stability does not imply that 

alluvial and colluvial surfaces are stable, because 

the processes by which these deposits move can 

be destructive to infrastructure and life. Active 

stream channels and the steeper colluvial slopes 

are sites of repeated destructive events and are 

best avoided for construction of facilities.

 A newly discovered fault that passes through 

the town of Almo and along the east margin of 

Smoky Mountain offsets Pleistocene alluvial 

materials as much as 18 feet (5 m) but does 

not appear to displace Holocene materials. 

Infrequent modern micro-seismicity and a 

large earthquake that occurred in the area 

several decades ago raise the possibility that 

local earthquakes could shake the Reserve 

severely in the future. This has implications for 

destabilizing mass-wasting features, toppling 

precariously perched rocks, and rolling rocks 

down hillslopes.

City of Rocks Pinnacles – A National 

Natural Landmark

The most prominent landscape features of 

the Reserve are its pinnacles. City of Rocks is 

geologically and geomorphically exceptional in 

its setting and the variety of sizes, shapes, height, 

weathering features, cloistering, and distribution 

of its pinnacles. Pinnacles are shaped by joints 

along which the rock more readily weathers. 

Three forms of pinnacles are common in the 

Reserve: spires, domes, and loaves. Loaves are 

elongate, rectangular masses with dome-shaped 

tops and probably form as a result of weathering 

along one prominent set of steep joints, parallel 

to the long direction of the loaf. They are also 

known as rock fins.

The Bread Loaves are an example. Domes, such 

as Clam Shell, form from exfoliation joints in 

a rock mass with weakly expressed or widely 

spaced steeply dipping joints. Spires may 

result from erosion of rock with two strongly 

developed sets of steeply dipping joints, such as 

seen on Lost Arrow.

Pinnacles are most heavily concentrated along 

the west, south, and north parts of the Circle 

Creek Basin, but can also be found in the 

western parts of Emigrant and Twin Sisters 

basins and along the west base of Smoky 

Mountain. Groups of pinnacles form three 

northwest-oriented ridges that separate the 

topographic basins. Granite Ridge separates 

Big Cove and Circle Creek Basin. The “rim” 

separates Circle Creek Basin and Twin Sisters 

Basin. And Twin Sisters Ridge separates Twin 

Sisters Basin and Emigrant Basin.

The pinnacles are not products of atmospheric 

weathering (which is actually slowly destroying 

them by forming caverns and pan holes on their 

surfaces), but are rather products of earlier 

subsurface weathering of rock along joints in the 

unsaturated zone above the water table. There, 

capillary movement of water along inter-grain 

micro-cracks weakens the rock to form a sandy 

detritus called grus and, along with chemical 

weathering, greatly reduces rock strength, 

particularly if joints are closely spaced. The 

shape and architecture of pinnacles is strongly 

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influenced by joints, along which percolating 

groundwater augments chemical weathering.

City of Rocks hosts a broad and interesting 

variety of weathering features on its pinnacles. 

These include several surface features and 

spheroidal cavities within the pinnacles. 

Weathering of the granite produces clay minerals 

from feldspar and mica. Unless protective 

surfaces form, this weathering accelerates 

disintegration of pinnacles with moisture, as the 

clays shrink and swell, and enhances capillary 

movement of moisture into the disintegrating 

granite. Disintegration typically causes grains 

of feldspar and quartz to crumble from the 

rock face, producing feldspar and quartz sand 

at the base of the pinnacle. Freeze-thaw cycles 

and diurnal heating and cooling during hot 

summer days bring about thermal expansion 

and contraction of crystals, which contributes to 

rock crumbling. Table 27 describes and explains 

the significance of weathering features found on 

pinnacles in the Reserve, as well as the various 

processes leading to their formation.

In 1973, Robert W. Jones of the University 

of Idaho evaluated the geology of the area, 

and in May 1974, Cassia Silent City of Rocks 

was designated a national natural landmark 

in recognition of the nationally significant 

geological and scenic values of its rock 

formations. Cunningham (1971) observed the 

dominance of bornhardts and scarcity of tors 

on the site, the range of elevations over which 

the landforms are distributed, and evidence that 

the landforms have been carved from the upper 

parts of a pluton, concluding that it is seldom 

that such a combination of circumstances 

may be observed in one place. At the time of 

designation, ownership included the Bureau 

of Land Management, the U.S. Forest Service 

(Sawtooth National Forest), the State of Idaho, 

and several private landowners.

One of the objectives of the NNL program is 

to encourage protection of the site. Although 

most of the pinnacles appear to be composed 

of competent granite, geological research for 

the area suggests that some rock formations in 

the Reserve are in a fragile condition because 

of natural geological and weathering processes 

(Cunningham 1971; Miller et al. 2008; and Pogue 

2008). A climbing impacts study of the Twin 

Sisters in 1993 concluded that rock climbing 

activities, including use of climbing equipment, 

had little direct impact on the geologic integrity 

of the two pinnacles (Reserve 1993). This is in 

part due to the siting of climbing routes based on 

rock competency, which precludes incompetent 

or fragile surfaces. Contrarily, rock scrambling 

by those with less experience in climbing, or 

with less knowledge of different rock types 

and their weathering, poses a greater risk for 

unwitting damage to fragile pinnacles and their 

delicate weathering features.

Economic Geology / Mineral Development

Mining of nonmetallic and metallic materials 

has occurred on a small scale in the area of 

the Reserve, but the Reserve itself has seen 

little mining activity. Only a few prospect pits, 

now abandoned, exist in pegmatite and skarn 

minerals. (Skarn minerals are lime-rich silicate 

minerals, such as diopside, talc, hornblende, 

feldspar, biotite, and phlogopite that develop in 

metamorphosed carbonate rocks.) Skarn occurs 

in only a few small locations in the Reserve.

Pegmatite dikes in the Almo Pluton commonly 

carry books and sprays of muscovite. Some of 

the larger accumulations have been prospected, 

and muscovite was separated and reportedly 

shipped in small quantities for use as insulation. 

One mining claim within the Reserve was 

declared abandoned and void by the Bureau of 

Land Management in February 1991. Its only 

workings were two shallow bulldozer cuts, 

each about 500 feet long. Smaller dikes (veins 

of igneous rock intruded into a host rock) also 

have minor prospects. An inventory and site 

evaluation of abandoned mine lands in the 

Reserve would identify not only the number of 

occurrences, but document wildlife habitat and 

use, cultural and historical resources, public 

safety concerns, and restoration needs.

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Table 27. Explanation of Common Weathering Features Found on Pinnacles in the Reserve

Type Description /Definition Process of Formation Significance Surface Feature

Case hardening General term for hardening 

of granite surfaces by 

chemical processes that add 

cement (hematite) between 

mineral grains—hematite 

causes darkened red 

coloration of surface.

During dry periods capillary 

action draws water and 

dissolved elements from the 

rock; evaporation of water near 

the surface deposits dissolved 

materials between mineral grains.

Increases resistance of exposed 

granite surfaces to weathering 

and erosion; referred to as 

“patina” by rock climbers and 

may make suitable hand and 

foot holds.

Blisters Dark, thin (<1 cm) reddish 

hardened surfaces with 

curled edges or convex 

shapes.

Form quickly by thermal 

expansion, freeze-thaw, or windblown sand and are easily broken 

off with fingers or boots.

Common occurrence in the 

Reserve; may explain why 

so few emigrant inscriptions 

remain.

Crusts Dark brown polygonal 

shrinkage cracks, like bread 

crusts, with smooth polished 

surfaces firmly attached to 

pinnacle.

Thicker (0.4 – 0.8 inches) and 

more durable than blisters; cannot 

be cracked with bare hands or 

broken off by “sandblasting” 

during wind storms.

Polishing suggests long 

residence time of exterior 

crystals; associated with 

cavernous weathering features 

where protective crust has 

eroded away.

Pitted Dark-colored pocked or 

irregular, hard and smooth 

durable surfaces on 

pinnacles.

Form on inclined and horizontal 

surfaces.

Probably oldest of the casehardening features.

Cavernous Weathering

Spheroidal 

weathering

Smooth-walled cavities, or 

hollows, behind or under 

case-hardened surfaces that 

have been penetrated by 

weathering.

Results from capillary movement 

of moisture into granular rocks, 

enhancing disintegration and 

formation of a hollow; the 

hollow then retains a higher 

moisture environment than its 

surroundings, which enhances 

further disintegration.

Indicates internal weathering 

and erosion of pinnacle leading 

to its gradual demise; friable 

surfaces where sand grains can 

be dislodged by the brush of a 

hand or blowing breath.

Panholes 

(solution pans)

Round, irregularly shaped 

holes that widen with depth 

and have flat floors often 

covered with granitic sand.

Form on the upper surfaces of 

pinnacles and on pediments.

Retain rainwater and snowmelt 

for wildlife.

Honeycombs / 

Tafoni

One or more adjoining 

concave cavities that 

penetrate the interior of a 

pinnacle.

Form on sides of pinnacles where 

internal joints intersect the 

surface or where case-hardened 

veneers are breached by granular 

disintegration.

Advanced stages of 

development form thin-walled 

honeycombs, windows, and 

arches; among the most fragile 

rock features in the Reserve; 

provide habitat for nesting birds 

and rodents.

Flared walls Concave zones at the base 

of a pinnacle adjacent to the 

soil line.

Probably results from enhanced 

capillary moisture from 

adjacent soils, which leads to 

enhanced rates of cracking and 

disintegration.

Advanced stages of 

development result in scalloped 

pinnacles at their base or 

“balance” rocks.

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Almo Granite weathers to a sandy detritus called 

grus in many locations, where disintegrated 

granite can be easily quarried. Disintegrated 

granite is a good source for road material 

because it lacks large rock fragments and does 

not contain large amounts of clay. High quality 

in situ disintegrated granite sources generally 

occur near the crest of the range, where erosion 

has not been pronounced. Alluvium derived 

from disintegrated granite may also prove 

valuable as a disintegrated granite source, but 

generally alluvial sand and gravel deposits within 

the Reserve are poorly sorted and marginally 

suitable for use in road construction or as fill for 

general construction. Better-sorted sand and 

gravel deposits are available east of the Reserve 

in the fluvial deposits south of Almo. Two 

abandoned sand and gravel pits occur within 

the Reserve. The one near the west entrance is 

partially reclaimed and the other near the east 

entrance was restored under the NPS Disturbed 

Lands Restoration Program in 2004.

A plugged and abandoned exploratory oil well 

and two abandoned mica mines are on private 

land within the Reserve boundary. The Geologic 

Resources Division evaluated the data for the 

plugged well and determined that it was plugged 

properly. Although anticlines can function 

as structural traps for oil, emplacement of a 

pluton within this anticline is not conducive for 

petroleum occurrences.

Quartzite flagstone (commercially sold as Oakley 

Stone) has been quarried for decorative building 

stone in the vicinity of the Reserve, but no 

suitable sources occur within the Reserve.

SOILS AND SOIL EROSION

The majority of the soils in the Reserve 

are highly erodible. Water erosion hazards 

are severe for most mountainside soils and 

moderate for the gentler sloping alluvial soils. 

Wind erosion hazard is moderate for some of the 

finer textured soils in the Reserve if disturbed. 

Soil erosion has occurred near roads on steep 

slopes and intermittent stream channels such 

tributaries to Circle and Emigrant creeks. 

Erosion in these areas has formed deep gullies 

wherever the soil-binding vegetation has been 

disturbed. Some of the exposed soil banks are 

more than eight feet high and nearly vertical. 

In heavily grazed areas, most of the protective 

vegetative ground cover is lacking and soil is 

exposed to potential erosion by water and wind. 

In undisturbed areas of the Reserve the soils are 

better protected from erosional forces.

The NPS Soil Resources Inventory, working in 

conjunction with the USDA Natural Resources 

Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS 2011), 

completed the final soil survey and ecological 

site correlation for the entire Reserve in 2009. 

Twenty-three different soil taxa have been 

identified within the Reserve, with 25 detailed 

soil map units on the Reserve’s soil survey 

legend. These soils have been grouped into 

3 broad general soil map unit types and are 

represented by 6 general soil map units in the 

general soils map (“Figure 15. Soils”).

Formation of the Soils at City of Rocks 

National Reserve

Portions excerpted from the Soil Survey of 

City of Rocks National Reserve, Idaho (USDANRCS 2011):

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Parent Material

Area soils formed in residual, alluvial, and 

colluvial materials along with some loess 

(windblown soil) influence. Granites make up 

most of the rock in the heart of the Reserve. 

Soils formed in residuum and alluvium derived 

from this material. Residuum is unconsolidated 

material derived from in situ weathering of the 

parent material. Alluvium is unconsolidated 

material derived from fluvial re-working of 

residuum and earlier alluvium. Alluvium is 

usually found as sand bars in stream channels 

and as fan-shaped deposits from ephemeral 

streams on hillslopes. The granitic material 

weathers into a quartz and feldspar sand, called 

grus, that is easily eroded, resulting in soils that 

are generally young and not well-developed. 

Soils formed in this material include the Kanlee, 

Ola, and Ricrest series.

On alluvial fan remnants and hillslopes the soils 

are formed from deposits of Holocene and 

Pleistocene aged mixed alluvium weathered 

from igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic 

rock. Arbone, Poisonhol, and Riceton soils 

formed in this alluvium.

Soils on Smoky Mountain, Cedar Hills, and to 

a lesser extent Graham Peak, formed primarily 

in residuum and colluvium of Elba Quartzite 

and mica schist. Colluvium refers to any loose, 

heterogeneous, and incoherent mass of rock 

fragments deposited primarily by mass-wasting 

(gravity), usually at the base of a steep slope or 

cliff (e.g., talus, scree). Quartzite weathers very 

slowly and has produced the stones, cobbles, 

and gravel found in these soils. As the mica schist 

material weathers, montmorillonitic clays form. 

The resulting soils have strongly developed 

clayey subsoil and no calcium carbonate 

accumulations. They include the Birchcreek 

and Itca soils. Less-developed soils formed 

from quartzite and schist colluvium include 

the Howcan and Searla soils. Holocene aged 

loess has influenced the associated Conneridge 

soils, resulting in a weakly developed soil that 

has an accumulation of calcium carbonate in 

the subsoil.

The warmest, driest part of the survey area 

is in the southwestern corner of the Reserve. 

This area receives approximately 14 to 16 

inches of precipitation annually but on the 

southerly aspects this is reduced to an effective 

precipitation of about 12 to 13 inches. The soils 

in this part of the survey area are dominantly 

drier Mollisols. One Aridisol, the Raft River 

series, is present on southerly aspects. The 

soils have a dark-colored surface layer, with 

free carbonates at or near the surface and low 

to moderate amounts of organic carbon. They 

support relatively sparse stands of shrubs and 

grasses, and microbial action is low due to the 

dry conditions. The Bezzant and Hymas series 

are examples of the drier Mollisols.

Further north in this same precipitation zone the 

effective precipitation increases. The soils in this 

part of the survey area are also Mollisols. These 

soils differ from the slightly drier area in having 

a thicker dark surface layer free of carbonates, 

a layer of carbonate accumulation that occurs 

deeper in the soil or not at all, moderate to high 

amounts of organic carbon, and the capacity 

to support relatively good stands of shrubs and 

grasses. The Arbone, Kanlee, and Riceton soils 

are examples.

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Figure 15. Soils

1

1

1

1

2

2

2

3

3

3

3

5

5

5

5

5

4

4

4

4

4

6

Ac

Ac

Ac

An

An

An

An

Y

Y

Y

An

P

P

P

P

P

Y

Y

Y

C

C

Y

4

4

4

4

4

4

6

6

6

6

4

G

G

3 3 5

Y

2

5

Y

City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/EIS

Soils

Produced by: NPS - PWR GIS

Date Created: July, 2014

Data Sources: NPS - Ownership, Reserve

 Boundary and Roads

 NRCS - Soils

 USGS - Shaded Relief & Streams

Figure 15

N:\GIS_Maps\Parks\CIRO\GMP\Soils.mxd

0 0.5 1

o Miles

1. Povey-Pachic

Haplocryolls

2. Howcan-Searla

3. Ola-Rock outcropEarcree

4. Birchcreek-ItcaHymas Rock outcrop

5. Arbone-Riceton

6. Cumulic

Endoaquolls

Roads

Streams

Intermittent

Perennial

Well drained soils on mountains,

hills, and ridges that formed in

alluvium and colluvium with some

loess influence

Well drained soils on fan remnants,

hills, and plains that formed in

alluvium with some loess influence

Poorly drained soils on floodplains,

stream terraces, and valleys that

formed in mixed alluvium

Other Soils

Acord (Ac)

Aninto (An)

Conneridge (C)

Gunnel gravelly

silt loam (G)

Poisonhol (P)

Yeates-ManilaHades complex (Y)

Reserve Boundary

silt loams on

<5% slopes

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The transition through the higher precipitation 

areas is fairly quick due to the rapid increase 

in elevation. The precipitation increases 

from about 16 inches to 25 or more inches. 

As the elevation increases and the average 

annual temperature decreases, the rate of 

evapotranspiration is reduced. This results in an 

increase of available moisture for plant growth, 

microbial activity, and soil leaching. The soils 

that developed under these conditions continue 

to be Mollisols that have had the carbonates 

leached out of their profile. These soils support 

a vigorous growth of plants, especially grasses. 

Because of the increased plant activity, organic 

matter has accumulated in the surface layer of 

the soil, making it dark. The leaching of lime 

from these soils has also promoted, in varying 

degrees, the formation and movement of clay. 

The dominant vegetation is grasses and shrubs, 

but trees are common in small, concave pockets 

and on north-facing slopes. Soils in these 

concave areas with trees are classified as Pachic 

Haplocryolls. The lush vegetation has produced 

an abundant amount of organic carbon, which 

has been deposited deep in the soil and results in 

very thick, dark horizons. A buildup of organic 

matter has also occurred due to the cooler 

temperatures, which slow microbial activity 

and the breakdown of organic matter. Povey 

soils are an example of soils formed under these 

conditions. In other positions on mountainsides 

the temperatures are warmer, and the movement 

of water through these soils has helped the 

movement and accumulation of clay deeper in 

the profile. Howcan and Hutchley soils form 

under these conditions.

Soils on convex ridges and mountaintops with 

westerly aspects are exposed to high winds 

much of the time and have very high rates of 

evapotranspiration, which drastically reduce 

the effective moisture capacity. The vegetation is 

sparse, microbial activity is low, and the content 

of organic matter is low. Generally, carbonates 

have not been leached much below the surface 

layer. Soils on these windswept ridges include 

Conneridge and Hymas soils.

Relief

The soils of the mountains generally contain a 

high percentage of rock fragments throughout 

their thickness and are well-drained. These 

characteristics reflect the steep landscapes on 

which the soils formed and the accelerated 

rate of erosion resulting from the steepness. 

Examples of these soils are Vitale, Hutchley, 

Jimsage, and Doodlelink soils. Soils on convex, 

south- and west-facing ridges and summits are 

subject to the highest rates of geologic erosion 

and have the least effective available moisture. 

Their soil temperatures are warmer, and they 

commonly dry out quickly. These soils are 

generally shallow to moderately deep and are 

well- to poorly developed, depending on parent 

material. Examples of less-developed soils 

are Conneridge, Dipcreek, and Hymas soils. 

Examples of well-developed soils are Birchcreek 

and Itca soils.

Eroded soil particles are transported in streams 

and deposited on alluvial fans. The coarsest 

materials dominate the upper slopes of the fans 

while finer sands and silts deposit on the lower 

slopes. Streams continue to erode and dissect 

the fans, creating fan remnants. Riceton soils 

form on alluvial fans while Arbone soils form 

on fan remnants. Poisonhol soils are extremely 

stony soils that form where two or more alluvial 

fans coalesce at the mountain front.

Time

Soils in the survey area vary greatly in age. Soils 

on the alluvial fans and stream terraces are 

generally young. These soils have formed in 

alluvium derived from active stream deposition 

and fluvial action. They have little horizon 

development other than the accumulation of 

calcium carbonates. Soils that are relatively 

young include Arbone, Poisonhol, and Riceton.

Soils on the dissected fan remnants in the 

southwest corner of the Reserve have had a 

more stable environment for their formation. 

Although they receive less moisture, carbonates 

have had time to accumulate and concentrate 

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in layers below the soil surface. These layers, or 

calcic horizons, have been cemented by silica in 

some of the older soils, forming duripans. The 

Raftriver soil type is a soil with a duripan.

Soils on the mountains and foothills differ 

greatly in age and degree of development. The 

relative age depends on the parent material 

and its components after weathering; aspect, 

which greatly determines how much heat the 

soil receives; and landscape position. Soils 

that formed in marble (limestone) generally 

have less development than those that formed 

in noncalcareous materials. Marble tends to 

erode more easily, resulting in steep slopes, 

and it contains carbonates, which retard the 

development of clay.

Soils that develop in parent materials consisting 

of rhyolite, mica schist, and quartzite tend 

to develop clay argillic horizons. Soils that 

developed in convex landscape positions and 

on ridges and summits are the youngest in 

appearance: they have either been subjected to 

geologic erosion or are cold enough to retard 

formation, they are shallow to moderately deep, 

and they generally have a sparse vegetative cover 

and carbonates near or at the surface. These 

soils include Conneridge and Hymas soils.

Soils that developed in the clay-forming parent 

material on south-facing slopes have welldeveloped argillic horizons. They are generally 

older than adjacent soils on north-facing slopes. 

They include Birchcreek and Itca soils. In the 

rhyolite mountains of the Cotterel and Jimsage 

ranges, northeast and east of the Reserve, soils 

on south-facing slopes have moderately welldeveloped argillic horizons. The treeless ridge 

northwest of Twin Sisters Ridge in the Reserve 

is capped by a rhyolite flow and has similar soil 

characteristics. Hutchley, Vipont, and Vitale soils 

are other examples.

On north-facing slopes, the soils are colder and 

geologic erosion is greater. Soils in these areas 

are much younger in appearance than those on 

south-facing slopes. They have little horizon 

development and generally have carbonates 

in the upper part of the profile. They include 

Doodlelink and Jimsage soils.

Hydric Soil Determinations

Hydric soils are defined by the National 

Technical Committee for Hydric Soils as soils 

that formed under conditions of saturation, 

flooding, or ponding long enough during the 

growing season to develop anaerobic conditions 

in the upper portion of the soil. These soils 

under natural conditions are either saturated 

or inundated long enough during the growing 

season to support the growth and reproduction 

of hydrophytic vegetation, and they may 

additionally meet the definition for wetlands.

Cumulic Endoaqualls (unit 6 on the general 

soil map shown in figure 15), is found on 0 

to 4% slopes, and has been determined by 

the USDA Natural Resources Conservation 

Service to contain Kovich soil, which meets the 

definition of a hydric soil. Kovich soils make up 

approximately 5% of the soil map unit, and are 

found in floodplains and lower stream terraces. 

The location of Kovich soils may also coincide 

with wetlands if the vegetation and hydrologic 

criteria for wetlands are also present on the 

site. Table 28 lists general soil map units and 

their characteristics.

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Table 28. 

General

Soil M

ap Units and Their

Characteristics

Broad General Soil Map Unit Type

Well drained soils on mountains, hills, and ridges that formed in mixed alluvium and colluvium with some loess influence

Well drained soils on fan remnants, hills, and plains that formed in alluvium with some loess influence

Poorly drained, very deep soils formed in mixed alluvium and loess on slopes of 0 to 4%

General Soil Map Unit

1. Povey-Pachic Haplocryolls

2. Howcan-Searla 3. Ola-Rock outcropEarcree 4. Birchcreek-Itca-Rock outcrop 5. Arbone-Riceton 6. Cumulic Endoaquolls

General Description

Well drained, shallow to very deep soils formed in alluvium and colluvium on slopes of 15 to 60%

Well drained, moderately deep to deep soils formed in alluvium, colluvium, and loess over residuum on slopes of 4 to 55%

Well drained, moderately deep soils formed in alluvium and colluvium over residuum on slopes of 4 to 55%

Well drained, shallow to very deep soils formed in alluvium, colluvium, and loess on slopes of 20 to 55%

Well drained, shallow to very deep soils formed in mixed alluvium and loess on slopes of 2 to 15%

Poorly drained, very deep soils formed in mixed alluvium and loess on slopes of 0 to 4%

Percentage of survey area

11 5 38 22 24 <1

Landscape Hills, Plains PlainsLandform

Mountain slopes Mountain slopes, 

ridges

Mountain slopes, hillslopes, pediments, fan remnants

Mountain slopes, hillslopes

Fan remnants, coalesced fan remnants, hillslopes, stream terraces

Floodplains

Parent Material Mixed alluvium with some loess influence Mixed alluvium with some loess influenceElevation 6,400 to 8,900 feet 6,500 to 7,800 feet 5,700 to 8,500 feet 5,600 to 7,100 feet 5,700 to 6,600 feet 5,800 to 5,900 feetFrost-free period 30 to 60 days 65 to 95 days 65 to 95 days 65 to 95 days 65 to 95 days 65 to 95 daysAverage annual precipitation

16 to 28 inches 16 to 24 inches 14 to 28 inches 14 to 18 inches 14 to 18 inches 14 to 16 inches

Minor components

Nurkey, Chokecherry, and rock outcrop

Ola, Pachic Haplocryolls, and Povey

Kanlee Rubble land , Hutchley, 

Jimsage, and Poisonhol

Chayson, Raftriver, Poisonhol

Hardister, Kovich

Present uses

grazing, watershed, wildlife habitat and rock outcrop

grazing, watershed, wildlife habitat and Povey

grazing, recreation, watershed, wildlife habitat

grazing, watershed, wildlife habitat Jimsage, and Poisonhol

grazing, watershed, wildlife habitat Poisonhol

grazing, watershed, wildlife habitat

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WATER RESOURCES

Watersheds and Hydrology

Much of City of Rocks is drained by easterly 

flowing intermittent streams in the headwaters 

of the Raft River. Four tributary watersheds, 

covering most of the Reserve, coincide with 

the four enclosed upland mountain basins 

of the Reserve’s geologic setting (“Figure 16. 

Hydrology”). Graham Creek, heading on the 

south slope of Graham Peak, passes through 

Indian Grove before dropping steeply into the 

south part of Big Cove, where it converges with 

Almo Creek. Circle Creek has three prominent 

forks (North, Center, and South) that flow out of 

the Inner City of Rocks before converging on the 

floor of Circle Creek Basin. A fourth unnamed 

intermittent gully concentrically drains the south 

rim overlooking the Inner City and converges 

with Circle Creek above the Nicholson’s ranch 

house. Circle Creek then flows through a water 

gap in the hogback ridge on the north end of 

Smoky Mountain. A fifth unnamed intermittent 

stream drains Steinfell’s Basin near the east 

entrance to the Reserve and dissipates into the 

alluvial fan east of Smoky Mountain before 

merging with Circle Creek. Several unnamed 

intermittent streams draining Twin Sisters 

Basin converge before passing though Heath 

Canyon on the south end of Smoky Mountain. 

Two prominent unnamed intermittent streams 

in Emigrant Basin, south of Twin Sisters and 

Pinnacle Pass, converge at the Kelton-Boise stage 

station and exit the Reserve through Emigrant 

Canyon. Stream gradients in the southern Albion 

Range are steep, averaging 370 feet per mile 

on Almo Creek, 520 feet per mile on Graham 

Creek, and 360 feet per mile on Circle Creek.

The crest of the Albion Range runs the length 

of the western part of the Reserve and is a 

regional watershed divide. Trail Creek and an 

unnamed drainage in the southwest corner 

of the Reserve are intermittent west-flowing 

headwater tributaries of Junction Creek, which 

flows south into the Raft River. From here 

the Raft River flows east through the Upper 

Narrows, which topographically separates the 

south end of the Albion Range from the west 

end of the Raft River Mountains. The Raft 

River Range is one of the few east-west oriented 

intermountain ranges in the coterminous United 

States. Taylor Creek and Emery Creek source 

from springs north of Bread Loaves and flow 

west through Emery Canyon, after converging, 

to Birch Creek. Sheet wash west of Indian Grove 

Overlook and Finger Rock also flows west into a 

few unnamed intermittent tributaries of Walters 

Creek and on to Birch Creek, which flows north 

to Goose Creek and eventually the Snake River. 

The headwater divide between Junction Creek 

and Birch Creek is a short distance south of the 

Oakley Road-Emery Canyon Road junction.

Surface Water and Impoundments (Dams)

Surface water is limited in the Reserve and 

is present in only a few locations: small 

headwater streams, springs, stock ponds, natural 

depressions in bedrock such as panholes, and 

rocky barriers on slopes that catch rainfall 

and runoff.

A number of springs are found in the Reserve, 

and most are used for grazing. Notable springs 

include Tea Kettle, Bath Rock, Taylor, Indian 

Grove, Kempton, Logger, Mica, Button, Willow, 

Trail Canyon, Mahogany, and Walters Creek. In 

most cases a head box is present, and water is 

piped away from the source for use by cattle.

Circle Creek has seven earthen dams and one 

alluvial earthen dam. There are two abandoned 

stream-flow diversions associated with 

impoundments on Circle Creek. All but two 

contain water in impoundments that are about 

one-half acre in size and are used for watering 

stock. Another stock pond is located along 

Taylor Creek north of Bread Loaves, and two 

stock ponds associated with the Kelton-Boise 

stage station occur along Emigrant Creek. The 

upper dam is breached, releasing water to the 

lower pond. All earthen dams and stock ponds 

in the Reserve are privately owned. Any dams 

on lands acquired by the National Park Service 

will be evaluated and placed on the NPS official 

inventory of dams, and any associated stream 

control structures would become subject to the 

NPS Dam Safety Program (2012 NPS Director’s 

Order 40).

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Figure 16. Hydrology

TWIN

SISTERS

CIRCLE

CREEK

BASIN

CASTLE

ROCK

GRAHAM

PEAK D D

Almo

TWIN

SISTERS

BASIN

EMIGRANT

BASIN

INDIAN

GROVE

TRAIL

CREEK

BASIN

BIG

COVE

BASIN

SMOKY

MOUNTAIN

EMERY

CANYON

HEATH

CANYON

EMIGRANT

CANYON

SPARKS

SPRING

BASIN

TAYLOR

SPRING

BASIN

STEINFELLS

BASIN

UNNAMED

BASIN

CIRCLE CREEK

CANYON

Edwards Creek

Circle Creek

Impoundment #1

GRAHAM

 CREEK

 CANYON

CANYON

CEDAR

CANYON CEDAR

BASIN

T

E

H

R I M

Raft River

R aft Rive r

Circle Creek

Circle Creek

Birch C re ek Fish Creek

Bir ch Creek

Junction Creek

Jun c tion Creek

Almo Creek

Lone Rock Creek

Walters Creek

Ce nter Creek

Cottonwood Creek

S ou th Creek

North Creek

Graham Creek

Little Cove Creek

Tr ail Creek

Aspen Creek

Granite Creek

City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/EIS

Hydrology

0 0.5 1

Miles

Produced by: NPS - PWR GIS

Date Created: July, 2014

Data Sources: NPS - Basin Boundaries, Earthen Dams, Reserve

 Boundary, Roads and Streams

 USGS - Shaded Relief

Figure 16

N:\GIS_Maps\Parks\CIRO\GMP\Hydrology.mxd

o Crest of the

Albion Range

Streams

Intermittent

Perennial

Earthen Dams

Roads

Reserve Boundary

Stines Creek

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City of Rocks National Reserve DGMP/EIS

224

Circle Creek has been listed as an assessment 

unit that is intermittent by the Idaho 

Department of Environment Quality, and as 

a result was unable to determine attainment 

relative to presumed uses (IDEQ 2011). Most 

months of the year surface water is also present 

in natural rock pools such as those atop Bath 

Rock and Shangri La. The quality of this 

water has not been tested and little baseline 

information exists. Smaller depressions, such 

as panholes, intermittently retain water after 

snowmelt, rainfall, and runoff.

WATER QUALITY

Surface water in the Reserve that flows to 

Goose Creek and Raft River is protected for 

use as agricultural water supply (in this case 

only for livestock use), cold water habitat, 

salmonid spawning, and primary and secondary 

contact recreation under Idaho water quality 

standards. Surface water in the Reserve is used 

primarily for livestock purposes. Some stream 

flow is reduced during the summer when water 

is diverted for livestock. Water quantity and 

quality of the Reserve streams and springs have 

not been extensively studied, but in 2009 the 

UCBN I&M group began monitoring five core 

water chemistry parameters (dissolved oxygen, 

pH, specific conductance, temperature, and 

turbidity) in the North Fork, South Fork, and 

Main Stem of Circle Creek.

The UCBN I&M monitoring program reevaluates core water chemistry parameters 

every three years. Preliminary results indicate 

that all core parameters were within the general 

state regulatory thresholds, with the exception 

of turbidity and dissolved oxygen in the North 

Fork and main stem of Circle Creek (NPSUCBN 2009). Elevated stream turbidity typically 

occurs after rain storms and is primarily due 

to bank erosion, the predominant cause of 

which is the extensive use of the riparian area 

and stream channel by livestock. This use has 

removed much of the vegetation needed for 

soil stability. Dissolved oxygen was below the 

regulatory threshold for one hour and is not 

considered a threat to water quality at this 

time. All three streams were also sampled for 

macroinvertebrates. Almo, North Fork Circle 

Creek, South Fork Circle Creek, and Circle 

Creek are considered “undesignated surface 

waters” meaning that they have not been 

assigned a beneficial use (IDEQ 2012).

The 2009 report details macroinvertebrate 

results and generally indicated good to 

very good water quality, with slight to some 

organic pollution. Samples were collected 

from Almo, North Fork Circle Creek, South 

Fork Circle Creek, and main Circle Creek. 

Macroinvertebrates were also collected in 2012. 

The UCBN I&M program also monitored water 

chemistry parameters in 2012. Preliminary 

results indicate that all five core parameters on 

each stream were in state criteria for cold water 

life designation (Starkey 2010).

Most of the soils in the Reserve are highly 

erodible, and several severely eroded areas 

contribute sediment to streams during high flow 

caused by storm events and spring snowmelt. 

High stream sediment and associated turbidity 

can negatively affect stream organisms both in 

and outside the Reserve, far downstream from 

the source of the particulate matter. Livestock 

use in riparian zones increase localized soil 

erosion and add fecal coliform to streams 

and springs.

Groundwater

Due to the predominance of granite (a 

crystalline rock with very little porosity 

and permeability), little is known about the 

occurrence and availability of groundwater in 

the Reserve. In 1989 a 70-foot well was drilled 

at the north end of Bread Loaves. This well 

provides 1.5 gallons per minute and is operated 

by a hand pump. Two additional wells were 

drilled in the Reserve in 2000: one near Bath 

Rock, which currently provides the primary 

public source of potable water, and the other 

near the Juniper group campsite, which is also 

the only campsite to accommodate horses.

In 1997 a 320-foot well was drilled outside the 

Reserve near Circle Creek to provide water for 

the Smoky Mountain Campground, which was 

developed in 2008. This well is reported to 

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City of Rocks National Reserve DGMP/EIS

225

provide up to 20 gallons per minute. Two other deep wells were drilled near the Reserve housing area and 

headquarters in 1995 and 2003. Water quality increases in wells closer to the Reserve and decreases in 

quality east of the Reserve in Almo Valley. The chemical components of well water in and around the 

Reserve are within criteria for designated use. Table 29 summarizes water well information.

Table 29. Summary of Water Well Information

Well 1 2 3 4 5 6a 6b

Owner State of 

Idaho

State of 

Idaho

State of 

Idaho

State of 

Idaho

State of 

Idaho

National Park 

Service

National 

Park Service

Use

Public Water 

Supply

DomesticSingle 

Residence

DomesticSingle 

Residence

DomesticPublic Water 

Supply

DomesticPublic Water 

Supply

DomesticMultiple 

Individual 

Users

DomesticMultiple 

Individual 

Users

TWP 15S 15S 15S 15S 15S 15S 15S

RNG 23E 24E 24E 23E 23E 24E 24E

SEC 26 27 34 36 36 27 27

Tract NESE SENWNE SWNW NWNWNW NWNW SENE SENE

Well Address

(City of Rocks 

National 

Reserve)

Almo Rd 1.75 miles SW 

of Almo

City of Rocks 

National 

Reserve

City of Rocks 

National 

Reserve

Approx. 3035 

Elba-Almo Rd

Approx. 

3035 ElbaAlmo Rd

Well Name

Campground 

(Bread 

Loaves)

IDPR Almo 

(housing)

IDPR Almo 

(Smoky 

Mountain 

Campground)

Bath Rock Emigrant 

(Juniper 

Campground)

NPS Almo 

(Headquarters)

NPS Almo 

(Headquarters)

Gallons Per 

Minute

1.5 5 20 8 3 25 25

Static Water 

Level (feet)

10 132 60 14 105 218 218

Total Depth 

(feet)

205 300 320 236 166 310 310

Casing Depth 

(feet)

72 227 300 236 168 285 285

Diameter of 

Casing (inches)

6 10 12 6 10 6 6

Construction 

Date

9/5/1989 11/6/1995 2/20/1997 6/29/2000 6/27/2000 7/1/2003 10/18/2011

Permit Number 716699 716953 716954 765050 765051 803800 862259

Well Tag 

Number

D0015103 D0015104 D0016745 D0060564

Source: Idaho Department of Water Resources Well Driller Reports (Logs) 2012b.

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City of Rocks National Reserve DGMP/EIS

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Wetlands

Many small wetlands exist in the Reserve, 

typically in riparian areas next to streams and 

springs. Because of the aridity of the region, 

these wetlands, although quite small, are 

important resources for many forms of life. 

Wetlands in the Reserve have been mapped 

from aerial photos by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service (see “Figure 17. National Wetlands 

Inventory”).

Some actions associated with the general 

management plan, such as continuing grazing 

in proposed boundary expansion areas and 

implementing recent grazing management 

plan recommendations, will probably affect 

wetlands within the Reserve in the future. 

Therefore, these actions if implemented would 

need to be addressed in a future statement of 

findings for wetlands associated with an update 

to the grazing management plan to comply 

with Executive Order 11990. Because specific 

impacts associated with these proposed actions 

cannot be identified at this time, the NPS 

Water Resources Division has concurred with 

this approach.

Other seasonally wet areas occur in subtle 

topographic catchments that retain soil moisture 

after snowmelt and summer storms or from 

recharge by soil water percolating down slopes. 

These areas are most easily recognized by a 

change in vegetation from their surroundings, 

supporting more grass and wildflowers and 

less sagebrush. These areas may be found on 

broad upland plains and sheltered areas around 

pinnacles. Soils in these areas generally are not 

deep, and underlying impermeable bedrock 

enables the soil to retain saturation longer than 

deeper soils or soils on steeper slopes. These 

areas do not qualify as jurisdictional wetlands, 

but function as small oases that support 

wildlife, insects, and plants that might not thrive 

elsewhere in the Reserve.

VEGETATION

Extensive plant surveys have been conducted 

within the Reserve. The most definitive 

inventory, Vascular Plants of City of Rocks: An 

Annotated Checklist, was published by Tom 

John in 1995 and documents 493 species and 

additional varieties (John 1995). Wallace Keck, 

park superintendent, has spent more than 10 

years retracing John’s steps, reconfirming and 

photographing much of the inventory and 

adding other species to the list. Some additions 

since John’s list include: prairie smoke (Geum 

triflorum), saxifrage (Saxifraga rhomboidea), 

and Brewer’s monkeyflower (Mimulus breweri). 

Other NPS research teams and contractors 

have also documented overlooked species, 

bringing the total to more than 500, plus 

additional subspecies and varieties (for a total of 

approximately 532 vascular plant species).

One of the Reserve’s most notable qualities 

is the large degree of biological diversity 

concentrated in a relatively small area. The great 

variety of textures, colors, and shapes in the 

natural landscape contributes considerably to 

the Reserve’s scenic quality. Visitors immediately 

connect with the commonality, striking beauty, 

fragrance, or ethnographic value of plants such 

as pinyon pine, juniper, mountain mahogany, 

quaking aspen, sagebrush, rabbitbrush, 

arrowleaf balsamroot, lupine, and pricklypear cactus.

Situated in the northern Great Basin, the 

Reserve is a mosaic of many habitats (“Figure 18. 

Vegetation”). The Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive 

management plan identified seven plant 

communities, including big sagebrush/

grasslands, pinyon-juniper woodlands and 

forests, mixed scrub, conifer/aspen woodland 

forest, riparian scrub and herbaceous wetlands, 

mountain mahogany scrub, and high-elevation 

meadows and ridges. Unvegetated areas (bare 

ground and rock) account for 3.8% of the 

Reserve. There are other detailed and complex 

ways to classify the vegetation communities (Aho 

and Forman 2010); however, the seven listed 

above remain the simplest for communicating 

the affected vegetation environment for 

the general management plan and are most 

frequently used in related reports and studies.

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City of Rocks National Reserve DGMP/EIS

227

 Figure 17. Wetlands

TWIN

SISTERS

CIRCLE

CREEK

BASIN

CASTLE

GRAHAM ROCK

PEAK

D D

Freshwater Emergent Wetland/

Palustrine Emergent

Freshwater Pond/

Palustrine Unconsolidated Bottom

Freshwater Pond/

Palustrine Unconsolidated Shore

Reserve Boundary

Roads

0 0.5 1 Figure 17 Miles

o

City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/EIS

Wetlands

Produced by: NPS - PWR GIS

Date Created: July, 2014

Data Sources: NPS - Reserve Boundary, Roads

 Fish and Wildlife Service - Wetlands

 USGS - Shaded Relief

N:\GIS_Maps\Parks\CIRO\GMP\Wetlands.mxd

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Figure 18. Vegetation

City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/EIS

Vegetation

Reserve Boundary

Roads

Douglas-fir/Rocky

Mountain Maple Forest

Quaking Aspen/Dry

Herbaceous Forest Complex

Quaking Aspen/Mesic

Herbaceous Forest

Curl-leaf Mountain-mahogany/

Mountain Snowberry Woodland

Limber Pine Woodland Alliance

Lodgepole Pine Woodland Alliance

Singleleaf Pinyon - Utah Juniper/

Sparse Understory Woodland

Singleleaf Pinyon/Curl-leaf

Mountain-mahogany Woodland

Singleleaf Pinyon Woodland

Subalpine Fir/Sparse Woodland

White Poplar Woodland Stand

Basin Big Sagebrush

Shrubland Alliance

Big Sagebrush/Cheatgrass –

(Desert Wheatgrass) Semi-natural

Shrubland Complex

Black Sagebrush/Bluebunch

Wheatgrass Shrubland

Booth’s Willow/Mesic

Forbs Shrubland

Chokecherry – (American

Plum) Shrubland

Green Rabbitbrush – (Rubber

Rabbitbrush) Shrubland Alliance

Mountain Big Sagebrush/Mixed

Herbaceous Shrubland Complex

Mountain Big Sagebrush – Antelope

Bitterbrush Shrubland Alliance

Mountain Big Sagebrush –

Mountain Snowberry Shrubland

Mountain Snowberry Shrubland

Speckled Alder Temporarily

Flooded Shrubland Alliance

Tobacco-brush Shrubland

Antelope Bitterbrush/Bluebunch

Wheatgrass Shrub Herbaceous Vegetation

Bluebunch Wheatgrass

Herbaceous Alliance

Cheatgrass Semi-natural

Herbaceous Alliance

Desert Wheatgrass Semi-natural

Herbaceous Vegetation

Dwarf Sagebrush Shrub

Herbaceous Alliance

Kentucky Bluegrass – (Bulbous

Bluegrass) – Baltic Rush Semi-natural

Herbaceous Vegetation Complex

Nebraska Sedge

Herbaceous Vegetation

Streambank Wheatgrass

Herbaceous Alliance

Agricultural Business

Planted/Cultivated

Transistional

Bare Rock/Sand/

Other Bare Ground

Quarries/Strip Mines/

Gravel Pits

Canal/Ditch

Lake/Pond

Stream/River

NPS Facilities

Residential

Transportation

0 0.5 1

Miles

Produced by: NPS - PWR GIS

Date Created: July, 2014

Data Sources: NPS - Ownership, Reserve

 Boundary and Roads

 USGS - Shaded Relief

Figure 18

N:\GIS_Maps\Parks\CIRO\GMP\Vegetation.mxd

o

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City of Rocks National Reserve DGMP/EIS

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Big Sagebrush/Grasslands

Big sagebrush/grasslands cover the open basin 

floors that represent approximately 37% of 

the Reserve. This community originally would 

have appeared as a mosaic of open stands of 

big sagebrush (Artemesia tridentata), with an 

understory of native perennial grasses such as 

Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis). Sagebrush 

steppe vegetation in its natural condition is 

scarce in Southern Idaho. Continued human 

and livestock use have modified the community 

into now-monotypic stands of big sagebrush 

interspersed with plants of little or no forage 

value, such as tansy mustard (Descurainia 

pinnata), Russian thistle (Salsola kali), cheatgrass 

(Bromus tectorum), and halogeton (Halogeton 

glomeratus), which is toxic to livestock. Crested 

wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum), introduced 

in the early 1950s range improvement programs, 

dominates the understory where the range has 

been improved for livestock.

Recent monitoring surveys conducted by the 

National Park Service have documented the 

persistence of high-value sagebrush steppe 

with exceptionally low levels of cheatgrass and 

other nonnative species infestations (such as the 

Trail Canyon and Emery Canyon areas; Stucki 

and Rodhouse 2012). However, other areas, 

particularly those that have burned in recent 

years (such as the southwestern portion of the 

Reserve) are degraded and heavily infested 

by nonnative species (Stucki and Rodhouse 

2012). Wildfire has the potential to remove 

native vegetation, creating opportunities for 

accelerated cheagrass invasion, thereby posing 

a risk to the integrity of the Reserve’s steppe 

communities.

Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands 

and Forests

Pinyon-juniper woodlands are located in rocky 

and rugged terrain. This plant community 

covers approximately 37% of the Reserve. The 

singleleaf pinyon (Pinus monophylla) and Utah 

juniper (Juniperus osteosperma) that comprise 

the community can grow to 30 feet in height but 

are generally scrubby, fewer than 15 feet tall, 

and almost as wide. This forest type is the most 

visibly prominent on the slopes surrounding 

the basins. Comparing present-day views to a 

historic photograph, circa 1871–72 (National 

Archives #77 KS-44-105), indicates that the 

pinyon-juniper woodlands have expanded in 

range, encroaching into previously open spaces. 

The Reserve has one of the few old-growth 

pinyon forests remaining in Idaho and contains 

the largest pinyon in the state. Pinyon forests 

are also home to a number of Idaho’s species of 

conservation concern, including cliff chipmunk, 

goshawk, pinyon jay, juniper titmouse, and 

Virginia’s warbler.

Mixed Scrub

Confined to the higher slopes and representing 

approximately 9% of the Reserve is the 

vegetation community called mixed scrub. This 

visually open community includes such plant 

species as big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), 

snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus), Utah 

serviceberry (Amelanchier utahensis), and 

antelope bitter brush (Purshia tridentata), along 

with other shrubs, grasses, and herbs growing in 

openings between the shrubs. Mule deer, sage 

grouse, green-tailed towhee, and broad-tailed 

hummingbird favor these areas.

Mountain Woodlands

Mountain woodlands are found in 

approximately 7% of the Reserve and 

include groves of quaking aspen (Populus 

tremuloides), stands of subalpine fir (Abies 

lasiocarpa) at Indian Grove, Douglas fir 

(Pseudotsuga menziesii) on the north slope 

of Granite Mountain, and lodgepole pine 

(Pinus contorta). They are often interspersed 

with high-elevation meadows located on the 

uppermost stony grassy slopes of the Reserve. 

The quaking aspen community occurs in 

canyons or other areas containing perennial 

or intermittent streams. These groves can 

include narrowleaf cottonwood (Populus 

angustifolia), mountain alder (Alnus incana), 

and serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), with 

chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) and mountain 

snowberry (Symphoricarpus oreophilus) 

creating visual thickets below the slender tree 

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City of Rocks National Reserve DGMP/EIS

230

trunks. Mountain woodlands are an important 

vegetation community for many species, such 

as the northern goshawk, Clark’s nutcracker, 

red-naped sapsucker, Lewis’woodpecker, 

calliope hummingbird, olive-sided flycatcher, 

ruby-crowned kinglet, elk, and moose. Many 

herbaceous plants are also confined to these 

mountain woodlands, such as Jacob’s ladder 

(Polemonium pulcherrimum), Colorado 

columbine (Aquilegia coerlea), and heartleaf 

arnica (Arnica cordifolia).

Riparian Vegetation

Riparian vegetation is limited to a small portion 

of the Reserve adjacent to stream courses and 

springs. The most outstanding of these are the 

North Fork of Circle Creek and Graham Creek. 

Riparian zones are associated with water and 

occur as important transitions between aquatic 

and terrestrial communities. These transitions 

have a greater quantity and diversity of plant 

species than adjoining land. They provide food, 

water, and cover for both wildlife and livestock. 

Overgrazing has altered many of the riparian 

areas in the Reserve, causing accelerated soil 

erosion and elimination of typical riparian plant 

species. Typical species of this plant community 

include willow (Salix sp.), smooth scouring 

rush (Equisetum laevigatum), Rocky Mountain 

maple (Acer glabrum), mountain alder (Alnus 

incana), red osier dogwood (Cornus sericea), 

and yellow monkeyflower (Mimulus guttatus). 

Birds often dependent on these communities 

include the sand hill crane, willow flycatcher, 

warbling vireo, house wren, hermit thrush, 

yellow warbler, MacGillivray’s warbler, and song 

sparrow. Riparian vegetation covers about 2.6% 

of the Reserve.

Mountain Mahogany Scrub

On some higher mountain slopes of the 

Reserve—including Mahogany Mountain, the 

north slope of Granite Mountain, and the south 

slope of Graham Peak—nearly pure stands 

of curlleaf mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus 

ledifolius) are present. They cover only 2.4% 

of the Reserve and most often occur in less 

rocky areas, next to or surrounded by pinyonjuniper woodland. Other species associated 

with this community include mountain 

snowberry (Symphoricarpus oreophilus), 

arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza saggitata), 

Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), bluebunch 

wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), and 

steershead (Dicentra uniflora). Birds commonly 

found in these pure stands include the mountain 

chickadee, bushtit, blue-gray gnatcatcher, and 

chipping sparrow. Mule deer find cover here.

High-Elevation Meadows and Ridges

Mountain meadows near upper ridges in the 

Reserve contain a combination of grasses, 

herbs, sedges, and wildflowers. Easily mistaken 

as an alpine community, these meadows result 

from exposed and windswept ridges, where 

conditions are unprotected and harsh in winter. 

Locations of this type within the Reserve include 

the ridges from Finger Rock to Graham Peak 

and Smoky Mountain peak. Plant species here 

grow low to the ground and often do not bloom 

or peak until late June through mid-July. One 

of the Reserve species of concern, Simpson’s 

hedgehog cactus (Pediocactus simpsonii), is 

common in these areas (IDFG 2011 and IDFG 

2012a). Other plants in this community include 

low sagebrush (Artemisia arbuscula), fleabane 

(Erigeron asperugineus), pale paintbrush 

(Castilleja pallescens), and cushion phlox (Phlox 

pulvinata). Only 2% of the Reserve contains the 

high-elevation meadow community. The high 

ridges and meadows are sensitive to impacts, 

and vehicle access to places such as Graham 

Peak should be restricted to authorized vehicles 

on the rare occasions required to maintain the 

radio repeater system. Unauthorized camping 

off Logger Spring Road within the Reserve 

has caused long-term damage to a number of 

localized areas. Bird species that favor highelevation meadows and ridges include the 

white-crowned sparrow, Brewer’s sparrow, fox 

sparrow, gray-crowned rosy-finch, golden eagle, 

sage grouse, and northern harrier.

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City of Rocks National Reserve DGMP/EIS

231

Rare and Sensitive Plant Species

Table 30 lists the special status plant species (IDFG 2011, 2012a).

Nonnative Plants, Invasive, and 

Noxious Weeds

There is no geographic area free from nonnative, 

invasive, or noxious weeds, but much of the 

Reserve remains dominated by native and intact 

ecosystems. Species such as common dandelion 

(Taraxicum officinale), desert alyssum (Alyssum 

desortorum), and bur buttercup (Ceratocephalus 

testicularis) often occur where cattle congregate 

or where human activity results in ground 

disturbance. Tumble mustard (Sisymbrium 

altissimum), flixweed (Descuriana sophia), 

crested wheatgrass (Agropyron desertorum), 

and cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) are also easily 

found across the spectrum of habitats. These 

species will probably never be eradicated, and 

no attempt to do so is planned. Of the 60 species 

of nonnative plants listed by Tom John in 1995, 

only 10 state-listed noxious weeds are present 

in or adjacent to the Reserve. These are treated 

for containment or eradication. Species most 

aggressively treated include Canada thistle 

(Cirsium arvense), spotted knapweed (Centaurea 

maculosa), Scotch thistle (Onopordium 

acanthium), and field bindweed (Convolvulus 

arvense). Though nearly eradicated, resource 

teams are quick to treat any presence of 

houndstongue (Cynoglossum officinale) and 

whitetop (Cardaria draba).

The Northern Rocky Mountains Exotic Plant 

Management Team summary lists 59 acres, 

but it is likely that a much greater area of the 

Reserve is affected by nonnatives. Nonnative 

invasive plants that have been introduced to or 

have invaded the Reserve include cheatgrass, 

common burdock, Russian olive, kochia, 

common mullein, and crested wheatgrass. 

Instead of the native perennial grass understory, 

these species and others now comprise the 

understory in the big sagebrush community.

Table 30. Special Status Plant Species*

Plant Species Status Habitat Occurrence Effect of the Alternatives

Davis wavewing 

(Cymopterus davisii)

S3 Easterly slope just north of Graham 

Peak (known only from the Albion 

Mountains)

All proposed alternatives provide the 

current level or more protection to this 

habitat.

Simpson’s hedgehog cactus 

(Pediocactus simpsonii)

S3 Locally abundant along the ridgeline 

west of Indian Grove and upward. 

Can also be found on nearly every 

elevated ridge in the Reserve, though 

not as abundant as in Indian Grove.

All proposed alternatives provide the 

current level or more protection to this 

habitat.

Kruckeberg’s sword-fern 

(Polystichum kruckebergii)

S2 Shaded rock clefts on south slope of 

the ridge between Circle and Graham 

Creeks. Also at Castle Rocks.

All proposed alternatives provide the 

current level or more protection to this 

habitat.

*State designations:

S1 = Idaho State Critically Imperiled: Listed by the Idaho Conservation Data Center as at high risk because of extreme rarity (often 5 or 

fewer occurrences), rapidly declining numbers, or other factors that make it particularly vulnerable to rangewide extinction or extirpation.

S2 = Idaho State Imperiled: Listed by the Idaho Conservation Data Center as at risk because of restricted range, few populations (often 20 

or fewer), rapidly declining numbers, or other factors that make it vulnerable to rangewide extinction or extirpation.

S3 = Idaho State Vulnerable: Listed by the Idaho Conservation Data Center as at moderate risk because of restricted range, relatively 

few populations (often 80 or fewer), recent and widespread declines, or other factors that make it vulnerable to rangewide extinction or 

extirpation.

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City of Rocks National Reserve DGMP/EIS

232

Canada thistle is the most pervasive noxious 

weed in the Reserve: efforts are being made 

to control this species, though eradication is 

unlikely. Spotted knapweed is the most invasive 

noxious weed threatening City of Rocks for 

which eradication is likely. Other invasive weed 

threats include houndstongue, black henbane, 

and Scotch and musk thistles. A single invasive 

saltcedar tree was removed from City of Rocks, 

and the Reserve must continually monitor for 

the threat of saltcedar and other new invaders 

such as dyer’s woad and leafy spurge. Cheatgrass 

has increased dramatically and continues to 

spread throughout the shrub-steppe habitat 

of the Great Basin in Idaho, disturbing and 

shortening normal fire regimes from 60– 110 

years to about every 3–5 years. Cheatgrass also 

establishes monocultures, thereby diminishing 

desirable vegetation and animals that are 

dependent on the native plants (Kurdila 1995; 

Reserve 2006a; Vitousek et al. 1996, 1997; 

Whisenant 1990).

FIRE

Fire History

Most forest, grass, and shrub ecosystems rely on 

natural fire to maintain their vegetative structure 

and species composition. Lightning-caused fire 

is part of the natural processes that have largely 

shaped the vegetation at City of Rocks today. 

American Indians used fire for cooking, to create 

defensible space across the landscape, and for 

manipulating vegetation for wildlife forage. 

Such forage enhancement provided beneficial 

habitat for wildlife that hunted for food. Fire was 

additionally employed to promote vegetation 

for human consumption. Currently, the 

frequency and rate at which certain vegetation 

burns have been influenced by both humanand lightning-ignited fire and the suppression 

of those wildfires. Other factors influencing 

fire frequency and fire intensity include plant 

community types, changes in topography, 

varying fuel accumulations, location of ignitions, 

and the weather conditions at the time of the 

ignition, especially wind and precipitation. 

Fire season in the Reserve can occur as early 

as May and may persist through October. 

The introduction of invasive annual grasses, 

particularly cheatgrass, presents a substantial 

challenge to the fire management strategy in the 

Reserve. Fire facilitates cheatgrass invasion, and 

this in turn provides more fine fuels to allow 

fires to grow larger and spread much faster than 

in environments with less fine fuel – a positive 

feedback phenomenon known as “the firecheatgrass cycle” that has degraded much of the 

Snake River Plain. Recent monitoring surveys 

conducted by the National Park Service have 

documented that recently burned areas have 

much higher levels of cheatgrass infestation than 

areas that have not recently burned (Stucki and 

Rodhouse 2012).

Fire suppression and the reduction in the use 

of fire by indigenous peoples have allowed 

the increase in spatial distribution of pinyonjuniper stands in the Reserve, which resulted 

in increased live and dead fuels. When wildfire 

occurs, these fuels increase fire intensity and the 

rate that fire spreads within the Reserve leading 

to large, costly, and dangerous wildfires that 

have the potential to damage Reserve resources 

and impact adjacent communities. Recent 

fires have significantly reduced the acreage 

of this plant community, but many areas with 

historically limited densities of pinyon-juniper 

are now covered with this vegetation type. The 

absence of natural wildfires in part has led to 

the extensive areas of pinyon-juniper existing 

outside of their natural areas. This is a highly 

altered condition that is difficult to maintain 

given the natural fire regime. Historically under 

a natural fire regime, pinyon-juniper stands 

were located in areas infrequently visited by fire. 

Fire suppression has also allowed a significant 

downed woody component to build up in stands 

of Douglas fir. Dead and diseased firs continue 

to add to this fuel component.

Grazing and fire suppression have reduced 

the beneficial impacts of wildfire, causing an 

increase in acreage of pinion/juniper stands 

and a decrease in the health and vigor of aspen 

communities in the Reserve. Isolated stands of 

Douglas fir have persisted without the presence 

of fire, and with increased live and dead fuels 

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loadings contributing to higher fire intensities, 

these species are very susceptible to stand 

replacing wildfires.

The fire regime for the pre-settlement pinyonjuniper woodland has a fire return interval of 

approximately 100 years in the old-growth 

stands and 50 years in the pinyon-juniper/sage 

grass stands. Areas with sage brush as the major 

vegetative component have a fire return interval 

of 15 to 25 years, and areas of predominantly 

grasses have a 5- to 10-year fire return interval.

The Reserve is bordered by lands managed 

by the U.S. Forest Service to the north, 

BLM lands to the east, south, and west, and 

privately owned lands elsewhere. The Bureau 

of Land Management has fire suppression 

responsibilities on privately owned lands, and 

additional privately owned lands are located 

within the boundaries of the Reserve.

Fire Management Plan

Current fire management activities at the 

Reserve include the suppression of all wildland 

fires. All unplanned ignitions, both lightningcaused and human-caused, are suppressed, 

using the appropriate suppression response to 

protect sensitive park resources. The City of 

Rocks National Reserve Fire Management Plan

and compliance document were completed in 

September 2005.

The Reserve does not have a fire management 

organization. It relies instead upon agreements 

with the Southern Idaho Interagency Fire 

Dispatch Center, the Bureau of Land 

Management, and other firefighting agencies 

using the “closest forces” approach for dispatch 

of initial attack resources to suppress fires within 

and adjacent to the Reserve. There is also an 

initial attack agreement with the Almo, Connor 

Creek, Elba Fire Protection District.

Potential Fire Behavior

Fuels present in the Reserve range from grass/

forbs to brush and timber stands, all located on 

gentle to steep slopes. This combination results 

in varied fire behavior, ranging from cooler fires 

under moderate weather conditions to extreme 

fire behavior during drought and/or strong 

wind conditions. The latter situation presents 

a particular problem for firefighter and public 

safety and increases the potential for damaging 

sensitive natural and cultural resources, 

especially during high-intensity fires initiated in 

light, flashy fuels at the lower elevations of the 

Reserve. It is in this area that visitors intermix 

with sensitive cultural and natural resources. 

This is also likely to be the area where wildfire 

has the highest probability to leave the Reserve, 

potentially impacting local communities and 

privately owned land.

Fire Management Plan Update

Following the completion of the general 

management plan, the Reserve’s fire 

management plan should be updated to ensure 

that GMP guidance and new scientific and 

sociologic information are included. The 

plan should be updated to include current 

Wildland Fire Policy language and concepts 

for community protection measures outlined 

in community wildfire protection plans. 

Recommendations from scoping for the updated 

fire management plan include:

•	 Where practical, the Reserve should 

develop fuels treatment plans that when 

implemented will reduce the damaging 

effects of wildland fire on the Reserve’s 

natural and cultural resources, protect 

visitors, and reduce the impacts of 

wildfire on adjacent communities and 

private inholdings.

•	 Collaborate with bordering agencies and 

private landowners when considering any 

fuels treatment planning effort.

•	 Examine the uses of prescribed fire to 

meet visitor protection and desirable 

long-term vegetation goals, especially 

in the pinyon/juniper/sage/grass 

vegetation types.

•	 Examine the feasibility of using naturally 

occurring wildfire as a benefit to firedependent plant communities and to 

maintain the natural appearance of the 

Reserve’s landscapes.

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WILDLIFE

The Reserve occurs at a biogeographic 

crossroads and protects a rich diversity of 

wildlife, especially mammals and birds. Since 

the Reserve’s designation in 1988, several 

unpublished and a few published inventories 

have been conducted. The various inventories 

and the current knowledge of the wildlife 

resources are discussed under the following 

subheadings: “Mammals,” “Birds,” “Reptiles and 

Amphibians,” “Fish,” and “Invertebrates.” Park 

staff annually conduct inventories of species 

observed, and rare sightings are thoroughly 

documented and submitted to the UCBN I&M 

program. Certain wildlife species within Idaho 

are only found in and around the Reserve’s 

pinyon woodlands and granite monoliths. These 

are discussed in greater detail below.

Mammals

The Reserve’s mammal checklist includes 52 

species, although not all have been verified in 

the field. The checklist is partially based on the 

2003 mammal inventory report, conducted by 

the University of Idaho Department of Fish 

and Wildlife Resources (Rodhouse et al. 2009). 

The report states that 47 species are expected 

or confirmed within the Reserve; however, the 

NPSpecies database lists 64 species probable 

or confirmed. These conflicting statistics 

demonstrate that more work is needed. 

Additional confirmation of present species is 

based on the “Small Species Status Survey in 

the Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands of City of Rocks 

National Reserve and Castle Rocks State Park, 

Idaho” (Vincent et al. 2007).

The following mammal species in or near the 

Reserve are listed on the Idaho Department 

of Fish and Game’s website as Idaho Species 

of Great Conservation Need (ranking and 

note included):

•	 Spotted bat; S3 (confirmed in the Reserve 

in 2003; distribution is poorly known 

in Idaho)

•	 Pygmy rabbit; S2 (confirmed within 10 

miles of the Reserve, and once thought to 

inhabit the area)

•	 Cliff chipmunk; S1 (a “peripheral species” 

in Idaho, but common in the Reserve)

•	 Great Basin ground squirrel; S2 (a 

permanent but uncommon resident of 

the Reserve)

Note: S1 = critically imperiled in Idaho; S2 = 

imperiled; S3 = vulnerable

The 2003 mammal inventory was helpful in 

confirming a number of small rodents. The deer 

mouse and Great Basin pocket mouse were the 

two most abundant mammals represented in 

trapping results. Pinyon mouse was reconfirmed 

in the Reserve for the first time since an 

unconfirmed report was made in 1967. The 

Reserve is at the northern limit of the range for 

this unique species, and the voucher specimen 

collected in 2003 may represent a significant 

range extension in Idaho.

In March of 2003, a ringtail cat carcass was 

found in nearby Castle Rocks by Reserve staff. 

This was the first record of the species in Idaho 

and also represented a significant northward 

range extension. Ringtail tracks in snow were 

reported in subsequent years, but no evidence of 

a viable population has been documented.

Larger mammals of interest include occasional 

elk, moose, and bighorn sheep. Most common 

are mule deer, coyote, bobcat, black-tail 

jackrabbit, mountain cottontail, desert woodrat, 

and long-tailed weasel. Mule deer are so 

common in Almo in the winter that upwards 

of 75 individuals can be seen most winter days 

between Durfee Hot Spring and Big Cove 

Road, a deer migration corridor that requires 

caution for road travelers. Much of the City 

of Rocks and Almo Valley provide crucial 

habitat for wintering mule deer. In the summer, 

least chipmunks and golden-mantled ground 

squirrels are frequent guests to campsites.

Pronghorn antelope and bison were probably 

common more than a century ago. Now, only the 

rare sighting of a pronghorn in the upper Raft 

River Valley is recorded. Bighorn sheep had been 

extirpated from the City of Rocks, although an 

occasional individual is seen passing through the 

Reserve from the reintroduced populations in 

the Jim Sage Mountains, South Hills, and on the 

south slope of Cache Peak.

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The area is part of a mountain lion corridor. A 

long-term mountain lion study was conducted in 

the area and several individual cats were tracked 

through the Reserve at various times (Laundre 

et al. 1991). The study noted that four adults 

and five kittens were known to use the Reserve 

during the winter of 1989–90. Controlled 

mountain lion hunts are held in Big Game 

Hunting Unit 55 each year, which includes the 

Reserve (IDFG 2012b). Human–lion encounters 

in the Reserve are extremely rare, but one hunter 

reported being cornered by a lion in nearby 

Castle Rocks State Park in 2005.

Birds

The Reserve and Castle Rocks State Park are 

popular destinations for birders in search 

of Idaho rarities such as pinyon jay, juniper 

titmouse, Virginia warbler, and greater 

sagegrouse. The park’s official 2010 checklist 

contains 142 species and is based on more 

than 11 years of observation data by Park 

Superintendent Wallace Keck (Keck 2010). 

Most research projects within the Reserve that 

focus on natural resources have included a bird 

observation list in the field notes, and birders 

frequently report their sightings at the visitor 

center. There is high confidence in the known 

inventory of bird species within the Reserve.

The Reserve’s high cliffs and pinnacles are 

perfect places for nesting raptors. Park staff 

conduct annual spring surveys to determine 

if active nesting is taking place, and if so, 

nearby climbing routes are temporarily closed. 

Nesting raptor species include red-tailed 

hawk, Swainson’s hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, 

Cooper’s hawk, northern goshawk, golden eagle, 

American kestrel, and prairie falcon. Other bird 

species dependent on the geological features 

for nesting include violet-green swallow, cliff 

swallow, rock wren, and canyon wren.

Additional surveys are especially needed to 

accurately assess the presence and available 

habitat of the following bird species, listed by the 

Idaho Department of Fish and Game’s website 

as Idaho Species of Great Conservation Need 

(ranking and note included):

•	 Greater sage grouse, S2 (confirmed leks 

and nests outside the Reserve at Castle 

Rocks State Park)

•	 American white pelican, S1B (seen only in 

migration overhead)

•	 Black-crowned night-heron, S2B 

(confirmed for the first time in 2009 in the 

Almo Valley)

•	 Bald eagle, S4N (seen only in migration 

through Almo Valley)

•	 Swainson’s hawk, S3B (fairly common in 

and around the Reserve in summer)

•	 Ferruginous hawk, S3B (seen rarely in the 

Almo Valley)

•	 Peregrine falcon, S2B (documented in the 

Reserve prior to 1995, but not seen since)

•	 Sandhill crane, S3B (uncommon breeding 

bird of Castle Rocks and Almo Valley, one 

nest record in Reserve)

•	 Long-billed curlew, S2B (uncommon 

breeding bird in Almo Valley and east of 

Emigrant Canyon)

•	 Wilson’s phalarope, S3B (few records in 

Almo Valley)

•	 Burrowing owl, S2B (unconfirmed 

in the Reserve, but confirmed in the 

Almo Valley)

•	 Short-eared owl, S4 (unconfirmed 

in the Reserve, but confirmed in the 

Almo Valley)

•	 Lewis’ woodpecker, S3B (observed 

and photographed in the Almo Valley, 

May 24, 2008)

•	 Pinyon Jay, S1 (fairly common in hills 

between Almo Valley and the eastern 

edges of the Reserve)

•	 Juniper titmouse, S2 (fairly common in the 

Reserve and hills east of Castle Rocks)

•	 Virginia’s warbler, S1B (fairly common 

in high woodlands of the Reserve and 

Castle Rocks)

•	 Brewer’s sparrow, SB3 (fairly common in 

open areas of Reserve and Almo Valley)

•	 South Hills crossbill, S1 (subspecies of 

red crossbill)

Note: S1 = critically imperiled in Idaho; S2 = 

imperiled; S3 = vulnerable; S4 = apparently 

secure; B = breeding; N = non-breeding.

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The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service maintains 

a list of species, subspecies, and populations 

of all migratory nongame birds that, without 

additional conservation actions, are likely 

to become candidates for listing under the 

Endangered Species Act. The most current 

list was published in 2008, and is divided into 

regions. The Reserve falls within Region 9 

(Great Basin). The list on page 25 of that report 

includes 28 bird species, of which 15 are known 

to occur within the Reserve, surrounding public 

lands, Almo Valley and Upper Raft River Valley. 

These species are listed in table 31, and noted in 

that status column as “BCC.”

Nonnative species in the Reserve and Almo 

Valley include the European starling, house 

sparrow, rock pigeon, and Eurasian collareddove. Of these species, the rock pigeon is the 

most numerous within the Reserve, while the 

remaining species are more common in the 

Almo Valley around barns and agricultural fields. 

The Eurasian collared-dove was first reported 

in the Almo Valley in 2009 and is increasing 

in number.

Reptiles and Amphibians

Over a period of 16 days in 2001, Jeremy 

Shave and Charles Peterson of Idaho State 

University conducted an extensive search in 

the Reserve for reptile and amphibian species 

(Shave and Peterson 2009). Their report 

determines that 14 species of reptiles and 

amphibians are potentially present within the 

study area, based on current range maps and 

historical observations. They observed seven 

species within the study area, none of which is 

considered a sensitive species or a species of 

special concern. Only one amphibian, the boreal 

chorus frog, was detected.

Reptiles most likely to be encountered by 

visitors are the sagebrush lizard, terrestrial 

garter snake, and Great Basin gopher snake. 

On rare occasions, park staff respond to visitor 

encounters with a Great Basin rattlesnake. 

To date no one has reported being bitten by 

one within the Reserve. Another sighting of 

interest occurred on May 19, 2009, when a 

desert horned lizard was encountered and 

photographed in Emigrant Canyon. The species 

was last documented in Cassia County, near 

Malta, in 1955–57.

Fish

No fish species have been documented within 

the Reserve. A few attempts to verify the 

presence of fish species within Circle Creek have 

been conducted. Electro-shocking techniques 

were used in Circle Creek Impoundment in 

September 2005 without success. Circle Creek 

and Graham Creek are the largest streams within 

the Reserve but remain disconnected most of 

the year from Almo Creek and Raft River, where 

species have been confirmed. Yellowstone 

cutthroat trout have been verified within the 

upper reaches of Almo Creek, about two miles 

north of the Reserve. The nearest confirmed 

location to the Reserve of a fish species is 

Junction Creek, a headwater tributary of the 

Raft River, located one mile from the southwest 

entrance of the Reserve (IDFG 2007 and Meyer 

et al. 2006).

Invertebrates

One of the greatest invertebrate discoveries 

within the Reserve was the confirmation of a 

healthy reproducing population of fairy shrimp, 

Branchinecta constricta. This species was 

formerly known to exist only in south-central 

Wyoming, on the east side of the Continental 

Divide. The June 2008 discovery and verified 

identification represented a substantial range 

extension for the species. Larger vernal pools 

may prove to hold other fairy shrimp species 

and could represent an important habitat for a 

relatively selective species.

In July 2007, volunteer Miriam Austin led staff in 

conducting an inventory of butterfly species at 

the Reserve and Castle Rocks State Park. Nearly 

360 individuals were encountered, representing 

28 species. The findings were published in the 

North American Butterfly Association’s Butterfly 

Count 2007 Report. This was the first inventory 

of butterflies for this area (North American 

Butterfly Association 2007).

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Aquatic invertebrates were collected by NPS staff as 

part of a larger assessment for an integrated water 

quality annual report in 2009. The survey in Circle 

Creek yielded 46 different species; the majority 

were identified to the genus level (Starkey 2010). 

Macroinvertebrates were also collected in 2012.

Another invertebrate of note is Ips confusus, the 

pinyon pine bark beetle. Because the pinyon forest 

community extends north into the Reserve, so 

too do its pests. Pinyon beetle damage is present 

in many areas of the Reserve, but particularly on 

Smoky Mountain and the surrounding small hills. 

The colder temperatures and greater moisture 

of southern Idaho may prevent the beetle from 

gaining a foothold and devastating the Reserve’s 

pine woodlands, as it has done in the southwestern 

United States.

Special Status Wildlife Species

Table 31 lists wildlife species that are considered 

special status species by state or federal agencies 

providing their designated status and their habitat 

occurrence (USFWS 2012a) (see definitions at end 

of the table).

Table 31. Special Status Wildlife Species*

Wildlife Species Status Habitat Occurrence

Spotted bat

Euderma maculatum

S3 Cracks and crevices of cliffs, but not documented or known

Pygmy rabbit

Brachylagus idahoensis

S2, FE Tall, dense sagebrush, but not confirmed within Reserve

Cliff chipmunk

Tamias dorsalis

S1 Old-growth pinyon-juniper sites near outcrops

Great Basin ground squirrel

Spermophilus mollis

S2 Southern portion of the Reserve in grasslands and/or low sagebrush

Greater sage grouse

Centrocercus urophasianus

S2, FC Sagebrush steppe, documented leks and nests in nearby Castle Rocks State 

Park

American white pelican

Pelecanus erythrorhynchos

S1B Seen only in flight, no suitable habitat within the Reserve

Black-crowned night-heron

Nycticorax nycticorax

S2B Lower Almo Creek and Raft River (Almo Valley); not confirmed in park

Bald eagle

Haliaeetus leucocephalus

S4N Observed in Almo Valley only during migration

Swainson’s hawk

Buteo swainsoni

S3B Rocky Cliffs, often seen in the low hills northwest of Almo Valley

Ferruginous hawk

Buteo regalis

S3B Rarely observed in the Reserve or Almo Valley

Merlin

Falco columbarius

S2N Open landscapes; rarely observed in the Reserve

Peregrine falcon

Falco peregrinus

S2B High Rocky cliffs; not confirmed in Reserve for 15+ years

Sandhill crane

Grus canadensis

S3B Open fields in Almo Valley, riparian edges

Long-billed curlew

Numenius americanus

S2B Fields, marshes, and grasslands primarily outside the Reserve

Wilson’s phalarope

Phalaropus tricolor

S3B Fields, marshes, and grasslands primarily outside the Reserve

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Table 31. Special Status Wildlife Species*

Wildlife Species Status Habitat Occurrence

Burrowing owl

Athene cunicularia

S2B Raft River Valley grasslands; not confirmed in Reserve

Short-eared owl

Asio flammeus

S4 Grasslands; not confirmed in the Reserve

Lewis’ woodpecker

Melanerpes lewis

S3B Open woodlands; few records in the area

Pinyon jay

Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus

S1 Pinyon-juniper woodlands, especially in low hills outside the Reserve

Juniper titmouse

Baeolophus griseus

S2 Pinyon-juniper woodlands

Virginia’s warbler

Vermivora virginiae

S1B Dry pinyon-juniper woodlands

Brewer’s sparrow

Spizella breweri

SB3 Sagebrush steppe

South Hills crossbill

Loxia sinesciuris

S1 Fir-spruce-lodge pole forests in high elevations

* Special Status Designations

Federal

FE = Federally Endangered: Listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as a species that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a 

significant portion of its range.

FT = Federally Threatened: Listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as a species that is likely to become an endangered species within 

the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range.

FP = Federal Proposed: Species for which the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has proposed in the Federal Register listing as threatened or 

endangered.

FC = Federal Candidate: Species for which the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has sufficient information to propose for listing as 

threatened or endangered.

FSC = Federal Species of Concern: Species whose conservation standing is of concern to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, but for which 

status information is still needed.

State

S1 = Idaho State Critically Imperiled: Listed by the Idaho Conservation Data Center as at high risk because of extreme rarity (often 5 or 

fewer occurrences), rapidly declining numbers, or other factors that make it particularly vulnerable to rangewide extinction or extirpation.

S2 = Idaho State Imperiled: Listed by Idaho Conservation Data Center as at risk because of restricted range, few populations (often 20 or 

fewer), rapidly declining numbers, or other factors that make it vulnerable to rangewide extinction or extirpation.

S3 = Idaho State Vulnerable: Listed by Idaho Conservation Data Center as at moderate risk because of restricted range, relatively few 

populations (often 80 or fewer), recent and widespread declines, or other factors that make it vulnerable to rangewide extinction or 

extirpation.

S4 = Idaho State Apparently Secure: Listed by Idaho Conservation Data Center as Uncommon but not rare; some cause for long–term 

concern due to declines or other factors.

B = Idaho State Breeding: Listed by Idaho Conservation Data Center because the Conservation status refers to the breeding population of 

the species.

N = Idaho State Nonbreeding: Listed by Idaho Conservation Data Center because the Conservation status refers to the nonbreeding 

population of the species.

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Wildlife and Natural Soundscape

The preservation of the Reserve’s acoustical 

environment is vitally important to overall 

ecosystem health. The peer reviewed literature 

widely documents the critical role that sound 

plays in intra-species communication, courtship 

and mating, predation and predator avoidance, 

and effective use of habitat. Additionally, 

similar studies have shown that wildlife can 

be adversely affected by sounds and sound 

characteristics that intrude on their habitats. 

While the severity of the impacts varies 

depending on the species being studied and 

other conditions, research strongly supports the 

fact that wildlife can suffer adverse behavioral 

and physiological changes from intrusive 

sounds (noise) and other human disturbances. 

Documented responses of wildlife to noise 

include increased heart rate, startle responses, 

flight, disruption of behavior, and separation of 

mothers and young (Selye 1956; Clough 1982; 

NPS 1995; USDA 1992; Anderssen, Nicolaisen, 

and Gabrielsen 1993).

When noise elevates ambient sound levels, 

signals that might otherwise have been detected 

and recognized are missed. The noise is said 

to mask these signals. Masking degrades an 

animal’s auditory awareness of its environment 

and fundamentally alters interactions between 

predators and prey. There are many animal 

species that rely almost exclusively on sounds 

to locate their prey (for example owls and 

gleaning bats). Masking also affects acoustical 

communication. Animals have been shown 

to alter their calling behavior and shift their 

vocalizations in response to noise (Brumm 

and Slabbekoorn 2005; Patricelli and Blickley 

2006; Slabbekoorn and Ripmeester 2008; 

Warren et al. 2006). These shifts have been 

documented in a variety of signal types: begging 

calls of bird chicks (Leonard and Horn 2008), 

alarm signals in ground squirrels (Rabin et al. 

2006), echolocation cries of bats (Gilman and 

McCracken 2007) and sexual communication 

signals in birds and anurans (Brumm and 

Slabbekoorn 2005; Patricelli and Blickley 2006; 

Warren et al. 2006; Slabbekoorn and Ripmeester 

2008; Parris, Velik-Lord, and North 2009). 

Vocal adjustment probably comes at a cost both 

to energy balance and information transfer; 

however, no study has addressed receivers. 

Some species are unable to adjust the structure 

of their sounds to cope with noise even within 

the same group of organisms (Lengagne 2008). 

These differences in vocal adaptability could 

partially explain why some species do well 

in loud environments and others do poorly 

(Patricelli and Blickley 2006; Slabbekoorn and 

Ripmeester 2008).

Some large herbivores have been observed to 

habituate to acoustic stimuli (Krausman et al. 

2004; Weisenberger et al. 1996). Habituation is 

a decreased responsiveness to a stimulus upon 

repeated exposure. There are many reasons 

why reports of habituation to noise should 

be interpreted with caution. A reduction in 

one form of response may represent a shift to 

another unobserved mode of response rather 

than development of complete tolerance. 

Observation of a more tolerant population may 

be the result of sensitive individuals leaving the 

area (Bejder et al. 2009). Animals that remain 

may not have other viable options. Lastly, a 

completely habituated animal has learned to 

ignore a class of stimuli, some of which may be 

important biological cues.

RESEARCH NATURAL AREA

The City of Rocks Research Natural Area 

consists of 312 acres within the Reserve, located 

in the southern part of the Albion Mountains 

and in the northern end of the Great Basin 

(“Figure 19. Research Natural Area”). It was 

designated as a Research Natural Area for its 

outstanding natural features, natural processes, 

natural diversity, and ecological value. It 

contains unique geologic formations and the 

northern limit of the pinyon-juniper forest 

type in North America. At the time of the RNA 

creation it was the only research natural area 

with stands of singleleaf pinyon. The geology is 

composed mainly of the Green Creek Complex, 

a 2.5 billion-year-old granitic gneiss basement 

rock with the Almo Pluton granitic-type rock 

intruding through the older complex, an event 

that occurred about 25 to 30 million years ago 

(Pogue 2008). The Research Natural Area is 

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City of Rocks National Reserve DGMP/EIS

240

located in the northern portion of the Circle 

Creek Basin. Elevation in the Research Natural 

Area ranges from 6,200 feet at the southern 

boundary to 7,688 feet on the ridge of the 

northern border.

History of the Research Natural Area

In the late 1970s, prior to creation of the 

Reserve, the Idaho Natural Areas Coordination 

Committee identified a 640-acre area within

BLM- and USFS-managed lands as a potential 

research natural area. Grazing was a major 

factor in determining the size and specific area 

of the Research Natural Area: the committee 

sought to minimize conflicts with historical 

grazing patterns. In 1983, the boundaries 

of the proposed Sawtooth National Forest 

Research Natural Area were agreed upon at 

45 acres and the Bureau of Land Management 

established an adjacent 240-acre area. In 1985, 

a 312-acre Research Natural Area was defined, 

and management for the 312-acre Research 

Natural Area was given to the Reserve when 

it was established in 1988. The Reserve’s 1996 

comprehensive management plan officially 

mandated that the Research Natural Area 

be managed under NPS Natural Resource 

Management Reference Manual 77.

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241

Figure 19. Research Natural Area

STEINFELLS

DOME

D

City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/EIS

Research Natural Area

NPS Approved RNA

Private Land

Foot

Foot/Horse

Foot/Horse/Bike

0 500 1,000

Feet

Produced by: NPS - PWR GIS

Date Created: July, 2014

Data Sources: NPS - Air Photo, Private Land, RNA

 Boundary and Trails

Figure 19

N:\GIS_Maps\Parks\CIRO\GMP\RNA.mxd o

Location within the Reserve.

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City of Rocks National Reserve DGMP/EIS

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is based on the potential of land to produce 

distinctive kinds, amounts, and proportions of 

vegetation and evaluates three major landscape 

processes; soil stability, hydrologic function, 

and biologic integrity. The two rapid-assessment 

sites had minor amounts of cheatgrass and 

very few nonnative forbs. The sites were in very 

good condition and functioning properly in the 

three major landscape processes included in 

the evaluation. From the field survey, 211 plant 

species were identified out of the 533 species 

listed for City of Rocks. There was no evidence 

of any listed threatened, endangered, or sensitive 

plant species. Singleleaf pinyon / Utah juniper 

plant associations accounted for 36.7% of the 

Research Natural Area. Bare ground / rocks 

areas accounted for 25.1% and were spatially 

intermixed with the vegetation. The ages of four 

singleleaf pinyon and one limber pine in the 

Research Natural Area were determined and 

varied from 310 to 410 years of age (Bell and 

Barton 2010). The singleleaf pinyon community 

in the Research Natural Area met the definition 

for an old-growth stand.

Nonnative plant life within the Research Natural 

Area has a slight impact on the native vegetation. 

The condition of the vegetation is generally good 

with nonnative plants rarely present. Only 14 

of the 211 plants found in the Research Natural 

Area are listed as nonnative. The most obvious 

and abundant nonnative species are the annual 

grasses, Japanese brome and cheatgrass, as well 

as the perennial grass and bulbus bluegrass. 

Tumble mustard is widely scattered throughout 

the area but not abundant. Other nonnative 

annual forbs are commonly found but rarely 

abundant (Bell and Barton 2010 ).

The high quality of the native vegetation and 

old-growth tree stands found in the Research 

Natural Area is evidence that the conservation 

management practices employed to date have 

been appropriate for this area.

Management of the Research Natural Area

The Research Natural Area in its current 

management state meets the criteria for which it 

was established. The National Park Service has 

six major objectives for research natural areas 

(NPS 2004a):

•	 Preserve a wide range of undisturbed, 

representative areas that typify 

important forest, shrub land, grassland, 

alpine, wetland, and similar natural 

situations that have special or unique 

characteristics, or provide outstanding 

examples of geological, biological, or 

ecological processes of scientific interest 

and importance.

•	 Preserve and maintain genetic diversity.

•	 Protect against deleterious 

environmental disturbance.

•	 Provide student and 

professional education.

•	 Serve as baseline areas for measuring 

long-term ecological changes.

•	 Serve as control areas for comparing 

results from manipulative research 

conducted elsewhere.

Research Natural Area Vegetation

Two studies have been published on the City of 

Rocks Research Natural Area since its creation. 

These studies were conducted by the BLM 

Burley District, Idaho, in October 1983 and 

Northwest Management, Inc., in 2010 (BLM 

1983; Bell and Barton 2010 ). Vegetation was a 

focus of these studies, both of which determined 

that the area received low levels of human 

impact. Native vegetation and old-growth tree 

stands were in good condition.

The 2010 study found no threatened, 

endangered, or sensitive vegetation within the 

Research Natural Area. A rapid assessment 

method co-developed by the Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, Agricultural Research 

Service, Bureau of Land Management, and 

the U.S. Geological Survey (Pellant et al. 2005) 

was used to evaluate the health of two sites in 

the Research Natural Area. The methodology 

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Wildlife within the Research 

Natural Area

The Research Natural Area is an excellent 

place to view nature in an untouched state. 

Wildlife such as mule deer, black-tail jackrabbit, 

mountain cotton tail, mountain lion, bobcat, 

lynx, badger, porcupine, moose, elk, coyote, 

bushytail woodrat, and various small rodents 

can be found. The Research Natural Area is 

also home to a wide variety of birds, such as the 

golden eagle, turkey vulture, red-tailed hawk, 

northern harrier, American kestrel, rock dove, 

mourning dove, common nighthawk, northern 

flicker, black-billed magpie, western kingbird, 

common raven, mountain chickadee, rock wren, 

house wren, violet-green swallow, cliff swallow, 

blue-gray gnatcatcher, American robin, chipping 

sparrow, and Brewer’s blackbird.

Special status species such as the cliff chipmunk, 

greater sage grouse, Swainson’s hawk, peregrine 

falcon, pinyon jay, juniper titmouse, Virginia’s 

warbler, and Brewer’s sparrow may also 

be found in the Research Natural Area. No 

evidence, however, was found of any listed 

or candidate wildlife species in the Research 

Natural Area (Bell and Barton 2010).

Research within the Research Natural Area

The Reserve’s Research Natural Area is an 

outstanding area for research on geological 

features, native vegetation, and animal life. 

The Research Natural Area has experienced 

few human impacts, resulting in a singular 

opportunity to see nature at its finest. 

Researchers participating in the two RNA 

studies noted:

“No roads exist within the area, and no roads 

are being planned” (BLM 1983).

“The majority of the City of Rocks RNA has 

been undisturbed by human-related impacts. 

The only man-made structure within the RNA is 

an old, unmaintained fence running north-south 

along the former boundary between USFS and 

BLM lands. The RNA is considered separated 

from the adjacent active grazing allotments by 

natural barriers. Cattle grazing is occurring 

in a few areas along the western and southern 

boundaries, but did not significantly affect the 

landscape ratings for biotic, soil, or hydrologic 

processes” (Bell and Barton 2010).

BIOGEOGRAPHIC CROSSROADS

Biogeographic crossroads are zones of 

ecological transition in which many species’ 

ranges overlap, generating high species diversity. 

There is increasing recognition that these 

areas may also support unique sources of 

biological diversity and that these crossroads 

justify increased conservation attention 

and prioritization. Conservation at these 

biogeographic crossroads is seen as a strategy to 

protect fundamental ecological processes such 

as the formation of new species and adaptation 

to climate change. Based on a series of recent 

reports and publications, research suggests 

that City of Rocks National Reserve meets 

the description of a biogeographic crossroads 

and warrants increased recognition of its 

conservation value within the U.S. network of 

parks and protected areas (Rodhouse et al. 2010; 

Powell et al. [in review]).

Awareness of biodiversity at City of Rocks 

was noted as early as 1973 in a NPS document 

entitled “Suitability/Feasibility Study for the 

Proposed City of Rocks National Monument.” 

City of Rocks lies close to a divide that separates 

the Pacific drainage to the north from the 

internal Great Basin drainage to the south. 

The divide forms a barrier to wildlife and plant 

migration and thus provides for a variety of 

habitats. For example, the pinyon pine located 

at City of Rocks is at this species’ northernmost 

range of tolerance (NPS 1973). More recently, 

research on the small mammal community in 

the Reserve has identified that the old-growth 

pinyon-juniper woodlands are home to several 

Idaho species of concern, including the cliff 

chipmunk and pinyon mouse (Rodhouse et al. 

2010). These species are at their northern range 

limits in vicinity of the Reserve is association 

with the northern range limit of the singleleaf 

pinyon pine and Utah juniper that creates the 

woodland habitat.

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Species at the Crossroads

While only three species within the Reserve 

are considered plants of special concern, a 

number of other species are worthy of note 

due to their location at the edge of their 

geographic distribution. The Reserve is located 

at the northern end of the Basin-and-Range 

province, the southern edge of the Snake River 

Plain (Upper Columbia Basin), and slightly 

west of the Northern Rocky Mountains, 

establishing it as a biogeographic crossroads, 

or the extreme distribution edge for some 

species. Plants at the edge of their ranges 

include Utah juniper, Juniperus osteosperma

(northern edge); pinyon pine, Pinus monophylla 

(northern edge); lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta

(southwestern edge); limber pine, Pinus flexilis

(one of the isolated pockets of the western 

range); and subalpine fir, Abies lasiocarpa

(southwestern edge).

CULTURAL RESOURCES

City of Rocks National Reserve is a national 

historic landmark district significant for its 

association with the largest overland emigrant 

migration in American history. Overland 

trails through the Reserve were traveled by 

mountain men, emigrant pioneers, Forty-niners, 

freighters, military expeditions, and stagecoach 

companies from 1829 through the early 20th 

century. Situated along the eastern approach to 

the Humboldt River, City of Rocks was one of 

the great scenic and historic landmarks along 

the California Trail. Thousands of travelers 

passed through the area on their way to or 

from California and western Nevada, and 

some traveled this way on the southern route 

of the Oregon Trail, known as the Applegate 

Trail. Many emigrants wrote about the area in 

their journals and described the “strange and 

romantic” granite formations they saw here.

As early as 1941, the National Park Service 

identified the “Silent City of Rocks” as a 

historically significant site along the California 

Trail. On February 27, 1957, the Idaho state 

legislature, also aware of the scenic and 

historical importance of the area, set aside 

640 acres for public use as a state park. Based 

on the significance of the California Trail 

and its contribution to the broad pattern of 

American history, 22 square miles (14,080 acres), 

including much of the future City of Rocks 

National Reserve, was listed in the National 

Register of Historic Places on October 24, 1963. 

The following year, on July 19, the Secretary 

of the Interior designated City of Rocks a 

national historic landmark in recognition of its 

exceptional value for interpreting the heritage 

of the United States. The City of Rocks National 

Historic Landmark is categorized as significant 

under Theme X, “Westward Expansion of 

the British Colonies and the United States, 

1763–1898,” Subtheme D, “Western Trails 

and Travelers,” Facet 4, “California Trails 

and Settlement of California.” The landmark 

boundary was revised on August 6, 1987, to 

encompass 12,480 acres.

In addition to the features associated with 

the national historic landmark, many other 

features and remnants in the Reserve reflect 

both regional patterns of settlement and the 

homestead era, which occurred in southern 

Idaho between 1888 and 1929. Other themes 

important to the development of the area—

such as fur trade and mining—while part of 

the Reserve’s history, did not significantly 

alter the character of the landscape or leave 

notable resources.

Cultural resources documented in the Reserve 

include American Indian associations and uses, 

archeological resources, and cultural landscape 

resources including structures, historic 

overland trail corridors, transportation features, 

and remnants of settlement, ranching, and 

agricultural operations.

National historic landmarks are nationally 

significant historic places designated by the 

Secretary of the Interior because they possess 

exceptional value or quality in illustrating or 

interpreting the heritage of the United States. 

Today, these are fewer than 2,500 historic places 

in the entire country that bear this national 

distinction, and 10 of these properties—

including City of Rocks—are in Idaho.

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To qualify as a national historic landmark 

the significance and physical character of the 

property must be evaluated to determine if it 

meets several thresholds. It must be associated 

with a historical theme important to the nation 

and must meet at least one of six criteria for 

significance. It must possess physical integrity, 

have defensible boundaries, and be reviewed 

by an advisory board and approved by the 

Secretary of the Interior.

Working with the community and the 

professionals in the Idaho State Historic 

Preservation Office and National Park Service, 

City of Rocks was designated a national historic 

landmark on July 19, 1964. It is nationally 

significant under the recognized historical theme 

of Westward Expansion and Extension of the 

National Boundaries to the Pacific 1830-1898 

(NHL Theme XV). The period of significance 

for the City of Rocks National Historic 

Landmark is 1843–1882 and the boundary for 

the landmark covers 12,480 acres containing 

the physical resources and reflecting the 

environmental setting associated with one of the 

largest overland migrations in American history 

(NPS 2012d).

AMERICAN INDIAN USE AND 

HABITATION

Portions excerpted from Historic Resources 

Study: City of Rocks National Reserve, 

Southcentral Idaho (HRA 1996):

Situated in the northern reaches of the Great 

Basin physiographic region, the area comprising 

City of Rocks has a long history of use and 

occupation by the Shoshone and Bannock 

peoples. Documentation indicates that 

Pocatello, a prominent leader of the Northern 

Shoshone, and his followers used the area 

for hunting, gathering, grazing horses, and 

seasonal habitation. In the higher elevations they 

collected pine nuts, a traditional food, from the 

pinyon pine forests.

The City of Rocks National Reserve occupies 

an area at the junction of two physiographic 

regions, the Great Basin and the Columbia 

Plateau, at the northern margin of the Great 

Basin “culture area.” A culture area is generally 

defined by anthropologists as a geographical 

area within which native inhabitants share 

similar cultural traits.

The Shoshone and Bannock people who 

occupied the upper Snake River Valley at the 

time of European-American contact displayed 

a blend of cultural traits typically associated 

with Plains, Great Basin, and Plateau cultures 

(Murphy and Murphy 1986). The relationship of 

the Northern Shoshone and Bannock, observed 

by ethnographers during the first part of the 

20th century, is described as follows:

“The Fort Hall, or upper Snake River, Shoshone 

and Bannock formed into large composite bands 

of shifting composition and leadership. The 

Shoshone speakers were always the majority, 

but the chieftaincy was sometimes held by a 

Bannock. Most of the Fort Hall people formed 

into a single group each fall to hunt buffalo east 

of Bozeman, Montana and returned to the Snake 

River bottomlands near Fort Hall for the winter... 

The large bands split into smaller units for spring 

salmon fishing below Shoshone Falls, and summer 

was spent digging camas roots in Camas Prairie 

and other favored places. Deer and elk were 

hunted in the mountains of southeastern Idaho 

and northern Utah.” Merle W. Wells.

Because of excellent grazing resources, pinyon 

pine nuts, rock chucks [yellow-bellied marmot], 

game animals, and vegetable roots, the upper 

Raft River and the City of Rocks area served as a 

“Shoshoni seasonal village center” and summer 

range for the Shoshone’s extensive horse herds 

(Wells 1990). Almo residents reported that as 

late as the 1970s,

“The Indians [from the Fort Hall Reservation] 

used to come every fall gathering pine nuts. They 

would gather the cones all day, then dig huge pits, 

fill them with wood and set it on fire. Then when 

the coals were right, they put the sticky cones in 

and covered them with dirt. By morning the cones 

would be popped open. The squaws picked the 

nuts out of the cones. They would sell them for .25 

a pint. . . . every year, ‘til the last few years, they 

come and traded back and forth with people for 

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hides and on the years that the pine nuts were 

good ... they come by car. Then they first come, 

they come in a buggy and team, wagon and team. 

And camp here, they’d have a camp right here, 

right above here for weeks at a time... They’d come 

here and buy deer hides... They trades us buckskin 

gloves for deer hides. See and then they make the 

gloves out of the deer hides.” Samuel Mikesell.

Years after their consolidation on the 

government reserve at Fort Hall, the BannockShoshone would return for “. . . ceremonial 

dances. Their camp grounds were near the Twin 

Sisters as there was a spring of cold running 

water close by” (Times News 1964). Non-Indian 

settlers also report an “Indian legend” centered 

at the City of Rocks, namely that “a bath in 

[Bathtub Rock] before sunrise will restore youth 

to the aged” (Lind n.d.). Evidence of the City of 

Rocks’ traditional significance thus continued 

long after ranching enterprises had transformed 

the area (HRA 1996).

ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Eighty-one archeological sites are documented 

in the Reserve. All of these sites have 

Archeological Survey of Idaho site forms 

and are on file with the Idaho State Historic 

Preservation Office.

Six technical reports have been completed for 

archeological surveys and testing projects. Five 

of the archeological surveys were carried out 

between 1990 and 1999. Of the 81 archeological 

sites in the Reserve, 59 have a prehistoric 

component, and of these, 26 sites have been 

determined potentially eligible for listing in the 

National Register of Historic Places (Chance 

and Chance 1990). Native American sites 

recorded in the Reserve include rock shelters, 

hunting sites, bedrock trays, lithic scatters, 

metates (milling stone), hopper mortar bases, 

and other artifacts. While there has been 

minimal archeological testing and excavation 

focused on prehistoric sites within the Reserve, 

6 rock shelters were investigated in 1992. 

Information from tested sites and recovered 

isolates suggests habitation of the City of 

Rocks area beginning in the early Holocene 

(10,000–11,000 years BP [before present]). 

This is supported by the recovery of a Folsom 

pre-form at Castle Rocks State Park (Guenther 

and Henrikson 2010). Due to a lack of human 

archeological survey, human occupation of the 

area is poorly understood through much of the 

Holocene. Data also point to a general decline in 

human habitation within the current boundaries 

of the Reserve beginning ca. 1400 AD (600 BP) 

(Chance and Chance 1993).

Thirty-six historic archeological sites are also 

documented. These include features associated 

with the California Trail, such as wagon ruts and 

emigrant writing on rock formations in Circle 

Creek Basin, the Kelton-Boise stage station site, 

remnant homestead sites, mining claims, as 

well as ranching and agricultural features (see 

the “Cultural Landscapes” section for more 

information).

Although very little of the Reserve has been 

surveyed for cultural resources, the sites that 

have been documented reveal a rich history 

of occupation within and in the vicinity of the 

Reserve. Given this information, there is a high 

probability that undiscovered prehistoric and 

historic archeological sites exist within the 

Reserve boundary.

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TRADITIONAL CULTURAL 

PROPERTY

During the summer of 2010 the ShoshoneBannock and Shoshone-Paiute tribes 

expressed an interest to the Bureau of Land 

Management, Burley Field Office, to designate 

an area encompassing City of Rocks National 

Reserve, Castle Rocks State Park, and parcels 

of BLM and USFS land as a traditional cultural 

property (TCP). Since then, BLM staff has 

assisted the tribes with the nomination process 

and gathering pertinent data to complete a 

national register nomination. NPS regional 

staff has joined with BLM staff in both the 

TCP nomination effort as well as in pursuing 

an archaeology district that recognizes both 

Criterion D1 as well as Criterion A.1

A TCP designation and “Native American 

Landscapes” designation (NAL) follow a 

process outlined for listing in the national 

register (National Register Bulletin 38). 

However, a traditional cultural property and 

Native American landscape are not property 

types; instead they act to convey the significance 

of a place to a group of people that have differing 

perspectives concerning activities and treatment 

to an area.

The TCP process commonly begins when a 

group or tribe identifies an area that holds 

cultural significance to their community. These 

areas generally maintain significance because of 

historical ties to a place, play an important role 

in maintaining and continuing cultural practices, 

1. Criteria for Evaluation

The quality of significance in American history, architecture, 

archeology, engineering, and culture is present in districts, 

sites, buildings, structures, and objects that possess integrity 

of location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, 

and association, and:

A. That are associated with events that have made a 

significant contribution to the broad patterns of our history; or

B. That are associated with the lives of significant persons in 

or past; or

C. That embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, 

period, or method of construction, or that represent the 

work of a master, or that possess high artistic values, or 

that represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose 

components may lack individual distinction; or

D. That have yielded or may be likely to yield, information 

important in history or prehistory.

or embody features or places associated with 

a group’s origin, beliefs about the nature of 

the world, or are an aspect of ceremonial 

activities. The elements of a TCP nomination 

include a defined area, a description identifying 

the aspects of an area or landscape that are 

significant, and supporting information that 

ties the cultural importance to a site, feature, 

or landscape. The nomination commonly 

uses archeological evidence, ethno-historical 

documents, and oral history to bolster the 

nomination.

Once a nomination is drafted, it is reviewed by 

the state historic preservation office and land 

managing agencies within the TCP boundary. 

The nomination is then submitted to the Keeper 

of the Register for consideration for listing in the 

national register.

CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

Portions excerpted from the Historic Resources 

Study: City of Rocks National Reserve, 

Southcentral Idaho (HRA 1996):

The National Park Service Director’s Order 

28 defines a cultural landscape as a geographic 

area—including both cultural and natural 

resources and the wildlife or domestic animals 

therein—associated with a historic event, 

activity, or person, or exhibiting other cultural 

or aesthetic values. The cultural landscape of the 

Reserve is structured by the natural landforms 

and systems that provided a framework for its 

historical use and development. The physical 

landscape, characterized by steep, north/

south-oriented ridges and free-standing knobs 

is largely encircled by mountains. The high 

point at Graham Peak (elevation 8,829 feet) 

is at the north boundary of the Reserve. The 

west slope of Smoky Mountain (elevation 

7,562 feet) dominates the east boundary, and 

the Cedar Hills are located adjacent to the 

southern boundary.

The Reserve contains three prominent gently 

sloping basins, each drained by a tributary of the 

Raft River (see “Hydrology” section). Beginning 

at the north end of the Reserve, the Circle Creek 

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Basin draws water from three tributaries: North, 

Center, and South creeks. This basin contains 

a large concentration of granitic outcrops and 

monoliths that inspired the name City of Rocks. 

Circle Creek Basin includes a reliable water 

source, which during the periods of historic 

use possessed ample vegetation and open 

space for grazing livestock. As a result, it was 

a favored campsite location for emigrants on 

the California Trail and was the location of the 

earliest homestead claims in the area.

The second basin, Twin Sisters Basin, is located 

slightly southwest of Circle Creek, separated 

by a wide, low ridge. This basin incorporates 

approximately 600 acres of gently sloping land 

and is drained by several intermittent water 

courses, which join to form a single channel 

that flows through Heath Canyon at the base 

of the south side of Smoky Mountain. The 

moderate slope of the land, coupled with 

comparatively deep loamy soil, proved attractive 

to dryland farmers after 1909. At one time, this 

basin contained four homesites and various 

irrigation improvements.

The third basin, Emigrant Basin, is a forked 

basin located south of the Twin Sisters ridge. The 

California Trail crosses over the ridge from Twin 

Sisters Basin to Emigrant Basin through Pinnacle 

Pass. The Kelton-Boise stage station is located at 

the confluence of the two forks.

There are three smaller basins on the west side 

of the Reserve that drain to the west. Taylor 

Spring Basin drains into Birch Creek, which 

flows north to the Snake River. Trail Creek Basin 

and an unnamed basin in the southwest portion 

of the Reserve drain west to Junction Creek, 

which then flows around the south end of the 

Albion Mountains into the Raft River. Emery 

and Trail Creek basins are high elevation basins 

that have long been used for summer range. The 

unnamed basin had a short period of use during 

the mid-1900s for dryland farming, but serves as 

summer range in more recent times.

Today the landscape of the Reserve retains 

nationally significant cultural resources related 

to overland emigrant migrations between 1843 

and 1882 and also displays various features 

associated with later periods of activity that 

characterize the current rural setting of the 

Reserve, including homesteading, dryland 

farming, mining, and ranching. The following 

provides a summary of cultural landscape 

resources associated with these historic events.

Landscape Setting and Viewsheds

Within City of Rocks National Reserve, the 

19th-century overland trail is part of a larger 

cultural landscape that largely reflects the 

historic character that awed and inspired 

emigrants making their way westward. 

Significant components of the California Trail 

corridor include not only the trail remnants, 

encampment sites, register rocks, and geological 

landmarks, but also the landscape itself. 

Although some landscape features and patterns 

have changed over time, many of these 19thand 20th-century improvements are relatively 

small in the larger environmental context. In this 

regard, the viewshed, or the extent of the views 

seen from the emigrant trails, is a significant 

cultural resource of the Reserve and the national 

historic landmark.

Historically native bunch grasses and fescues 

prevailed in the basins, and coniferous 

forest covered the uppermost reaches of the 

surrounding hills. During the period of active 

migrations and use of the trails, the routes would 

have been littered with cast-off equipment and 

goods, and the vegetation overgrazed by hungry 

oxen and mules. At any given time during the 

summer months, wagon parties were camped 

in Circle Creek Basin, where water and forage 

were plentiful.

Today City of Rocks is less trammeled, but also 

less wild. A visitor’s first impression is still one of 

enclosure. Vistas within the Reserve boundaries 

associated with the historic trail corridors are 

defined by a circle of massive rock formations 

that enclose open space, adding great variety to 

the scenery. The Circle Creek Basin, where many 

emigrants camped, is still an expansive valley 

with a flowing creek, ringed by towering rock 

formations and offering a sense of security and 

comfort to plains-weary travelers. Formations 

named and sketched by pioneers still stand as 

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guideposts along the trails and modern roads. 

The Twin Sisters formation, which appears on 

the southwest horizon beyond the inscription 

rocks, continues to provide a focal point and 

landmark for those traveling to Pinnacle Pass 

across the next open valley, sometimes called 

the Twin Sisters Basin. The area around Twin 

Sisters is a particularly important part of the trail 

viewshed because the massive landmark can be 

seen by people approaching from the east as well 

as from the north, and once marked the junction 

of the California Trail and Salt Lake Alternate. 

Emigrants passing here knew they were a few 

days’ ride from Salt Lake City and were about to 

begin the most difficult and hazardous part of 

their journey to California.

For the purpose of analyzing impacts on the 

California Trail and Salt Lake Alternate, the 

trail viewshed is considered to be the area 

within the foreground (up to one-quarter mile 

on either side of the identified route) and the 

middle ground (one-quarter to three miles) that 

comprises the significant continuous view along 

the trail. The viewshed contracts and expands 

following the topographic edges of ridgelines 

that frame the scene.

The distant background is also an important 

part of the views that form the trail, but it is 

far enough in the distance that many land 

uses incompatible with the historic setting are 

generally not discernible from the trail.

Three important views and their viewsheds 

along the California Trail warrant special 

attention (see “Figure 20. Cultural Resources”). 

They are important because they are the views 

experienced by historical travelers trying to 

find their way along the trail. These landmark 

views include:

•	 The view south toward Twin Sisters from 

the California Trail corridor as the ground 

rises to meet the basin in front of the 

two spires

•	 The view northwest toward Twin Sisters 

along the Salt Lake Alternate Trail at the 

stage stop

•	 The expansive view southwest to Granite 

Pass, one-quarter mile outside the 

southwest boundary of the Reserve.

The first view is directed to the Twin Sisters. This 

view includes the intermediate crags and peaks 

along the Twin Sisters ridge in the foreground 

and the considerable intervening distance. Yet 

the view to Twin Sisters remains important 

because it reveals the trail route to Pinnacle Pass 

and the lowest saddle along the ridge.

The second significant view looks northwest 

to the Twin Sisters from the Kelton-Boise stage 

station site. From this vantage, the separation 

of the two spires is apparent. Their individual 

and distinctive forms and textures are vividly 

perceived. Their strength as a dominant focal 

point is more evident due to the shortened 

middle ground, which makes them appear close 

to the viewer.

The third view extends beyond the boundary 

of the Reserve to Granite Pass: it is an extensive 

view with no foreground or containment. A 

symbol of westward expansion and passage, 

this view is another significant outlook from 

the Reserve.

National Historic Trails

The wagon trails through City of Rocks are part 

of the larger California National Historic Trail, 

which Congress authorized in 1992 (Public 

Law 102-328) (see the California National 

Historic Trail legislation in “Appendix A: 

Reserve Legislation”).

The California National Historic Trail begins at 

several “jumping-off places” on the Missouri 

River between Independence, Missouri, 

and Omaha, Nebraska; crosses the interior 

of the United States; and ends at numerous 

destinations in northern California and Oregon. 

Emigrants traveling the trail often noted 

significant landmarks and milestones along the 

way, and City of Rocks, with its intriguing rock 

formations, was one of these.

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Figure 20. Cultural Resources

TWIN

SISTERS

View to

Granite Pass

View to

Twin Sisters

View to Twin Sisters

CIRCLE

CREEK

BASIN

CASTLE

ROCK

GRAHAM

PEAK

D

View into

Circle Creek

Basin

Salt Lake Alternate Trail

Almo

City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/EIS

Cultural Resources

National Historic

Landmark Boundary

Reserve Boundary

California National

Historic Trail Corridor

Visible Wagon Ruts

Inscription Rocks

Kelton-Boise Stage

Route

Roads

0 0.5 1

Miles

Data Sources: NPS - Inscription Rocks, NHL Boundary,

 Reserve Boundary, Roads, Trails,

 Wagon Ruts and Viewsheds

 USGS - Shaded Relief

Data excerpted from the National Historic

Landmark nomination - 1964, CMP - 1996

and the Cultural Landscape Inventory - 2008.

Figure 12

N:\GIS_Maps\Parks\CIRO\GMP\CulturalResources.mxd

o

Produced by: NPS - PWR GIS

Date Created: July, 2014

Historic Views

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At today’s City of Rocks National Reserve, 

nearly nine miles of California Trail remain (see 

“Figure 3, Existing Conditions”). The trail 

approaches the east boundary of the Reserve 

from the vicinity of Almo, Idaho. South of Almo 

the historic trail forks, and the north branch 

roughly follows the alignment of the current 

road into the Reserve while the other branch, 

dipping further south, generally follows the 

south side of Circle Creek. The two segments of 

the trail rejoin inside the Reserve where the main 

park road intercepts Circle Creek. From there 

the trail continues generally south-southwest, 

past the Twin Sisters formation and through 

Pinnacle Pass. Near the south end of the Reserve 

the trail curves westward. This branch, known as 

the Salt Lake Alternate, was used by emigrants 

for freight and stage traffic both to and from Salt 

Lake City, Utah. This route reconnects with the 

California Trail and parallels the current road as 

it crosses the west boundary of the Reserve.

Extant traces of the California Trail within 

City of Rocks National Reserve are clearly 

visible both on the ground and in aerial 

photography. The alignment of the historic trail 

through the Reserve is best characterized as 

a landscape corridor through which wagons, 

people, and livestock dispersed as the ground 

plane opened and then converged through 

geographical constrictions such as river fords, 

mountain passes, and rock formations. At City 

of Rocks, remnants and features associated 

with the historic trail alignment are reflected by 

discontiguous linear features such as ruts and 

swales in parallel alignments. Most of these are 

located in the southern end of the Reserve.

The trail corridor is also identifiable where 

the alignment passes through a topographic 

restriction, such as a canyon or saddle in a ridge. 

The entry into the Circle Creek basin at the 

northeast edge of the Reserve is an example of 

a canyon restriction. Here, the close alignment 

of three steep topographic features creates two 

narrow passages on either side of a small steepsided knoll, restricting travel from the upper 

Raft River Valley into the Circle Creek Basin. 

The most prominent restriction within the 

Reserve is Pinnacle Pass, located in the middle 

of a long, continuous ridge of eroded granite. In 

this instance distinct wagon ruts occur on both 

sides of the pass. The character of the trail in 

this area, which appears similar to modern twotrack roads, may be due to uses that postdate 

westward emigration. The corridor restricts 

once more at the head of Emigrant Canyon 

south of Twin Sisters, where the Salt Lake 

Alternate joined the main trail.

Cultural resources associated with the California 

Trail include:

•	 The California National Historic Trail 

corridor (route and alignment)

•	 Wagon wheel traces (ruts), and other 

topographical remnants of trail routes 

(most notably in Section 23 T16S/R23E)

•	 Features associated with the trail corridor 

such as encampment sites and inscription 

rocks

•	 Geological formations and unique 

topographic landmarks documented and 

described in emigrant journals

•	 The environmental context and landscape 

setting for the trail corridor, including 

historically important viewsheds from the 

trail corridor.

Significant Resources

The National Trails System Act provides for 

the identification of high-potential sites and 

segments based on criteria established in the 

act. These criteria include historic significance, 

the presence of visible historic remnants, scenic 

quality, and relative freedom from intrusion. 

High-potential segments are those segments 

of a trail that afford high-quality recreational 

experiences along a portion of the route having 

greater than average scenic values or affording an 

opportunity to vicariously share the experience 

of the original users of a historic route. Each site 

or segment must have the potential to interpret 

the trail’s historical significance and to provide 

opportunities for high-quality recreation.

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High-Potential Sites

Two high-potential sites, both listed in the 

National Register of Historic Places, are 

described at or near City of Rocks:

•	 City of Rocks Complex (public land): 

One of the great scenic and historic 

landmarks along the California Trail, the 

City of Rocks was mentioned in almost 

every emigrant account. It is an area of 

fantastically weathered granite formations, 

which the emigrants fancied as steeples, 

hotels, houses, temples, and palaces in a 

“Silent City of Rocks.” It includes a series 

of sites: Twin Sisters, a natural historic 

landmark; Pinnacle Pass, wide enough 

for one wagon; Emigrant Canyon spring, 

where remnants of the Kelton-Boise stage 

station and excellent trail ruts can be seen; 

and Salt Lake Cutoff Junction, where 

this alternate route comes up Emigrant 

Canyon to join the California Trail in an 

open valley approximately one mile south 

of the Twin Sisters.

•	 Granite Pass (private land outside the 

Reserve): As the only route into Nevada 

north of the Hastings Cutoff that was 

passable for emigrant wagons, Granite 

Pass (elevation 6,960 feet) played a 

key role in determining the path of the 

California Trail. An easy ascent from the 

east terminated with a very steep and 

treacherous descent westward into Goose 

Creek. The pass was never referred to in 

emigrant accounts as Granite Pass, but 

there are several emigrant graves at the 

summit and along the ascent. Alonzo 

Delano described the view from the top 

of the pass in 1849: “From the summit of 

the hill, a fine and peculiarly interesting 

view afforded...Far as the eye could reach, 

cones, tables, and nebulae, peculiar to the 

country, extended in a confused mass” 

(NPS 1999b: p.264).

High-Potential Segments

The Salt Lake Cutoff (or Alternate), though not 

yet listed in the National Register of Historic 

Places, is also mentioned as a high-potential 

segment at City of Rocks:

•	 “The Salt Lake Cutoff was developed 

to bypass the desert trail established by 

Lansford W. Hastings. The route goes 

north from Salt Lake City along the base 

of the Wasatch Mountains, past Brigham 

City, and turns northwest into southern 

Idaho. This segment starts in Curlew 

Valley; travels west past Pilot, Emigrant, 

and Cedar springs; traverses the Raft River 

Narrows; passes Emigrant Canyon Spring; 

and rejoins the main California Trail near 

City of Rocks” (NPS 1999b: p.231).

Features Associated with Trail Emigrants

A total of 11 monolithic granitic outcroppings 

with emigrant inscriptions and axle-greasedaubed signatures have been identified within 

the Reserve; most are in the vicinity of Circle 

Creek Basin (which the emigrants called 

Pyramid Circle). Rocks with documented 

historic inscriptions include:

•	 Camp Rock, a granite outcrop that served 

as a camp shelter and a “register rock” 

where emigrants used axle grease to 

record their names and the dates of their 

visit—Camp Rock today is an interpretive 

pullout where visitors can stop to examine 

inscriptions and experience the trail

•	 Treasure Rock, another emigrant register 

rock and interpretive pullout—local lore 

holds that stagecoach robbers buried their 

stolen gold in this vicinity

•	 Register Rock, an emigrant camping area 

and inscription site with a present-day 

interpretive pullout

Documentation suggests that Circle Creek 

Basin—with a broad open floor, grasses for 

livestock, and reliable water from several 

creeks—was a preferred encampment area for 

travelers on the California Trail. Other likely 

encampment areas included the basin northeast 

of Twin Sisters and Pinnacle Pass. This area 

contains several springs, and the broad expanse 

of the basin bottom would have provided forage 

for livestock and a general place to rest before 

the last pull up Pinnacle Pass.

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The narrow passage through Pinnacle Pass also 

contains physical evidence reflecting heavy use 

of the pass by emigrants traveling the overland 

trail. Among these features are wagon-wheel ruts 

found in the rocks near the approaches to the 

Pinnacle Pass and the top of the pass before the 

incline descends to Emigrant Canyon.

At the head of Emigrant Canyon near the 

junction of the Salt Lake Alternate and the 

main branch of the California Trail is the site 

of the City of Rocks “Home Station.” Between 

1869 and 1883, the station served passengers 

and employees on the Kelton-Boise Stage 

Route, which connected the railhead at Kelton, 

Utah, with the booming mining district of the 

Boise Basin. The building no longer exists and 

the property is considered an archeological 

site. Features associated with the site include 

the remains of five structures, including two 

buildings, a well, cellar, and constructed 

impoundment pond. Fencing and road traces 

are also evident.

Topographical Landmarks

Emigrant journals document enthusiastic 

records of virtually every interesting rock 

outcrop encountered in the City of Rocks, 

particularly those in the “rock city” that rims the 

Circle Creek Basin. These formations comprise 

a complex that is in many ways the most 

significant aspect of the trail experience through 

the City of Rocks. The Twin Sisters formation 

(which emigrants commonly called Spire Rock 

and Steeple Rocks) was a particularly prominent 

geological landmark for passing traffic. Many 

of the travelers on the main California Trail 

as well as those on the Salt Lake Alternate 

commented on this formation in their journals. 

For those on the Salt Lake Alternate, the Twin 

Sisters was the only component of the City of 

Rocks that could be observed from the trail. It is 

also significant because it marked the junction 

of the two trails and the last point at which 

travelers could choose between California or the 

Oregon Territory.

Settlement Era Features

Portions excerpted from the Historic Resources 

Study: City of Rocks National Reserve, 

Southcentral Idaho (HRA 1996):

Cultural landscape resources related to the 

settlement era include circulation, irrigation 

works, building and structural ruins, homestead 

sites, mining features, corrals, fences, and gates.

Between 1910 and 1919, the landscape within 

the Reserve provided the setting for farming, 

grazing cattle, and mining exploration. During 

this era, 29 patented tracts were taken within 

what is today the City of Rocks National 

Reserve. Of these claims, 19 were dryland farms. 

Because of relatively poor soils and semi-arid 

conditions, the majority of these farms were 

marginal enterprises at best. Many of the fields 

in production rarely exceeded 100 acres, and 

most were closer to 30 acres in size (Reserve 

2008b). Although large portions of the claims 

were not ever farmed, much of the land was 

fenced along claim lines, which significantly 

altered the open character of the rangelands. As 

the dryland farmers abandoned their claims in 

the 1920s due to drought, this land was used for 

summer and fall grazing. Today many fences in 

the Reserve mark the boundaries of homestead 

withdrawals and continue to follow section lines, 

private landholdings, and grazing allotments. 

Most fences erected on private land remain 

and are still made of juniper posts and barbed 

wire. Corrals are constructed with poles and 

dimensional lumber associated with livestock 

management and grazing.

Perhaps the most direct evidence of historic 

homesteads and agricultural use of the land 

in the 20th century is reflected in the changes 

to vegetation throughout the lower elevations 

and basins of the Reserve. Historically, these 

areas contained a mosaic of native grasses such 

as Idaho fescue and scattered sagebrush. Over 

time, grazing livestock, along with agricultural 

operations such as grubbing, plowing, and 

crop production, have left only fragments of 

this mosaic. Today native vegetation has largely 

reverted to a dominant cover of sagebrush 

mixed with weedy grasses, thistle, and nonnative 

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forbs. In spite of these changes, and with the 

exception of several relatively small-scale 

features such as corrals and fences, the cultural 

landscape of the Reserve is remarkably free of 

major structural components. In many ways, 

the larger environmental setting of the Reserve 

retains much of the landscape character from 

both the historic overland migration era and the 

period of homesteading and settlement.

Remnant residential building clusters associated 

with homestead withdrawals and land use 

between 1900 and 1929 include a variety 

of resources. Some of the homestead sites 

have been reduced to artifact scatters and 

depressions. Examples of these sites include 

the Mikesell homesite, the Charles Fairchild 

homesite, the Thomas Fairchild homesite, and 

the Walter Mooso homesite. Others, such as the 

Moon homesite and the John Hanson homesite, 

contain artifact scatters, above-ground ruins of 

buildings or structures, and foundation remains.

Only one historical homestead property, the 

Circle Creek Ranch, retains the residential 

cluster, irrigation improvements, and hay 

meadow historically associated with the ranch. 

This property is located in the Circle Creek 

Basin, where George Lunsford withdrew 160 

acres under the 1862 Homestead Act, receiving 

a patent for the land in 1888. (A homestead act 

was one of three U.S. federal laws that gave an 

applicant ownership at no cost of farmland 

called a “homestead.”) Lunsford sold his land 

to William Tracy in 1901. This parcel, plus 160 

adjacent acres patented by Mary Ann Tracy as 

a Desert Land entry, formed the nucleus of the 

Circle Creek Ranch. The Tracys established their 

homesite farther east than Lunsford’s original 

improvements, nearer the California Trail. They 

spent years constructing a substantial stone 

house (now in ruins) to replace a log dwelling. 

The stone used in the construction of the 

home is from a quarry located about one mile 

southwest of the homesite, on a rocky knob that 

is locally known as “Mica Knoll.”

Historic Irrigation Features

In the early 20th century, almost 12,000 acres 

in Alma, Elba, and Albion were irrigated using 

Almo, Grape, Edwards, Cassia, Marsh, Basin, 

and Circle creeks. Although attempts to farm the 

land were made through homestead claims, with 

the exception of the bottomlands associated 

with Circle Creek, most of the land within 

today’s Reserve was soon deemed less than 

desirable, if not impossible, to cultivate.

Remnants of two historic irrigation works 

remain in the Reserve. One is associated with the 

historic Circle Creek Ranch, which drew water 

from reservoirs in Dry Canyon, North Circle, 

and South Circle creeks. William Tracy built 

a series of dams and ditches on Circle Creek 

in order to irrigate a small hay meadow. These 

ditches averaged one foot deep and one and 

one-half feet wide. The other remnant irrigation 

system was built by Joseph Moon on the site of 

the abandoned City of Rocks stagecoach station, 

(one of the Boise-Kelton stage stations) which 

he patented in 1925. Near a spring in Emigrant 

Canyon, he constructed a system including 

a stone dam below the spring and a “trench” 

running from the reservoir out of a steep gully to 

a main ditch and two laterals (Reserve 2008b).

Mining

Only two mines have been developed within 

the Reserve, neither of which was formally 

withdrawn for mineral development. The 

mines appear to have been less-than-full-time 

endeavors of people whose primary livelihood 

was derived from agricultural pursuits.

One of these mines is the feldspar (stone) quarry 

located on Mica Knoll, near the Tracy’s Circle 

Creek Ranch. Local informants also refer to 

the “Lloyd mica mine” as being located on 

this knoll. Indeed, there is evidence of at least 

nine separate excavations that extend over the 

top and sides of the knoll. These excavations 

are relatively small and, based on available 

information, it does not appear that these sites 

produced large quantities of material (mica and/

or feldspar).

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The other mine is referred to by local residents 

as the “Vern White mica mine,” and appears 

to date to the late 1940s–50s. Local informants 

indicate that the mica from this mine was used 

for insulation (Twitchell 1995).

Cultural landscape resources associated with the 

settlement period include:

•	 Boundary demarcations (small-scale 

elements such as fences and corrals)

•	 Remains of residential building clusters 

and irrigation improvements

•	 Historical mine sites and remnant 

infrastructure

•	 Wagon roads not associated with the 

California Trail, but made by, and left over 

from the historic rural setting era

CONTACT PERIOD, AMERICAN 

INDIAN PRESENCE, AND 

DISPLACEMENT FROM CITY OF 

ROCKS

The region in which City of Rocks National 

Reserve is located was once the exclusive 

domain of native or aboriginal populations. At 

present, however, it is quite distant from two 

large American Indian reservations in southern 

Idaho, four geographically separate colonies 

of a tribe in Nevada, and another tribe with a 

very small Utah reservation that are all located 

in the surrounding region. The two large 

reservations are those of the Shoshone-Bannock 

Tribes of the Fort Hall Reservation north of 

Pocatello, Idaho, to the northeast of the Reserve 

and the Shoshone-Paiute Tribes of the Duck 

Valley Reservation to the west of the Reserve. 

The latter consists of land in both southern 

Idaho and northern Nevada. To the southwest 

of City of Rocks in Nevada, the Te-Moak 

Tribe of Western Shoshone Indians has four 

separate bands who live at colonies near Battle 

Mountain, Elko, Lee and the Ruby Valley (the 

South Fork Band), and Wells. Finally, there is 

the Northwestern Band of the Shoshoni Nation 

that has a small parcel of federal trust land in 

Washakie, Utah. This reservation is southeast 

of City of Rocks and is in closest geographical 

proximity to the Reserve. The contemporary 

tribes who have the reservations listed above are 

referred to below and discussed further in the 

“Socioeconomics” section of this chapter.

The focus of this section is to summarize what is 

known about the American Indian occupation 

and use of City of Rocks National Reserve in 

southern Idaho and nearby areas of present-day 

northwestern Utah and northeastern Nevada 

in the period from approximately 1850 to the 

1880s. The City of Rocks will be placed into a 

geographical context with an initial emphasis 

on the linguistic and cultural identity of the 

American Indians who were in immediate 

vicinity of City of Rocks and the surrounding 

region of the Great Basin and the Snake River 

Plateau in those decades. Three initial questions 

are addressed: Who were the American Indians 

known to have frequented or used resources 

at City of Rocks such as pinyon pine nuts? 

Where else did they live at the beginning of the 

period? What happened to them as the numbers 

of California Trail emigrants passing through 

City of Rocks drastically increased in the 1850s 

and early 1860s at the same time that other 

nonnatives, especially members of the Church of 

Latter Day Saints or Mormons, spread out from 

Salt Lake City after 1847 to colonize irrigable 

river valleys in present-day Utah and Idaho that 

were once the exclusive homelands of American 

Indians known to have traveled extensively to 

hunt game, fish, and gather a wide variety of 

plant resources for their basic subsistence?

To identify the contemporary tribes whose 

ancestors were likely to have been traditionally 

associated with the City of Rocks in the prereservation and early reservation periods, it 

is necessary to ask the questions above and 

others about later periods of history during 

which contention and hostilities between native 

peoples and newcomers (both emigrants who 

passed through the area on the California Trail 

and those who stayed on as settlers) over land 

and resources resulted in a series of treaties 

negotiated by representatives of the U.S. federal 

government and tribal leaders between July 

and October 1863. Those treaties of friendship 

followed the infamous Bear River Massacre of 

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January 29, 1863. Subsequently, displacement of 

native peoples from their homelands continued. 

Some of the people secured reservations, 

one established in 1867 under an Executive 

Order for a reservation at Fort Hall, Idaho, and 

another under an 1877 Executive Order for a 

reservation at Owyhee, Nevada, while others in 

Nevada and Utah established and maintained 

nonreservation settlements or colonies within 

their aboriginal homelands until reservations 

were established at various times between 1917 

and 1977 in Nevada, and as recently as 1987 in 

Utah. The complex and unique history of the 

four tribes, their constituent bands, and the 

reservation communities is touched on in this 

section, as well as in a separate section on the 

contemporary reservation communities.

The beginning of the period covered in this 

section followed closely upon U.S. acquisition 

of a vast portion of the western United States 

from Mexico through the Treaty of Guadalupe 

de Hidalgo and the discovery of gold on the west 

side of the Sierra Nevada range in 1848, and 

then California statehood in 1850. Those events, 

combined with the settlement of Salt Lake City 

and nearby areas by Mormons in 1847, resulted 

in tumultuous times as emigrants initially 

traveled through the homeland territories of 

American Indians along the Oregon Trail in the 

1840s, and subsequently along the California 

Trail after the route through Granite Pass and 

City of Rocks was established by Mormons on 

their way back to Utah from California in 1848. 

The emigrant wagon train traffic south along the 

Raft River from the Snake River, then through 

City of Rocks and Granite Pass towards the 

Humboldt River and ultimately to California, 

drastically increased in the 1850s while other 

newcomers, including many Mormons, began to 

colonize native homelands around Salt Lake City 

and in closer proximity to City of Rocks.

The end of the period to be described here 

is the 1880s when many native peoples in 

northeastern Nevada, northwestern Utah, and 

southern Idaho had removed to the two large 

reservations that still exist. At the same time 

several relatively small groups of native peoples 

in northeastern Nevada refused to move to 

reservations and held on to their homelands in 

geographically dispersed areas over which there 

was initially less competition with settlers, but 

which ultimately became colonies or settlements 

adjacent to nonnative communities. Finally, 

in northwestern Utah and southern Idaho a 

few small groups of native people continued 

to reside in relatively close association with 

non-Indian communities as landless people 

who converted to Mormonism, then acquired 

access to a small amount of land because of 

that connection.

Broadly Defined Tribal Territories in Terms 

of Linguistic and Cultural Groups in the 

Great Basin

Planning for the 20-volume Handbook of 

North American Indians to be published by 

the Smithsonian Institution began in the mid1960s, and all of North America, including the 

continental United States, Alaska, and Canada, 

was to be addressed in a series of 10 volumes 

on various geographically defined cultural 

areas, with 10 other proposed volumes to be 

focused on special topics such as languages 

(volume 17), cross cultural area comparative 

volumes, as well as an introductory volume, 

2 volumes of biographies and an index 

volume. Although the 20 volume set remains 

incomplete, the 10 volumes on the geographical 

areas were published between 1978 (volume 

8 on California) and 2004 (volume 14 on the 

Southeast). Volume 11 on the Great Basin 

was published in 1986. It presented, as do all 

other geographical volumes, a generalized 

map to show the region covered in the volume. 

A copy of the Great Basin map titled “Key 

to Tribal Territories” appears in “Figure 21. 

Tribal Territories.”

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In the center of the map, one of the nine areas 

is labeled Western Shoshone. Its northern 

boundary coincides with northern boundaries 

of Nevada and Utah, with Idaho to the north. 

The northern area is labeled Northern Shoshone 

and Bannock. To the immediate west of these 

two areas lies an area labeled Northern Paiute. 

To the immediate east of first the two areas cited 

here, lays an area labeled Eastern Shoshone. 

The named “Tribal Territories” are a mixture of 

linguistically defined populations and American 

Indian indigenous populations with general 

locational names that distinguish them from 

each other and are artifacts of treaty making 

in 1863 that will be described further below. 

On the basis of comparing a variety of maps, 

including the one in figure 21, it is clear that the 

Western Shoshone area actually intrudes into 

northwestern Utah and southeastern Idaho. In 

doing so, the generalized perspective presented 

in figure 21 places historic and modern day 

Western Shoshone into areas that were occupied 

by Northwestern Shoshone, Eastern Shoshone, 

Northern Shoshone and Bannock as those terms 

were used in a series of treaties concluded in 

1863. Specific examples are referred to below.

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Figure 21. Tribal Territories

City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/EIS

Tribal Territories

According to the Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 11, Great Basin: "This map is a

diagrammatic guide to the coverage of this volume; it is not an authoritative depiction of

territories for several reasons. Sharp boundaries have been drawn and no area is unassigned. The

groups mapped are in some cases arbitrarily defined, subdivisions are not indicated, no joint or

disputed occupations are shown, and different kinds of land use are not distinguished. Since the

map depicts the situation at the earliest periods for which evidence is available, the ranges

mapped for different groups often refer to different periods, and there may have been intervening

movements, extinctions, and changes in range. Not shown are groups that came into separate

existence later than the map period for their areas. The simplified ranges shown are a

generalization of the situation in the 19th century, with those of the Washoe, Northern Paiute,

and Ute more for the first part of the century and the rest slightly later. For more specific

information see the maps and text in the appropriate chapters."

Figure 13

Produced by: NPS - PWR GIS

Date Created: July, 2014

Map Source: Handbook of North American Indians

 Volume 11, Great Basin

 William C. Sturtevant - General Editor

 Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 1986

N:\GIS_Maps\Parks\CIRO\GMP\TribalTerritories.mxd

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The specific names of the linguistic groups that 

are relevant to the history of City of Rocks and 

the surrounding region are Shoshone, Bannock, 

and Paiute. All three are considered by linguists 

to be Numic languages that belong to the 

Uto-Aztecan family. They have been divided 

further into Northern Paiute-Bannock that is 

among a series of Western Numic languages and 

Shoshone (Western, Northern, and Eastern) 

among a series of Central Numic languages. 

Interestingly, although the Bannock were 

Northern Paiute speakers (Liljeblad, Fowler, and 

Powell 2012) who migrated east to live among 

Northern Shoshones long before the period 

under consideration here, the Bannock and 

Northern Shoshones “spoke separate and 

mutually unintelligible languages” (Murphy and 

Murphy 1986: p.284). Anglicized versions of the 

names these different groups used for 

themselves are Newe among the Western 

Shoshone; Numa among the Northern Paiute; 

and, Nimi among the Northern Shoshone and 

Bannock. All three of these names stand 

for “people.”

Food-named Shoshoni and Northern Paiute 

Groups during the Pre-reservation and 

Early Reservation Periods

“Among Shoshoni from the Snake River, 

Idaho to Death Valley, California, the largest 

permanent organization was the village. There 

is not a single feature which warrants calling any 

of them ‘band.’ There are no sharp dialectic, 

cultural, or political boundaries, nor welldefined named groups larger than the village. 

Names were sometimes applied to the people of 

a general but not clearly defined region. Nevada 

Shoshoni called Idaho Shoshoni “salmon eaters” 

and were called by them “pine-nut eaters,” but 

neither considered themselves to belong to 

bands with such names. In fact they rarely used 

such names for themselves. Nevada Shoshoni 

never called themselves pine-nut eaters, though 

some of them occasionally referred to people 

in another region as eaters of a certain seed . . . 

The temporary and shifting intervillage alliances 

of this region, therefore, instead of consistently 

allying people with well-defined territories, 

entailed a linkage of village with village which 

extended, network like, throughout the 

entire area. Political bonds, like subsistence 

areas interlocked in all directions” (Steward 

1938: p.248).

The quote above is from a study by 

anthropologist Julian H. Steward who was 

born in Washington, D.C., in 1902 and who 

then went to a preparatory school near Death 

Valley, California, beginning in 1918. Steward 

developed an interest in the Shoshone and 

Paiutes of the area before he spent an initial 

freshman year of college at the University of 

California, Berkeley. One of his courses was with 

Alfred Kroeber and two other anthropologists 

who represented the first generation of 

anthropologists who introduced the discipline 

at Berkeley at about the same time as Steward’s 

birth. Kroeber completed the manuscript for his 

Handbook of the Indians of California in 1917. 

It was subsequently published by the Bureau of 

American Ethnology in 1925, the same year in 

which Julian Steward returned to Berkeley from 

Cornell to begin graduate studies.

In his Shoshonean Dialects of California (1907), 

Kroeber wrote about the names used by Indians 

for each other and by others: “In great part the 

Plateau Shoshone [a large area from southern 

California, east through the Great Basin and 

towards the Rocky Mountains] called one 

another by names composed of a food and 

the word eaters, such as “fish eaters,” “buffalo 

eaters,” “mountain sheep eaters,” “root eaters,” 

“squirrel eaters,” and many others . . . In most 

cases they lacked tribal names for themselves, 

the word num or some variant such as nov-inch, 

meaning simply persons or people, being used 

. . . Such tribal names as Ute, Paiute, Monachi, 

Chemehuevi, and probably most of the others 

commonly known, were not used by the people 

whom they designate, but by the tribes referring 

to them . . . The result of all these circumstances 

is that when tribal names have definitely taken 

hold, either through Indians of other families 

or through the whites, the people to whom 

they apply are still indeterminate” (Kroeber 

1907: p.102).

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Kroeber discussed both the Shoshones and the 

Paiutes of California with reference to the Great 

Basin and neighboring states in his Handbook 

and concluded as follows about each of them: 

“In one sense, however, the Shoshoneans are an 

un-Californian people. Except for a highland 

strip in the south . . . they have nowhere crossed 

the Sierra Nevada, and therefore failed to 

penetrate the great valley and mountain area 

which is the heart and bulk of California. More 

than half of their territory that we are here 

concerned with is in that essentially Shoshonean 

region, the Great Basin” (Kroeber 1925: p.574). 

With reference to the Northern Paiute, Kroeber 

wrote: “These people should be described in 

connection with those of Nevada and Oregon, 

of whom they constitute a minute peripheral 

fraction. They can, in fact, not be described here 

because nothing of any significance is known of 

them, and little of moment of their main body 

to the east. Their country was un-Californian. 

What has been said before of Great Basin tribes 

that belong to California unnaturally and only 

through the courtesy of arbitrary political lines is 

applicable here . . . We must leave the Northern 

Paiute of our northeasterly angle of California 

to some future historian of the bordering States” 

(Kroeber 1925: p.582-583).

As a second generation anthropologist who 

choose to work in the Great Basin, Julian 

Steward and others, notably Omer C. Stewart, 

began, in part to address the lack of information 

about Shoshones and Paiutes that is relevant 

to providing a context for understanding the 

history of native peoples who lived in and 

around City of Rocks. By 1936, Steward engaged 

in six months of research with funding from the 

University of California and a grant-in-aid from 

the Social Science Research Council, and in 1936 

he had funding for an additional four months of 

travel and research from the Bureau of American 

Ethnology. His research objectives according to 

the first page of the preface in his Basin Plateau 

Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups published in 

1938 were

•	 to make an ethnographic reconnaissance 

of the Western Shoshoni and some of 

their Northern Paiute, Ute, and Southern 

Paiute neighbors.

•	 to analyze the functional relationship of 

the different parts of the culture to one 

another and to the local environment.

•	 to ascertain the types of Shoshonean 

sociopolitical groups and to discover their 

ecological and social determinants.

By the time that research took place, the two 

large reservations referred to above, those 

of the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes of the Fort 

Hall Reservation and the Shoshone-Paiute 

Tribes of the Duck Valley Reservation, were 

well established with resident populations 

who previously lived in many other places. 

Steward’s methodology was to travel extensively 

throughout the Great Basin and Snake River 

Plateau to interview elderly tribal members 

about where and how they lived prior to the 

establishment of reservations. He was not 

interested in documenting the contemporary 

ways of life in the 1930s, but he was interested 

in the recollections tribal elders had about the 

past. In this sense, his goal was to “document” 

ways of life throughout the region before the 

conflict with settlers that ultimately led to 

extensive loss of traditionally occupied areas, 

displacement from them and the uneven 

development of reservations. Steward did 

not specifically discuss City of Rocks, but his 

informants described “Pine Nut Eaters” who 

primarily lived in the Grouse Creek area of what 

became northwestern Utah (Steward 1938: 

p.173-177). He also makes reference to Chief 

Pocatello as having been born in Grouse Creek 

before moving to the Bannock Creek area of 

the Fort Hall Indian Reservation (1938: 212-

218). Steward’s map of the Basin-Plateau area 

shows symbols for “Native Village Site[s]” in the 

vicinity of City of Rocks: two near Goose Creek 

to the northwest; and two on the east side of 

the Raft River and below the Snake River to the 

northeast. Pine nut eater village sites were more 

numerous south of City of Rocks in northwest 

Utah (Steward 1938: Figure 1).

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CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN 

INDIAN RESERVATIONS

While the region in which City of Rocks 

National Reserve is located was once the 

exclusive domain of native or aboriginal 

populations who made use of a wide variety 

or resources in a vast territory, the Reserve 

is now quite distant from contemporary 

American Indian reservation communities 

in southern Idaho, northwestern Utah, and 

northern Nevada. In this section, the term 

“traditionally associated peoples” as it is 

defined in NPS Management Policies 2006 

is introduced and four federally recognized 

tribes and a tribal consortium are described 

relative to their potential associations with the 

Reserve. The limited historical information on 

the direct connections ancestors of the various 

contemporary tribes, presented in greater 

detail in an earlier section, is reviewed briefly in 

association with the fact that Reserve staff has 

observed American Indian people and others 

visiting City of Rocks to take advantage of 

resources such as pinyon pine nuts.

In NPS Management Policies 2006, the term 

“traditionally associated peoples” is used as 

a foundation for discussing the relationships 

between contemporary human populations and 

park lands that are important to consider when 

delving into the history of those groups and their 

associations or relationships with park lands:

Traditionally associated peoples – social/

cultural entities such as tribes, communities, 

and kinship units, as well as park neighbors, 

traditional residents, and former residents 

who remain attached to a park area despite 

having been relocated, are “traditionally 

associated” with a particular park when 

(1) the entity regards park resources as 

essential to its development and continued 

identity as a culturally distinct people; (2) 

the association has endured for at least two 

generations (40 years); and (3) the association 

began prior to the establishment of the park

(NPS 2006a: p. 159).

As noted previously, variations of the 

geographically based terms Eastern Shoshone, 

Northwestern Shoshone, and Western 

Shoshone were used in a series of 1863 treaties 

of friendship negotiated by representatives of 

the federal government to refer to numerous 

“bands” of American Indians that consisted of 

Shoshones, Bannocks, and Paiutes who often 

referred to themselves and other groups with 

distinctive localized names that were subject 

to change. In the period following those initial 

treaties and the piecemeal establishment of 

geographically dispersed reservations, the tribes 

came to refer to themselves in terms of both 

the names of their reservations and the broader 

geographically based categories. The following 

four contemporary tribes may have the potential 

to be traditionally associated with the Reserve 

on the basis of their histories and on-going 

associations. However, in most cases both the 

historical record and contemporary associations 

are not well documented. The order in which 

the tribes are presented here is based on when 

their reservations were established rather 

than alphabetically or according to any sort of 

ranking. Finally, a contemporary consortium of 

Western Shoshone Tribes is described.

Shoshone-Bannock Tribes of the Fort Hall 

Reservation

Beginning with NPS consultation and research 

with this tribe on behalf of the Reserve in the 

mid-1990s, the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes have 

expressed an interest in the Reserve. Although 

the reservation is distant from the Reserve, 

knowledgeable tribal members have indicated 

that they or others have visited the Reserve 

periodically to gather pinyon nuts. The historical 

record places the Reserve within the territory of 

at least one band of Shoshone as noted in Article 

4 of the Treaty of Box Elder: “The country 

claimed by Pokatello, for himself and his people, 

is bounded on the west by Raft River and on the 

east by the Porteneuf Mountains.”

The association of Pocatello with City of Rocks 

was also documented in the period prior to 

the 1863 and subsequently. Following the 

establishment of the Fort Hall Reservation, 

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under the terms of the 1868 Treaty of Fort 

Bridger, Pocatello and others continued to live 

in northwestern Utah and could have visited 

City of Rocks. Later, Pocatello resided in the 

Bannock Creek portion of the reservation, but 

visits to locations with pinyon trees and other 

resources in their old homeland may well have 

continued. All indications are that members 

of the contemporary Fort Hall Reservation 

consider themselves or their tribe to be 

traditionally associated with the Reserve.

Shoshone-Paiute Tribes of the Duck Valley 

Reservation

The National Park Service consulted with the 

Shoshone-Paiute Tribes and also included 

them in a research project in the mid-1990s 

(Myers 1998). At the time, tribal officials did not 

indicate an interest in or association with the 

Reserve. The research did not find any evidence 

for historic or ongoing associations between 

members of the tribe and the Reserve. In the 

course of preparing this plan, extensive research 

on the history of the Shoshone-Paiute Tribes 

sought to find any evidence of associations with 

the Reserve. None was found. It is possible 

that associations with the Reserve were 

developed by members of this tribe since the 

initial establishment the first Western Shoshone 

reservation at Duck Valley in 1877 under 

the terms of the 1863 Treaty of Ruby Valley. 

Information in support of such associations 

would be welcomed.

Te-Moak Tribe of Western Shoshone 

Indians (this tribe consists of four bands 

with colonies at Battle Mountain, Elko, Lee 

and other locations [the South Fork Band], 

and Wells)

In an effort to include all contemporary tribes 

that might have associations with the Reserve, 

the history of this Western Shoshone tribe 

was studied along with the others referenced 

here. As with the Western Shoshone group that 

later became the Shoshone-Paiute Tribes, what 

became the Te-moak Tribe acquired reservations 

lands under the terms of the Treaty of Ruby 

Valley. However, the geographically dispersed 

communities retained their nonreservation 

status well into the 20th century because they 

refused to leave their homelands in northern 

Nevada for the Duck Valley Reservation.

Of the four constituent colonies of the TeMoak Tribe, Wells is geographically closest to 

the Reserve, but no historical documentation 

was found to establish associations between 

members of the Wells Colony and the Reserve. 

Their reservation was established by an Act 

of Congress on October 15, 1977. The Wells 

Colony and the others who constitute the TeMoak Tribe should be contacted to determine if 

they have any associations with the Reserve.

Northwestern Band of the Shoshoni Nation

Although this tribe received federal recognition 

as recently as 1987, they did so under the terms 

of the Treaty of Box Elder with the northwestern 

bands. Their ancestors, including Sagwitch 

and other leaders, have a well-documented 

history of residence in northwestern Utah 

and southern Idaho that included having been 

among those Shoshone whose numbers were 

drastically reduced at the Bear River Massacre 

of January 29, 1863, near Preston, Idaho. In the 

years following the Treaty of Box Elder, some 

members of this group lived in close association 

with Church of Latter Day Saints settlers, 

became converts, and lived on lands owned 

by the church at Washakie and elsewhere. In 

the 1880s, some were said to travel west in 

the autumn to harvest pinyon nuts. Whether 

they went as far as City of Rocks then or more 

recently is not known.

The National Park Service consulted with 

members of this tribe extensively in the mid1990s concerning the Bear River Massacre site. 

This tribe should be consulted about possible 

associations with the Reserve.

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Western Shoshone National Council

This organization is a consortium of a number 

of Western Shoshone tribes from throughout 

Nevada and elsewhere that has been pursuing 

land claims since 1984 under the terms of the 

Treaty of Ruby Valley as they interpret them. 

They claim an extensive aboriginal territory that 

is greater than the one used by the Indian Land 

Claims Commission, and it is important to note 

that the northeastern corner of the territory as 

defined by the consortium would either include 

the Reserve or be very close to it. As noted in 

an earlier section, the contemporary Western 

Shoshone consortium has extended their 

territory into that of the northwestern Shoshone 

as defined in the Treaty of Box Elder in 1863. 

The National Park Service and Reserve partners, 

including management and staff employed by 

Idaho Parks and Recreation, should be aware 

that this consortium exists and that some of the 

tribes described above may be members.

In summary, the contemporary tribes that 

have the greatest potential to be “traditionally 

associated” with the Reserve appear to be the 

Shoshone-Bannock Tribes of the Fort Hall 

Reservation and the Northwestern Band of 

the Shoshoni Nation. Although historical and 

contemporary information is not known about 

the associations the other tribes may have 

with the Reserve, it is nevertheless important 

to consult with them in the interests of 

being inclusive.

VISITOR EXPERIENCE

VISITOR EXPERIENCE: ACCESS AND 

TRANSPORTATION

The NPS Cooperative Park Studies Unit at 

the University of Idaho conducted a visitor 

services project at City of Rocks National 

Reserve in 2008 (Reserve 2009b). This standard 

NPS method for obtaining information about 

park visitors and visitation patterns took place 

during September 6–14, 2008. A total of 350 

questionnaires were distributed to visitor 

groups. Of those, 256 questionnaires were 

returned, resulting in a 73.1% response rate.

Results showed that visitors were often in family 

groups (42%) of two people (41%) or three to 

four people (27%), while 30% were with friends. 

The most common visitor ages were 21–45 years 

old (48%), followed by 51–65 years old (23%), 

15 years or younger (13%), and 66 years or 

older (8%). Forty-seven percent were first-time 

visitors to the Reserve, while 30% had visited 

five times or more. The earliest year reported for 

a first visit to the Reserve was 1942. International 

visitors were often from the United Kingdom 

(38%), Switzerland (33%), and four other 

countries. U.S. visitors comprised 97% of the 

total visitation and were primarily from Idaho 

(38%) and Utah (34%), with 32 other states 

represented in smaller numbers. City of Rocks 

National Reserve was the primary destination of 

66% of visitor groups.

Prior to visiting, visitor groups most often 

obtained information about City of Rocks 

through previous visitors (61%) and word of 

mouth from friends or relatives (56%). Most 

visitor groups (95%) obtained information about 

the Reserve prior to their visit, and most groups 

(88%) received the information they needed. 

Sixty-two percent indicated they would prefer 

to obtain information from the City of Rocks 

website to plan a future visit.

Reasons for visiting the Reserve were sightseeing 

(70%) and art, including photography, painting, 

and drawing (68%). The primary recreational 

activities visitors participated in were rock 

climbing (53%) and general sightseeing (26%). 

The most visited sites included Bath Rock 

(72%) and Bread Loaves (64%). Fifty-nine 

percent of all visitor groups participated in 

rock climbing activities. Seventy-seven percent 

of visitor groups participated in traditional 

rock climbing, while 76% took part in sport 

climbing (see “Acronyms and Glossary” for 

climbing definitions).

Forty-three percent of visitor groups had two 

members in their household.

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Of visitor groups that spent fewer than 24 

hours visiting the Reserve, 30% spent 5 or more 

hours. For those who visited for more than one 

day, 67% spent two or three days. The average 

length of stay for all visitor groups was 43 hours 

(1.75 days).

The most used visitor services and facilities 

included campsites (63%), brochures and 

maps (52%), and the visitor center (50%). 

Most of the visitors (91%) rated the overall 

quality of facilities, services, and recreational 

opportunities in the Reserve as “very good” 

or “good.”

May, June, and September are generally the 

months of highest visitation at the Reserve and 

received a monthly average of 15,500 people 

during 2009. During 2011, June, July, and 

September were the months of highest visitation 

and received a monthly average of 16, 256 

people. There is also substantial visitation during 

March, April, August, and October. During the 

slower winter months of November through 

February visitation is reduced to an occasional 

visitor seeking winter recreation. According to 

statistics reported by the Reserve to the National 

Park Service, visitation has generally been 

trending upward. Table 32 lists Reserve visitation 

from 2001 to 2011.

Table 32. City of Rocks National Reserve Visitation

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Jan 1,050 1,050 875 500 500 500 500 500 560 630 560

Feb 750 1,163 1,380 500 500 500 500 360 805 910 455

March 775 1,200 1,587 750 750 500 2,850 420 1,575 1764 1,050

April 1,200 1,500 4,505 6,969 4,875 7,984 5,369 2,885 4,290 3,591 2,374

May 11,068 9,614 10,447 10,847 7,476 11,225 13,530 12,411 13,136 8,429 7,986

June 11,180 16,537 14,073 12,158 11,934 12,102 13,241 15,561 17,900 15,702 16,878

July 9,824 11,910 12,625 10,430 9,933 10,035 10,332 12,716 12,881 14,840 17,378

August 11,073 8,274 7,473 11,838 10,986 10,970 8,336 12,939 12,061 11,974 10,675

Sept 8,750 12,005 12,082 12,138 9,122 12,996 11,330 12,285 15,372 13,902 14,511

Oct 7,276 8,761 10,109 7,206 7,631 5,951 7,573 8,282 10,133 12,446 12,485

Nov 2,219 4,320 3,223 2,250 3,028 3,568 5,222 5,598 6,364 7,955 9,362

Dec 3,000 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 800 750 1,936 1,572 2,863 5,726

TOTAL 68165 78334 79879 76586 67235 77131 79533 85893 96649 95,007 99,439

(NPS Public Use Statistics Office 2011: Annual Recreation Visits Report for 2006-2011)

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VISITOR EXPERIENCE: VISITOR USE 

OPPORTUNITIES

The multitude of dramatic granite rock 

formations within the Reserve and the 

topography of the rural landscape provide a 

wealth of recreational opportunities. The 2008 

visitor survey clearly showed that rock climbing, 

hiking, and camping are major recreational 

activities within the Reserve (“Figure 22. Trails”). 

Most activity occurs on the weekends between 

April and October; however, there is a steady 

increase in visitors arriving during the week. 

Approximately 85,000 visitors pass through 

the Reserve annually. Many come from the 

metropolitan areas of the Wasatch Front in Utah 

(34%), or from the populated areas of southern 

Idaho (38%). Nearly every state is represented 

in visitor registers, whose listings also include 

foreign climbers (3%) touring the United States.

Other forms of recreation include picnicking, 

horseback riding, mountain bicycling, 

hunting, cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, 

snowmobiling, pine nut gathering, sightseeing, 

bird watching, and photography. Most of the 

recreational users are concentrated in the stateowned Section 36.

As City of Rocks has received increased media 

attention for its sport routes and quality of 

climbing and camping, the area’s popularity has 

increased substantially. The Reserve has become 

world-renowned for rock climbing activities, 

and climbing remains the primary recreational 

activity within the Reserve (at 58%).

Currently Reserve staff, posted rules and 

regulations, the NPS website, and compliance 

rangers help control the location, volume, and 

extent of recreational activities in the Reserve.

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Figure 22. Trails

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TWIN

SISTERS

CIRCLE

CREEK

BASIN

CASTLE

GRAHAM ROCK

PEAK

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Almo

City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/EIS

Trails

Produced by: NPS - PWR GIS

Date Created: July, 2014

Data Sources: NPS - Reserve Boundary, Roads and Trails

 USGS - Shaded Relief

Figure 21

N:\GIS_Maps\Parks\CIRO\GMP\Trails.mxd

0 0.5 1

Miles

o Foot

Foot/Horse

Foot/Horse/Bike

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California National

Historic Trail

Roads

Reserve Boundary

1. Skyline Connection

2. Indian Grove

3. North Fork Circle Creek

4. South Fork

5. Creekside

6. Stairways

7. Tea Kettle

8. Bumblie

9. Box Top

10. Stripe Rock Loop

11. Geo Watt

12. Geologic Interpretive

13. Smoky Mountain Connector

 Equestrian Trail

14. California

Trails

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Climbing

The popularity of the Reserve for rock climbing 

has increased significantly since the early 1960s, 

when the first recorded roped climbing occurred 

at City of Rocks, primarily by a small group of 

climbers from northern Utah. A climbing club 

known as “The Steinfelds” and members of 

the Lowe family and their friends began to visit 

the “City” regularly. The routes these climbers 

established typically followed crack systems. 

Although there were few climbers visiting the 

Reserve during this time, the Utah group was 

very active, establishing at least 200 routes.

During 1970–85, climbing at City of Rocks 

mirrored the changes seen in climbing nationally. 

The number of climbers visiting the “City” grew 

at a corresponding pace. Initially climbers from 

the local region dominated the climbing activity, 

but by the mid-1980s visitors from outside the 

region began to outnumber local climbers. Up 

to 20 new routes were established each year 

between 1975 and 1985 and, as in the rest of 

the country, the use of bolts became more 

popular. In 1985 the first climbing guide to the 

City of Rocks was published, describing nearly 

300 routes. Today more than 600 established 

technical routes exist in the Reserve, and at least 

four climbing guidebooks are available. Most 

climbing is concentrated on popular crags near 

roads, and the majority of technical climbing 

routes are moderate in difficulty.

City of Rocks National Reserve has become 

famous for sport climbing, while still offering 

classic crack climbs and traditional face climbs. 

There is also a significant amount of scrambling 

on the more accessible rocks by nontechnical 

climbers. Climbing at City of Rocks is attracting 

a larger number of people with varying levels of 

skill and experience than ever before.

Camping

Demographics indicate that most campers come 

from Idaho and Utah. A further breakdown 

shows that 38% of the campers are from Idaho, 

34% from Utah, and others originate from 32 

other states. International campers account for 

the other 3%.

Camping has grown in popularity in the past 

several years. Those who visited for more than 

one day (67%) spent two or three days camping 

in the Reserve. Campers now have the option 

of making their own reservations or having the 

call center make the camping reservation for 

them. Because of the reservation system and 

the popularity of the campground, the Reserve 

has increased weekend usage to nearly 100% 

reserved from Memorial Day Weekend through 

mid-July.

Visitors currently camp in designated campsites, 

with Section 36 receiving the greatest use. 

People like to camp near the rim of the Silent 

City, and large groups camp in the Bread Loaves 

group camp in an area behind the Bread Loaves 

granite formation. Twin Sisters group camp and 

Juniper group camp are located at the southern 

end of the Reserve. Backcountry camping is also 

permitted in the Indian Grove area. Campers 

can obtain permission from landowners to camp 

on private property as well.

The Reserve has 64 standard campsites and 

during the major holidays (Memorial Day 

Weekend, Fourth of July, and Labor Day), all 

of these sites are occupied. The nearby Smoky 

Mountain Campground unit of Castle Rocks 

State Park is also booked during popular 

weekends and holidays (see Rim Development 

Concept Plan for City of Rocks National Reserve

for an in-depth discussion on camping in 

Appendix D).

Public campgrounds are located 25 miles north 

of the Reserve in the Albion Mountain division 

of Sawtooth National Forest, which abuts the 

northern boundary of the Reserve. Dispersed, 

primitive camping is permitted throughout most 

of the Sawtooth National Forest. Camping is 

permitted on BLM landholdings adjacent to the 

Reserve. These areas are managed primarily for 

grazing, and no formal campsites exist on these 

lands; however, dispersed camping does occur 

and campers use the area for free. Some of these 

campers use the showers and toilets at Smoky 

Mountain Campground.

At least nine private campgrounds operate 

within a 50-mile radius of the Reserve. The 

closest ones are located in Almo and Elba.

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Equestrian Use

Equestrian use is a traditional recreational 

activity that continues in the Reserve today. The 

Reserve presently provides equestrian camping 

and staging at Smoky Mountain Campground 

(to the east and outside the Reserve) and at 

the Juniper group campsite in the Reserve (to 

the south). Over the years equestrians have 

been interested in developing an equestrian 

staging area on the west side of the Reserve, 

which would give riders easier access to trails 

on the west side. It would also improve safety 

and resource degradation created by the 

current indiscriminate trailer parking along the 

county road.

In June 2005 an interdisciplinary team of NPS, 

BLM, and Reserve staff, and a representative 

of the Cache Peak Backcountry Horsemen, 

convened an on-site meeting for an equestrian 

trail and parking area within the Reserve from 

which to stage horse-back riding recreation. 

Eight potential sites previously scoped by the 

Reserve staff were visited for discussion of site 

suitability and issues of resource conflict and to 

identify which sites should be further analyzed 

as alternatives for an environmental assessment.

The following 11 criteria were used for 

preliminary evaluation of each potential site:

•	 Provides location in the central or western 

portion of the Reserve that balances the 

access and geography of the equestrian 

trails and parking to be developed at the 

Smoky Mountain Campground on the 

eastern side of the Reserve

•	 Not intrusive to key viewpoints 

or viewsheds

•	 Not located within the California Trail 

sub-zone identified in the 1996 City of 

Rocks National Reserve comprehensive 

management plan

•	 Minimizes natural and cultural 

resource impacts

•	 Assumes site work would incorporate 

best management practices and other 

environmentally friendly procedures

•	 Holds generally to the Scenic Back 

Country Byway corridor that transects 

the Reserve

•	 Location selected offers choice of all-day 

and half-day trail ride opportunities

•	 Access to water for horses (while this 

would be nice, it is not a requirement for 

siting a day-use equestrian staging area)

•	 Located on publicly owned land and not 

private land, unless an exchange-of-use 

agreement exists or can be established 

between the land owner and the Reserve

•	 Site can accommodate up to five trucks 

with horse trailers

•	 Development would only require 

a modest amount of site work 

and engineering

•	 Located in proximity to existing 

horse trails

Of the eight potential sites visited only three 

were considered suitable for further analysis 

as they met all the evaluation criteria. These 

sites were:

•	 Lloyd Triangle: privately owned land that 

is within the Public Use and Development 

corridor of the Natural and Recreation 

Resource Area of the comprehensive 

management plan, and therefore merits 

further consideration provided an 

agreement could be arranged with the 

land owner.

•	 Elephant Rock to Tea Kettle Trail: 

considered feasible pending proper site 

analysis to avoid seasonal wet areas.

•	 Bread Loaves: privately owned land that 

is part of an exchange-of-use agreement 

between the landowner and the Reserve.

Five sites were considered not suitable based on 

the explanations provided:

•	 Smoky Mountain Campground: this site 

was already under development to provide 

for a staging area on the east side of 

the Reserve.

•	 BLM land outside of the Reserve on 

the north side of the east entrance road: 

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this land is also part of a BLM grazing 

allotment. Considered outside the scope 

of this project as it is outside the Reserve 

boundary and was not addressed by the 

1996 comprehensive management plan. 

This site should only be considered under 

long-term scenarios that would involve an 

amendment to the plan.

•	 Nicholson Ranch: considered outside the 

scope of this project because the land is 

privately owned, and the landowner is not 

receptive to negotiating on its status.

•	 Treasure Rock: considered outside 

the scope of this project because the 

land is privately owned and is within 

the foreground of the California Trail 

corridor, thus precluding the siting of 

recreation facilities.

•	 Haines Place: considered outside the 

scope of this project because the land is 

within the foreground of the California 

Trail corridor, thus precluding the siting of 

recreation facilities.

A site not considered at that time, but potentially 

suitable for consideration, is NPS land adjacent 

to the south side of the Emery Road a short 

distance east of Logger Springs Road.

This GMP proposes an equestrian staging area 

on the west side in alternatives B and C (see 

“Chapter 3: Alternatives”).

VISITOR EXPERIENCE: 

INTERPRETATION AND EDUCATION

Cooperating Association

Staff at City of Rocks National Reserve have 

made great strides over the past 20 years in 

conveying the history and significance of the 

Reserve to its nearly 100,000 annual visitors. In 

1991, state park personnel worked to establish 

the City of Rocks Historical Association. 

This cooperative association included a local 

citizens’ board and members who took great 

interest in the Reserve’s story. Over the years, 

the association helped to develop brochures, 

maps, educational gifts, and relevant souvenirs 

that were sold at the visitor center. Members 

were also active in providing history and 

geology tours to visitors and local school 

children. This organization became the City of 

Rocks Heritage Association in April 2003 and 

broadened its scope and membership. Today it 

has become the community organization known 

as the Cache Peak Civic Association. These 

organizations in their various forms have been 

integral to the Reserve’s interpretive efforts 

and have taken on numerous projects, such as 

funding the decorative brick and stone sign at 

the visitor center and developing the Reserve’s 

first orientation film, entitled A Short Walk 

through Time.

Interpretive Planning

Official interpretive planning efforts began in 

the early 1990s and resulted in the development 

of three wayside exhibits at Camp Rock (topic: 

California Trail), Bath Rock (topic: orientation 

and Reserve concept), and Twin Sisters (topic: 

California Trail), installed in 1993. A few 

years later, NPS representatives and Reserve 

staff began development of the City of Rocks 

National Reserve Interpretive Prospectus. The 

final document was approved on November 5, 

1998. This document established interpretive 

themes, goals for the program, existing 

conditions, and a gap analysis. It remains the 

only approved interpretive plan for the Reserve; 

however, in 2002 the Wayside Exhibit Concept 

Plan: California Trail Exhibits was produced to 

specifically implement recommendations of the 

interpretive prospectus. The exhibit plan led to 

the development, fabrication, and installation of 

11 interpretive wayside exhibits from the visitor 

center in Almo to the southwest entrance of 

the Reserve. The current wayside exhibits (low 

profile, bulletin cases, and kiosks) are shown in 

table 33 for City of Rocks National Reserve and 

Castle Rocks State Park.

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Table 33. Wayside Exhibits for City of Rocks National Reserve and Castle Rocks State Park

Location Theme Note

Visitor Center California Trail NPS, Harpers Ferry, low-profile

Visitor Center California Trail NPS, Harpers Ferry, low-profile

Visitor Center Orientation/Information NPS, Harpers Ferry, 2 panel bulletin case; 1 fixed info, 1 changeable

Smoky Mountain California Trail IDPR, located beside entrance fee station, low-profile

Smoky Mountain Orientation/Information IDPR, located beside entrance fee station, bulletin case

Smoky Mountain Orientation/Information IDPR, located near Camp Host site, bulletin case

Smoky Mountain Orientation/Information IDPR, located at Equestrian Parking Area and Trailhead, 2 panels 

kiosk

Circle Creek Overlook Landscape/Land Use IDPR, but located on federal lands (Reserve), low-profile

Circle Creek Overlook Orientation/Information NPS, bulletin case located on vault toilet wall

Camp Rock California Trail NPS, Harpers Ferry, low-profile

Treasure Rock California Trail NPS, Harpers Ferry, low-profile

Hansen Hill California Trail NPS, Harpers Ferry, low-profile

Emigrant Canyon California Trail NPS, Harpers Ferry, low-profile

Emigrant Canyon Kelton-Boise Stage Route NPS, Harpers Ferry, low-profile

Juniper Campsite Orientation/Information NPS, Harpers Ferry, low-profile

Junction Entrance-SW California Trail NPS, Harpers Ferry, low-profile

Practice Rock CG #12 Orientation/Information NPS, bulletin case located on vault toilet wall, on state land

Flaming Rock CG #27 Orientation/Information NPS, bulletin case located on vault toilet wall, on state land

Bath Rock Climbing Information NPS, located beside entrance fee station, bulletin case, on state land

Bath Rock Information NPS, located beside entrance fee station, bulletin case, on state land

Bath Rock Orientation/Information NPS, located beside entrance fee station, bulletin case, on state land

Morning Glory 

Viewpoint

Climbing Recreation IDPR, but located on federal lands (Reserve), low-profile

Bread Loaves Orientation/Information NPS, bulletin case located on vault toilet wall

Stines Creek Picnic 

Area

Orientation/Information IDPR, kiosk, includes comment register

Tiny Town Prehistory/archeology IDPR, Castle Rock/Stines Creek Area, low-profile

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Another important development in the 

Reserve’s interpretive planning was the 

completion of the draft foundation document 

in January 2007. This internal document 

included primary interpretive themes based 

on the Reserve’s legislation, established 

purpose, significance, fundamental resources, 

and values. The draft document outlined 

six interpretive themes summarized by the 

following topics: (1) the historic California Trail, 

(2) outstanding scenery, (3) traditional western 

heritage, (4) dramatic geologic features and 

landscape, (5) geologic study, and (6) worldclass rock climbing. The foundation document 

incorporated in this plan includes a seventh 

theme related to the topic of biogeographic 

crossroads (see “Chapter 2: Foundation for 

Planning and Management” in this draft 

GMP/EIS).

Interpretive Themes

Another important development in the 

Reserve’s interpretive planning was the 

completion of the draft foundation document 

in January 2007. This internal document 

included primary interpretive themes based on 

the Reserve’s legislation, established purpose, 

significance, fundamental resources, and values. 

Themes help staff articulate the important 

messages visitors should receive about the 

significance of the Reserve. The foundation 

document incorporated in this plan outlines 

seven interpretive themes summarized by the 

following topics: (1) the historic California Trail, 

(2) outstanding scenery, (3) traditional western 

heritage, (4) dramatic geologic features and 

landscape, (5) geologic study, (6) biogeographic 

crossroads, and (7) world-class rock climbing 

(see “Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and 

Management” in this DGMP/EIS).

Regional Themes

While the Reserve is the best site to experience 

the California Trail in Idaho, other agency sites 

also expand on this theme.

City of Rocks Back Country Byway

Located within the jurisdiction of the Bureau 

of Land Management, south of the AlmoElba divide, is a City of Rocks Back Country 

Byway exhibit that interprets the scene 

along the historic California Trail. Text of the 

exhibit includes a journal quote describing 

the Jim Sage Mountains, Raft River Valley and 

Mountains, Albion Mountains, Castle Rocks, 

and City of Rocks. Nearby trail ruts and swales 

remain intact.

Byway interpretive signs at Albion, Conner 

Junction, and Almo also include the regional 

themes of the California Trail, the western 

rural setting, and modern-day recreational 

opportunities. Additional regional themes 

include the stories of the Shoshone and Bannock 

peoples, the sheep and cattle wars (especially 

the notorious outlaw Diamondfield Jack), 

early Cassia County and Mormon settlement, 

reclamation of the Snake River Plain at the turn 

of the 19th century, and archeological sites that 

suggest some of the earliest occupations of what 

is now Idaho.

Regional providers of interpretation include the 

Cassia County Historical Society and Museum 

in Burley, Minidoka County Historical Society 

Museum in Rupert, Albion Museum (Normal 

School), U.S. Forest Service wayside exhibits 

along the Howell Canyon Road to Mount 

Harrison, and the Oakley Museum. In addition 

to interpretive sites along the byway, other 

locations near the Reserve that interpret the 

California or Oregon Trail cultural landscapes 

are at Milner Recreation Area, Massacre Rocks 

State Park, Rock Creek Station, Hagerman Fossil 

Beds National Monument, and the National 

Oregon/California Trail Center at Montpelier.

Education and Outreach to Schools

Although not well documented, it is believed 

that school field trips to City of Rocks were 

commonplace prior to Reserve status. As early as 

1991, professional staff probably began offering 

interpretive programs and educational materials 

to local schools such as Almo Elementary, as 

well as to middle school/junior high classes in 

Malta, Declo, and Burley. Most of these schools 

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continue the tradition of bringing science 

classes to the Reserve. In 2009, staff provided 

educational activities for 11 schools and 719 

children. One of the more formal educational 

activities developed by Reserve staff was 

the program “Science on Snowshoes.” This 

program included the acquisition of 41 pairs of 

snowshoes to outfit schoolchildren and adult 

sponsors for winter hikes, and it included the 

publication of a workbook for the children. The 

project was funded by a 1999 grant from the 

National Park Foundation.

Junior Ranger Program

The Reserve’s Junior Ranger Program is 

modeled after the NPS program but is not 

technically a part of it. Staff have developed 

booklets, assignments, and a certificate that 

reflects the purpose and mission of both 

the National Park Service and the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation. The 

program is designed for children ages 6–12. 

Candidates become Junior Rangers when they 

complete five of the six activities in the booklet 

and attend one of the interpretive presentations 

or Junior Ranger activities. Approximately 50–75 

children graduate each year.

Formal Interpretive Presentations and 

Special Events

Formal interpretive presentations are visitor 

activities that are prepared, advertised, and 

presented by a staff member. According to 

the Reserve annual report, 1,850 visitors 

attended formal interpretive presentations at 

City of Rocks in 1991. In 2009, staff gave 582 

presentations to 3,394 visitors. While campfire 

programs have been a century-long tradition in 

state and national parks and are often a favorite 

of families camping in the Reserve, these types 

of personal programs (along with guided walks) 

have not been well attended. Staff have learned 

that well-advertised and promoted special 

events are best attended.

Special events probably began with the annual 

equestrian trail ride that was first held in 1991 

and the Dutch oven contest, also conducted 

that year. The number of special events had 

grown to 12 by 2010 and now includes winter 

and summer day camps for kids, wildflower 

and birding weekends, summer and fall trail 

rides, climbing workshops, stargazing parties, 

snowshoe hikes, and more. In addition to 

advertised events, employees regularly offer 

Volunteer in Park tours and programs to 

groups on request. Occasionally interpretive 

presentations are given by guest speakers, such 

as Dr. Kevin Pogue, Professor of Geology at 

Whitman College.

Interpretive Publications and Internet

Nonpersonal media such as bulletin 

boards, wayside exhibits, publications, and 

websites have become the primary means of 

communicating the history and significance of 

the Reserve to visitors. In 2010, staff regularly 

maintained 15 park-specific brochures, 11 

wayside exhibits, 9 bulletin boards, and 2 official 

websites. Unfortunately, it has not been possible 

to calculate the number of people reached 

through these media. Staff annually distribute 

more than 12,400 of the Reserve’s official park 

brochure. Other publications include Reserve 

Camping, Castle Rocks Camping, Top Highlights, 

City of Rocks Trails, Castle Rocks Trails, Trail 

Guide: Creekside Towers, Wildlife Checklist, Bird 

Checklist, Checklist of 100 Common and Showy 

Wildflowers, Checklist of Trees, Shrubs and Vines, 

Castle Rocks Ranch Unit, Junior Ranger Activity 

Guide, Climbing Experience Program, and Smoky 

Mountain Yurts.

Educational Institutions and 

Commercial Guides

Although most interpretive and educational 

opportunities are provided by park staff and 

volunteers, other organizations take advantage 

of the academic resources of the Reserve. 

For many years, the Geology Department of 

Whitman College has used City of Rocks and 

Castle Rocks to teach about granite morphology 

and orogeny. City of Rocks has been the 

destination of many university-level geology 

field schools and, more recently, archeological 

field schools. Other organizations use the 

Reserve each year for instruction. These include 

the National Outdoor Leadership School, the 

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Boy Scouts of America, Girl Scouts U.S.A., 

and college recreation programs, hosted by 

institutions such as Idaho State University.

Both students and professors have conducted 

research on the biological, geological, and 

historical aspects of the Reserve. Some research 

has led to commercial publications, such as 

Etched in Stone: The Geology of City of Rocks 

National Reserve and Castle Rocks State Park by 

Dr. Kevin Pogue. Dr. Lesley Morris conducted 

more than three years of research that led to 

the publication of The Ecological History of the 

City of Rocks National Reserve, which included 

“Part I: The Human Archive” and “Part II: The 

Biological Archive.”

Commercial guides and outfitters also tell the 

story of the Reserve as they provide guidance 

in rock climbing or horseback riding. The story 

and the setting become a part of the overall 

learning experience. Four commercial guides 

and outfitters operate annually within the 

Reserve: Exum Mountain Guides, Indian Grove 

Outfitters, Jackson Hole Guides, and Sawtooth 

Mountain Guides.

Park employees have also partnered with 

organizations such as the Sawtooth Science 

Institute, Montana Conservation Corps, the 

Access Fund, and the Oregon-California Trail 

Association to provide joint education and 

interpretive opportunities and publications. 

Similarly, the park participates each year 

in educating and supervising three Youth 

Conservation Corps members. These students, 

ages 15–18, are provided a thorough overview 

of the natural and cultural resources of the 

Reserve and the need to protect its significance 

in perpetuity.

The Reserve is periodically able to offer a park 

management internship, which seeks a junior 

or senior in college who is preparing to enter 

the park management profession. The student 

usually works 8–12 weeks and experiences 

every facet of park operation. Division chiefs 

shepherd the student through the daily routine 

of their program and often assign him or her to 

lead a specific project. Interns often find career 

employment with the Idaho Department of 

Parks and Recreation, U.S. Forest Service, or 

another resource agency.

Interpretive Opportunities

As the Reserve’s visitors increase and their 

interests diversify, personal interpretive 

presentations are likely to become wellattended. A formal amphitheater proposed at 

Smoky Mountain Campground will provide the 

proper facility and means to reach additional 

audiences. Employees are planning to develop 

additional trail guide and activity brochures, 

as well as wayside exhibits. Future interpretive 

opportunities also include better use of current 

technologies and social media. The Reserve has 

yet to use many current technologies, including 

interpretive guides via cell phone or iPod. 

The Reserve has engaged the public through 

social media and has a current reach of several 

thousand members. (Reach is not the same 

as “likes” or “friends” but is defined by how 

many Facebook users are exposed to messages 

posted by the Reserve.) Visitor center exhibits 

are the most lacking and are currently located 

below the Reserve administrative offices on the 

first floor of a circa 1912 brick home. Only 196 

square feet are available in the building to tell the 

Reserve’s story. A new visitor center that would 

accommodate this function has been proposed 

in the planning documents for both the Reserve 

and the state park. A new visitor center is needed 

that is specifically designed to accommodate 

large numbers of visitors or students circulating 

through exhibits, as well as seated in an 

auditorium, audio/visual room, or classroom.

VISITOR EXPERIENCE: VISITOR AND 

EMPLOYEE SAFETY

The safety of visitors, employees, and volunteers 

is a high priority for the Reserve. Risk and 

hazard awareness and prompt mitigation by 

Reserve personnel, combined with relatively 

low-risk recreational pursuits and regionally 

low crime rates have resulted in a low overall 

incident rate. Off-road vehicles are not 

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permitted on Reserve roads or trails. There are 

no opportunities for extreme mountain biking, 

and equestrian trails are relatively gentle. The 

primary recreation of rock climbing is practiced 

on relatively small rocks or solid rock, far from 

the avalanches, crevasses, or rockfall found in 

mountain climbing areas such as the Tetons, 

Denali, or Mt. Rainier. The Reserve does not 

have giant cliffs such as the ones encountered in 

Yosemite or Zion “big wall” climbing.

In the last decade, there have been two reported 

assaults, one case of graffiti, and very few 

reported thefts. Of the reported incidents, 

most involved either climbing or motor 

vehicle accidents.

Risk and Risk Management

Primary sources of risk to visitors of the Reserve 

include roads, climbing and other recreational 

activities, and fire. There are other potential 

sources of risk such as hunting, trapping, and 

criminal activity; however, no incidences have 

yet surfaced. The Reserve staff are proactive 

in the mitigation of these risks by replacing 

dangerous fixed climbing anchors, providing 

climbing safety education on kiosks, promptly 

reporting road hazards, and assisting with 

temporary road closures.

Reserve Staff

There are seven full-time rangers at the Reserve: 

two are Idaho Emergency Medical TechnicianBasic (EMTBs) and the remainder have received 

training to the American Heart Association 

(AHA) Basic First Aid/CPR level. Seasonal 

employees have varying degrees of certification 

up to EMTB, but the minimum training level is 

AHA basic first aid and CPR, which is provided 

in-house. Park personnel are the first-line 

responders and possess more Reserve-specific 

technical rock rescue training than the entities 

listed below.

Almo Quick Response Unit

The Almo Quick Response Unit (QRU) is 

a group of local volunteers who provide 

emergency care up to the Idaho EMTB level. 

Currently the unit has 7 active participants, 

down from a one-time high of 13. In Idaho, 

a quick response unit is not a “transporting” 

agency, except for short transfers to helicopter 

landing zones or, rarely, rendezvous with ground 

ambulances. As volunteers, members of the 

quick response unit are not required to respond, 

nor does the unit have a schedule of duty per 

se, so the number of QRU EMTs responding 

may range from the full unit to one or none. 

Response times are usually faster than the paid 

services listed.

Life Run Ambulance

Life Run is based in Burley, Idaho, 43 miles 

north of the Reserve. They are a full-time, 

paid ambulance service and can provide care 

up to the Idaho EMT-Advanced (EMT-A) 

level. Response times vary depending on road 

conditions and the position of the ambulance 

personnel, but are no less than an hour.

Air Ambulance

Helicopter transport is available from Pocatello, 

Twin Falls, and Idaho Falls, Idaho, as well as 

various locations in Utah. All air ambulance 

transporters can provide services up to the 

Emergency Medical Technician–Paramedic 

(EMTP) level, and most are also staffed by 

registered nurses. The fastest response times are 

45 minutes; however, the Twin Falls helicopter 

(Saint Luke’s) may be able to respond more 

quickly. They are relatively new and have 

not yet been dispatched to the Reserve in an 

actual emergency. Portneuf Life Flight, based 

in Pocatello, is the service most commonly 

dispatched by 911 to the Reserve area.

Search and Rescue

The Cassia County Sheriff’s Department has 

a search and rescue team with fairly extensive 

experience searching for lost snowmobilers; 

however, they have limited technical rock rescue 

capability. Neighboring Minidoka County’s East 

End Fire Department also has some very limited 

technical rescue capability.

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Fire

The volunteer Almo Connor Elba Fire 

Protection District (ACE Fire) is paged in 

the event of a 911 fire emergency call, either 

structural or wildland. ACE Fire currently has 

eight active volunteers and is well-equipped to 

handle initial attack. BLM or USFS fire crews are 

dispatched based on determination by qualified 

ACE members. Reserve firefighting capabilities 

have fluctuated in the last decade, but current 

standard operating procedures assign Reserve 

staff to natural and cultural resource advisory 

roles, as well as visitor protection through 

communication, access control, or evacuation in 

the event of a wildfire incident.

Law Enforcement

IDPR Compliance Enforcement Officer Rangers 

have authority under the Idaho Administrative 

Procedures Act to write infraction citations 

for noncompliance with IDPR rules. The most 

common of these minor infractions are failure to 

pay fees, dogs off leash, and firewood gathering. 

The Cassia County Sheriff responds to any 

issue involving misdemeanor or above and has 

historically been responsive to requests from 

Reserve staff for assistance.

Communications

The Reserve is served by the Idaho Bureau of 

Homeland Security, which maintains a radio 

repeater atop Graham Peak, the highest point 

in the Reserve. Every ranger and most seasonal 

crew are equipped with or have access to 

handheld portable radios. The position of the 

repeater allows for almost complete coverage of 

the Reserve, with a patchy signal only occurring 

on the far southwest boundary. On numerous 

occasions Reserve staff have assisted the Idaho 

Bureau of Homeland Security with access and 

repairs of the repeater. Additionally, the Reserve 

EMTs and Base headquarters have 911 radios 

with which Cassia Sheriff, the Alma QRU, and 

Life Run ambulance can be reached directly. Cell 

phone coverage is evolving, with ever-improving 

service throughout the area.

VISITOR EXPERIENCE: SCENIC 

RESOURCES

Scenic Quality at City of Rocks

Scenic quality is an important resource at City 

of Rocks National Reserve. The National Park 

Service Organic Act and the enabling legislation 

for the Reserve call for the conservation and 

protection of scenic quality.

The City of Rocks landscape provided 

emigrants with awe-inspiring scenery and 

views. Today, these views remain unimpaired, 

allowing contemporary visitors the opportunity 

to experience a landscape similar to that 

experienced by emigrants more than 150 years 

ago while traveling along the California Trail. 

Naturally existing views and vistas of the City 

of Rocks were the hallmark of the California 

Trail experience through southern Idaho 

(Reserve 2008b).

Today, changes to the historic scene include 

the homestead ruins in Circle Creek Basin, 

dirt roads, juniper pole fences, and modestly 

located, basic recreational facilities. These newer 

additions to the landscape are minor intrusions 

within the context of the massive rock features 

and broad, open basins that define the character 

of the landscape. Today, through its enabling 

legislation and ongoing NPS management, 

the City of Rocks continues to convey its 

historic association with westward migration 

(Reserve 2008b).

Views Identified in the Comprehensive 

Management Plan

The 1996 final City of Rocks National Reserve 

Comprehensive Management Plan, Development 

Concept Plan and Environmental Impact 

Statement is guiding management decisions until 

a new general management plan is adopted. It 

was prepared by the National Park Service in 

cooperation with the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation and local residents to formulate 

a comprehensive plan for the protection, 

preservation, and interpretation of the Reserve.

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In addressing scenery, the comprehensive 

management plan recognized scenic quality as a 

value requiring protection through management. 

To emphasize the value of scenic quality in the 

landscapes, the comprehensive management 

plan called for restricting the introduction of 

modern features within historic viewsheds and 

managing scenes for more natural conditions.

Specifically, the comprehensive management 

plan provided for protecting the foreground 

views from the trail (a one-half mile corridor) 

from incompatible intrusions within the 

Reserve boundary.

The comprehensive management plan listed 

important views and viewsheds that warranted 

special attention—important because they were 

views historically experienced by travelers trying 

to find their way along the trail. In addition, 

because of the importance of landmarks 

and vistas to the visitors’ understanding and 

appreciation of the California Trail history, the 

comprehensive management plan encouraged 

the protection of historic views extending 

beyond the Reserve boundary.

The comprehensive management plan suggested 

that the National Park Service, the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation, and Cassia 

County work in partnership with landowners 

in important viewshed areas to encourage 

complementary management. Such management 

would be consistent with design guidelines to 

perpetuate a historic rural setting compatible 

with the one existing inside the Reserve. To 

accomplish these protection measures, county 

zoning, acquisition of remaining development 

rights on an opportunity basis, cooperative 

management, and design that would include 

only nonstructural, modern-day ranching 

images are encouraged.

Scenic Resources and the City of Rocks 

National Reserve Foundation Document

The draft City of Rocks National Reserve 

Foundation Document (see chapter 2) is based on 

the Reserve’s enabling legislation and legislative 

intent. Preservation and protection of scenic 

qualities are clearly stated in the Reserve’s 

purpose to “preserve and protect through 

cooperative efforts the scenic qualities and 

attributes of the California Trail landscape, rural 

setting, and granite features, while interpreting 

its values and managing recreation.”

Scenery is among the fundamental resources 

and values identified as significant in the 

foundation document: “The Reserve has 

a timeless natural quality and protects and 

preserves outstanding scenery set among 

sculpted granite monoliths framed by the Albion 

and surrounding mountains.”

A primary interpretive theme developed 

specifically for scenery states, “[t]he timeless 

scenery of City of Rocks National Reserve is 

broad and expansive yet accessible and personal. 

People develop a personal relationship with 

this landscape as evidenced by pioneer journals 

and comments from modern-day visitors” 

(Reserve 2007).

External Threats to Views

Over the past few years, Reserve staff have 

worked to re-establish the historic character 

of the cultural landscape within the Reserve 

by removing contemporary features such 

as above-ground power lines and fences no 

longer needed for cattle control. These actions 

have had positive effects on the historic scene. 

Recently, several projects were initiated adjacent 

to the Reserve that would impact important 

historical and contemporary views from 

within the Reserve. These projects include the 

potential location of transmission lines, wind 

turbine farms, and cell phone towers. During 

public scoping, the public expressed concern 

regarding energy-related development projects 

and their potential impacts on views and historic 

viewsheds. Though these projects are proposed 

outside of the Reserve boundary, this type 

of development could adversely impact the 

visitor experience of the California Trail inside 

the Reserve.

Scenic Viewpoints

Through Public Law 100-696, Congress directed 

the Secretary of the Interior “to protect and 

maintain scenic quality...” at City of Rocks (see 

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the City of Rocks National Reserve legislation 

in “Appendix A: Reserve Legislation”). “What 

is scenic?” is a legitimate question. The answer 

might be “you know it when you see it.” One 

cannot know the emotions that were evoked 

when the very first humans encountered these 

stark and contrasting landforms. However it is 

known what many of the later, California-bound 

emigrants were thinking and feeling when they 

experienced what James F. Wilkins first called 

City of Rocks in 1849: their journal accounts are 

filled with such descriptions.

A suitability/feasibility study was conducted by 

the National Park Service in 1973 for a proposed 

City of Rocks National Monument, and it 

described the feel and scenery in these terms:

Although present use has considerably changed 

the regional landscape since the days of covered 

wagons, vast open plains and unusual geologic 

formations still exist in the City of Rocks area. The 

contrast of the beautiful mountain formations 

and the flat, arid Raft River Plains produces the 

same effect on people – whether they be pioneers 

traveling by covered wagon in the 1840s–60s 

or tourists crossing southern Idaho in the 20th 

century. The visual impact of the scenery remains: 

as one crosses the flat, monotonous sagebrush 

grazing-range, there is the sudden, startling 

contrast of those amazing rocks on the horizon, 

clustered in a city-like formation.

As the traveler approaches the “city,” clumps 

of small trees, mostly quaking aspen, mountain 

mahogany, common juniper, and pinyon pine 

– come into view, scattered among the rocks; 

the slopes of the surrounding mountains can be 

seen, protected by a stand of pinyon pine, which, 

although somewhat sparse, creates the illusion of 

a deep forest. As one draws closer, there is a silent 

hush in this empty “city”...a peacefulness...a 

quiet sense of security. (NPS 1973)

Shapes, colors, and textures of both the rocks and 

the layers of landscape behind them affect visitors 

who first encounter them. Feelings of surprise, 

whimsy, sacredness, or mystery are evoked. 

People like what they see and feel and know that 

these landscapes are worth perpetuating and 

protecting for future generations.

How to protect and manage these scenic 

resources is yet another question and one 

which the general management plan attempts 

to answer. Isn’t everything in the Reserve 

scenic? What are the important viewpoints that 

facilitate this experience and what does one 

observe there?

Because the majority of visitors arrive and 

experience the Reserve by automobile, and 

because county roads now closely follow the 

California National Historic Trail, 17 viewpoints 

have been identified as important to the visitor 

experience (“Figure 23. Scenic Viewpoints”). 

Viewpoints are described from east to west, as 

the 19th-century emigrant encountered them 

and the 21st-century visitor is most likely to 

encounter them today.

#1 – Smoky Mountain Drive

This view of the east side of the Reserve is best 

near the entrance station of Smoky Mountain 

Campground at 729 East Smoky Mountain 

Drive. Although the viewpoint is located outside 

the Reserve boundary, it is situated at the future 

proposed site of the visitor center. The view is 

generally west, but includes the sweeping view 

of Smoky Mountain (left), small hills separated 

by Circle Creek and City of Rocks Road (center), 

Greene Mountain, Graham Peak, Castle Rocks, 

and Cache Peak (right). This is the view the 

emigrants experienced as they began the gradual 

ascent into the Albion Mountains and City of 

Rocks. The following are quotes from emigrant 

trail diaries:

“. . . from there the road turns up a ravine between 

two high mountains, passing through Castle 

City (or Steeple Rocks) [City of Rocks].” Thomas 

Christy; July 1, 1850.

“To this Granite City seems to be but two out lets, 

a narrow gorge where we entered, and a wider 

space where we made our exite.” Dr. John Hudson 

Wayman; July 12, 1852.

“Two miles farther come to a narrow way 

which they call a pass.” Helen Carpenter; 

August 18, 1857.

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Figure 23. Scenic Viewpoints

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TWIN

SISTERS

CIRCLE

CREEK

BASIN

CASTLE

GRAHAM ROCK

PEAK

D D

17: Granite

Pass (Junction

Entrance)

16: Emigrant

Canyon

15: Hansen

Hill

1: Smoky

Mountain

Drive 2: East

Reserve

Entrance

Sign

3: Circle Creek

Overlook

4: Almo

Valley

6: Treasure

Rock

5: Camp

Rock

8: Look-Out Rock

(Campsite 22)

7: Cave

Rock

(Campsite 15)

9: Bath Rock

10: Morning

Glory Spire

11: Emery

Pass

12: Finger

Rock

13: Campsite

64 Bend

14: Indian Grove

Overlook

Juniper Group

Campsite

INDIAN

GROVE

Almo

City of Rocks National Reserve Draft GMP/EIS

Scenic Viewpoints

Produced by: NPS - PWR GIS

Date Created: July, 2014

Data Sources: NPS - Reserve Boundary, Roads, Trails

 and Viewpoints

 USGS - Shaded Relief

Figure 20

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General Direction of View

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California National

Historic Trail

Roads

Reserve Boundary

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Today, the view features the transition from 

sagebrush steppe to pinyon-juniper forest to 

exposed granite monoliths and finally to the 

often snow-covered alpine slopes of Graham 

Peak and Cache Peak. Only a few manmade 

structures are observed, including an abandoned 

house and barn directly west, and a modern 

house and barn to the west-northwest. This view 

is partially protected by Cassia County’s Historic 

Preservation Zone.

#2 – East Reserve Entrance Sign

The view west-northwest from the Reserve’s 

east entrance sign is the visitor’s first stunning 

view of the granite spires. Here the visitor is a 

few hundred yards inside the boundary and 

parked off to the right side of the road. Granite 

Peak, Steinfells Dome, and Greene Mountain 

rise up dramatically and are up close and 

personal. The hills are sparsely covered with 

juniper, pinyon, and mountain mahogany, and 

the foreground view is primarily sagebrush and 

bitterbrush. The scene often looks parched and 

rugged, with the reddish-gray granites of the 

Green Creek Complex dominating the prospect. 

Off in the distant western view, the high granite 

fins of the Almo Pluton are visible, including the 

feature known as Shangri La. The hills south of 

Indian Grove are also visible. Immediately north 

of the pullout was an old borrow pit that was 

reclaimed to blend with the natural topography 

and vegetation in 2004. That project greatly 

enhanced the view from this location, as well as 

viewpoint #5.

#3 – Circle Creek Overlook

Veering right, from the City of Rocks Road, 

many visitors will take the steep, narrow road 

to the saddle-gap just below Steinfells Dome. A 

new parking lot stops short of the actual view, 

and visitors must take a short walk to the top 

of the saddle to peer into the City of Rocks and 

Circle Creek Basin. This is easily a 180-degree 

view, beginning with the rugged yet lower 

pinnacles directly to the south and leading to 

the far views of the Basin, including Kaiser’s 

Helmet, Treasure Rock, Devil’s Bedstead, 

Register Rock, Pinnacle Pass, and Twin Sisters, 

nearly 3 miles away. The California National 

Historic Trail is visible for approximately 2 

miles. Further to the southwest one can see the 

Cedar Hills that make up the southern Albion 

Mountains and even Goose Creek Mountains 

more than 10 miles away. Southwest to west, one 

can see the white monoliths of the rim, such as 

Elephant Rock, Look-Out Rock, and Bath Rock. 

The view west-northwest includes the Inner 

City and formations such as Lost Arrow Spire, 

the Clam Shells, and Stripe Rock. Mahogany 

Mountain and Eric Wood formation are on the 

skyline. From this vantage point, neither Graham 

Peak nor Cache Peak is visible, and so the eye 

focuses mainly on the white pinnacles of the 

Almo Pluton. Many visitors, however, come 

to this point to climb Steinfells Dome, directly 

to the north. It is immediately within view and 

stands magnificently above the parking area. 

Often climbers on the dome and the adjacent 

Jackson’s Thumb are visible from the parking 

area and offer a human interaction with the 

grand scene not experienced at most other 

viewpoints. This viewpoint was probably not 

visited by emigrants of the California Trail.

#4 – Almo Valley

The Circle Creek overlook parking area offers 

a vast view to the east. This view includes the 

spacious Almo Valley, the southern end of 

the Jim Sage Mountains, and the Black Pine 

Mountains. The southeast perspective offers a 

grand view of the Raft River Mountains. Greene 

Mountain (elevation 6,821) on the left (north) 

and Smoky Mountain (elevation 7,580 feet) on 

the right (south) frame the viewpoint. On a clear 

day, the view east extends more than 90 miles 

to the Wellsville Mountains and offers one of 

the most distant views from the Reserve’s road 

system. The view affords the opportunity to 

experience Basin and Range topography. This 

viewpoint was probably not visited by emigrants 

of the California Trail.

#5 – Camp Rock

The first good opportunity to view the granite 

spires up close and personal is at Camp Rock. 

Just before reaching the Camp Rock turnout, 

the visitor naturally looks north and northwest 

to enjoy the high ridge of Granite Peak and 

Steinfells Dome, with Graham Peak looming in 

the distance. The perspective also offers a look 

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directly into the heart of Circle Creek Basin. 

The immediate foreground is the wide basin that 

gently slopes to Circle Creek, which runs west to 

east, dissecting the meadows of a private ranch. 

The land gently rises again until it meets the base 

of the 7,689-foot Granite Peak. As the visitor 

reaches the Camp Rock turnout, the eye looks 

west. On the left is the giant monolith, Camp 

Rock, and to the right is Chicken Rock. The sky 

looms large behind Chicken Rock and is often 

photographed by visitors trying to capture the 

intimate feel of the pinnacles. Although not a 

competitor for the previously mentioned views, 

the short walk to the emigrant signatures of 

Camp Rock also affords the visitor a wonderful 

view of Smoky Mountain to the south-southeast. 

Emigrants described this scene as follows:

“. . . we passed through a stone village composed 

of huge, isolated rocks of various and singular 

shapes, some resembling cottages, others steeples 

and domes. It is called the “City of Rocks,” but I 

think the name “Pyramid City” more suitable. It 

is a sublime strange, and wonderful scene—one 

of nature’s most interesting works.” Margaret A. 

Fink; July 17, 1850.

“The road here lies between high & immense 

rocky mountains, with not a particle of herbage or 

vegetation upon them, but being white & smooth 

upon their surface. Just opposite to where we 

encamped was one which struck us as particularly 

curious. It was a perfect face upon the highest cliff 

around... The road continued between these & 

around these rocky piles but the road itself was 

good. You can imagine among these massive piles, 

church domes, spires, pyramids, &c., & in fact, 

with a little fancying you can see [anything] from 

the Capitol at Washington to a lowly thatched 

cottage.” Vincent Geiger and Wakeman Bryarly 

diary; July 19, 1849.

Passed some beautiful scenery, high cliffs of rocks 

resembling old ruins or dilapidated buildings. 

Sallie Hester; August 3, 1849.

“The Grey Granite Rocks stand in pyramid, 

mountain & dome forms, here & there towering 

aloft. The road winds along between them. 

Emigrants names are written with tar-keel & on 

these curious structures. Here was truly manifested 

in a temporial point, the figures used in the 

Scriptures like unto the Shadow of a great rock 

in a weary land. The shadow was cool—inviting 

and brought to mind the Spiritus 1 illustration—of 

the figure—the Scenery was grand & the concave 

rocks at the narrow pass was quite a curiosity.” 

Augustus Burbank diary; August 4, 1849.

“We encamped at the city of the rocks, a noted 

place from the granite rocks rising abruptly 

out of the ground. They are in a romantic 

valley clustered together which gives them the 

appearance of a city. I took several sketches of 

them.” James F. Wilkins diary; August 13, 1849.

“we entered a very extraordinary valley, called 

the ‘City of Castles.’ A couple of miles long, and 

probably 1/2 mile broad. A light grey decripitating 

granite, (probably altered by fire) in blocks of every 

size, from that of a barrel to the dimensions of a 

large dwelling house; groups, Masses on Masses, 

and Cliffs; and worn, by the action of ages of 

elementary affluences, into strange and romantic 

forms.—The travellers had marked several large 

blocks, as their fancy dictated the resemblance to 

houses, castles, &c.—On one was marked (with 

tar) “NAPOLEON’S CASTLE,” another “CITY 

HOTEL,” &c. We nooned among these curious 

monuments of nature . . . I explored and sketched 

some of these queer rocks. A group, on left of the 

trail, resembled gigantic fungii, petrified, other 

clusters were worn in cells and caverns; and one, 

which contrasted with the size and h[e]ight of 

the adjacent rocks, seemed no larger than a big 

chest, was, to my astonishment, when close to it, 

quite large, hollow, with an arch’d entrance, and 

capable of containing a dozen persons. This, from 

its peculiar shape, I named the “Sarcophagus 

Rock.” J. Goldsborough Bruff; August 29, 1849.

“These [City of Rocks] are a curiosity worth 

the travelers notice, having the appearance [of] 

decayed castels and lofty steeples . . . ” Thomas 

Christy; July 1, 1850.

“Passed some high isolated granate hills or peaks, 

many of them single rocks standing in the valley, 

many of them rising from a level plain an hundred 

or more feet. They are in curious shapes resembling 

spires, towers, forts, &c.” Byron McKinstry diary; 

August 3, 1850.

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“There is a very large rock on the left, close to 

the road, that I named Temple or Recorder’s 

Rock. Here, upon its base, is recorded many 

an emigrant’s name. This rock may be one 

hundred and twenty feet high and runs up nearly 

perpendicularly. A little farther and on the right 

is another with a small prong sticking up on its 

top that appears a little like a cupola. I might give 

names to many of these monuments of Nature but 

they are too numerous.” Cyrus C. Loveland diary; 

August 7, 1850.

“Camped at Steeple or Castle Rocks here is 

a sublime scenery to the Romantic the Rocks 

resemble an old City of Ruins there are thousands 

of names here I registered Mine on a large Rock 

which we named the Castle Rock hotel.” Richard 

Augustus Keen diary; June 22, 1852.

“. . . a romantic place called City of rocks—the 

Mountains tower with sharp peaks, mostly of a 

sugar loaf shape . . . ” Jay Green diary; 

June 25, 1852.

“. . . encamped in Granite City one of the finest 

natural places of its kind in the World, I banter 

the World to beat it This City is Walled in on every 

side with towering Granite mountains some peaks 

shooting athwart the sky like towering domes. 

While hundreds of piles, peaks, steeples & domes of 

all shapes possible in the distance looking like an 

old dilapidated City. In a south Eastern direction 

may be seen a large mountain made up of Mica 

schist This after noon we passed through a most 

beautiful basin surrounded with fine mountains.” 

Dr. John Hudson Wayman diary; July 12, 1852.

“. . . we entered Pyramid Circle. This is one of the 

greatest curiosities on the road. In some places 

a piller rises to a height of one hundred and fifty 

feet, with smaller ones piled on the top and sides, 

looking as though a breath of air would hurl them 

down. These pyramids are of various colors. 

The sides have been washed by the rains in all 

manner of fantastic shapes, giving the place a most 

romantic and picturesque appearance. The circle 

is five miles long and three miles wide, level within 

the wall around and entirely surrounded by these 

pyramids or cliffs...” Elizabeth Ann McAuley; 

August 9, 1852.

“. . . Pyramid Circle, a delightful place indeed 

and one which requires the pen of the poet or the 

pencil of a painter to portray its beauties. It is a 

perfectly level plain, surrounded by mountains 

which are covered with pine and cedar trees and 

studded throughout with numerous tall white and 

green stones from sixty to one hundred and fifty 

feet and from ten to twenty feet in diameter at the 

base. As we view it this eve, the full moon shining 

upon it, our camp fires blazing near and striving, 

with their lurid light, to vie with the silvery moon 

in brightness. Our tents and wagons grouped 

together and a merry party tripping the light 

fantastic toe upon the green, whose cheerful, happy 

voices echo from the hills around us, presents a 

scene altogether picturesque and novel.” Harriet 

Sherrill Ward; August 19, 1853.

“Passed through Pyramid Circle. The Pyramids 

resemble more than anything else petrified hay 

stacks.” Rachael Taylor; August 26, 1853.

“. . . we encamped near the so-called Monumental 

rocks. They are a cluster of rocks forming a sort 

of semi-circle. They rise to a great height and are 

of a light grey color and look like the ruins of 

some enormous structure. They are situated in an 

amphitheater of mountains, with snow capped 

summits. The rocks themselves rise out of a little 

plain covered with velvet sod. A small stream 

issues from their base and glitters along down 

the valley. A sort of thin mist hangs in the air, 

giving a dreamy appearance to the whole scene. . 

. All afternoon we traveled along the same valley 

among rocks of the most singular shapes, some 

rising to great heights like the spires of churches, 

others of a more tower like appearance.” William 

Woodham diary; June 22, 1854.

“. . . we came into what is known as Pyramid 

Circle. There was perhaps an acre of partially level 

and with a good sized stream flowing through it. 

On this level, and the hills which encircled it, were 

the most beautiful and wonderful white rocks 

that we ever saw. This known as the City rocks 

and certain bears a striking resemblance to a city. 

To be sure it was a good deal out of the usual, 

for the large and small houses were curiously 

intermingled and set at all angles, but it only made 

the place more charming. There was everything 

one could imagine from a dog house to a church 

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and courthouse. While the stock was being cared 

for the women and children wandered off to enjoy 

the sights of the city.” Helen Carpenter; 

August 18, 1857.

“. . . came to Steeple rocks. Which are large while 

curiously shaped rocks scattered over a surface of 

several acres. Some of them run up to a point like 

the steeple of a church . . .” James Berry Brown 

diary August 21, 1859.

#6 – Treasure Rock

Heading west, and just prior to reaching 

Treasure Rock turn-out, the visitor enjoys the 

shapely form of Kaiser’s Helmet on the left 

(south) and Treasure Rock on the right (north). 

However, once the traveler reaches the turn-out, 

their eyes focus again on the northern view into 

the Inner City. Now closer to the City than any 

previous viewpoint, one can begin to identify 

other named pinnacles such as Look-Out Rock, 

Box Top, Lost Arrow Spire, the Dolphin, and 

Strip Rock. The eye is drawn further into the 

rugged country of the North Fork Circle Creek 

drainage, and then finally to the 8,867-foot 

summit of Graham Peak. A wayside exhibit 

interprets the view as seen by passing Californiabound emigrants. The southern view from this 

point also affords a nice silhouette of Devil’s 

Bedstead (Saddle Rock). The western skyline 

features Mahogany Mountain.

#7 – Cave Rock (Campsite 15)

One of the best but least known views into the 

Inner City can be experienced from the parking 

lot of campsite 15, also known as the Cave 

Rock site. Here, the visitor is near the rim and 

experiences unobstructed views of the pinnacles 

from the first elevated opportunity. The scene 

beyond includes the east-west ridge of Granite 

Peak and Steinfells Dome, and finally Graham 

Peak, the most dominant feature. Usually the 

parking area is filled with vehicles associated 

with campsites 15 and 16, and most travelers 

are focused on driving the sharp turn to the 

left. This viewpoint was probably not visited by 

emigrants of the California Trail.

#8 – Look-Out Rock (Campsite 22)

Arguably the best viewpoint in the park is from 

the rim directly south of Look-Out Rock. From 

campsite 22, a ridge of granite leads north to 

the monolith known as Look-Out Rock, which 

obstructs a direct northern view; however the 

views left and right of the rock are spectacular. 

Left or northwest, one immediately peers deep 

into the Inner City. Granite fins and ridges run 

north and south until sliced by the erosive power 

of South Fork Circle Creek. In summer the white 

granite is contrasted with the light green foliage 

of aspen, which in fall offers spectacular shades 

of gold. It is difficult for the visitor to take a poor 

picture here! Right of Look-Out Rock, one gazes 

across more granite fins to the ridge of Granite 

Peak and Steinfells Dome. While this is one of 

the best views, the public access to this point is 

obscure and conflicts with the use of campsite 

22. This viewpoint was probably not visited by 

emigrants of the California Trail.

#9 – Bath Rock

Most visitors to City of Rocks will pass by or 

stop at the Bath Rock parking area to pay fees, 

camp, use the restroom, climb Bath Rock, or 

hike the Creekside Towers Trail. Bath Rock 

dominates the attention of the visitor, but a short 

walk east of the parking area towards campsites 

42–43 leads to the rim and unobstructed views. 

The foreground includes more of the granite 

fins of the Almo Pluton, and the background 

includes Graham Peak, Cache Peak, Granite 

Peak, and Steinfells Dome. The advantage of 

this viewpoint is that it includes a comfortable 

separation between the parking area and the 

rim, and the viewpoint can be made accessible to 

most visitors. This viewpoint was probably not 

visited by emigrants of the California Trail.

#10 – Morning Glory Spire

Along City of Rocks Road, between campsites 51 

and 52, the visitor will encounter a small pullout 

on the right (east). The view east offers Parking 

Lot Rock, Morning Glory Spire, Anteater, and 

Creekside Towers. The distant view continues 

from Granite Peak to Green Mountain, and 

beyond this to Almo Valley, Jim Sage Mountains, 

and finally to the Black Pine Mountains more 

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than 30 miles away. This viewpoint is also 

a popular location to see and photograph 

climbers, especially on Morning Glory Spire, 

which features the aptly named route “Skyline.” 

This viewpoint was probably not visited by 

emigrants of the California Trail.

#11 – Emery Pass

From the Emery Pass Picnic Area, visitors can 

enjoy the distant vista south, which includes 

Owl Rock in the foreground and distant views 

of Twin Sisters, Pinnacle Pass, Cedar Hills, and 

Raft River Mountains. This is often the first, best 

view of City of Rocks that travelers from Oakley 

experience. This viewpoint was probably not 

visited by emigrants of the California Trail.

#12 – Finger Rock

The best view of Oakley Valley and the Snake 

River Plain from the Reserve is encountered 

at Finger Rock (campsite 63). The view is the 

attraction for campers at this site. On clear 

days one is likely to see 110 miles north to the 

Soldier and Pioneer Mountains. The viewpoint 

also includes Middle Mountain directly west 

of the Birch Creek Valley, and Finger Rock, 

which is a granite spire of the Almo Pluton a few 

hundred yards to the northeast. This viewpoint 

was probably not visited by emigrants of the 

California Trail.

#13 – Campsite 64 Bend

Less than a quarter mile from Finger Rock, 

Logger Springs Road makes a sharp switchback. 

At this bend one is probably watching the road, 

but if one pulls over to the shoulder, they will 

experience a fantastic view of Granite Peak, 

the Eric Wood formation, Taylor Spring Basin, 

Smoky Mountain, Raft River Mountains and 

upper Raft River Basin, Cedar Hills, Bread 

Loaves, Mahogany Mountain, and Middle 

Mountain. The view also provides a vantage to 

compare different forest types, including aspen, 

mountain mahogany, pinyon-juniper, as well 

as sagebrush steppe and high meadows. This 

viewpoint was probably not visited by emigrants 

of the California Trail.

#14 – Indian Grove Overlook

Few visitors ever experience Indian Grove 

Overlook due to the steep and rugged Logger 

Springs Road that one must travel to reach the 

pullout. A fence and gate are encountered on the 

right (east), just a few hundred yards from the 

USFS boundary. The view requires a 200-yard 

walk east to the cliff overlooking subalpine fir 

and the aspen woodland called Indian Grove. 

From this vantage point, one experiences a 

vast panorama that begins with Graham Peak 

to the northeast and continues to the Graham 

Creek drainage, the village of Almo, Raft River 

Mountains, Black Pine Mountains, Granite 

Mountain, and Smoky Mountain. Closer in view, 

but still a few miles away, one can see a mile 

of the California Trail, including Camp Rock 

and Treasure Rock. Although this viewpoint 

was probably not visited by emigrants of the 

California Trail, Indian Grove derives its name 

from the popular belief that Native Americans 

associated with the Shoshone and Bannock 

Tribes observed passing emigrant wagon trains 

from this location.

#15 – Hansen Hill

This viewpoint is once again along the California 

Trail (Twin Sisters Road) and is nearly the same 

scene experienced by emigrants leaving Register 

Rock and reaching the highpoint that divides 

Circle Creek Basin from Heath Canyon. A 

wayside exhibit is placed here to interpret the 

view emigrants observed as they traveled toward 

Pinnacle Pass. Trail emigrant Cyrus C. Loveland 

described Pinnacle Pass in his diary entry of 

August 7, 1850: “Echo Gap [Pinnacle Pass] is 

fifteen or twenty feet wide, with perpendicular 

rocks on each side from fifty to one hundred and 

fifty high, and receives its name from having the 

loudest echo that I have ever heard.” Twin Sisters 

is prominently displayed to the southwest. On 

the far southwest horizon is the long ridge of the 

Goose Creek Mountains. The Cedar Hills are 

directly south, and Smoky Mountain dominates 

the left or eastern view. Although not the focus 

of the viewpoint, the northerly view into City 

of Rocks is also quite nice, making this one of 

the better 360-degree viewpoints. Cache Peak 

(elevation 10,339 feet) is visible just above the 

Granite Mountain ridge.

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#16 – Emigrant Canyon

The junction of the main California Trail and 

the Salt Lake Alternate is located at the top of 

Emigrant Canyon. Two interpretive wayside 

exhibits direct the visitor’s attention to Twin 

Sisters and the former site of the City of Rocks 

stage station (not in view). Twin Sisters stands 

directly north and is viewed from the angle 

at which it was first seen when it was named 

by Addison Pratt on September 15, 1848, as 

he traveled with the Mormon Battalion from 

California to Salt Lake City. Graham Peak and 

Smoky Mountain are within view. Pinnacle 

Pass (south side) is well within view, as are the 

Cedar Hills (both northeast and south). The 

traveler can look east down Emigrant Canyon, 

across the Upper Raft River Valley and to the 

distant Raft River Mountains. The view west 

offers the north-south ridges of the Goose Creek 

Mountains, Granite Pass, and Middle Mountain.

#17 – Granite Pass (Junction Entrance)

Just inside the Reserve boundary at the 

southwest corner known as Junction Entrance 

is Granite Pass viewpoint. An interpretive 

exhibit is located here and illustrates how the 

scene would have appeared with emigrant 

wagon trains making their way across the wide 

Junction Valley. Granite Pass was the highest 

point on the California Trail until emigrants 

later reached the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The 

scene today is much like it was when emigrants 

first encountered it. By the 1880s, homesteads 

were beginning to be established, as well as the 

community of Moulton. Today a quarry yard 

with modern housing and a few log structures 

from the late 19th century can be seen from 

the park boundary. From the wayside exhibit 

viewpoint, the modern elements are screened by 

the low, unnamed hill to the left (south). Granite 

Pass is nestled between Middle Mountain to 

the right (west-northwest) and the Goose Creek 

Mountains to the left (west-southwest). This 

scene is considered one of the most important 

cultural landscape viewpoints of the Reserve. 

Granite Pass is also designated a high-value site 

along the California National Historic Trail but is 

threatened by proposed transmission lines and 

wind turbines.

PARK OPERATIONS AND 

PARTNERSHIPS

Park Operations

Business Plan

The enabling legislation establishing the Reserve 

dictated local management and administration 

of federal lands. This partnership with the 

National Park Service also created significant 

business advantages. These advantages have 

been defined by the cooperative agreement, the 

operation plan and guidelines for management, 

and most recently by a comprehensive 

business plan.

Over the last 20 years, the partner agencies have 

developed best management practices. In 2009, 

the Reserve was selected as one of six NPS units 

to develop a business plan that would examine 

historical trends, current operations, projected 

financial outlook, comparative performance, 

and management priorities. The final plan was 

published in April 2010.

Five-year goals for park operations were 

developed during the planning process, and the 

business plan outlines the implementation of 

these goals. Several actions were identified to 

address parkwide priorities, generate additional 

revenue, and better leverage available resources. 

A few of those actions included the development 

and marketing of yurts at Smoky Mountain 

Campground and strategies to increase 

volunteerism through targeted recruiting efforts 

and increased visitor donations.

Facilities

Facilities are man-made features that provide 

visitors with better opportunities for access 

and enjoyment and aid in the protection of 

resources. They include roads and parking 

areas, trails, fences and gates, campgrounds and 

associated amenities (such as grills and tables), 

vault toilets, waste management receptacles, 

signs and exhibits, utilities (such as water and 

electricity), and impoundments. Each of these 

topics is discussed below.

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Most facilities at City of Rocks are maintained 

by a chief of maintenance and a seasonal crew 

of 8 to 10 employees. Trails and trail signs are 

maintained by the climbing ranger, a seasonal 

trails crew of 2 employees, and a contracted 

public land corps crew of 8 or more. Fences 

and gates are maintained by the park ranger for 

resource management and a seasonal crew of 2. 

Compared to most national park units of similar 

size, operation, and visitation, the Reserve 

has fewer facilities. This is primarily because 

the park’s supporting facilities—including the 

visitor center, maintenance shop, and a 2-unit 

employee housing structure—are located in 

Castle Rocks State Park’s Administrative Unit. 

These facilities are owned and operated by the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation, 

but because these facilities are integral to the 

function and success of the Reserve, they are 

also discussed in this section.

Administrative Unit

The Administrative Unit (12 acres) is located 

at the south end of Almo and includes the 

Reserve visitor center, parking and picnic areas, 

wagon exhibit, administrative offices, two 

employee residences, a maintenance compound 

with conference/training room, and a storage 

yard. An official remote automated weather 

station is also located on the property. Four 

campsites for volunteers and employees are also 

provided. About four acres are undeveloped; the 

remaining eight acres are devoted to developed 

facilities or managed landscape. NPS computer 

and phone systems are located in this unit. In 

addition, NPS-owned heavy equipment and 

other property are also stationed here.

Visitor Center

The visitor center is located in a 1912 brick 

house and includes two rooms of maps, books, 

and apparel (resale), as well as a small program 

area for viewing the park’s orientation film and 

exhibits. As discussed in the “Interpretation and 

Education” section, the current visitor center 

is not designed to accommodate large numbers 

of visitors, and the Reserve would benefit from 

additional space for exhibits, audio-visual 

presentations, and classrooms. The visitor center 

building also includes administrative offices 

upstairs. These offices are currently at capacity.

Employee Housing

As mentioned above, the Administrative Unit 

provides two on-site employee residences. 

Employees who are not housed in these 

residences, including both seasonal and yearround employees, rely on finding housing 

in Almo or other surrounding communities. 

This can be challenging due to limited nearby 

housing availability.

Roads, Parking Areas, and Associated 

Structures

The Reserve contains 17.98 miles of named 

roads (park jurisdictional). Of these, 9.9 miles 

are under the jurisdiction of Cassia County, 

and 8.08 miles are under the jurisdiction of the 

Reserve. The primary recreational access roads 

are City of Rocks Road (the designated route 

of the City of Rocks Back Country Byway), 

Twin Sisters Road (generally the route of the 

California National Historic Trail), Circle Creek 

Overlook Road, and Logger Springs Road. Spur 

and loop roads branching from these provide 

access to campgrounds and trailheads.

Most roads are surfaced with screened or 

crushed quartzite gravel from county-leased 

BLM quarries near the upper Raft River. In 

some places the road surface is completely 

natural and consists of either grussic sand or 

compacted soil. There are no asphalt or concrete 

roads within the Reserve. Approximately eight 

miles of roads are coated with a magnesium 

chloride solution to reduce airborne particulates 

during hot, dry months. Generally, public road 

surfaces are 16–25 feet wide, with an additional 

impacted area of up to 10 feet for drainage 

ditches and slopes.

Managing stormwater runoff and snow melt 

is a difficult challenge. If water leaves the road 

too quickly, erosion of the surface material 

into creeks and intermittent streams occurs. 

If water remains on the road for extended 

periods, severe rutting occurs. Disintegrating 

granite is a substrate that does not lend itself 

well to control of water movement via standard 

road design and engineering practices. More 

than 34 culverts have been installed to manage 

runoff. Maintenance of roads remains one of the 

greatest operational expenses.

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Ownership of the roads varies from fee title 

(both private and government) to rights-of-way 

(purchased or deeded), to Revised Statute 2477 

claims. RS2477 is the granted right-of-way for 

the construction of highways across public lands 

not otherwise reserved for public purposes 

(1866). It was repealed in 1976, but prior roads 

were grandfathered in.

Roads within the jurisdiction of the National 

Park Service are maintained by Reserve staff 

on a cyclic schedule. Maintenance includes 

grading, cleaning culverts, and resurfacing with 

screened gravel from a local source outside 

the Reserve. The Reserve owns and operates a 

grader, backhoe, loader, skid steer loader, and 

dump truck. At times special use equipment 

is required, and the Reserve contracts or 

rents items as needed and as specified in 

special projects.

Parking areas include Circle Creek Overlook, 

Elephant Rock, Flaming Rock, Bath Rock, 

Parking Lot Rock, Emery Pass, Bread Loaves, 

and Twin Sisters. Vehicle pullouts along the 

road system include East Entrance, Camp 

Rock, Treasure Rock, Register Rock, Emigrant 

Canyon, Juniper, Junction Entrance, Finger 

Rock, Bread Loaves (east side), Owl Rock, 

King on the Throne, and Morning Glory Spire 

viewpoint. Most other areas for parking are 

associated with campsites.

There are three cattle guards within the Reserve 

on public land located at Emery Pass, Emery 

Canyon Entrance, and on Logger Springs Road. 

This last one is maintained by Reserve staff. 

There are no vehicle bridges within the Reserve.

Outside the Reserve, the City of Rocks Back 

Country Byway creates a 49-mile “necklace” 

around the Albion Mountain Range, traversing 

historically significant landscapes that still 

portray rural western heritage. The byway 

parallels parts of the original California Trail 

and the Kelton-Boise Stage Route. The byway 

leads travelers to and through City of Rocks 

National Reserve. Along the way, byway visitors 

see firsthand the workings of traditional cattle 

ranches and get a feel for the wide open spaces 

that appear much as they did 100 years ago.

Trails

Other than roads, trails are the most popular and 

most used facility because climbing areas are 

accessed by trails. More than 25 miles of trails 

are maintained by staff, including approximately 

18 miles of primary designated trails, though 

many more miles of social trails exist, as visitors 

explore the granite spires and fins of the Upper 

Circle Creek Basin known as the “Inner City.” 

An interim trail plan was developed in 1997, 

but no official and final trail management plan 

has been developed. New trails are subject to 

environmental impact analysis and are therefore 

rarely developed.

Since 1996 the Montana Conservation Corps 

has provided supplemental trail maintenance 

on an annual basis. The Reserve’s climbing 

ranger and base-funded trail crew maintain trails 

regularly. Approximately $37,000 in labor and 

materials are expended each year on trails for 

the Reserve and at Castle Rocks State Park. Most 

trails are one to two feet wide and may include 

check-dams, rills, stone steps and walls, bridges, 

and drainage ditches. Locally sourced material is 

often used in construction and includes granite 

or quartzite boulders, fill dirt from juniper posts, 

or commercially milled and debarked posts.

Of the 25 miles of trails, 5.53 are designated 

foot-traffic only. Another 10.4 miles allow bikes, 

and 13.7 miles include equestrian use. These 

designations are provided to the public on the 

official 2010 Reserve trail map, and on some 

signs at trailheads. Because the Inner City can 

be difficult to navigate, trail signage is critical to 

the system. Approximately 300 signs are placed 

at trailheads or along trails within the Reserve. 

Signs consist of routed letters painted white on 

brown-painted fir lumber. Posts are 4x4 cedar or 

pressure-treated fir.

There are no designated off-road vehicle (ATV, 

UTV, or motorbike) trails in the Reserve. 

Properly licensed, these types of vehicles are 

permitted on county roads through the Reserve 

as provided for in Idaho law and in the absence 

of a county ordinance prohibiting them. 

Although these types of vehicles are often the 

source of noise and cause conflict with other 

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Reserve users, they cannot be prohibited by the 

National Park Service on non-NPS jurisdictional 

roads. Excessively loud vehicles of any type are 

prohibited by Cassia County Ordinance 91-10-

1, 10-15-1991, 7-1-3. They are prohibited in 

campgrounds and other Reserve roads such as 

Circle Creek Overlook, campground loops, and 

the road to Parking Lot Rock.

In September 2010, the Department of Justice, 

Civil Rights Division issued 28 CFR Part 35, 

“Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Disability 

in State and Local Government Services Final 

Rule,” which requires public entities to make 

reasonable modifications in their policies, 

practices, and procedures to permit the use 

of “Other Power-Driven Mobility Devices” 

(OPDMDs) by individuals with disabilities, 

unless the public entity can demonstrate that 

the use of the device is not reasonable or that its 

use will result in a fundamental alteration in the 

public entity’s services, programs, or activities. 

This ruling does not apply to federal lands, but 

a more specific ruling is expected to be issued 

for these lands. Because the Idaho Department 

of Parks and Recreation has lead jurisdiction of 

Section 36 within the Reserve, and because of 

the cooperative agreement between the National 

Park Service and the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation, the Reserve has applied IDPR 

policy and procedures to govern these uses. 

OPDMDs include such devices as Segways®, 

carts, scooters, and electrically assisted bikes. 

The full IDPR policy and Reserve’s assessments 

prohibiting or permitting such devices is 

available to the public online and can also be 

viewed at the visitor center. Table 34 lists the 

mileage of primary designated trails and roads 

within the Reserve.

Fences and Gates

The purposes of fences within the Reserve are 

to contain cattle, exclude cattle, define parking 

areas, and/or to prohibit visitor impacts on 

sensitive or high-use areas. Fences that do not 

serve these purposes are removed to restore 

the cultural landscape of the California Trail, 

provide safe and easy access for visitors to 

public lands, and reduce overall maintenance 

costs. Some fences or corrals are maintained 

as historic features of the Historic Rural 

Setting Zone, such as the corral near campsite 

52 and another located neat Checkered 

Demon. Fence ownership and maintenance 

responsibilities within the Reserve vary 

depending on the condition. Table 35 describes 

these responsibilities.

Table 34. Primary Designated Trails and Roads with Mileage

Designated Trails Miles Roads Miles

California (Smoky Mountain Connection) 0.58 Logger Springs Road 3.46

Steinfell’s 1.00 Elephant Rock Campsite Road 0.76

Stripe Rock Loop 1.15 Circle Creek Overlook Road 0.83

GeoWatt 1.70 Pinnacle Pass Road 0.06

Box Top 0.60 Flaming Rock Campsite Road 0.21

Bumblie 0.50 Parking Lot Road 0.17

Flaming Rock 4.50 Bread Loaves Road 0.32

North Fork Circle Creek 1.60 Juniper Access Road 0.07

South Fork Circle Creek 2.31 Elephant Rock Road 0.95

Tea Kettle 0.30 Circle Creek Overlook Service Road 1.25

Stairways 0.34 Logger Springs Road 3.46

Bath Rock 0.60

Creekside Towers 1.35

Indian Grove 1.40

Skyline Connection 0.29

Total Miles of Designated Trails 18.22 Total Miles of Roads 8.08

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Table 35. Fence Ownership and Maintenance Responsibilities

Disposition Ownership Maintained by

Private grazed land bordering public 

nongrazed land

Private landowner Private landowner

Private grazed land bordering public 

grazed land

Shared by private landowner and 

Reserve (usually 50%)

Private landowner and Reserve 

Permittee1

Private nongrazed land bordering public 

grazed land

Reserve (unless private landowner 

disputes and prefers ownership)

Reserve permittee1

Fences completely within the interior of 

public lands

Reserve Reserve permittee1

1When a fence needs to be replaced, the Reserve usually initiates and funds the project.

Most gates within the Reserve conform to three 

types: 2-inch metal tubing panel (vehicle-sized 

and pedestrian), barbed wire, or low-profile 

3-inch metal pipe gates in recreation areas (at the 

junction of Twin Sisters and City of Rocks roads 

and two on Circle Creek Overlook Road). The 

purposes of gates are to restrict unauthorized 

vehicles and to provide easy access for trail-users 

into and through public lands with no grazing 

allotments. As with obsolete fences, gates are 

removed when they are no longer needed or 

conform to the stated purpose.

Fences used to contain or exclude cattle are 

constructed with juniper posts of varying 

heights and four strands of barbed-wire to 

conform to the historic rural setting. Metal posts 

are used occasionally when the fence cannot be 

seen from the California Trail corridor.

Campgrounds and Associated Amenities

The Reserve has 64 standard campsites 

(numbered 1–64) spread out over 5.5 miles, at 

elevations ranging from 6,120 to 7,240 feet. Each 

site contains a numbered post, parking spur, 

picnic table, ground grill (fire ring), and tent pad 

as defined by 8x8 timbers. Some sites are further 

developed with a lodge-pole or boulder parking 

barrier. These sites are very popular from midMay through mid-July and again in late August 

through September. Currently sites may be 

reserved up to nine months in advance through 

the ReserveAmerica system.

In addition, the Juniper group campsite is a 

small equestrian group area that includes a 

small corral, hitching posts, water trough, picnic 

tables, and electrical service. A vault toilet is also 

located at this facility. Two other group facilities 

are located in the Reserve: Twin Sisters group 

campsite (12–35 people) and Bread Loaves 

group campsite (12–25 people).

Due to the popularity of camping within the 

Reserve, a no-net loss approach to existing 

campsites is strongly supported by visitors and 

staff alike. An overall increase in sites is also 

desired where resources would not be impaired. 

A DCP effort on camping was conducted in 2010 

to determine if some sites should be removed 

to protect resources, to increase visitor safety, 

to minimize day use/camping conflicts, and to 

determine if campsites could be added to offset 

potential losses or to increase capacity. This 

development concept plan is part of the general 

management plan and the recommendations 

have been incorporated into the alternatives. The 

DCP report, maps, and full recommendations 

are included in Appendix D.

The development concept plan recognizes 

that campsites immediately along the county 

road (specifically campsites 50, 51, and 57) 

create safety concerns and should be relocated 

to clustered areas, such as camping area 3 

(Elephant Rock Loop, sites 5–32). The plan also 

identifies campsites that would better function 

as picnic sites, or should be removed altogether 

to eliminate conflicts with trailhead parking.

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Most camping areas and day-use trailheads 

also include pre-cast concrete vault toilets. 

These are located at the Juniper group site, 

Twin Sisters group site, near campsites 12 and 

27, at Bath Rock (two units), Parking Lot Rock, 

Bread Loaves, Finger Rock, and Circle Creek 

Overlook. Often associated with the toilets 

are information boards and recycling and 

refuse stations.

Wells and Water Development

Potable water is a rare commodity within the 

Reserve and is usually only available from May 

through October. The first well in the Reserve 

was established in 1989 at the Emery Pass 

Picnic Area (the only designated picnic area 

within the Reserve) and is operated by a hand 

pump. Drinking water quality is monitored 

monthly, according to state regulations. Potable 

water is also accessible from a well emplaced 

in 2000 between campsites 50 and 51. The 

water is pumped (powered by a photovoltaic 

system) and then piped underground to the 

Bath Rock parking area. This water is potable 

but often produces harmless orange algae. Both 

systems are closed and locked when night-time 

temperatures are consistently below freezing.

Additional water development on public land 

within the Reserve includes a well at Juniper 

group camp, which is currently not in use, and 

springs at Indian Grove, North Fork Circle 

Creek, and Tea Kettle. Another dozen wells and 

springs developed on private land within the 

Reserve boundary are not managed by staff nor 

would they be affected by this plan.

Five impoundments are documented within the 

Reserve; all of them except one are on private 

property. Circle Creek Impoundment #1 is 

located at the eastern boundary, several hundred 

yards upstream from where Circle Creek exits 

the Reserve. This obsolete facility is planned 

for removal so that the natural hydrology and 

riparian community can be restored.

Wayside Exhibits

In addition to information boards, low-profile 

wayside exhibits are located throughout the 

Reserve to provide nonpersonal interpretation 

at key points of significance. Most were 

designed by the National Park Service at the 

Harpers Ferry Center, but a few were developed 

by Reserve staff and produced by a private 

contractor (see “Table 33. Wayside Exhibits 

for City of Rocks National Reserve and Castle 

Rocks State Park”).

Utilities

Utilities such as electricity, water, sewer, phone, 

and communication towers are limited or not 

present within the Reserve. Raft River Rural 

Electrical Cooperative owns and operates 

an overhead electrical line located generally 

along the California Trail corridor. Reserve 

employees are working with the Co-op to 

move the overhead line underground along 

the county road. In 2007, more than a mile 

of overhead line was installed underground. 

The Co-op has tentatively committed to costsharing with the National Park Service to place 

the remaining 7.8 miles of line underground 

in the next three to five years. By placing the 

utility lines underground, the Reserve can 

remove a significant modern intrusion on the 

historic landscape, increase visitor experience, 

lower maintenance costs, and improve the life 

expectancy of the utility.

There are no phone or fiber optic utility lines 

within the Reserve; however, the Albion 

Telephone Company is interested in placing 

lines underground to service future customers 

on private lands within the Reserve and in 

Moulton (Junction Valley). Reserve staff 

communicate via handheld radio and a repeater 

station located atop Graham Peak. Albion 

Telephone Company uses a similar system to 

bounce transmissions from the Almo area to 

Moulton, via a relay station located just outside 

the Reserve’s south boundary. With the recent 

development of a cellular tower on Durfee Hill 

in Almo, some areas of the Reserve now have 

cellular phone coverage.

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There are no other public utilities within 

the Reserve. In recent years, a number of 

applications for wind turbine projects and 

transmission lines have been made to the 

Bureau of Land Management, though none 

in the immediate viewshed of the Reserve 

had been approved at the time of this plan. 

Such applications are closely monitored by 

the National Park Service to ensure that the 

intent of Congress to protect the nationally 

significant values at City of Rocks is upheld. 

For example, transmission lines that might 

be constructed immediately on the Reserve’s 

boundary along the California Trail would result 

in impairment of the feeling and association of 

the California National Historic Trail. A cellular 

tower or wind turbine placed immediately on 

the Reserve’s boundaries would have the same 

detrimental effect.

Additional Support Facilities at Castle 

Rocks State Park

Unlike most traditional national park units, the 

Reserve’s administrative support facilities are 

located entirely outside its boundary, on lands 

owned and managed by the Idaho Department 

of Parks and Recreation. These lands, known 

as Castle Rocks State Park, are divided between 

three separate units: Ranch Unit, Administrative 

Unit, and Smoky Mountain Unit. These units 

and the related facilities are discussed below.

Ranch Unit

Located a few miles northwest of Almo, the 

Ranch Unit (1,440 acres) includes a portion of 

the geological area known as Castle Rocks. This 

mostly day-use facility includes the Stines Creek 

Picnic Area, Almo Creek Picnic Area, Castle 

Rock Trail Head, the Lodge and Bunkhouse 

at Castle Rock Ranch, and associated parking 

areas. This unit contains more than eight 

miles of trails. The Ranch Unit supports the 

Reserve by providing additional climbing 

areas (including multipitch climbs) and picnic 

facilities. Most of the lowlands provide pasture 

for grazing. The Almo Creek Wetland and Eagle 

Rock Grove Wetland are livestock exclosures 

around sensitive riparian communities. These 

areas offer the visitor a biologically diverse 

resource to explore. Attached to this unit on 

the east is a 200-acre conservation easement 

purchased from the Sheridan family. The 

purpose of the easement is to provide in 

perpetuity the scenic view of the Castle Rocks 

pinnacles and to provide recreational access to 

the 10 acres adjacent to Eagle Rock.

Smoky Mountain Unit

The Smoky Mountain Unit (240 acres) is 

located one mile southwest of Almo and 

features a 38-site campground (6 equestrian 

campsites), with water, electricity, flush toilets, 

showers, and a recreational vehicle sanitation 

facility. Also included in the unit is a day-use 

equestrian trailhead and trail connecting to the 

Reserve. A well and storage tank are additionally 

included in the BLM Recreation and Public 

Purposes Lease to the Idaho Department of 

Parks and Recreation. Previous planning efforts 

by both the National Park Service and the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

have identified this unit as the ideal location 

for construction of a new visitor center. The 

Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive management 

plan also called for maintenance and employee 

facilities at this location. Since that plan was 

written, the Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation was able to secure property in Almo 

to provide those facilities (discussed below).

RESERVE ADMINISTRATIVE 

STRUCTURE

Reserve programs are the departments or 

divisions that function to support the mission 

and goals of the Reserve’s legislative mandate 

and general management plan. Currently the 

Reserve maintains the following five programs:

•	 Administration

•	 Maintenance and Operations

•	 Visitor Services

•	 Climbing Management and Trails

•	 Integrated Resource Management

These programs and the associated staffing are 

discussed below.

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Administration

The administrative functions of the Reserve 

include strategic planning, budget, accounts 

receivable and payable, human resources, 

records management, partnership development, 

media relations, office support (information 

technology), and coordination of all other 

programs. Administration also writes annual 

reports and provides operational statistics 

to agency leadership. Staffing in the program 

includes the park superintendent, assistant 

park manager, and on occasion an intern or 

part-time administrative assistant. Offices for 

administration are located on the second floor 

of the visitor center.

Maintenance and Operations

As its name implies, functions of this program 

include maintaining facilities and managing 

assets. Typical summer operations include 

waste management (also recycling), vehicle 

maintenance and repair, mowing and 

watering landscaped areas, and implementing 

construction projects. All of the Reserve 

facilities discussed previously are maintained by 

this program except for fences and trails. Staffing 

includes a chief of maintenance, three eightmonth seasonal leads, and five to eight seasonal 

maintenance aides. This program receives the 

largest portion of both the annual budget and 

project funding.

Visitor Services

Parks are for people. Visitors require 

information, orientation, and interpretation 

before and during their visit. They want to 

experience the opportunities and national 

significance of City of Rocks. In some cases, 

they want to support and participate in its 

care. The visitor services program manages the 

visitor center, exhibits, websites, brochures 

and publications, resale program, reservation 

system, interpretation, and volunteers. The 

program is supported by one park ranger (the 

chief of visitor services), an eight-month visitor 

services lead, and three fee collectors. Routine 

responsibilities include greeting visitors, offering 

assistance, collecting fees, leading hikes, giving 

talks, working with volunteers, and facilitating 

recreational and learning opportunities, such as 

the climbing experience program.

Climbing Management and Trails

Climbing is the recreational activity in the 

Reserve that attracts the greatest number of 

participants. Climbers impact resources by 

installing fixed anchors, establishing staging 

areas, and creating necessary trails to rocks. 

To ensure that these impacts are minimized 

and mitigated, the climbing ranger works with 

user groups, park management, and resource 

managers. The fixed-anchor permit system 

and assessment of routes and other impacts 

are processed by the climbing ranger. Trails are 

used by climbers and nonclimbers alike but 

are critical to climbing, so trail maintenance, 

planning, and occasionally new construction 

are managed by this program. Public Land 

Corps funds have traditionally supplemented 

the annual maintenance of the Reserve trail 

system. A number of volunteer groups also assist 

in the effort. The climbing ranger additionally 

supervises two summer seasonal trail crew 

members. This program takes the lead in 

incident/accident management, visitor safety, 

and rules compliance.

Integrated Resources

Public Law 100-696 is very clear about the 

Reserve’s purpose—to protect significant 

historical and cultural resources and to protect 

and maintain scenic quality. This day-today responsibility is carried out by the park 

ranger for cultural resources (chief of cultural 

resources) and the park ranger for natural 

resources. Both rangers work closely together 

to conduct research and facilitate studies, 

surveys, inventories, and monitoring. Cultural 

resources include the landscape, and the 

landscape is impacted by vegetation and land 

use, which are managed by the natural resources 

ranger. Routine activities include grazing 

management; irrigation; water management, 

including water quality testing; fence repair; 

preparation of environmental compliance 

documents; collections management; 

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archeological surveys; and historical research to 

enrich Reserve interpretation. This integrated 

resources program is supported by two resource 

technicians and a Youth Conservation Corps 

program (a crew leader and four members), who 

work generally from May through September. 

Fire prevention and protection, noxious weed 

management, and landscape restoration are also 

managed by the resources program.

Commercial Services

The Reserve has no concession facilities within 

its boundaries; however, a number of guides 

and outfitters do operate without support 

facilities or leases. Because climbing is one of 

the most popular recreational activities within 

the Reserve, it is not surprising that most guides 

and outfitters fall within this category. Generally, 

these small businesses are based in other cities 

and operate websites and/or store fronts where 

potential clients can reserve a guide or sign 

up for a course being taught in the Reserve. 

Typically, visitors would meet the guide onsite.

Before a guide or outfitter can operate within 

the Reserve, they must be permitted. The 

cooperative agreement between the National 

Park Service and the Idaho Department of 

Parks and Recreation guides this process and is 

stipulated in V.b.1-7 as follows:

V. Special Park Uses

b) Commercial Uses and Other Activities

Only commercial activities which directly 

contribute to understanding, appreciation, 

and stewardship of Reserve resources or to 

appropriate recreational uses of the Reserve 

will be permitted.

1. Engaging in any business operation and 

recreational activities, such as special 

events, assemblies, meetings, etc., will 

be permitted only in accordance with 

IDAPA 26.01.20 650, established IDPR 

standards, provisions of a permit, or other 

written agreement.

2. IDPR will permit no business operations 

or other commercial activities to be based 

within the boundaries of the Reserve 

without the prior approval of the NPS. 

All such activities and permits shall be 

allowed in accordance with established 

procedures, provisions of a permit or 

other written agreements. Soliciting for 

business in the Reserve is prohibited.

3. Permitted commercial activities must be 

appropriate to the Reserve and offer no 

threat to resources values or visitor use.

4. All commercial guiding operators will 

meet the criteria of the Idaho Outfitters 

and Guides Licensing Board prior to 

initiating activities within the Reserve.

5. As a condition of issuance of a 

commercial permit, license or written 

agreement, IDPR may require:

a. Proof of liability insurance in which 

IDPR is named as co-insured in an 

amount sufficient to protect IDPR 

and the United States.

b. The filing of a bond payable to IDPR, 

in an amount adequate to cover 

costs, such as rehabilitation and 

cleanup of the area used. In lieu of a 

bond, a deposit of cash equal to the 

amount of the required bond 

is acceptable.

c. The permit, license, or agreement 

may contain such conditions as 

are reasonably appropriate to 

the Reserve and consistent with 

protection and use of the Reserve 

for the purposes for which it was 

established, i.e., resource values or 

visitor use.

6. All permits, license, or other commercial 

activity fees collected by IDPR will be 

utilized at the Reserve for associated 

programs, operating expenses, or for 

improvement projects directly related to 

the Reserve.

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7. Commercial operations, private 

individuals, profit/non-profit groups, 

and organizations will not be granted 

exclusive use of Reserve lands, resources 

or facilities, nor given a right of preference 

in the renewal or negotiation of a 

new authorization.

 In recent years, four guide and outfitter 

operations were compliant with these 

conditions, and included Exum Guide Service 

and School of American Mountaineering of 

Jackson Hole, Wyoming; Jackson Hole (The 

Mountain Guides) of Jackson Hole, Wyoming; 

Sawtooth Mountain Guides of Stanley, Idaho; 

and Indian Grove Outfitters of Almo Idaho. 

Indian Grove Outfitters is an equestrian 

outfitter, offering overnight pack trips and 

short rides from one to three hours. The Idaho 

Outfitters and Guides Licensing Board has given 

exclusive rights to Indian Grove Outfitters for 

equestrian activities in this geographic area. It 

allows an unlimited number of climbing guides 

to operate in the same region. One hunting guide 

is permitted within the region but is not known 

to conduct business within the Reserve.

Because the Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation regulates the permit system for the 

Reserve, guides and outfitters are also able 

to operate in nearby Castle Rocks State Park 

under one permit. Minor facility enhancements 

have been made at the Ranch Unit of the state 

park to accommodate equestrian staging. 

The need to make similar enhancements for 

equestrian activities exists within the Reserve. 

There are very few places suitable to stage 

horses and clients that are planning to access 

equestrian trails.

PARTNERSHIPS

Unlike most units of the national park system, 

the Reserve was designated by Congress to be 

a perpetual partnership. Public law 100-696 

established that “the Secretary shall, pursuant to 

cooperative agreement— transfer management 

and administration...” The transfer became 

official on May 2, 1996, during a ceremony 

and signing of the cooperative agreement 

between the National Park Service and the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation. 

The rationale behind this atypical arrangement 

was to demonstrate that places of national 

significance can be managed locally if given the 

right mix of partners and resources.

The National Park Service and the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation may be 

the most active partners in the day-to-day 

preservation of the Reserve, but other partners 

abound. Protection of the Reserve’s cultural 

landscape would not be possible without 

the cooperation of private landowners. Even 

today, 4,087 acres are privately owned within 

the Reserve boundary, and these lands include 

4.5 miles of the California National Historic 

Trail. To ensure that private landownership 

would continue, and yet to prevent conflicting 

development, Cassia County commissioners 

enacted one of the most forward-thinking 

zones established in rural Idaho. The Historic 

Preservation Zone overlays much of the Reserve. 

This zone permits landowners to continue 

business as usual prior to November 1988, which 

was and remains primarily grazing. Construction 

of a home, barn, shed, and/or other needed 

facility is permitted for the landowner of record, 

and these can be built with consideration given 

to proper design, materials, color, and location. 

Cassia County’s continued partnership and 

commitment is key to the Reserve concept.

A number of state and federal agencies play a 

role in the preservation of natural resources. 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service regulates 

the management and protection of federally 

protected species. The Idaho Department of 

Fish and Game establishes and regulates hunting 

seasons and assists the Reserve in the research 

and protection of non-game species. Much of 

our understanding of the unique geology of the 

Reserve comes from the scientists of the U.S. 

Geological Survey and institutions of higher 

learning such as Whitman College. Protection 

of the largest pinyon pine forest in Idaho is 

due in part to fire protection partnerships with 

the Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Forest 

Service, and the Almo, Connor Creek, Elba Fire 

Protection District. Noxious weed eradication 

efforts are greatly enhanced by working with 

Cassia County’s Weed Control Program.

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Management decisions are based on good 

science. The Upper Columbia Basin Network 

Inventory and Monitoring Program, based at 

the University of Idaho, provides important 

baseline data and trends for the health of the 

Reserve natural resources. The Northern Rocky 

Mountain Exotic Plant Management Team 

assists resource managers with periodic annual 

visits to treat noxious weeds.

The Idaho State Historic Preservation 

Office provides assistance and guidance in 

the protection of cultural resources. The 

Shoshone-Bannock Tribes of the Fort Hall 

Indian Reservation also provide park managers 

with an understanding and context of their 

ancestral lands that include the Reserve. The 

Oregon-California Trails Association is an 

example of an important partnership with 

a nonprofit organization to protect cultural 

resources. Groups such as this, the Access 

Fund, and the Cache Peak Civic Association 

periodically provide additional funds for land 

protection and projects to enhance visitor 

understanding and enjoyment. Cooperative 

funding for Raft River Rural Electric, Inc. to 

move overhead power lines underground is 

a prime example of how local business and 

government can work together to achieve 

cultural landscape improvements.

Visitor protection is significantly improved by 

trained emergency medical technicians in the 

local communities. Volunteer members of the 

Quick Response Unit from Almo and Yost 

respond to accidents and injuries. Life Run and 

Life Flight Services from area medical facilities 

are critical partners in the care of visitors 

who become patients. Cassia County Sheriff’s 

Department provides the law enforcement that 

is needed beyond the rule compliance provided 

by park rangers.

Many of the roads within the Reserve are 

maintained by the Cassia County Road and 

Bridge Department. Approximately 35,000 

vehicles enter and exit the Reserve on these 

roads annually. Road maintenance and 

reconstruction by the county is critical to visitor 

enjoyment and safety. Often park staff work 

in partnership with the county road foreman 

to maintain road services, make emergency 

repairs, and provide additional materials such 

as culverts, directional signs, and cattle guards. 

Over the years, the Reserve operation has 

transferred its older and previously replaced 

vehicles and equipment to the county to offset 

the significant costs associated with maintaining 

these rural roads.

The Reserve’s 22.4 miles of hiking, biking, and 

equestrian trails require significant annual 

maintenance. The National Park Service base 

funds a small crew and also provides funding 

to contract a Public Land Corps to supplement 

those efforts. For many years the Montana 

Conservation Corps has provided those 

services. A number of volunteer groups also 

contribute to this effort, notably the National 

Outdoor Leadership School, the Boy Scouts 

of America, and the Cache Peak Back Country 

Horseman’s Association.

City of Rocks receives more than 100,000 

visitors annually, many of whom first learned 

of the destination through a tourism office or 

visitor center. Marketing the Reserve would not 

be successful without partnerships between the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation and 

Southern Idaho Tourism, as well as the MiniCassia Chamber of Commerce. The Times-News, 

Idaho Statesman, Idaho State Journal, and other 

statewide media routinely print the Reserve’s 

special events and public notices, and all are 

important partners in educating the public about 

opportunities to participate in park planning.

Still, the most significant partnership remains 

that between the National Park Service and the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation. 

Both agencies provide base funding to the 

operation, in addition to periodic grants for 

facility development or landscape restoration. 

Although all employees on site are provided 

by the Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation, NPS resource specialists from 

area units and regional offices play a significant 

role in planning and achieving management 

goals. The Reserve’s “2014 Operation Plan 

and Guidelines for the Management of City of 

Rocks National Reserve (CIRO)” (a detailed 

implementation plan codified in the cooperative 

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agreement) designates planning as the primary 

responsibility of the National Park Service. The 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

assists in the development of those plans and 

then works to achieve success on the ground. 

This partnership model has proven successful, 

despite the managerial efforts required to blend 

regulations and policies from two agencies and 

two different fiscal years of operation. Essential 

to the success of this partnership, and to all 

the partnerships previously mentioned, is a 

common interest and objective. This purpose, as 

stated by Congress, is to “...preserve and protect 

the significant historical and cultural resources; to 

manage recreational use; to protect and maintain 

scenic quality; and to interpret the nationally 

significant values of the reserve.”

SOCIOECONOMICS

DEMOGRAPHICS

City of Rocks National Reserve is located 

in Cassia County, Idaho. Cassia County was 

created by the Idaho Territorial Legislature 

on February 20, 1879. The county was named 

for Cassia Creek, which was named for John 

Cazier, a member of the Mormon Battalion 

and an emigrant train captain. The history of 

Cassia County is the history of the real West—of 

cowboys and Indians, emigrants and settlers, 

and stage coaches and railroads.

Cassia County’s history is one of cooperation: 

from the days of the covered wagons through 

the digging of the deep wells in the mid-20th 

century to the current high-tech age of modern 

agriculture, much collaboration was needed to 

build an agriculture-based economy so reliant 

on irrigation (Cassia 2013).

Cassia County ranks 14th in the state for total 

population and 2nd in the state for total farm 

income. This income includes crops from 

developed croplands and products from 

agricultural processing centered in Burley 

(University of Idaho Extension 2012). The 

county’s population grew by more than 14% 

from 1970 to 1980, by 9% from 1980 to 1990, 

by 9% again from 1990 to 2000, and by 7% 

between 2000 and 2008. The county additionally 

anticipates a projected growth of 11% by 2020 

(Cassia 2006; U.S. Census Bureau 2010).

Table 36. Cassia County Population Trends

and 2020 Projection

Cassia 

County 1980 1990 2000 2010* 2020

19,427 19,532 21,416 22,952 25,457

(Cassia 2006) *Note: 2010 data revised to reflect the actual 

U.S. Census Bureau data.

Table 37. Community Population Trends

Community 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010* 2011

% Change 

from 

1970–2011

Albion 229 286 305 262 269 269 +2%

Burley 8,079 8,525 8,702 9,316 10,405 10,447 +29%

Declo 251 276 279 338 345 346 +38%

Malta 196 196 171 177 194 194 -1%

Oakley 656 663 635 668 767 772 +18%

Almo 175 ** ** 140 168 N/A N/A

Cassia County 20,300 19,427 19,532 21,416 22,091 23,186 +14%

(U.S. Census Bureau 2010) *Note: 2010 data revised to reflect the actual U.S. Census Bureau data. **Included in 

larger area.

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The economic base of Cassia County is 

agriculture and agriculture-related industries. 

Traditionally Cassia County has had a higher 

unemployment rate than the rest of south 

central Idaho. The closure of the J. R. Simplot 

potato processing plant in 2003 caused the 

unemployment rate for Cassia County to 

increase to 6% in 2004. Companies such as 

Dutchmen Manufacturing, a large recreational 

vehicle manufacturer, and Mulholland 

Positioning Systems, Inc., have recently 

revitalized Cassia County’s industry. Pacific 

Ethanol started production in April 2008 after 

a large hiring spree. DOT Foods, a national 

redistribution company, is located in Cassia 

County and employs an estimated 50 truck 

drivers and 100 assembly workers (University of 

Idaho Extension 2012).

Table 38. Cassia County Employment by Industry

Industry Type 1980 1985 1990 2000 2010

Farm 1,979 1,731 1,616 1,879 2,899

Agricultural services, forest, fish, and other 

agriculture-related industry

378 342 495 610

Manufacturing 1,558 1,354 1,615 1,286 1,202

Mining 55 37 49 127 1,340

Construction 423 417 407 642 357

Transport, commercial services, public utilities 313 277 298 660 2,502

Wholesale trade 592 510 456 514

Retail trade 1,637 1,531 1,712 2,659

Finance, insurance. And real estate 556 540 594 733

Services 1,415 1,531 1,784 2,659 5,220

Federal civilian 234 196 175 179

Federal military 128 114 125 87

State and local government 951 986 1,112 1,444

(Cassia County 2006) Note: County Profiles of Idaho Prepared by Gregory Rogers, Regional labor Economist, Idaho 

Department of Commerce and labor. Retrieved from Cassia County Comprehensive Plan on 1/29/2013.

(Idaho Department of Labor 2013)

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Table 39. Covered Employment and Average Annual Wages Per Job for 2001, 2010, and 2011

2001 2010 2011

Average 

Employment

Average 

Wages

Average 

Employment

Average 

Wages

Average 

Employment

Average 

Wages

Agriculture 991 $19,103 1,418 $28,872 1,418 $28,872

Mining 112 $23,357 92 $30,273 92 $31,156

Construction 352 $27,354 361 $30,982 367 $32,161

Manufacturing 1,108 $26,828 1,195 $37,495 1,234 $39,260

Trade, Utilities, and 

Transportation

2,257 $21,021 2,477 $28,473 2,531 $29,912

Information 151 $23,195 81 $48,856 75 $47,692

Financial Activities 266 $27,082 253 $32,616 232 $35,559

Professional and 

Business Services

320 $15,948 349 $31,996 330 $30,827

Educational and 

Health Services

907 $22,659 1,294 $25,568 1,286 $27,110

Leisure and 

Hospitality

584 $7,904 499 $10,097 520 $10,032

Other Services 183 $15,199 128 $19,403 146 $19,715

Government 1,619 $25,275 1,658 $29,380 1,617 $28,534

Wages have traditionally been low in Cassia 

County, but the increase of manufacturing 

companies, particularly over the last decade, 

has had a beneficial effect on wages in the 

area. Most jobs had been in agriculture, food 

processing, retail, or services. The dairy industry 

has brought stability to agricultural wages. Cassia 

is the leading county in the state for agricultural 

receipts. Per capita income grew by 7.6% from 

2010 and has exceeded the state’s per capita 

income the last two years, as well as in 2008 

when agricultural prices and yields saw record 

highs. Cassia County’s per capita income is 17% 

less than the nation’s but the gap continues to 

narrow. Growth in covered wages from 2010 

to 2011 was most significant in agriculture at 

3% while manufacturing’s employment grew 

3.3% and wages almost 5% (Idaho Department 

of Labor 2013). Average per capita income 

increased from $24,534 in 2002 to $34,515 in 

2011, an increase of 41%. Fourteen percent of 

the population is below the poverty line (U.S. 

Census Bureau 2011).

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Almo

Almo, a very small unincorporated village, is 

part of the greater Burley, Idaho, micropolitan 

statistical area. The town is located at the 

eastern and primary gateway to City of Rocks 

National Reserve. It is located just two miles 

east of the Reserve. The town was settled in the 

1870s. Almo is the site of the oldest building in 

the county, Tracy Store, which opened in 1894 

(Cassia County 2013).

In 2000, the greater Almo community had a 

population of 168 (based on zip code 83312), a 

land area of 35.11 square miles, and a population 

density of 8.3 people per square mile. There 

were 86 households in the Almo area, the 

average household size was 2.80, and the average 

family size was 3.162 (U.S. Census Bureau 

2010). 2

 The median income per household was 

$59,821. The per capita income was $17,734, and 

50.3% of families live below the poverty line. 

Almo’s cost of living was 21.2% lower than the 

U.S. average (U.S. Census Bureau 2010).

Community

The Almo Elementary School is a two-room 

schoolhouse with grades K through 1 in one 

room and grades 2 through 3 in the other. There 

are about 15 students per teacher in Almo. 

Student in grades 4 through 12 travel up to 30 

miles to reach the local public schools. The Almo 

Church is the predominant social center with 

church-sponsored sporting and social events. 

The Reserve headquarters is located in Almo 

and currently consists of a converted home 

serving as the visitor center, two residences, and 

a shop/conference center.

The layout of Almo is typical of Mormon 

colonies (Arrington 1979). Elements include a 

2.. According to the U.S. Census Bureau: “‘Family households’ 

consist of a householder and one or more other people 

related to the householder by birth, marriage, or adoption. 

They do not include same-sex married couples even if the 

marriage was performed in a state issuing marriage certificates for same-sex couples. Same-sex couple households are 

included in the family households’ category if there is at least 

one additional person related to the householder by birth or 

adoption. Same-sex couple households with no relatives of the 

householder present are tabulated in nonfamily households. 

‘Nonfamily households’ consist of people living alone and 

households which do not have any members related to the 

householder.”

wide north-south main street; the Church of 

Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon) 

Church one block off the main intersection; and 

the Almo School and Tracy Store, located in the 

center of town. The Outpost Steakhouse and 

Almo Creek Inn are rustic reminders of Almo’s 

western heritage. Houses and barns cluster 

around the center of town and fields radiate 

away from the town center.

Structures in Almo were originally made with 

logs harvested from the hills within the presentday Reserve and Sawtooth National Forest. 

Limited use of locally quarried white-quartz 

granite replaced log construction by 1900. The 

advent of a brick operation in Almo supplied 

materials to Albion and Declo and allowed 

for fine masonry early in the life of these 

surprisingly remote settlements. The Tracy Store 

in Almo, the hotel in Declo, and the normal 

school in Albion are excellent examples of the 

craftsmanship achieved using the russet native 

sandstone brick. The Tracy Store/post office, the 

Almo Elementary School diagonally across from 

the store, and the current City of Rocks/Castle 

Rocks Visitor Center are examples of early 

sandstone brick structures.

The quality of life in Almo is quiet, peaceful, 

family-centered, and community-oriented 

according to interviews with residents. Local 

crime is nearly nonexistent. Citizens claim they 

can walk out their door and hear the sounds of 

the wind and their neighbors’ chickens onequarter mile away. They also describe themselves 

as quiet, private folks who are comfortable 

and content with their lives. As in many 

rural locations, youthful restlessness causes 

departures. Within the last few years, however, 

many of the young residents have returned to 

the Almo area to raise their families.

Land uses adjacent to town include dryland 

farm fields and the cemetery. Visual details 

include hayfields that crowd into the edge of 

town; houses, barns, and yard gates that stand 

close to the county road; bridges constructed 

of peeled logs; and fences with crafted wooden 

gates. Horses occasionally graze unrestrained 

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within the road right-of-way and cattle graze 

in nearby pastures. Occasional driving of cattle 

between pastures is typical in the road rightof way.

On the other side of the Reserve in Moulton, 

corrals and loading chutes, along with 

dilapidated buildings form a small ghost 

town, suggesting a more rugged pioneer 

existence. Gray, weathered log and woodshingled structures seem timeless. Unmilled 

logs and milled lumber are used for livestock 

containments in this area. Remnants of a 

historic line camp (an outpost structure used 

by employees working on the outlying parts of 

a large ranch) indicate the more recent tie to 

ranching and cattle raising operations on this 

side of the Reserve. Lands are privately owned, 

in sagebrush cover, and used for grazing.

Oakley

Oakley is the western gateway to the Reserve and 

is 12 miles from its west entrance. It is located on 

the western side of the Albion Mountains and 

is at the very southern limit of the Snake River 

Plain, close to Goose Creek and between Middle 

Mountain and the Albion Mountains. With an 

elevation of 4,560 feet, the town is primarily 

surrounded by irrigated potato and sugar beet 

fields.

The town was settled by Mormons at the same 

time as Almo. Oakley continues to be 98% 

Mormon. Historically it served as the religious 

center of the county and was home to the 

“Oakley Stake” building, the headquarters of the 

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. (A 

stake is a Mormon term and means a designated 

geographic area of inhabitants that is divided 

into wards and branches.) As other Mormon 

communities became established and the county 

grew in size, other stake centers were created. 

The town has a developed commercial and 

residential downtown that has been designated a 

national historic district.

Oakley is rich in old west lore, such as the tale 

of outlaw Diamondfield Jack, who was tried 

for the murder of two cattle ranchers, and the 

intriguing story of Gobo Fango, a West African 

sheepherder who, upon receiving a series of fatal 

injuries during a land dispute, bequeathed funds 

toward the construction of the first Church of 

Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Temple. The 

town is home to the current Idaho Assistant 

House Majority Leader, Scott Bedke.

Oakley has become recognized worldwide for 

its Middle Mountain quarries of Elba Quartzite, 

known as Oakley Stone, which is used for 

decorative construction. Quarry operators ship 

out thousands of tons a month to locations 

around the globe. The quarrying of mica-like 

sheets of ferrous-colored Oakley Stone has 

become the major industry in town. This stone, 

suitable for veneer and paving applications, 

can be seen throughout the region as well as 

on buildings in town. The renovation of the 

historic opera house included Oakley Stone 

paving on the lobby floor. Today, many people 

remark that Oakley is the very last “Mayberry“ 

left in America, and is frequently visited for its 

Victorian homes.

The population of Oakley in 2010 was 763. 

There were 248 households, the average 

household size was 3.08, and the average family 

size was 3.60. The median household income 

was $40,357, and the per capita income for the 

city was $13,670. Eleven percent of families and 

14.4% of the population were below the poverty 

line (U.S. Census Bureau 2010).

Albion

The Albion Valley is the starting or ending point 

of the City of Rocks Scenic Back Country Byway. 

The National Reserve is only 30 miles south via 

the Back Country Byway. Albion was the county 

seat of Cassia County from 1879 to 1918.

Albion is a small community nestled in the 

shadow of Mt. Harrison, and it offers the visitor 

a unique look into the early history of Cassia 

County and Southern Idaho. Albion is one of 

the few communities in the Magic Valley region 

of Idaho founded before 1900. Established in 

1893, the town was home to the Albion State 

Normal School, which trained many early Idaho 

teachers. The school was closed in 1951. The 

campus was later occupied by Magic Valley 

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Christian College. Today, it has been renovated 

for the Albion Campus Retreat a unique 

historical retreat (Albion Valley Historical 

Society 2013).

Well-known local businesses of the area include: 

the D. L. Evans Bank, which was founded in 

Albion in 1904 and is headquartered in Burley, 

and the Pomerelle Mountain Ski Resort. New 

businesses and residential developments seek to 

revitalize this historic community.

As of 2010, the population of Albion was 267 

people and 113 households, and the average 

family size was 3.70. The median household 

income was $52,500. The per capita income 

for the city was $23,565. About 7.4% of the 

population lived below the poverty line (U.S. 

Census Bureau 2010).

Malta

Travelers approaching City of Rocks from the 

east may pass through the small community 

of Malta. Malta is located in Cassia County on 

Idaho State Highway 81 southeast of Burley 

and sits in a wide valley between the Black Pine 

Mountains to the east and the Jim Sage/Cotterel 

Range to the west. At an elevation of 4410 feet, 

it is rich with grazing lands and dotted with 

dairy farms. Agriculture is the main industry, 

producing potatoes, beets, alfalfa, and several 

other crops. The town has two gas stations, two 

grocery stores, one church, and one café. Malta 

is the home of Raft River Elementary School 

and High School. Children are transported from 

several nearby communities to the schools. The 

vast majority of the population is Mormon. 

Farming, ranching, dairy, and feedlot operations 

provide the economic base for the Malta Valley.

In 2010 the population of Malta was 193 people 

and 66 households, with an average household 

size of 2.92. The average family size was 3.70. 

The median income for a family was $50,417. 

About 4.9% of the population lived below the 

poverty line (U.S. Census Bureau 2010).

Declo

Declo is another small community that visitors 

travel through to reach City of Rocks National 

Reserve. The world’s largest potato processing 

company was founded near here in 1923 by a 

14-year-old entrepreneur named J. R. Simplot. 

The corporate headquarters for the J. R. Simplot 

Company are now located in Boise. Declo was 

originally named Marshfield; its name was 

changed circa 1916.

Agricultural land uses and related activities are 

the economic base of the Declo area. The town 

is surrounded primarily by irrigated potato, 

grain, and sugar beet fields and by dry farm 

wheat fields.

In 2010 the population for Declo was 343, and 

there were 115 households. The average family 

size was 3.44. The median income for a family 

was $45,385, and the per capita income for 

the city was $16,974. About 13.3% of families 

were living below the poverty line (U.S. Census 

Bureau 2010).

RESERVE ECONOMIC IMPACT ON 

THE LOCAL COMMUNITY

The Money Generation Model (MGM) is a 

set of workbooks for estimating the economic 

impacts of NPS visitor spending on a local 

region. The MGM estimates the impacts that 

park visitors have on the local economy in terms 

of their contribution to sales, income, and jobs 

in the area. The MGM produces quantifiable 

measures of park economic benefits that can be 

used for planning, concessions management, 

budget justifications, policy analysis, and 

marketing. Economic impact information has 

proven quite helpful in fostering partnerships 

within the community and garnering support 

for park policies and interests. The economic 

analysis also helps to identify the roles the park, 

local community, and tourism businesses play in 

attracting and serving visitors. Table 40 lists the 

economic impact that City of Rocks has in the 

local community. Total visitor spending for 2009 

was more than $6 million.

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Table 40. Economic Impact of City Of Rocks National Reserve on Community

Public Use Data Visitor Spending 2010 Impacts of Non-Local Visitor Spending

Park Unit 2010 

Recreation 

Visits

2010 

Overnight 

Stays

All Visitor 

Spending ($)

Nonlocal 

Visitor 

Spending ($)

Jobs Labor Income 

($)

Value Added 

($)

City of Rocks 

National 

Reserve

92,484 0 6,278,000 5,959,000 85 2,078,000 3,361,000

(Stynes 2011)

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Chapter 5

Environmental Consequences

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Chapter 5: Environmental 

Consequences

This chapter describes the impacts of each 

alternative on City of Rocks National Reserve 

resources, including cumulative impacts. 

Methods used for the analysis are explained 

in the “Methodology” section below and 

expanded under each impact topic. To compare 

the differences in projected impacts among the 

alternatives, a summary of impacts (table 19) is 

located at the end of “Chapter 3: Alternatives.”

INTRODUCTION

The National Environmental Policy Act 

requires that government agencies disclose the 

environmental impacts of the proposed federal 

action, reasonable alternatives to that action, 

and any adverse environmental effects that 

cannot be avoided should the proposed action 

be implemented. (In this document, “effects” 

and “impacts” are used interchangeably.) This 

section analyzes the environmental impacts of 

GMP alternatives on affected resources. These 

analyses provide the basis for comparing the 

effects of the alternatives.

The National Environmental Policy Act 

requires consideration of the context, intensity, 

and duration of impacts, indirect impacts, 

cumulative impacts, and measures to mitigate 

impacts. In addition to determining the 

environmental impacts of the preferred and 

other alternatives, NPS Management Policies 

2006 (NPS 2006a) and Director’s Order 12 

(NPS 2001) require analysis of potential effects 

to determine if actions would impair park 

resources. This analysis will be completed 

for the selected alternative and appended to 

the decision document (Record of Decision). 

The context for understanding the analysis 

within this chapter is provided in the “Affected 

Environment” chapter and in the “Impact 

Topics” section in “Chapter 1: Introduction 

and Background.” Additional information that 

supports this is included in the impact analysis.

METHODOLOGY

This section describes the terms that are used to 

evaluate environmental impacts.

Context of impact: The context is the setting 

within which impacts are analyzed—such 

as the project area or region, or for cultural 

resources, the project action area or area of 

potential effects.

Type of impact: The type of impact is a measure 

of whether the action will improve or harm 

the resource and whether that harm occurs 

immediately or at some later point in time.

•	 Beneficial: The impact improves the 

resource or the quality or quantity of the 

resource.

•	 Adverse: The impact harms or depletes the 

resource or its quality or quantity.

•	 Direct: The impact is caused by and 

occurring at the same time and place as 

the action.

•	 Indirect: The impact is caused by the 

action, but occurs later in time, or at 

another place, or to another resource.

Duration of impact: Duration is a measure 

of the time period over which the effects of an 

impact persist and may be short-term (quickly 

reversible and associated with a specific 

event during project implementation, such as 

construction) or long-term (reversible over a 

much longer period or may occur continuously 

based on normal activity). In general, impacts 

would be long-term unless they are preceded by 

“short-term.”

Area of impact: Impacts may be localized, 

detectable only in the vicinity of the activity, 

or widespread, detectable on a regional or 

landscape level.

Lost Arrow (spire).

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Intensity of impact: In this document, the 

intensity of impact is measured using the 

following scale: negligible, minor, moderate, 

and major. These are defined for each resource 

within the analysis sections. In addition, 

determinations of effect for actions that would 

affect threatened or endangered species comply 

with section 7 of the Endangered Species Act (no 

effect; may affect, not likely to adversely affect; 

and may affect, likely to adversely affect), while 

determinations of effect for cultural resources 

also comply with section 106 of the National 

Historic Preservation Act (no historic properties 

affected, no adverse effect, and adverse effect).

Impact mitigation: Impacts have been 

assessed under the assumption that proposed 

measures to minimize or mitigate the impact 

would be implemented. (These measures are 

described following each section of analysis.) 

The following terms identify ways to change the 

intensity of impacts or to change the resource 

condition following impacts. Project actions can

•	 avoid conducting management activities 

in an area or at a time that affects the 

resource

•	 minimize the type, duration, or intensity 

of the impact on an affected resource

•	 mitigate the impact by

» repairing localized damage to the 

affected resource immediately after 

an adverse impact

» rehabilitating an affected resource 

with a combination of additional 

management activities

» compensating for a major longterm adverse direct impact through 

additional strategies designed to 

improve an affected resource to the 

degree practicable

CONTEXT AND DURATION FOR 

IMPACTS EVALUATED IN THE CITY 

OF ROCKS NATIONAL RESERVE 

GENERAL MANAGEMENT PLAN

Direct, indirect, and cumulative impacts are 

evaluated in terms of context and duration. 

Except where inserted in the impact analysis 

sections below and associated with cumulative 

impact analysis (see below), the context 

and duration is as follows for all resource 

impact topics.

Context of impact: Changes were considered 

within the legislative boundary of the Reserve, 

including those on administrative properties 

owned or managed by the State of Idaho. 

For alternatives that include boundary 

modifications, impacts were identified that were 

specifically associated with those areas.

Duration of impact:

Short-term: These impacts are often quickly 

reversible; associated with a specific event 

during project implementation, such as 

construction; and occur for a period of fewer 

than one to five years.

Long-term: These impacts are reversible over a 

much longer period, may occur continuously 

based on normal activity, or may occur for more 

than five years.

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METHODS AND ASSUMPTIONS 

FOR ANALYZING IMPACTS

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The Council on Environmental Quality 

describes a cumulative impact as follows 

(40CFR 1508.7): A “cumulative impact” is the 

impact on the environment which results from 

the incremental impact of the action when 

added to other past, present, and reasonably 

foreseeable future actions regardless of what 

agency (federal or nonfederal) or person 

undertakes such other actions. Cumulative 

impacts can result from individually minor but 

collectively significant actions taking place over a 

period of time.

The cumulative projects addressed in this 

analysis include past and present actions, as 

well as any planning or development activity 

currently being implemented or planned for 

implementation in the reasonably foreseeable 

future in the vicinity of the Reserve. Cumulative 

actions are evaluated in conjunction with 

the impacts of an alternative to determine if 

they have any additive effects on a particular 

resource. Because most of the future cumulative 

projects are in the early planning stages, the 

evaluation of cumulative impacts was based on a 

general description of the project.

The following plans, projects, and issues 

(climate change) are included in the cumulative 

impacts scenario.

CITY OF ROCKS NATIONAL 

RESERVE PLANS

City of Rocks National Reserve Final 

Comprehensive Management Plan, 

Development Concept Plan, Environmental 

Impact Statement

Under this plan (published in 1994 with a 

Record of Decision in 1996), which would be 

carried forth in alternative A, approximately 24 

acres of vegetation would be affected within the 

Reserve from the development or restoration of 

dispersed campsites, roads, and trails. Another 

77 acres outside the Reserve were proposed to 

be disturbed by development of new facilities. 

Approximately 283 acres of public land were 

also proposed to be closed to grazing. This 

included reducing the total number of animal 

unit months as permittees vacated allotments 

(Reserve 1996a).

Grazing Management Plan, City of 

Rocks National Reserve / Finding of No 

Significant Impact

This plan identified the appropriate levels and 

types of grazing uses, the impacts associated 

with these uses, and the levels and kinds of 

management actions necessary to reduce 

impacts and ensure long-term protection of 

Reserve resources and values (Reserve 1996b).

Resource Management Plan for City of 

Rocks National Reserve

This evolving plan identifies the natural and 

cultural resource management projects that 

should be undertaken by the Reserve to better 

understand and protect these resources. The 

resource stewardship strategy called for by the 

GMP would replace this plan (Reserve 1996c).

City of Rocks Interim Trail 

Management Plan

This plan was produced to develop a 

comprehensive trail network suitably adapted to 

the terrain and climatic conditions that would 

meet the visitor use and interpretive goals 

identified in the Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive 

management plan. The intent of the interim 

trail management plan was to use appropriate 

research and planning to select and design 

trails to reduce mitigation costs and to improve 

resource protection (Reserve 1997).

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City of Rocks National Reserve Climbing 

Management Plan

This plan was prepared to determine the 

appropriate level and type of climbing practices, 

what types and levels of impact associated 

with climbing are acceptable, what climbing 

practices should be used and are appropriate, 

and what levels and kinds of mitigation 

measures are necessary to ensure a sustainable 

range of climbing opportunities consistent 

with protection of the Reserve’s natural and 

cultural resources and retention of high-quality 

visitor experiences.

Consistent with the comprehensive management 

plan and consultation with the Idaho State 

Historic Preservation Office and the Advisory 

Council on Historic Preservation, the Twin 

Sisters formation was closed to all but incidental 

recreational uses associated with access, 

enjoyment, and interpretation of the California 

Trail (Reserve 1998a).

Restroom Improvements at Finger Rock 

Finding of No Significant Impact

The purpose of this project was to construct 

a new vault toilet and parking area at Finger 

Rock to accommodate camping and climbing 

occurring there (Reserve 2003).

Borrow Pit Restoration Project Finding of 

No Significant Impact

The purpose of this project was to partially or 

fully restore the degraded borrow pit located 

near the east entrance to City of Rocks National 

Reserve (SE 1⁄4, Sec. 29, T15S, R24E) to improve 

the California Trail viewshed. Protecting the 

foreground views allows visitors to experience 

a landscape reminiscent of the trail period. The 

project included reestablishment of the natural 

topography, placement of suitable topsoil, and 

revegetation of most of the site (Reserve 2004).

Fire Management Plan: City of Rocks 

National Reserve

The fire management plan provides a framework 

for the management of fire and identifies hazard 

fuel reduction as a tool to safely accomplish the 

resource protection and management objectives 

of City of Rocks National Reserve. The current 

fire management plan precludes the use of fire 

to accomplish resource objectives within the 

Reserve. However, the following goal allows for 

potential future use of prescribed fire pending 

additional analysis:

Develop processes for determining how 

to restore fire as a natural process through 

the appropriate application of prescribed 

fire. Prescribed fire will be explored as 

a methodology for achieving resource 

management objectives, maintaining historic 

and cultural landscapes, and improving 

forage production (Reserve 2005b: p. 18).

City of Rocks Cultural Landscape Inventory

This inventory documents the physical 

development, condition, landscape 

characteristics, and character-defining features 

of the Reserve, as well as other valuable 

information useful to Reserve management. 

The results of the inventory present the overall 

condition of the City of Rocks National Historic 

Landmark and stabilization measures necessary 

to preserve those features. The Idaho State 

Historic Preservation Officer has concurred with 

the analysis (NPS 2008a).

Climate Friendly Parks: City of Rocks 

National Reserve Action Plan

This plan identified the sources of carbon 

emissions in the Reserve, including ways to 

reduce these sources (Reserve 2010c).

Circle Creek Overlook Parking Lot 

Relocation (City of Rocks) Finding of No 

Significant Impact

The purpose of this project was to remove 

the existing parking area from the viewshed 

of the California National Historic Trail and 

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from private property, as well as to improve the 

character of the historic viewshed associated 

with the California Trail cultural landscape. The 

project also addressed safety issues associated 

with traffic flow and resource impacts on 

vegetation (Reserve 2011).

Circle Creek Overlook Trails Project Finding 

of No Significant Impact

This project included construction of the 

Geological Interpretive Trail to assist staff in 

educating visitors about the nationally significant 

geology of the Reserve. Modifications to the 

Equestrian Trail were also made to remove 

horses and riders from the City of Rocks 

Road and the Circle Creek Overlook Road to 

eliminate potential conflicts between vehicles 

and horses and riders (Reserve 2011a).

Northern Rocky Mountains Invasive 

Plant Management Plan Finding of No 

Significant Impact

Developed for 10 national parks located in the 

northern Rocky Mountains, including City of 

Rocks, implementation of this plan will reduce 

the adverse effects of nonnative invasive plants 

on native plant communities and other natural 

and cultural resources (NPS 2011).

OTHER NATIONAL PARK SERVICE 

PROJECTS

Additional Routes of the Oregon, Mormon 

Pioneer, California and Pony Express 

National Historic Trails Feasibility Study

This study addressed 64 individual routes 

in more than a dozen states from the 

Mississippi River to the Pacific Coast and was 

authorized under the Omnibus Public Lands 

Management Act (PL 111-11) on March 30, 

2009. The California National Historic Trail was 

established in 1992 and its current authorized 

length is 5,665 miles. A preliminary set of draft 

alternatives has been developed.

BUREAU OF LAND 

MANAGEMENT PLANS

Castle Rocks Climbing Finding of No 

Significance Impact

The proposed action in this plan would have 

allowed for permitting and establishment of 

new climbing routes, placement of bolts, and 

construction of nearly 2 miles of new trails in 

the BLM-managed portion of the Castle Rocks 

Interagency Recreation Area. This area currently 

contains approximately 0.8 miles of existing 

trails. There are an estimated 33 rock formations 

of interest to climbers. Approximately 20 

climbing routes on these formations already 

have bolts or webbing slings, placed on climbing 

routes before a Bureau of Land Management 

moratorium on bolted climbing routes was 

enacted. There are also approximately 20 free or 

traditional climbing routes.

The Bureau of Land Management decided 

to close its lands in the Castle Rocks area to 

climbing of all types and to prohibit overnight 

camping or construction of new trails. Other 

alternatives would have had the potential to 

cause adverse cumulative effects on historic 

properties. In August 23, 2011, the Bureau of 

Land Management published a notice of intent 

in the Federal Register to prepare a resource 

management plan amendment and associated 

environmental assessment to consider the 

permanent designation of no climbing, no 

staging, no camping, and no construction of 

new trails on BLM-managed lands at Castle 

Rocks Interagency Recreation Area and at Cedar 

Fields.

Cassia Resource Management Plan

BLM lands in and around the Reserve are 

included in Management Area 8 of the Cassia 

Resource Management Plan. In addition to 

the following management objectives, this 

resource management plan calls for the 

preparation of a watershed management plan, 

habitat management plan, and a City of Rocks 

Interagency Recreation Area management plan.

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The nine resource management objectives 

outlined in the resource management plan are

1. improve 14,012 acres of rangeland from 

poor to good

2. provide 1,373 animal unit months of 

forage for livestock

3. maintain or improve 7,528 acres of crucial 

mule deer winter range

4. provide forage for the following number 

of mule deer by season of use: 166 spring; 

166 summer; 166 fall; and 473 winter

5. provide year-long forage for 18 pronghorn

6. control surface disturbing activities on 

2,512 acres having soils with high-present 

erosion

7. provide 260 pinyon pine Christmas 

trees from 1,015 acres for public 

(noncommercial) harvest annually

8. preserve the geologic, historic, and scenic 

values of 1,628 acres known as the City of 

Rocks, thus upholding the integrity of the 

national natural landmark and national 

historic landmark designations for the 

area

9. transfer 120 acres out of federal 

ownership: 80 via private exchange and 40 

via sale or other disposal method

Because alternatives C–D call for boundary 

expansions that would include some BLM 

lands included in the 1985 plan, this plan may 

need future revision, depending on the selected 

alternative. Mitigation measures applicable to 

the BLM lands managed by the Reserve would 

be used by the Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation and the National Park Service (BLM 

1985). (See “Related Federal Agency Planning 

Documents” in chapter 1.)

Potential Geothermal Development of 

Nearby Areas

In 2002, U.S. Geothermal, Inc., obtained the 

former U.S. Department of Energy Raft River 

geothermal facility and began refurbishing 

the site. The existing wells were cleaned and 

tested, geophysical surveys were run to further 

define the geothermal resources, new wells 

were drilled, financing for the project was 

obtained, a power purchase agreement was 

secured, and construction of a new power 

plant commenced. There are now nine deep 

production and injection wells at the site. In 

early 2008, the Raft River site became the first 

commercial geothermal power plant in the 

Pacific Northwest. U.S. Geothermal, Inc., has 

a 20-year contract with Idaho Power to supply 

10 megawatts of electricity under this phase 

1 project and believes that its 8.2-square-mile 

lease position has a production capacity of 110 

megawatts—about 10% of the energy output of 

a coal-powered power station.

In June 2007, the Bureau of Land Management 

leased four parcels (7,164 acres) in the project 

area. U.S. Geothermal acquired one of these 

parcels, and Aqua Caliente (Colorado) acquired 

the other three parcels. Companies from as far 

away as Iceland have shown interest in Idaho’s 

geothermal power potential.

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U.S. FOREST SERVICE PLANS

Sawtooth National Forest Land and 

Resource Management Plan

The purpose of this plan is to provide 

management direction to ensure sustainable 

ecosystems and resilient watersheds that are 

capable of providing a sustainable flow of 

beneficial goods and services to the public 

(USFS 2005). (See “Related Federal Agency 

Planning Documents” in chapter 1).

STATE OF IDAHO PLANS

State Trust Lands Asset Management Plan

Management goals for state trust lands 

established by this plan include:

•	 Protect and enhance the value and 

productivity of the land assets.

•	 Maximize financial returns from land 

assets over time.

•	 Encourage a diversity of revenueproducing uses of land assets.

•	 Manage land assets prudently, 

efficiently, and with accountability to the 

beneficiaries (ISBLC 2007).

(See “Related Federal Agency Planning 

Documents” in chapter 1.)

Castle Rocks State Park Master Plan

The selected alternative was a modified highlevel management alternative. It calls for a new 

visitor center to be shared with the Reserve 

and additional camping opportunities. As 

envisioned, both actions would take place at the 

Smoky Mountain Unit and would be developed 

in collaboration with the National Park Service. 

Depending on the alternative in this GMP and 

the proposed boundary of the Reserve, these 

actions have been modified in some alternatives 

(IDPR 2006). (See “Related Federal Agency 

Planning Documents” in chapter 1.)

CASSIA COUNTY PLANS

City of Rocks Back Country Byway: Rural 

Heritage Stewardship Handbook and 

Byway Management Plan

This plan advocates maintaining the rural 

agricultural landscape along the back country 

byway.

According to the back country byway plan:

The City of Rocks National Reserve is the 

linchpin for the Byway. It is where the most 

areas of historic and geologic interest are 

protected and accessible by the public. It 

is the major drawing card for visitors to 

the area. But without the openness of the 

surrounding areas, it would be isolated from 

its historical and visual context. Having a 

living, functioning agricultural landscape 

around the Reserve strengthens its integrity. 

Having a well-managed Reserve strengthens 

the sense of place of southern Cassia County. 

Together, these elements preserve something 

that has disappeared from many parts of our 

country, but remains pivotal to the identity of 

our nation (Cassia 1998: p. 7).

Cassia County Code: Historical 

Preservation Zone

According to the Cassia County Code:

The purpose of the historical preservation 

zone is to designate the City of Rocks 

National Reserve, as well as such other areas 

as are designated by the planning and zoning 

commission, as areas of great historical 

significance that should be preserved and 

protected for the benefit and education 

of future generations. The intent of the 

historical preservation zone is to preserve 

and protect the geologic features, the rocks 

and remnants associated with the California 

and other trails, the historic sites and current 

ranching activities that contribute to an 

historic western rural setting and the scenery, 

mystery, and silence of the landscape, as 

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well as to manage recreation in these areas 

to ensure preservation and protection of 

resource values, while the planning process 

continues (Cassia County n.d.).

According to this ordinance, development 

should be limited to uses existing between 1850 

and 1988 and can include public facilities and 

owner or heir residential development meeting 

architectural design criteria with a permit (see 

“Related Federal Agency Planning Documents” 

in chapter 1).

Cassia County Design Guidelines

These design guidelines analyze the essential 

elements of the visual landscape of the area 

and propose a set of strategies to encourage 

and assist future development within the City 

of Rocks National Reserve and along the 

designated historic loop route (City of Rocks 

Back Country Byway), in a manner compatible 

with traditional landscape and architectural 

patterns. Issues addressed include densities 

of development, setbacks and siting of built 

elements, massing and grouping of structures, 

architectural appearance, signage, and planting 

design (Timmons 1995). (See “Related Federal 

Agency Planning Documents” in chapter 1.)

PRIVATE DEVELOPMENT PLANS

Existing Water Development and Other 

Infrastructure Related to Grazing

These include approximately eight dams, three 

stock ponds, and numerous spring head boxes 

with associated piping, as well as nonhistoric 

fence lines, corrals, and other structures 

located on both public and private lands within 

the Reserve boundary and within proposed 

expansion areas considered in the alternatives.

Gateway West Transmission Line Project

The Bureau of Land Management considered 

an alternative alignment for the transmission 

lines that would pass between City of Rocks and 

the Utah border, then turn north and follow the 

Goose Creek drainage (as suggested by Cassia 

County). The BLM-preferred route crosses 

Cassia County north of the East Hills, and then 

crosses the Golden Valley between Oakley and 

Burley. The Record of Decision was issued by 

the Bureau of Land Management for this project 

on November 14, 2013. The route authorized 

in the Record of Decision is the BLMpreferred alternative as presented in the final 

environmental impact statement for segments 

1–7 and segment 10 (BLM 2013a).

CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change is defined by the United Nations 

Framework Convention on Climate Change as 

“a change of climate which is attributed directly 

or indirectly to human activity that alters the 

composition of the global atmosphere and 

which is in addition to natural climate variability 

observed over comparable time periods” 

(UNFCCC 1992). In recent years, scientific data 

have shown that human influence on climate 

systems is taking place, and evidence of climate 

change has already presented itself.

Climate change is a far-reaching and longterm issue that will affect the Reserve and its 

resources, visitors, and management beyond 

the scope of this GMP’s 15- to 20-year time 

frame. Although some effects of climate change 

are considered known or likely to occur, many 

potential impacts are unknown. Much depends 

on the rate at which temperature will continue to 

rise and whether global emissions of greenhouse 

gases can be mitigated before serious ecological 

thresholds are reached. Climate change science 

is a rapidly advancing field and new information 

is being collected and released continually. 

Because the drivers of climate change are largely 

outside park control, the National Park Service 

alone does not have the ability to prevent climate 

change from happening. The full extent of 

climate change impacts on resources and visitor 

experience is not known, nor do managers and 

policy makers yet agree on the most effective 

response mechanisms for minimizing impacts 

and adapting to change. Thus, unlike some other 

issues, this GMP does not provide definitive 

solutions or directions to resolving the issue 

of climate change or controlling impacts of 

climate change on City of Rocks National 

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Reserve. Rather, the plan provides some 

general directions and strategies that can help 

minimize the park’s contribution to greenhouse 

gas emissions associated with global warming 

and also identifies potential areas of climate 

vulnerability in order to help guide resource 

management. The GMP also recognizes that 

management actions and facilities proposed in 

the alternatives need to be adopted with future 

climate change and impacts in mind.

Climate Change in National Parks

Climate change has already had noticeable 

impacts on both natural and cultural resources 

within NPS-managed lands nationwide. 

Conditions for sustaining the health and 

prosperity of animal and plant habitats as well 

as glacial, marine, and wetland ecosystems have 

diminished over time. Changing patterns of 

weather and natural hazards such as flooding 

and wildfires have damaged habitat areas and 

cultural resource sites. Invasive species of plants 

and pests, such as bark beetles, are encroaching 

into areas where they had not previously 

survived, threatening native plants as well as the 

animals that rely on those plants for food and 

shelter. A 2009 report by the Rocky Mountain 

Climate Organization and the Natural Resources 

Defense Council identified loss of water, loss 

of ice and snow pack, increased flooding, loss 

of plant and wildlife species, intolerable heat, 

and increased air pollution as potential climate 

change effects that could impact a unit such as 

City of Rocks National Reserve (RMCO 2009).

In response to the increasing need for 

understanding and action related to climate 

change impacts in the parks, the National Park 

Service launched the Climate Friendly Parks 

Program. This program enables the bureau to 

educate its staff about climate change issues, 

assess the park’s contribution to greenhouse 

gas emissions, create short- and long-term 

strategies for reducing emissions, determine 

potential effects of climate change on park 

resources, and develop skills and strategies for 

communicating these effects to the public. City 

of Rocks National Reserve is a participant in the 

Climate Friendly Parks program and is currently 

developing a climate action plan.

Regional Projections

Climate change projections for the western 

United States consistently show a trend toward 

warmer, drier conditions. Western states, 

including Idaho, are expected to experience 

more pronounced warming than the rest of the 

country. Between the years 2003 and 2007, fiveyear average temperatures for the state of Idaho 

increased by approximately 1.8°F compared to 

20th-century averages (Saunders et al. 2008).

City of Rocks National Reserve is situated at 

the northern edge of the Great Basin Desert. 

Within the Great Basin, a trend toward increased 

average temperature has already been measured. 

An average temperature increase of 0.5°F to 

1.1°F (0.3°C to 0.6°C) was observed in the 

Great Basin over the course of the 20th century. 

During this period, the probability of very warm 

years increased and the probability of very cold 

years declined (Wagner 2003; Chambers 2008). 

Average April 1 snowpack in south-central 

Idaho declined as much as 30% between 1950 

and 2002 (USGCRP 2009). Reduced winter 

snowpack has already led to severe drought 

conditions in Idaho and associated impacts on 

water supply and agriculture. Between 2000 

and 2002, such a drought resulted in a 12% 

reduction in the statewide potato harvest. These 

drier conditions are also linked to an increase 

in wildfire hazard. In 2007, low snow pack and 

record summer heat waves were followed by 

rampant wildfire that destroyed sage grouse 

habitat and led to the cancellation of Idaho’s 

sage grouse hunting season (Saunders 

et al. 2008).

The Great Basin is expected to warm by 4.5°F to 

8.5°F during the 21st century compared to the 

1971–1999 reference period (Kunkel et al. 2013). 

Warmer temperatures and decreased humidity 

are expected to result in a longer fire season 

(Barnett et al. 2004; Brown, Hall, and Westerling 

2004). Increasing temperatures and drought 

stress on forests in the Sawtooth Mountains 

have made the area vulnerable to an outbreak 

of mountain pine beetle, which can result in 

widespread death of forest trees and increased 

risk of forest fires (USGCRP 2009). Pygmy 

rabbits may disappear from low-elevation sites 

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as they lose habitat to wildfires and vegetation 

shifts and seek cooler temperatures at higher 

elevations (Larrucea and Brussard 2008).

Potential climate change effects that have been 

identified as management issues for the Reserve 

include increased frequency of wildfire and/

or increased area burned; flooding and erosion 

caused by changes in seasonal runoff; reduced 

water availability for drinking, irrigation, and 

other uses; and potential shifts in visitor patterns 

due to changes in the warm season.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: LAND USE

a. Land Use Methodology

Methodology: Land use analysis was based 

on a quantitative and qualitative assessment 

of the potential changes to lands within the 

project area encompassed by the alternatives. 

The amount of undisturbed natural landscape 

/ recovering landscape was compared to 

proposals for potential new development 

and changes associated with existing projects 

and development.

Type of impact: Land use changes considered 

include converting undeveloped land to 

developed land and designating undeveloped 

or restored lands as public lands for additional 

protection. The extent to which an area has 

been previously impacted by human activities 

is also considered. Beneficial impacts would 

result from protection of undisturbed land and 

restoration of lands now developed to natural 

conditions. Adverse impacts would result from 

new development in previously undisturbed 

areas. Indirect impacts could include rezoning 

that would allow for additional development.

Impact Intensity

Negligible Measurable or anticipated degree 

of change would not be detectable 

or would be slightly detectable and 

localized.

Minor Impacts would be slightly detectable or 

localized within a small portion of the 

project area.

Moderate Measurable or anticipated degree 

of change is readily apparent and 

appreciable, may be localized or 

widespread, and would be noticeable.

Major Impacts would be substantial, highly 

noticeable, and widespread. Changes 

to the character of the landscape would 

occur.

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b. Impacts on Land Use

Table 41. Comparison of Zoning by Alternative

Alternative

(area / acres/ 

percent of 

total)

Zone or Area 

California Trail Research 

Natural Zone

Natural Zone Historic Rural 

Setting Zone

Visitor 

Facilities and 

Access

Transition

Alternative A Foreground: 

3,148 (21.6%)*

General

1,254 (8.6%)

RNA Area

315 (2.2%)

General 

Natural

2,359.6 

(16.2%)

Natural and 

Recreational 

Resource Area

1,190.7 (8.2%)

Historic Rural 

Setting Zone

5,836.3 

(40.1%)

Public Use and 

Development 

(roads) 134 

(0.9%)

N/A

Not Zoned

443.7 (3%)

Alternative B 3,481 (23.9%) 491.4 (3.4%) 6,784.4 

(46.6%)

3,456.3 

(23.8%)

98.6 (0.7%) 232.5 

(1.6%)

Alternative C 4,128.2 

(28.4%)

661.6 (4.5%) 7,568.1 (52%) 1,873.7 

(12.9%)

99.8 (0.7%) 212.7 

(1.5%)

Alternative D 2,884.5 

(19.8%)

same as B 7,434.7 

(51.1%)

3,041.9 

(20.9%)

296.3 (2%) 395.3 

(2.7%)

*Information shown is based on acreage and percent of the total Reserve that the identified acreage would comprise.

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

There would be no additional impacts on 

land use except those associated with new 

construction called for by the Reserve’s 1996 

comprehensive management plan (Reserve 

1996a). Zoning would remain the same, and 

there would be no boundary modifications 

either for the Research Natural Area or for the 

Reserve.

Under alternative A, the Reserve would continue 

to contain the following major zones, subzones, 

and areas:

•	 Historic and Natural Preservation Zone

» California Trail Subzone (including 

both a General Use area and a 

Foreground of California Trail)

» Natural Area Subzone (including 

the Research Natural Area, General 

Natural Area, and Natural and 

Recreational Resource Area)

•	 Historic Rural Setting Zone

•	 Public Use and Development Zone 

(see “Figure 5: Alternative A: No Action 

Alternative” in chapter 3 for a description 

of these areas)

New parcels (443.7 acres) added since the 

comprehensive management plan are not 

officially zoned. The existing array of zones 

would continue to guide Reserve management. 

This would constitute a minor to moderate 

long-term beneficial effects by ensuring that 

the most significant resources are preserved 

within an adequate area (including buffer areas) 

and by allowing development of appropriate 

areas that would accommodate visitor use 

while having no effect on important natural 

and cultural resources. Although it is likely that 

unzoned areas would be managed similarly to 

nearby zoned areas, it is possible that not zoning 

some areas of the Reserve could have negligible 

to minor adverse effects. These effects could 

come from potential future uncertainties in 

management of these areas when new activities 

are proposed or management options generated.

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Development of the proposed visitor center 

complex as described in the Reserve’s 

comprehensive management plan and the Castle 

Rocks State Park Master Plan would include an 

approximately 9,500-square-foot visitor center 

that would contain a lobby, a 70-seat theater, 

exhibit space and museum, administrative office 

space, administrative and public restrooms, 

a 25- to 30-seat multipurpose room, parking 

for 35–45 cars, and a staffed entrance station. 

Approximately five acres would be needed to 

develop this facility, which would actually be 

smaller than called for in the comprehensive 

management plan, because administrative/

maintenance facilities would continue to be 

located on land owned by the Idaho Department 

of Parks and Recreation instead of developed 

as part of the visitor center complex. Overall 

impacts would be localized and moderate from 

this additional development on what is now 

part of an open landscape near the entrance to 

Smoky Mountain Campground.

Additional development under alternative A 

would also include another 62-unit campground 

to complete the 100-site campground called 

for by the comprehensive management plan 

(Reserve 1996a: p. 59). Based on an average 

development of a generous five sites per acre, 

there could be another approximately 12.5 acres 

developed at Smoky Mountain Campground 

for these sites. Because a portion of this area is 

developed and much of it has been previously 

disturbed by grazing, and because there are 

sensitive resource areas that would need to be 

avoided, effects on land use would be minor to 

moderate and localized.

ALTERNATIVE B IMPACTS

In alternative B, there would be a different, but 

similar array of zones (“Figure 6. Alternative B: 

Silent City of Rocks”):

•	 Natural Zone

•	 Historic Rural Setting Zone

•	 Research Natural Area Zone

•	 Visitor Facilities and Access Zone

•	 Transition Zone

•	 California Trail Zone

Descriptions of these zones can be found in 

“Chapter 3: Alternatives.”

Compared to alternative A, expansion of the 

Natural Zone would increase protection for 

lands that otherwise could be considered 

for potential development of some smallscale visitor facilities. The larger Natural 

Zone in alternative B could also allow more 

opportunities for self-directed experiences 

with fewer amenities, as envisioned by this 

alternative’s concept. Protecting a larger area 

from development effects (aside from trails and 

some existing primitive administrative roads) 

would have minor to moderate long-term 

beneficial effects on land use.

Compared to alternative A, where the Historic 

Rural Setting Zone encompassed most of the 

private lands in the Reserve, the reduction in the 

Historic Rural Setting Zone would focus this 

zone more on encompassing traditional grazing 

areas consistent with the alternative B concept.

The California Trail area would now be a zone 

and would be similar to its extent in alternative 

A but expanded primarily to the south and 

southeast, taking in not just the immediate 

features in the foreground (as in alternative A) 

but also some views toward other notable 

areas and resources within the national historic 

landmark. The national historic landmark also 

includes related archeological sites. This more 

defined area encompassing nationally significant 

resources would have a long-term beneficial 

effect on land use by preserving additional 

areas associated with the California National 

Historic Trail.

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Compared to alternative A, expansion of the 

Research Natural Area and its designation as 

a zone would focus the purposes of the zone. 

The revised zone boundary would improve 

management of the area by aligning it with the 

natural contours of the landscape, such as the 

northern ridgeline, in lieu of the current mapped 

section line that does not conform to natural 

terrain boundaries and cannot be detected as 

easily in the field. Alternative B (and D) would 

relocate the RNA boundary to encompass 

additional areas identified as possible expansion 

areas by a 2010 research study of the Research 

Natural Area (Bell and Barton 2010). The 

boundary of the Research Natural Area would 

be expanded primarily to the south and east, 

and there would be modifications to eliminate 

the unintentional small overlap between it 

and an existing grazing allotment. Because 

additional resources would be protected within 

the boundary of the Research Natural Area 

Zone and no additional development would 

be allowed (aside from trails and traditional 

and existing sport climbing routes), there 

would be long-term negligible to minor adverse 

effects on land use associated with continued 

use for research, hiking, and climbing, and 

moderate localized long-term beneficial effects 

from enhancing and expanding protection of 

this area.

In alternative B, the General Use Subzone from 

alternative A becomes part of the Historic 

Rural Setting Zone to further define its use, a 

negligible to minor long-term beneficial effect. 

The Historic Rural Setting Zone would include 

areas to facilitate traditional ranching. Overall 

development within this zone would continue 

to be minimal, but could include trails, fencing, 

corrals, water troughs, signs, and waysides.

Whereas the purpose of the Natural and 

Recreational Resource Area Subzone from 

alternative A was to balance protection of 

natural and recreational resources, it would be 

divided into its component parts in alternative 

B. In alternative B, parts of the subzone would 

be divided between the Visitor Facilities and 

Access, Transition, Natural, and Historic Rural 

Setting Zones, and a smaller area of the subzone 

would be identified for potential development. 

Separating these areas to focus on protecting 

their important characteristics and minimizing 

the potential for additional development would 

have a minor long-term beneficial effect on 

land use.

The Visitor Facilities and Access Zone would 

include the roadway and major developed 

areas, such as the campsites and primary 

parking lots, as well as adjacent areas needed 

to accommodate maintenance activities. It 

would also include climbing routes where 

bolts occur, picnic areas, corrals, existing and 

proposed kiosk areas, and utilities. Although 

additional development would occur and would 

contribute negligible to moderate short- and 

long-term adverse effects in this zone, focusing 

development in a smaller area, compared to 

alternative A, would have minor to moderate 

localized long-term beneficial effects. Although 

no new visitor facility would be constructed, 

alternative B would include development of an 

additional camping area in Smoky Mountain 

Campground; construction of an amphitheater 

and new trail connections; a new equestrian 

staging area; and reconfiguration of the Reserve 

campsites based on the recommendations of the 

Rim Development Concept Plan for City of Rocks 

National Reserve (Rim DCP), including new 

parking, new campsites, campsite closures, and 

new picnicking and trail connections (Reserve 

2012).

The Transition Zone would encompass some 

minor developed areas, such as the Finger Rock 

area and other walk-in campsites, fencing, 

climber staging areas with bolted routes, and 

primitive administrative roads. As with other 

action alternatives, it would also include 

some new campsites proposed by the Rim 

development concept plan. The Transition 

Zone also provides an indirect buffer alongside 

the Natural Zone in some areas, though it 

primarily includes the Rim area beyond the 

Rim campsites, including dispersed campsites. 

Because it would essentially provide for a lessdeveloped area compared to the Visitor Facilities 

and Access Zone, it would indirectly allow for 

more primitive experiences. As with the Visitor 

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Facilities and Access Zone, focusing these 

activities in a more defined area would have 

variable minor adverse and minor to moderate 

long-term beneficial effects on land use.

ALTERNATIVE C IMPACTS

As in alternative B, there would be longterm beneficial effects from preservation 

of the Reserve’s significant resources and 

from flexibility to implement the proposed 

management actions in alternative C.

Compared to alternative A and consistent with 

the concept of this alternative, alternative C 

would have a much larger Natural Zone that 

would include one of the northernmost old 

growth pinyon-juniper forests in Idaho, some 

recently burned areas undergoing natural 

regeneration, the Indian Grove area, and 

some current higher-elevation grazing areas. 

Protection of these areas through zoning would 

have indirect minor to moderate long-term 

beneficial effects.

The Research Natural Area Zone would be 

enlarged to include most of the candidate 

additions recommended by a recent study of the 

area, without encroaching on existing grazing 

allotments. The larger Research Natural Area 

Zone would comprise a broader elevational 

range of old-growth pinyon-juniper forest 

and habitat for some Idaho Sensitive Species 

(cliff chipmunk and pinyon mouse). As in 

alternative B, the RNA boundary would follow 

natural barriers to the extent possible. Similar 

to alternative B, there would continue to be 

negligible to minor adverse effects from existing 

research and recreational activities, combined 

with localized minor to moderate long-term 

beneficial effects from protecting a larger area 

from development.

The California Trail Zone in alternative C would 

also be larger than in alternative A because it 

would be expanded to the west to encompass 

key resources, such as middle-ground viewsheds 

that are not currently protected for this purpose. 

This California Trail Zone is the largest among 

the alternatives because it includes all of the 

viewshed that emigrants would have seen within 

the basins that comprise City of Rocks (Circle 

Creek, Twin Sisters, Tracy Lane, and Emigrant 

Canyon). In this alternative, the California Trail 

Zone boundary was also modified to allow for 

the existing array of climbing opportunities 

to continue at current levels on nearby rocks; 

however, climbing would continue to be 

prohibited on the Twin Sisters formation. By 

definition, the California Trail Zone would be 

closed to traditional and sport climbing, but not 

scrambling, which is probably compatible with 

historic use by the emigrants.

As in alternative B, the Historic Rural Setting 

Zone would be smaller because it would focus 

on those areas currently used for ranching 

activities. This zone would encompass lowerelevation grazing areas, including some 

sagebrush steppe communities to create a 

compatible visual setting for the California 

Trail Zone. As a result there would be longterm beneficial effects on land use by limiting 

development and enhancing the setting through 

application of the Historic Rural Setting Zone.

The Visitor Facilities and Access Zone would be 

slightly larger than in alternative B and would 

generally include the same major developed 

visitor use areas, such as the road, parking areas, 

trailheads, restrooms, and campsites. Similar 

to alternative B, there would be a variety of 

adverse and beneficial effects, depending on 

whether or how additional campsite and picnic 

area development occurred. As in alternative B, 

although additional development would occur 

to implement the recommendations from the 

Rim development concept plan, other areas 

would be closed and restored.

In alternative C, additional development would 

include the proposed visitor center, equestrian 

staging area, campground improvements, Rim 

DCP implementation, an outdoor learning 

center, and an amphitheater. Overall these 

actions would contribute negligible to moderate 

short- and long-term adverse effects in this zone; 

however focusing this development in a smaller 

area, compared to alternative A, would result 

in a minor to moderate localized long-term 

beneficial effect.

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The Transition Zone in alternative C would also 

be similar to alternative B and includes dispersed 

campsites and the Inner City area. (The Inner 

City references the area encircled by the edge 

of the rocky rim on the south and west sides. 

It is the area where streams are steeper and the 

stream pattern is denser, creating a maze of 

rugged vertical topography in a geographically 

small area). As in alternative B, it would provide 

an indirect buffer zone between the Visitor 

Facilities and Access and Natural or other zones, 

a minor indirect long-term beneficial effect.

The proposed boundary expansion areas in 

alternatives C–D would probably become 

part of several zones, including the California 

Trail, Historic Rural Setting, Visitor Facilities 

and Access, and Natural Zones. Of these, the 

development of the visitor center and expansion 

of Smoky Mountain Campground would 

have the minor to moderate localized adverse 

and beneficial effects on land use described 

above. Other areas would not be developed 

and therefore would be protected as part of 

their respective zones, and land use could 

remain similar to that currently occurring (for 

example, grazing areas on BLM-managed lands, 

depending on the provisions in the agreement or 

legislation that authorized the expansion).

Boundary modifications would enhance 

protection for scenery and ranching areas 

near the east entrance of the Reserve; enhance 

protection for portions of the California 

National Historic Trail, including geologic 

formations in the Cedar Hills and Sparks Basin 

(viewshed protection); protect old-growth 

pinyon-juniper forest near the current east 

boundary; and include Smoky Mountain 

Campground, BLM-leased R&PP land now 

managed by the Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation. Compared to alternative A, there 

would be more land within the Reserve that 

would be preserved in perpetuity in its natural 

state or for Reserve use, a long-term beneficial 

effect on land use. Of the approximately 4,247 

acres that would be included in a boundary 

expansion, slightly more than 15% would be 

private (consisting of two private parcels) and 

nearly 85% would be public. As in alternative B, 

scenic easements from willing sellers could be 

used to protect areas in the southwest corner 

of the Reserve. Overall, if these areas were 

added to the Reserve, there would be long-term 

beneficial effects on land use from protection 

of additional important natural, cultural, and 

recreational resources, combined with longterm minor to moderate adverse effects from 

additional development of currently leased BLM 

lands at Smoky Mountain Campground, and for 

development of the proposed visitor center on 

current BLM land.

Adding some current BLM-managed lands to 

the Reserve would result in these lands being 

withdrawn from the potential for mineral 

extraction and other multiple use management 

activities (such as tree cutting). Instead these 

expansion lands, if approved, would be 

protected by NPS ownership for preservation, 

public use, and ongoing grazing, dependent on 

the transfer agreement or legislation authorizing 

the boundary expansion and/or whether 

permittees elected to participate in the grazing 

buyout program. These uses would be consistent 

with the purposes of the Reserve and the NPS 

mission and would therefore be different than 

the purposes of BLM-managed lands.

Proposed boundary expansion areas would 

probably become part of the Visitor Facilities 

and Access and Natural Zones. In addition, 

another 1.1 miles of the California Trail would 

be added to City of Rocks National Reserve 

with the proposed boundary modification 

on the east side of the Reserve, providing 

better protection to this area, including from 

development effects such as from mineral 

extraction, a minor to moderate long-term 

beneficial effect. The expansion would also place 

Smoky Mountain Campground and IDPR leases 

within the Reserve, allowing for cost-sharing 

for continued development and management of 

this recreational facility that supports Reserve 

operations. Currently the boundaries of the 

Reserve and of the Smoky Mountain lease 

are difficult to fence, sign, and communicate 

to visitors and agency personnel because the 

jurisdictional boundaries (along topographic 

section lines) contain steep slopes and align 

at right angles over rugged mountain terrain 

(Keck 2012).

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ALTERNATIVE D IMPACTS

Impacts from alternative D would generally 

be similar to alternative B. Compared to 

alternative A, the Research Natural Area and 

Natural zones would be expanded. Compared 

to alternatives B and C, there would be larger 

Visitor Facilities and Access and Transition 

Zones to accommodate more intensive day 

use and more camping as emphasized by 

this alternative. Although the California Trail 

Zone would be slightly reduced compared to 

alternative A, it would include a larger area to 

the northwest. These modifications would offer 

more protection than in alternative A to both 

historic and natural resources, a long-term 

beneficial effect.

The expanded Research Natural Area Zone 

would be the same as in alternative B. Compared 

to alternative B, the Natural Zone in this 

alternative would focus on forested areas, 

while the Historic Rural Setting Zone would 

include more open rangeland within existing 

grazing allotments but would avoid heavily 

wooded areas. The California Trail Zone would 

essentially remain a half-mile-wide corridor 

along the road that would also include the Circle 

Creek Basin and Twin Sisters. Although it would 

be expanded over alternative A and similar to 

alternative B, it would be slightly smaller than in 

alternative C. Despite the smaller size, compared 

to alternative C the increase in the California 

Trail Zone would nonetheless provide long-term 

minor beneficial effects to those additional areas 

it encompassed.

Long-term beneficial impacts from the 

boundary expansion—including protection 

of more of the California National Historic 

Trail, geologic formations, and old-growth 

pinyon-juniper forest—would be the same as in 

alternative C. Similarly, there would be longterm minor to moderate localized adverse effects 

from additional development of IDPR-leased 

BLM lands at Smoky Mountain Campground 

and for development of the proposed visitor 

center on current BLM-managed land.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures to minimize impacts on land use (as 

appropriate to the alternative) would include the 

following:

•	 Zone boundary expansion lands 

for protection, except for additional 

development at Smoky Mountain 

Campground, for the visitor center (if 

applicable), and for the summit trail.

•	 Design new buildings, constructed with 

NPS support, to a minimum silver level of 

Leadership in Energy and Environmental 

Design (LEED) certification in accordance 

with NPS Management Policies 2006.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Actions have occurred within and near the 

Reserve that have both increased the amount 

of undeveloped land (such as restoration or 

loss of structures) and decreased it (such as 

construction of administrative and recreational 

facilities). Since establishment of the Reserve in 

1988, more land has been protected within it, a 

cumulative beneficial effect.

Past actions that have added to the adverse 

cumulative effects of development include 

the creation of recreational facilities by 

the U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land 

Management, and Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation / National Park Service, such 

as trails, campgrounds, and bolted climbing 

routes. Restoration or decreased use in some 

areas, such as recontouring and restoring the 

former borrow pit near the Reserve entrance 

sign, has had beneficial cumulative impacts. In 

addition, a variety of private landowner actions 

on existing private land, and on private land 

that has later become part of the Reserve, have 

contributed to cumulative effects. These actions 

include farming, ranching, and development 

associated with these lands, such as for water 

and home sites.

Present actions that would also contribute to 

cumulative effects include plans for additional 

development of recreational facilities by the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation, 

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such as the proposed joint Reserve and 

Castle Rocks State Park visitor center and the 

additional campsites proposed for Smoky 

Mountain Campground. Nearby, in its Castle 

Rocks Interagency Recreation Area, the Bureau 

of Land Management has recently decided to 

close climbing routes and to not increase the 

number of bolted rock climbs or allow the 

construction of additional trails or camping 

originally evaluated in the environmental 

assessment. The Bureau of Land Management 

and U.S. Forest Service would also continue 

to implement their respective plans for areas 

adjacent to the Reserve, resulting in a variety 

of ongoing and new multiple-use resource 

management and public use projects (such as 

grazing, mining, tree and other resource harvest) 

(BLM 1985, USFS 2005). Concurrently, the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

has begun to develop additional lodging 

opportunities in existing (Castle Rocks State 

Park) or new structures (yurts at Smoky 

Mountain Campground). These actions 

have had a wide range of minor to moderate 

cumulative beneficial and adverse effects.

Future proposed actions that would affect land 

use within and in the vicinity of the Reserve 

include multiple-use, resource management, and 

public-use projects conducted by the Bureau 

of Land Management and U.S. Forest Service; 

proposed energy development projects outside 

the Reserve (wind, electric, and geothermal); 

recreational development within or outside 

of the Reserve as described in this plan; 

restoration of areas, such as the Circle Creek 

impoundment; and ongoing use of private lands 

within and outside the Reserve. These actions 

would probably include additional construction 

of buildings and structures, as well as other 

changes in native vegetation. It is also likely 

that implementation of alternatives C or D in 

this GMP would cause the Bureau of Land 

Management to need to update its resource 

management plan for adjacent lands because 

some of the lands included in the current 

management plan could be transferred to the 

National Park Service. If this occurred, it could 

result in divided responsibilities associated 

with grazing allotments and/or a change in 

other existing or planned uses of those lands, 

with respective minor to moderate long-term 

beneficial and adverse effects.

When the impacts associated with alternative 

A are added to impacts from the above past, 

present, and future actions, there would be 

ongoing minor to moderate cumulative adverse 

and minor to moderate beneficial effects on land 

use. Similarly, when the effects of the action 

alternatives (B–D) are added to impacts from 

past, present, and future actions, there would 

be minor to moderate cumulative adverse and 

moderate beneficial impacts on land use.

CONCLUSION

Alternative A would have minor to moderate 

long-term beneficial effects from continuing use 

of zones to manage lands within the boundary 

of the Reserve and minor to moderate localized 

adverse effects from additional development 

of a visitor center facility and additions to 

Smoky Mountain Campground. Overall, 

zoning changes in alternative B would improve 

protection of the significant resources in the 

Reserve by facilitating the array of management 

actions envisioned by this alternative. Compared 

to alternative A, the zones in alternatives B–D 

follow fewer jurisdictional boundaries than 

in the comprehensive management plan and 

are therefore more aligned with actual use, 

significance of resources, and/or natural terrain 

features, such as ridgelines and watersheds. As 

a result, portions of the Reserve would become 

easier to manage because zones would be better 

aligned with key resources, a minor to moderate 

long-term beneficial effect.

Compared to alternative A, alternatives B–D 

would preserve more land within the Reserve 

in perpetuity in its natural state, a long-term 

moderate beneficial effect. Where lands were 

modified for Reserve use, there would be 

long-term minor to moderate adverse effects. 

Zoning in alternatives C–D would also result 

in the opportunity for planned recreational 

facility development in smaller areas than in 

alternative A, as well as additional preservation 

of the California Trail and other cultural and 

natural resources. Expansion of the Research 

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Natural Area Zone to match terrain boundaries 

in alternatives B and D and to encompass 

additional areas that have been identified as 

important to the area landscape in alternative 

C would also have minor to moderate longterm beneficial effects on land use from 

preserving these areas within the Reserve and/

or improving the ability to manage these areas. 

The development called for in alternatives B–D, 

including for new visitor facilities, would have 

minor to moderate localized adverse effects. 

Because there is slightly more development 

proposed in alternative C and a greater 

potential for more development in alternative 

D because of the much larger Visitor Facilities 

and Access Zone, these alternatives could have 

comparatively greater effects on land use. All 

alternatives, however, would accommodate a 

range of new visitor facilities, a long-term minor 

to moderate adverse effect on land use.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: AIR QUALITY

a. Air Quality Methodology

Context of impact: Air quality impacts were 

considered within City of Rocks National 

Reserve, on IDPR-leased land and IDPR-owned 

land and within the region.

Type of impact: Beneficial effects would 

reduce pollutant emissions or lower pollutant 

concentrations, while adverse effects would 

increase them.

Impact Intensity

Negligible There would be no measurable effects 

on air quality. Criteria pollutants would 

be within National Ambient Air Quality 

Standards (NAAQS). No perceptible 

visibility impacts are likely (no visible 

smoke, plume, or haze).

Minor Effects on air quality would be 

measurable but would be short-term 

and localized and within NAAQS. 

Perceptible visibility impacts occur, but 

are visible from a small area of the 

Reserve, are of short duration (less than 

one day per year), and are visible to a 

few Reserve visitors on the days that 

they occur.

Moderate Effects on air quality would be 

measurable and short-term and could 

be either localized or widespread. 

Combined with regional impacts, 

NAAQS would not be exceeded. 

Perceptible visibility impacts occur and 

are visible from several areas of the 

Reserve, occur between one and several 

days per year, and many Reserve visitors 

may observe them on the days that 

they occur.

Major Effects on air quality would be 

measurable and would be long-term 

and localized or widespread. NAAQS 

would be exceeded 80% of the time. 

Perceptible visibility impacts would 

occur and are visible from many areas 

of the Reserve, occur many days over 

the course of a year, or are visible to a 

majority of Reserve visitors on the days 

that they occur.

b. Air Quality Impacts

Background

Based on interpolated data, as well as limited 

onsite ozone monitoring, air quality within 

the Reserve is considered moderate, with a 

potential risk to vegetation from ozone effects 

if the data are accurate. Most air quality 

monitoring, however, is from ambient air quality 

measurements conducted outside the Reserve 

(for particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur 

dioxide, nitrates, sulfates, and ozone), including 

some measurements from as far away as Logan 

and Salt Lake City, Utah. Therefore, air quality 

within the Reserve is much better. Locally, air 

quality can be affected by vehicle emissions, dust 

from unpaved roads, campfires, wood-burning 

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heating devices, administrative operations, 

herbicide treatment of nonnative invasive plants, 

wildfires, and weather conditions that may cause 

temperature inversions.

Effects from proposed actions under the 

alternatives would generally be localized and of 

short duration and would not affect adherence 

to NAAQS within the Reserve. Nonetheless, 

there are a variety of emissions that would occur 

or continue to occur as a result of ongoing 

Reserve operations, including earth movement 

(generally associated with clearing and grading, 

construction/demolition, and vegetation clearing 

and restoration); exhaust emissions (from 

transportation, maintenance activities, and 

vehicles); and evaporative emissions (from paints 

and solvents, treatment of nonnative invasive 

plants, and other day-to-day maintenance and 

construction activities).

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

Ongoing impacts from travel to and within the 

Reserve would continue. Among these impacts 

include those from idling while searching for 

a campsite or parking space and emissions 

associated with vehicle touring through the 

Reserve, such as idling at wayside exhibits 

and travel to visitor use sites. The proposed 

expansion of Smoky Mountain Campground, 

which could include approximately 62 

additional campsites, would have minor to 

moderate localized adverse effects on air quality 

from campfires and from encouraging additional 

travel to and within the Reserve. Ongoing fire 

suppression could also result in larger wildfires 

and accompanying short-term minor to major 

adverse effects on air quality.

Ongoing air quality programs would continue 

to have no effect on private landowners in 

the Reserve. Continuing efforts to minimize 

air pollution from Reserve operations could 

include reducing the amount of driving/idling 

during current activities; opting to purchase 

and use hybrid, low-emissions, or electric 

vehicles if authorized by the Idaho Department 

of Parks and Recreation; and other strategies. 

Implementation of these air quality mitigation 

strategies could result in long-term negligible to 

minor localized beneficial effects by reducing the 

impacts of Reserve operations on air quality.

Ongoing use of magnesium chloride on 

Reserve roads maintained by Cassia County 

would continue to reduce dust (particulates) in 

summer and would therefore continue to have 

localized beneficial effects on air quality. The 

application of magnesium chloride, sprayed 

as a brine (in water) in late spring or early 

summer, retains moisture in soils and is able 

to pull moisture from the atmosphere to bind 

with soils, thereby minimizing the amount of 

dust that would otherwise be generated by hot, 

dry conditions and visitor and administrative 

travel on Reserve roads. Some studies have 

shown that applications of magnesium chloride 

are absorbed by unpaved road surfaces and 

generally cannot be detected three feet beyond 

the edge of the road (Best 2004).

Recent ozone monitoring and a nitrogen 

deposition study have also resulted in better 

understanding of the concentrations and 

effects of these pollutants on the Reserve. Maps 

show the Reserve on the edge of a plume of 

high nitrogen concentrations, indicating that 

nitrogen deposition was low compared to other 

monitoring sites in southeast Idaho. If the plume 

were to increase in size, the Reserve’s air quality 

could be affected. For example, if more confined 

animal feeding operations were established, the 

plume could increase. Ozone monitoring has 

shown the Reserve to be generally unaffected 

by air pollution from the Salt Lake City and 

Logan, Utah, urban area, which is notorious 

in the region for poor air quality (Reserve 

2012b). Ongoing monitoring of some air quality 

parameters would improve knowledge of air 

quality conditions and trends and continue to 

provide valuable information for collaborating 

with outside organizations and groups. 

Additional monitoring would be particularly 

important if industrial or other potential 

polluting activities that could affect air quality in 

the Reserve were proposed nearby.

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IMPACTS COMMON TO ALTERNATIVES B–D

Actions in alternatives B–D that would affect 

air quality include changes in fire management 

activities, construction of additional facilities, 

and improved monitoring of particulates. In 

general, these impacts would be in addition to 

those identified under alternative A.

Development of a fuels treatment plan and a 

burned area emergency response plan could 

have minor to moderate localized adverse 

and minor beneficial effects on air quality. 

Implementation of these plans would reduce 

potential wildfire damage to the Reserve’s 

natural and cultural resources, protect 

infrastructure, and reduce potential impacts 

on adjacent communities. For instance, if 

fire is used to benefit fire-dependent plant 

communities in the Reserve and to maintain the 

natural appearance of the Reserve’s landscapes, 

there could be beneficial effects from reducing 

air emissions associated with otherwise highintensity wildfires. This could occur from pretreatment of hazardous areas through hazard 

fuel reduction, potentially resulting in wildfires 

that are smaller and more easily controlled.

Smoke from wildfires is a complex mixture 

of carbon, tars, liquids, and gases. The major 

pollutants are particulates, volatile organic 

compounds (VOCs), and carbon monoxide. 

Other pollutants, such as mercury and oxides of 

nitrogen and sulfur dioxide are also produced, 

but in a relatively small quantity when compared 

to the major pollutants. Particulates can remain 

suspended in the atmosphere for a few days to 

several months and can reduce visibility as well 

as contribute to respiratory problems. Very small 

particulates can travel great distances and add to 

regional haze problems. Regional haze can also 

result from multiple burn days and/or multiple 

owners burning within an airshed over a period 

of time too short to allow for wind-dispersion, 

resulting in a range of minor to locally moderate 

adverse effects

Using fire to meet vegetation management 

resource objectives would result in an additional 

minor to moderate degree of air quality 

effects, including particulate emissions and the 

possibility of diminished visibility. If 500 or more 

acres were burned annually, there are models to 

estimate emissions; however this level of analysis 

may not be necessary because a smaller amount 

of annual burning would be more likely to occur. 

Actual effects and the potential number of acres 

associated with fire use would be analyzed as 

part of the revised fire management plan. In 

general, effects would be localized and would 

be limited in scope and impact. Fires that did 

not meet prescriptions would not be ignited 

or would be suppressed. Each fire would be 

managed within a predetermined area and, as a 

result, would be relatively small. Most would be 

conducted either as research burns to achieve 

specific resource objectives (for instance 

burning piles generated by hazard fuel reduction 

in a specific community to stimulate natural 

regeneration of native plants), or as actions to 

decrease the density of nonnative plants not 

tolerant of fire to meet restoration objectives. 

Burning of smaller areas also has the potential 

to reduce the size of future fires, a long-term 

indirect beneficial effect. Upon development and 

peer review, Reserve fire plans would undergo 

additional environmental analysis to determine 

specific impacts.

Construction of new facilities or restoration of 

former campsites would also result in short-term 

minor localized adverse impacts on air quality, 

depending on the time of year these activities 

were conducted, on soil moisture conditions, 

and on the amount of soil moved. Where old 

buildings and facilities were replaced with 

new facilities, there would be long-term minor 

beneficial impacts from using state-of-the-art 

energy efficient design and construction, such as 

that associated with heating and cooling and/or 

appliances and building materials.

Monitoring of particulate matter could provide 

baseline air quality information and assist the 

Reserve in determining the extent to which 

operations would impact air quality, if at all. 

Anticipating these changes could allow City of 

Rocks to modify or suggest modifications to 

reduce particulate emissions from operations, a 

long-term beneficial effect. Additional beneficial 

effects would also result from improved 

knowledge of air resources.

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Conveying information about baseline air 

quality conditions to the public could increase 

awareness that air quality in the area is generally 

good to moderate and could engender efforts to 

protect air quality if nearby industrial sources or 

activities were proposed. Overall, there would 

continue to be both beneficial and potential 

negligible to minor adverse effects and minor to 

moderate localized effects.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE B

Impacts would be the same as identified above.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE C

In addition to impacts identified from alternative 

A, there would be a greater emphasis on 

proactive management that would avoid 

activities that could potentially degrade air 

quality. Improved understanding of Reserve air 

quality and efforts to protect it would also occur. 

Public outreach and education efforts could 

improve the Reserve’s ability to communicate 

this information. Both activities could also 

contribute additional indirect negligible to 

minor long-term beneficial effects.

If outside commercial sources developed a 

shuttle within the Reserve and/or between the 

Reserve and Castle Rocks State Park, there could 

be long-term negligible beneficial effects on air 

quality. Depending on the number of people 

who took advantage of the shuttle, shuttle use 

could potentially reduce emissions associated 

with individual private vehicle travel to and 

within these areas.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE D

Impacts would be the same as in alternative C, 

except that no shuttle is proposed.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures to minimize impacts on air quality (as 

appropriate to the alternative) would include 

the following:

•	 Place restrictions on administrative vehicle 

and equipment idling.

•	 Use sustainable purchases to reduce the 

overall carbon footprint at the Reserve.

•	 Revegetate bare areas associated with 

construction as soon as possible (upon 

final grading or when staging areas are no 

longer in use).

•	 Minimize the extent of vegetation removal 

associated with construction.

•	 Minimize trip generation during 

construction.

•	 Use low-VOC paints, solvents, and other 

chemicals in building construction.

•	 Use low- or no-emissions heating and 

cooling devices in buildings.

•	 Minimize idling of vehicles, construction 

equipment, and other machinery.

•	 Purchase and use biodiesel fuel and/or 

electric vehicles and equipment.

Additional measures related to fire:

•	 Limit the number of acres and amount of 

fuel burned annually and identify this in 

fire plans.

•	 Select the timing and method of ignition 

to limit effects on air quality.

•	 Burn during optimal fuel moisture 

conditions to limit effects on air quality.

•	 Increase communication about the 

use of fire, including cooperating 

and coordinating with agencies and 

landowners to limit the number of fires 

occurring simultaneously.

•	 Obtain state permits to implement air 

quality management guidelines.

•	 Develop fire plans for each fire and 

include appropriate signage if smoke 

could affect roadways or designated 

visitor areas (such as visitor centers 

or campgrounds).

•	 Contact the appropriate authorities to 

identify other measures to limit smoke and 

to avoid decreased visibility.

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CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Past actions include construction of current 

Reserve roads and facilities and development 

of adjacent ranches and nearby towns. Because 

most of the roads within and near City of Rocks 

National Reserve are unpaved, and because 

many roads outside the Reserve or within the 

Reserve on private property are not treated to 

reduce dust, there would continue to be longterm, contributing minor cumulative adverse 

effects on air quality from large particulates. 

Overall visibility in the region is moderate: 

nitrogen transport from confined animal feeding 

operations and activities such as ranching 

and agriculture combine with local climatic 

conditions (the region is dry with frequent high 

winds) to cause a high occurrence of airborne 

particulates, including dust.

Present actions that could have an impact 

on air quality include conducting day-to-day 

Reserve maintenance, administrative, and 

natural and cultural resource management 

operations. Such day-to-day activities often 

consist of vehicle travel for patrolling, visitor 

contact in campgrounds, and access to longterm monitoring and nonnative plant removal 

sites. Actions within and outside the Reserve 

include ongoing ranching and daily activities 

in surrounding small towns. As a result, there 

would continue to be a variety of emissions 

related to vehicles and equipment used in 

these areas, contributing minor cumulative 

adverse effects.

Proposed future activities could include 

replacement or repurposing of visitor facilities, 

such as the current Reserve visitor center house, 

as well as improvements to parking areas and 

roads. These activities would have short-term 

minor to moderate adverse and long-term 

negligible to minor beneficial effects.

According to the 2013 Draft National Climate 

Assessment, a warmer climate is projected to 

increase summertime ozone concentrations by 1 

to 10 parts per billion this century, and groundlevel ozone is associated with diminished lung 

function in people. Climate change is already 

contributing to an increase in wildfire frequency. 

Wildfire smoke contains particulate matter 

and pollutants that can significantly degrade 

air quality and negatively affect human health, 

which can also impact park viewsheds (Kunkel 

et al. 2013).

The largest sources of air pollution in the 

region generally do not influence the Reserve 

during most local weather patterns. These 

include pollution from the Salt Lake City and 

Logan, Utah, urban areas, fertilizer factories in 

Pocatello, and some confined animal feeding 

operations. Studies conducted in City of 

Rocks National Reserve indicate that nitrogen 

deposition from confined animal feeding 

operations could be a potential problem in the 

future if these facilities were located closer to 

the Reserve, a potential moderate cumulative 

adverse effect. Currently, however, Reserve 

nitrogen deposition measurements are among 

the lowest in the region (Reserve 2012b).

Recent ozone monitoring has indicated that 

despite the Reserve’s proximity to the Salt Lake 

City and Logan area (approximately 40 miles 

straight-line distance), regional wind patterns 

do not generally disperse these pollutants 

toward City of Rocks. Ozone concentrations in 

the Reserve are therefore better than predicted 

by modeling and consistent with ozone 

concentrations in other western rural parks 

(Bastis pers. comm. 2012; Ray 2011). Because 

the concentrations are within 80% of the EPA 

standard of 0.075 ppm, however, they are high 

enough to affect people who are sensitive to 

ozone. Nonetheless, even if the Environmental 

Protection Agency lowered the standard to 0.070 

ppm or even 0.065 ppm, Reserve air quality 

would probably still meet the ozone NAAQS 

for ozone (Ray 2011). Concentrations are also 

high enough to potentially affect sensitive 

plant species, such as Saskatoon serviceberry 

(Amelanchier alnifolia), quaking aspen (Populus 

tremuloides), and Scouler’s willow (Salix 

scouleriana) (UCBN 2001).

As noted in the preliminary natural resources 

condition assessment, in 2006 several counties 

in northern Utah with the potential to impact 

air quality in City of Rocks were designated as 

nonattainment for fine particulates because they 

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did not meet the PM2.5 NAAQS (Erixson and 

Corrao 2011). Salt Lake and Tooele counties 

were in nonattainment for both primary and 

secondary standards for sulfur dioxide, and 

part of Utah County was in nonattainment for 

carbon monoxide (Reserve 2007). The Idaho 

National Engineering and Environmental 

Laboratory between Craters of the Moon 

National Monument and Preserve and 

Idaho Falls emits sulfur dioxide and nitrogen 

oxides, large mineral and chemical plants with 

significant emissions exist near Pocatello, 

and sugar beet processing plants with notable 

emissions are located in adjacent Twin Falls 

and Minidoka counties. In addition, coal-fired 

power plants, large gold mines in northeast 

Nevada, industrial facilities, and agricultural and 

wildfires also have the potential to impact air 

quality within City of Rocks (Reserve 2007).

When past, present, and future actions are 

added to the proposed actions in alternative A, 

there would be additional short- and long-term 

adverse impacts on air quality from construction 

and operations, as well as beneficial effects 

from reductions in greenhouse gas emissions 

through Reserve implementation of its climate 

action plan. Actions that could impact air 

quality include the phase II expansion of Smoky 

Mountain Campground from alternative A (with 

up to 62 additional campsites), construction of 

a new visitor center, removal of the Circle Creek 

impoundment, and ongoing fire suppression.

Similarly, when past, present, and future actions 

are added to the proposed actions in alternatives 

B–D, there would be additional negligible 

to minor adverse effects on air quality from 

construction and negligible to minor adverse 

and beneficial contributions to cumulative 

effects from operations. Although there would 

be a range of actions in these alternatives, 

including the aforementioned Smoky Mountain 

Campground expansion and construction 

of other facilities, none of the alternatives 

would contribute new long-term sources of air 

pollution. Instead impacts would occur from 

construction and would be short-term. Where 

replacement construction occurred, long-term 

minor beneficial effects would result from 

emphasizing sustainable materials and energy 

use, thereby reducing cumulative impacts on air 

quality. Cumulative adverse effects would also 

be slightly reduced in alternative B (compared 

to other alternatives), because no large new 

visitor facility is planned. Cumulative beneficial 

effects would be greater in alternatives A, C, and 

D, where new facilities built to minimum LEED 

silver-certified standards would be more likely to 

replace former facilities.

CONCLUSION

Alternative A would continue to have negligible 

to moderate short-term localized adverse and 

minor long-term beneficial impacts on air 

quality. Alternatives B, C, and D would have an 

increased range of minor to moderate shortterm localized adverse impacts on air quality 

coupled with minor long-term beneficial 

effects. Because of the potential for shuttle use, 

alternative C could have slightly more beneficial 

effects than other alternatives; however as 

currently proposed, shuttle use would have a 

very small impact on overall operations.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: LIGHTSCAPES

a. Lightscape Methodology

Context of impact: Lightscape impacts were 

considered within City of Rocks National 

Reserve, on IDPR-leased land and IDPRowned land and within the region. There are 

no permanent light sources within the Reserve 

boundary.

Type of impact: Beneficial impacts would 

reduce light pollution, while adverse impacts 

would increase night lighting.

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Impact Intensity

Negligible Impacts would have no discernible 

effect on dark night skies. There would 

be no new long-term sources of light, 

and short-term sources of light would 

be directed inward and downward.

Minor Impacts would be slightly detectable 

but there would be no new long-term 

sources of light. Both short-term and 

existing sources of light would be 

reduced through the application of 

mitigation measures.

Moderate Impacts would be clearly detectable 

with new short- or long-term sources 

of light, partially mitigated through 

the application of mitigation measures 

or by reducing impacts from existing 

sources.

Major Impacts would have substantial, highly 

noticeable effects, with new long-term 

sources of light that would permanently 

alter the perception of dark night skies.

b. Lightscape Impacts

Lightscapes are natural resources and values 

that exist in the absence of human-caused light. 

According to the National Park Service, the 

term “natural lightscape” is used to describe 

resources and values that exist in the absence of 

human-caused light at night. Natural lightscapes 

are critical for nighttime scenery, such as 

viewing a starry sky, but they are also crucial for 

maintaining nocturnal wildlife habitat. Many 

wildlife species rely on natural patterns of light 

and dark for navigation, to cue behaviors, or 

hide from predators. Lightscapes can also be 

culturally defined, and may be integral to the 

historical fabric of a place. Human-caused light 

may be obtrusive similar to the way that noise 

can disrupt a contemplative or peaceful scene. 

Light that is undesirable in a natural or cultural 

landscape is often called “light pollution” 

(NPS 2012f).

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

Reducing reflective light within the Reserve 

using best management practices for outdoor 

lighting (minimal lighting directed inward 

and downward) would have long-term minor 

beneficial effects on the ability to see the 

night sky within and adjacent to the Reserve. 

Minimal outdoor lighting would continue to 

be provided at the Castle Rocks Administrative 

Unit for administrative and housing structures, 

a localized negligible to minor adverse effect. 

In alternative A there would continue to be no 

permanent lighting within the Reserve, a minor 

long-term beneficial effect.

Although there would be negligible adverse 

effects from lighting at the new visitor center 

and within the new campground development, 

this new lighting would be within the IDPR/

BLM lease, instead of the Reserve, and would 

meet best management practices. Alternative A 

would continue to contribute to the ability to 

see features visible on clear nights, a long-term 

minor to moderate beneficial effect.

IMPACTS COMMON TO ALTERNATIVES B–D

Impacts would be similar to alternative A 

regarding current Reserve and campground 

lighting, plus there would be additional 

negligible to minor indirect beneficial effects 

from developing a plan to maintain or improve 

and interpret night sky resources, including 

working with the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation to minimize lighting in IDPRmanaged areas outside the Reserve, such 

as within Smoky Mountain Campground. 

Additional negligible to minor adverse impacts 

could occur from occasional lighting of 

the proposed outdoor amphitheater in the 

campground and from construction of another 

campground loop or area.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE C

In addition to impacts identified above, the 

outdoor learning center and visitor center 

proposed in alternative C would follow green 

building standards and would have minimal 

outdoor lighting in addition to existing 

campground lighting, a negligible to minor 

adverse effect. However, further research and 

understanding related to night sky resources 

could potentially result from studies conducted 

with partners. If these resulted in additional 

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mitigation actions, an indirect negligible 

to minor long-term beneficial effect could 

occur. If the proposed boundary expansion 

happened, the campground and visitor center 

and attendant outdoor lighting could be located 

within the Reserve.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE D

Impacts would be similar to alternatives A and C. 

Unlike alternative C, the outdoor amphitheater 

function would be associated with a new visitor 

center facility. Because it would not be a separate 

facility, it is likely that there would be fewer 

impacts associated with lighting it.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures to minimize impacts on lightscapes 

(as appropriate to the alternative) would include 

the following:

•	 Outdoor lighting at new and current 

facilities would be evaluated to improve 

existing conditions.

•	 Outdoor lighting would adhere to the 

following basic mitigation measures, to be 

analyzed step-wise:

1. Need: Light would be placed only 

where it is needed. In many instances, 

modifications in landscape design 

(using ramps instead of stairs), visitor 

behavior (encouraging the use of 

handheld flashlights instead of reliance 

on permanent lighting), or simply an 

appraisal of whether a light is necessary 

can reduce the need for outdoor lighting.

2. Control: Controls can be as simple as 

a user-activated light switch, a timer 

that allows one to exit the building 

and transition to a parking lot before 

the lights power down, or use of a 

sophisticated motion detection system. 

In many cases, the duty cycle of outdoor 

lights can be substantially reduced, 

yielding many environmental and 

operational savings.

3. Shield: Direct light downward. By 

directing all light downward, uplight 

is substantially reduced, leading to 

improvements in night sky quality and 

reductions in glare.

4. Regulate Spectrum: Select lamps that 

minimize negative impacts. Yellowish 

lights are preferred for scenic and wildlife 

reasons. White light should be limited to 

locations where there is a demonstrated 

need for proper color rendition (such 

as at a fuel pump or a search and rescue 

cache), building egress points, or where 

there is a particular cultural/historical 

compliance that would benefit from 

white lighting. Red lights or filters are 

compatible with seeing the night sky.

5. Regulate Intensity: Use the minimum 

amount of light necessary. Dark ambient 

environments require much less light 

than a typical urban or suburban 

setting. Industry standard practices are 

unsuitable for most park environments 

because they are too bright and intense.

6. Efficient: Select the most energy efficient 

lamp and fixture. This is the last step in 

the full mitigation of outdoor lighting. 

More energy and money can be saved 

using the above mitigation steps 

compared to selecting a marginally more 

efficient lamp technology.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Because of development in the urban and 

suburban areas surrounding City of Rocks, the 

natural lightscape surrounding the Reserve 

has become increasingly lighted over the years. 

For instance, there is night-time lighting of the 

Pomerelle Mountain Resort ski area, which 

casts a glow in the direction of the Reserve, a 

seasonal cumulative adverse effect. Increased 

lighting in the surrounding area has affected 

areas of the Reserve at high elevations more than 

lower regions of the Reserve, which are shielded 

from light by natural terrain features such as 

mountains and/or rock formations. Because 

the City of Rocks National Reserve is still 

located in a very rural area and because there is 

no night lighting currently within the Reserve 

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itself (except associated with private lands), it 

is naturally very dark. Lighting associated with 

existing facilities, however, is currently located 

on nearby IDPR-leased BLM land (i.e., Smoky 

Mountain Campground) and IDPR land (Castle 

Rocks State Park Administrative Unit).

Development, including lighting, in nearby 

communities contributes to adverse effects on 

visitor experience at some high points within 

the Reserve. Light plumes from the rural 

towns of Almo, Oakley, and Albion; from the 

Pomerelle ski area in winter; from suburban 

development in Burley and Rupert; and from 

urban development in Twin Falls and Salt Lake 

City are visible at the edges of the night sky and 

would continue to contribute minor to moderate 

cumulative adverse effects.

Based on a recent inventory, the Reserve has 

a lightscape that is equivalent to some of the 

darkest NPS Upper Columbia Basin Network 

national park units. Because City of Rocks is 

located in a rural area somewhat distant from 

the closest major urban area (Salt Lake City), the 

natural quality of the night sky is high. A recent 

rapid assessment of night sky quality found that 

it is likely that the Reserve ranks at Bortle Class 3 

on the Bortle Scale. This is a qualitative scale that 

relies on visual appearance to determine which 

of the 1 (pristine) to 9 (urban) classes a night sky 

falls within (Bortle 2001). Under the relatively 

good air quality conditions found in the Reserve, 

light from cities as far as 200 miles away is 

probably visible along the horizon.

When actions in alternatives A–D are added 

to the effects of other past, present, and future 

actions, they would not increase artificial light 

sources in the environment beyond current 

or historic levels, and they would preserve the 

ability to see natural features visible on clear 

nights, contributing cumulative beneficial effects. 

Similarly, mitigation measures and new initiatives 

regarding impacts in alternatives A–D would 

generally reduce the effect of reflective light 

within and just outside of the Reserve, depending 

on the proposed boundary expansion (if any) 

associated with the alternative.

CONCLUSION

Alternatives A–D would have long-term 

negligible to minor adverse impacts and longterm negligible to minor beneficial impacts. 

Overall trends would favor beneficial effects, 

despite new facilities.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: SOUNDSCAPES

a. Soundscape Methodology

Context of impact: Soundscape impacts were 

considered within City of Rocks National 

Reserve, on IDPR-leased land and IDPRowned land.

Type of impact: Beneficial impacts would 

reduce noise, while adverse impacts would 

increase it.

Impact Intensity

Negligible Noise is either not detectable 

or detectable for brief periods 

of time. Most detectable noises 

do not induce physiological or 

behavioral responses in humans or 

wildlife.

Minor Noise is detectable for a small 

fraction of the time. Noise induces 

physiological or behavioral 

responses in humans or wildlife, 

but these responses are brief 

and within the range of natural 

variation in these parameters.

Moderate Noise is detectable for a 

substantial fraction of the time at 

low levels, or is present at high 

levels for short durations. Noise 

induces physiological or behavioral 

responses in humans or wildlife 

that may be of extended duration 

but can be accommodated 

without measurable risk of 

diminished biological function.

Major Noise appreciably masks other 

sounds for a substantial fraction 

of the time or regularly exceeds 

high levels. Noise induces 

physiological or behavioral 

responses in humans or wildlife 

that are of extended duration and 

may present measurable risk of 

diminished biological function.

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b. Soundscape Impacts

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

There would continue to be a variety of humancaused sounds heard within the Reserve, 

including those associated with administrative 

and visitor use activities, such as motorized 

vehicles and equipment, aircraft, and generators. 

These human-caused sounds could continue 

to interfere in some places and at some times 

with visitors’ ability to hear natural sounds, 

such as wind, water, and wildlife. Noise may 

also interfere with the ability of wildlife to hear 

predators or prey and may affect communication 

between members of the same species. This 

interference would be more likely to occur near 

roadways and in or near visitor use facilities 

such as campgrounds, picnic areas, and on 

frontcountry trails. If visitor use increased, noise 

could also increase in these areas. Nonetheless, 

there would also be long periods of quiet at 

night and during the day and night in late fall 

and winter, when there is much less human use.

Outside the Reserve, negligible to minor adverse 

effects on soundscape resources at the Castle 

Rocks State Park Administrative Unit would 

continue to be caused by activities associated 

with employee housing and other routine 

activities associated with administration and 

maintenance.

Intermittent noise from commercial or military 

aircraft and off-road vehicles would continue to 

occur throughout the Reserve and could affect 

visitor experience if unusually loud, consistent, 

and/or frequent. Although aircraft noise has 

been monitored in the Reserve and found to be 

audible between approximately 2% and 20% 

of the time, impacts could increase if flight 

paths changed, aircraft became more frequent, 

or aircraft flew lower or remained in the area 

longer (such as helicopters). Because all-terrain 

vehicles would continue to be allowed on county 

roads through the Reserve to access BLM and 

USFS lands, there would probably continue to 

be loud but intermittent vehicle noise associated 

with this use. In addition, because roads within 

City of Rocks are primarily unpaved, there 

would continue to be noise associated with 

travel. These impacts would continue to have 

negligible to moderate, often intermittent, longterm effects, especially during peak use seasons.

Based on the Reserve’s comprehensive 

management plan (Reserve 1996a), alternative 

A would continue to restrict the use of motor 

vehicles, motorized equipment, and other noisy 

devices (except firearms) to areas outside the 

development zone. Use of firearms would also 

continue to be restricted based on conformance 

to hunting seasons. Combined, these would 

continue to reduce overall noise in the Reserve, 

a long-term negligible to minor beneficial effect.

There would continue to be negligible to 

minor adverse effects from noise and activity 

(visitors and vehicles) associated with 

ongoing visitor uses, such as climbing, hiking, 

bicycling, horseback riding, and participation 

in educational and interpretive programs. 

There would be long-term negligible to 

moderate localized adverse effects from use 

of the campground from spring through fall, 

potentially causing some wildlife to avoid 

campgrounds and dispersed camping areas. 

Where youth activities are offered (YCC 

programs, internships, Junior Ranger programs, 

and other special events and programs, such as 

day camps), there could be short-term localized 

minor adverse effects, depending on the size of 

groups, the location, and whether buses were 

used to transport the participants.

When permits are granted for new climbing 

route establishment, establishment may include 

the use of portable rock drills. Day-to-day 

climbing activities may also include noise related 

to climber communication and achievement, or 

summits. For example, standard climbing signals 

are periodically called back and forth between 

climbing partners to enhance safety (Reserve 

1998a). These activities would continue to have 

negligible to moderate intermittent localized 

adverse effects.

Construction activities associated with 

alternative A would include excavation, clearing 

and grading, earth hauling, gravel spreading, 

and operation of construction equipment and 

vehicles. Most construction activities would 

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not be expected to have an appreciable effect 

on existing noise levels, however, because most 

actions would not result in an increase in traffic 

volumes or new or permanent uses and would 

not cause major changes in existing operations. 

Construction noise impacts would largely be 

short-term, localized, and minor. Although there 

is a potential for temporary impacts on visitors 

or wildlife, mitigation measures (such as timing 

or equipment modifications) would be used to 

minimize these impacts.

Similarly, visitor center construction and longterm use impacts would probably be short-term 

and minor to moderate. These effects would be 

coupled with minor long-term adverse effects 

from increasing noise and activity in the vicinity 

of the visitor center and long-term beneficial 

effects from orienting visitors to soundscape 

resources and potentially engendering support 

for preserving the Reserve soundscape, an 

indirect beneficial effect if it modified visitor 

behavior in the Reserve.

Where new facilities were constructed, these 

could result in an increase in visitation, which 

could increase the number of vehicles (and 

hence visitors) coming to the Reserve, a longterm minor adverse effect, depending on how 

these visitors dispersed through the Reserve.

In addition to short-term construction impacts 

from creating another campground loop within 

Smoky Mountain Campground, there would be 

ongoing localized negligible to minor adverse 

effects from the equestrian staging area and 

ongoing camping outside the Reserve at Smoky 

Mountain Campground and inside the Reserve 

at the Juniper group site.

More systematic inventory of the Reserve’s 

acoustic resources could lead to identification 

of those that are important to protect; could 

engender improved understanding of these 

resources; and could allow the Reserve to 

implement measures to reduce the effects of 

human-caused noise on City of Rocks, including 

on wildlife. Combined, there would be indirect 

and direct minor long-term beneficial effects 

from potentially identifying and reducing 

sources of unwanted noise in the Reserve.

IMPACTS COMMON TO ALTERNATIVES B–D

Long-term negligible to minor adverse impacts 

associated with ongoing administrative and 

interpretive operations, recreational, and 

maintenance activities would be the same 

as in alternative A. Similarly, construction 

impacts would probably be short-term, minor 

to moderate and localized, while long-term 

impacts would be minor. There would also be 

construction associated with modifications to 

other existing or new facilities in alternatives B–D.

Among the additional impacts in alternatives 

B–D would be effects associated with new trails 

and reconfigured camping within the Reserve, 

impacts from constructing a new campground 

loop (the same as in alternative A), and new 

impacts from developing a turnaround at Logger 

Springs Road and an equestrian staging area 

possibly near the Bread Loaves intersection or in 

another area.

There would be negligible to minor adverse 

effects from the development of new trail 

connections to adjacent lands, depending on 

the number of visitors who took advantage 

of these new opportunities and the number 

of additional vehicles attracted to the areas. 

Other impacts could also occur if new trails 

were developed to link the Reserve with Castle 

Rocks State Park or the Independence Lake 

area on adjacent USFS land.

Reconfiguration of the Reserve campsites, 

based on the recommendations of the Rim 

development concept plan, would have a variety 

of negligible to minor short-term adverse 

impacts during modifications and long-term 

beneficial and negligible to moderate adverse 

impacts during use. Impacts would depend 

on campsite use and whether campsites were 

closed, changed, or expanded. For example, 

removing some dispersed sites along the road 

would improve soundscape resources at night in 

this area, while adding other sites could slightly 

increase impacts elsewhere. Approximately 9 

campsites would be converted to day use, 13 

would be closed, and 22 replacement sites would 

be constructed.

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Developing a turnaround at the north end of 

Logger Springs Road (adjacent to USFS land 

within the Reserve boundary) would have 

negligible to moderate localized short-term 

adverse impacts from construction and longterm negligible adverse effects from continuing 

use in this area.

A new equestrian staging area, including parking 

and access, possibly near the Bread Loaves 

intersection would result in both short-term 

negligible to moderate localized adverse impacts 

related to construction and long-term minor 

impacts from additional noise and activity in 

the area.

There could also be a variety of indirect 

long-term beneficial effects associated with 

proposed plans, including a soundscape 

management plan and a trails management 

plan. Overall soundscape impacts would be 

similar to alternative A; however, preparation 

of a soundscape management plan could allow 

the Reserve to better protect soundscapes from 

human-caused sounds and to focus on reducing 

the impacts that produce the most short- and 

long-term noise in the Reserve. As a result, 

alternatives B–D would probably generate more 

short- and long-term beneficial impacts than 

alternative A.

Similarly, if a trails management plan proposed 

new trails, impacts would be similar to those 

associated with construction of the trail to the 

summit of Smoky Mountain. Impacts, however, 

could be reduced by closing or changing use 

on some trail segments, actions that could also 

occur through implementation of the trails plan.

Other impacts on the soundscape could result 

from potential improvements to the county road, 

either by Cassia County (or by the National 

Park Service under a maintenance agreement 

or future change in land management). For 

example there could be negligible to minor 

beneficial or adverse effects on soundscape 

resources if the speed limit decreases, if new 

parking areas are identified or improved, or if 

the surface of the road is changed.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE B

In addition to impacts described above, 

alternative B includes remodeling of the 

Castle Rocks Administrative Unit visitor 

center and construction of an amphitheater at 

Smoky Mountain. Partnering with the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation to remodel 

(reconfigure and/or expand) the existing 

visitor center at the Castle Rocks State Park 

Administrative Unit would have no additional 

long-term impacts on soundscapes in the 

Reserve. Impacts at this facility located outside 

the Reserve would be short-term and localized 

and negligible to moderate during construction.

Constructing an amphitheater at Smoky 

Mountain Campground (outside the Reserve) 

would have both negligible to moderate 

short-term localized adverse impacts from 

construction and long-term minor adverse 

impacts that could range to locally moderate, 

depending on the activity occurring at the 

amphitheater and its duration.

In addition to trails impacts identified for 

alternatives B–D, there could be additional 

negligible to minor adverse effects from 

connecting the Nicholson Ranch section of 

the California Trail with the Tea Kettle Trail. It 

could also have long-term beneficial effects from 

increasing dispersal of visitors. To the extent that 

visitors disperse rather than congregate on the 

most popular trails, impacts on the soundscape 

would probably also be dispersed and therefore 

reduced in some areas.

The new Smoky Mountain Campground 

primitive camping area could have additional 

negligible to moderate short-term adverse effects 

from the construction of a combination of group 

and individual sites to facilitate social camping 

opportunities for climbers and others.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE C

Unlike alternative B but similar to alternative 

A, both adverse and beneficial impacts would 

occur from construction of a new visitor center 

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and amphitheater. Construction of the trail to 

the summit of Smoky Mountain would have 

negligible to minor adverse impacts during 

construction and long-term negligible adverse 

effects during use. As in alternative B, beneficial 

effects could also occur from providing this 

visitor use opportunity if it dispersed visitor 

use. Also as in alternative B, there would be 

additional negligible to moderate short-term 

adverse effects from the construction of a 

combination of group and individual sites and 

to facilitate social camping opportunities for 

climbers. In alternative C, these campsites could 

also be used to support student or family groups 

at the outdoor learning center and or to facilitate 

research use. As in alternative A, facilities would 

include an accessible comfort station, but the 

potential for showers and additional parking 

would be more likely to occur in this alternative 

because of the outdoor learning center and 

researcher use.

Construction of a small (approximately 2,500 

square-foot) visitor center near the entrance 

to Almo would have effects similar to those 

described in alternative A for the proposed 

comprehensive management plan visitor facility. 

Because the visitor center would be smaller than 

the one proposed in alternative A, most shortterm adverse effects would also be reduced; 

however, long-term adverse and beneficial 

effects would be the same.

Potential construction of five to six yurts and 

an outdoor shelter or pavilion for an outdoor 

learning center would have short-term localized 

negligible to moderate adverse effects during 

construction and long-term localized minor to 

moderate adverse effects during use, depending 

on the number and kind of participants, their 

age, and other factors.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE D

Alternative D would include impacts associated 

with an outdoor amphitheater, similar to 

alternative B. Compared to other alternatives, 

additional minor adverse effects could 

potentially be associated with an increase in 

onsite visitor activities. These activities would 

be associated with this alternative’s emphasis 

on frontcountry opportunities, such as guided 

walks and talks; a youth climbing school; and 

possible living history and demonstration 

projects for the California Trail, ranching 

heritage, and archeology. It is also likely that 

additional impacts would be associated with 

the visitor center facility, which would be 

nearly twice the size of the facility proposed in 

alternative C (albeit smaller than in alternative 

A). Additional impacts would probably also 

arise from constructing more toilets and dayuse parking areas to accommodate projected 

increased use, including from parking in 

addition to the turnaround at the Indian 

Grove overlook.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures to minimize impacts on soundscapes 

(as appropriate to the alternative) would include 

the following:

•	 Avoid construction during the breeding 

and nesting periods of threatened and 

endangered bird species, including 

Migratory Bird Treaty Act birds.

•	 Limit construction to daylight hours, 

avoiding early morning and late evening 

(such as the two hours after sunrise and 

the two hours before sunset), because 

these are typically the quietest times in the 

Reserve and often the most sensitive for 

wildlife.

•	 Locate construction equipment as far as 

possible from sensitive receptors such as 

wildlife, visitors, and residents.

•	 Avoid idling equipment when not in use.

•	 Use mufflers on all equipment.

•	 Use well-maintained and properly 

functioning equipment.

•	 Use hydraulically or electrically powered 

tools when feasible.

•	 Monitor to determine if soundscape 

conditions meet the identified user 

capacity standard.

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•	 Increase education about the importance 

of natural soundscapes in the Reserve if 

conditions approach the user capacity 

standard.

•	 Patrol areas of concern and contact 

visitors who are creating unacceptable 

noise in campsites.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

There would continue to be a variety of humancaused sounds that could be detected in the 

Reserve, including from motor vehicle engines 

and travel on unpaved roads; from motorized 

equipment, such as mowers and tools during 

maintenance activities; from the discharge of 

firearms; from low- and high-altitude aircraft 

flights, including civilian and military aircraft; 

and from the use of devices such as radios, 

generators, and horns. If the Reserve were to 

work with the military, there is a potential that 

military overflight aircraft could be reduced, 

with subsequent minor to moderate intermittent 

beneficial effects. This goal, though noted in 

the comprehensive management plan (Reserve 

1996a: p. 140), has not been achieved since the 

approval of that plan, so it is uncertain whether 

it would be feasible during the term of this GMP.

Baseline conditions for much of the 

Reserve’s soundscape were defined through 

comprehensive acoustical monitoring in 

2008 and 2009 (Reserve 2010a). This study 

determined current acoustical conditions at 

the Reserve. Results included measurements of 

existing ambient levels, calculations of sound 

source durations, and estimates of natural 

ambient levels. It was determined that humancaused sounds were audible between 1.9% 

and 20.2% of the time, depending on the site. 

Vehicles, voices, and domestic animals were 

frequently audible, but aircraft was the largest 

contributor of human-caused sound. More 

specifically, commercial jets were audible 

between 1.8% and 18.6% of the day. It is likely 

that this level of noise would continue but could 

increase or change based on changing flight 

paths and the type and speed of aircraft.

As the gateway communities outside the 

Reserve continue to grow, and as more visitors 

are attracted to the City of Rocks, it is likely 

that there will be slight, initially imperceptible 

increases in noise within and around the Reserve 

contributing minor cumulative adverse effects. If 

visitor use and/or air traffic continue to increase, 

impacts on soundscapes within the Reserve 

could also occur, and these could become more 

noticeable and could have increasing effects. In 

1991 a county ordinance was adopted for City 

of Rocks that prohibits the operation of a motor 

vehicle, motorized toy, or audio device making 

unreasonable noise considering the particular 

time, place, and conditions in the Reserve 

(Reserve 1998a). This ordinance also prohibits 

the use of power drills without permission on 

public and private property in undeveloped 

areas of the Reserve.

When the actions in alternative A are combined 

with actions associated with past, present, 

and potential future projects within and 

outside the Reserve, it is likely that cumulative 

impacts would continue to remain minor. 

Most of the proposed actions within or outside 

the Reserve—such as potential geothermal 

development, construction projects, or 

implementation of proposed plans—would not 

contribute long-term sources of noise other than 

increased traffic on roadways or in the vicinity 

of a new facility. Alternative A contributions to 

long-term (cumulative) impacts would include 

noise associated with new use of another 

campground loop and use of an expanded 

visitor center facility in a different location. 

As a result, it is likely that cumulative impacts 

on soundscapes associated with alternative A 

would continue to be minor and localized to the 

vicinity of these new facilities.

Similarly, although new long-term sources in 

alternatives B–D would increase somewhat—

with the addition of an amphitheater at Smoky 

Mountain in alternatives B and C, an outdoor 

learning center in alternative C, and additional 

development at the Indian Grove overlook 

and potentially in other areas to accommodate 

increased frontcountry use in alternative D—it 

is likely that these impacts would be localized 

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in the vicinity of these new facilities and 

would not contribute to overall cumulative 

impacts. Therefore, cumulative impacts under 

alternatives B–D would remain minor. Of these, 

impacts would probably be greatest under 

alternative D, followed by alternatives C and B. 

Although new facilities would be constructed 

and new opportunities for visitor use provided, 

most of the Reserve would remain undeveloped 

and cumulative impacts on both the natural and 

cultural landscape would be minor.

CONCLUSION

Under all alternatives, long-term impacts 

would continue to be localized and minor. New 

contributions to soundscape impacts would 

occur from new facilities but overall impacts 

would remain localized and negligible to minor 

because they would be relocated or expanded 

in areas of existing use. Short-term adverse 

impacts, primarily related to construction of 

new facilities, would range from negligible to 

moderate, with some potential for major shortterm highly localized impacts related to use 

(such as from firearms during hunting season 

or from blasting during construction). Because 

monitoring and mitigation would be used to 

further reduce or limit impacts, cumulative 

impacts would also remain minor.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: GEOLOGY 

AND SOILS

a. Geology and Soils Methodology

Geology and soils analyses were based on a 

qualitative assessment of geologic resources, 

generalized soil types, and typical effects of the 

type of impact described. Future quantitative 

analysis would be conducted in conjunction 

with additional environmental impact analysis to 

determine the amount of soil to be removed in 

major excavation areas or that would be used in 

fill areas, depending on the proposed project.

Context of impact: Geology and soils impacts 

were considered within City of Rocks National 

Reserve, on IDPR-leased land, and IDPRowned land.

Type of impact: Activities that result in 

soil or geologic resource impacts include 

the construction of buildings or structures, 

parking areas, roads, trails, and other facilities. 

Adverse impacts on soil include soil removal, 

profile mixing, compaction, erosion, and 

contamination. Adverse impacts would degrade 

chemical or physical properties of soils or result 

in the loss or temporary removal, as well as the 

importation of soils. Beneficial impacts result 

from actions that protect soils from erosion 

or restore natural soil conditions. Restoration 

and revegetation have both adverse and 

beneficial effects.

•	 Soil removal: Surfacing and construction 

remove and/or cover the soil surface, 

resulting in changes to basic soil 

properties, including altering the ability 

of water to penetrate the soil, as well as 

nutrient availability and water-holding 

capacity. Excavation and removal of the 

soil surface would result in a long-term 

impact because basic soil properties (such 

as structure, texture, and physical and 

chemical composition), which may have 

taken tens, hundreds, or thousands of 

years to develop are removed. Covering 

the surface reduces water movement and 

minimizes the opportunity for normal 

physical and chemical soil processes 

to occur.

•	 Soil profile mixing: Soil excavation and 

redistribution or importation of fill causes 

removal or mixing of the soil profile and 

disrupts soil structural characteristics, 

interrupting the chemical, physical, and 

biological processes that naturally occur 

in soil horizons. The level of change is 

dependent on the level of the alteration. 

It may take centuries for the soil profile to 

redevelop.

•	 Soil compaction: Soil compaction may 

occur as a result of construction activities 

or in areas of intensive use such as trails, 

campgrounds, and picnic areas. Finergrained soils, including wetland soils, are 

very susceptible to compaction effects. 

Soil compaction reduces infiltration 

rates and decreases pore space, thereby 

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increasing surface runoff and the 

potential for erosion. Deep compaction 

of soils may impede subsurface water 

movement. In turn, these effects can alter 

soil chemical processes such as nutrient 

transfer, biological processes such as root 

development and microbial patterns, and 

physical processes such as soil structure. 

Vegetation growth on compacted soils is 

often limited because of low infiltration, 

poor root penetration, and lack 

of nutrients.

•	 Soil erosion: Removal of vegetation and 

organic-rich soil horizons through grading 

or casual pedestrian use may result in 

accelerated erosion of the soil surface, 

particularly on slopes steeper than 50%. 

Where vegetation is replaced by hard 

surfacing, such as by buildings, surfacing, 

or walkways, soils are also compacted, 

and physical and biotic processes are 

disrupted. Sandy soils on steep slopes 

and along watercourses are especially 

susceptible to erosion, especially poorly 

consolidated alluvial soils.

•	 Rare or sensitive soils: Certain 

microclimates in City of Rocks have 

distinct vegetation and soils. Bare rock 

exposures host slow-developing, easily 

disturbed soil crusts. Moss and lichen are 

a common occurrence on low-profile, 

low-angled rock surfaces. Mosses usually 

look like black splotches, but right after a 

rain they turn a verdant green that lasts for 

about a day. Wetlands and other areas with 

fine-grained soils are prone to erosion and 

compaction impacts.

•	 Soil contamination: The addition of 

chemical constituents into the soils as a 

result of surfacing, untreated runoff from 

impermeable surfaces, and/or incidental 

spills may alter micro- or macro-organism 

populations, diversity, and dynamics. 

Machinery involved with construction 

activities may deposit small amounts 

of natural or synthetic petroleumhydrocarbons onto soils through 

equipment failure or normal operations.

•	 Soil restoration: Ecological restoration 

that would minimize erosion potential 

and increase organic matter in the soil is 

considered a beneficial effect. Short-term 

adverse effects may occur during siterestoration activities where construction 

equipment may compact soils, temporarily 

eliminate vegetation cover, and cause 

potential erosion from surface water 

runoff over the exposed soils; however, 

over the long term, restoration would 

restore the soil-forming processes by 

reducing erosion.

Geology Impact Intensity

Negligible Actions could change aspects of a 

geologic feature or process but the 

change would not be detectable.

Minor Actions would change a geologic 

feature or process, with the change 

measurable but localized.

Moderate Actions would change a geologic 

feature or process, with the change 

measurable and localized or 

widespread.

Major Actions would change a key 

geologic feature or process, with 

the change measurable and 

widespread.

Soils Impact Intensity

Negligible Effects on soils would be generally 

undetectable. Any effects on soil 

productivity or fertility would be 

slight.

Minor Effects on soils would be detectable 

and could include loss of organic 

surface horizons. Effects on soil 

productivity or fertility and the area 

affected would be small.

Moderate The effect on soils would be readily 

apparent and probably longterm and could include loss of 

subsurface soil horizons. Impacts 

would result in a change to the 

character of the resources over a 

relatively wide area or in changes to 

a rare or sensitive soil.

Major The effect on soils would be readily 

apparent, affecting size, continuity, 

productivity, and/or fertility. Soil 

erosion would be affected over a 

large area (or over small areas if a 

sensitive soil is affected).

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b. Geology and Soils Impacts

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

Recreational use: There would continue to 

be a wide range of negligible to moderate 

localized adverse impacts on soils from ongoing 

recreational activities, including picnicking, 

camping, climbing, hiking, bicycling, and 

horseback riding. Among these, climbing, 

bicycling, and horseback riding would probably 

continue to have the most impacts, ranging 

from negligible to moderate and localized in 

some areas. For instance, equestrian and bicycle 

use often result in increased erosion on trails, 

depending on weather conditions and trail 

surfaces, while sport climbing is dependent 

on a staging area, often resulting in large bare 

areas below popular routes because of repeated 

staging use. These types of impacts would 

generally be localized and moderate. Most 

impacts, however, would be negligible to minor. 

For example, along many trails, impacts would 

probably continue to expand into adjacent areas, 

from trampling the edges of the trail in damp or 

wet conditions or from social trailing that often 

occurs as visitors repeatedly explore the same 

areas. There would also continue to be moderate 

long-term impacts from erosion related to the 

poor alignment of many trails built prior to 

Reserve establishment (Reserve 2010b; p.27). 

Some of these Reserve trails were constructed 

on steep slopes without regard to drainage 

requirements and are surfaced with erodible 

granitic soils.

Continued use of the rim campsites and 

Smoky Mountain Campground (including the 

equestrian camping and staging facilities), and 

the Juniper group campsite would also continue 

to affect soils. Impacts associated with camping 

would probably be reduced where tent pads 

were used, depending on whether the tent pad 

could accommodate user tents, while impacts 

associated with equestrian use would include 

soil compaction and erosion associated with 

runoff through bare areas, especially where 

animals were contained.

Ongoing rock climbing and scrambling would 

continue to adversely affect soils and geology. 

Impacts would range from bare areas beneath 

popular climbs (caused by staging and dog 

depressions), to inadvertent damage to rocks 

to permanently drilling or inserting hardware 

(such as for bolts and rappelling anchors) 

on rock faces. Creation of new routes would 

continue to cause some erosion of soil from 

modification of rocks and loss of vegetation, 

such as shrubs, mosses, and lichens. Climbers 

would also continue to inadvertently or 

unlawfully affect rock surfaces by clearing 

vegetation and breaking, chipping, or chiseling 

off loose material or flakes using brushes or 

other devices or from slings dislodging rocks. 

Although most vegetation loss is caused by foot 

travel or livestock, in some instances plants or 

trees have been unlawfully broken, chopped, 

or sawed at the base of climbs to provide 

climbers easier access to routes (Reserve 1998a). 

Short-term effects would include the use of 

chalk, which may affect the pH of the rock 

surface and therefore have uncertain effects 

on weathering. Because new bolted routes are 

required to be permitted in advance, and a 

small number of these are approved annually, 

over time a few areas would be affected and 

would continue to result in minor to moderate 

localized adverse effects. Rehabilitating staging 

areas and confining impacts associated with 

these—for example, by installing fences or filling 

erosion impacts—would continue to cause 

both minor to moderate long-term adverse and 

beneficial effects.

Continued closure of inscription rocks to 

scrambling and climbing would continue to 

have long-term beneficial effects by improving 

protection for these resources. Similarly the 

continued ban on climbing Twin Sisters would 

provide long-term beneficial effects by avoiding 

impacts associated with technical climbing and 

protecting this rock formation.

Natural and cultural resources management: 

Long-term beneficial effects on soils and geology 

would result from retaining the Research 

Natural Area. There would also be long-term 

beneficial effects on geology from the ability 

to protect geological resources by updating 

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the inventory of pinnacles and sensitive rock 

features in the Reserve. Negligible to minor 

adverse effects would continue to occur as the 

Reserve undertook additional archeological 

surveys and occasional rehabilitation of historic 

structures. Although removal of the Circle Creek 

impoundment would initially have short-term 

minor to moderate adverse effects on soils and 

geology, long-term localized moderate beneficial 

effects on soils would result from restoring 

natural conditions, including enabling the return 

of native plants and soil moisture levels.

Ongoing programs to treat nonnative invasive 

plants using manual/mechanical control, 

herbicides, and other methods would have both 

short-term adverse and long-term beneficial 

impacts from minimizing the effects of 

nonnative species on soil qualities, such as soil 

chemistry. Use of the invasive plant management 

plan to refine priority areas for nonnative 

invasive plant treatment would have both minor 

localized beneficial and adverse effects. Among 

these effects are beneficial impacts associated 

with treatment of nonnative invasive plants 

that could otherwise affect soil properties, for 

example by precluding the reestablishment 

of native species or by improving conditions 

for mycorrhizae or other soil microorganisms. 

Adverse effects would include disturbance 

of soils from manual/mechanical and/or 

herbicide treatments. Development of a 

vegetation management plan could improve 

the Reserve’s knowledge and understanding 

of plant community requirements, including 

soils, and could lead to improved management 

of soil resources, an indirect long-term minor 

beneficial effect.

Fire suppression: There would continue to be 

long-term negligible to moderate adverse and 

minor to moderate beneficial effects from 

maintaining the wildfire suppression program. 

Adverse effects would result from not restoring 

the natural occurrence of fire and its role in 

maintaining Reserve ecological communities, 

while beneficial effects could occur from 

minimizing the frequency of fire by not 

encouraging the spread of cheatgrass.

Grazing and livestock trailing: Continued 

livestock grazing and trailing within existing 

allotments in the Reserve would continue to 

cause changes to soils and geology, including 

soil compaction from trampling, especially 

during wet periods; soil loss from faster 

runoff in compacted areas; soil erosion, where 

vegetation has been removed or trampled; 

changes in fertility related to deposition of 

waste; and other localized negligible to moderate 

adverse impacts, depending on the location 

of the disturbance and the type of soils or 

geology. For example, wetland or riparian soils 

often recover more slowly from compaction 

compared to alluvial or loose soils, depending 

on climatic conditions. Continued systematic 

elimination of grazing from wetland and riparian 

areas would have long-term beneficial effects 

on these sensitive ecological communities, 

coupled with short-term minor adverse effects 

as fences were installed. Soils in areas where 

livestock congregate, such as along fence lines 

and gates, at existing and new trough sites 

in allotments, would continue to be affected 

more by compaction and erosion. Soils would 

also be adversely affected by the construction 

of new watering troughs and pipelines, 

including from displacement and loss of natural 

moisture conditions.

Construction: A variety of localized negligible 

to moderate short- and long-term adverse 

impacts would occur from construction of 

new facilities in areas owned or managed by 

the Reserve, including the expansion of Smoky 

Mountain Campground (new campsites and 

restrooms), and the eventual replacement of 

the existing 1,035-square-foot visitor center 

with an approximately 9,500-square-foot 

visitor center on IDPR-leased land near Smoky 

Mountain. The new visitor center would be 

located in an area comprising approximately 

five acres including parking. Minor to locally 

moderate or major impacts could include 

clearing of vegetation and grading of soils, 

excavation of soil and rock for foundations, 

replacement of native materials with fill, and 

covering soils with impermeable surfaces (such 

as sidewalks, parking areas, and buildings). After 

construction, native plant landscaping would 

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include planting salvaged and/or containergrown native plants and seeds, which would 

have a negligible to minor long-term beneficial 

effect on those soils in the area not affected by 

buildings, walkways, or infrastructure.

IMPACTS COMMON TO ALTERNATIVES 

ALTERNATIVE B–D

Recreational use: Impacts associated with 

ongoing recreational use would be the same as in 

alternative A, except that reconfiguring day and 

overnight use based on the recommendations of 

the Rim development concept plan would result 

in minor localized adverse impacts on soils and 

geologic resources from the vegetation removal 

associated with constructing approximately 22 

new campsites. Minor localized adverse impacts 

would also result from eliminating erosion 

problems in existing campsites; restoration of 

excess bare areas and social trails; restoring 

approximately 13 campsites recommended for 

closure and converting 9 others to picnicking 

sites; and installing new infrastructure, such 

as signs. Several of these activities, such as 

restoration and minimizing and/or eliminating 

erosion problems, would also have shortand long-term minor to moderate localized 

beneficial effects on soils and geology.

Developing a trails management plan could 

affect area soils by identifying potential new trail 

linkages within and extending out of the Reserve 

toward Castle Rocks State Park and/or the 

Independence Lake area (in cooperation with 

the U.S. Forest Service and/or Bureau of Land 

Management). Localized adverse impacts could 

range from negligible to moderate, depending 

on where the trails were routed (such as through 

seasonally wet areas). Beneficial impacts could 

occur from reducing erosion on existing routes 

or trails. Trail design and construction would 

avoid adverse impacts on key resources such as 

wetlands and historic properties to the extent 

possible and would be subject to additional 

environmental impact analysis.

Constructing an equestrian staging area possibly 

near the Bread Loaves intersection or in another 

area would have negligible effects on geology 

and minor to moderate adverse impacts on 

soils, coupled with long-term beneficial effects 

from providing for this activity in a designated 

location with durable surfacing, rather than 

along roadsides where vehicles and horses have 

affected adjacent undisturbed areas. Providing 

additional staging area for horses may also 

increase equestrian use of trails and impacts 

related to horses on trails in the Reserve, a minor 

to moderate localized adverse impact on soil 

conditions on trails.

Potential Reserve management or assistance 

with county management of county roads would 

probably result in long-term beneficial effects. 

This opportunity could improve conformance 

of road maintenance to NPS road standards 

and desired character. Long-term beneficial 

effects such as improved engineering, erosion 

control, and dust abatement could also occur. 

For example, directing water in sheet flow 

off the road could reduce soil erosion by 

dispersing rather than concentrating water. 

Similarly, improving trail tread (path surface) to 

encourage sheet flow rather than concentrated 

flow would have long-term minor localized 

beneficial effects.

Natural and cultural resources management:

Minor adverse and minor to moderate longterm beneficial impacts from actions associated 

with natural and cultural resources management 

would be the same as described in alternative 

A. In addition, there would be indirect minor 

to moderate long-term beneficial effects 

from improving resource knowledge and 

disseminating additional information.

Developing a plan to manage the California Trail 

ruts could have indirect long-term negligible to 

minor localized beneficial or adverse effects on 

soils and geology depending on what actions 

were identified by the plan.

Fire management: Development of a fuels 

treatment plan could help to prevent high fire 

intensities in grazing allotments and could lead 

to better protection of natural and cultural 

resources and infrastructure in the Reserve, 

a long-term beneficial effect. Hazard fuel 

reduction would also have minor adverse effects 

on soils in the Reserve, as vegetation treatments 

were undertaken.

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Use of fire could benefit fire-dependent 

plant communities and renew soils by cycling 

nutrients. Fires would have both adverse and 

beneficial effects on soils that would depend 

on a variety of factors, including the intensity, 

timing, duration, and location of the fire, as well 

as reestablishment of the vegetation community. 

In addition, developing a contingency plan for 

areas where high fire intensity and/or post-fire 

erosion are anticipated could help protect the 

Reserve’s highly erodible granitic soils, a longterm beneficial effect.

Fire use could result in deposits of carbon, 

blackening rock and soil surfaces, and 

exfoliation or bleaching of rock surfaces under 

high fire intensity. Because these impacts would 

occur primarily in heavily vegetated rather 

than sparsely vegetated areas, effects would 

probably be short-term, localized, and minor 

to moderate. Other potential effects related 

to fire would include mechanical disturbance 

associated with the use of heavy equipment for 

firefighting or mop-up. In accordance with fire 

management planning, such use would not be 

approved in areas with sensitive resources and as 

a result would be anticipated to have negligible 

to moderate localized adverse effects. Loss of 

vegetation from fire could also cause short-term 

negligible to moderate localized decreases in 

infiltration rates and increases in water runoff 

from soils, affecting erosion and sedimentation 

rates. Prescribed fires would also have a 

variety of long-term beneficial effects on soils, 

resulting in an increase in nutrient availability 

for plants and probably an overall increase in 

soil productivity.

Prescribed and wildland fires may also cause 

changes in organic horizons, water repellency, 

infiltration capacity, porosity, structure, 

temperature, and hydrologic properties, and 

may increase or decrease erosion. Depending 

on the slope, fire may increase the potential 

for accelerating erosion through its effects on 

vegetation, organic matter, and the physical 

properties of the soil (including reducing water 

infiltration). In the absence of vegetative cover, 

dry raveling (particles sliding down a slope) can 

also increase on steep slopes after fire.

Burning wood releases hydrocarbons, which 

diffuse both up through smoke and down 

through the soil, and may cause water-repellent 

soils. These hydrocarbons moving through soil 

sometimes coat soil particles with wax, causing 

them to repel water. Soil that is water repellent 

causes short-term adverse effects on plant 

growth by reducing the availability of water. 

Changes in soil nutrient composition are usually 

the result of the volatilization of elements during 

combustion of fuel and organic matter. Nutrients 

in the soil may also be lost as ash via air currents, 

convection, or as a result of leaching.

Fires also change the cycling of nutrients 

and the physical and biotic characteristics of 

soils. The magnitude and longevity of these 

effects depend on many factors including fire 

regime, fire severity, vegetation type, soil type, 

topography, season, and pre- and post-fire 

weather conditions. Fire effects may also cause 

indirect impacts, including changes in soil 

microorganisms and erosion rates. There would 

be short- to long-term beneficial effects on soil 

nutrient reserves by the release of nutrients as 

ash deposited during fires, resulting in increased 

natural fertilization of the soil and attendant 

increases in soil capacity to grow vegetation. 

The added organic material would work in 

combination with dead and dying root systems 

of non-fire-tolerant plants to make the soil more 

porous, better able to retain water, and less 

compact, while increasing needed surface area 

for essential microorganisms, mycorrhizae, and 

roots (Vogl 1979; Wright and Bailey 1980).

Grazing and livestock trailing: As described 

in alternative A, there would continue to 

be negligible to moderate localized adverse 

impacts on soils and geology from grazing and 

livestock trailing, and continuing to eliminate 

grazing in wetland and riparian areas would 

have long-term minor to moderate localized 

beneficial effects.

Boundary modifications: Boundary adjustments 

in the Research Natural Area would have 

long-term beneficial impacts on soils from the 

additional area that would be encompassed. 

There would also be long-term beneficial effects 

on geologic resources from the expansion of 

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the RNA boundary. Resources that would 

be protected include Mahogany Mountain, 

Emery Canyon, and other geologic pinnacles. 

Interpretive programs emphasizing the unique 

Reserve geology could also engender additional 

support for protection of these resources, 

an indirect negligible to minor long-term 

beneficial effect.

Construction: As in alternative A, there would 

be a variety of localized negligible to moderate 

adverse impacts on geology and soils from the 

construction of new facilities in the Reserve, 

including new trails, the expansion of facilities 

on current IDPR-leased land (including for 

campground expansion, restrooms, and an 

amphitheater), implementation of the Rim 

DCP recommendations, and construction 

of a turnaround at the north end of Logger 

Springs Road.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE B

Impacts associated with alternative B would 

be the same as described above, except 

that retaining the current visitor center and 

reconfiguring its interior would avoid most new 

impacts on soils.

Recreational use: In addition to impacts 

associated with ongoing recreational use 

described above, there would be slightly more 

adverse impacts associated with constructing a 

new multiuse trail from excavation and removal 

of vegetation.

Grazing management: Reduced grazing pressure 

could lead to long-term beneficial effects from 

decreased compaction of soils and natural 

changes in plant communities. Within the 

Reserve, grazing pressure would be expected to 

decline in some areas if permittees discontinue 

requests for permits, probably resulting in a 

reduction in the total number of cows and 

animal unit months over time. Potentially 

discontinuing or consolidating some allotments, 

if initiated by the permittees, could also lead to 

enhanced beneficial effects on soils.

In addition, reducing or eliminating grazing in 

the California Trail Zone and potentially the 

Visitor Facilities and Access Zone would have 

minor long-term beneficial effects on soils 

and geology in that area, but would probably 

be displaced to other allotments within the 

Reserve. Tracy Lane, in the southwest corner 

of the Reserve, is the only public land in 

the California Trail Zone that is currently 

grazed. New minor adverse impacts would be 

contributed from more waysides and exhibits 

and/or unstaffed information kiosks.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE C

Recreational use: As in alternative B, in addition 

to impacts associated with ongoing recreational 

use, there would be slightly more adverse 

impacts associated with a new multiuse trail and 

with a trail to the summit of Smoky Mountain.

Natural and cultural resources management: 

There would also be indirect minor to moderate 

long-term beneficial effects from improving 

resource knowledge and disseminating 

additional information, as well as from 

conducting additional inventory and monitoring 

projects and programs, especially those 

associated with vegetation and soils.

Fire management: Impacts would be the same as 

described above.

Grazing management: As in alternative B, 

reduced grazing pressure could lead to 

long-term beneficial effects from decreased 

compaction of soils and natural changes 

in plant communities. Within the Reserve, 

grazing pressure would be expected to decline 

depending on whether permittees voluntarily 

accepted grazing buyouts, probably resulting in 

a reduction/elimination in the total number of 

cows and animal unit months over time.

Boundary modifications: Both RNA and Reserve 

boundary modifications would have longterm beneficial effects on soils and geology 

from additional protection of unique areas 

and from protection of most resources in a 

natural condition. In addition, the cooperative 

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management area could result in additional 

protection from development such as mining 

on soils and geology, particularly for resources 

associated with the western boundary of the 

national natural landmark.

Construction: As described above, there would 

be a wide range of localized negligible to 

moderate adverse impacts on geology and soils 

from the construction of new facilities in the 

Reserve: in alternative C these would include 

new trails, the expansion of Smoky Mountain 

Campground to include additional campsites 

and an amphitheater, implementation of the 

Rim DCP recommendations, construction of a 

turnaround at the north end of Logger Springs 

Road, and development of the outdoor learning 

center. Constructing a smaller shared visitor 

center than proposed in alternative A would 

have fewer adverse impacts on geology and soils, 

though the kinds of impacts would be similar.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE D

Impacts associated with recreational use, 

natural and cultural resources management, fire 

management, grazing management, boundary 

modifications, and construction would be the 

same as described above in “Impacts Common 

to Alternatives B–D,” except that there would be 

a different array of impacts associated with:

•	 Recreational use (with more recreational 

vehicle sites rather than tent campsites, 

similar to alternative A).

•	 Grazing management (with slightly more 

impacts anticipated, similar to alternative 

A: grazing effects would continue in all 

zones as permits continued to be renewed, 

though there could be fewer impacts in 

the Visitor Facilities and Access Zone 

if grazing allotments were modified to 

exclude this area).

•	 Construction (including a much larger 

visitor center facility, similar to alternative 

A, and a new overlook instead of a 

turnaround at Indian Grove).

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures to minimize impacts on geologic 

resources and soils (as appropriate to the 

alternative) would include the following:

•	 Refrain from taking gravel, sand, and 

materials from within the Reserve for 

road maintenance or construction—these 

materials would come from a nearby 

source and would be mineralogically and 

petrologically compatible with native rock 

in the Reserve.

•	 Locate construction staging areas where 

they would minimize new disturbance of 

area soils and vegetation.

•	 Minimize ground disturbance to the 

extent practicable during construction of 

new or modification of existing facilities.

•	 Minimize driving over or compacting root 

zones.

•	 Use mats or plywood to minimize soil 

compaction impacts when working in wet 

areas.

•	 Salvage topsoil from excavated areas for 

use in recovering source area or other 

project areas.

•	 Windrow topsoil at a height that would 

help to preserve soil microorganisms 

(below three feet).

•	 Reuse excavated materials where possible 

in the project area.

•	 Revegetate project areas through native 

seeding and planting.

•	 Import weed-free clean fill and store 

imported or excavated topsoil and fill in a 

weed-free area, covered by weed cloth to 

prevent contamination.

•	 Identify clearing limits to minimize the 

amount of vegetation loss.

•	 Clear and grub only those areas where 

construction would occur.

•	 Prepare and approve a hazardous spill 

plan or spill prevention containment and 

control plan, whichever is appropriate, 

before construction begins.

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•	 Encourage the use of nonpetroleumbased hydraulic fluid in heavy equipment 

for construction projects.

•	 Identify climbing route access paths 

that would avoid the development of 

social trails.

•	 Develop and contain staging areas for 

climbers to limit spillover impacts into 

adjacent undisturbed areas.

•	 Continue to encourage minimum impact 

climbing techniques.

•	 Continue to require permits for new 

bolted route establishment.

•	 Make adjustments, such as changing 

animal numbers, seasons of use, kinds 

or classes of animals, or management 

practices as warranted by specific 

conditions on grazing allotments and 

by monitoring.

•	 Exclude cattle from wetland and riparian 

areas through a variety of means, such as 

by providing alternate water sources or 

adding fencing, as appropriate.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Over time, development and use of lands within 

and near the Reserve on IDPR land and IDPRleased land for administration, recreation, 

grazing, and other uses have resulted in 

modifications to soils and geology, contributing 

cumulative adverse effects. Compared to the 

overall area contained within the Reserve 

boundary, however, only a small percentage 

has actually been developed. There are 

approximately 17.98 miles of roads (of these 9.9 

miles are managed by Cassia County and 8.08 

miles are managed by the Reserve), more than 

23 miles of designated trails and an unknown 

number of social trails, 38 recreational vehicle 

/ equestrian-developed campsites, and 51 

primitive campsites.

There are an estimated 157 bolted climbing 

routes and 191 traditional routes in the Reserve. 

Both have contributed to soil erosion and 

alteration of rock surfaces, contributing minor 

cumulative adverse effects. However, county 

ordinances enacted in 1991, together with the 

Reserve permit requirement for new bolted 

routes, have been very effective at reducing the 

proliferation of bolted routes within the Reserve 

(Reserve 1998a: p. 31). Manual rock drills used 

in sport climbing have also affected geology. The 

1998 climbing management plan identified 13 

register rocks bearing emigrant inscriptions. Of 

these, 10 possessed climbing routes at the time, 

some of which had damaged inscriptions due 

to bolts or other climbing hardware (Reserve 

1998a: p. 32). Later, climbing was eliminated 

from and is no longer allowed on inscription 

rocks and the bolts have been removed from 

signature rocks on public land in the California 

Trail Zone, a cumulative beneficial effect.)

There are also a variety of wayside exhibits, 

information signs, and trail signs in the Reserve 

that have affected soils. Existing buildings and 

structures also contribute minimal cumulative 

effects, because most of these are small buildings 

such as vault toilets and information kiosks. 

Widespread impacts include conversion 

of native vegetation to a mix of native and 

nonnative vegetation, due to grazing and/or 

past disturbance, as well as the introduction 

and spread of invasive species. Similarly, 

grazing has affected springs and riparian 

areas because of water diversion for livestock, 

resulting in increased erosion and loss of natural 

soil moisture. To the extent that this activity 

continues, it would continue to contribute 

adverse cumulative effects.

Past actions include the provision in the 

Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive management 

plan to remove grazing from wetland and 

riparian areas, an effort that has continued to 

the present day and that has resulted in longterm moderate to major cumulative beneficial 

effects following original impacts on these 

areas. Improvements would continue as more 

of these areas are fenced out and grazing is 

confined to more durable areas, where soils are 

not as susceptible to compaction and erosion. 

In addition, construction of roads, trails, and 

climbing routes has had localized to widespread 

adverse effects on soils and geology, primarily 

associated with erosion as well as cut and fill 

along roadways. Indirect long-term beneficial 

effects have probably been conferred by actions 

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such as the development of the self-guided 

geologic trail near the Circle Creek Overlook, 

which engenders support for and knowledge of 

geologic resources and the need to protect them.

As described in the preliminary natural 

resources condition assessment, soils are also 

made vulnerable by drought and by the periods 

following fires, when there is a loss of protective 

vegetation, including lichens and mosses. 

Soils are threatened during patterns of heavy 

rainfall or local cloudbursts, when thinner 

slope deposits could be washed away and 

redistributed to drainage banks or depressions. 

Fire effects on soils are also dependent on the 

texture of the surface layer, content of rock 

fragments and organic matter in the surface 

layer, thickness of the surface layer, and slope 

(Erixson and Corrao 2011). Wind can remove 

fine organic and mineral materials from the 

soil surface and expose or deposit coarser 

fragments. Loess may be transported to City of 

Rocks via wind currents crossing other erodible 

areas. Soils developed on mountain and foothill 

slopes may be subject to erosion by wind and 

water (including sheet and rill erosion) and 

may be locally affected by landslides. Pollutants 

transported by air including chemicals, 

particulates, and others can also have a negative 

effect on soil development, soil microorganisms, 

the development of vegetation, lichens and moss 

on rock surfaces, and other plants.

Present actions include ongoing management 

of unpaved roads, parking areas, trails, climber 

staging areas, climbing routes, campgrounds, 

and visitor and administrative facilities. These 

actions continue to have localized minor adverse 

and negligible beneficial effects, primarily on 

soils, but some, such as the establishment of new 

permanent climbing routes, also have negligible 

to minor permanent effects on rock formations 

(geology). Current and future grazing on BLM 

and USFS allotments would be expected to have 

similar direct and indirect effects on geology and 

soils as described in the impact analysis for the 

alternatives and would continue to contribute 

minor beneficial and adverse cumulative 

effects. Recent actions by the Bureau of Land 

Management in the vicinity (Castle Rocks 

Interagency Recreation Area) have also resulted 

in that bureau’s decision not to construct 

additional trails or provide camping and to close 

existing sport and traditional climbing routes in 

that area. This action, if continued, would have 

negligible to minor beneficial effects on soils and 

geology on these nearby lands.

Threats posed to Reserve resources by 

recreational pursuits also include those from 

hiking, horseback riding, and camping. Where 

these uses occur on existing trails, impacts 

would continue to be minor. As recreational use 

increases, however, there may be an increase 

in soil erosion associated with these activities, 

especially if they cause an increase in staging 

areas, use of wet trails, or more off-trail use. As 

described in the preliminary natural resources 

condition assessment, the increased use of 

climbing areas and trails has produced notable 

degradation of soils and vegetation cover in 

staging areas (Erixson and Corrao 2011). The 

degradation of these areas may be attributed to a 

combination of foot traffic, equipment placement, 

and domestic dog shade-bed digging. As a result 

the Reserve has constructed fencing in areas near 

some popular climbing routes to curtail area 

degradation; however pet dogs are commonly 

tied to the fencing, intensifying the impacts of dog 

shade-beds both inside and outside the fences. 

Therefore, the Reserve has increased visitor 

awareness by using signs and patrols to reduce its 

occurrence. As a result, there would continue to 

be a range of cumulative beneficial and adverse 

effects related to these activities.

Future actions include the components of the 

alternatives in this GMP, combined with a variety 

of actions that could continue to occur on 

private lands or on applicable USFS and BLM 

lands outside the Reserve, such as additional 

energy development (wind, geothermal, and 

electric transmission lines) and the potential for 

expanded multiple-use actions by the U.S. Forest 

Service or Bureau of Land Management. These 

projects, such as wind energy development, could 

affect soils on hundreds of acres, with moderate 

to major cumulative impacts, if implemented. 

Effects on soils and geology would include 

use/displacement, wind erosion, compaction, 

surfacing, and loss of vegetative cover.

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When actions in alternatives A–D are added 

to the effects of other past, present, and future 

actions, however, there would generally continue 

to be minor to moderate localized cumulative 

adverse and negligible to moderate cumulative 

beneficial impacts on soils and geology.

CONCLUSION

Alternatives A–D would have a range of 

negligible to moderate localized adverse and 

minor to moderate long-term beneficial effects. 

Adverse effects would be greater in alternatives 

A and D associated with a larger visitor center 

facility, while beneficial effects would be greater 

in alternatives C and D associated with an 

expanded Research Natural Area and boundary 

expansion that encompasses additional 

geological resources. Future reduction of the 

number of livestock or animal unit months and 

consolidation of allotments within the Reserve 

under alternatives B and C could have long-term 

beneficial effects if these actions (voluntary 

cessation or voluntary acceptance of buyouts) 

are initiated by grazing permittees. As design 

for development proposals occurred, these 

would be subject to additional environmental 

impact analysis.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: IMPACTS ON WATER 

RESOURCES

IMPACTS ON WATER RESOURCES: 

HYDROLOGY AND WATER QUANTITY

a. Hydrology and Water Quantity 

Methodology

Context of impact: Water resources impacts 

were considered within City of Rocks National 

Reserve, on IDPR-leased land and IDPRowned land.

Type of impact: Beneficial impacts would 

improve the condition or quantity of water 

resources, while adverse impacts would decrease 

these or affect beneficial uses.

Impact Intensity

Negligible Impacts on hydrology and water 

quantity would be at or below the 

level of detection, would occur in a 

small area, and the changes would 

be so small that they would not be 

measurable or perceptible.

Minor Impacts on hydrology and water 

quantity would be detectable, 

but localized, small, and of little 

consequence.

Moderate Impacts on hydrology and water 

quantity would be readily detectable 

and have localized consequences 

on the health and functioning of an 

area or a measurable change to a 

hydrologic system.

Major Impacts on hydrology and water 

quantity would be widespread, 

with substantial and regional 

consequences.

b. Hydrology and Water Quantity Impacts

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

There would continue to be negligible to 

localized moderate adverse impacts from using 

water from two drinking water wells within the 

Reserve (Emery Pass and Bath Rock). There 

are four other wells within the Reserve on 

public and private property that are or were 

used for stock. The wells produce between 

1.5 and 20 gallons per minute for Reserve 

administrative and maintenance operations, 

such as for maintaining equipment, landscaping, 

and drinking.

Potable water is a rare commodity within the 

Reserve that must be sought at centralized 

locations. It is also usually only available from 

May through October. Drinking water would 

continue to be available at the Emery Pass Picnic 

Area and between campsites 50 and 52. The 

water is pumped (powered by a photovoltaic 

system) and then piped underground to the 

Bath Rock parking area. This water is potable 

but often produces harmless orange algae. Both 

systems are closed and locked when nighttime 

temperatures are consistently below freezing. 

Because the Bath Rock well (on IDPR-owned 

land within the Reserve) and the Emery Pass 

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well (on NPS land) would continue to be used, 

there would continue to be minor to moderate 

long-term adverse effects on water quantity.

There would be long-term beneficial effects on 

hydrology from restoring the former Circle Creek 

impoundment area. Water would no longer be 

contained there but would flow downstream, 

improving ecological and hydrological functions 

in this altered riparian area.

Most months of the year surface water is also 

present in natural rock pools, such as atop Bath 

Rock and Shangri La. These and other smaller 

depressions consistently or intermittently retain 

water after snowmelt, rainfall, and runoff. 

These and other areas would continue to 

benefit wildlife.

Although no new well or water tank would 

be needed, providing water for the additional 

proposed recreational vehicle campground loop 

at Smoky Mountain would have additional longterm minor to moderate adverse effects on water 

quantity, depending on whether recreational 

vehicle hook-ups and showers are provided. 

Provision of showers could have moderate 

adverse effects on water quantity.

Developing a vegetation management plan 

for the Reserve would probably have indirect 

long-term beneficial impacts on improving 

water resources (including water flow), from 

identifying priorities for wetland and riparian 

restoration and from restoring vegetation in 

other habitats.

There would continue to be negligible to 

moderate or major localized adverse effects 

on hydrology and water quantity from grazing 

within the Reserve. These effects would occur 

from changing runoff patterns through diversion 

and use of water and from trampling riparian 

areas or wetlands that have not yet been 

fenced out of pastures. Updating the grazing 

management plan and continuing to fence 

out wetland and riparian areas would have 

long-term beneficial effects on water quantity, 

including in springs and riparian areas.

Four of seven grazing allotments still contain 

wetlands or other areas that need to be fenced to 

prevent livestock encroachment and to improve 

water resources and vegetation conditions, 

including:

•	 Graham Creek Allotment

•	 Kempton Allotment

•	 Emery Canyon Allotment

•	 Trail Canyon Allotment

Tracy Lane and Heath Canyon grazing 

allotments do not require wetland protection, 

nor does Circle Creek because it is no longer in 

use within the Reserve.

As noted in the preliminary natural resources 

condition assessment, the Almo and Circle 

Creek watersheds often have spikes in turbidity 

observed in conjunction with increased 

stream flow caused by precipitation events 

in combination with disturbed stream banks. 

The Almo Creek watershed has fewer exposed 

cut banks and less livestock use compared to 

the Circle Creek watershed; however, erosion 

and stream bank instability caused by frequent 

changes in water levels from irrigation diversions 

would continue to be investigated (Erixson and 

Corrao 2011).

Developing a replacement visitor center for the 

Reserve would have long-term adverse impacts 

on water quantity from the new use of water in a 

different location, while retaining current uses of 

water at the administrative headquarters. These 

impacts would be minor, however, because in 

addition to LEED standard adherence, low-flow 

toilets and minimal provisions for water use 

would be made.

ALTERNATIVE B IMPACTS

As in alternative A, there would be long-term 

minor adverse effects from continued use of 

water for Reserve operations, beneficial effects 

from restoring the Circle Creek impoundment, 

and beneficial effects from developing a 

vegetation management plan for the Reserve. 

There would also continue to be ongoing 

negligible to moderate adverse effects and longterm beneficial effects on hydrology and water 

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quantity from removing grazing from within 

wetlands and riparian areas within the Reserve; 

and long-term minor to moderate adverse 

effects on water quantity from constructing an 

additional camping area at Smoky Mountain, 

depending on whether hook-ups and showers 

are provided.

Because alternative B allows for an eventual 

decrease in the number of livestock and animal 

unit months through attrition, there could 

be fewer impacts associated with grazing 

allotments, although initially these would remain 

negligible to moderate and adverse from existing 

and/or modifying water diversion and use.

In alternative B, impacts from a new 

campground camping area could be reduced 

because fewer hook-ups for recreational vehicles 

would probably be required with the proposed 

emphasis on tent and group tent camping, and 

because vault instead of flush toilets would 

probably be provided. Because a new visitor 

facility would not be constructed, there would 

be no additional impacts on water quantity 

from additional use of water associated with 

that facility; however, long-term minor adverse 

impacts on water quantity would continue 

from the use of water at the Castle Rocks 

Administrative Unit.

In addition, a variety of beneficial and adverse 

impacts could result from potential water use for 

fire management in the Reserve. For instance, 

while slight beneficial effects could occur from 

pre-treatment of hazard fuels, loss of vegetation 

during fires could result in increased erosion 

and delivery of water to nearby watercourses, 

affecting hydrology.

ALTERNATIVE C IMPACTS

Ongoing negligible to minor or localized 

moderate adverse impacts associated with 

continued use of water for facilities, operations, 

and developing a replacement visitor center 

would be the same as described in alternative 

A. Because the visitor center would be slightly 

smaller in this alternative, there could be 

fewer impacts than in alternative A. If water 

was provided at the outdoor learning center 

facilities, however, there would be additional 

negligible to minor localized adverse impacts on 

water quantity.

Because alternative C allows for an eventual 

decrease/elimination in the number of livestock 

and animal unit months from a possible 

reduction in grazing through voluntary buyouts, 

initially adverse impacts would continue to range 

from negligible to moderate from existing and/

or new modifications related to water diversion 

and use.

As in alternatives A and B, providing water 

for the additional campground loop at Smoky 

Mountain would have long-term minor to 

moderate localized adverse effects on water 

quantity.

Expanded partnerships to better understand the 

potential effects of climate change on changing 

water supplies could have indirect long-term 

beneficial effects. Improving understanding 

of adequate water for wildlife and Reserve 

operations could have indirect beneficial effects 

on hydrology and water quantity.

ALTERNATIVE D IMPACTS

As in alternative A, developing a replacement 

full-service visitor center for the Reserve would 

have long-term minor to moderate adverse 

impacts on water quantity. Similarly, negligible 

to moderate adverse effects and long-term 

beneficial effects on hydrology and water 

quantity would continue to result from fencing 

out the remaining wetlands and riparian areas 

from grazing allotments within the Reserve. 

As in alternative A, developing a vegetation 

management plan would have indirect long-term 

beneficial effects. As with the other alternatives, 

providing water for the additional campground 

loop at Smoky Mountain would have longterm minor to moderate adverse effects on 

water quantity.

Compared to alternative A, there would be more 

short-term impacts associated with construction 

of new facilities and similar long-term impacts.

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MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures to minimize impacts on water 

resources (as appropriate to the alternative) 

would include actions to:

•	 Locate staging and stockpiling areas away 

from surface water resources.

•	 Continue to fence out sensitive areas—

such as riparian areas and other 

wetlands—from grazing allotments.

•	 Install construction fencing around, 

adjacent to, or near wetland and/or 

riparian areas to be protected, or use other 

erosion protection measures to minimize 

sedimentation.

•	 Minimize soil disturbance and revegetate 

disturbed areas as soon as practicable.

•	 Use vegetable-based hydraulic fluid in 

heavy equipment.

•	 Minimize the creation of impervious 

surfaces.

•	 Evaluate dams on lands acquired by 

the National Park Service to determine 

whether these areas can be restored.

•	 Exclude cattle from riparian areas through 

a variety of means, such as by providing 

alternate water sources or adding fencing, 

as appropriate.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Because the Reserve is located in a semi-arid 

environment with few surface water resources, 

there has been a wide range of development 

associated with the water sources that do exist. 

Over time, these water resources have been 

used to provide water for livestock, homesteads, 

and ranches (including current and former 

private facilities) in the Reserve and its vicinity, 

as well as for administrative and visitor use. An 

unknown number of water diversions for cattle 

exist on private land, and approximately 12 

spring box/trough water diversions, primarily 

associated with springs, exist on public lands 

within the Reserve.

Because most springs found within the Reserve 

are used for grazing, there would continue to be 

minor to moderate cumulative adverse effects. 

Among these springs are Tea Kettle, Bath Rock, 

Taylor, Indian Grove, Kempton, Logger, Mica, 

Button, Willow, Mahogany, North Fork Circle 

Creek, and Walters Creek. In most cases a head 

box is present, and water is piped away from the 

source for use by cattle. An unknown quantity of 

water is tapped in this way to support livestock 

grazing. Of the seven grazing allotments, Emery 

Canyon has two spring-boxes (with one trough 

each); Graham Creek has four springs, each 

with one trough. Bath Rock has one spring box 

(one trough). Kempton has one spring and one 

trough with a pipe to a private pasture. Tracy 

Lane has a trough on public land fed by a well 

on private property. Trail Canyon and Heath 

Canyon each have several troughs from water 

sources on private land. There are also two 

existing wells for public and administrative use 

that provide an unknown quantity of water. 

There are also an unknown number of springs 

in the Reserve that have not been developed for 

livestock use. There are also four wells on private 

lands within the Reserve.

Past actions include a variety of water supply 

developments in the Reserve on formerly private 

and current private lands. There would continue 

to be negligible to moderate adverse impacts 

on hydrology from impoundments on these 

privately owned lands in the Reserve. In addition 

to the Circle Creek impoundment that would 

be removed and restored, Circle Creek has six 

other earthen or alluvial dams. All but two are 

about 0.5 acres in size and are used for watering 

stock. The upper Emigrant Creek dam has been 

breached and the lower dam downstream also 

does not contain water. In addition to these 

dams, there are three stock ponds, one along 

Taylor Creek north of Bread Loaves and two 

associated with the Kelton-Boise stage station 

along Emigrant Creek. Combined these water 

impoundments have contributed to long-term 

minor to moderate cumulative adverse impacts 

on water quantity.

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Present actions include seasonal and permanent 

use of water as noted above for livestock grazing; 

maintenance of existing impoundments on 

private lands within the Reserve; ongoing 

efforts to fence out riparian and wetland areas 

from grazing allotments; and continuing use 

of water for administrative and visitor facility 

management. Current and future grazing on 

BLM and USFS allotments would be expected 

to have similar direct and indirect effects on 

hydrology and water quantity, as described 

above. (Effects on water quality follow this 

section.) A recent assessment of eight drainages 

found all but Lower North Circle Creek to 

be in proper functioning condition. Lower 

North Circle Creek, which is located on a 

private ranch, was identified as functional 

but at risk of degradation, with a downward 

trend in measured attributes (Erixson and 

Corrao 2011). The condition assessment also 

identified unstable banks with little to no present 

vegetation, pronounced cut banks, and evidence 

of livestock use (Erixson and Corrao 2011).

Future actions would include those identified 

in the alternatives in this GMP, as well as the 

probable continued use of water on private 

lands within the Reserve and in the surrounding 

small towns as populations increase. If grazing 

was reduced through attrition (alternative 

B) or through voluntary buyouts (alternative 

C), there would be cumulative minor to 

moderate beneficial effects on hydrology and 

water quantity.

According to the 2013 Draft National Climate 

Assessment, as the air temperature warms, 

so can the water temperature in the park’s 

freshwater systems (e.g., streams and wetlands). 

Compounding stressors can include competing 

demands (e.g., agriculture and population 

growth) for limited freshwater resources. Any 

increase in water temperature and evaporation 

along with increases in water withdrawal may 

affect aquatic communities. Extinctions of 

fish and other aquatic species are projected to 

occur from the combined effects of increased 

water withdrawal and a warmer climate (e.g., 

47% of the trout habitat in the U.S. interior 

west would be lost by 2080 under one modeled 

climate change scenario [A1B]). As changes 

occur in precipitation and land use in aquifer 

recharge areas, combined with changes in 

demand for groundwater over time, these will 

affect groundwater availability and recharge for 

springs, streams and wetland systems in ways 

that are not well understood (USGCRP 2013).

Increasing water temperatures and intensifying 

droughts will affect freshwater chemistry, such 

as reduction in dissolved oxygen concentrations, 

and increase in solubility and residence time of 

pollutants. Excessive runoff and flooding from 

storm events can accelerate erosion, carrying 

debris and pollutants into streams, exceeding 

their natural capacity to process sediment loads 

and pollutants. Climate change combined with 

other stressors can overwhelm the capacity of 

ecosystems to buffer the impacts from these 

extreme events.

When the impacts of alternatives A–D are 

added to other past, present, and future actions, 

there would continue to be minor to moderate 

cumulative adverse impacts on hydrology and 

water quantity, especially associated with water 

impoundment and use by humans or animals. 

Eventually, these effects could be reduced if 

grazing was voluntarily reduced or eliminated 

through provisions in alternatives C and D, 

resulting in potentially widespread cumulative 

beneficial effects. Future suburban or industrial 

development in towns surrounding the Reserve 

could increase the range of these cumulative 

adverse effects, depending on the whether the 

water source was derived from aquifers related 

to the Reserve.

CONCLUSION

All alternatives would continue to have 

negligible to moderate localized adverse 

impacts on hydrology and water quantity. The 

contribution of management alternatives to 

cumulative effects, however, would primarily be 

minor and localized and would include some 

beneficial effects, such as reductions in water use 

for grazing if allotments were reduced through 

attrition or voluntary buyouts. Construction of 

a new visitor facility in alternatives A, C, and D 

would have minor long-term adverse impacts 

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on water quantity, as would the addition of 

campsites to Smoky Mountain Campground 

under all alternatives. If showers were added, 

these effects could be localized and moderate. 

Using LEED standards for new buildings 

would ensure that other hydrology and water 

quantity effects associated with these would 

remain minor.

IMPACTS ON WATER RESOURCES: 

WATER QUALITY

a. Water Quality Methodology

Context of impact: Water quality impacts 

were considered within City of Rocks National 

Reserve, on IDPR-leased land, and IDPRowned land.

Type of impact: Beneficial impacts would 

improve water quality, while adverse impacts 

would degrade it.

Impact Intensity

Negligible Chemical, physical, or biological 

impacts would not be detectable, 

would be within water quality 

standards or criteria, and/or historic or 

desired water quality conditions.

Minor Chemical, physical, or biological 

impacts would be detectable, but 

would be within water quality 

standards or criteria and/or historical or 

desired water quality conditions.

Moderate Chemical, physical, or biological 

impacts would be detectable but 

would be within water quality 

standards or criteria except for shortperiods; historical baseline or desired 

water quality conditions would be 

temporarily altered.

Major Chemical, physical, or biological 

impacts would be detectable and 

would be frequently altered from the 

historical baseline or desired water 

quality conditions. Chemical, physical, 

or biological water quality standards or 

criteria would routinely be exceeded.

b. Water Quality Impacts

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

Adverse impacts on water quality could 

continue to occur as a result of recreational 

activities, resource management activities, 

grazing, and construction. Long-term beneficial 

impacts would continue to occur as a result 

of protecting existing high elevations within 

Reserve watersheds (where headwaters occur) 

from additional development. According to 

state water quality standards, the creeks within 

the Reserve (Almo, North, South, and Circle 

creeks) are undesignated surface waters and 

have not been assigned beneficial uses; however, 

beneficial uses of undesignated waters are 

assumed to support cold water aquatic life and 

primary or secondary contact recreation (ID 

DEQ 2011, 2012).

Recreational activities: There would continue to 

be long-term negligible to minor adverse effects 

on water quality from visitor use activities, 

such as hiking, horseback riding, climbing, and 

camping. As noted in the soils section, erosion 

caused by bicycling, climbing, and horseback 

riding would probably continue to have the most 

impact, however, because there are few surface 

water resources and these activities would be 

unlikely to have adverse effects on water quality 

(such as sedimentation) in most areas. Impacts 

would also occur from horse and dog waste left 

on trails or in campgrounds. In addition, human 

waste is sometimes deposited near campsites, 

picnic areas, trails, and climbing areas, and is 

especially associated with dispersed visitor 

use. Human and dog waste may result in both 

unsanitary and unsightly conditions. Where 

impacts on surface water resources did occur, 

they would most likely be of greater intensity 

with the first flush after a rain event and would 

be localized and negligible to moderate.

Developing a trails management plan 

would have long-term beneficial effects on 

water quality by improving trail siting near 

wetlands and riparian areas and by treating 

erosion problems on existing trails. The trails 

management plan would help to ensure best 

management practices are followed in the 

construction of new trails. These practices 

include careful crafting of the trail alignment and 

proper trail construction techniques and would 

minimize impacts on water quality. As a result, 

there would be negligible to minor localized 

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adverse impacts on water quality in most areas 

from new trail construction. Where construction 

occurred for long distances or near wetlands or 

riparian areas, there could be localized moderate 

adverse effects, depending on the method of 

trail construction (for example, for a bridge, 

turnpike, or boardwalk).

There would also continue to be negligible to 

minor adverse impacts on water quality from 

improper disposal of wash water following 

cooking activities within the rim area campsites 

or Smoky Mountain Campground and at the 

Juniper group campsite. More widespread 

impacts could occur if wastewater was dumped 

near drainages, in locations where groundwater 

resources were close to the surface, or if 

runoff from spring or fall rains occurred soon 

after disposal.

Based on regular monitoring, the two existing 

wells used for administrative and public use 

meet Safe Drinking Water Act standards for 

potability and are minimally treated to provide 

potable water. Ongoing monitoring would 

continue to develop baseline information, a 

long-term beneficial effect.

Natural and cultural resources management: 

Continued water quality monitoring in 

partnership with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, the NPS UCBN I&M Program, and the 

Idaho Departments of Environmental Quality 

and Fish and Game would improve Reserve 

understanding of water resources and potential 

threats to water quality, and could indirectly 

lead to long-term beneficial effects from actions 

to mitigate these. A 2009 UCBN inventory and 

monitoring study of five core water chemistry 

parameters (dissolved oxygen, pH, specific 

conductance, temperature, and turbidity) in 

the North Fork, South Fork, and Main Stem of 

Circle Creek found that all core parameters were 

within the general state regulatory thresholds, 

except turbidity and dissolved oxygen in the 

North Fork and Main Stem (Starkey 2010: p.13). 

Elevated stream turbidity typically occurs after 

rainstorms and is primarily caused by bank 

erosion, which is predominantly related to use of 

riparian areas and stream channels by livestock. 

Similarly, elevated one-hour dissolved oxygen 

levels may also be related to grazing or may be 

related to another cause, but because of the 

small exceedance, dissolved oxygen levels were 

not considered to be a threat to water quality at 

the time. Because the Reserve is in the process 

of fencing off wetland and riparian areas from 

grazing allotments (see details in the “Hydrology 

and Water Quantity” section above), it is likely 

that this impact will decrease. In addition, 

because proposed future monitoring of these 

characteristics would occur approximately 

every three years, ongoing analysis may also 

lead to improvements in other parameters if 

these are later found to be below state water 

quality standards.

It is possible that increased turbidity is also 

related to the Reserve’s highly erodible soils. 

These contribute sediment to streams during 

high flows corresponding to storm events 

and spring snowmelt. If present, high stream 

sediment and associated turbidity could 

adversely affect stream organisms both in and 

outside the Reserve, far downstream from the 

source of particulate matter. Based on current 

data, however, this is unlikely to be occurring 

(Erixson and Corrao 2011).

There would continue to be a potential for 

negligible to minor adverse effects on water 

quality from use of a variety of methods (such as 

hand-pulling or chemical treatments) to reduce 

nonnative invasive plants.

Grazing: As noted in the comprehensive 

management plan (Reserve 1996a: p. 44), direct 

water pollution by livestock grazing under 

commercial grazing permits would be prevented 

by eliminating existing corrals and watering sites 

near streams and springs that originate in the 

Reserve. Cattle concentrated in riparian zones 

accelerate soil erosion and contribute fecal 

coliform to Reserve streams and springs during 

stormwater runoff, potentially affecting water 

resources far downstream from the source. 

Trampling near springs and riparian areas may 

lead to bank erosion and could affect attainment 

of Idaho water quality standards.

As a result, a variety of strategies would continue 

to be used to develop alternate water sources 

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and to move stock water tanks and livestock 

away from riparian areas and wetlands on public 

lands. The Reserve would also continue to work 

cooperatively to assist private landowners in 

relocating water sources or mitigating damage 

to wetlands caused by grazing. To the extent 

that these actions have occurred since the 1996 

comprehensive management plan, there have 

been minor to moderate localized long-term 

beneficial effects on water quality.

Construction: New construction under 

alternative A would include the proposed 

visitor use facility at Smoky Mountain and 

expansion of the campground. Both would 

have the potential for short-term negligible to 

minor adverse impacts on water quality that 

would be minimized through the use of best 

management practices.

ALTERNATIVE B IMPACTS

Adverse impacts associated with most 

recreational use, most resource management 

activities, grazing management, and most 

construction would be the same as described 

in alternative A. Negligible long-term beneficial 

impacts would continue to occur as a result 

of protecting watersheds from additional 

development and/or from reducing grazing 

through attrition.

Development of a plan to mitigate potential 

erosion associated with highly erodible granitic 

soils would probably have long-term beneficial 

effects on water quality from preventing 

sedimentation that could occur following fires. 

Working with the county to better control 

water flow off the road (to disperse rather than 

concentrate it) would have long-term beneficial 

effects on water quality by reducing gullying and 

erosion from water flow that could otherwise 

carry sediment into nearby water bodies.

Although additional impacts could also occur 

from ground disturbance associated with 

constructing the equestrian staging area and 

amphitheater, there would probably be no 

additional impacts associated with constructing 

a new visitor use facility within the Reserve 

or on IDPR-leased land because the current 

visitor center house would be remodeled. If 

a new building was constructed by the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation, impacts 

would be the same as in alternative C. With the 

equestrian staging area near the Bread Loaves 

intersection and a turnaround at Logger Springs 

Road, there would be a potential for short- to 

long-term negligible to minor adverse impacts 

on water quality associated with exposed soils 

during construction and use, depending on 

the surfacing material used and the success of 

stabilization measures following construction.

The hazard fuel reduction and fire use proposed 

as part of alternative B may also result in 

loss of vegetative ground cover, leading to a 

temporary increase in erosion following fires. 

Runoff from burned areas could also have 

negligible to minor short- or long-term adverse 

effects on water quality from changes in the 

chemical composition of runoff, including from 

transporting ash. Because ash is alkaline and 

because an influx of nutrients may cause algae 

blooms, there may also be a change in water pH. 

If plant communities near water are consumed 

by fire, increased water temperatures, caused by 

limited shading and increased nutrient cycling, 

may result. This could, in turn, decrease the 

availability of oxygen to fish and other aquatic 

organisms. There may be less organic material 

available to decrease runoff, and downstream 

flooding may occur. Additional erosion of ash 

and soil may result in gullying and loss of topsoil, 

which may result in aggradation of the stream 

channel and temporarily alter water depths. 

Often a short-term flush of sedimentation in 

river and stream channels occurs after the first 

rains. Because of limited water resources and 

the limited likelihood that burned areas would 

be near water, effects on water resources would 

probably remain negligible to minor.

There could also be limited impacts from 

the potential use of chemical fire retardant 

and firefighting foam upon fire escape or for 

suppression activities. Other uses of foam 

would be to prevent damage to sensitive cultural 

resources. Because use of chemical retardants 

and foam would be limited near surface water 

resources, impacts would be expected to be 

negligible to minor.

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management, fire management, and construction 

would be similar to those described in alternatives B 

and C, except that no outdoor learning center would 

be constructed, the visitor center facility would be 

larger, and the Logger Springs turnaround would 

include parking. As in alternative C, these could 

increase potential negligible to minor adverse impacts 

on moderate and localized, but impacts would 

continue to be limited because of implementation of 

mitigation measures. As in alternative B, negligible 

long-term beneficial impacts would continue to occur 

as a result of protecting watersheds from additional 

development. When proposed boundary expansion 

areas are included, beneficial effects could be minor.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

In addition to the measures identified in the 

“Hydrology and Water Quantity” section, the 

following additional measures would benefit 

water quality:

•	 Modify livestock grazing permits to exclude 

wetlands and riparian areas.

•	 Develop only water sources that do not 

directly modify wetlands or change the timing, 

distribution, or amount of water supply to 

wetlands on public lands.

•	 Improve erosion control best management 

practices along roadways in the Reserve.

•	 Encourage permittees to lessen impacts 

on wetland and riparian areas and areas of 

concentrated use.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

See the “Hydrology and Water Quantity” section 

above for a discussion of cumulative impacts on 

hydrology, water quantity and water quality.

When actions in alternatives A–D are added to the 

effects of other past, present, and future actions 

affecting water quality, there would be minor to 

moderate adverse cumulative impacts combined with 

negligible to minor beneficial cumulative impacts.

CONCLUSION

Alternatives A–D would continue to have the potential 

to cause short- and long-term minor cumulative 

adverse impacts on water quality due to ongoing 

Potential negligible to minor adverse effects on 

water quality could also occur from construction 

of a new multiuse trail connecting to Tea Kettle 

Trail (approximately 2.5 miles long) that would 

connect California Trail resources for hikers, 

equestrians, and bicyclists.

Restoration would generally have longterm beneficial effects by promoting the 

reestablishment of native vegetation through 

seeding or planting. Increasing plant cover could 

help reduce existing erosion and sedimentation 

of surface waters by retaining water for uptake, 

thereby interrupting soil loss. Though there 

would also be a possibility that unsuccessful 

restoration would temporarily leave areas of 

bare ground, unless loss of plant cover occurred 

over a wide area or for a long period, most 

changes in water quality would be localized 

and beneficial (such as from reduced sediment 

transport to surface waters).

ALTERNATIVE C IMPACTS

Impacts associated with recreational use, 

resource management activities, grazing 

management, fire management, and construction 

would be similar to alternative B, except that a 

new visitor use facility (similar but smaller than 

in alternative A) and an outdoor learning center 

would also be constructed. There would also be 

approximately two miles of new trail constructed 

to the summit of Smoky Mountain from the 

campground. Combined, these would add to the 

potential for negligible to minor adverse impacts 

on water quality but would probably remain 

minor because of implementation of mitigation 

measures. Beneficial impacts could also occur, 

depending on whether permittees take advantage 

of grazing buyouts.

As in alternative B, negligible long-term 

beneficial impacts would continue to occur as a 

result of protecting watersheds from additional 

development. When proposed boundary 

expansion areas are included, beneficial effects 

could be minor.

ALTERNATIVE D IMPACTS

Impacts associated with recreational use, 

resource management activities, grazing 

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administration and management of the Reserve, 

existing visitor use activities, and proposed 

new development, including trails, visitor use 

facilities, and other improvements. Depending 

on whether these activities occurred near 

surface water resources, some impacts could be 

locally moderate but would be minimized by the 

use of best management practices, resulting in 

some cumulative beneficial effects.

IMPACTS ON WATER RESOURCES: 

WETLANDS

a. Wetlands Methodology

Context of impact: Wetland impacts were 

considered within City of Rocks National 

Reserve, on IDPR-leased land and IDPRowned land.

Type of impact: Beneficial impacts would 

restore or maintain wetlands, while adverse 

impacts would degrade, develop, or convert 

wetlands to another ecological community.

Impact Intensity

Negligible Impacts would be imperceptible or 

not detectable.

Minor Impacts would be slightly detectable, 

localized within a small area, and 

would not affect the overall viability 

of wetlands.

Moderate Impacts would be apparent, but could 

be reversed.

Major Impacts would be substantial, highly 

noticeable, and permanent.

b. Wetlands Impacts

ALTERNATIVE A–D IMPACTS

According to the comprehensive management 

plan, groundwater use outside the Reserve, 

combined with drought, may have decreased 

water flow to springs in the region (Reserve 

1996a: p. 111). Groundwater use in the Reserve 

may have a minor adverse effect on nearby 

springs and streams, although the number 

of wells is relatively small compared to those 

outside the Reserve (there are two wells on 

public land and four others within the Reserve 

on private property).

Surface water resources within the Reserve 

include springs and creeks. City of Rocks is 

drained by four creeks (Graham Creek and 

the North, Center, and South Forks of Circle 

Creek) as well as numerous other named 

and unnamed streams that drain Steinfell’s, 

Emigrant, and Twin Sisters basins and the Inner 

City. These eventually flow into the Raft River 

(see the “Water Resources” section in “Chapter 

4: Affected Environment” and “Figure 16: 

Hydrology”). As described in “Hydrology and 

Water Quantity,” most springs in the Reserve 

are used for grazing, including Tea Kettle, Bath 

Rock, Taylor, Indian Grove, Kempton, Logger, 

Mica, Button, Willow, Mahogany, North Fork 

Circle Creek, and Walters Creek. In most cases 

a head box is present, and water is piped away 

from the source for use by cattle. Of these 

springs, the following are among those located 

on public lands: Bath Rock, Indian Grove, North 

Fork Circle Creek, and Tea Kettle.

Development and use of water from springs and 

attendant wetlands to support livestock would 

continue to have a minor to moderate or major 

adverse impact on wetlands. This would occur 

due to water consumption and depletion and 

the trampling of sensitive areas, leading to an 

increase in compaction, as well as changes to 

vegetation and/or streambank channels, and 

other effects.

Grazing allotments contain approximately 80 

wetlands that have been identified as part of the 

National Wetlands Inventory (table 42). Because 

there are no specific changes associated with 

the alternatives in this plan that would affect 

wetlands, a statement of findings is not required. 

Based on an assessment of wetlands impacts 

related to current grazing practices, a “Wetlands 

Statement of Findings,” in compliance with 

Executive Order 11990, “Protection of 

Wetlands” and NPS Director’s Order 77-1, 

would probably be required for the revised 

grazing management plan. This plan would 

address new short-term impacts from improving 

livestock water sources, which would add to 

long-term beneficial effects by reducing impacts 

on riparian areas and wetlands and from grazing 

impacts in potential boundary expansion areas.

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(USFWS 2012b) Note: No National Wetlands Inventory 

data was identified in the Heath Canyon or Smoky Mountain 

allotments; however, the grazing management plan map for 

Heath Canyon shows two spring-fed tributaries of Emigrant 

Canyon Creek and two springs.

Key

R4SB = riverine, stream-bed

PEM = palustrine emergent

PFO = palustrine forested

PSS = palustrine scrub-shrub

PUB = palustrine unconsolidated bottom

A = temporarily flooded: Surface water present for brief 

periods during growing season, but the water table usually 

lies well below the surface most of the season.

B = saturated: Surface water seldom present

C = seasonally flooded:

F = semi-permanently flooded: Surface water persists 

throughout the growing season in most years. When surface 

water is absent, the water table is at or near the surface.

h = diked or impounded

O = open water

Table 42. National Wetlands Inventory Data for Grazing Allotments

Wetland 

Type(s)

Allotment

Graham 

Creek

Bath Rock Circle 

Creek

Emery 

Canyon

Kempton Trail 

Canyon

Tracy Lane

R4SBA 1 1 1

R4SBC 4 3

R4SBO 2 1

PEMA 1 3 2

PEMB 1 2 2

PEMC 4 3 4 8 4 4 2

PEMFh 1

PFOC 2 1

PSSA

PSSB 2 1 2

PSSC 9 3 3

PUBFh 1 2

TOTAL 25 8 14 16 6 7 4

Creeks 

identified in 

2008 Grazing 

Management 

Plan

Graham 

Creek 1.5 

miles

North Fork 

Circle Creek 

1.0 mile

Main Fork 

Circle Creek

2 unnamed 

creeks

Circle 

Creek 1.0 

mile total 

0.25 mile in 

Reserve

Unnamed 

creek

2 forks 

of Emery 

Canyon 

Creek

2 spring-fed 

unnamed 

creeks

Trail 

Creek 1.5 

miles

Junction 

Creek 0.5 

mile

Junction 

Creek 

tributary 

0.5 mile on 

BLM land

Springs 

identified in 

2008 Grazing 

Management 

Plan

2 unnamed

Indian Grove

Taylor 

Springs (2) 

on southwest 

edge

1 unnamed 

spring

Tea Kettle 

Spring

0 Taylor 

Springs (2)

Emery 

Canyon 

Spring

1 unnamed 

spring on 

northwest 

edge

2 

unnamed 

springs

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Homestead and ranching development of water 

resources has led to the seven impoundments 

within the Circle Creek basin, however, only 

one of these is on public land. The Circle 

Creek impoundment (#1) is located at the 

eastern boundary of the Reserve, several 

hundred yards upstream of where Circle Creek 

exits the Reserve (BOR 2005). This obsolete 

facility would be removed by recontouring 

the area to improve natural hydrological 

functions and to restore the former riparian 

wetland. Approximately 5 acres are planned 

for restoration. All but two of the Circle Creek 

impoundments contain about 0.5 acres of water 

and are used for watering stock. Another stock 

pond is located along Taylor Creek north of 

Bread Loaves and two stock ponds associated 

with the Kelton-Boise stage station occur along 

Emigrant Creek. These are also located on 

private property and would not be affected by 

the actions in this plan.

Livestock entering pastures before scheduled 

dates or entering while a pasture is scheduled 

for rest could impact areas that are still too wet 

to handle grazing and may also cause loss of 

vegetation, particularly in sensitive areas such 

as wetlands. To the extent that the Reserve 

permittees adhere to conditions identified in the 

grazing management plan, these effects would 

not occur or would be reduced.

According to the vegetation map in the Reserve’s 

comprehensive management plan, which is 

based on National Wetlands Inventory and other 

data for the Reserve, approximately 2.6% of the 

Reserve is covered by riparian or wetland areas 

(Reserve 1996a: p. 112). This means that of the 

approximately 14,407 acres contained within the 

Reserve, approximately 375 acres are composed 

of riparian and herbaceous perennial wetlands. 

However, the comprehensive management 

plan evaluated impacts from grazing on nearly 

twice this area by including wetland buffer 

zones. These sensitive adjacent areas were 

identified based on general vegetation map 

data. This resulted in the identification of 458 

acres on private land and 266 acres on public 

land (Reserve 1996a: p. 147, 374–75). Wetlands 

primarily occur in the Circle Creek Basin on 

private property, near the Taylor property in 

the northwest part of the Reserve, and on the 

Ward property in the southeast/central part 

of the Reserve, but they are widely distributed 

throughout the Reserve in suitable areas based 

on the presence of water, soils, and vegetation. 

Based on environmental impact analysis in the 

comprehensive management plan, livestock 

grazing has resulted in a range of adverse 

impacts on wetlands. These impacts include 

diversion of water for livestock use, trampling 

of springs and riparian areas, loss of native 

wetland vegetation, changes in stream channel 

shape, erosion, and invasion by nonnative plants. 

To describe some of these impacts, a wetlands 

statement of findings was included with the 

comprehensive management plan, the effects of 

which are also summarized in this analysis.

Based on the comprehensive management plan 

(Reserve 1996a: p. 44), a variety of livestock 

management techniques were proposed to limit 

livestock access to wetlands. These techniques 

vary depending on the sensitivity of wetlands in 

a particular area and the type of water resource 

(spring or creek or seasonal depression). Where 

fences/exclosures are not used and where water 

is not piped away from springs, livestock may 

alter the pattern of overland water flow and 

reduce vegetative cover and soils, leading to 

impacts on water quality, including from waste 

and sedimentation. Where fences or other 

restrictive barriers are built to keep livestock 

temporarily or permanently out of wetlands, 

soils stabilize and allow wetland vegetation 

recovery; however water is often still piped 

away from the wetland for livestock (and 

then returned via an overflow pipe). In other 

areas, grazing rotation and deferred seasons 

(postponing grazing following wet periods) 

are used to protect wetlands and riparian areas 

when they are most vulnerable to damage. In 

addition, on public lands, stock water tanks fed 

by springs and streams have been systematically 

moved away from wetland and riparian areas.

Since the comprehensive management plan 

was completed, the Register Rock property was 

purchased (2006) and grazing was discontinued 

to protect springs and an intermittent stream 

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along the California National Historic Trail. To 

protect California Trail resources, grazing was 

also relocated from the Circle Creek allotment 

(including the lower Circle Creek riparian area) 

to the Kempton allotment (2008). That same 

year, a public-private partnership allowed the 

placement of a trough and associated water 

piping system at the boundary of the Emery 

Canyon allotment and adjacent private property 

to reduce cattle use of the riparian area within 

the allotment. In 2009, Nematode Spring was 

fenced off from cattle and in 2012 the Indian 

Grove wetland was fenced to exclude cattle 

from the Graham Creek allotment in this area. 

Reconstruction/replacement of the Indian 

Grove water trough in 2010 also reduced 

unnatural saturation of the riparian area. In 

addition, the Reserve has continued to treat 

nonnative invasive plants in riparian areas. 

Combined, these actions have resulted in longterm localized minor to moderate beneficial 

impacts on wetlands.

ALTERNATIVE B–D IMPACTS

There would be little change in impacts on 

wetlands under alternatives B–D. Proposed 

changes in livestock numbers or season of use 

could occur in alternative B, where attrition 

results in a reduced number of grazing 

permittees, and in alternative C from voluntary 

participation in the buyout program. Other 

actions that would adversely affect wetlands 

include additional development of springs 

to provide new water sources for grazing 

allotments, a moderate localized adverse 

effect with continued short-term impacts from 

relocating livestock grazing and water use from 

wetland and riparian areas. This and other 

specific actions could be implemented following 

approval of a revised grazing management 

plan. Beneficial impacts would be similar to 

alternative A, with the potential for slightly 

more beneficial effects in alternatives B, C, and 

D based on expansion of the Research Natural 

Area (where the no-grazing exclusion would 

extend to additional lands) and improvements 

in mitigation measures as well as potential 

reductions in grazing in alternatives B and 

C. In all alternatives, a systematic reduction 

in grazing impacts would probably continue 

as a result of ongoing mitigation measures to 

avoid or change the timing of use of land near 

springs and riparian areas, which would result 

in long-term beneficial impacts. A reduction in 

adverse impacts would also occur in alternatives 

B–D, with the restoration of the Circle Creek 

impoundment (#1).

The ongoing impacts of continuing to exclude 

riparian and wetland areas from livestock use 

would be beneficial in the long term but would 

continue to have short- and long-term minor 

to moderate or major localized adverse impacts 

from the continued withdrawal of water from 

its natural source to support livestock. Where 

grazing was reduced or eliminated (alternatives 

B and C), this impact could also diminish.

Based on recommendations in the 2008 draft 

grazing management plan, additional actions to 

protect wetlands are still needed in the following 

areas: Graham Creek, Kempton, Emery Canyon, 

Trail Canyon, Tracy Lane, and Heath Canyon. 

Most allotment recommendations note that “a 

special effort will be made by the permittee to 

lessen impacts on riparian zones and areas of 

concentrated recreational use” (Reserve 2008a). 

Some also include recommendations for spring 

development and piping water away from 

springs, as well as for development of new water 

sources. While spring development and piping 

water away from springs would have minor to 

major adverse effects, the development of new 

water sources could have long-term minor to 

moderate localized beneficial effects if these 

were outside the Reserve or from importation or 

rainwater collection.

Initially in alternative C and over the long-term 

in alternative D, there would also probably be 

short- and long-term minor to moderate or 

major localized adverse impacts from continuing 

to allow grazing in boundary expansion 

areas transferred from the Bureau of Land 

Management or purchased, especially where 

these contained wetlands and where existing 

allotments would continue. If a boundary 

expansion occurred (through congressional 

legislation), the impacts of continuing grazing 

would be analyzed in a revised grazing 

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management plan, including regarding the 

potential for ongoing or new impacts on 

wetlands. It is uncertain, however, whether the 

agreement with the Bureau of Land Management 

or expansion legislation, if enacted, would 

contain continued provisions for grazing.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

In addition to measures that would minimize 

impacts on water resources identified in the 

above “Hydrology and Water Quantity” and 

“Water Quality” sections, which would also 

reduce effects to wetlands, the following 

measures would be included:

•	 Avoid adverse impacts on wetlands and 

riparian areas when constructing buildings 

or other facilities on public land.

•	 Complete jurisdictional wetland surveys 

for potential impacts associated with trails 

and avoid impacts on the extent possible.

•	 Refrain from increasing animal unit 

months by continuing to reallocate 

animal unit months to existing permittees, 

including family members, if grazing 

allotments are vacated within the Reserve.

•	 Delineate wetlands to determine 

site hydrologic, soil, and vegetation 

characteristics when work is proposed 

near springs and riparian areas.

•	 Encourage permittees to lessen impacts on 

riparian zones and areas of concentrated 

recreational use, and to implement other 

actions called for by the 2008 draft grazing 

management plan.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Over time there has been a loss of wetlands and 

riparian areas throughout the West, including 

within the Reserve. Wetlands and riparian 

areas have been affected by harvesting water 

sources for irrigation, livestock and human 

use, and development. Irrigated and dryland 

farming both within and outside the Reserve 

have resulted in vegetation type conversion 

from historic vegetation patterns—including in 

wetland and riparian areas—to nonnative and 

invasive nonnative vegetation. Human activities 

have resulted in the widespread distribution of 

nonnative species that would continue to impact 

these areas, even in the absence of additional 

human disturbance. It is likely that human 

activities have also affected the biologically 

rich riparian and wetland areas of the Reserve, 

including their component microscopic plants 

and animals, insects, amphibians, and fish; 

however, the degree to which these have been 

affected is unknown.

Past actions have had a major adverse impact on 

wetlands (Reserve 1996a: p. 148). Past actions 

and external threats include light grazing to 

severe soil erosion, dewatering (removal or 

redirecting of a water source), loss of wetland 

vegetation, and filling of wetland depressions 

and stream channels. Past actions have also 

included excavating or constructing dams and 

stock ponds. Past actions that have contributed 

to the loss of wetlands and riparian areas in 

the Reserve include the diversion of surface 

water resources to stock ponds and the creation 

of dams and spring boxes to irrigate fields 

and water livestock. Widespread grazing in 

the Reserve has resulted in loss or damage to 

wetland and riparian vegetation as cattle seek 

water sources. The several deep water wells 

in the Reserve and vicinity have probably 

contributed to reduced surface water resources 

and/or flow. Natural fluctuations in rainfall and 

climate have also contributed a range of impacts 

on water resources. For instance, the West was 

in a wet period during the early homesteading 

era, and this allowed the development of 

homesteads and farmland in areas that could 

not support these activities during the more 

common dry periods.

Past beneficial effects include the closure of 

the Circle Creek grazing allotment in 2008 and 

relocation of its allocation (animal unit months) 

to the nearby Graham Creek allotment. This 

resulted in the closure of numerous wetland/

riparian areas to grazing, a long-term localized 

beneficial effect. Modifications to private 

grazing areas would continue to depend on the 

desire of private landowners to use wetland 

protection methods based on the advice of the 

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Reserve, the Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, or others. Privately owned wetlands 

would probably continue to correspond to those 

identified in the comprehensive management 

plan, or more than 400 acres (2%) of the 

Reserve. Where changes were made to avoid 

or decrease impacts, there would be additional 

long-term beneficial effects.

Current and future grazing on BLM and USFS 

allotments, such as in those included within 

the potential boundary adjustment area in 

alternatives C and D, would be expected to have 

or have had similar direct and indirect effects on 

wetlands as described above, including loss of 

water to livestock production.

Present actions, such as the grazing of livestock, 

would also continue to have minor to moderate 

localized adverse effects on wetlands and 

riparian areas in the Reserve. As noted in the 

comprehensive management plan, until fenced 

out of wetland and riparian areas, cattle would 

continue to be attracted by the amount of 

forage and the availability of water in these 

areas and would tend to concentrate in them, 

where they would continue to introduce or 

affect the spread of nonnative invasive plants, 

overgraze protective vegetation, and reduce 

soil stability by trampling. Loss of riparian 

vegetation and unstable soils could accelerate 

soil erosion, elevate stream sediment loads, and 

change stream flows and channel morphology. 

Diversion of water from streams or springs for 

irrigation and stock watering during seasonal 

or extended drought could also reduce stream 

flows below the minimum needed for other 

wetland-dependent wildlife. The effects of the 

destruction or loss of natural riparian vegetation, 

erosion, and water diversion could result in 

reduced abundance, biomass, species diversity, 

reproductive success, and survival of wetlanddependent and other wildlife (Reserve 1996a: 

p. 147). Ongoing efforts to fence out livestock 

and to relocate stock watering areas away from 

riparian areas on public lands would continue 

to reduce these impacts, a long-term localized 

beneficial effect.

Other present actions, such as the diversion of 

water from wells for recreational use, would 

probably continue to have an unknown effect 

on surface water resources within the Reserve. 

Moreover, the persistence of stock ponds and 

other water diversions on private lands would 

continue to have long-term minor to moderate 

localized and minor widespread effects. To 

the extent that former impoundments fell 

into disuse or were restored as acquired or 

abandoned, there would be long-term localized 

beneficial effects. Improving these opportunities 

for wetland and riparian areas to recover could 

reestablish historic functions for native wildlife 

and plant communities.

Wetlands mitigation projects that are 

implemented to compensate for nearby impacts 

would continue to have long-term minor 

localized beneficial effects: the restoration at 

Castle Rocks State Park for the City of Rocks 

Back Country Byway is an example of this type 

of mitigation.

Future projects on public land, such as the 

proposed restoration of the Circle Creek 

impoundment (#1), would have a variety of 

short-term minor adverse and cumulative 

beneficial effects. Other impacts associated 

with this GMP would be mostly beneficial, 

including the completion of livestock exclusion 

techniques, such as fencing, and the seasonal 

grazing allotment rotation or deferred grazing 

called for by the grazing management plan. 

Minor to moderate localized cumulative 

beneficial effects would be contributed by 

zoning a larger area for the California Trail in 

alternatives B, C, and D (with the largest area 

in alternative C), especially if livestock grazing 

was eventually reduced in these areas. Slight 

modifications to the Research Natural Area in 

alternative B and increased area associated with 

the Research Natural Area in alternatives C and 

D would also have cumulative beneficial effects, 

because livestock grazing would continue to 

be excluded in the Research Natural Area. In 

alternatives B and D, potential exclusion of 

livestock grazing in the Visitor Facilities and 

Access Zone or its reduction during peak 

visitor use periods could also result in long3 through 5_CIRO_DGMP_031515.indd 360 3/17/2015 10:41:56 
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term beneficial effects, though they would only 

be slightly beneficial because of the small area 

covered by wetland or riparian vegetation types 

in this zone. Over time, actions in alternative B 

could lead to reduced livestock grazing within 

the Reserve through attrition if permittees 

discontinue requests for permits caused by 

changing business models or abandonments. 

Similar reductions could occur in alternative C 

if voluntary buyouts occurred. In all alternatives, 

grazing allotments could also be rearranged to 

provide maximum beneficial effects to natural 

and cultural resources. In alternative C, as in 

other alternatives, wetland and riparian areas 

would continue to be fenced out of allotments, 

allotments would be reduced or eliminated 

in the California Trail Zone, and some aspen 

areas would be protected from grazing impacts. 

Combined, these would create cumulative 

beneficial effects if implemented and would also 

reduce the cumulative impacts of alternative C.

The climate future from the draft National 

Climate Assessment would be the same as 

described in cumulative effects for other water 

resources sections, including hydrology and 

water quantity and water quality.

When actions in alternative A and D are added 

to the effects of other past, present, and future 

actions, there would continue to be minor to 

moderate localized cumulative adverse and 

negligible to moderate beneficial effects. When 

actions in alternatives B–C are added to the 

effects of other past, present, and future actions, 

there would be minor cumulative adverse effects 

and negligible to moderate cumulative beneficial 

effects. These would include a potential 

reduction in livestock grazing in the California 

Trail Zone in alternatives B and C, and a similar 

potential reduction of grazing in the Visitor 

Facilities and Access Zone in alternatives B and 

D, as well as any potential reduction that occurs 

through attrition (alternative B) or voluntary 

buyouts (alternative C).

CONCLUSION

Alternative A would continue to have shortterm minor to moderate or major localized 

adverse effects, as well as long-term negligible 

to moderate beneficial effects. Alternatives 

B–D would have short- and long-term minor 

to moderate or major localized adverse effects, 

and negligible to moderate long-term beneficial 

effects that would be somewhat greater in 

alternatives B and C than in alternative D.

BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES

BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES: VEGETATION

a. Vegetation Methodology

Vegetation analysis was based on a qualitative 

assessment of project area vegetation and 

the effects anticipated as a result of ongoing 

maintenance, construction, or rehabilitation. 

In some cases, quantitative analysis was used 

to predict the effects of vegetation loss. This 

analysis was based on the likely amount 

of disturbance (removal of or damage to 

vegetation) from construction compared to 

current conditions. It also considers the benefits 

of site restoration. Assessment was also made of 

the potential for proposed projects to introduce 

or spread nonnative plant species, such as 

noxious weeds.

The geographic extent of plant communities 

has been determined through field and aerial 

vegetation mapping. Field reconnaissance of 

areas of potential impact is used to analyze plant 

community types and to look for any state and 

federally listed sensitive, rare, threatened, or 

endangered species. Human use can decrease or 

alter native vegetation cover, disturb or compact 

soils, and create conditions favorable for 

existing nonnative species or the introduction of 

nonnative species. Because human-use impacts, 

such as recreational use, can extend beyond 

developed areas and affect plant community size 

and continuity, the potential for these indirect 

impacts beyond development boundaries was 

considered in determining the intensity of 

impacts on vegetation.

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The evaluation of the integrity of plant 

communities was based on:

•	 Biodiversity (includes diversity of 

communities within an ecosystem, species 

within a community, and genetic variation 

among individual species): Measures of 

biodiversity may include plant community 

structure and composition, connectivity 

of ecosystems, variation in age, structure 

(density and arrangement), individual 

species composition and abundance, 

and the presence or absence of natural 

structural layers.

•	 Invasive species introduction and spread: 

Invasive plants are aggressive nonnative 

species that pose an ecological threat to 

the community in which they are found. 

These invasive nonnative species can alter 

soil chemical and physical properties, 

hamper native species establishment, 

and alter plant community structure and 

function. This impact analysis considered 

whether proposed actions would favor 

the establishment of nonnative species 

and the ability to contain and reverse 

nonnative plant infestation.

•	 Resilience of the plant community: 

Resilient plant communities are more 

capable of withstanding human impacts 

without long-term deformation (changes 

that result in a loss of native species) 

because they can recover more quickly.

Context of impact: Vegetation impacts were 

considered within City of Rocks National 

Reserve, on IDPR-leased land, and IDPRowned land.

Type of impact: Beneficial impacts would 

restore native vegetation or allow native 

vegetation to recover, while adverse impacts 

would result in damage to or loss of vegetation 

or conversion to another vegetation type. 

Actions that reduce the size of or disrupt the 

continuity and/or integrity of native plant 

communities are considered adverse impacts. 

Ground disturbance and imported materials 

such as soils, gravel, or nonnative plants can 

adversely impact native plant communities 

because they provide the means for nonnative 

species to become established. Restoration 

of disturbed areas can be done using native 

seeds and plants. Native plants and soil can be 

salvaged prior to disturbance and used during 

restoration to hasten establishment of native 

communities, and mulch or other stabilizing 

materials may accelerate site recovery and 

reduce opportunities for the establishment 

of nonnative plants. Actions that preserve 

and/or restore these essential components of 

native plant communities constitute beneficial 

impacts. New development within an otherwise 

intact and undisturbed area may fragment or 

disassociate plant communities. Small areas 

of restoration surrounded by existing or new 

development may have fewer beneficial effects 

than restoration of a small area adjacent to a 

larger intact vegetation community. In general, 

reducing and limiting fragmentation and 

maintaining connections within and among 

plant communities can minimize adverse effects.

Impact Intensity

Negligible Impacts would have no measurable 

or perceptible changes in plant 

community size, integrity, structure, 

or function. Individual native plants 

could be affected, but there would 

be no effect on plant populations. 

There would be no increase or barely 

detectable increases in the number 

of nonnative invasive species and the 

extent of their range. Effects would 

generally be short-term and smallscale.

Minor Impacts on the size, structure, 

integrity, diversity, or function 

of a plant community would be 

measurable or perceptible but would 

be localized within a relatively small 

area and would not affect the overall 

viability of the plant community. 

Individual plants and/or a small 

segment of plant populations could 

be affected. Changes in the extent of 

nonnative invasive species would be 

short term, localized, and measurable.

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Moderate Impacts would cause a change in the 

plant community (e.g., size, integrity, 

diversity, structure, or function); 

however, the impact would remain 

localized. The change would be 

measurable and perceptible but could 

be reversed. Impacts would affect 

some individual native plants and 

could also affect a sizeable portion 

of the population in the long term 

and over a large area. Changes in the 

extent of several or more nonnative 

species would occur over a relatively 

long period of time. Nonnative 

invasive plants could spread beyond 

the localized area.

Major Impacts would be widespread 

and could be substantial, highly 

noticeable, and permanent in 

their effect on plant community 

size, integrity, diversity, structure, 

or function. Changes would have 

a considerable long-term effect 

on native plant populations and 

nonnative invasive plants.

b. Vegetation Impacts

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

Visitor use activities: There would continue to 

be negligible to minor impacts on vegetation 

from visitor use activities resulting in off-trail 

trampling of vegetation. Such activities could 

include hiking and hunting. Visitor use activities 

such as climbing, mountain biking, horseback 

riding, and camping would have ongoing 

minor to moderate localized adverse effects. 

Among these would be loss of vegetation from 

“cleaning” of rock surfaces during climbing, 

compaction and accelerated erosion of soils on 

and adjacent to trails from mountain biking, 

vegetation damage or loss due to horseback 

riding, and damage to or use of vegetation 

associated with camping.

There would also continue to be long-term 

minor to moderate localized adverse effects 

on vegetation from the creation of social trails 

associated with visitor use, including trails 

between campsites; paths around obstacles, such 

as wet depressions in designated trails; trails to 

scenic overlooks; and trails between climbing 

rocks. These impacts would include compaction 

of soils and damage to or loss of vegetation.

When new sport climbing routes are proposed, 

these undergo a site analysis that involves 

investigation of the proposed access trail and 

staging area, skill level required for the climb 

(which serves as a potential measure of expected 

use because easier climbs generally receive more 

consistent use), rock face, evidence of wildlife 

use, and a survey for archeological resources. As 

a result, vegetation impacts would continue to be 

identified and minimized prior to use.

As noted in the “User Capacity” section, the 

number of dog depressions caused by dogs 

digging at climbing staging areas has increased. 

Some visitors bring dogs with them to climbing 

staging areas and then tie the dogs to a post 

in the staging area while climbing, resulting in 

unattended dogs or dogs left for long periods 

that impact vegetation and soils. According to 

the “User Capacity” section, a planning team 

workshop held at the Reserve in December 2011 

identified an estimated 2 to 15 depressions at 

most climber staging areas. These impacts would 

probably continue and could increase under 

alternative A.

County road management: Ongoing 

management of the county road would continue 

to have negligible to minor adverse effects 

on vegetation from trimming of roadside 

vegetation, erosion, and use of magnesium 

chloride to reduce dust. A study by Colorado 

State University Professor William Lewis 

found that “magnesium chloride applied to 

roads is rapidly diluted, causing insignificant 

effects” (Best 2004), however additional studies 

examining the effects of magnesium chloride 

on vegetation and water resources in Larimer 

and Grand Counties, Colorado, have found 

that road salts, including magnesium chloride, 

cause dieback in vegetation. These studies also 

found that although chloride concentrations 

did not increase over two years of application, 

both chloride and magnesium were present in 

higher concentrations between three and six 

meters from the road, depending on whether 

the measurements were taken on the upslope or 

downslope sides (Goodrich, Jacobi, and Koski 

2009). As a result, there could continue to be 

minor adverse effects on vegetation and soils 

adjacent to the roadway.

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Because the road is only plowed from the east 

entrance to Bath Rock in winter, driving during 

wet conditions in the early and late season could 

lead to washboarding or gullying and the need 

for regrading, which could also affect roadside 

vegetation. The Reserve would continue to work 

with Cassia County to maintain the road to 

minimize impacts on vegetation.

Nonnative invasive plants: Nonnative 

invasive plants would continue to be targeted 

for treatment by Reserve or exotic plant 

management team staff. The Northern Rocky 

Mountains Invasive Plant Management Plan 

(NPS 2011) would continue to be used to refine 

priority areas for the treatment of nonnative 

invasive plants. Treatments would be evaluated 

based on the management strategies in that 

plan. Treatments are designed to minimize 

effects on non-target species. Although there 

would continue to be negligible to moderate 

adverse impacts from the presence of nonnative 

invasive plants, in some areas these impacts 

would diminish over time from treatment of 

priority areas, a minor to moderate localized 

beneficial effect.

Historic vegetation: Managing the historic 

vegetation associated with the California 

Trail corridor would benefit long-term native 

plant diversity from the identification and 

maintenance of native plants important to the 

emigrant experience. This management would 

also contribute long-term negligible to minor 

adverse effects on native plant communities 

by retaining a vegetation type based on the 

characteristics it had when first viewed during 

the California Trail emigration, rather than 

allowing natural changes to occur in vegetation 

communities over time. Developing a vegetation 

management plan would help define historic 

plant community characteristics and identify and 

prioritize areas for restoration based on these 

characteristics, a long-term beneficial effect.

Fire management: An update to the fire 

management plan would improve the ability of 

the Reserve to identify and mitigate the effects 

of unwanted fire on the landscape before it 

occurred. This could be achieved using hazard 

fuel reduction in sensitive and developed 

areas. Hazard fuel reduction and other fuels 

management activities would focus on reducing 

the damaging impacts of unwanted wildfire on 

the Reserve’s natural and cultural resources. 

Fuels management practices would have longterm minor to moderate beneficial effects 

on the condition of some resources, such as 

pinyon pine, by reducing fuel loads that might 

otherwise lead to higher intensity wildfires. The 

use of fuels management to protect visitors and 

infrastructure and reduce the impact of wildfire 

on adjacent communities and private land would 

also have long-term moderate beneficial effects 

on adjacent areas by minimizing the potential 

for fire to spread from within the Reserve to 

outlying areas.

The fire management plan update would also 

allow the Reserve to develop preliminary 

responses to minimize the effects of fire damage 

to sensitive resources, such as vegetation in 

areas with highly erodible soils. It is probable 

that the revised fire management plan would 

emphasize a suite of fire management strategies, 

including hazard fuel reduction and prescribed 

fire. This would allow greater flexibility for 

Reserve managers to conduct pre- and post-fire 

management actions, as well as an improved 

ability to manage wildfire when it occurs. In 

addition, the plan would identify where postwildfire emergency stabilization/rehabilitation 

of erodible areas should occur, which would 

have short- and long-term beneficial effects 

by targeting the most vulnerable areas for 

initial post-fire management activity. The 

update to the fire management plan would also 

analyze existing strategies from the current 

fire management plan, including continued 

suppression of all wildfires.

Grazing: Livestock grazing would continue to 

occur over 11,000 acres (approximately 76%) 

of the Reserve, affecting the most palatable 

grasses and forbs for forage, including both 

native and nonnative species. There would be 

no proposed changes in livestock numbers or 

season of use in alternative A. Livestock trailing 

would also continue to occur. Because most 

trailing occurs on roads and lasts only a few 

days, the effect of cattle on vegetation during 

trailing would probably be less than in permitted 

grazing pastures.

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If grazing allotments were vacated voluntarily, 

the allotment could be reallocated to remaining 

or adjoining permittees, with no increase in 

animal unit months (Reserve 1996a: p. 44). As a 

result, the same number of animal unit months 

would be located on a larger allotment, a longterm beneficial effect, probably resulting in fewer 

concentrated impacts on vegetation from cattle 

being spread out over a larger area, depending 

on where the most palatable forage occurs.

According to the comprehensive management 

plan, grazing has caused an increase in the 

density of woody plants, especially sagebrush, 

and expansion of sagebrush into new areas. 

This has resulted in the loss of native perennial 

herbaceous species and an increase in nonnative 

species resistant to livestock grazing, a longterm minor to moderate localized adverse effect 

(Reserve 1996a: p. 44). Grazing also results 

in the consumption and trampling of both 

native and nonnative plants. If overgrazing 

occurs, it would result in impacts on less 

palatable grasses and forbs and the expansion 

of disturbance-associated nonnative invasive 

species. Through repeated use, grazing tends to 

encourage nonnative species that are adapted 

to disturbance, resulting in a series of long-term 

minor to moderate adverse effects, coupled 

with beneficial effects where nonnative and/

or nonnative invasive species are consumed. As 

called for by the comprehensive management 

plan, eliminating grazing near springs and 

in riparian areas would continue to improve 

long-term beneficial effects on riparian and 

wetland vegetation.

Where cattle occur in aspen groves, trampling 

and grazing would continue to affect aspen 

regeneration, a minor to moderate long-term 

adverse effect. Allowing livestock to graze 

the same plants continuously throughout the 

grazing season may also result in decreased 

plant vigor and recruitment. Livestock grazing 

also tends to decrease the incidence of species 

less tolerant of grazing impacts while increasing 

species more tolerant of grazing impacts. 

Livestock lingering in pastures after scheduled 

departure dates, entering pastures before or 

after scheduled dates, and/or entering when a 

pasture is scheduled for rest may also contribute 

to less-than-desirable conditions. Impacts may 

include inadequate remaining vegetative cover, 

regeneration of woody species, and an increase 

in nonnative vegetation and bare ground. 

Overall grazing impacts would have widespread 

minor to moderate adverse effects on vegetation. 

Depending on the location of water and salt 

sources and gates within allotments, impacts 

could be spread out and/or localized 

in allotments.

Research Natural Area: Long-term beneficial 

effects would continue as a result of ongoing 

management of the 312-acre Research Natural 

Area, administered according to the following 

objectives (from NPS Natural Resource 

Management Reference Manual #77, 2004).

1. Preserve a wide range of undisturbed, 

representative areas that typify important 

forest, shrubland, grassland, alpine, 

wetland, and similar natural situations 

that have special or unique characteristics, 

or provide outstanding examples 

of geological, biological, or ecological 

processes of scientific interest 

and importance.

2. Preserve and maintain genetic diversity.

3. Protect against deleterious environmental 

disturbance.

4. Provide student and professional 

education.

5. Serve as a baseline area for measuring 

long-term ecological changes.

6. Serve as a control area for comparing 

results from manipulative research 

conducted elsewhere.

There are few nonnative invasive species in 

the Research Natural Area, which protects 

old-growth pinyon and limber pines that 

have been measured to be 310–410 years old. 

Modifying the existing grazing allotment on 

the western boundary of the Research Natural 

Area so that the allotment no longer overlaps 

with the Research Natural Area would result in 

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additional minor long-term beneficial effects 

on RNA vegetation. This could be achieved 

by working with the permittee to remove or 

relocate this seldom-used overlapping area. 

Long-term moderate beneficial effects on the 

Research Natural Area would continue from 

grazing exclusion and the encouragement of 

nonmanipulative research, education, and 

other activities that would not detract from its 

research values.

Zoning: Management criteria associated with 

the large Natural Zone would preserve natural 

processes in this area, a long-term moderate 

beneficial effect. Emphasis on the California 

Trail Zone in this alternative would also have 

long-term beneficial effects by preserving 

vegetation communities present at the time of 

the emigrant experience. The Historic Rural 

Setting Zone would continue to have minor to 

moderate adverse impacts on native vegetation 

by preserving the agricultural setting that 

existed at the time the Reserve was established. 

Adverse effects could include precluding 

natural succession from grazed/low-growing 

herbaceous areas to areas covered with shrubs 

and trees. Ongoing adverse effects related 

to human use would also continue to occur 

on private lands managed for other uses and 

contained within this zone. Because public 

use and development of roads, parking areas, 

and other visitor facilities would continue to 

comprise a small part of the Reserve, effects on 

vegetation would be limited, with negligible to 

moderate localized adverse effects, depending 

on the development.

Boundary: There would be no additional 

modifications to and therefore no effects from 

changes to the Reserve boundary.

Research: The Reserve would continue 

to encourage climate change research to 

better understand changes in ecosystems 

over time, such as through study of pack rat 

middens (which show what these species have 

brought to their nest over time) and other 

opportunities, a long-term indirect beneficial 

effect resulting from improved understanding of 

vegetation changes.

Smoky Mountain Campground expansion: 

There would be a variety of negligible to 

moderate adverse impacts on vegetation from 

new construction of a second campground loop 

as called for by the Reserve’s comprehensive 

management plan and the Castle Rocks State 

Park Master Plan. This new campground loop 

could affect approximately 10 acres and would 

include development of approximately 62 

additional sites, including tent and RV campsites 

(including picnic tables and fire grates or fire 

rings) and may include a social group camping 

area with designated parking, as well as a new 

restroom with potential for additional showers. 

Short- and long-term impacts would occur 

from construction of campsites; placement of 

impermeable surfaces such as roads, buildings, 

and walkways; and from long-term use, 

including damage to and use of vegetation in the 

campground area.

Visitor center: Grading for and construction of a 

new 9,500-square-foot visitor center (including 

an indoor amphitheater and parking) would 

affect approximately five acres. Long-term 

minor to moderate adverse effects would result 

from vegetation loss and the covering of some 

areas with parking, buildings, and walkways. 

Following construction, native plants would be 

seeded or planted in new facility landscaping 

to minimize the introduction and spread of 

nonnative invasive species, a negligible longterm beneficial effect.

IMPACTS COMMON TO ALTERNATIVES B–D

Zoning: Compared to alternative A, expansion 

of the Research Natural Area Zone would 

have long-term beneficial effects on research 

potentially in a less impacted setting than other 

areas of the Reserve. These opportunities would 

be greater in alternatives C and D compared to 

alternative B. As in alternative A, the remaining 

alternatives would have long-term beneficial 

effects from removing the overlapping portion 

of the grazing allotment and from limiting 

human use in the Research Natural Area Zone. 

Expansion of the Research Natural Area Zone 

would increase its manageability by aligning its 

boundaries with major terrain features (ridges 

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and drainages). The boundary refinement would 

also align the Graham Creek allotment with 

natural features, reducing the need for costly 

fencing and a built environment on the edge of 

the Research Natural Area Zone, a long-term 

beneficial effect.

Similarly, expansion of the Natural Zone 

in alternatives B–D would allow vegetation 

in this zone to be managed according to 

ecological principles, more than would occur 

in other zones. These beneficial impacts would 

encompass the largest area in alternative C, 

followed by D and then B.

Except for alternative D, there would be little 

difference in the alternatives regarding the 

management of the Visitor Facilities and Access 

Zone and Transition Zone. Because these would 

be much larger in alternative D, there would be 

a greater potential for more intensive or more 

extensive visitor use activities and development, 

although specific plans currently do not vary 

widely among the alternatives. In alternatives 

B and D, beneficial effects would also occur 

from realigning grazing, if possible, to minimize 

its occurrence in the Visitor Facilities and 

Access Zone.

Long-term beneficial effects and long-term 

negligible to minor adverse effects would also 

occur from managing the historic vegetation in 

the California Trail corridor and from managing 

the Historic Rural Setting Zone. Because 

specific plans have not been developed for the 

California Trail or Historic Rural Setting zones, 

however, it is difficult to state how vegetation 

would be treated differently in these areas 

(except that private uses on private lands would 

continue in all alternatives). The emphasis on 

vegetation in the California Trail Zone would 

be based on the landscape at the time of the 

emigrant experience, and management of the 

Historic Rural Setting Zone would be based 

on the landscape at the time the Reserve was 

established. Therefore, in both of these zones it 

is possible that vegetation could be managed for 

a more open landscape than would otherwise 

occur through natural succession to shrubs 

or trees. The use of fire, however, could also 

achieve this desired character, and if frequent 

would be likely to keep public lands in these 

areas (as well as other areas in the Reserve) 

more open, thereby contributing to a mosaic of 

vegetation similar to what is now present.

Visitor Use and New Facilities

Visitor use: As in alternative A, there would 

continue to be negligible to minor or localized 

moderate adverse impacts on vegetation from 

visitor use activities, such as hiking, mountain 

biking, horseback riding, climbing, hunting, 

and camping. To minimize the number of dog 

depressions at climber staging areas, both an 

initial baseline condition assessment and regular 

monitoring would be conducted to establish 

better understanding of impacts and ways to 

minimize them.

Trails management plan/new trails: There 

would be a variety of short- and long-term 

minor to moderate adverse and beneficial 

effects on vegetation from development and 

implementation of a trails management plan. 

Short-term minor to moderate adverse impacts 

and long-term negligible to minor adverse 

impacts would also arise from constructing 

trail linkages to areas outside the Reserve, such 

as the Independence Lake area and/or Castle 

Rocks State Park. Adverse impacts would occur 

because of the loss of vegetation associated 

with trail development, while beneficial impacts 

could arise from closure and rehabilitation of 

trails and from minor improvements to trail 

routes to reduce impacts on resources. Actual 

effects would be evaluated as part of the trails 

management plan.

Equestrian staging area: Short-term minor 

to moderate adverse and long-term minor 

beneficial and adverse effects on vegetation 

would result from constructing and maintaining 

an equestrian staging area possibly near the 

Bread Loaves intersection or in another area. 

Approximately one to two acres of vegetation 

could be affected by the construction of a short 

(0.25-mile) loop road and a small parking area 

for horse trailers. Beneficial effects would occur 

from redirecting horse trailer parking along 

the shoulder of county and Reserve roads and 

therefore minimizing vegetation impacts on and/

or encouraging natural revegetation of currently 

impacted areas.

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Rim DCP implementation: A variety of beneficial 

and negligible to moderate localized adverse 

effects would occur from implementation of 

the Rim development concept plan. These 

would include ongoing vegetation impacts from 

conversion of approximately 9 campsites to 

day use, beneficial impacts on approximately 

13 campsites that would be closed and 

rehabilitated, and construction impacts, 

including vegetation loss, from approximately 22 

replacement campsites.

Logger Springs Road turnaround: Development 

of a turnaround at the north end of Logger 

Springs Road near the USFS boundary would 

result in long-term minor to moderate localized 

adverse effects on vegetation. Because this area 

has been previously disturbed, the magnitude of 

impacts from construction would be lessened.

Permitted Uses

Grazing: There would be no immediate changes 

in livestock numbers or season of use. Adverse 

and beneficial impacts would continue. As in 

alternative A, eliminating grazing near springs 

and in riparian areas would continue to have 

long-term beneficial effects on riparian and 

wetland vegetation. In addition, vegetation 

restoration efforts in the California Trail Zone 

would have long-term beneficial effects. The 

potential for eliminating grazing over time in the 

California Trail Zone (all alternatives) and the 

Visitor Facilities and Access Zone (alternatives 

B and D) would have long-term beneficial 

effects on features such as ruts and natural 

vegetation composition.

County road maintenance: As in alternative A, 

there would be ongoing negligible to minor 

adverse effects on vegetation from maintenance 

of the county road. Continuing to partner 

with Cassia County to maintain the road and 

promoting practices to improve maintenance, 

engineering, erosion, and dust control would 

probably also improve conformance of the 

road to NPS standards and would have longterm beneficial effects. Unlike alternative A, 

in alternatives B–D the National Park Service 

would consider opportunities for ownership 

or management of the county road through 

the Reserve. This could also improve road 

maintenance practices that contribute to NPS 

road standards and character.

Natural and Cultural Resources Management

As in alternative A, the Reserve would develop 

a vegetation management plan to define plant 

community characteristics and to identify and 

prioritize areas for restoration based on these 

characteristics. In addition, the invasive plant 

management plan (NPS 2011) would continue to 

be used to refine priority areas for the treatment 

of nonnative invasive plants. Treatments 

would be evaluated based on the management 

strategies in that plan.

Human impact monitoring: Human impacts—for 

example at climber staging areas, along social 

trails, and in campsites—would be systematically 

monitored to address user capacity issues. 

Where monitoring showed an increase in human 

impacts, additional management actions would 

be undertaken to reduce these. It is therefore 

likely that over time, monitoring would result 

in long-term minor to moderate beneficial 

impacts on Reserve resources, particularly 

vegetation. This would especially be related to 

reducing impacts such as social trails, campsite 

damage, dog depressions, and expansion of 

climber staging areas through restoration and/or 

visitor education.

Fire use: Actions would be the same as in 

alternative A, plus the Reserve would consider 

reintroducing the influence of fire by widening 

the array of management tools available for 

Reserve managers. One available tool could be 

fire use, a program which employs naturally 

occurring, lightning-caused fires to accomplish 

specific management objectives. After natural 

ignition, fires are allowed to occur in particular 

sites under specific conditions. Another tool 

could include prescribed fire. As in alternative 

A, human-caused fires would continue to 

be suppressed. Use of fire would allow the 

Reserve to return a natural fire regime to the 

City of Rocks landscape as a critical ecological 

component that would benefit fire-dependent 

species, including vegetation and wildlife, and 

contribute to soil formation and enrichment. 

The ability to manage fire for the benefit of 

the Reserve would be considered in the fire 

management plan.

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ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE B

Zoning: In addition to beneficial effects from 

eliminating grazing near springs and in riparian 

areas, additional long-term beneficial impacts 

would arise from eliminating grazing over time 

in the California Trail and Visitor Facilities and 

Access Zones and from potentially reducing the 

total number of animal unit months over time as 

attrition in grazing permittees occurred.

Visitor center/information: A variety of 

negligible to minor adverse effects would 

result from constructing information kiosks 

and signs throughout the Reserve to provide 

for additional self-guided visitor orientation 

and interpretation, such as at Bath Rock and 

at Smoky Mountain Campground. Although 

negligible adverse effects on vegetation could 

occur from remodeling the existing visitor 

center house (because of impacts from 

construction staging areas), these would be 

negligible compared to impacts that would result 

from the proposal in alternative A to construct a 

new 9,500-square-foot visitor center facility with 

parking, affecting approximately five acres.

Smoky Mountain Campground expansion: 

Smoky Mountain Campground is located in a 

sparsely vegetated pinyon-juniper woodland. 

As in alternative A, there would be a variety 

of negligible to moderate adverse impacts on 

vegetation from new construction of a second 

camping area. This campground expansion 

could include a social camping area and some 

tent sites. For example, construction would 

emphasize a social camping area (such as several 

campsite clusters in the same area), rather than 

focusing on formal campsites. As a result there 

could be fewer or greater vegetation impacts 

from construction, depending on how the site 

was configured.

Approximately 10 acres could be affected 

by development of an additional parking 

area, roads, tent pads, and restrooms or vault 

toilets, as well as showers if these could be 

accommodated without a new well or water 

tank. Constructing the campground would 

require road routing and grading, removing 

vegetation, and potential hardening of sites.

Smoky Mountain amphitheater: Long-term 

minor to moderate localized adverse effects 

on vegetation would occur from development 

of an amphitheater within Smoky Mountain 

Campground.

Research: In addition to protecting the Research 

Natural Area, the Reserve would expand climate 

change research in the Research Natural Area to 

better understand changes in ecosystems over 

time, a long-term beneficial effect. Studying 

vegetation changes is one example of climate 

change research that could be conducted in 

the Reserve.

Partnerships: Working with partners and 

neighbors could expedite and improve the 

process of connecting trails to adjacent 

lands. This could make it easier to design 

minimum-impact trails and reduce the effects 

associated with their construction, a long-term 

beneficial impact.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE C

Zoning: In addition to beneficial effects from 

eliminating grazing near springs and in riparian 

areas, additional long-term beneficial impacts 

would arise from potentially reducing the 

total number of animal unit months over time 

depending on whether grazing permittees took 

advantage of the grazing buyout program. More 

than doubling the size of the Research Natural 

Area Zone in alternative C (to approximately 

693 acres) would include portions identified 

in alternative B as well as expand to protect a 

greater expanse of pinyon-juniper forest and 

habitat for the pinyon mouse and cliff chipmunk, 

a long-term beneficial effect.

In addition to beneficial impacts from managing 

California Trail vegetation based on cultural 

landscape inventory guidance, additional 

long-term beneficial impacts would result 

from a better understanding of California Trail 

vegetation both within and outside the Reserve. 

Identifying the extent of the pinyon pine forest 

and the factors that support it could also lead to 

long-term beneficial impacts.

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Visitor center: As in alternative A, grading and 

construction of a new visitor center would have 

adverse impacts on vegetation. In alternative C, 

however, fewer impacts would result because 

of the facility’s smaller size: it would be less 

than one-third the size of the facility proposed 

in alternative A and slightly more than half the 

size of the building proposed in alternative D. 

Construction of the approximately 2,600-squarefoot visitor center could affect up to five acres, 

including the necessary area for the building, 

parking, and access. As in alternative A, there 

would also be negligible beneficial effects from 

native plant landscaping.

Smoky Mountain Campground expansion: As in 

alternatives A and B, a variety of impacts would 

occur to vegetation from new construction of a 

second, approximately 62-site campground loop.

Smoky Mountain Outdoor Learning Center: 

There would be a variety of short-term minor to 

moderate adverse impacts on vegetation from 

construction of an outdoor learning center 

(probably composed of approximately six to 

eight yurts and an outdoor amphitheater) at 

Smoky Mountain Campground. Long-term 

minor to moderate adverse impacts would occur 

from grading and construction, and long-term 

negligible to minor adverse impacts would arise 

from ongoing use.

Smoky Mountain summit trail: There would 

be short-term minor to moderate adverse 

impacts associated with construction of a trail 

(approximately two miles in length) to the 

summit of Smoky Mountain, combined with 

long-term negligible to minor adverse effects 

from its maintenance.

Natural and cultural resources management: 

The Reserve would develop a vegetation 

management plan to identify and prioritize 

areas for restoration based on its development, 

a minor to moderate long-term beneficial 

effect. Additional beneficial effects would occur 

from working with partners and neighbors 

to implement actions from the vegetation 

management plan and the invasive plant 

management plan, because these partnerships 

would probably allow the Reserve to undertake 

more actions than it could on its own.

Research: As in alternative B, the Reserve 

would expand climate change research. In this 

alternative, there would also be an expanded 

focus on education and on understanding 

landscape-scale ecosystem changes, including 

those related to climate change.

Boundary: Expansion of the boundary to the 

east would result in moderate beneficial effects 

where incompatible uses or development rights 

on private lands are acquired, and moderate 

beneficial effects by acquisition of IDPR 

Recreation and Public Purpose leased lands. 

Acquisition of these areas would have combined 

localized and widespread long-term beneficial 

effects that would enhance both management 

and operations in the Reserve by increasing 

protection for California Trail resources and 

other natural and cultural resources linked to 

the Reserve. Increased protection of natural 

and cultural resources would be fostered by 

the number and presence of staff monitoring 

resources and visitors in the field, natural and 

cultural resource stewardship planning, and a 

higher standard of resource protection (related 

to the NPS mission), with lower tolerance for 

adverse impacts and no resource extraction. 

Because it is likely that most lands within the 

proposed boundary expansion would retain 

their current use—including as campgrounds, 

open space, and historic remnants of the 

California Trail—if the identified areas were 

added to the Reserve there would be long-term 

beneficial effects on vegetation from protection 

of additional important natural, cultural, and 

recreational resources, combined with longterm minor to moderate adverse effects from 

additional development of currently leased 

BLM-managed lands at Smoky Mountain 

Campground, and for development of the 

proposed visitor center on current BLMmanaged land.

Partnerships: As in alternative B, there would be 

long-term beneficial effects from working with 

partners to accomplish similar goals, such as trail 

connections.

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ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE D

Zoning: As in alternative C, there would be longterm beneficial effects and long-term negligible 

to minor effects from managing historic 

vegetation associated with the California Trail 

corridor to reestablish a more historic setting. 

In addition, long-term beneficial effects would 

result from identifying the extent of the pinyon 

pine forest and factors that support its existence.

Visitor center: As in alternatives A and C, there 

would be short-term impacts from grading 

and construction of a new visitor center and 

long-term impacts from use of the new facility, 

coupled with negligible beneficial effects from 

native plant landscaping. As in alternative A, 

the new visitor center would include an indoor 

amphitheater. Similar to alternative C, the 

visitor center would be smaller: at about 4,900 

square feet, it would be approximately half the 

size of the proposed building in alternative 

A. Therefore, there would probably be fewer 

impacts on vegetation associated with its 

construction than in alternative A.

Smoky Mountain Campground expansion: As 

in alternatives A–C, there would be a variety of 

impacts on vegetation from new construction 

of a second, approximately 62-site campground 

loop. With the focus on additional smaller tent 

sites in this alternative, it is likely that there 

would be fewer impacts, depending on how the 

sites were configured.

Logger Springs turnaround: Long-term minor 

to moderate localized adverse effects from 

development of a turnaround at the north end 

of Logger Springs Road would be the same 

as in alternatives B and C, except that under 

alternative D, parking would be formalized. 

Although this could affect more vegetation, it 

is likely that there would be fewer impacts over 

time because parking would be confined to a 

designated area, rather than along the edges of 

the turnaround and on Logger Springs Road.

Boundary: Beneficial impacts associated with 

boundary expansion would be the same as in 

alternative C.

Research: Actions and impacts would be the 

same as described in alternative C.

Partnerships: As in alternatives B and C, 

there would be long-term beneficial effects 

from working with partners to accomplish 

similar goals.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

General measures to minimize impacts on 

vegetation (as appropriate to the alternative) 

would include the following:

•	 Identify and delineate construction limits 

to prevent expansion of construction 

operations into undisturbed areas.

•	 Minimize construction limits and areas to 

be cleared where possible.

•	 Salvage plant material prior to 

construction from areas to be disturbed.

•	 Restore staging and other temporarily 

impacted areas following construction.

•	 Align trails to climbing routes and 

continue to take into consideration 

climbing route access to minimize the 

development of social trails.

•	 Continue to develop and contain staging 

areas for climbers to limit spillover 

impacts into adjacent undisturbed areas.

•	 Conduct a baseline study of social trails 

and user-created trails.

•	 Continue to place barriers in front of 

social trails at campsites, day-use areas, 

and other necessary locations to restore 

area natural resources.

•	 Increase education about staying on trails 

if monitoring standards are exceeded for 

social trails.

•	 Take appropriate preventative measures, 

such as increasing signage about 

trails, creating natural barriers and 

erosion control measures, brushing out 

areas, closing off areas if needed, and 

formalizing trails to minimize impacts 

from social trails.

•	 Comply with resource restrictions in the 

BLM Cassia Resource Management Plan 

regarding work on state-leased lands, 

including construction periods that 

avoid impacts on native species such as 

Swainson’s and ferruginous hawks.

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Mitigation measures for preventing the spread of 

noxious weeds include the following:

•	 Import only freshly exposed subsurface 

materials when materials are imported 

from outside the Reserve.

•	 Wash all vehicles prior to commencing 

construction projects.

•	 Cover stored soil and rock, as appropriate, 

to prevent exposure to noxious weed seed.

•	 Separate salvaged weed-contaminated 

soil from weed-free soil and use the 

contaminated soil for subsurface fill.

•	 Conduct annual monitoring for potential 

weed infestation using early detection/

rapid response eradication techniques.

•	 Identify and control nonnative plant 

species infestations prior to construction

Measures that could be used to minimize the 

number of dog depressions at climber staging 

areas include the following:

•	 Increase dog owner education.

•	 Redesign fences at staging areas.

•	 Determine whether a permit should be 

required to bring dogs to the Reserve.

•	 Restrict dogs at climber staging areas.

•	 Restore impacted sites.

•	 Measures that would be used to minimize 

impacts from grazing and livestock trailing 

include the following:

•	 Meet the physiological needs of plants 

through manipulation of grazing by: 

1) delaying initial grazing until range 

readiness, 2) allowing adequate leaf 

area to remain after a grazing period, 3) 

allowing adequate time between grazing 

periods to permit replenishment of leaf 

area and vigor, and 4) allowing adequate 

leaf area and time late in the growing 

season for replenishment of vigor and bud 

development (Reserve 2008b).

•	 Periodically rest grazing areas, allowing 

plants to reproduce, either through seed 

production or vegetatively (Reserve 

1996b: p.15).

•	 Rely on deferred rotation and restrotation. (“Deferred rotation grazing is the 

systematic rotation among two or more 

pastures with a delay in grazing on an area 

for an adequate period of time to provide 

for plant reproduction, establishment of 

new plants or restoration of vigor.” Society 

for Range Management 1989 in Reserve 

2008a: p. 6). Rest-rotation grazing is the 

systematic restriction of grazing, rotated 

between pastures, for a complete growing 

season (Reserve 2008a: p. 6).

•	 Where allotments have only one pasture 

(Trail Canyon and Tracy Lane), use delayed 

turnout (until range readiness), salting, 

herding, and improved water distribution 

to obtain uniform distribution of cattle in 

the allotment, then remove cattle when the 

desired degree of utilization is obtained 

(Reserve 2008a: p. 7).

•	 Restore degraded grazing areas toward a 

condition of native perennial grasses and 

widely dispersed sagebrush using fire and 

vegetation management.

•	 Place salt at least 100 yards from any water 

source and move as necessary to avoid 

unacceptable damage to a given area.

•	 Encourage permittees to lessen impacts on 

riparian zones and areas of concentrated 

recreational use.

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CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Although the Reserve landscape appears 

to be somewhat natural, decades of use by 

people have left impacts in the form of trails, 

homesteads, farm fields, agricultural uses, 

and other development. As noted in the 

comprehensive management plan, the natural 

biological diversity and riparian and wetland 

habitats of the Reserve have been substantially 

altered by road and facility development, 

domestic livestock grazing, fire suppression, 

dryland farming, seeding, and brush control. 

These activities have resulted in widespread 

invasion by nonnative species, soil erosion, and 

altered plant and wildlife communities (Reserve 

1996b: p. 131).

Historically, the landscape in the Reserve 

contained a mosaic of native grasses, such as 

Idaho fescue, and scattered sagebrush. Only 

fragments of the native vegetation mosaic 

have survived decades of grazing livestock 

and agricultural operations such as grubbing, 

plowing, and crop production. In addition, 

deliberate seeding of crested wheatgrass (several 

species) by the Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Forest Service, and private landowners has 

also altered areas on public lands and private 

lands that later became part of the Reserve.

According to the 2008 draft grazing 

management plan:

Some of the lower elevation basins were 

most probably farmed by early settlers. 

The vegetation of these areas has few 

native grasses remaining. Most of the 

lower elevation rangelands were cleared of 

brush at one time or another and seeded 

to introduced grasses. The primary species 

used was probably one of the wheatgrasses. 

Most of these areas are now dominated by 

big sagebrush with an understory of crested 

wheatgrass. On those areas that were not 

farmed the understory generally has some 

native species as well as crested wheatgrass 

(Reserve 2008a: p. 5).

. . . The four lower elevation basins have had 

a long history of rangeland seeding on them . 

. . Many of the areas within these basins were 

undoubtedly former agricultural fields of 

barley, oats and other crops that were grown 

by the original homesteaders. The vegetation 

of these areas has few native species present 

in the community. Typically, these areas 

are dominated by big sagebrush with an 

understory of crested wheatgrass. Few other 

native species have reinvaded the sites. Other 

seedings such as some in the Twin Sisters 

Basin have many more native species in the 

understory. It is assumed that these areas 

were never farmed and the natives persisted 

through the early livestock use and seeding 

projects (Reserve 2008a, Appendix A: p. 49).

Aerial photos from the mid-1950s actually show 

that the Twin Sisters Basin was tilled and farmed. 

Past actions have also included uncontrolled 

livestock use which, according to the 1996 

grazing management plan, continued to occur 

on lands formerly administered by the Bureau 

of Land Management until passage of the 

Taylor Grazing Act in 1934. “This uncontrolled 

use resulted in a substantial alteration of the 

native vegetation. The native perennial grasses 

decreased in abundance and productivity, 

allowing sagebrush and juniper to increase. 

While overgrazing by livestock in the late 1800s 

to early 1900s contributed to the increase in 

brush, other factors such as control of fires, 

greater seed dispersal, and an overall climatic 

shift also contributed to the change” (Reserve 

1996b: p. 3).

Historical land management activities, livestock 

grazing, and fire suppression have probably 

reduced the natural fire frequency over the 

past 150 years, resulting in the dominance of 

woody species (Reserve 2008a: p. 5). As noted 

in the grazing management plan, the heavy 

fuel load provided by woody species probably 

contributed to the intensity and spread of 

wildfires in 1999 and 2000. Without some type 

of brush and tree control, future uncontrollable 

wildfires pose this threat to much of the Reserve. 

An accumulation of fine fuel (grasses) increases 

the chance of wildfire ignition (Reserve 2008a: 

p. 5). In these areas, livestock grazing can be 

a useful tool in reducing fine fuel and thus 

wildfire ignition and rate of spread (Reserve 

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2008a: p. 5). (However, fine fuels, which may 

be a consequence of grazing, also increase fire 

frequency. Proposed hazard fuel reduction and 

fire use in several of the alternatives may lead to 

more controllable fires.)

Today native vegetation has largely been 

converted to a dominant cover of sagebrush 

mixed with weedy grasses, nonnative thistles, 

and nonnative forbs. Among the species of 

nonnative grasses are crested wheatgrass (several 

species), cheatgrass, bulbous bluegrass, and 

Kentucky bluegrass. The loss of native perennial 

herbaceous species and a conversion to woody 

and nonnative invasive species has resulted 

in a moderate to major cumulative adverse 

effect, replacing native perennial herbaceous 

species with woody perennial native species 

and nonnative herbaceous species. On a smaller 

scale, as noted in the “Geology and Soils” 

section, recreational activities such as climbing 

have also contributed to a loss of vegetation. In 

the Bath Rock area, for example, the preliminary 

natural resources condition assessment 

identified numerous shade-holes dug by dogs, 

as well as areas where heavy foot traffic had 

trampled much of the vegetation between big 

sagebrush shrubs, leading to sagebrush mortality 

and loss of biotic crust in some locations. 

Additional recreational impacts from climbing 

include the extensive amount of equipment 

and gear associated with rock climbing, which, 

during staging for a climb, is usually placed 

in an orderly fashion on the ground around 

the immediate area, thereby impacting site 

vegetation, if present.

Present actions include ongoing minor to 

moderate cumulative adverse effects on 

vegetation from ongoing domestic livestock 

grazing, ground disturbance from development 

and human use, wildfire suppression, and 

potentially from climate change. These 

impacts include invasion by nonnative plants, 

which compete with native species; trampling 

disturbance and loss of native vegetation by 

livestock grazing; and continued effects from 

alteration of natural fire regimes. According to 

the preliminary natural resources condition 

assessment, the full potential impact of grazing 

in Reserve allotments—or in portions of other 

allotments that fall within the Reserve—is 

difficult to assess because of the lack of 

monitoring data and information about the 

timing and level of forage utilization within 

allotments or portions of allotments (Erixson 

and Corrao 2011).

Dispersed camping outside the current Reserve 

boundary on other public lands in alternatives 

A and B would continue to result in direct 

and indirect impacts on vegetation, including 

additional nutrient deposition from human 

waste and the potential for poorly located 

stone fire rings. In alternatives C and D, these 

impacts could potentially be reduced under the 

proposed expansion of the Reserve boundary, 

which could subject these dispersed use areas to 

a range of different regulations, such as requiring 

permits for backcountry camping and providing 

vault toilets and designated sites and other 

amenities. If dispersed camping was removed 

from this location, however, it is likely that this 

displacement would result in the same level 

of impacts in a different location (elsewhere 

on nearby BLM-managed lands). As a result, 

there would probably continue to be moderate 

localized adverse impacts on vegetation from 

this activity.

Past, current, and future grazing on BLM and 

USFS allotments would be expected to have 

similar direct and indirect effects on vegetation 

as described above. For example, recent analysis 

by the University of Idaho for a preliminary 

natural resources condition assessment used 

the Rangeland Health Rapid Assessment 

Methodology to sample 13 sites in 9 allotments 

managed by the Reserve. Sampling consisted 

of 1 to 2 sites in each allotment. For each, 

the percent departure from the theoretical 

reference condition of three landscape 

attributes was measured. The three attributes 

were soil/site stability, hydrologic function, and 

integrity of the biotic community. The range 

of departure figures for soil/site condition 

varied from 0%–40%, for hydrologic function 

from 0%–35%, and for biotic community 

from 2.9%–37.5%. The average departure 

for soils was 20.98%, for hydrologic function 

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20.96%, and for biotic integrity 21.12%. These 

average departure figures fall into a “slight to 

moderate” departure category (20%–39%), 

while the overall range also includes a “none to 

slight” departure category (less than 20%) and 

a “moderate” departure category (40%–59%). 

Only one characteristic (soils) met this moderate 

measurement (Erixson and Corrao 2011: 

p. 81–86).

Future impacts on Reserve vegetation include 

the actions contained in the alternatives 

within this plan, coupled with the potential for 

minor to moderate cumulative adverse effects 

outside the Reserve from additional livestock 

grazing, agricultural land expansion, energy 

development, and expansion of human impacts 

associated with nearby towns and cities. A 

variety of upland vegetation types would be 

affected and actions would include conversion 

of these to development, including vegetation 

damage, loss, and invasion by nonnative species.

The Reserve is located within a biogeographic 

crossroads that produces a unique 

representation of plant and animal species, 

encompassing the northern extent of some 

species, while including the southern extent of 

others. As a result, these species may be very 

susceptible to a changing climate.

According to the draft National Climate 

Assessment, as warming continues, landscapes 

are changing rapidly and species, including 

many iconic species, may disappear from parks 

and regions where they have been prevalent. 

Continued lengthening of the growing 

season due to warming will shift the timing 

of seasonal life cycle events (phenology) in 

plants and animals, such as spring bud burst, 

emergence from overwintering, and the start 

of migrations, and this will probably lead to 

changes that adversely affect species and habitats 

(USGCRP 2013).

Climate change has been documented to 

increase the vulnerability of vegetation to 

fire, insect infestations, droughts, and disease 

outbreaks. Climate is intimately related to 

wildland fire and the length of the fire season. 

Fire severity and fire size are already increasing 

across the western U.S. in response to ongoing 

climate change (USGCRP, 2013).

Threats to vegetation types and species 

composition noted in the preliminary natural 

resources condition assessment include 

overgrazing by livestock, wildfire, and changes 

in land use inside and outside of Reserve 

boundaries on private lands (Erixson and 

Corrao 2011). Undesirable invasive and weed 

species could dominate because of the loss 

of native vegetation. This native vegetation is 

also vital to the survival of species of concern 

such as sagebrush-obligate species. Grazing, 

browsing, and wildfire have caused additional 

threats to vegetation through loss of historic 

vegetation cover, which protects the soil 

surface from raindrop splash, sheet and wind 

erosion, and holds soil in place. Loss of historic 

vegetation cover can result in increased soil 

erosion, including rill and gully erosion, and 

the establishment of aggressive, undesirable 

nonnative species. If this continues, the resultant 

plant communities tend to transition toward 

a mixture of nonnative annual and perennial 

herbaceous vegetation with less habitat value for 

native species.

The preliminary natural resources condition 

assessment identified four nonnative invasive 

herbaceous vegetation types that dominate in 

403 acres of the Reserve: these include crested 

wheatgrass, cheatgrass, bulbous bluegrass, and 

Kentucky bluegrass (Erixson and Corrao 2011). 

Cheatgrass and crested wheatgrass also provide 

the dominant understory cover for a large 

sagebrush-dominated mapping unit covering 

708 acres. Nearly 10,000 acres were mapped as 

cultivated crops. Of this approximately 1,500 

acres were mapped as pasture/hayfields, 1,500 

acres as developed/open space, 25 acres as 

developed/low intensity, and slightly more than 

7,600 acres as grassland/herbaceous (Erixson 

and Corrao 2011). Altogether, conversion of an 

unknown number of acres of native vegetation 

(perennial grasses, sagebrush, bitterbrush, 

pinyon, and juniper) to predominately nonnative 

species has occurred over time in the Reserve, 

leading to the above-described moderate to 

major cumulative adverse effects. Therefore, 

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when actions in alternatives A–D are added to 

the effects of other past, present, and future 

actions, overall there would continue to be 

moderate cumulative (including some major 

localized) adverse impacts on vegetation.

CONCLUSION

There would continue to be a range of 

negligible to moderate localized adverse effects 

from visitor use (alternatives A–D); minor to 

moderate localized adverse effects associated 

with construction of new facilities and trails 

(alternatives A–D); minor to moderate, including 

major localized adverse impacts from grazing 

(alternatives A–D) that could eventually be 

reduced in alternatives B and C; and minor to 

moderate beneficial and adverse effects from 

wildfire suppression, including from reduced 

spread of cheatgrass and from alteration of the 

fire regime (alternative A). Short- and long-term 

beneficial effects would result from changes 

in zoning (alternatives B–D), management of 

the Research Natural Area Zone boundary 

(alternatives B–D), human-impact monitoring 

(alternatives B–D), boundary expansion 

(alternatives C–D), fire use (alternatives B–D), 

and ongoing management of grazing allotments 

(all alternatives). Beneficial impacts would 

be greatest in alternative C from boundary 

expansion and from establishing larger Natural 

and Research Natural Area Zones.

BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES: WILDLIFE

a. Wildlife Methodology

Context of impact: Wildlife impacts were 

considered within City of Rocks National 

Reserve, on IDPR-leased land and IDPR-owned 

land and within the region.

Type of impact: Beneficial impacts would 

sustain wildlife populations or avoid disturbance 

of wildlife and wildlife habitats, while adverse 

impacts would reduce wildlife populations or 

cause loss or removal of habitat and disturbance 

to wildlife.

Impact Intensity

Negligible Impacts would not be measurable or 

perceptible.

Minor Impacts would be measurable or 

perceptible and would be localized 

within a relatively small area; however, 

the overall viability of wildlife would 

not be affected. Without further 

impacts wildlife populations or species 

would recover.

Moderate Impacts would be sufficient to 

cause a change in the abundance, 

distribution, quantity, or quality of 

wildlife or wildlife habitat; however 

the impact would remain localized. 

The change would be measurable and 

perceptible.

Major Impacts would be substantial and 

highly noticeable and could cause 

widespread changes in species or 

populations.

b. Wildlife Impacts

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

Visitor and Administrative Use: There would 

continue to be negligible to moderate localized 

adverse effects on wildlife from recreational 

use and administrative activities within the 

Reserve. These impacts would be from noise 

and disturbance as well as from habitat 

modification related to providing for visitor uses 

such as hiking, climbing, and camping. Most 

mammals would tend to avoid habitually noisy 

areas, such as roadways, campgrounds, trails, 

and construction areas during the day. Because 

noise and disturbance would occur primarily 

at predictable times (during the day and into 

the early night hours in campgrounds, during 

the day on roadways, and for a few days to a 

few months in construction sites), there would 

be other times when wildlife could return to or 

pass through these areas without disturbance 

(such as late at night and during periods of low 

use when noise and activity would be reduced 

or absent). The intensity of visitor use activities 

would probably also continue to affect wildlife. 

For instance, the speed of mountain bikes and 

the presence of horses and riders on trails could 

startle or disrupt wildlife.

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The climbing management plan notes that 

climbers and cliff-dwelling birds use some of 

the same vertical space, and as a result climbing 

may specifically affect swallows, raptors, and 

other similar birds, as well as mammals such 

as bats. The behavior of cliff-nesting birds has 

been shown to be affected by human presence 

when climbing occurs in proximity to nest sites 

or when it is of long duration. Behaviors such 

as temporary displacement from nest sites and 

territorial displays have been observed within 

the Reserve in response to human presence 

(Reserve 1998a). As a result, the Reserve would 

continue to take measures to protect nesting 

birds from disturbance. These measures would 

include delayed opening or seasonal closure of 

some areas.

Mammals such as bobcats, ring-tailed cats, bats, 

and kit foxes can also be disturbed by climbing 

activities because of their more frequent use 

of rocky habitats. Most of this use, however, 

occurs at night when these areas are often free 

of human disturbance; therefore most effects on 

these species would be negligible to minor.

Habitat modification , such as from mowing, 

trimming vegetation along trails, fixing fences, 

and other activities, would continue to occur 

as recreational facilities were maintained or 

modified to accommodate use. To the extent that 

these activities occurred during spring and/or 

in early morning or evening hours they would 

be more likely to disrupt wildlife but would 

continue to have limited effects.

Administrative operations such as maintenance, 

visitor center operations, and employee 

housing would also continue to cause noise and 

disturbance of wildlife, a long-term localized 

adverse effect that would continue to cause 

wildlife to avoid the area during the day (birds, 

deer, and other habituated animals would be an 

exception). Ongoing impacts from use of roads 

and other Reserve facilities would continue 

to cause occasional (in the case of birds and 

mammals) to routine (in the case of insects) 

mortality of a variety of wildlife.

Trails: There would be short- and long-term 

minor to moderate adverse impacts on wildlife 

from use, maintenance, and construction of 

trails. Developing a trails management plan 

could result in beneficial effects from the closure 

or modification of trails that adversely affect 

wildlife habitat, such as those through or near 

wetlands. Negligible beneficial effects would 

continue to occur from occasional wildlife use 

of trails.

Permitted Uses

Hunting and Trapping: There would continue 

to be negligible to moderate localized direct 

and indirect impacts on wildlife from permitted 

hunting and trapping within the Reserve and 

on private lands where prior permission from 

the landowner has been obtained. Impacts 

would occur to individuals but could extend 

to populations if higher permit numbers than 

could be supported were issued or if more 

animals than anticipated were taken. A wide 

variety of species would continue to be hunted 

and/or trapped, including deer, elk, moose, 

bobcat, mountain lion, coyote, rabbit, grouse, 

and quail.

Grazing: A variety of negligible to moderate 

adverse impacts would continue to occur due to 

disruption of wildlife movement and behavior 

from livestock grazing and habitat modification. 

If existing allotment permits on private and 

public land persisted, cattle would continue 

to graze on forage that would otherwise have 

been available to certain wildlife, such as voles 

and mule deer. Because grazing allotments 

are grazed to retain forage, however, it is likely 

that other wildlife would be able to access the 

remainder. At the same time, pressure on this 

vegetation from trampling and foraging would 

cause repeated disturbance, which could result 

in changing the vegetation community to a lower 

successional state (such as grassland rather than 

shrubland) or lower quality habitat. Although 

some wildlife would be attracted to livestock, 

others could feel threatened, while still others 

would not be bothered by cattle but could 

be threatened by herding dogs or riders on 

horseback, such as during trailing operations. 

Under the current grazing system livestock may 

also directly affect ground-nesting birds such 

as northern harriers and killdeer, as well as 

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marmots and badgers, by occasionally disturbing 

or trampling habitats such as nests and burrows. 

This effect would probably occur infrequently 

because of the low to moderate density of 

these species.

Continuing to fence out wetlands and riparian 

areas and/or modifying grazing usage in 

allotments with these features would decrease 

the number of cattle in these areas and could 

increase natural wetland functions and move 

these communities toward healthy conditions by 

eliminating impacts on soils and vegetation and 

minimizing impacts on water and other aquatic 

organisms. The presence of cattle in the Reserve 

may also contaminate streams and springs with 

fecal coliform and contribute to soil erosion, 

resulting in contamination or sedimentation of 

downstream water resources during stormwater 

runoff. Unnaturally high sediment loads and 

turbidity associated with runoff could adversely 

affect aquatic organisms both in and outside of 

the Reserve, far downstream from the source of 

the particulates (Reserve 1996a: p. 111).

Natural and Cultural Resources Management

Night sky: There would be long-term negligible 

to minor beneficial effects from reducing 

reflective light within the Reserve and from 

undertaking an inventory of night sky quality 

and characteristics, a better understanding 

of which could help to maintain or improve 

nighttime wildlife habitat within the Reserve.

Inventory and monitoring: Wildlife inventory 

and monitoring would continue at current levels, 

focusing on personal observations of species 

as opportunities arise. Annual inventories of 

observed species and rare sightings would 

also continue to be documented, a long-term 

beneficial effect. However, because there would 

only be opportunistic (rather than systematic) 

studies of wildlife as funding or special initiatives 

become available, the Reserve would continue 

to have insufficient information about the array 

of species that inhabit the area, which could 

increase the potential for unintentional minor to 

moderate adverse effects. Future environmental 

impact analysis for proposed actions as 

more detailed plans are developed, however, 

would tend to decrease the potential for these 

unintentional effects to occur.

Fire management: Continuing the Reserve’s 

current practice of full wildfire suppression 

could result in long-term changes in wildlife 

habitat as shrubs and trees encroach into 

grasslands and other habitats. Where 

grazing occurred, suppressing woody plant 

establishment, this impact could be reduced 

and therefore could benefit some wildlife 

by maintaining open areas. As with other 

management actions, there could be a range of 

beneficial and adverse effects, such as beneficial 

effects from not causing additional spread of 

cheatgrass due to fire suppression.

Invasive species: Long-term beneficial effects 

on wildlife habitat could occur from reducing 

the incidence of nonnative invasive species 

through treatment of priority areas identified by 

the invasive plant management plan and from 

indirectly from development of a vegetation 

management plan to identify priority areas for 

restoration (among other actions).

Management of natural areas: Ongoing 

management of natural areas, including 

the natural zone and the 312-acre Research 

Natural Area, for the purposes identified in the 

“Vegetation” section, would continue to have 

long-term beneficial effects on wildlife and 

wildlife habitat. There would also be beneficial 

effects from eliminating the overlapping portion 

of grazing allotment from the Research Natural 

Area and simplifying field management of 

the area.

Removal of Circle Creek impoundment 

(#1): While removal of the Circle Creek 

impoundment would restore natural conditions, 

there could be short-term negligible to minor 

adverse effects on wildlife that have become 

dependent on this area. These would be 

coupled with long-term beneficial impacts from 

restoration of riparian habitat in the same area.

Construction

The construction of new permanent facilities, 

such as the campground loop and the proposed 

visitor center, would result in long-term 

negligible to moderate localized adverse impacts 

on wildlife. Because these facilities would be 

constructed in areas that now comprise existing 

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habitat, and because they would remove some 

of that habitat, there would be long-term 

localized negligible to moderate adverse impacts 

not only from noise but also from habitat loss. 

This habitat loss would affect small mammals 

and other species with small home ranges 

more than large mammals because it is likely 

that larger species would pass through but 

not live in these areas. Some animals, such as 

birds, would also experience displacement to 

adjacent areas, where suitable habitat may also 

be found. Others, which are tolerant of human 

disturbance, may remain. Where actions affected 

key habitat areas, such as denning, roosting 

or nesting areas, there could be localized 

moderate adverse effects, including loss of 

some individuals, however these areas would be 

avoided to the degree practicable.

Construction of new facilities would also result 

in the installation of some additional temporary 

and/or permanent lighting near the Reserve. 

Because a variety of mitigation measures would 

be used, however, this lighting would have 

negligible to minor adverse effects.

IMPACTS COMMON TO ALTERNATIVES B–D

Impacts would be the same as in alternative A, 

except for those associated with construction 

of visitor facilities, natural and cultural 

resources management, boundary changes, and 

wildfire suppression.

Construction

Construction activities that would occur in 

alternatives B–D include improving drainage 

on roads and trails; modifications to Reserve 

campsites based on DCP recommendations; 

modifications to the existing visitor center 

at the Castle Rocks Administrative Unit 

(alternative B) or construction of a new visitor 

center (alternatives C and D); and construction 

of a new camping area/campground loop 

(alternatives B–D), amphitheater (alternatives 

B and C), and/or kiosks (alternative B) at 

Smoky Mountain. There would also be 

construction of a trail to the top of Smoky 

Mountain (alternatives C–D), construction 

of a multiuse trail to link California Trail 

resources (alternatives B–D), construction 

of an equestrian staging area near the Bread 

Loaves intersection (alternatives B–D), and 

construction of a turnaround on Logger Springs 

Road (alternatives B–D). In alternative D, the 

turnaround would also contain a parking area.

Construction of these facilities would result 

in variable degrees of long-term wildlife 

habitat loss and variable degrees of noise and 

disturbance from use. Some would be day-use 

facilities and some would also include nighttime 

use. Whereas construction of campsites 

would retain vegetation suitable for campsite 

screening, construction of associated roadways 

and buildings or parking areas would remove 

large areas of vegetation. Because some of these 

facilities would be constructed in previously 

disturbed areas that have not yet recovered, 

and because they would also be constructed in 

common habitat types (previously disturbed 

grassland and sagebrush communities), there 

would probably be a range of negligible to 

moderate localized adverse and beneficial effects 

on wildlife.

Extending trail connections to areas outside 

the Reserve by developing partnerships with 

adjacent land managers and private landowners 

could result in trails that connect to USFS- and 

BLM-managed lands and Castle Rocks State 

Park. As in alternative A, these would have shortand long-term minor adverse and long-term 

negligible beneficial effects.

Natural and Cultural Resources Management

The Reserve could study the possibility of 

encouraging pronghorn and reintroducing 

extirpated species such as peregrine falcon and 

pygmy rabbit in cooperation with other agencies. 

Doing so would require additional information 

and environmental impact analysis but could 

enhance the Reserve’s role as an important 

refuge for wildlife. Actions to reintroduce these 

species would have both long-term beneficial 

and potential adverse effects. Working with 

partners and the state to understand and protect 

wildlife resources would also have minor longterm beneficial effects.

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Soundscape: Maintaining the Reserve 

soundscape within current levels, documenting 

these levels, and crafting a soundscape 

management plan would have long-term 

beneficial effects on wildlife. These management 

principles would result in recognition of 

potential soundscape impacts and identification 

of measures that would be taken to 

minimize these.

Night sky: In addition to beneficial effects from 

reducing reflective light within the Reserve 

and from inventorying night sky quality and 

characteristics as in alternative B, there would 

be additional direct beneficial effects from 

improving night sky characteristics and potential 

indirect benefits related to interpreting these, 

an indirect beneficial effect on wildlife from 

maintaining dark night sky characteristics.

Fire management: Compared to alternative A, 

the potential use of fire would lead to negligible 

to minor adverse effects from possible loss of 

individuals of some species. This would be 

combined with long-term beneficial effects on 

wildlife habitat resulting from the development 

of fuels treatment plans and the potential use 

of fire, which would reduce the incidence of 

catastrophic wildfire. Benefits would include an 

improved range of habitats (vegetation mosaic) 

from the juxtaposition of burned, partially 

burned, and unburned areas, and from the 

recycling of nutrients through the food chain.

Grazing: There are no proposed changes in 

livestock numbers or season of use. Adverse and 

beneficial impacts would continue.

Research Natural Area and research: Beneficial 

effects noted in alternative A would result from 

maintaining grazing where it currently occurs 

while removing an overlapping portion of a 

grazing allotment from the Research Natural 

Area. Expanding the Research Natural Area 

would increase available wildlife habitat for 

several Idaho Sensitive Species and expand 

general wildlife habitat protection in this area. In 

addition, there would be opportunities for paired 

vegetation studies that could also benefit wildlife. 

There would be long-term beneficial effects from 

removing a portion of a grazing allotment, from 

maintaining minimal human use in the Research 

Natural Area, and from expanding the Research 

Natural Area to increase its manageability and 

protection of vegetation communities.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE B

In addition to the impacts associated with 

alternatives B–D identified above, other actions 

in alternative B that could affect wildlife 

include improvements in wildlife inventory and 

monitoring, changes in grazing through attrition 

and zoning, and modifications to the boundary.

Inventory and monitoring: Actions planned 

under alternative B that would have long-term 

indirect beneficial effects on wildlife would 

include conducting a systematic wildlife 

inventory, developing and implementing a 

wildlife monitoring plan, and working with the 

Idaho Department of Fish and Game to prohibit 

hunting in the Research Natural Area and in 

high visitor use areas not excluded by state 

regulations. These actions would expand the 

ability of the Reserve to understand and manage 

wildlife, allowing for natural wildlife population 

variability and increasing knowledge of wildlife 

and wildlife habitat.

Additional trail: The development of a multiuse 

trail connecting to Tea Kettle Trail to link 

California Trail resources would have the same 

types of minor short- and long-term adverse and 

beneficial impacts as identified above for other 

trails projects.

Grazing: In alternative B, modifying or 

eliminating grazing where appropriate to 

improve the California Trail cultural landscape 

and to improve visitor access would have longterm minor beneficial impacts on wildlife habitat. 

This could include a reduction in disturbanceadapted species, such as species that are present 

because they are especially adapted to trampling 

and grazing. Potentially reducing grazing in the 

California Trail and Visitor Facilities and Access 

Zones, however, could have beneficial effects on 

wildlife during times of low visitor use. Because 

these periods would generally also coincide with 

an absence of grazing (such as October through 

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April), the degree of beneficial effects would 

probably be negligible to minor. The potential 

reduction of grazing over time, as permittees 

discontinue requests for permits due to changing 

business models or abandonments, could have 

long-term beneficial effects by reducing the 

number of livestock and animal unit months 

through attrition. Where grazing allotments were 

reconfigured to benefit vegetation and other 

resources, wildlife could also benefit.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM ALTERNATIVE C

In addition to the impacts associated with 

alternatives B–D identified above, other actions 

in alternative C that could affect wildlife would 

include additional improvements in wildlife 

inventory and monitoring, potential restoration 

of California Trail vegetation, construction 

of an outdoor learning center and additional 

trails, changes in grazing management (zoning 

and the voluntary buyout program), boundary 

expansion, and some additional facilitation 

of research.

Inventory and monitoring: In addition to the 

expansion of inventory and monitoring for 

wildlife in alternative B, long-term beneficial 

effects would result from seeking partnerships 

with other agencies such as the U.S. Forest 

Service and Bureau of Land Management 

to better understand how wildlife use the 

Reserve and surrounding land. Addressing 

questions related to the status and trends of 

species composition for birds, mammals, and 

other relevant wildlife would improve Reserve 

understanding and protection of wildlife. 

Additional research topics, such as the status and 

trends of Idaho Sensitive Species, threatened 

and endangered species, and extirpated 

species could also indirectly benefit wildlife by 

determining which actions the Reserve should 

undertake to address the results of the research.

Historic vegetation restoration: The potential 

for restoration of California Trail vegetation 

could expand the mosaic of native wildlife 

habitat available to wildlife, a minor localized 

beneficial effect.

Outdoor learning center: As with other proposed 

construction projects, building a new outdoor 

learning center would have similar short- and 

long-term impacts on wildlife from noise, 

activity, and habitat modification. Although 

the visitor center would be smaller than in 

alternative A, the addition of the outdoor 

learning center and other facilities (including 

the equestrian staging area and turnaround) 

would probably result in the same degree of 

construction impacts. Use impacts, however, 

would be greater from the day-to-day activities 

in these facilities, especially on wildlife sensitive 

to disturbance.

Additional trail: The development of a trail to the 

summit of Smoky Mountain and an additional 

multiuse trail connecting to Tea Kettle Trail 

would have the same types of minor short- and 

long-term adverse and beneficial impacts as 

identified above for other trails projects.

Grazing: Potentially reducing grazing over time 

through permittees’ voluntary participation 

in a grazing buyout program could have longterm beneficial effects from reducing the 

number of livestock and animal unit months, 

commensurate with the areas where it was 

eliminated. Where grazing allotments were 

reconfigured to benefit vegetation and other 

resources, wildlife could also benefit.

Boundary: Expanding the east boundary of the 

Reserve to protect viewsheds and portions of the 

California National Historic Trail, and to include 

Smoky Mountain Campground and the land 

currently leased to the state by the Bureau of 

Land Management, would also have long-term 

minor to moderate beneficial effects on wildlife. 

This would result from expanding protection 

for wildlife habitat, protecting portions of one 

of Idaho’s northernmost pinyon-juniper forest 

ecosystems, and enabling the Reserve to manage 

increased recreational use and impacts, such as 

dispersed camping around Smoky Mountain 

Campground. Increased management of 

dispersed camping, for example, could reduce 

the threat of human-caused wildfires and 

benefit wildlife.

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Research: The expanded Research Natural 

Area would allow for enhanced research 

opportunities on landscape-scale natural 

resource topics, including climate change. The 

expanded Research Natural Area would also 

provide additional flora and fauna species for 

research, including the opportunity for studies 

comparing two similar areas to compare and 

contrast species’ adaptation to changing natural 

conditions. Combined, these could result in 

long-term minor beneficial effects by providing 

a better understanding of wildlife and wildlife 

habitat, which could therefore indirectly support 

wildlife protection.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE D

In addition to impacts associated with 

alternatives B–D identified above, other actions 

in alternative D that could affect wildlife would 

include differences in inventory and monitoring, 

construction actions, and grazing management. 

RNA actions and impacts would be the same as 

in alternative B, and the boundary expansion 

and impacts would be the same as in alternative 

C. Some differences in zoning of developed 

areas could also result in variable impacts. As 

in alternatives B and C, there would also be a 

multiuse trail to link California Trail resources.

Inventory and monitoring: Wildlife inventory and 

monitoring would be the same as in alternative 

A. As a result there could be unintentional minor 

to moderate localized adverse effects that could 

be decreased based on additional environmental 

impact analysis for specific projects.

Logger Springs parking area: Expansion of the 

Logger Springs turnaround would include 

construction of a designated parking area, 

increasing impacts on wildlife habitat in this 

area (minor to moderate and localized) for 

alternatives B–C (minor and localized).

Grazing: Because grazing permits would 

continue to be renewed in all zones (except the 

Research Natural Area Zone), unless there is 

permittee abandonment or consistent failure to 

comply with conditions of the permit, impacts 

would generally be the same as in alternative 

A. An exception could be the slight benefits 

associated with removing pasturing of cattle 

from the Visitor Facilities and Access Zone, if 

possible (as in alternative B).

Zoning: Because the Transition and Visitor 

Facilities and Access Zones would be larger 

in this alternative, there could be more 

opportunities for later development of these, 

though no specific actions are currently planned 

that would cause this.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures to minimize impacts on wildlife (as 

appropriate to the alternative) would include 

the following:

•	 Conduct site-specific surveys for wildlife 

in proposed construction areas.

•	 Continue to monitor climbing routes to 

limit impacts on wildlife, such as nesting 

raptors, including enacting seasonal 

closures as necessary.

•	 Continue to prohibit artificial 

modification of rocks for climbing, such as 

the introduction of glued hand-holds or 

removal of jutting or sharp edges.

•	 Continue to require permits for use of 

portable electric drills to create bolted 

sport climbing routes.

•	 Use information gained from inventory 

and monitoring of wildlife to improve 

management.

•	 Avoid impacting key wildlife habitat sites, 

such as nesting or denning areas, from 

construction projects.

•	 Minimize the degree of habitat removal 

(vegetation clearing) by delineation of 

construction limits.

•	 Limit the effects of light and noise on 

wildlife habitat through controls on 

construction equipment and timing of 

activities, such as limiting construction to 

daylight hours to the extent practicable.

•	 Employ spill prevention measures to 

prevent inadvertent spills of fuel, oil, 

hydraulic fluid, antifreeze, and other toxic 

chemicals that could affect wildlife.

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•	 Ensure that construction personnel at 

work sites do not provide human food 

to wildlife.

•	 Maintain proper food storage and dispose 

of all food waste promptly.

•	 Schedule construction activities with 

seasonal consideration of wildlife life 

cycles to minimize impacts during 

sensitive periods (for example, nesting).

•	 Employ, monitor, and maintain erosion 

control measures at construction 

sites to minimize sediment inputs to 

aquatic habitats.

•	 Engineer trails and trail stream crossings 

to facilitate aquatic organism passage and 

to maintain ecological connectivity.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Similar to other protected areas, the combined 

effects of development in the Reserve and in the 

surrounding area over time, coupled with the 

purposeful eradication of predators through 

the mid-1900s, have contributed to low-level 

or extirpated populations of some key species. 

The region as a whole, however, contains most 

of its historic species, although in diminished 

numbers. Wolves, black bear, pygmy rabbits, 

pika, and peregrine falcons are among the species 

extirpated from the Reserve. Pronghorn, once 

considered extirpated, are occasionally seen 

within the Reserve and are frequently seen in 

the Raft River Valley. Pygmy rabbits have also 

been observed approximately 10 miles from the 

Reserve. Other species that have become very 

rare include moose, elk, and bighorn sheep. 

Bighorn sheep were reintroduced on BLM land 

near the Reserve in the Jim Sage Mountains, 

South Hills, and on the south slope of Cache 

Peak. Since then they occasionally pass through 

the Reserve, however sightings after the Cache 

Peak territory was abandoned have been rare. 

The population in the Jim Sage Mountains 

continues to do well and could provide a source 

for sightings. The Bureau of Land Management 

notes that moose, elk, and bighorn sheep are 

increasing outside the Reserve. Moose are 

present and often observed at Castle Rocks and 

elk are frequently seen at Chicken Springs and in 

the Cedar Hills south of the Reserve.

If climate warming continues as predicted by 

current trends, it is likely that some wildlife 

species could be displaced from their home 

ranges, resulting in long-term direct and/or 

indirect effects (for example, effects associated 

with predator-prey relationships). The extent to 

which this would occur is unknown but is likely 

to become more evident as effects are studied. 

Other impacts would be the same as identified in 

the vegetation section.

Past actions include development of roads and 

administrative and recreational facilities in 

the Reserve and surrounding area, combined 

with physical development of area towns and 

ranches and the establishment of agricultural 

and ranching activities, contributing a range 

of adverse cumulative effects. The presence 

of roads also routinely affects wildlife 

through collisions with vehicles, resulting in 

continuing loss.

Present actions include ongoing administration 

of recreational and visitor use facilities in the 

Reserve and surrounding areas, combined with 

use of these areas, which would continue to 

cause minor to moderate cumulative adverse 

effects from noise, activity, and wildlife habitat 

loss. Current and future grazing on BLM and 

USFS allotments would be expected to have 

similar direct and indirect effects on wildlife, 

as described in the impact analysis for the 

alternatives. Because grazing continues to affect 

springs and wetlands within the Reserve, it could 

be having unknown effects on species associated 

with these environments. For example, during a 

2008 survey, several fairy shrimp were submitted 

for identification and were determined to 

be Branchinecta constricta, representing 

a significant range extension west of the 

Continental Divide from known populations in 

southern Wyoming (Erixson and Corrao 2011). 

This points to the need for additional study of 

Reserve aquatic organisms, including potential 

adverse and beneficial impacts as activities in 

these unique environments continue.

As noted in the preliminary draft natural 

resources condition assessment, current 

livestock use and grazing impacts are an 

important focus for planning restoration of 

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stream banks, because cattle typically congregate 

in dense vegetation, shade, and watering sites 

available along stream banks and in wetland 

areas (Erixson and Corrao 2011). A reduction in 

livestock access to the riparian areas and stream 

channels would substantially reduce erosion, 

stream turbidity, and undesirable shifting of 

plant species composition and habitat structure. 

If current grazing trends continue, they could 

result in diminished representation of wetland 

species and riparian zones in this semiarid 

climate (Starkey 2010), a moderate cumulative 

adverse effect.

There would also continue to be negligible 

to moderate adverse effects on wildlife from 

visitation to the Reserve (with an estimated 

100,000 visitors per year trending upward). 

Impacts would primarily be related to 

disturbance from human activity. Visitor use 

activity diminishes dramatically in winter and 

rises in spring, tapering off in late summer 

and early or late fall, depending on snowfall. 

Comparatively, physical disturbance would 

remain low, with additional development 

concentrated outside the Reserve or in proposed 

boundary expansion areas with facilities.

Reasonably foreseeable development projects—

including additional construction of visitor and 

administrative facilities under the alternatives 

in this GMP—would result in additional 

negligible to minor cumulative adverse effects on 

wildlife. If surrounding proposed development 

projects such as energy development, additional 

confined animal feeding operations, or other 

semi-industrial operations occurred, there 

could be localized moderate adverse cumulative 

impacts. Wind energy projects could cause 

short-term disturbance during construction 

and periodic disturbance through maintenance 

activities. Wind energy development or electric 

transmission line development would also 

increase collision risk to birds and would 

probably result in mortality. Actual impacts are 

uncertain because these projects have not been 

implemented. Ongoing impacts from existing 

development and hunting/trapping would 

continue. Because extensive public lands lie 

adjacent to the Reserve, the Reserve would also 

continue to contribute to a larger protected 

area of mostly intact habitat, allowing for some 

wide-ranging species, such as mountain lions, 

elk, moose, bighorn sheep, and others to be 

occasionally seen in the Reserve. Beneficial 

cumulative impacts would occur from additional 

inventory and monitoring projects to better 

understand wildlife and wildlife habitat use in 

the Reserve and in surrounding areas, where 

partnerships allowed for this transference of 

knowledge, such as would be facilitated by 

the use of a cooperative management area in 

alternative C.

When actions in alternatives A–D are added 

to the effects of other past, present, and future 

actions, there would continue to be minor 

to moderate cumulative adverse effects on 

wildlife. Alternatives B–D would also contribute 

negligible to minor cumulative beneficial 

impacts. Localized impacts in these alternatives 

would not add appreciably to cumulative 

adverse effects.

CONCLUSION

Alternatives A–D would have a range of 

negligible to moderate localized adverse impacts 

on wildlife. Alternatives B–D would also have 

a range of negligible to moderate localized 

beneficial impacts on wildlife. Beneficial impacts 

would probably be greatest in alternative C, 

while adverse impacts would probably be 

greatest in alternative D.

BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES: SPECIAL STATUS 

SPECIES

a. Special Status Species Methodology

Context of impact: Special status species 

were considered within City of Rocks National 

Reserve and in the region.

Type of impact: Beneficial impacts would 

expand, improve, protect, or restore the 

range, location, number, or population of a 

species, while adverse effects would alter or 

diminish these.

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Impact Intensity

NEPA Section 7

(USFWS 1998)

Negligible No Effect The project (or action) is located outside suitable habitat and there would be 

no disturbance or other direct or indirect impacts on the species. The action 

will not affect the listed species or its designated critical habitat.

Minor

Moderate

May Affect, 

Not Likely 

to Adversely 

Affect

The project (or action) occurs in suitable habitat or results in indirect impacts 

on the species, but the effect on the species is likely to be entirely beneficial, 

discountable, or insignificant. The action may pose effects on listed species or 

designated critical habitat but given circumstances or mitigation conditions, 

the effects may be discounted, insignificant, or completely beneficial. 

Insignificant effects would not result in “take (loss of species or habitat).” 

Discountable effects are those extremely unlikely to occur. Based on best 

judgment, a person would not (1) be able to meaningfully measure, detect, 

or evaluate insignificant effects or (2) expect discountable effects to occur.

Major May Affect, 

Likely to 

Adversely 

Affect

The project (or action) would have an adverse effect on a listed species as a 

result of direct, indirect, interrelated, or interdependent actions. An adverse 

effect on a listed species may occur as a direct or indirect result of the 

proposed action or its interrelated or interdependent actions, and the effect is 

not discountable, insignificant, or beneficial.

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b. Special Status Species Impacts

ALTERNATIVE A–D IMPACTS

There are no federally listed species known to occur in the Reserve. There are, however, a number of species 

of special concern that occur within or near the Reserve. These, along with potential effects, are listed in 

tables 43 and 44 below.

Table 43. Special Status Plant Species*

Plants State

Status

Federal 

Status Habitat Occurrence Impact

Davis wavewing 

(Cymopterus davisii)

S3* Easterly slope just north of 

Graham Peak (known only 

from the Albion Mountains)

May affect, not likely to 

adversely affect. There would 

continue to be no impacts 

under Alternative A. There 

would be no additional 

impacts on this species under 

Alternatives B–D.

Simpson’s hedgehog cactus 

(Pediocactus simpsonii)

S3 Found at its northern extent in 

the Reserve, it occurs in rocky 

or sandy soils on a windswept 

slope. It is threatened by 

grazing, collectors, and 

disturbance.

Locally abundant along the 

ridgeline west of Indian Grove 

and upward. Can also be 

found on nearly every elevated 

ridge in the Reserve, though 

not as abundant as on the 

ridgeline west of Indian Grove.

May affect, not likely to 

adversely affect. Existing 

impacts related to trampling 

from cattle using this grazing 

allotment would probably 

continue under all alternatives.

Kruckeberg’s sword fern 

(Polystichum kruckebergii)

S2* Found in cool, moist granite 

microhabitats. It grows in rock 

crevices and is threatened 

by trampling or removal by 

visitor activities, such as rockclimbing.

Shaded rock clefts on south 

slope of the ridge between 

Circle and Graham Creeks. 

Also at Castle Rocks.

May affect, not likely to 

adversely affect. There would 

continue to be a potential 

for effects to this species 

associated with trampling or 

removal by climbers under all 

alternatives.

narrow-leaved Indian 

paintbrush (Castilleja 

angustifolia)

C Found in shallow, rocky soils 

and reaches its northernmost 

extent in the Reserve. It is 

threatened by disturbance 

but is unpalatable as a forage 

species.

May affect, not likely to 

adversely affect. There would 

continue to be a potential 

for effects to this species 

associated with trampling 

under all alternatives.

Christ’s paintbrush 

(Castilleja christii)

C Cassia County USFWS list No effect. Does not occur in 

Reserve.

Goose Creek milkvetch 

(Astragalus anserrinus)

C” Cassia County USFWS list.

The low-growing perennial 

plant is found only in the 

Goose Creek drainage of 

Cassia County, Idaho; Elko 

County, Nevada; and Box Elder 

County, Utah.

No effect. Does not occur in 

Reserve.

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Table 44. Special Status Wildlife Species*

Wildlife State

Status

Federal 

Status Habitat Occurrence Impact

Mammals

gray wolf (Canis 

lupus)

Northern 

Rocky 

Mountain 

DPS

Delisted 

except 

Wyoming

Preferred habitat is open tundra 

and forests. Reserve forests are too 

fragmented and small to sustain or 

contribute to expansion of gray wolf. 

Wolves have, however, been seen in 

Oakley and in Stone, near Snowville on 

the border between Idaho and Utah.

No effect. The U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service did not identify 

this species as present in the 

vicinity of the Reserve.

bighorn sheep (Ovis 

canadensis)

S1 Bighorn sheep were reintroduced on 

BLM land near the Reserve in the Jim 

Sage Mountains, South Hills, and on 

the south slope of Cache Peak. Later, 

they abandoned the Cache Peak area. 

Sightings within the Reserve are rare.

No effect. This species only 

occasionally occurs within the 

Reserve.

Townsend’s bigeared bat

(Corynorhinus 

townsendii)

SC SC Occurs within the Reserve (Reserve 

1996a: p. 13).

May affect, not likely to adversely 

affect. More information is 

needed about roosting to 

determine whether there are 

potential impacts on it from 

climbing.

spotted bat 

(Euderma 

maculatum)

S3

G4

According to the Idaho State University 

Museum of Natural History, spotted 

bats have been collected in desert 

pinyon-juniper woodlands near 

sandstone cliffs or over streams and 

water holes in coniferous forests with 

rock cliffs nearby.

Individuals roost in deep rock crevices 

of canyon and cliff walls.

Confirmed in Reserve in 2003. Poor 

distribution in Idaho.

May affect, not likely to adversely 

affect. More information is 

needed about roosting to 

determine whether there are 

potential impacts on it from 

climbing.

pygmy rabbit 

(Brachylagus 

idahoensis)

S2 SC*++ Tiny one-pound rabbits are the only 

rabbit to dig their own burrows. Pygmy 

rabbits require dense sagebrush with 

deep soils. In winter, the rabbits tunnel 

through the snow.

They depend on sagebrush for 99% 

of their winter diet. Sagebrush also 

provides them with critical cover from 

predators. Pygmy rabbits are the only 

arboreal rabbits, climbing sagebrush to 

eat its leaves.

Columbia Basin Distinct Population 

Segment listed as Endangered.

Confirmed within 10 miles of Reserve. 

May have occurred within the Reserve.

May affect, not likely to adversely 

affect. Not currently known in 

the Reserve, however, no specific 

surveys have been undertaken.

Pygmy rabbits could be 

affected by cattle if burrows 

are accidentally crushed. This 

effect is not expected because 

cattle are not normally moving 

through dense sagebrush patches 

and because pygmy rabbits 

are currently not known in the 

Reserve.

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Table 44. Special Status Wildlife Species*

Wildlife State

Status

Federal 

Status Habitat Occurrence Impact

cliff chipmunk

(Tamias dorsalis)

S1*

G1*

Stripes indistinct or absent except for a 

dark center one.

Found in rocky pinyon-juniper 

woodlands and lower elevations of pine 

forests. Also found in higher-elevation 

Douglas fir and Mexican pine.

According to the Idaho State University 

Museum of Natural History, in Idaho 

it occurs only in pinyon-juniper stands 

in the south-central part of Idaho and 

primarily inhabits cliffs and rocky areas 

(ISU 2012).

Common in the Reserve. On the edge 

of its habitat in Idaho.

No effect. RNA boundary 

expansion in alternative C would 

give additional protection to this 

species.

Great Basin 

(Columbian) ground 

squirrel

(Spermophilus 

mollis)

S2

G5

Permanent, uncommon resident within 

the Reserve.

May affect, not likely to adversely 

affect. Although no specific 

actions are proposed that would 

affect habitat for this species, 

potential impacts from grazing 

would continue to occur in all 

alternatives. If impacts were 

found to be occurring, mitigation 

measures would be developed.

pinyon mouse

(Peromyscus truei)

S2

G5

They are often found among rocks or 

on rocky slopes, in a wide variety of 

habitats, but usually in pinyon-juniper 

woodlands. They are also found in 

chaparral and desert scrub areas, 

limestone cliffs, redwood forests, and 

riparian woodlands.

According to the Idaho State University 

Museum of Natural History, in Idaho 

it is found in rocky, desert terrain 

dominated by western juniper. They 

seem much more dependent on 

pinyon-juniper woodlands than any 

other similar species (ISU 2012).

No effect. RNA boundary 

expansion in alternative C would 

give additional protection to this 

species.

Birds

greater sage-grouse

(Centrocercus 

urophasianus)

S2

G4

C” Three confirmed leks exist in adjacent 

Castle Rocks State Park.

May affect; not likely to adversely 

affect; however no specific 

surveys have been undertaken. 

Although no specific actions are 

proposed in sage-grouse habitat, 

potential impacts from grazing 

would continue to occur in all 

alternatives. If found, impacts 

would be mitigated.

yellow-billed 

cuckoo (Coccyzus 

americanus)

C Cassia County USFWS list. No effect.

American white 

pelican (Pelecanus 

erythrorhynchos)

S1B*

G3

Migrates through Reserve. No effect.

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Table 44. Special Status Wildlife Species*

Wildlife State

Status

Federal 

Status Habitat Occurrence Impact

black-crowned night 

heron (Nycticorax 

nycticorax)

S2B

G5

Confirmed in 2009 in Almo Valley but 

not in Reserve.

No effect.

bald eagle 

(Haliaeetus 

leucocephalus)

S4*N*

G4

SC Migrates through Reserve. No effect.

Swainson’s hawk 

(Buteo swainsoni)

S3B

G5

SC Common in Reserve in summer; nests 

near Smoky Mountain (BLM, Ady and 

Courtney, pers. comm. 2012).

No effect.

ferruginous hawk

(Buteo regalis)

S3B

G4

SC Rare visitor to Almo Valley; occurs 

within the Reserve (Reserve 1996a: p. 

13); nests near Smoky Mountain (BLM, 

Ady and Courtney, pers. comm. 2012).

No effect.

merlin (Falco 

columbarius)

S2N

G5

One Almo Valley record. No effect.

peregrine falcon 

(Falco peregrinus)

S2B

G4T3

SC Documented in Reserve prior to 1995; 

no records since.

No effect; there are no known 

nests within the Reserve.

Sandhill crane (Grus 

canadensis)

S3B

G5

Uncommon breeding in Castle Rocks 

and Almo Valley; one nest record in 

Reserve.

No effect.

long-billed 

curlew (Numenius 

americanus)

S2B

G5

SC Uncommon breeding in Almo Valley 

and east of Emigrant Canyon.

No effect.

Wilson’s phalarope 

(Phalaropus tricolor)

S3B

G5

Several records from Almo Valley. No effect; Reserve does not 

contain the wetland habitat it 

prefers.

burrowing owl 

(Athene cunicularia)

S2B

G4

Expected but unconfirmed in Reserve 

and Almo Valley.

May affect, not likely to adversely 

affect. Grazing may affect this 

and other ground-dwelling 

species. If impacts were found 

to be occurring, these would be 

mitigated.

short-eared owl 

(Asio flammeus)

S4

G5

Expected but unconfirmed in Reserve 

and Almo Valley.

Same as above.

Lewis’s woodpecker 

(Melanerpes lewis)

S3B

G4

SC Observed and photographed in May 

2008 in Almo Valley.

No effect.

willow flycatcher 

(Empidonax traillii)

SC Riparian areas, willow preferred. No effect.

olive-sided flycatcher 

(Contopus cooperi)

SC Found in high-elevation forests, 

subalpine/lodgepole.

No effect.

loggerhead shrike 

(Lanius ludovicianus)

SC Perches on fences, powerlines above 

sagebrush steppe, pastures.

No effect.

pinyon jay 

(Gymnorhinus 

cyanocephalus)

S1

G5

SC Fairly common in hills between Almo 

Valley and the eastern edges of the 

Reserve, moves into Reserve in fall for 

pine-nut crop.

No effect.

juniper titmouse 

(Baeolophus 

ridgwayi)

S2

G5

Fairly common in Reserve and hills east 

of Castle Rocks.

No effect.

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Table 44. Special Status Wildlife Species*

Wildlife State

Status

Federal 

Status Habitat Occurrence Impact

sage thrasher 

(Oreoscoptes 

montanus)

SC Found within sagebrush steppe. No effect.

Virginia’s warbler 

(Oreothlypis 

virginiae)

S1B

G5

Fairly common in high woodlands in 

Castle Rocks and Reserve.

No effect.

Brewer’s sparrow 

(Spizella breweri)

S3B

G5

Fairly common in open areas of Reserve 

and Almo Valley.

No effect.

South Hills crossbill 

(Loxia sinesciuris)

S1

GNR

Genetic variation of Red Crossbill. Not 

found in the Reserve.

No effect.

Fish

Yellowstone 

cutthroat trout

(Oncorhynchus clarki 

bouvieri)

S2

G4T2

SC+ Yellowstone cutthroat trout have been 

observed in the Almo Creek watershed 

outside the Reserve; however, the 

current fish inventory within City 

of Rocks drainages is inadequate 

to determine their presence or 

absence. Recent observation suggests 

Yellowstone cutthroat are present in the 

upper reaches of Almo Creek but not in 

Circle or Graham creeks.

No effect; has not been identified 

in Reserve probably because Circle 

Creek and Graham Creek remain 

disconnected from Almo Creek 

and the Raft River most of the 

year.

Amphibians

western toad 

(Anaxyrus boreas)

Found in suitable habitat within the 

Reserve.

May affect, not likely to adversely 

affect. Where their habitats 

are not fenced out of grazing 

allotments, western toads could 

be accidentally trampled by cattle 

and killed or injured.

*Definitions

State of Idaho Rank

S1 = Idaho State Critically Imperiled: Listed by the Idaho 

Conservation Data Center (ICDC) as at-high-risk because 

of extreme rarity (often 5 or fewer occurrences), rapidly 

declining numbers, or other factors that make it particularly 

vulnerable to rangewide extinction or extirpation.

S2 = Idaho State Imperiled: Listed by ICDC as at-risk because 

of restricted range, few populations (often 20 or fewer), 

rapidly declining numbers, or other factors that make it 

vulnerable to rangewide extinction or extirpation.

S3 = Idaho State Vulnerable: Listed by ICDC as at-moderaterisk because of restricted range, relatively few populations 

(often 80 or fewer), recent and widespread declines, or other 

factors that make it vulnerable to rangewide extinction or 

extirpation.

S4 = Apparently Secure: uncommon but not rare; some cause 

for long–term concern because of declines or other factors.

B = Breeding.

N = Nonbreeding.

Global Rank

G1 = Critically imperiled because of extreme rarity or 

because of some factor of its biology, making it especially 

vulnerable to extinction (typically five or fewer occurrences).

G2 = Imperiled because of rarity or because of other factors, 

demonstrably making it vulnerable to extinction (typically 

6–20 occurrences).

G3 = Vulnerable (typically 21–100 occurrences).

G4 = Not rare, and apparently secure, but with cause for 

long-term concern.

G5 = Demonstrably widespread, abundant, and secure.

NTMB = Neotropical Migratory Landbird. As defined by 

Saab and Groves (1992), these are bird species that breed in 

Idaho and winter in tropical America between the tropics 

of Cancer and Capricorn. In the atlas, state ranks for these 

species include the acronym “NTMB.”

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Federal Rank

E = Endangered.

T = Threatened.

C = Candidate for listing as threatened or endangered, or the 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is conducting a status review 

for listing.

SC = Species of Conservation Concern. Often a species for 

which the USFWS has information indicating that a proposal 

to list it as threatened or endangered under the Endangered 

Species Act may be appropriate, but for which additional 

information on biological vulnerability and threat is needed 

to support the preparation of a proposed rule.

DL = Delisted.

+ = Listing found not warranted on February 21, 2006.

++ = Listing found not warranted on September 30, 2010. 

USFWS decision is being appealed.

” = Listing warranted but precluded by higher priorities.

In addition to those species listed above, several 

species at the furthest extent of their ranges 

would continue to exist within the Reserve and 

would generally be protected under alternative 

A. These species include Utah juniper, Juniperus 

osteosperma (northern edge); pinyon pine, Pinus 

monophylla (northern edge); lodegpole pine, 

Pinus contorta (southwestern edge); limber 

pine, Pinus flexilis (one of the isolated pockets 

of the western range); subalpine fir, Abies 

lasiocarpa (southwestern edge); and Douglas-fir, 

Pseudotsuga menziesii (western edge of Northern 

Rocky Mountains).

Although specific development actions under 

alternatives A–D could remove individual 

trees, and seedlings of these species could 

continue to be trampled when present in grazing 

allotments, overall efforts would continue to 

minimize the number of trees removed and to 

protect habitat in other areas of the Reserve. 

As a result, there would probably be short- and 

long-term minor adverse effects combined with 

long-term beneficial effects. Beneficial effects 

would be greater in alternatives C and D, where 

boundary expansion areas added habitat for 

these species. This would be especially true 

where additions to the Research Natural Area 

protected additional habitat for old-growth 

pinyon-juniper forest, such as under alternative 

C. Boundary expansion in alternatives C and D 

would also probably protect additional habitat 

for these species.

Three sensitive plants that occur in the Reserve 

would be identified by site-specific surveys 

and avoided or salvaged and relocated prior to 

implementation of projects that occur in their 

habitats. These include Simpson’s hedgehog 

cactus, narrow-leaved Indian paintbrush, and 

Kruckeberg’s sword fern.

Allowing livestock to graze the same plants 

continuously throughout the grazing season 

may also result in decreased plant vigor and 

recruitment, which could indirectly have 

negligible to minor adverse effects on wildlife, 

including sage-grouse, by reducing the amount 

of cover and food available and reducing the 

overall quality of the habitat.

Cattle have been also been implicated as the 

cause of increased cowbird parasitism because 

cowbirds predominantly feed around cattle 

that occur in high concentrations. Cattle may 

also decrease vegetation in riparian areas that is 

necessary for nest concealment by host species, 

increasing their susceptibility to parasitism. 

Brown-headed cowbirds have been observed in 

riparian areas seeking hosts and breeding.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures to minimize impacts on special status 

species (as appropriate to the alternative) would 

include the following:

•	 Conduct additional environmental impact 

analysis prior to undertaking actions 

associated with development proposals in 

this plan.

•	 Conduct surveys to determine whether 

sensitive, rare, threatened, or endangered 

species occur—if evidence of these species 

is found, actions would be modified to 

avoid impacting species or known habitat.

•	 Continue to monitor climbing routes 

to limit impacts on wildlife, such as 

nesting raptors.

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•	 Determine whether special-status plant 

species are present in the area during the 

planning process for proposed actions in 

this plan—if special-status species occur 

in area, botanists would develop sitespecific mitigations to ensure no adverse 

effects would occur.

•	 Conduct additional consultation with 

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service if listed 

species are later found in proposed project 

areas.

•	 Defer grazing from the mountains by 

grazing lower elevations, which would 

probably promote the growth and 

persistence of native shrubs, grasses, and 

forbs needed by sage-grouse for seasonal 

food and concealment, especially during 

the nesting period. This would also be 

expected to improve habitat for other 

sensitive sagebrush-obligate species. This 

conservation measure is recommended 

in the Conservation Plan for the Greater 

Sage-grouse in Idaho (Idaho Sage-grouse 

Advisory Committee 2006: p. 4–61).

•	 Maintain residual herbaceous vegetation 

at the end of the grazing season, as 

expected through monitoring, and adhere 

to utilization standards to contribute 

to nesting and brood-rearing habitat 

during the coming nesting season. This 

conservation measure is recommended 

in the Conservation Plan for the Greater 

Sage-grouse in Idaho (Idaho Sage-grouse 

Advisory Committee 2006: p. 4-61).

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Over time a variety of direct and indirect 

cumulative adverse impacts have occurred 

to species now classified as rare, threatened, 

or endangered. These impacts have resulted 

primarily from human disturbance and 

development, leading to habitat alteration or 

loss. Adverse and beneficial impacts have also 

been associated with predator control, and 

unnaturally frequent wildfire. Other adverse 

impacts include habitat fragmentation, primarily 

from transportation corridors. Ongoing minor 

to moderate adverse impacts on special status 

species would continue to occur from activities 

on adjacent public and private lands, with 

negligible effects contributed from Reserve 

operations and maintenance.

Cumulative effects would also include those 

actions identified in the general wildlife section, 

including projections associated with the 

impacts of climate change as identified in the 

“Draft National Climate Assessment.”

The alternatives in this plan would potentially 

contribute negligible to minor cumulative 

adverse effects from the removal of nonnative 

invasive species in and near sensitive species and 

their habitats, where approved in consultation 

with state and federal agencies. For plants, 

these potential adverse effects would be 

combined with long-term beneficial effects 

from restoration of habitats by the removal 

of competitive nonnative invasive species. 

For wildlife, improvements in native plant 

populations and cover would contribute to 

negligible cumulative beneficial effects for 

habitat. When these effects are combined with 

the impacts from past, present, and future 

actions likely to occur, including ongoing 

Reserve management, maintenance and visitor 

services activities, and proposed construction 

and rehabilitation of buildings and structures, 

the contribution to cumulative impacts would be 

negligible to minor.

As noted in the preliminary natural resources 

condition assessment, overgrazing is a 

contributing factor to the loss of sagebrush/

steppe ecosystem diversity and the introduction 

of undesirable species (Erixson and Corrao 

2011). The impacts of vegetation changes and 

land development are not fully understood in 

relation to sagebrush-obligate birds; however 

research has shown that changes in habitat 

can negatively impact sagebrush-obligate 

bird species. The habitat lost during wildfire 

immediately affects sagebrush-obligate species 

because of major changes in vegetation 

structure and species composition and could 

cause permanent shifts in population caused 

by decreased fire reoccurrence intervals and 

loss of mature sagebrush shrubs. The loss of 

sagebrush communities from fire tends to occur 

because of the lack of stump-sprouting by most 

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species of sagebrush, the slow maturation of 

sagebrush, and because of fire return intervals 

of 20 to 60 years. As a result, sagebrush often 

dies and does not return following fire. In some 

cases the sites are entirely invaded by nonnative 

species, particularly the annual, cheatgrass, 

which initially outcompetes much of the native 

vegetation and provides high quantities of 

the fine fuels that commonly encourage more 

frequent wildfires (Whisenant 1990).

Continued grazing of allotments within and 

outside the Reserve could directly affect greater 

sage-grouse, Brewer’s sparrows, loggerhead 

shrikes, and other ground- and shrub-nesting 

birds by occasionally disturbing or trampling 

nests. Nest disturbance or trampling would 

be reduced, however, because some of these 

species, such as sage-grouse, shrikes, and 

sparrows, nest in shrubs that would be brushed, 

rather than trampled, by cattle. Sage-grouse also 

tend to nest in dense areas of mature sagebrush 

that cattle would naturally avoid.

When actions in the alternatives are added to 

past, present, and future actions, there would be 

negligible to minor contributions to cumulative 

effects from implementation of alternatives A–D.

CONCLUSION

There would be no effect on threatened or 

endangered species because none occur within 

the Reserve. Individual effects, where they can 

be projected, are identified in the above tables 

for other sensitive species.

There would be no long-term adverse impacts 

on threatened or endangered species as a result 

of implementation of the alternatives. Although 

sage-grouse habitat is declining rangewide, 

the Reserve would continue to be available to 

provide habitat for sage-grouse if they were 

later detected within it, and/or if they were 

later listed. Proposed wildlife inventory and 

monitoring activities in the alternatives would 

help to improve knowledge regarding special 

status species and could also direct future 

mitigation actions if needed.

Future site-specific environmental impact 

analysis would continue to occur as proposed 

project actions are developed. If plants or 

wildlife were later listed as threatened or 

endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, additional consultation would occur to 

mitigate or avoid impacts. Where practicable the 

preferred action would be to avoid impacts by 

changing project implementation.

IMPACTS ON CULTURAL RESOURCES

a. Cultural Resources Methodology

Context of impact: Archeological resources 

were considered within City of Rocks 

National Reserve.

Type of impact: Adverse impacts would 

include activities involving ground disturbance 

(including soil compaction) in the presence 

of an archeological site, or activities that 

would increase the potential for vandalism, 

illegal collecting of artifacts, or destruction 

of a site. Beneficial impacts on archeological 

resources can occur when patterns of visitor 

use or management actions are changed near 

archeological resources such that an ongoing 

impact is reduced or eliminated. Direct impacts 

can occur as a result of grading, trenching, or 

other activities that damage the structure of an 

archeological site. Indirect impacts can occur 

as a result of increasing visitor use activities or 

management actions near an archeological site, 

leading to effects such as artifact collection, 

accelerated soil compaction, and erosion.

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CULTURAL RESOURCES: PREHISTORIC AND 

HISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY

a. Prehistoric and Historic Archeology 

Methodology

See “Cultural Resources” section above.

b. Impacts on Prehistoric and Historic 

Archeology

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

Negligible to minor adverse effects could 

continue to occur from visitor use, including 

continued mountain biking, hiking, equestrian 

use, and climbing, where these activities occur 

in or near unknown archeological sites. Visitor 

use impacts can also include unintentional 

disturbance and/or vandalism to archeological 

resources, as well as use of sites (causing wear 

and tear). Although some of the more than 73 

documented archeological sites in the Reserve 

have been previously damaged by vandalism, 

grazing, and development (generally prior 

to protection within the Reserve), ongoing 

management actions would avoid continued 

effects of Reserve use, including recreational 

and management activities on archeological 

resources. Because cultural resources are 

nonrenewable, when impacts are detected, 

actions would be taken to avoid further 

disturbance to the extent possible through 

improving visitor knowledge and understanding 

of the presence of such resources using 

interpretation and education.

Ongoing negligible to minor adverse impacts 

could also continue to occur from permitted uses 

such as livestock grazing. In the past, grazing has 

affected previously unknown sites, and continued 

trampling could result in additional discovery of 

isolated artifacts or sites, a long-term beneficial 

and minor to moderate adverse effect. These 

effects have the potential to continue to occur on 

both public and private land within the Reserve.

NEPA Section 106

Negligible to 

Minor

No Effect A determination of no historic properties affected means that either there are 

no historic properties present or there are historic properties present in the area 

of potential effects (APE) but the undertaking will have no effect upon them 

(36 CFR 800.4(d)(1)).

Minor to 

Moderate

No Adverse 

Effect

A determination of no adverse effect means there is an effect, but the effect 

would not meet the criteria of an adverse effect (36 CFR Part 800.5(a) (1)), i.e., 

diminish the characteristics of the cultural resource that qualify it for inclusion 

in the national register (36 CFR 800.5(b)). The undertaking is modified or 

conditions are imposed to avoid or minimize adverse effects. This category 

of effects may have effects that are considered beneficial under the National 

Environmental Policy Act, such as restoration, stabilization, rehabilitation, and 

preservation projects.

Major Adverse Effect An adverse effect occurs whenever an impact alters, directly or indirectly, any 

characteristic of a cultural resource that qualifies it for inclusion in the National 

Register of Historic Places, e.g., diminishing the integrity (or the extent to 

which a resource retains its historic appearance) of its location, design, setting, 

materials, workmanship, feeling, or association. Adverse effects also include 

reasonably foreseeable effects caused by the alternatives that would occur later 

in time, be farther removed in distance or be cumulative (36 CFR 800.5(a) (1)). 

An adverse effect may be resolved in accordance with the 2008 programmatic 

agreement, or by developing a memorandum of or programmatic agreement 

in consultation with the state historic preservation office, Advisory Council 

on Historic Preservation, American Indian tribes, other consulting parties, and 

the public to avoid, minimize, or mitigate the adverse effects (36 CFR Part 

800.6(a)).

Impact Intensity for Prehistoric and Historic Archeological Resources, Historic Structures and Cultural 

Landscapes, City of Rocks National Historic Landmark, California National Historic Trail

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Impacts associated with the use and 

establishment of sport climbing routes would 

continue to be avoided through systematic 

analysis of resources when new routes are 

proposed and through ongoing surveys of 

previously established routes. As noted earlier, 

when new sport climbing routes are proposed, 

these undergo a site analysis that involves 

investigation of the proposed access trail and 

staging area, the skill level required for the climb 

(which serves as a potential measure of expected 

use because easier climbs generally receive 

more consistent use), the rock face, evidence 

of wildlife use, and a survey for archeological 

resources. In addition the proposed routes 

must also meet other criteria established by 

the Reserve for climbing routes. Similarly, 

rehabilitation actions to reduce staging area 

impacts for sport climbing routes undergo 

archeological investigations and other analysis 

prior to proposed actions.

Ongoing impacts from implementation of 

the invasive plant management plan would 

continue to have negligible to minor adverse 

impacts (under section 106, no adverse effect) 

on archeological resources. Ground disturbance 

would continue to be required for several types 

of invasive plant management treatments and 

avoidance of known archeological sites would 

continue, as would mitigation measures prior 

to ground disturbance that would help to avoid 

impacts. The opportunity to continue to select 

from a variety of treatment methods that would 

have the least possible effect would allow for 

fewer impacts on resources. As a result, specific 

actions in proposed areas would be subject 

to additional environmental impact analysis, 

including surveys if necessary to ensure that 

there would be no or negligible effects.

Because there would be greater potential for 

catastrophic fires in alternative A, there is greater 

potential for loss or damage to archeological 

resources. Unplanned fires would probably burn 

hotter because of the Reserve’s full suppression 

policy, which has been in place for many years. 

Fires could also increase the potential for finding 

surficial archeological resources now covered by 

vegetation, a potential long-term beneficial effect.

The ASMIS database would continue to be used 

to provide periodic measures of the physical 

condition and cultural/historical integrity of 

resources (maintaining the character, material, 

and stability of the cultural resource as acquired, 

excavated, or existing). Management efforts 

would continue to be focused on maintaining 

the integrity and condition of all sites to at least 

a standard of “good” condition on the ASMIS 

scale. For instance, a condition assessment of 

known sites would be undertaken to further 

monitor these sites.

Under alternative A, because no parkwide 

systematic archeological survey has been 

conducted, additional surveys would continue 

to be necessary as projects are proposed. It 

is very likely that the number of known sites 

would increase as a result. In addition, the 

Reserve would continue to conduct systematic 

surveys when the opportunity arises (such as 

the systematic survey conducted by Utah State 

University in summer 2012 and Section 106 

surveys as needed for projects). Therefore, there 

would probably be both negligible beneficial 

impacts and the potential for short- and longterm negligible to minor adverse impacts 

associated with additional development.

Proposed projects in alternative A include 

construction of another campground loop at 

Smoky Mountain (affecting approximately 10 

acres), and construction of a new visitor facility 

on BLM R&PP-leased land (approximately 5 

acres). As part of their additional environmental 

impact analysis process, these proposed 

development projects undertaken by the 

Reserve would survey for and avoid impacts on 

known archeological sites to the extent possible. 

Because there is potential to affect unknown 

subsurface sites, additional mitigation measures 

outlined below would be used to relocate 

proposed work to avoid impacts (if possible) 

and/or to find out as much information as 

possible from the site (if avoiding impacts is not 

possible). As noted below, these actions would 

be undertaken by the Reserve archeologist, in 

consultation with the state historic preservation 

office and other experts as needed and in close 

coordination with the BLM Burley Field Office 

archeologist. Where sites are known, Reserve 

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staff would continue to follow protocols in 

condition assessments to monitor sites and avoid 

further impacts on them.

There would continue to be long-term beneficial 

impacts on archeology from preserving the 

California Trail and associated resources. 

Additional beneficial effects could occur if 

the NHL designation is updated to include 

other sections of the California Trail that are 

currently outside the NHL boundary (see 

“Figure 4. Designations”). Long-term beneficial 

impacts would also continue from retaining 

most areas of the Reserve in an undeveloped 

state, including the Research Natural Area. 

Continuing to conduct research and resource 

management projects, including inventory 

and monitoring of archeological resources 

and projects that survey for and document 

resources, would have moderate long-term 

beneficial impacts from increasing knowledge 

and understanding of, and therefore protection 

for, archeological resources. Nonnative invasive 

plant removal would continue to result in no or 

negligible effects based on mitigation techniques. 

Future restoration of treated sites could result 

in ground disturbance from scarifying, seeding, 

and/or planting, however these sites would be 

surveyed prior to taking action and monitored as 

restoration was implemented.

ALTERNATIVE B IMPACTS

Impacts would be similar to alternative A, with 

both short- and long-term negligible to minor 

adverse and negligible beneficial impacts from 

potential construction projects and long-term 

beneficial impacts from better understanding 

of Reserve resources. Negligible to minor 

impacts associated with continuing visitor 

use activities and permitted activities such as 

grazing would also continue. If the total number 

of grazing areas and cattle decreased through 

attrition, there would be short-term adverse and 

long-term beneficial impacts associated with 

additional removal of nonhistoric fences from 

grazing allotments.

Additional adverse and beneficial impacts 

that would be different in alternative B are 

described below.

The potential for additional short- and longterm negligible to minor adverse impacts could 

occur from a variety of construction projects 

with a potential for ground disturbance, 

such as the new equestrian staging area near 

the Bread Loaves intersection or in another 

area, expansion of the visitor center in Almo, 

restoration of the Circle Creek impoundment, 

reconfiguration of Reserve campsites, 

construction of a turnaround on Logger 

Springs Road; and construction of new trails 

or improving connections within or outside 

the Reserve. Possible trail connections might 

include Independence Lake, Castle Rocks 

State Park, and/or trails within the Reserve, 

such as a trail that would connect inscription 

rocks along the California Trail corridor, which 

would be described in the proposed new trails 

management plan.

There would be long-term beneficial effects 

from developing an archeological management 

plan to manage California Trail resources, 

including ruts, inscriptions, and rope grooves. 

Although development of plans (vegetation 

management plan, climbing management plan, 

fire management plan, and grazing management 

plan) would not impact archeological resources, 

recommendations or implementation associated 

with these plans could affect archeological 

resources if new areas of disturbance result. 

However these areas would be surveyed prior 

to taking actions that could affect unknown 

resources. Overall there could be long-term 

beneficial impacts, because mitigation actions 

would increase archeological surveys in new 

areas and implementation actions would avoid 

resources, if found.

There would be additional long-term beneficial 

impacts from working in partnership with 

the landowner to undertake archeological 

investigations to locate the historic Kelton-Boise 

stage station site and from actions to protect, 

stabilize, and preserve land-use activities and 

features associated with mining, homesteading, 

and ranching, such as the Nicholson Ranch 

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and the Moon Homestead site (if acquired). 

There are also opportunities to interpret 

other homesteads on public land within the 

Reserve. Other beneficial impacts would result 

from interpreting sites associated with these 

activities and undertaking more archeological 

research projects to identify, document, and 

preserve resources.

As in alternative A, long-term beneficial 

impacts would arise from investigation 

of Reserve archeological resources, and 

information learned from them would enhance 

interpretation and understanding of the 

likelihood of finding other potential sites. In 

addition, beneficial effects in alternative B would 

occur from increasing interpretation associated 

with archeological resources through waysides 

and other media.

Similar to alternative A, beneficial impacts 

would occur from additional protection of 

portions of the Reserve, including the Research 

Natural Area.

There would be long-term potential for 

negligible to moderate adverse impacts from 

the potential use of wildfire to manage Reserve 

vegetation communities. Other actions to 

manage the effects of fire, such as hazard fuel 

reduction, would have negligible to minor 

adverse impacts based on use of mitigation 

measures identified below. Development of a 

post-fire contingency plan to minimize erosion 

of granitic soils would have long-term beneficial 

impacts by keeping soils in place, thereby 

minimizing potential exposure of sites. Similarly, 

working with Cassia County to improve road 

drainage could minimize the amount of erosion 

near roadways, also reducing the potential for 

impacts following fires.

The effects of fire on archeological resources 

would vary. In general, sites with buried deposits 

or features tend not to be impacted by most 

low-intensity fires because of the ability of soil 

to insulate buried artifacts against extreme heat. 

In heavy continuous fuels, temperatures at the 

soil surface may be sufficient to damage stone 

or ceramic resources by scorching, fracturing, 

charring, and spalling. Temperatures of 500°C 

–600°C would begin to affect stone materials. 

Temperatures diminish rapidly with soil depth: 

when surface temperatures are 500°C, the 

temperature at a depth of 5 cm would be only 

about 200°C. With light- to moderate-severity 

fires, residence (burning) time is usually short 

and the downward heat pulse is low (NPS 

2005c). Most fires cause only shallow soil 

heating even when surface temperatures are 

intense; however fires of moderate severity 

may consume surface fuel layers and cause 

charring of the top centimeter of mineral soil 

(NPS 2005c).

For instance, a study conducted in Badlands 

National Park in 2001–02 found that 

temperatures and residence times of most 

prescribed burns were not sufficient enough 

to cause catastrophic damage to prehistoric 

resources (NPS 2005c). Impacts of the fire—

mostly black or light brown carbonaceous 

residues—would not impact the scientific value 

of the objects. Subsurface temperatures were 

also found to have negligible impacts on buried 

objects. Unpublished monitoring data collected 

at Dinosaur National Monument also indicates 

that soil in sagebrush fires seldom reached 

temperatures in excess of 50°C–55°C on bare 

soil surfaces (NPS 2005c).

Fires often represent an extraordinary 

opportunity to document archeological sites. 

Dense vegetation that obscures the ground 

surface is typically consumed, and its removal 

results in the ability to document heretoforeunidentified sites. Fires may also present the 

challenge of protecting archeological sites from 

the damaging effects of natural erosion, site 

vandalism (looting), and inadvertent damage as 

a result of fire suppression activities or post-fire 

rehabilitation efforts.

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Actual effects of fires on prehistoric or historic 

archeological resources would depend on the 

location, severity, extent, and timing of the 

fire. There are variable effects based on the fire 

intensity, duration of heat, heat penetration of 

the soil, the use of suppression equipment, and 

other factors. Fires may result in

•	 loss or damage of physical artifacts 

(dependent on construction material—

e.g., wood, shell, masonry, clay, stone, 

bone, plant, or other organic material—

and context— soil, rock shelter, surface 

deposit, or buried deposit)

•	 loss or damage to contextual information, 

including compaction, erosion, and 

partial or complete consumption of 

organic matter

•	 inability to relocate previously 

identified archeological sites without 

vegetation context

•	 ability to locate previously undetected 

cultural resources obscured by vegetation

•	 increased potential for vandalism to 

archeological sites

•	 increased knowledge of the areal extent 

of archeological context for previously 

recorded sites caused by exposure of 

other site features

•	 change in the potential for long-term 

preservation of artifacts (such as artifacts 

that may become more brittle)

•	 consumption of or decreased potential 

to detect some archeological resources, 

such as charred surficial deposits of bone, 

including skeletal remains

•	 increased protection for and potential 

impact avoidance on known archeological 

sites (in low-intensity fire or hazard 

fuel reduction)

These variable effects of fire would continue 

to be minimized by a survey of areas proposed 

for fire use and avoidance of sites with sensitive 

archeological resources and/or use of lowintensity burns in areas containing subsurface 

resources. Additional environmental impact 

analysis would also occur as part of the fire plan 

or burn plan approval process.

ALTERNATIVE C IMPACTS

Impacts would be similar to alternatives A and 

B, with both short- and long-term negligible 

to minor adverse and negligible beneficial 

impacts from potential construction projects, 

and long-term beneficial impacts from better 

understanding of Reserve resources. Negligible 

to minor impacts associated with continuing 

visitor use activities and permitted activities, 

such as grazing, would also continue, at least 

in the short-term, depending on whether 

permittees take advantage of a grazing buyout 

program. As in alternative B, there would be 

negligible to moderate adverse impacts on 

archeological resources from the potential 

use of fire to restore vegetation communities, 

as well as potential for a range of impacts 

from development of management plans for 

California Trail resources, fire, climbing, grazing, 

and vegetation.

As in alternative B, the potential would exist 

for additional short- and long-term negligible 

to minor adverse impacts from a variety of 

construction projects, including many of the 

same actions identified in alternative B as well 

as construction of a trail to the summit of 

Smoky Mountain. Short-term impacts would 

occur because of the potential for uncovering 

artifacts, while long-term impacts could 

include inadvertent displacement of unknown 

resources before mitigation measures were 

implemented. These impacts could occur with 

the new equestrian staging area near the Bread 

Loaves intersection, construction of a new 

visitor center (larger than the house expansion 

in alternative B, but smaller than the facility in 

alternative A), restoration of the Circle Creek 

impoundment, reconfiguration of the Reserve 

campsites, construction of a turnaround at the 

Indian Grove overlook, and construction of new 

trails or improved connections within or outside 

the Reserve. Possible trail connections might 

include Independence Lake, Castle Rocks State 

Park, and/or trails within the Reserve, such as a 

trail that would connect inscription rocks in the 

California Trail corridor, based on a new trails 

management plan.

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Alternative C would also include construction of 

an amphitheater and outdoor learning center at 

Smoky Mountain Campground. This area is not 

within the area previously surveyed for Smoky 

Mountain Campground and would therefore 

undergo additional surveys as proposed designs 

were identified. It was within a recent BLM 

archeological survey undertaken based on 

proposed hazard fuel reduction activities. In 

alternative C, there would also be potential for 

long-term beneficial impacts from boundary 

modifications that could include additional 

archeological sites. For instance, during the 

survey for Smoky Mountain Campground, three 

sites were found on BLM land and were avoided 

by construction. With the proposed boundary 

modifications under alternatives C–D, Smoky 

Mountain Campground would be within the 

Reserve. A recent BLM survey of approximately 

1,000 acres of Smoky Mountain detected an 

unknown number of archeological resources.

As in alternative B, there would be shortterm adverse and long-term beneficial 

impacts associated with additional removal of 

nonhistoric fences from grazing allotments if 

the total number of grazing areas and cattle 

decreased (through buyouts in this alternative, 

rather than attrition).

As in alternative B, there would be longterm beneficial impacts from archeological 

investigations at the historic Kelton-Boise 

stage station site; actions protecting mining, 

homesteading, and ranching areas; additional 

interpretation of archeological resources; 

additional research related to archeology, as 

well as from dissemination of research through 

media, public programming, and researcher 

presentations; and ongoing protection 

of archeological resources through the 

RNA expansion.

In addition there would be increased beneficial 

impacts in alternative C from promoting 

collaboration with partners, such as universities, 

to better understand regional human use 

and adaptation and to improve research 

opportunities within the Reserve; clarifying 

the route of the California Trail corridor; 

developing a treatment plan for California 

Trail resources; and working with partners to 

determine whether a historic district associated 

with the homesteading era is appropriate. 

Overall, improved connections to archeological 

and cultural resources information would 

occur through researcher programs and public 

participation in hands-on activities.

ALTERNATIVE D IMPACTS

Impacts would be similar to alternatives A–C, 

with both short- and long-term negligible 

to minor adverse and negligible beneficial 

impacts from potential construction projects 

and long-term beneficial impacts from better 

understanding of Reserve resources. Negligible 

to minor impacts associated with continuing 

visitor use activities and permitted activities, 

such as grazing, would also continue.

As in alternative B, there would be potential for 

a range of adverse impacts from implementation 

of management plans for California Trail 

resources, fire, climbing, grazing, and vegetation, 

as well as beneficial impacts from preserving and 

interpreting features associated with historic 

mining, homesteading, and ranching.

Beneficial impacts associated with researching, 

documenting, and protecting archeological 

resources would be the same as in alternative 

A. In alternative D, there would be additional 

indirect beneficial effects from conducting 

archeological demonstration projects to improve 

visitor understanding of Reserve resources 

and from potentially allowing commercial 

organizations to present more in-depth 

programs on archeology.

As in alternative C, beneficial effects would 

ensue from preserving resources associated 

with the California Trail, including developing 

a treatment plan for California Trail resources 

and clarifying the route in partnership with 

stakeholders. There could also be long-term 

beneficial impacts in alternative D from 

acquiring an easement from private landowners 

that would protect additional portions of the 

California Trail. Establishment of new trails 

would have the same potential for negligible 

to minor adverse impacts as in alternative C, 

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with a trail that would allow visitors to explore 

the signature rocks and the California Trail 

corridor without having to walk along the road, 

and linkages to areas such as Independence 

Lake and Castle Rocks State Park, in addition 

to the proposed trail to the summit of 

Smoky Mountain.

Most proposed construction projects would 

be the same as identified in alternatives B or C, 

with development of another loop at Smoky 

Mountain Campground, an equestrian staging 

area near the Bread Loaves intersection, a new 

visitor center facility, and reconfiguration of the 

Reserve campsites area. As a result, the same 

potential would exist for negligible to minor 

adverse impacts on archeological resources, 

which would be reduced by the implementation 

of mitigation measures prior to and during 

ground disturbance. In addition, instead of 

providing only a turnaround off of Logger 

Springs Road for the Indian Grove overlook, a 

formal parking area would be developed.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures to minimize impacts on archeological 

resources (as appropriate to the alternative) 

would include the following:

•	 Continue to increase the inventory and 

monitoring program for archeological 

resources, including conducting surface 

and subsurface testing as necessary to 

document the potential for archeological 

resources or to understand the 

presence, extent, and/or significance of 

archeological resources found.

•	 Halt work in the discovery area should 

unknown archeological resources be 

uncovered during project implementation. 

The Reserve Cultural Resources Program 

Manager would be contacted, the 

site secured, and the Reserve would 

consult according to 36 CFR 800.11 

and, as appropriate, provisions of the 

Native American Graves Protection and 

Repatriation Act of 1990. In compliance 

with this act, the National Park Service 

would also notify and consult concerned 

tribal representatives for the proper 

treatment of human remains, funerary, 

and sacred objects, should these 

be discovered.

•	 Document and avoid previously 

unidentified archeological sites and 

prepare a determination of eligibility for 

the National Register of Historic Places 

for potentially eligible sites.

•	 Relocate work to a nonsensitive area if 

archeological resources are encountered 

during proposed construction 

activities. In conducting site testing and 

documentation, the emphasis would be 

on taking actions that would avoid further 

disturbance to the site.

•	 Track the number of incidents (by 

complaints, reports to rangers, and 

ranger observation) of graffiti, ground 

disturbance, damage to structures, and 

loss of historic fabric to assess resource 

condition and the level of visitor use 

impacts on cultural resources. To ensure 

that minimal incidences occur, visitor 

education and enforcement of Reserve 

regulations would continue and closure 

of particularly vulnerable areas would 

be considered, such as by using fencing 

where appropriate. Increased patrols and 

ranger presence would also be considered 

for high-use areas where cultural 

resources are known to exist.

•	 Continue to survey recreational resource 

areas (such as hiking trails, climbing 

routes) to avoid impacts on archeological 

resources.

•	 Continue to conduct consultation with 

American Indian tribes. As appropriate, 

under the National Historic Preservation 

Act, additional consultation would also 

occur as specific plans are developed.

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Measures specific to fire use include 

the following:

•	 Survey areas proposed for fires for the 

presence of archeological resources 

prior to the development of fire plans 

(and subsequent environmental impact 

analysis). Post-burn surveys would also be 

conducted.

•	 Refrain from allowing ground-disturbing 

activities in known sensitive archeological 

resource sites.

•	 Consider the location and extent of 

known sensitive archeological resources 

in the decision to use fire.

•	 Include the Reserve archeologist, 

historians, and other resource specialists 

(as applicable) in the multidisciplinary 

planning and fire suppression process 

to prevent damage to known sensitive 

resources. Conduct reconnaissance 

surveys after prescribed fires and wildfires 

in areas where surface vegetation has been 

removed to locate potential archeological 

resources and landscape features.

•	 Refrain from constructing fire lines in the 

vicinity of known archeological resources.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Archeological resources in the Reserve 

and surrounding areas have probably been 

adversely impacted to varying degrees from past 

construction-related disturbance (prior to the 

advent of archeological resources protection 

laws), from visitor use, vandalism, erosion, and 

from other natural processes. It is likely that 

other Reserve management actions—including 

the development of some facilities and use of 

the Reserve before IDPR/NPS management—

resulted in disturbance to or inadvertent 

damage of archeological resources. Because 

most climbing routes within the Reserve were 

established prior to the Reserve, it is possible 

that archeological sites are present near these; 

however archeological surveys of the Inner City 

area, as well as those conducted for proposed 

development since Reserve establishment, have 

only identified a few sites near, but not used for 

climbing routes. Because mitigation measures 

would continue to be employed to minimize 

impacts on potentially unidentified cultural 

resources in proposed and future projects in the 

Reserve, it is likely that there would be increased 

protection for archeological resources from 

potential future adverse impacts.

In other nearby areas, such as the Castle Rocks 

Interagency Management Area, climbing routes 

were also established prior to management of 

the area by the Bureau of Land Management, 

leading to a potential for climbing routes 

that occur within or near archeological sites, 

contributing cumulative adverse effects. 

By contrast, in Castle Rocks State Park, a 

large parcel of private land was surveyed for 

archeological resources prior to becoming 

public land, and since then proposed climbing 

routes have avoided archeological sites (pers. 

comm. Reserve archeologist 2012–13 during 

development of plan). Both of these areas have 

been found to possess a higher density of sites 

than is known to exist in the Reserve.

According to the “Draft National Climate 

Assessment,” extreme weather events, such 

as storms and floods are projected to become 

more intense as the atmosphere continues to 

warm (USGCRP 2013). This could result in 

accelerated erosion of or catastrophic damage to 

the California Trail or other important cultural 

resource features in the Reserve.

There probably have been and would continue 

to be negligible to moderate adverse impacts 

on archeological resources from actions on 

private lands within and surrounding the 

Reserve, including on lands associated with the 

California Trail. Most of these actions would 

probably continue to be unintentional; however, 

intentional vandalism, such as looting, could 

also occur and has been documented within the 

Reserve and surrounding area.

Past and present actions that could affect 

archeological resources in the Reserve include 

farming, grazing, ranching, livestock trailing, and 

development of Reserve visitor use facilities, 

including trails, signs, and vault toilets, as well as 

ongoing and potentially increasing visitor use.

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There would also continue to be a potential for 

negligible to minor localized adverse effects 

on archeological resources from visitor use 

as a result of illegal collection of artifacts and 

possible unintentional disturbance of sites. The 

Reserve receives an estimated 100,000 visitors 

per year and trends indicate that visitation 

would probably continue to increase over time. 

Because impacts would be related to visitation 

and not to specific actions in the alternatives, 

impacts would be similar among the alternatives.

Proposed future actions include continuation 

of many of these activities, as well as potential 

construction of a new visitor center facility, 

improvements to administrative facilities, 

reconfiguration of camping within and outside 

the Reserve, and ongoing maintenance and 

rehabilitation of Reserve facilities, such as roads 

and trails. These activities would continue 

to result in negligible to minor—with some 

localized moderate—adverse impacts on 

archeological resources.

Alternatives A–D would therefore contribute 

primarily negligible to minor adverse cumulative 

effects on archeological resources. When the 

impacts of alternatives A–D are added to impacts 

from past, present, or future actions that would 

probably occur in the Reserve, including from 

proposed ground disturbance associated with 

planned rehabilitation or construction projects, 

cumulative impacts on archeological resources 

would be minor.

CONCLUSION

Because mitigation measures would be 

employed to avoid impacts on known sites and 

to minimize disturbance of unknown sites, there 

would be no adverse effect on archeological 

resources as a result of the implementation 

of the alternatives under the proposals in 

this general management plan. If a potential 

for adverse effects were to occur, the action 

would be relocated or otherwise modified to 

avoid these.

CULTURAL RESOURCES: Cultural Landscapes 

Background

City of Rocks National Historic Landmark 

District

As noted in “Chapter 4: Affected Environment,” 

the City of Rocks National Historic Landmark 

is composed of nationally significant cultural 

resources related to the California Trail. Wagon 

traffic through the area peaked in 1852 and 

began a bumpy decline through the 1880s 

(Unruh 1979). Cultural landscape resources 

relate to this historic context within the 

boundary of the national historic landmark.

City of Rocks was designated a national historic 

landmark on July 19, 1964. It is nationally 

significant under the historical theme of 

“Westward Expansion and Extension of the 

National Boundaries to the Pacific, 1830–1898” 

(NHL Theme XV). The period of significance 

for the national historic landmark is 1843–

1882. The boundary encompasses 12,840 

acres of physical resources and reflects the 

environmental setting associated with one of the 

largest overland migrations in American history 

(NPS 2008a).

In addition to creating the environmental 

context and setting for the California Trail 

corridor, significant cultural landscape resources 

that remain today include trail remnants (ruts), 

encampment sites, register rocks, views and 

vistas, and geological landmarks, as well as the 

open character of the landscape itself. This 

includes the following:

•	 Approximately 9 miles of California Trail 

wagon trail remnants and the Salt Lake 

Alternate route of the California Trail, 

including the route and alignment of the 

trails (although only approximately 3.5 

miles are located on public land)

•	 Wagon wheel traces (ruts), and other 

topographical remnants of trail routes 

(most notably in Section 23 T16S/R23E)

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•	 Encampment sites, such as Circle Creek 

Basin and the site of the Kelton-Boise 

stage station; 11 monolithic inscription 

rocks; and archeological sites, such as 

the remains of 5 structures including 2 

buildings, a well, cellar, and constructed 

impoundment pond, as well as fencing 

and road traces (Moon Homestead)

•	 Geological formations and unique 

topographic landmarks documented and 

described in emigrant journals

•	 The environmental context and landscape 

setting for the trail corridor, including 

historically important viewsheds from the 

trail corridor

Historic Rural Setting Landscape

Also within the Reserve, but not associated with 

the national historic landmark, are a variety of 

features that date to early land use and activity 

in City of Rocks, such as homesteading, dryland 

farming, mining, and ranching. Although the 

landscape associated with the historic rural 

setting is not listed in the national register 

and does not contribute to the City of Rocks 

National Historic Landmark, it is identified in 

the Reserve’s enabling legislation. These features 

may have local significance based on future 

research and work with the community outside 

the Reserve boundary.

“The historic rural setting is the spacious, open 

expanse and the cultural artifacts resulting from 

the cumulative land uses beginning with the trail 

era and [continuing] through the establishment 

of the Reserve in 1988. . . When the Reserve 

was established, the landscape was a wideopen expanse of rangeland interrupted only by 

necessary fence lines and dirt roads marking 

pastures and property lines” (Reserve 1996a: 

p. 38). Few structures were present. “Grazing 

livestock and occasional trailing, branding, and 

fence-building activities made it a dynamic 

expression of traditional ranching operations. 

This historic rural setting had an increasingly 

rare and highly scenic quality that Congress 

recognized as a significant cultural value of the 

Reserve” (Reserve 1996a: p. 38–39).

Cultural landscape resources related to the 

settlement era include roads, irrigation works, 

building and structural ruins, homestead sites, 

mining features, corrals, fences, and gates. 

According to the cultural landscape inventory 

for City of Rocks, structures that remain on 

public lands from this era include: the Y Corral, 

Ted King Corral, Indian Grove Corral, Dam 

#1, Dam #0, the system of juniper and barbed 

wire fences and gates that mark the boundaries 

of grazing allotments, and two-track and dirt 

roads that provided access to these areas (NPS 

2008a: p. 52).

a. Cultural Landscapes Methodology

Context of impact: Cultural landscapes 

were considered within City of Rocks 

National Reserve.

Type of impact: Impacts on cultural landscapes 

result from physical changes to contributing 

characteristics of a resource or its setting. 

Adverse impacts diminish the characteristics that 

make the structure or landscape eligible for the 

National Register of Historic Places or diminish 

the overall integrity of the landscape. Beneficial 

impacts can include restoration or rehabilitation 

of resources or removal of incompatible or 

noncontributing elements.

b. Impacts on Cultural Landscapes and the 

City of Rocks National Historic Landmark

City of Rocks was designated a national historic 

landmark on July 19, 1964, and is listed in 

History and Prehistory in the National Park 

System and the National Historic Landmarks 

Program: 1987, under theme X, “Westward 

Expansion of the British Colonies and the 

United States, 1763–1898,” subtheme D: 

“Western Trails and Travelers,” facet 4, 

“California Trails and Settlement of California.”

NHL national significance is ascribed to 

districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects 

that possess exceptional value or quality in 

illustrating or interpreting the heritage of the 

United States in history, architecture, archeology, 

engineering, and culture, and that possess a 

high degree of integrity of the following seven 

attributes: location, design, setting, materials, 

workmanship, feeling, and association.

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These seven attributes are used to evaluate 

integrity for national historic landmarks. 

Location refers to the place where the historic 

property was constructed or the place where 

historic events occurred. Design is a combination 

of elements that create the form, plan, space, 

structure, and style of a property. Setting is the 

physical environment of a historic property—the 

character of a place, its topography, vegetation, 

simple manmade features such as paths and 

fences, and the relationship between features 

and open space. Materials are “the physical 

elements that were combined or deposited 

during a particular period of time and in a 

particular pattern or configuration to form a 

historic property.” Similarly, workmanship, “the 

physical evidence of the crafts of a particular 

culture or people during any given period 

in history or prehistory,” is seen in elements 

in the large-scale landscape. Feeling refers to 

a property’s expression of the aesthetic or 

historic sense of a particular period of time 

even, in this case, despite the maturation of 

original landscapes. Association refers to the 

connections we make today between a particular 

place and an important historic event or person 

(NHL Program).

Impacts occur when management action or 

inaction results in a change in one of the seven 

characteristics noted above. Beneficial impacts 

would help to preserve the resources for which 

the national historic landmark was designated, 

while adverse impacts could affect the 

characteristic in a way that changes its eligibility 

for the National Register of Historic Places.

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

Although the City of Rocks National Historic 

Landmark cultural landscape comprises a 

major portion of the Reserve, most of the 

characteristics of this cultural landscape would 

not be affected by its ongoing management 

under alternative A. Characteristics, such 

as circulation, natural systems and features, 

vegetation, and views and viewsheds, and the 

characteristics associated with them would 

continue to be present. However, some of their 

features have been obscured or modified over 

time, as human activities continued to occur 

on the landscape following emigrant trail use. 

Although the general characteristic of an open 

landscape remains, specific land uses changed 

over time with the advent of homesteading, 

farming, ranching, and grazing. Similarly, spatial 

organization has also changed over time as the 

route of the California Trail corridor and its 

relationship to landscape features has become 

less evident to the casual observer.

The following cultural landscape characteristics 

under alternative A would continue to be 

preserved: natural systems and features, 

circulation, views and vistas, and archeological 

sites. The characteristics of the NHL cultural 

landscape that convey the characteristics of 

location, feeling, setting, and association include 

the following:

•	 Land use: The principal activities in the 

landscape that have formed, shaped, or 

organized the landscape as a result of 

human activity

•	 Spatial organization: The composition and 

sequence of outdoor spaces within the 

district

•	 Circulation: The means and patterns of 

movement through the district

•	 Views and vistas: Constructed or natural 

openings that direct how the landscape is 

seen

•	 Natural systems and features: The way 

existing landscape features, such as rock 

outcrops or water bodies, are used in the 

cultural landscape

•	 Archeological sites: Areas showing 

evidence of the remains of human activity

Land use: Under alternative A, it would continue 

to be evident that land use within the City of 

Rocks has changed over time, because it has not 

served as a destination or route for emigrant 

traffic traveling along the California Trail or Salt 

Lake Alternate for more than a century. The 

wagon ruts and emigrant inscriptions, however, 

serve as tangible evidence of this past land 

use. Because most homesteads, farming, and 

associated features are no longer visible, the 

landscape is gradually reverting to the historic 

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scene experienced by emigrants. The scene of 

cattle grazing in the area is reminiscent of the 

California Trail period, when emigrants allowed 

their livestock to replenish before strenuous 

travel over Pinnacle and Granite passes (NPS 

2008a). Livestock grazing, which has continued 

over the past century, is also one of the few 

remaining land uses from the homesteading 

era. With the onset of public use in the area, 

visitor use development has generally been 

constructed in discreet locations, where visitors 

can see and understand the California Trail 

scene without intruding on its character. This 

moderate beneficial effect would continue under 

alternative A.

Spatial organization: The spatial organization 

of the California Trail through City of Rocks is 

directly related to natural systems and features, 

topography, access to water, and views and 

vistas within the landscape. Key features of 

spatial organization within the Reserve include 

the routes of the California Trail and Salt Lake 

Alternate, which remain visible, in close-up 

views, as ruts and alterations of the landscape, 

and as routes through aerial photos and 

satellite imagery.

Circulation: The alignment of the California Trail 

through City of Rocks generally follows the path 

of least resistance through the narrow mountain 

passes and expands outward in locations 

where there was room for camping, vegetation 

for grazing livestock, and available water. 

The trail corridor is marked by natural rock 

formations that became important wayfinding 

markers for the emigrants. As a result, the trail 

was not a single set of wagon ruts through the 

landscape; rather it was an alternating narrow 

and expansive corridor that suited the needs 

and preferences of the emigrants, wagons, and 

livestock that travelled along it (NPS 2008a: 

p. 40). Although circulation is evident from a 

distance and the path through the rocks is clear 

based on topography and emigrant diaries, today 

visitors can discern only traces of the California 

Trail and Salt Lake Alternate. The features 

that once made the trail evident have begun to 

fade, due to weathering and erosion over time, 

along with changing land uses—historically 

homesteading, farming, and mining, as well 

as grazing, which persists to this day. Though 

historic landscape features are less evident 

than they once were, they would continue to be 

protected to the extent possible in alternative A, 

a long-term beneficial effect.

Views and vistas: Naturally existing views and 

vistas of the City of Rocks were long-awaited 

attractions and important wayfinding landmarks 

(NPS 2008a: p. 40). Views and viewsheds are 

generally the same as they were in the time 

of the emigrants; however modern homes 

and evidence of homesteading, farming, and 

ranching have altered historic views to include 

fences along property and section lines and 

irrigation development. As noted in “Chapter 

4: Affected Environment,” in spite of these 

changes, and with the exception of several 

relatively small-scale features such as corrals and 

fences, the cultural landscape of the Reserve is 

remarkably free of major structural components. 

The views experienced within and from City of 

Rocks are integral components of the cultural 

landscape and have changed very little since 

the California Trail era (NPS 2008a: p. 41). This 

would continue in alternative A as a long-term 

moderate beneficial effect.

Natural systems and features: Natural systems 

and features experienced by the emigrants as 

they traveled through the City of Rocks would 

continue to be evident in alternative A. These 

include such features as the granite monoliths, 

wide expansive basins, natural hydrologic 

processes, and an open vegetative character. 

Although vegetation has changed over time as 

woody plants have begun to encroach on oncenative grasslands, some areas such as the Circle 

Creek Basin remain verdant, while other areas 

that once provided the emigrants with water 

have been diverted or have dried out. Native 

grasslands dominated by perennial grasses and 

native forbs are now dominated by nonnative 

grasses and forbs as well as native shrubs, such 

as sagebrush and juniper. Nonetheless, the 

open character of vegetation in the basins, 

and dark scrub and woody vegetation in the 

uplands contribute to the integrity of the historic 

setting (NPS 2008a: p. 39) and would continue 

to remain a long-term beneficial effect in 

alternative A.

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Archeological sites: Archeological features from 

the period of significance include more than 

1,650 feet of trail ruts on public land and the 

emigrants’ inscriptions on the registry rocks in 

Circle Creek Basin (NPS 2008a: p. 41). These 

features would continue to be protected, and 

many of them would be interpreted for visitors 

in alternative A. The Reserve would continue to 

take accurate field photography of the remaining 

inscriptions, and would reduce the incidence of 

post-emigration graffiti (including by continuing 

to prohibit climbing on inscription-bearing 

rocks, minimizing camping near the rocks, 

and installing fences to preclude livestock 

from grazing directly adjacent to the rocks). 

The Reserve would also continue to improve 

interpretive and educational programs related 

to archeological sites, resulting in long-term 

beneficial effects on preserving archeological 

resources, including those associated with the 

national historic landmark.

Existing Conditions: The boundary of the 

national historic landmark and the Reserve 

would therefore continue to protect areas within 

the Reserve consistent with NPS, IDPR, and 

private landowner management. According to 

the 2008 cultural landscape inventory:

City of Rocks retains integrity to the period 

of significance. The cultural landscape, as 

documented in the CLI, retains integrity 

reflected primarily in the aspects of location, 

setting, feeling, and association. The site’s 

location as defined by its dramatic, natural 

scenery of granite monoliths, expansive 

basins, and vegetative composition helps 

convey the landscape’s location and setting. 

Feeling and association is also conveyed 

through the significant views and vistas of 

Circle Creek Basin, Twin Sisters, and Granite 

Pass that are still as vivid and impressive 

as they would have been for the overland 

emigrants. Secondary aspects of integrity 

which include design, workmanship, 

and materials are evident by the trail’s 

composition, wagon ruts, and emigrant 

inscriptions. Today, changes to the historic 

scene include the homestead ruins in Circle 

Creek Basin, dirt roads, juniper pole fences 

and modestly located basic recreational 

facilities. These newer additions to the 

landscape are minor intrusions within the 

context of the massive rock features and 

broad, open basins that define the character 

of the landscape (NPS 2008a: p. 41).

As a result, management of the cultural 

landscape under alternative A would continue 

to result in long-term moderate beneficial 

effects. In this alternative, nearly 9 miles of the 

California Trail would continue to be managed 

for the features identified as significant in the 

national historic landmark. This would occur 

through existing zoning via the California Trail 

subzone in the Historic and Natural Preservation 

Zone. Although only about 3.5 miles of the trail 

are on public land, contemporary visitors would 

continue to have the opportunity to experience 

a landscape similar to what the emigrants 

experienced more than 150 years ago.

Under alternative A, some resources related 

to the history of the California Trail and the 

Reserve would continue to be located outside 

the current boundary of the Reserve. This 

would continue to be a negligible to minor longterm adverse effect on the cultural landscape 

(unless purchased under a willing seller/willing 

buyer opportunity).

Although some aspects of the cultural landscape 

have changed over time, the open character 

of the cultural landscape within the Reserve 

today remains very similar to that experienced 

during emigration in the 19th century. Under 

alternative A, historic viewsheds of an open 

landscape surrounded by large rock formations 

would continue to be preserved, a long-term 

beneficial effect.

Ongoing impacts associated with alternative A: 

There would continue to be minor long-term 

adverse impacts from development within the 

Cassia County Historic Preservation Zone and 

from continuing private uses on private lands. 

Ongoing use and maintenance of the roads 

within the Reserve (which are near but may not 

follow the path of the California Trail) would 

continue to have long-term minor adverse effects 

on the cultural landscape, particularly where 

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these cross the California Trail. However, they 

would also continue to provide an opportunity 

to experience California Trail resources without 

intruding on the character of these, a long-term 

minor to moderate beneficial effect.

Livestock grazing within the California Trail 

subzone would continue to be reminiscent 

of historic uses, a present-day action that is 

different from, but similar to, the use the trail 

received during its period of significance, 

resulting in a long-term moderate beneficial 

effect. (See “Chapter 4: Affected Environment” 

for a description of the trail area condition 

during that time.)

Retaining the focus of operations activities 

outside of the Reserve and/or the viewshed 

of the California Trail would continue to 

have direct and indirect long-term beneficial 

effects on the cultural landscape associated 

with the City of Rocks National Historic 

Landmark area. Activities, buildings, and 

other structures that would continue to occur 

outside the Reserve and/or viewshed of the 

California Trail include administrative and 

maintenance operations, some recreational 

activities, and facilities proposed by others 

(such as for communications). Updating the 

NHL designation to include additional eligible 

resources currently outside of the NHL 

boundary but within the Reserve would have 

long-term beneficial effects on preserving the 

California Trail landscape and on facilitating 

additional research related to it.

Providing for ongoing recreational activities 

associated with the California Trail area would 

continue to have long-term negligible to 

minor adverse effects on the California Trail 

from use, and long-term indirect beneficial 

effects from engendering support to preserve 

it. Expansion of camping at Smoky Mountain 

would have long-term minor adverse effects on 

the California Trail Zone, because this would 

make it possible to see recreational vehicles from 

some viewsheds within the Reserve. As a result, 

additional trees could be planted to screen the 

area. Construction of the visitor center, while 

it could highlight views of the California Trail, 

would avoid impacts on the trail, a long-term 

beneficial effect.

Alternative A would also continue the climbing 

ban on Twin Sisters, a long-term beneficial effect 

on the national historic landmark (cultural 

landscape). This formation is significant for its 

location at the junction of the California Trail 

and the Salt Lake Alternate, because it can be 

seen from the Salt Lake Alternate and from 

other distant vantage points, and because it 

was referred to by the majority of emigrants 

who described rock formations in their 

journals or later writings. Based on the “Twin 

Sisters Resource Study” (Reserve 1993), while 

mitigation measures could be considered to 

reduce the impacts of recreational climbing use 

on the scenic, natural, and auditory environment 

on and around the Twin Sisters, public use, 

including recreational climbing use of the 

pinnacles, is an inappropriate activity related 

to the protection of cultural resources. This 

study concluded that it is most appropriate to 

manage the formation within the context of the 

California Trail, where cultural resources are the 

paramount value to be protected. In March 2000 

a court ruling affirmed this management strategy.

ALTERNATIVE B–D IMPACTS

Many of the impacts noted under alternative A 

would continue in alternatives B–D; however, 

there would be additional long-term beneficial 

effects from implementing a variety of measures 

in alternatives B–D. There would also be the 

potential for adverse effects associated with new 

development in the national historic landmark; 

however, this development would be located 

away from the California Trail and viewsheds 

associated with it.

Among the beneficial effects in alternatives B–D 

include stabilizing trail resources (including ruts 

and inscriptions) through development of an 

archeological management plan; working with 

ranchers to prevent or minimize (if appropriate) 

livestock use and impacts associated with the 

use of motor vehicles directly on or near the 

trail ruts; communicating with other agencies 

and organizations such as the Oregon-California 

Trail Association to employ appropriate trail 

stabilization techniques/measures on a caseby-case basis; and redirecting (where possible) 

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stormwater runoff upstream to prevent excessive 

down-cutting and channeling within the 

California Trail corridor.

In alternatives B–D, in addition to beneficial 

impacts from preserving features associated with 

the California Trail as noted under alternative A, 

long-term beneficial effects would result from 

developing an archeological management plan 

for stabilization and preservation of California 

Trail resources, including ruts and inscriptions. 

Developing a vegetation management plan for 

the California Trail corridor would also have an 

indirect long-term beneficial effect. This plan 

would provide strategies for rehabilitation, and 

in some cases, restoration of the landscape to 

better reflect the historic landscape setting and 

environmental context for the California Trail 

corridor and rural historic landscape. Additional 

long-term beneficial effects could arise from 

partnering with a private landowner to locate 

the site of the historic Kelton-Boise stage 

station, which would in turn enhance public 

understanding of the historic rural setting. Other 

beneficial effects would result from undertaking 

additional historical archeological research 

projects to identify, document, and preserve 

historic resources. This could result both in the 

identification of new sites and in the acquisition 

of better information about known sites.

The potential use of fire would generally 

have long-term moderate beneficial effects 

on preserving the landscape setting and 

associated historic character of the California 

Trail landscape because specific provisions 

(mitigation measures) would be taken to 

ensure preservation of sensitive historic 

archeological resources.

As in alternative A, expansion of camping 

at Smoky Mountain would have long-term 

minor adverse effects on the California Trail 

Zone if recreational vehicles were visible from 

viewsheds along the California Trail corridor. 

Because the campground would offer a diversity 

of camping opportunities depending on the 

alternative, new recreational vehicle sites could 

be located to minimize potential impacts on 

the viewshed and/or could be screened and 

would therefore have reduced (no or long-term 

negligible to minor) adverse impacts.

The Reserve would support and promote new 

research about California Trail resources. This 

would result in a long-term beneficial effect 

to cultural landscapes by improving baseline 

documentation and public understanding and 

stewardship of resources.

New development in the national historic 

landmark would include an equestrian 

staging area near or west of the Bread Loaves 

intersection. Although the equestrian staging 

area would be located within the national 

historic landmark, it would be visually concealed 

from the California Trail because it would 

contain large vehicles with trailers. Because of 

its location, these would not be visible from the 

California Trail. It would also be designed to 

have few or no adverse impacts by using minimal 

signage and by not incorporating structures or 

features other than those related to parking. 

Parking of equestrian trailers which now occurs 

along the main roadway close to the California 

Trail and within its viewshed would be improved 

by establishing this lot. As a result, it would have 

long-term minor adverse and beneficial effects.

Additional Impacts Associated with 

Alternative B

In alternative B, a slightly larger California Trail 

Zone would have long-term beneficial effects 

by allowing preservation of areas historically 

used during the emigrant migrations and would 

include some views toward other notable areas 

and resources within the national historic 

landmark, including some related archeological 

sites. Similarly, the Historic Rural Setting Zone 

encompassing most of the private lands in 

the Reserve would be revised in alternative 

B to focus on enveloping traditional grazing 

areas, a long-term beneficial effect. Generally, 

the smaller Visitor Facilities and Access Zone 

combined with the changes to the California 

Trail and Historic Rural Setting Zones would 

result in fewer opportunities for development 

and thus more protection for the City of Rocks 

National Historic Landmark and historic 

rural setting.

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Under alternative B, no changes are proposed 

in the number or type of grazing permits. 

Adverse and beneficial impacts noted above 

in alternative A would continue. Modifying or 

eliminating grazing allotments in the California 

Trail Zone by expanding these permits in other 

areas to reduce cumulative effects associated 

with erosion and to provide visitor access would 

have long-term beneficial effects on the cultural 

landscape and preservation of the California 

Trail features in this zone. Similar benefits could 

occur from modifying grazing in the Visitor 

Facilities and Access Zone. Over time, reducing 

or eliminating grazing allotments through 

attrition could have long-term beneficial 

effects on improving the cultural landscape if 

fences were removed, grassland vegetation was 

restored, and/or public access for interpretation 

was enhanced.

The proposed new multiuse trail to link 

California Trail resources would have minor 

long-term adverse impacts on the cultural 

landscape as a result of constructing the trail 

near but not on California Trail remnants, 

inscription rocks, or other trail resources. 

Because the trail would connect California Trail 

resources, it would be located adjacent to and 

connect these but would be designed and routed 

to have minimal adverse effects on viewsheds 

and other character-defining features associated 

with the trail. This would result in minor adverse 

impacts. The new trail would be approximately 

2.4 miles long and would begin near the end of 

the hiking trail near Nicholson Ranch and end 

at the Tea Kettle Trail. This trail would expand 

California Trail interpretation for visitors by 

linking these resources in a pedestrian (hiker), 

equestrian, or bicyclist experience, instead of 

only along a road.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE C

In alternative C, the California Trail Zone would 

be larger than in alternative B and would expand 

into the Circle Creek Basin. This would have 

a long-term beneficial effect on the cultural 

landscape by preserving areas historically 

associated with the trail, and would also 

encompass viewsheds not currently within the 

California Trail Zone.

As in alternative B, the proposed new multiuse 

trail to link California Trail resources would 

have minor long-term adverse impacts on the 

cultural landscape as a result of constructing the 

trail near but not on California Trail remnants, 

inscription rocks, or other trail resources. Along 

with the new trail to the summit of Smoky 

Mountain, this trail would expand California 

Trail interpretation for visitors by linking these 

resources in a pedestrian (hiker), equestrian, 

or bicyclist experience, instead of only along a 

road. As in alternatives A and B, expansion of 

camping at Smoky Mountain would have longterm minor adverse effects on the California 

Trail Zone if recreational vehicles were visible 

from some viewsheds within the Reserve. 

Impacts would be reduced, however, because 

the design could minimize impacts, and because 

trees could be planted to screen the area.

Reducing or discontinuing grazing over time 

through voluntary grazing buyouts would have 

long-term beneficial effects on the cultural 

landscape associated with the California 

Trail, where increased protection would be 

emphasized. Conversely, retaining cattle on the 

landscape would continue to contribute to the 

historic rural setting, therefore reducing cattle 

grazing could have a minor long-term adverse 

effect on the historic rural setting.

Boundary expansion toward the east in 

alternatives C–D could add another 1.1 miles of 

the California Trail to the Reserve, bringing the 

total length of the trail within City of Rocks to 

approximately 10 miles, a long-term beneficial 

effect. As in alternative B, the Reserve would 

also work with Cassia County and private 

landowners to protect the viewshed toward 

Granite Pass and the southwest portions of 

the California Trail, a long-term beneficial 

effect on preservation of the California Trail 

corridor. This and cultural landscape protection 

around the east entrance to the Reserve could 

be accomplished through a mechanism such 

as voluntary sale of scenic easements to the 

National Park Service by private landowners.

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ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE D

Potential easement agreements with private 

landowners for the southwestern portion of 

the California Trail could result in additional 

protection for another 6.5 miles of the trail 

and improve scenic viewshed protection 

toward the Cedar Hills and Sparks Basin. This 

protection would be accomplished, if possible, 

through voluntary sale of trail easements by 

willing sellers. As with the potential boundary 

expansion or easements that would protect 

areas in the eastern portion of the Reserve, an 

easement on the west would result in long-term 

beneficial effects on the California Trail corridor 

and cultural landscape resources.

Impacts would be the same as in alternatives 

B and C for the new trail linking California 

Trail resources and the same as in alternative 

A associated with potential impacts on 

the California Trail viewshed, because the 

campground would continue to focus primarily 

on recreational vehicles.

In alternative D, the California Trail Zone would 

be similar to alternative A; however, it would 

also take in a larger area to the northwest to 

encompass additional viewsheds observed by 

the emigrants, a long-term beneficial effect.

Because grazing would continue to be 

maintained in all zones and visitor participation 

activities associated with it would be enhanced, 

there would continue to be ongoing negligible to 

minor adverse effects to the cultural landscape, 

similar to alternative A.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures that would minimize impacts on 

cultural landscapes would include those 

identified above under “Prehistoric and 

Historic Archeological Resources” as well as the 

following:

•	 Consider planting vegetation to screen 

modern intrusions from the cultural 

landscape, such as recreational vehicles at 

Smoky Mountain Campground.

•	 Conduct condition assessment updates 

for the cultural landscape inventory 

(approximately every six years) to describe 

the current condition of the landscape 

and to identify any potential preventable 

adverse impacts.

•	 Develop an archeological treatment plan 

for stabilization of California Trail ruts 

and other features associated with the 

California Trail corridor.

•	 Remove nonhistoric fences within the 

California Trail corridor.

•	 Continue to relocate power lines outside 

of the California Trail viewshed.

•	 Photo-document emigrant inscriptions.

•	 Continue to remove bolts from the 

inscription rocks unless removal would 

result in damage to the rock—where it is 

not possible to remove anchors, remaining 

hardware would be camouflaged.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The NHL boundary was originally drawn to 

include only significant resources but was 

expanded in 1987 to include those lands that are 

NPS-owned or cooperatively managed (NPS 

2008a: p. 2, 5). As part of the cultural landscape 

inventory, lands owned or managed by the 

National Park Service were inventoried (NPS 

2008a: p. 5). At the time, approximately 4,247 

acres were privately owned. Although adjacent 

private and public lands are likely to contribute 

to the significance of the national historic 

landmark, only lands within the Reserve that 

were publicly owned were documented as part 

of the cultural landscape inventory. Other areas 

that contain segments of the California Trail or 

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provide views and vistas integral to the emigrant 

experience are also likely to be eligible; however, 

most of these areas would continue to remain 

outside the boundary of the national historic 

landmark, a negligible to minor long-term 

adverse effect (unless purchased under a willing 

seller/willing buyer opportunity).

Past actions have resulted from the following 

minor to moderate cumulative impacts noted 

in the cultural landscape inventory for the 

NHL landscape:

Erosion: The soil composition within City 

of Rocks is highly erodible. Water erosion 

is evident where ruts have been deepened 

by seasonal and intermittent gullies. Wind 

erosion has resulted in a general flattening of 

trail rut features. Erosion is exacerbated by 

contemporary human uses, such as travel by 

horses, motor vehicles, and livestock grazing 

(NPS 2008a: p. 72).

Vegetation / invasive (nonnative) plants: 

Vegetation changes include an increase 

in invasive plant populations and growth 

of woody species where they were not 

historically found. Nonnative species were 

introduced during the homesteading eras. 

Some of these plants are invasive and displace 

native vegetation that was present during the 

period of significance. Successional shifts 

have modified the historic scene, though the 

character of the vegetation communities is 

still largely intact (Morris 2006). This is most 

notable on the Twin Sisters’ apron (NPS 

2008a: p. 72).

Visitation: Visitor use, specifically rockclimbing, spray painting, and sand blasting 

on and near emigrant inscriptions, has 

resulted in obvious and detectable impacts. 

Impacts include exfoliation of inscriptions 

and black and red spray-painted graffiti 

(NPS 2008a: p. 72).

Exposure to elements: Emigrant inscriptions 

have been exposed to natural weathering for 

150 years. The granite surfaces have naturally 

exfoliated from seasonal precipitation, 

including torrential downpours, hail, and 

snow, and constant cycles of moisture 

saturation and drying from intense sun 

exposure. Henderson also states that there 

are further problems from orange- and 

black-colored lichens growing on the granite 

surfaces. In some cases they have grown over 

inscriptions, rendering them totally illegible. 

In addition, barn swallow nests directly above 

sites on Camp Rock and Monkey‘s Head allow 

droppings to accumulate over inscriptions 

beneath them. Mud from these nests has also 

accumulated over inscriptions on Pagoda, 

Elephant’s Head, and Kaiser’s Helmet 

(Henderson 1998: p. 16–18; NPS 2008a: p. 73) 

and on Register Rock (Bastis 2012).

Other: Livestock use and its associated 

practices and features have resulted in impacts 

on the historic scene, California Trail ruts, and 

emigrant inscriptions. Grazing has altered 

the historic vegetative communities and 

composition. Livestock grazing has increased 

the incidence of natural weathering and 

erosion of the historic trail ruts by denuding 

protective vegetative ground cover. Livestock 

travel and associated horse and motor vehicle 

traffic along the trail ruts has deepened 

the ruts in some areas while trampling and 

widening them in others. Grazing cattle in 

the vicinity of the inscription rocks have also 

rubbed the inscriptions over the decades, 

removing inscriptions and exacerbating the 

natural exfoliation of the granitic rock (NPS 

2008a: p. 73).

Recent (2008) closure of the Circle Creek 

allotment to grazing has resulted in cumulative 

beneficial impacts on the California Trail 

corridor from minimizing the above adverse 

impacts within the closed area. Current projects 

include ongoing management of the California 

Trail corridor, including interpretation through 

programs and signs. The Reserve also placed 

6,400 feet of power lines underground (2007) 

and purchased the J. E. Tracy property on the 

California Trail (2010).

Although the boundary of the Reserve would 

be retained and would continue to protect areas 

within City of Rocks consistent with NPS, IDPR, 

and private landowner management, portions 

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of the California Trail would also remain in 

areas outside the Reserve boundary. Remnants 

of the California Trail and Salt Lake Alternate 

on private property are more numerous and in 

some cases more intact than those within the 

Reserve. Trail ruts are found on the incline and 

decline from Pinnacle Pass on the H. Olen Ward 

property, on the northern portion of the Simplot 

property near Pinnacle Pass, and on the Brent 

Jones and J. E. Tracy properties running parallel 

with the road through Junction Valley. Trail 

ruts along the Salt Lake Alternate, later used as 

the Kelton-Boise Road, are also located on the 

Simplot property (NPS 2008a: p. 67).

Of the 13 register rocks bearing emigrant 

inscriptions that were identified in the climbing 

management plan, 10 also possessed climbing 

routes, with some showing evidence of bolts 

or damage to inscriptions from other climbing 

hardware (Reserve 1998a: p. 32). Because 

these and other emigrant inscription rocks 

identified more recently have since been closed 

to climbing based on approval of the Reserve’s 

comprehensive management plan, there would 

continue to be long-term beneficial effects 

from discontinuing this impact. Former longterm minor adverse cumulative effects would 

continue but would be diminished somewhat by 

the Reserve’s sensitive and systematic removal of 

climbing hardware in these areas.

Similarly, continued closure of the Twin Sisters 

formation to climbing would continue to have 

cumulative moderate beneficial effects from 

retaining a setting that preserves the historic 

feeling and association with the California Trail 

era. These qualities were important attributes 

in the City of Rocks’ designation as a national 

historic landmark. Preserving these intangible 

qualities is as critical to protecting the integrity 

of the landmark as the preservation of its actual 

physical features (Reserve 1998a: p. 33).

Future actions contributing to cumulative 

impacts would continue to include the potential 

for new development on private lands and 

within the Cassia County Historic Preservation 

Zone. Depending on the extent to which 

new development occurs within or near the 

California Trail corridor, long-term negligible to 

moderate adverse effects to the national historic 

landmark could occur. Cumulative beneficial 

effects would also occur from the placement of 

an additional 7.8 miles of overhead power line 

underground within the California Trail Zone, 

an ongoing action.

Additional cumulative beneficial impacts would 

be conveyed by the inclusion of an additional 

1.1 miles of California Trail within the boundary 

of the Reserve in alternatives C and D, and 

by increasing the acreage associated with the 

California Trail Zone in alternatives B, C, and 

D. Because alternative C would include both 

the largest area within the California Trail Zone 

and the largest boundary expansion (same as 

alternative D), it would also confer the greatest 

beneficial effects.

As warming continues, natural resources 

(e.g., vegetation, streams) that are important 

components to a park’s cultural landscape may 

change. Climate-related events such as droughts, 

floods, wildfires, and pest outbreaks are already 

disrupting ecosystem structures and functions in 

a variety of direct and indirect ways.

When actions in alternative A are added to the 

effects of other past, present, and future actions, 

there would continue to be minor to moderate 

cumulative adverse impacts and minor beneficial 

effects on the national historic landmark. When 

actions in alternatives B–D are added to the 

effects of other past, present, and future actions, 

minor to moderate cumulative adverse effects 

would also continue to occur. Beneficial effects 

would be greater than in alternative A because of 

the potential boundary expansion (alternatives 

C and D); enlargement of California Trail zoning 

(especially in alternatives B and C); additional 

cultural resources interpretation, such as from 

the summit of Smoky Mountain (alternatives 

C and D) and from the remodeled (alternative 

B) or new visitor center (alternatives C and 

D); as well as from specific actions to preserve 

California Trail ruts (all alternatives).

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CONCLUSION

There would be no adverse effect on cultural 

landscapes or the national historic landmark as 

a result of the implementation of the alternatives 

under this general management plan. If a 

potential for adverse effects were to occur, the 

action would be relocated or otherwise modified 

to avoid adverse effects.

RECREATIONAL / SOCIAL 

RESOURCES

VISITOR EXPERIENCE, including:

•	 Access and transportation

•	 Visitor use opportunities

•	 Interpretation and education

•	 Visitor and employee safety

•	 Scenic resources

Impact Intensity

Negligible Proposed changes would have no 

detectable effect on visitor access 

or transportation to or within the 

Reserve.

Minor Changes in visitor access or 

transportation would be slightly 

detectable or localized within a small 

area of the Reserve or would not 

affect the whole visitor experience.

Moderate Impacts would be readily apparent 

and would affect how visitors are 

able to access the Reserve.

Major Impacts would be substantial, highly 

noticeable changes in ease of access 

and transportation.

Impacts on Visitor Experience: Access and 

Transportation

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

Visitors would continue to be able to access the 

Reserve using motorized and nonmotorized 

transportation, a long-term beneficial effect. 

Although the primary road through the Reserve 

would continue to be owned and maintained 

by Cassia County, it would continue to be used 

by Reserve visitors to experience the lightly 

developed areas located alongside it within 

the Reserve. It would also continue to provide 

access to Reserve and USFS roads. Managing 

undesignated parking along Cassia County 

roads would continue to require collaboration 

with and support from the Cassia County board 

and officials. Because visitors often park along 

roadways that may have narrow shoulders, 

access may be intermittently difficult for other 

visitors during the peak season, a minor to 

moderate localized adverse effect. Vehicle access 

may continue to be intermittent or unavailable in 

winter because the road above Bath Rock is not 

plowed, a long-term seasonal minor to moderate 

adverse effect.

Visitor access to information from the existing 

visitor center would continue to have long-term 

adverse and beneficial effects, because the visitor 

center provides interpretation but is too small 

to adequately accommodate current visitation. 

When the visitor center is open, visitors could 

continue to obtain information about the 

Reserve. Within City of Rocks, a variety of 

waysides, kiosks, and printed media would 

continue to allow visitors to obtain information 

about the Reserve and its opportunities, a 

long-term beneficial effect on visitor access. 

Similarly, continuing to provide a variety of 

youth programs could indirectly benefit visitor 

access if youth returned with their families to 

experience opportunities at the Reserve.

If a new visitor use facility was constructed near 

the entrance to the Reserve on BLM-managed 

(IDPR-leased) land through an agreement with 

the Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation, 

there would be additional long-term beneficial 

effects on visitor access. Outdoor exhibits 

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would be available regardless of whether the 

visitor center was open, and new visitor use 

opportunities would take place outside of the 

facility. Because there would be an expanded 

area associated with the facility, parking, new 

access opportunities, and administrative staff 

offices would be co-located with the new 

building. The facility would also improve access 

because it would be larger than the small, 

19th-century house that currently comprises 

the visitor center. The new building would 

improve visitor spaces, and sound from the 

orientation film and/or the information desk 

would not encroach on other parts of the 

facility, disrupting administrative or other visitor 

use as currently occurs. As a result, there would 

be long-term beneficial effects on improving 

access by reducing distractions when visitors are 

obtaining information or viewing the film.

There would continue to be long-term beneficial 

effects on visitor access and transportation 

from management and administration of the 

Reserve, including providing for recreational 

activities such as camping, hiking, climbing, 

bicycling, and horseback riding. Visitor access 

to these activities would probably continue to 

engender support for the Reserve and improve 

the overall visitor experience. Some visitors, 

however, would continue to experience delays 

in accessing climbing opportunities on popular 

routes, and some would find it difficult to park 

within the Reserve during the peak season near 

popular day-use trailheads. Those experiencing 

these delays or missed opportunities would 

experience minor to moderate adverse effects. 

Because these opportunities would continue 

to be available to most visitors, overall adverse 

effects would be limited (minor).

Because permits would continue to be required 

for placing bolts on rocks, it is likely that 

some of these would be approved and some 

denied, resulting in minor adverse effects on 

visitor access to sport climbing in some areas. 

Successful route proposals are often those that 

do not require new trail construction, that stage 

on rock, and that do not affect or have few 

impacts on other visitors.

Ongoing negligible to moderate adverse effects 

coupled with long-term beneficial effects would 

probably continue to impact visitor access to 

camping. During the peak season (mid-May 

through mid-October), visitors would probably 

continue to need to reserve campsites well in 

advance for weekend camping. In addition, 

reservations are often also necessary on 

weekdays in June. Currently campsites at Smoky 

Mountain are frequently available but are more 

expensive and tailored to recreational vehicles 

and equestrians. Expansion of Smoky Mountain 

Campground would increase the number of 

recreational vehicle sites; however, as with the 

current campground, these could also be used 

by tent campers. Existing dispersed camping 

opportunities (free or low-cost) would probably 

also continue to be available on adjacent BLM 

lands. Although Reserve campsites can be 

reserved up to nine months in advance, it is 

possible that some visitors, such as those from 

other areas, would be unaware of the need to 

reserve sites and could be disproportionately 

affected by use during the peak season, a minor 

to moderate adverse effect depending on 

whether these visitors were able to find other 

nearby overnight accommodations.

There would also continue to be some minor 

to moderate adverse impacts from visitor use 

conflicts associated with parking along the main 

roadway and from day use of campsites. Because 

many of the day-use areas and trailheads are 

located adjacent to campsites, occasional 

conflicts between day and overnight visitors 

would continue to impact visitor access. These 

conflicts include competition for parking during 

peak periods, day-use visitors walking through 

campsites to access trails, and day-use visitors 

picnicking in campsites.

Alternative A would continue to offer a wide 

range of climbing opportunities, including 

sport and traditional climbing and single- and 

multi-pitch climbs ranging in difficulty from 

5.16 to 5.13. Although these opportunities 

would continue to be available and, in general, 

are widely dispersed throughout the Reserve, 

during the peak season some climbers would 

continue to experience long delays for the most 

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popular routes, a minor to moderate localized 

adverse effect. This is especially true because 

most climbing routes are located less than onehalf mile from trailheads (Reserve 1998a). For 

instance, queuing at staging areas has become 

frequent in several key locations, such as at Bath 

and Elephant rocks. There would also continue 

to be some restrictions on visitor access in 

alternative A. The Twin Sisters rock formation 

would continue to be closed to climbing, and 

the Research Natural Area would continue to 

be used primarily by researchers, although the 

Research Natural Area would remain open to 

the public, including for climbers using existing 

climbing routes and trails.

An update of the climbing management plan 

would have both long-term beneficial and 

negligible to minor adverse effects on climbing 

access, because there could be changes in 

how visitors reach climbing areas if needed to 

protect resources. Under alternative A, existing 

areas open to climbing, including technical 

climbing and scrambling, would probably 

continue to be available. However, restoration 

of duplicate access paths or large staging areas 

would probably be proposed. Similarly, areas 

proposed for restoration under a vegetation 

management plan could be temporarily closed to 

visitor access.

Ongoing work with the Idaho Department 

of Fish and Game to manage hunting and 

trapping within the Reserve at current levels 

could continue to affect locations where these 

activities occurred, a long-term negligible to 

minor adverse effect. During hunting season, it 

is also likely that some visitors would continue to 

be deterred from visiting, a seasonal short-term 

minor adverse effect. The potential number of 

people deterred from visiting during hunting 

season, however, is small in comparison to the 

number of hunters that visit during this time.

There would probably continue to be a 

perceived adverse effect from continuing to 

manage the 312-acre Research Natural Area 

under alternative A, associated with access to 

grazing opportunities. Although grazing has 

been and would continue to be prohibited in the 

Research Natural Area, there is a portion of one 

grazing allotment that overlaps the boundary, 

where the land is actually too steep for grazing to 

occur. In addition, because the Research Natural 

Area is not fenced and topographic boundaries 

do not align with the section boundary, there 

are other portions of it that have probably 

unknowingly been used for trespass grazing.

Because some of the lands within the Reserve 

would remain private, and existing uses on 

these private lands would continue, there would 

continue to be some places that visitors could 

not access at all or could not access without 

permission of the private landowner (such as for 

hunting). Because these contain large portions 

of the California Trail as well as other resources, 

there would continue to be long-term negligible 

to moderate adverse effects, depending on 

visitor desire to access these areas. Managing 

the combination of public and private lands 

within the Reserve would also continue to pose 

a challenge, especially regarding issues of access, 

fencing, and signing.

Grazing within existing allotments on Reserve 

lands and periodic trailing of livestock through 

Reserve lands to get to grazing allotments could 

both deter some visitors from accessing some 

areas and result in delays for visitors in getting 

from one area to another on roads or trails 

through the Reserve. Access to some areas could 

also be affected by the presence of fences and 

gates associated with livestock grazing. Visitors 

deterred from visiting areas because of grazing 

livestock would experience long-term minor to 

moderate adverse effects on access, while visitors 

delayed by livestock trailing would experience 

short-term negligible to minor adverse effects on 

access and transportation.

National scenic byway designation, if it 

occurred, could increase visitation from 

placement of highway signs and travel 

marketing, though this would be similar to 

the current Idaho scenic byway designation. 

Depending on visitation to the Reserve, effects 

could be beneficial or adverse, with potential for 

increasing competition for parking and camping 

during the peak or shoulder seasons.

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Updating the trails management plan to consider 

new trail connections to areas outside the 

Reserve, such as to Independence Lake or Castle 

Rocks State Park, would expand visitor access to 

these areas, a long-term beneficial effect.

Although the current boundary of the Reserve 

is well established, it would continue to be 

difficult to access some areas within the Reserve 

not located along main roads—particularly 

those areas adjacent to other public land with 

no established routes or trails providing access, 

a negligible to minor adverse effect on visitors 

who prefer to explore areas of the Reserve 

away from the main roadways. Although 

parking along roadways within the Reserve is 

somewhat limited by their narrow width and 

few turnouts, visitors can access these areas via 

cross-country hikes.

ALTERNATIVE B IMPACTS

Impacts associated with ongoing activities and 

proposed plans would be similar to alternative A, 

except in alternative B, the existing visitor center 

in its 19th-century house could be reconfigured, 

instead of constructing a new visitor facility. 

As a result, impacts would be the same as in 

alternative A without the new visitor center. 

Over time, however, it is likely that there would 

be an increasing focus on online interpretation 

and resources in this alternative, an effect that 

could benefit some visitors and make access 

more difficult for others. In general, proposed 

actions in alternative B would have minor 

beneficial effects by improving visitor access to 

the Reserve or services as described below.

There would be long-term beneficial effects 

on visitor access from reconfiguration of the 

Reserve campsites via the recommendations 

in the Rim development concept plan. The 

proposal calls for no net loss of campsites, and 

as a result the actual number of sites would 

remain the same. Actions would include 

modifying campsites and trailheads to minimize 

conflicts between day use and overnight visitors 

(such as by relocating trailheads or campsites) 

and to improve the camping experience for 

overnight visitors. Parking issues would also 

be addressed, in part, by the Rim development 

concept plan. Proposed actions are based on 

reducing existing user conflicts, safety and 

maintenance issues and resource concerns, and 

improving parking, toilet access, and circulation 

as well as offering more and/or separating 

picnicking and camping. Because there is limited 

access and parking located at certain trailheads, 

the development concept plan would initiate 

parking lot redesign recommendations that 

could lead to designation of parking spaces or 

development of small new parking areas where 

appropriate. Under the development concept 

plan, closure of some campsites would allow 

for day-use parking near trailheads, while new 

campsite construction would compensate for the 

loss of those campsites closed.

As in alternative A, the availability of camping 

both within and outside the Reserve, as well as 

the proposed expansion of Smoky Mountain 

Campground to accommodate an additional 

camping area, would continue to provide longterm beneficial impacts on access for some 

overnight visitors. In alternative B campground 

expansion could include a new group site and/

or a small tent camping area could also be 

provided. As a result, access benefits would 

be extended to a greater variety of overnight 

visitors. Because a new visitor center would not 

be constructed, the addition of an amphitheater 

at Smoky Mountain could also improve 

access to Reserve programming for visitors. 

A designated site for this activity (instead of 

using an unoccupied campsite) would probably 

draw more visitors both because it would be a 

better location for the activity and because it 

would improve advertising for the availability 

of programs.

Similar to alternative A, there would continue to 

be some restrictions on visitor access. Areas that 

would continue to be affected would include 

climbing associated with the Twin Sisters and 

access to private lands. In addition, in this 

and other action alternatives, permits to bolt 

climbing routes would not be issued for the 

Research Natural Area or California Trail Zones, 

which could be perceived as a minor long-term 

adverse effect.

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There would also probably continue to be 

perceived restrictions during hunting/trapping 

seasons from some visitors who may voluntarily 

avoid the affected areas or use seasons. Similarly 

there could be perceived effects associated 

with permitted grazing on allotments within 

the Reserve associated with those visitors who 

did not feel comfortable traversing areas where 

livestock were present. Over time, modifying 

some of these grazing allotments could have 

long-term beneficial effects on improving visitor 

access, especially where nonhistoric fences 

were removed.

Updating the climbing management plan 

would have both long-term beneficial and 

negligible to minor adverse effects on visitor 

access to climbing, from likely changes to 

visitor access of current climbing areas. Based 

on zoning changes in alternative B, there could 

be some modifications to existing areas open 

to climbing, including sport or traditional 

climbing and scrambling, with improved access 

in some areas and restricted access in others. 

For instance, although current climbing routes 

could continue to be used, there would be no 

additional bolted routes established in either the 

Research Natural Area or the California Trail 

zones. The preliminary boundary identified for 

the California Trail Zone was modified to allow 

access to climbing routes, where it inadvertently 

excluded key climbing areas because of the scale 

of the map used to draw the boundaries.

Implementing boundary modifications to the 

Research Natural Area to conform to terrain 

features would have long-term beneficial 

effects on visitor access from increasing the 

clarity of Reserve boundaries on the ground, 

resulting in fewer incidences of trespass 

grazing because of unidentifiable allotment and 

Reserve boundaries.

Potential use of fire to manage Reserve 

vegetation could result in short-term negligible 

to minor adverse impacts on visitor access 

during fire management activities, including 

from smoke and firefighting activities.

Development of an equestrian staging area near 

the Bread Loaves intersection or in another 

area would expand access to the west side of 

the Reserve for trail riding. Constructing a 

turnaround at the north end of Logger Springs 

Road at Indian Grove Overlook would also 

improve visitor access and safety in this area, a 

long-term beneficial effect.

An expansion of the existing Research Natural 

Area would improve opportunities for visitors to 

explore an area of southern Idaho in its natural 

condition with few human impacts, a long-term 

beneficial effect.

In contrast to alternative A, alternative B 

would expand youth and public programming 

outside the Reserve, thereby increasing access 

to the Reserve for nonvisitors, a long-term 

beneficial effect.

ALTERNATIVE C IMPACTS

Similar to alternative B, ongoing management of 

visitor access and transportation would occur 

as outlined in alternative A. This would include 

general access to the Reserve and its facilities 

and access within the Reserve associated with 

grazing allotments, private lands, and hunting 

seasons. In addition, improvements associated 

with the expansion of the Research Natural 

Area, implementation of the Rim development 

concept plan, creation of trails, climbing and 

vegetation management plans, and construction 

of an amphitheater would also be similar to or 

the same as in alternative B. Access differences 

in alternative C would primarily result from a 

new visitor center facility, different changes to 

Smoky Mountain Campground, construction of 

an outdoor learning center, proposed expansion 

of the Reserve boundary, and changes in 

management zoning.

Similar to alternative A, if a new visitor use 

facility was constructed near the entrance 

to the Reserve on land transferred from the 

Bureau of Land Management to the National 

Park Service, additional long-term beneficial 

effects on visitor access would result from the 

variety of indoor and outdoor exhibits and 

new visitor use opportunities staged outside 

of the building. Outdoor exhibits would also 

offer new access opportunities. As in alternative 

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A, the new facility would also improve access 

and visitor connectivity, because it would be 

larger than the crowded 19th-century house 

currently functioning as a visitor center, and 

an amphitheater and outdoor learning center 

would further improve access to Reserve 

information and programming.

Construction of an amphitheater would be 

similar to alternative B; however, the outdoor 

learning center would create new access 

opportunities, primarily for younger visitors, 

researchers, and those in groups. As in other 

alternatives, these youth activities could 

potentially have long-term indirect beneficial 

impacts on access by increasing the likelihood 

that families of participants would visit 

the Reserve.

Because alternative C would include a potential 

boundary expansion that would envelop 

current BLM-managed lands adjacent to Smoky 

Mountain Campground used by climbers and 

others for dispersed camping, and because it 

is likely that the Idaho Department of Parks 

and Recreation would disband or charge a fee 

for similar camping there or elsewhere within 

Smoky Mountain, there could be long-term 

negligible to minor adverse effects on access 

for some visitors accustomed to free camping. 

However, it is likely that this activity would move 

elsewhere on BLM-managed lands.

Development of a trail to the summit of 

Smoky Mountain would have long-term 

minor beneficial effects on visitor access from 

providing another visitor use opportunity 

integrating the Reserve with the campground. It 

would also improve access for tribal members 

to gather pinyon pine nuts, a long-term 

beneficial effect.

As in alternative B, boundary modifications 

to the Research Natural Area to conform to 

terrain features would have long-term beneficial 

effects on visitor access by making it easier to 

identify the RNA boundary, thereby potentially 

reducing incidences of trespass grazing that have 

occurred in the past because of the unfenced 

boundary, although if the boundary remained 

unfenced, there would probably continue to be 

trespass grazing. With time, access could also 

improve to parts of the Reserve now in grazing 

allotments, if allotments were reduced through 

voluntary grazing buyouts.

As in alternatives A and B, the availability of 

camping both within and outside the Reserve, 

as well as the proposed expansion of Smoky 

Mountain Campground, would continue 

to provide long-term beneficial impacts on 

access for some overnight visitors. Similar to 

alternative B, the expansion of Smoky Mountain 

Campground would benefit a variety of 

overnight visitors, including those who camp 

using recreational vehicles, those who tent camp, 

and potentially also those who prefer to stay in a 

more social walk-in tent camping area.

Modifying the current array of zones in 

alternative C would improve access to climbing 

routes, especially in the vicinity of the California 

Trail Zone. As in alternative B, no new bolted 

or partly bolted climbing routes would be 

established in the Research Natural Area or 

California Trail Zones, a minor long-term 

adverse effect on access for climbers.

Pending boundary expansion legislation by 

Congress, some federal lands now managed 

by the Bureau of Land Management could 

be administratively transferred within the 

Department of the Interior from the Bureau of 

Land Management to the National Park Service. 

This would have indirect and direct long-term 

beneficial effects on access by allowing for the 

development of a visitor facility (see above) 

within the modified Reserve, which would 

improve off-hour visitor information (and 

therefore access) through outdoor exhibits. 

Boundary expansion would also expand the 

protected areas of the Reserve by closing 

currently managed BLM lands to mining 

and other consumptive uses, which could be 

perceived as a beneficial or adverse effect by 

visitors on access and transportation.

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ALTERNATIVE D IMPACTS

Similar to alternatives B and C, ongoing 

management of visitor access and transportation 

would occur as outlined in alternative A. Among 

the actions in alternative C would include 

general access to the Reserve and its facilities 

and access within the Reserve associated 

with grazing allotments, private lands, a new 

trail to the summit of Smoky Mountain, and 

actions associated with hunting and trapping 

seasons. In addition, improvements associated 

with the expansion of the Research Natural 

Area, implementation of the Rim development 

concept plan, creation of trails, climbing and 

vegetation management plans, and construction 

of an amphitheater would also be similar to or 

the same as in alternative B. Access differences in 

alternative D would primarily result from a much 

larger visitor center facility, Smoky Mountain 

Campground modifications, proposed 

expansion of the Reserve boundary, and changes 

in management zoning.

As in alternatives A and C, a new visitor use 

facility would result in additional long-term 

beneficial effects on visitor access because 

of an increased variety of indoor and 

outdoor exhibits, as well as new visitor use 

opportunities that could be staged out of the 

facility. Outdoor exhibits would also offer 

new access opportunities. As in alternative 

A, the new facility would improve access 

because it would be larger than the current 

visitor center. Although no amphitheater 

would be constructed, as with alternative A 

the visitor center facility would have a theater 

and a multipurpose room that could be used 

for programs.

Similar to alternatives B and C, boundary 

modifications to the Research Natural Area 

that conform to terrain features would have 

long-term beneficial effects on visitor access by 

making it easier to identify Reserve boundaries, 

thereby reducing the incidence of trespass 

grazing due to the unfenced boundary. As in 

alternatives B and C, there would be no new 

climbing routes in the Research Natural Area 

or California Trail Zones, a minor long-term 

adverse effect.

As with alternatives A–C, the availability of 

camping both within and outside the Reserve, 

as well as the proposed expansion of Smoky 

Mountain Campground, would continue to 

provide long-term beneficial impacts on access 

for some overnight visitors. In alternative D, the 

expansion of Smoky Mountain Campground 

would emphasize providing more tent sites.

As in alternative C, pending boundary expansion 

legislation by Congress, some federal lands now 

managed by the Bureau of Land Management 

would be administratively transferred within the 

Department of the Interior from the Bureau of 

Land Management to the National Park Service. 

This could have indirect and direct long-term 

beneficial effects on access within the Reserve by 

enabling development of a visitor center facility 

that would improve off-hours visitor information 

(and therefore access) from outdoor exhibits 

and expand protected areas within the Reserve.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures to minimize impacts on visitor 

experience (as appropriate to the alternative) 

would include:

•	 Monitor the number of complaints related 

to day and overnight visitor conflicts. If 

more than three complaints occurred 

per day, over time management strategies 

could increase staff presence to guide 

visitors to appropriate locations, updated 

maps, and increased education about dayand overnight-use designations.

•	 Monitor and manage the number of 

vehicles parked in undesignated areas to 

gain a better understanding of damage 

to vegetation and soils, minimize safety 

hazards, reduce crowding and visual 

impacts on the City of Rocks Back 

Country Byway, and to ensure compliance 

with parking regulations.

•	 Work with Cassia County to manage 

undesignated parking along Cassia County 

roads. If necessary, the National Park 

Service would determine if additional 

parking is needed outside of the county 

right-of-way.

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•	 Monitor the number of vehicles in 

undesignated areas during peak-use days 

(such as weekends and holidays) following 

the Cassia County transportation study 

and parking area redesign. No vehicles 

would be allowed to overflow from the 

designated parking areas onto Reserve 

roads. On county roads, no more than 

three vehicles could exceed designated 

parking areas. If these numbers were 

surpassed, management strategies for 

county roads could include increased 

work with county officials and public 

education. Additional management 

strategies for Reserve roads include 

educating partners, installing temporary 

signs, adding parking bumpers to clearly 

designate parking spaces, increasing 

available parking where appropriate, and 

issuing parking citations if necessary.

•	 Increase education about the importance 

of staying on trails if the number of social 

trails emanating from visitor use areas 

rises above a monitoring standard.

•	 Employ appropriate preventative 

measures to reduce the number of social 

trails, such as increasing signage about 

trails, creating natural barriers and 

erosion control measures, brushing out 

areas, closing off areas if needed, and 

formalizing trails.

•	 Provide improved pre-trip information 

for the Reserve and for nearby camping 

facilities.

•	 Encourage camping during nonpeak times 

such as mid-week.

•	 Place informative signs at the entrance, fee 

stations, or at the visitor center when the 

campsites are full.

•	 Monitor the number of groups waiting 

in line for climbing routes to ensure 

that visitors are having high-quality 

experiences and that resources are not 

being damaged by high-intensity use.

•	 Encourage climbers to wait for climbs 

in existing disturbed areas, or provide 

information about similar routes in other 

areas of the Reserve.

•	 Rove climbing areas to encourage 

dispersed use on similar climbing routes in 

various areas of the Reserve.

•	 Continue to manage climbing routes to 

avoid impacts on natural and cultural 

resources, including nesting birds and 

archeological sites.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Over time, visitors and residents have 

experienced ongoing improvements (minor to 

moderate cumulative beneficial effects) in access 

to the Reserve from county and Reserve roads 

and from development of visitor facilities. For 

instance, compared to 1988 when the Reserve 

was established, information, services, and a 

variety of visitor use areas and opportunities 

are accessible. Compared to 1996 when the 

comprehensive management plan was approved, 

there is better access to camping. Access to 

an array of recreational opportunities has 

also expanded through management of the 

Reserve; however, its popularity has resulted 

in some minor cumulative adverse effects on 

access to both sport and traditional climbing 

opportunities, because of lines that form during 

the peak season for popular climbs. Similarly, 

there is often competition for campsites within 

the Reserve during the peak season because 

these may be filled by reservations and are 

therefore unavailable to campers used to the 

first-come, first-served policy. There are also 

times during the peak season when it is difficult 

to find a parking space in one of the many dayuse areas. This is especially true because most 

climbing routes are located within a half-mile of 

trailheads. Therefore accessibility to climbing 

areas would continue to result in the mingling of 

climbers with other types of visitors, resulting in 

competition for some of the same access points 

(Reserve 1998a).

Past actions include construction of Reserve 

roads, fences, gates, and visitor facilities, 

(including remodeling a 19th-century house in 

Almo to function as a visitor center), installation 

of kiosks, waysides, and other informational 

and directional signs to and within the Reserve, 

creation of campsites within and outside the 

Reserve, and a variety of other actions that 

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have improved access and transportation, such 

as construction and maintenance of hiker, 

equestrian, and bicycle trails. Past actions also 

include loss of climbing opportunities in the 

Castle Rocks Interagency Recreation Area when 

the Bureau of Land Management closed this 

area (June 2005) because of a potential adverse 

effect on archeological resources. Past actions 

include closure of the Twin Sisters to climbing, 

a long-term minor to moderate adverse effect. 

Based on resource management plans for 

adjacent IDPR-, BLM-, and USFS-managed 

lands, however, past planning has also expanded 

access to recreational opportunities, including 

climbing in the area surrounding the Reserve, 

such as in Castle Rocks State Park.

New route development has decreased from 

approximately 300 new climbs in the late 1980s, 

to fewer than 10 per year between 1990 and 

1998, to approximately 5 or fewer in recent 

years (Reserve 1998a: p. 29; Bastis pers. comm. 

2012). Although epoxy-modified holds are 

prohibited, the Reserve estimated in 1991 that 

approximately 2% of climbing routes in City 

of Rocks were reported to contain deliberately 

modified holds (Reserve 1998a: p. 29).

Present actions include ongoing management of 

visitor facilities combined with maintenance of 

roads, trails, and exhibits, as well as actions by 

the Bureau of Land Management and U.S. Forest 

Service to manage primitive and dispersed 

camping outside the Reserve.

Future actions would include the proposals 

associated with the alternatives in this GMP, 

as well as ongoing planning by the Bureau of 

Land Management to determine the future 

management of the Castle Rocks Interagency 

Recreation Area based on cultural resources and 

tribal interests.

According to the “Draft National Climate 

Assessment,” extreme heat events that threaten 

public health will probably be more frequent 

and intense in coming decades. Warmer 

summers and extreme heat events could deter 

some visitation during the peak summer months 

and require innovative park designs (e.g., shade 

structures and/or alternative water supplies) 

to meet new environmental conditions and 

visitor needs. At the same time, there could be 

an increase in wildfire frequency and intensity 

as warming continues. This could degrade park 

air quality and viewsheds and attract visitors 

to parks or close portions of parks for lengthy 

periods.

When actions in alternative A are added to 

the effects of other past, present, and future 

actions, there would continue to be a range of 

minor to moderate cumulative adverse effects 

on visitor access and transportation, coupled 

with a range of minor cumulative beneficial 

effects. When actions in alternatives B–D are 

added to the effects of other past, present, and 

future actions, there would be similar cumulative 

adverse effects. However, there would be 

fewer cumulative adverse effects compared to 

alternative A. In addition, the range of beneficial 

effects would be greater (minor to moderate), 

due to new and expanded access to Reserve 

information and recreational opportunities. 

Because of the boundary expansion and 

implementation of the Rim development 

concept plan, these beneficial effects would 

probably be greatest in alternatives C and D and 

least in alternative B, followed by alternative A.

CONCLUSION

All alternatives would continue to provide 

access to the Reserve and to a variety of 

services and opportunities within it. Permitted 

activities such as hunting/trapping and grazing 

would continue to have negligible to minor 

adverse and beneficial effects on access. 

Minor to moderate individualized adverse 

effects from visitors unable to access dayuse parking or trailheads would continue to 

occur in alternative A. Similarly there would 

continue to be both beneficial and adverse 

impacts associated with access to climbing 

opportunities. As with the other alternatives, 

however, alternative A would also expand 

access to some visitor use opportunities. In 

alternatives B–D, improvements associated 

with the Rim development concept plan would 

expand access and provide minor to moderate 

beneficial effects for some visitors. In alternatives 

C and D, boundary modification would provide 

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access to some new and expanded areas and 

visitor use opportunities, including more 

efficient management of the Reserve and a better 

understanding of the juxtaposition of lands 

for visitors, a long-term minor to moderate 

beneficial effect.

Impacts on Visitor Experience: 

Visitor Use Opportunities

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

Although there would be no new visitor use 

opportunities in alternative A, some current 

activities would be enhanced. In addition, 

the following visitor use opportunities would 

continue to be provided: hiking; camping 

within and outside the Reserve; horseback 

riding; mountain biking; sport (technical) and 

traditional climbing; hunting; trapping; and 

learning about the Reserve through various 

activities, such as wildlife or wildflower viewing, 

drive-through touring, viewing wayside exhibits, 

and/or taking part in ranger programs, including 

day, evening, and youth programs (both onand off-site). In addition, permitted activities 

such as grazing and commercial uses (such as 

commercial guides and outfitters) would also 

continue. Combined, this wide range of activities 

would continue to have long-term moderate 

beneficial effects on visitor use opportunities.

Alternative A would also expand opportunities 

for camping (from development of more 

campsites at Smoky Mountain) and for learning 

about Reserve resources (from potential 

development of a new visitor center facility as 

proposed in the comprehensive management 

plan and Castle Rocks master plan). These 

expanded activities would enhance the Reserve 

visitor experience by alleviating some of the 

problems associated with access to these 

opportunities. If implemented, the expanded 

visitor center would offer a variety of new 

ways to experience the Reserve, including 

new exhibits, a theater for the orientation 

film, outdoor exhibits, and spaces that could 

potentially be used by educational groups. Sport 

climbing routes could also be expanded within 

City of Rocks to the extent that these were 

proposed and approved by the Reserve based on 

an assessment of potential impacts. Currently, as 

many as five new routes are generally approved 

each year, though this number could increase 

or decrease, dependent on the number of 

applicants and the content of the proposals.

Ongoing monitoring and research related 

to Reserve resources, including air quality, 

soundscapes, night sky, wildlife, and vegetation, 

would continue and would provide new 

opportunities for visitors to learn about these 

resources as available information increased.

In alternative A, as in the other alternatives, 

visitors and local communities would be 

offered the opportunity to participate in several 

planning efforts associated with various activities 

occurring in the Reserve. These planning 

efforts include a climbing management plan, 

vegetation management plan, fire management 

plan, and grazing management plan. This would 

result in a series of short-term beneficial effects 

on visitor use opportunities, coupled with 

potential long-term impacts from influencing 

Reserve operations.

ALTERNATIVE B–D IMPACTS

Impacts associated with alternatives B–D would 

be the same as identified in alternative A. In 

addition, there would be a new equestrian 

staging facility near the Bread Loaves 

intersection that would improve opportunities 

for trail riding on the west side of the Reserve, a 

long-term beneficial effect for equestrian 

user groups.

In addition to a trail linking California 

Trail resources, there would be expanded 

opportunities to link the Reserve to outside 

areas through trails developed in partnership 

with adjoining public land managers.

Reconfiguration of campsites and parking 

areas along the Rim, according to Rim DCP 

recommendations, would better delineate visitor 

use opportunities in the Reserve and would 

improve separation of day and overnight use, 

offering minor to moderate short- and long-term 

beneficial effects.

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In general, construction projects could 

temporarily diminish wildlife presence and 

therefore viewing opportunities in the vicinity 

of construction sites, causing negligible to minor 

short-term impacts.

Further identification of viewsheds important 

to both California Trail emigrants and Reserve 

visitors could engender additional protection for 

these through sensitive siting of new facilities, a 

long-term beneficial effect.

In addition to learning about resources based 

on ongoing inventory and monitoring programs 

as in alternative A, there would be new visitor 

use opportunities to learn about soundscapes, 

night skies, and air quality, because there would 

be greater focus on these resources through 

increased monitoring and development of 

night sky and soundscape management plans. 

A variety of educational and arts opportunities 

would also expand visitor use options at the 

Reserve, a long-term beneficial effect.

With the slight (alternatives B and D) to 

moderate (alternative C) expansion of the 

Research Natural Area, there would be 

improved opportunities for visitors to explore an 

area of southern Idaho in its natural condition 

with few human impacts. Although a better 

understanding of the boundary of the Research 

Natural Area would occur from the slight 

expansion proposed in alternatives B and D, the 

larger expansion included in alternative C would 

also offer greater opportunities for research. 

Minor adverse effects associated with expansion 

of the Research Natural Area would include a 

slightly reduced area open to hunting.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE B

Alternative B would emphasize self-directed 

exploration of the Reserve, supported by 

additional waysides and unstaffed kiosks. 

Although there would be no new visitor center 

facility, remodeling of the existing 19th-century 

structure could improve visitor opportunities 

to hear the orientation film and to obtain 

information with fewer distractions.

New camping opportunities at Smoky Mountain 

would offer a variety of sites, including tent 

and social camping. This could help to relieve 

pressure when campsites in the Reserve are full.

Alternative B would also emphasize outreach 

programs and the incorporation of neighboring 

community and tribal perspectives in learning 

opportunities. Youth activities would include 

wilderness and self-empowering experiences, 

and establish connections to the arts and local 

communities.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE C

In addition to new opportunities identified 

above in alternative B, alternative C would 

offer new programs for youth and adults at the 

outdoor learning center and encouragement for 

a commercial shuttle between the Reserve and 

Castle Rocks State Park. As in alternative A, there 

would be expanded opportunities for camping, 

hiking and learning about Reserve resources at a 

new visitor center facility.

The new camping opportunities could also 

emphasize social walk-in tent camping 

opportunities for groups and individuals. This 

would be important because existing dispersed 

camping directly adjacent to some parts of 

the Reserve could be reduced closer to the 

Reserve if nearby BLM lands became part of 

the Reserve. Nonetheless, there would continue 

to be free dispersed camping on nearby BLMand USFS-managed land. With the expansion, 

existing dispersed camping on BLM lands could 

be formalized with sanitation facilities, picnic 

tables, and fire rings. Expansion of camping, 

including social camping opportunities, could 

compensate for the minor adverse impact 

associated with the loss of some dispersed 

camping outside the Reserve and would provide 

minor to moderate long-term beneficial effects 

for some overnight visitors.

New hiking opportunities would include a trail 

to the summit of Smoky Mountain and trail 

connections to outside areas, as well as a trail for 

better exploration of California Trail resources 

(as in alternative B). This latter trail would also 

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be open to bicyclists and equestrians and would 

allow for a nonvehicular experience of some 

of the California Trail resources, such as the 

inscription rocks, a long-term beneficial impact 

for some visitors.

In addition to expanding research opportunities 

as noted above for alternatives B–D, 

alternative C would also focus on establishing 

partnerships with others to conduct research 

and monitoring and would invite researchers 

to share information directly with the public 

through programming. This would include 

visitors participating in stewardship activities 

and researchers sharing their experiences 

through articles, presentations, classes, lectures, 

field trips, and site field work. It would also 

include partnerships with federal, state, tribal, 

and private entities, such as universities and 

institutes. In addition, the outdoor learning 

center would provide classes, field trips, and 

programs tailored to youth. Programs would 

focus on research about Reserve resources and 

would strive to connect people, nature, and 

community through science, art, and the handson study of natural and cultural history. These 

learning opportunities could also be provided by 

commercial and private nonprofit organizations. 

Combined, there would be a variety of new 

visitor use opportunities, with both short- and 

long-term beneficial effects.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE D

Alternative D emphasizes experiential learning 

through involvement in activities such as 

ranching. Actual tasks or staged events would 

provide a wide range of new visitor use 

opportunities. This expansion would allow 

visitors some participation in the widespread 

grazing that occurs on public and private lands 

within the Reserve. Alternative D would also 

feature increased opportunities for visitors 

to participate in gathering information about 

resources, through assistance to researchers and 

others working in the City of Rocks.

As in alternative A, there would be expanded 

opportunities for camping, hiking, and learning 

about Reserve resources at a new visitor center 

facility. The facility in this alternative would be 

the largest and would therefore probably provide 

a wider range of information and services that 

could better accommodate large groups.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures to minimize impacts on visitor use 

opportunities are identified above under “Access 

and Transportation.”

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Within the Reserve, past actions include the 

establishment of a visitor center outside the 

Reserve in Almo; a variety of interpretive and 

educational programming; 64 campsites; 32 

recreational vehicle campsites; and 6 equestrian 

campsites outside the Reserve, including 2 yurts. 

There are more than 600 identified climbing 

routes within the Reserve, including technical 

and sport climbs. The Reserve includes nearly 

20 miles of roads, 9 day use parking areas and 8 

pull-out parking areas, and more than 23 miles 

of hiking trails. In addition there are picnic 

areas, 11 wayside exhibits, 9 bulletin boards, 

hundreds of signs, 15 different publications, 2 

websites, and 2 Facebook pages that provide 

visitor opportunities to experience the City of 

Rocks. These structures and visitor use areas 

have contributed a range of minor to moderate 

cumulative adverse and beneficial effects.

Outside the Reserve, the Bureau of Land 

Management has closed climbing routes in the 

Castle Rocks Interagency Recreation Area and 

has decided against expanding camping and 

trails in the area. (Cultural resources claimed by 

the Shoshone-Bannock and Shoshone-Paiute 

tribes exist in the area frequented by climbers.) 

Nearby Castle Rocks State Park has created a 

small lodge rental facility. Castle Rocks State 

Park also contains approximately 250 climbing 

routes, 12 miles of trails, and 1.1 miles of road. 

Numerous opportunities exist for dispersed and 

primitive camping on nearby BLM and USFS 

lands, as well as nine private campgrounds in the 

vicinity of the Reserve (most of which do not 

provide nearby opportunities for small groups to 

tent camp).

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Ongoing management—including maintenance 

of recreational facilities by the National Park 

Service, Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation, Bureau of Land Management, and 

U.S. Forest Service, as well as Cassia County, 

which owns and maintains approximately 10 

miles of roads in the Reserve—contributes 

a range of cumulative beneficial and adverse 

effects depending on the visitor.

The future actions identified by the alternatives 

in this plan include establishing up to 62 

additional campsites/camping areas (all 

alternatives). These would be located outside of 

the Reserve in alternatives A and B and within it 

in alternatives C and D if boundary expansion is 

approved by Congress. Campsites would also be 

reconfigured within the Reserve campground, 

and day-use parking and picnicking would 

expand (alternatives B–D). Cooperative 

arrangements with Cassia County could result in 

improvements to the county road corridor in all 

alternatives.

When actions in alternatives A, B, and D are 

added to the effects of other past, present, and 

future actions, there would continue to be minor 

to moderate beneficial effects. Similarly, when 

actions in alternative C are added to the effects 

of other past, present, and future actions, there 

would be moderate beneficial effects.

CONCLUSION

Alternative A would continue to provide a full 

range of visitor use opportunities, including 

expansion of some activities (such as camping, 

hiking, and visitor interpretive and educational 

experiences if a new visitor center was 

constructed). Alternatives B–D would also 

increase visitor use opportunities, but to a 

greater degree than alternative A. Expanded 

opportunities proposed in alternatives B, 

C, and D include new equestrian facilities, 

improved camping within the Reserve, and 

more integration between Reserve research and 

interpretation. Because alternative C would also 

contain new opportunities associated with an 

outdoor learning center, it would contribute the 

greatest beneficial effects, followed by alternative 

D with its emphasis on experiential learning, 

with lesser benefits offered by alternatives A or B.

Impacts on Visitor Experience: 

Interpretation and Education

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

Visitor interpretation and education would 

continue to be enhanced through ongoing 

emphasis on maintaining Reserve resources. 

Similarly, continuing to provide interpretive and 

educational opportunities at the visitor center 

and through existing programs, waysides, kiosks, 

brochures, special events, and the internet 

would continue to have long-term beneficial 

effects by inspiring and educating visitors to 

learn about and protect Reserve resources.

Reserve interpretive and educational 

programs would continue to foster enjoyment 

and appreciation of natural, cultural, and 

recreational resources. By educating the public, 

the Reserve would continue to engender support 

for operations. Interpretive programs would 

continue to be provided for a range of different 

user groups, ages, and abilities. Combined these 

would continue to produce minor to moderate 

beneficial effects.

A long-term beneficial effect would continue 

to result from the Reserve’s unique effort to 

integrate climbing management and interpretive 

responsibilities, including coordination 

of permits to bolt new climbing routes, 

maintenance of bolts, and presentation of 

climbing-related talks and demonstrations.

Reserve staff is also responsible for the same 

activities at Castle Rocks State Park, and because 

of this there would probably continue to be 

actions associated with both, causing occasional 

confusion on the part of staff and visitors, a 

negligible to minor adverse effect.

Visitors would generally continue to be on 

their own to discover and learn about Reserve 

resources, except for information provided 

at the small administrative headquarters/

visitor center outside the Reserve, through 

existing interpretive programming, and at a 

variety of other information sources, such as 

wayside exhibits and kiosks within the Reserve. 

Outside the Reserve, the existing visitor center 

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would continue to provide brochures, maps, 

educational gifts, and other items related to the 

resources within City of Rocks.

Partnerships with nonprofit, environmental, 

and educational organizations would continue 

to have long-term beneficial effects on 

interpretation and education, inspiring visitors 

to protect Reserve resources.

Long-term beneficial effects on visitor 

interpretation and education would also result 

from interpretive programs and special events 

facilitated or conducted by Reserve staff. To 

the extent that interpretive opportunities are 

presented, there could be long-term beneficial 

effects from interpreting some of the lesserknown aspects of the Reserve, such as mining, 

homesteading, ranching, or American Indian 

use. Similarly, educational opportunities (such 

as Junior Ranger programs and the Youth 

Conservation Corps) for youth, pending 

available staff and funding, would continue 

to contribute long-term beneficial effects by 

inspiring the next generation of Reserve visitors 

to protect not only Reserve resources but NPS 

and park resources across the country.

ALTERNATIVE B IMPACTS

In addition to long-term beneficial effects 

from ongoing interpretive and educational 

programming, there would be additional longterm beneficial effects from an increased array 

of self-guided and self-directed programs and 

opportunities. These would include expansion 

of written and electronic guides and other 

materials available to visitors. Because this 

alternative also calls for a more individualized, 

self-reliant Reserve experience, less emphasis 

would be placed on staff-guided interpretive 

programs and talks. Depending on the type 

of visitor and their expectations, this could 

result in long-term beneficial or adverse effects. 

Although some visitors would seek out these 

new self-guided opportunities, other visitors 

could experience a decrease in interpretive 

and learning opportunities at the Reserve 

because they would not take advantage of selfguided experiences.

Similarly, because some visitors do not stop 

at the visitor center, additional kiosks within 

the Reserve, such as at Smoky Mountain 

Campground, could improve visitor 

understanding of Reserve resources. Because 

there would be a greater emphasis on visitors 

obtaining information prior to arrival through 

electronic or other means, less interpretive 

programming in the Reserve could result in 

some very informed visitors (who have educated 

themselves prior to visiting the Reserve) as well 

as some visitors who could not or would not 

take advantage of these pre-visit opportunities 

and would arrive at the Reserve without 

this knowledge. In either case, additional 

information at the existing (but reorganized and 

slightly expanded) visitor center could facilitate 

visitor interpretation and education, a long-term 

beneficial effect. Wireless access is available at 

Smoky Mountain Campground and in Almo. 

Visitors can also access the web while they are in 

town to learn more about what they saw during 

their visit.

Continuing to provide some interpretive 

programming within the Reserve would, as in 

alternative A, have a long-term beneficial effect 

by improving visitor understanding, use, and 

protection of Reserve resources. Compared 

to alternative A, interpretive programming 

could include more incorporation of tribal 

perspectives and opportunities for Reserve 

neighbors to tell their own stories in the Reserve, 

benefiting visitor education and interpretation 

by offering a broader understanding of the 

influence and importance of City of Rocks.

Although fewer programs and interpretive 

opportunities would be available within the 

Reserve, an extended outreach program for 

schools and educational organizations could 

inspire more students to visit and to learn 

about Reserve resources. Combining this with 

development of a new long-range interpretive 

plan could result in new opportunities for 

visitors to learn about Reserve resources, an 

indirect long-term beneficial effect on visitor 

experience associated with education and 

interpretation.

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New programs, such as an artist-in-residence 

program, would bring educational opportunities 

to the Reserve and local community through 

partnerships with outside entities to encourage 

self-expression and connection to City of 

Rocks using art, photography, and writing. 

Long-term beneficial effects would arise from 

encouraging development of new interpretive 

and educational programming to improve 

visitor experiences.

As in alternative A, the current emphasis on 

youth opportunities would continue, but could 

be expanded to include new opportunities 

to learn about Reserve resources through 

combined educational and wilderness or 

climbing experiences.

ALTERNATIVE C IMPACTS

In addition to existing visitor educational and 

interpretive opportunities in alternative A, 

long-term beneficial effects would result from 

increasing understanding of the Reserve’s 

relevance and role in the Basin and Range 

ecosystem. As in alternative A, there would be a 

new, albeit smaller, visitor center facility. Unlike 

alternative A, however, this alternative proposes 

a new outdoor learning center focused on 

providing expanded educational opportunities, 

primarily for youth but also for other groups, 

providing expanded beneficial effects for these 

visitors. As in alternative B, the new long-range 

interpretive plan could expand interpretive and 

educational opportunities for visitors, a longterm beneficial effect.

In addition to new interpretive programming 

associated with the outdoor learning center, 

beneficial effects would arise from new topics 

for guided walks and talks and immersive 

interpretive experiences in the Reserve’s 

natural and cultural environment. This 

formal and informal programming might 

feature stewardship activities and articles, 

presentations, classes, lectures, and field trips 

led by researchers using the Reserve as a study 

area. These types of activities could also be 

provided by other educational and nonprofit 

organizations or affiliated tribes. In addition, 

educational and interpretive programs would 

integrate learning with research and could 

highlight new information about archeological 

resources as well as other cultural and 

natural resources.

As in alternative A, youth opportunities (such 

as Junior Ranger programs and the Youth 

Conservation Corps), pending available staff 

and funding, would continue to contribute 

long-term beneficial effects by inspiring the 

next generation of Reserve visitors to protect 

Reserve resources. In addition, long-term 

beneficial effects would be contributed through 

programming provided at the outdoor learning 

center, including programs based on research 

being conducted at the Reserve.

ALTERNATIVE D IMPACTS

In alternative D, the emphasis on experiential 

learning associated with natural and cultural 

resources would guide visitor interpretation 

and educational programs. Enhanced onsite 

programs would probably feature staff, partners, 

and volunteers conducting a variety of living 

history and costumed interpretive programs to 

help visitors understand the actual experiences 

of California Trail emigrants and settlers in 

the Almo valley, as well as current ranching 

activities. Ongoing presentations of a variety 

of traditional programs, such as nature hikes, 

geology field schools, and others would also 

continue. As a result of the emphasis on living 

history and costumed interpretation, there 

would probably be more special events, such 

as commemorations. Commercial interpretive 

programs and fee interpretation programs 

(offering more in-depth experiences) could 

also be provided. Combined, these would 

enhance Reserve educational and interpretive 

experiences for visitors and improve outreach 

to youth, as well as local and regional visitors, a 

long-term beneficial effect.

As in other alternatives, the long-range 

interpretive plan would be revised to emphasize 

themes developed as part of the Reserve’s 

foundation statement, and programs for youth 

and new visitors would be expanded to engage 

visitors in citizen stewardship and day-to-day 

Reserve operations, as well as to offer new 

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experiences through Parks as Classrooms 

programming or an introduction to climbing or 

wilderness experiences through partner youth 

education programs, such as more climbing 

or environmental education schools. These 

activities would expand the current interpretive 

programming offered under alternative A to 

engage new audiences and groups, a long-term 

beneficial effect.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures to minimize impacts on visitor 

interpretation and education are identified 

above under “Access and Transportation.”

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Over time there have been changes in both 

the number of programs and the diversity of 

interpretive and educational programming, and 

specific programs targeted to new audiences 

have been implemented within the Reserve, 

resulting in a range of minor to moderate 

beneficial and adverse cumulative effects. 

Programs are based on interpretive themes 

developed for the Reserve and are related to the 

significance of the Reserve’s natural and cultural 

resources and recreational activities.

Past actions include establishment of a 

cooperating association for the Reserve, 

production of an orientation film, and design 

and installation of wayside exhibits. These and 

other interpretive program development efforts 

serve nearly 100,000 annual visitors. There 

are opportunities for schoolchildren through 

partnerships with local schools, including 

programs at schools and in the Reserve, as well 

as Junior Ranger programs. City of Rocks also 

currently offers a variety of special activities, 

from interpretive horseback rides to snowshoe 

bird walks, as well as a wide range of regular 

interpretive programs (such as walks and talks) 

for day and overnight visitors.

Present interpretive programs include winter 

and summer day camps for kids, wildflower 

and birding weekends, summer and fall trail 

rides, climbing workshops, stargazing parties, 

snowshoe hikes, and more. There are also two 

websites, bulletin boards and signs, and a wide 

range of interpretive publications, including a 

Reserve newspaper, bird checklist, self-guided 

trail brochures, and others.

Future actions would include additional 

interpretive program development as identified 

in the alternatives, including in-depth 

information on night sky and soundscapes, 

based on research that would take place within 

the Reserve under all alternatives. Alternative 

C would include connections to interpretive 

opportunities offered by partners and a 

proposed outdoor learning center that would 

offer day and overnight programming, primarily 

for educational and nonprofit organizations 

targeted to youth. Alternative D would also 

expand onsite interpretive programming 

through its emphasis on experiential learning.

The Reserve’s unique biological composition 

(as a biogeographic crossroads) provides 

opportunities for climate change research, 

including regarding plant and wildlife 

migrations, invasive species trends, visitor use 

trends, and changes in hydrologic patterns 

in streams, springs and wetlands. Some of 

this research could be applied to advanced 

interpretive opportunities for visitors on how the 

Reserve’s ecosystem is influenced by a changing 

climate (Weeks 2014).

When the actions in alternative A are added 

to past, present, and future actions, minor to 

moderate cumulative beneficial impacts would 

continue. When the impacts of alternatives B–D 

are added to past, present, and future actions, 

there would continue to be minor cumulative 

beneficial impacts under alternative B, moderate 

cumulative beneficial impacts under alternative 

C, and moderate cumulative impacts under 

alternative D.

CONCLUSION

Alternatives A–D would continue to have minor 

to moderate long-term beneficial impacts on 

interpretation and education. Compared to 

alternative A, alternative B would probably offer 

fewer interpretive and educational programs, 

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while alternatives C and D would expand 

interpretive programming in different ways. 

Beneficial impacts would probably be greatest in 

alternative C, followed by alternatives D, A, and B.

Impacts on Visitor Experience: Visitor and 

Employee Safety

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

Equipment use: Ongoing actions that may pose 

manageable risks to human health and safety 

include equipment operation, gas-powered 

hand tool operation, and manual hand tool 

operation. Exposure to fuels and lubricants may 

pose health and safety risks, and exposure to 

herbicides or other chemicals is also a health 

concern. Health and safety risks are managed 

through administrative controls (for example 

controls formed through Reserve policy and 

state and federal law) and engineering controls 

(such as back-up alarms on heavy equipment 

and personal protective equipment).

Although equipment would be used per existing 

safety procedures, its presence could be a 

potential hazard to visitors if they inadvertently 

or purposefully entered areas where it was being 

used. Because there would be safety observers 

or other precautions taken during equipment 

use in visitor use areas and because materials 

and supplies would be stored where visitors 

would not access them, no or negligible impacts 

would occur.

Hazardous materials use: The Reserve would 

continue to follow existing safety and hazardous 

materials procedures and recordkeeping. 

Ongoing use of small quantities of hazardous 

materials, such as herbicides, gasoline and 

diesel fuel, oil, and antifreeze would continue. 

Standard operating procedures and policies 

derived from the Comprehensive Environmental 

Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, the 

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and 

other applicable federal laws would continue 

to be followed and would continue to minimize 

potential adverse effects on employee and 

visitor safety.

Small amounts of hazardous materials, such as 

herbicides, would also continue to be purchased 

and stored at the Reserve. Personal protective 

equipment, such as gloves, masks, and coveralls 

or long sleeves and pants, would be used to 

minimize the potential for both immediate 

and chronic exposure for employees as 

recommended by chemical labeling or material 

safety data sheets. Specific training regarding 

some materials, such as herbicides, would also 

continue to be used, and employees working 

with hazardous materials would receive routine 

training in their use and application and in 

hazard communications and spill response.

Use of hazardous materials, such as some 

herbicides, may require the temporary closure of 

treated areas to protect visitors during and after 

treatment, such as while the herbicide dries, 

for example. As a result, visitor access could be 

restricted from some areas on some days. While 

actions would have short-term adverse impacts 

on visitor access and enjoyment, they would be 

combined with short- and long-term beneficial 

impacts on visitor safety.

Overall impacts on employees from potential 

hazards associated with ongoing Reserve 

operations would be negligible to minor. If spills 

or improper handling of hazardous materials 

occurred or appropriate procedures were not 

followed, impacts could be moderate.

Road use: Cassia County would continue to 

maintain county roads through the Reserve 

for visitor use, taking into consideration visitor 

safety and enjoyment. Beneficial effects would 

occur from the Reserve encouraging Cassia 

County to maintain the roads consistent 

with the Reserve setting, including signs and 

information, and addressing safety issues 

through consultation. Adverse effects could 

occur because the roads are narrow and winding 

and because the applicable county speed limit 

(55 mph unless otherwise posted) exceeds 

what is sometimes safe on the roads. As a result, 

there would continue to be potential minor to 

moderate short- and long-term adverse impacts 

on visitor and employee safety. In addition 

to safety hazards posed by vehicles parked 

along roadways, some visitors have expressed 

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concern that driving conditions are unsafe. 

This perception could be related to a variety of 

factors such as speed of vehicles; people walking, 

horseback riding, and biking on roadways with 

vehicles; a mix of vehicles on the road, including 

all-terrain vehicles (these are allowed only 

on county and not Reserve roads); and blind 

corners. Even when people are driving within 

the speed limit, the driving conditions may still 

seem unsafe, especially to visitors who are not 

used to driving at speeds as high as 55 mph on 

unpaved roads.

Cassia County Sherriff’s Office data for 2009–11 

show the following: 17 incidents with reports, 

9 citations, and 14 traffic stops. There have 

also been 4 accidents reported since 2002. The 

proposed Cassia County transportation study 

to determine the number of vehicles and their 

speed in the Reserve should improve knowledge 

of potential effects and make recommendations 

about other appropriate improvements, such as 

changing speed limits.

Camping: A variety of potential safety issues 

would continue to be associated with the 

Rim campsites in alternative A. Among those 

identified by the Rim development concept 

plan are that campsites along the main road 

often make it necessary to back cars up into 

traffic, including near vegetation that may 

affect sight distance. Some fire grates are also 

too close to surrounding vegetation, and 

combined campground and day use in some 

areas leads to limited parking access. In addition, 

the development concept plan cites many 

pedestrian-vehicle safety conflicts, some hazards 

associated with walking surfaces (including 

stairs and trails), one or two incidences of 

broken handrails, and several instances where 

visitors need to walk along a narrow roadway 

with poor visibility to access the closest vault 

toilet. Until these safety concerns are corrected, 

there would continue to be potential for shortterm minor to moderate adverse effects on 

employee and visitor safety.

Climbing: Climbing would continue to be 

an inherently risky activity. This risk would 

continue to be mitigated by educational 

information regarding climbing safety 

and equipment. As noted in the climbing 

management plan, however, the National Park 

Service and the Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation recognize that climbers bear the 

sole responsibility for their own safety while 

climbing (Reserve 1998a). City of Rocks does 

not judge or physically control safety related 

to rock climbing, rock climbing equipment, or 

conditions on climbing routes within Reserve 

boundaries. The Reserve does have the authority 

to close areas to the public based on identified 

hazardous conditions. Between 2004 and 2008, 

19 visitor injuries were documented, 9 of which 

were serious. All of the serious visitor injuries 

were climbing-related. With approximately 

50,000 climbers annually visiting the Reserve 

and Castle Rocks State Park, this accident rate 

of less than 0.01% per year is relatively low. 

According to the business plan, this safety record 

may be attributed to closely spaced bolt anchors, 

short climbs, and solid rock (Reserve 2010b: p. 

26–27). The business plan also notes that nearby 

climbers will often assist a noncritically injured 

or stranded climber without summoning more 

formal first responders. Therefore, it is likely that 

the number of accidents documented is lower 

than the actual number that occur. This is also 

true nationally for other climbing areas.

Other visitor use: A variety of other visitor 

activities can be inherently risky, including 

hiking, mountain bicycling, and horseback 

riding. Although the Reserve would continue to 

maintain facilities and equipment for these uses, 

occasional incidents would continue to occur 

and would be associated with provided facilities 

and equipment, causing the potential for both 

short- and long-term negligible to moderate 

adverse impacts. In addition, there would 

continue to be a potential for adverse impacts on 

occur from wildlife-human interactions, caused 

by inappropriate visitor or unpredictable wildlife 

behavior, a long-term negligible to moderate 

localized adverse effect.

Dogs: Because dogs are allowed on leash at 

the Reserve, in campgrounds as well as on 

trails, they may cause potential negligible to 

minor adverse impacts on employee and visitor 

safety when pet owners do not follow posted 

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regulations. Problems can include dogs offleash, fighting, biting, and digging depressions in 

climber staging areas.

Human waste: Because vault toilets and 

restrooms in the Reserve are often widely 

spaced, especially from some campsites, there 

have been incidences of improperly disposed 

human waste and toilet paper. Although disposal 

practices have improved, there would probably 

continue to be a potential for minor adverse 

impacts pending additional visitor education 

and placement of additional vault toilets.

Visitor center: In the short-term, negligible 

adverse impacts would continue from 

maintaining a small visitor center in a century-old 

house that serves approximately 10,000 to 12,000 

visitors per year. Small crowded rooms, a narrow 

second floor that does not meet accessibility 

standards, and the general configuration of the 

current building impede the ability of visitors 

and staff to concentrate on the film and day-today activities. If the visitor center facility called 

for by the comprehensive management plan and 

Castle Rocks master plan is constructed, however, 

long-term beneficial impacts would occur from 

improving these conditions.

ALTERNATIVE B–D IMPACTS

Impacts would be similar to alternative A; 

however, long-term beneficial improvements 

to employee safety would occur due to more 

effective implementation of a wider variety 

of mitigation measures to limit impacts on 

Reserve resources. In addition, alternative 

actions would include the potential for fire use, 

working with Cassia County to improve county 

road management and use, and modifications 

to the Reserve campsites to minimize impacts 

associated with day and overnight parking.

Fire use: Including fire use as a management 

option would also result in minor adverse 

impacts. Employees who work with fires receive 

specific training and equipment. As a result, 

there are identified procedures associated with 

fire use, including burning and mop-up that 

would continue to be followed and formally 

implemented and/or changed as conditions 

warrant. Fire use could also result in the need 

for visitor use closures in some areas for a few 

days to a few weeks. Although these actions 

would have short-term minor adverse impacts 

on visitor access and enjoyment, they would be 

combined with short- and long-term beneficial 

impacts on visitor safety.

Roads: Working with Cassia County to lower 

speed limits along county roads within the 

Reserve could have long-term beneficial 

impacts on visitor experience and safety. Many 

visitors walk alongside the county road between 

campsites, on the way to trailheads, or while 

recreating. Improving the Logger Springs Road 

by constructing a turnaround in alternatives B–D 

would also have long-term beneficial effects; 

however, beneficial impacts would be greatest 

in alternative D from also providing parking in 

this area.

Parking: By monitoring and managing the 

number of vehicles parked in undesignated 

areas, the Reserve could also minimize safety 

hazards, including crowding associated 

with undesignated parking, a long-term 

beneficial effect.

DCP parking lot redesign recommendations 

could also improve parking conditions to 

accommodate more vehicles and thereby 

reduce unsafe, undesignated parking. In 

addition, monitoring the number of vehicles 

in undesignated areas during peak-use days 

(on weekends and holidays) could lead 

to identification of the need for more or 

improvements to designated parking areas. 

Although county roads would continue to allow 

overflow parking, Reserve roads would continue 

to prohibit this.

Visitor center: Reconfiguration of the visitor 

center in alternative B and new construction of 

a visitor facility in alternatives A, C, and D could 

improve visitor safety associated with existing 

visitor center operations, a long-term beneficial 

impact from improving accessibility and 

minimizing distractions. These impacts would 

probably be more beneficial in alternatives 

A, C, and D than in alternative B. If the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation decided 

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to construct the visitor center in alternative 

B, impacts would probably be the same as in 

alternative A.

Boundary expansion: With the proposed 

boundary expansion in alternatives C–D, 

dispersed camping on former BLM lands would 

probably be modified to include sanitation 

facilities, picnic tables, and fire rings, as well as a 

proposed bivouac (social camping) area. Visitor 

safety would probably increase, a long-term 

minor to moderate beneficial effect.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Additional measures to minimize impacts on 

visitor safety are also identified above under 

“Access and Transportation.”

•	 Monitor the perception of unsafe 

conditions by tallying the number of 

complaints received on NPS- and countyowned roads. If conditions approach 

identified standards on county roads, 

Reserve staff would contact the county 

sheriff’s office for support. If conditions 

approach standards on NPS-owned roads, 

a variety of management actions could 

occur, including an increase in education 

to better inform visitors about regulations, 

increasing Reserve vehicle/staff presence, 

posting speed limits in problem areas, and 

issuing citations.

•	 Correct employee safety concerns as they 

are identified.

•	 Conduct job hazard analyses prior to 

taking on each new task and as identified 

tasks were implemented.

•	 Increase awareness of how to access vault 

toilets, provide education on Leave No 

Trace principles, and add new vault toilets 

where needed, as appropriate.

•	 Collaborate with the county to manage 

parking and to educate visitors about 

appropriate designated parking.

•	 Manage unsafe parking by educating 

partners, installing temporary signs, 

adding parking bumpers to clearly 

designate parking spaces, increasing 

available parking where appropriate, and 

issuing citations if necessary.

•	 Monitor and maintain bolts to enhance 

visitor safety, satisfaction, and resource 

protection.

•	 Improve resource protection by replacing 

bolts with stainless steel hardware, 

removing slings, and camouflaging 

hardware with paint.

Measures specific to herbicide use:

•	 Close areas treated with herbicides to 

visitor use during the formal “no entry” 

period specified on the label or until dry.

•	 Consult weather predictions prior to using 

herbicides to minimize the potential for 

herbicide drift and to ensure effectiveness 

and application according to labelrecommended temperature, precipitation 

and wind conditions.

•	 Do not apply herbicides to areas with 

excessive dew.

•	 Irrigate treated areas according to the 

label.

•	 Do not leave small equipment and 

containers such as backpack sprayers 

and herbicide jugs containing herbicide 

unattended (to prevent theft, tampering, 

or accidental exposure).

•	 Label and store herbicides according to 

manufacturer’s recommendations and 

NPS policies.

•	 Use herbicides with low toxicity and few 

or no human and wildlife health hazards.

•	 Ensure that herbicide use and storage is 

in accordance with NPS regional and/

or national Integrated Pest Management 

Coordinator approval and NPS policies.

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CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

There have been no cumulative adverse impacts 

on human health and safety from past and 

present actions and none are anticipated from 

future actions. Minor cumulative beneficial 

effects in improving human health and safety 

would result from actions in alternatives B–D. 

Although there would be no cumulative adverse 

effects on human health and safety, there is the 

potential that, according to the “Draft National 

Climate Assessment,” the frequency of extreme 

precipitation events is projected to increase 

and these could contribute to flooding and 

associated potential health and safety risks from 

degraded water quality and flash floods.

CONCLUSION

There would generally continue to be a potential 

for negligible to minor adverse effects on human 

health and safety. If appropriate procedures 

were not followed, these could be moderate. 

Alternatives B–D would have potential longterm beneficial effects on human health and 

safety from improving safety issues associated 

with parking, driving, and camping within 

the Reserve. The turnaround with parking in 

alternative D would offer more beneficial effects 

on visitor safety than would the turnaround 

alone in alternatives B and C.

Impacts on Visitor Experience: Scenic 

Resources

Background

The enabling legislation for the Reserve calls 

for the protection of scenic quality. As a result, 

three inventories of scenic viewsheds have been 

completed. One, a visual resource analysis, was 

completed for the comprehensive management 

plan in 1990. The second inventory was part 

of the National Register of Historic Places 

nomination for the California Trail (NPS 

1966), which described scenic resources as a 

contributing characteristic (NPS 2008a). The 

last occurred as part of the development of 

this general management plan. (See “Chapter 

4: Affected Environment” for a description 

of these.)

The comprehensive management plan identified 

8 views of a possible 24 as superior (1: Indian 

Grove, 2: Taylor’s Pasture Overlook, 3: Bath 

Rock/Turtle Rock/Parking Lot Rocks view to 

City, 4: from Emery Pass, and 5: to Emery Pass) 

or excellent quality (6: Circle Creek Basin, 

7: Pinnacle Pass North, and 8: Circle Creek 

Overlook). As noted in the comprehensive 

management plan, the first 5 demonstrate 

the vivid alpine character of the Great Basin 

geomorphic region of the Reserve, while the 

remaining 2 are distinctly different and embody 

the best of the Snake River Plain geomorphic 

region (Reserve 1996a: p. 117).

The national register nomination text identified 

the area within the foreground of the California 

Trail and up to 0.25 miles on either side as 

important, along with the middle ground (0.25 

to 3.0 miles). Although the area beyond this is 

also important, specific components within it are 

generally not discernible from the trail. Three 

other views and viewsheds were important to 

the emigrants:

•	 The view south toward Twin Sisters from 

the California Trail corridor as the ground 

rises into the basin in front of the two 

spires

•	 The view northwest toward Twin Sisters 

along the Salt Lake Alternate Trail at the 

stage stop

•	 The expansive, open view southwest to 

Granite Pass, which is located one-quarter 

mile outside the southwest boundary of 

the Reserve

See “Landscape Settings and Viewsheds” section 

in chapter 4 and figure 23.

The first view is directed to the focal point at the 

two spires, but their dominance is mitigated by 

the intermediate crags and peaks along the Twin 

Sisters ridge and the considerable distance. Yet 

the view remains important because it reveals 

the trail route to Pinnacle Pass, and the lowest 

saddle along the ridge.

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The second significant view is of the Twin Sisters 

looking northwest from the Kelton-Boise stage 

station site. From this vantage, the separation 

of the two spires is apparent. Their individual 

and distinctive forms and textures are vividly 

perceived. Their strength as a dominant focal 

point is more evident in the shortened middle 

ground that makes them appear close to 

the viewer.

The third view extends beyond the boundary 

of the Reserve to Granite Pass. It is expansive 

and open with no foreground or containment. 

A symbol of westward expansion and passage, 

it is an important focal point from the Reserve, 

despite its object (Granite Pass) outside 

the Reserve.

ALTERNATIVE A–D IMPACTS

As noted in the comprehensive management 

plan, impacts on scenic quality can occur from 

poor air quality, loss of solitude in the viewing 

experience, and loss of naturalness associated 

with the view (Reserve 1996a: p. 150).

Overall, the effects of zoning would enhance 

views associated with the California Trail by 

protecting, at a minimum, the foreground views 

of the California Trail (0.25 miles on either side, 

as proposed in alternatives C and D); protecting 

some middle ground views (0.25 to 3.0 miles on 

either side, as proposed in alternative C; and to a 

much lesser extent, alternative D); or expanding 

protection to include a wider area through the 

adjacent Natural or Historic Preservation Zones 

(alternative B). Under alternatives B–D, all of the 

viewsheds identified in the NHL nomination 

would be protected. Alternative A would also 

confer protection on the 0.25-mile foreground 

view; however, based on continued research, 

current management has also protected 

additional areas identified as significant 

(figure 23).

Indian Grove (View 1): There would be no 

effect on this viewpoint under alternative A. 

Under alternatives B and C, a turnaround 

would be developed in this area to improve 

safety so that visitors accessing the turnout can 

turn around without backing down this steep 

narrow road or without continuing to drive 

for some distance onto USFS land beyond the 

Reserve boundary until the road is wide enough 

and sight distance available to turn around. 

Under alternative D, this turnaround would be 

enhanced with designated parking and wayside 

exhibit(s). Because the improvements identified 

for this area (the turnaround in alternatives B 

and C and the parking area in alternative D) 

would be designed to avoid impacts on the 

viewpoint, and are, in fact, located behind it and 

down a small rise, there would be no adverse 

effects on this view in alternatives B–D. Instead, 

there would be minor to moderate long-term 

beneficial effects from improving safety and 

access associated with it.

Views 2–6, 8: There would be no effect on these 

views from actions proposed in alternatives A–D.

Pinnacle Pass North (View 7): This viewpoint 

is located on private land looking north toward 

Pinnacle Pass. As a result, actions could occur 

on the private land where this viewpoint is 

located. Depending on the actions, a range of 

adverse impacts could occur that are currently 

unforeseeable. Although no known plans exist 

that would affect this view, future plans would 

be subject to the provisions of the Cassia County 

Historic Preservation Zone and its location 

within the Reserve.

Impacts on the 17 views identified for this 

general management plan (see “Chapter 4: 

Affected Environment”) are described below:

View 1) Smoky Mountain Drive: There would 

continue to be signs of human activity, including 

the abandoned house and barn and modern 

house and barn. Although this view is partially 

protected by the Cassia County Historical 

Preservation Ordinance, additional construction 

could occur in areas that are not protected. If the 

visitor center was constructed at this location as 

proposed in alternatives A, C, and D, long-term 

beneficial effects could result from developing 

this viewpoint and identifying its significance 

for visitors.

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View 2) East Entrance Reserve Sign: The 

reclamation of a former borrow pit in the 

foreground of this view would continue to 

have ongoing negligible to minor adverse 

impacts, caused by sparse plants and a sense of 

disturbance associated with the recovery. Over 

time, these impacts would diminish and minor 

long-term beneficial effects would ensue. Other 

aspects of the view would remain unaffected.

View 3) Circle Creek Overlook and View 4) 

Almo Valley: Access to this area has recently 

been improved with the construction of two 

small connected parking areas, instead of the 

haphazard parking arrangement that previously 

existed. As a result, the approach to this view 

appears disturbed, however, the view of the 

basin is unaffected and easier access has resulted 

in minor long-term beneficial effects.

View 5) Camp Rock and View 6) Treasure 

Rock: These viewpoints, which contain waysides 

interpreting the California emigrant experience, 

would not be affected by the proposed plan.

View 7) Cave Rock/Campsite 15: This 

viewpoint into the Inner City would not 

be affected by the proposed plan. Under 

alternatives B–D, no improvements are 

proposed for this campsite associated with the 

Rim development concept plan. Because this 

viewpoint is generally only accessible to those 

on Practice Rock or those camped at one of the 

adjacent campsites, it is unlikely to be observed 

by most visitors.

View 8) Look-out Rock/Campsite 22:

Although an interpretive sign identifies this 

viewpoint, opportunities to experience this 

view would continue to be difficult: the campsite 

would remain under alternative A, and the 

confined area and nearby campsite parking 

would restrict ease of access. Under alternatives 

B–D, and based on recommendations in the Rim 

development concept plan, the campsite would 

be removed in favor of accommodating existing 

day use. The parking area would be reconfigured 

to allow better access to the overlook, and the 

Reserve would consider adding a vault toilet 

that could be used both by day-use visitors and 

nearby campers.

View 9) Bath Rock/Campsites 42–43: Under 

alternative A, there is no interpretive sign to 

identify this viewpoint, which is probably 

enjoyed by campers using sites 40–44, as well 

as by hikers who venture toward the rocks 

beyond the parking area. Under alternative A, 

it is likely that few visitors would experience 

this viewpoint. Under alternatives B–D, 

pending implementation of the Rim DCP 

recommendations, this area (including campsites 

40–44) would be converted to a day-use picnic 

area. An accessible trail could potentially be 

signed and/or improved to allow more visitors to 

take advantage of this viewpoint in the heart of 

the Reserve.

View 10) Morning Glory Spire/Campsites 51–

52: This popular pullout with a wayside exhibit 

encourages visitors to stop to look at the view, 

which includes climbers attempting a variety 

of nearby routes. This view would continue to 

be available under all alternatives. In addition, 

campsites 51 and 52 would close and the pullout 

area where these campsites are located across 

the road would be enhanced under alternatives 

B–D if the recommendations in the Rim 

development concept plan are implemented. 

The campsites are not close enough to a vault 

toilet and therefore often contain human waste 

impacts. These campsites are also currently 

impacting an aspen grove and are adjacent to a 

solar array/well and an historic corral that could 

additionally be interpreted.

View 11) Emery Pass Picnic Area: This 

viewpoint would not be affected by the 

proposed plan.

View 12) Finger Rock/Campsite 63: This 

viewpoint would not be affected under 

alternative A. Under alternatives B–D, the 

Rim development concept plan calls for the 

addition of several campsites to this area 

and for development of the overlook into 

this area. Long-term beneficial effects would 

occur from facilitating visitor access to these 

views, including access for those not using the 

nearby campsites. As noted in the Rim DCP 

recommendations, the exceptional views, 

existing parking, and the minimal day use in this 

remote location of the Reserve support the mix 

of overnight and day use.

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View 13) Campsite 64 Bend: This viewpoint 

would not be affected under alternative A. Under 

alternatives B–D, the Rim development concept 

plan calls for campsite 64 to be converted to a 

small group site. Although there would be more 

use in this area, it would be concentrated at the 

end of the access road to this site.

View 14) Indian Grove: Impacts would be 

the same as noted above for Indian Grove 

(comprehensive management plan view 1).

View 15) Hansen Hill (also Pinnacle Pass 

North, comprehensive management plan 

View 7): As noted above, the comprehensive 

management plan-identified viewpoint of this 

area (Pinnacle Pass North) would not be affected 

by the proposed plan. It could, however, be 

affected by actions on private land. In contrast 

the Hansen Hill viewpoint, which provides 

access to the Pinnacle Pass view from within 

the Reserve, would not be affected by actions 

proposed in this plan.

View 16) Emigrant Canyon: This viewpoint, 

developed to highlight Emigrant Canyon, 

contains two waysides and would not be affected 

by the actions proposed in this plan. Minor 

long-term beneficial effects would continue 

to occur from facilitating visitor access to this 

viewpoint under all alternatives.

View 17) Granite Pass: This was one of the 

most important views from the California Trail 

and was associated with the national register 

nomination for the national historic trail. It 

includes a wayside depicting how it would have 

appeared during the period of significance for 

the City of Rocks National Historic Landmark. 

It would not be affected by the actions proposed 

in this plan. Minor long-term beneficial effects 

would continue to occur from facilitating visitor 

access to this viewpoint under all alternatives. 

Minor long-term adverse effects would continue 

to occur due to the visibility of a quarry yard 

with modern housing, including some 19thcentury log structures visible outside of the 

Reserve boundary. From the wayside exhibit at 

the viewpoint, these nonconforming elements 

are screened by the low, unnamed hill to the 

left (south). Potential future cumulative impacts 

that threaten this view include proposed electric 

transmission lines and wind turbines.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures to minimize impacts on scenic 

resources would include:

•	 Work with Cassia County to implement 

the Cassia County Historic Preservation 

Zone and design guidelines.

•	 Design additional development to 

minimize impacts on the viewshed(s).

•	 Identify and enhance opportunities for 

visitors to experience these viewsheds 

where possible.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Through Public Law 100-696, Congress directed 

the Secretary of the Interior “to protect and 

maintain scenic quality” at City of Rocks. As 

noted in “Chapter 4: Affected Environment,” 

the 1973 suitability/feasibility study for a 

proposed City of Rocks National Monument 

observed that:

Although present use has considerably 

changed the regional landscape since the 

days of covered wagons, vast open plains 

and unusual geologic formations still exist 

in the City of Rocks area. The contrast of 

the beautiful mountain formations and the 

flat, arid Raft River Plains produces the 

same effect on people—whether they are 

pioneers traveling by covered wagon in the 

1840s–1860s or tourists crossing southern 

Idaho in the 20th century. The visual impact 

of the scenery remains: as one crosses the 

flat, monotonous sagebrush grazing-range, 

there is the sudden, startling contrast of those 

amazing rocks on the horizon, clustered in a 

city-like formation (NPS 1973: p. 15).

The views noted in that study and by the 

emigrants on the California Trail are still 

available today. Although homesteading, 

farming, ranching, and other uses occurred 

after the emigrants passed through, the views 

that they recorded in their journals can still 

be experienced. In addition, other scenic 

views have emerged with the construction of 

additional roads through the Reserve. Although 

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the views are generally the same, and with few 

exceptions do not contain intrusions associated 

with later development, some of these views 

have also changed with the passage of time and 

the continuing presence of people on the land. 

Most of these changes are subtle and associated 

with altered vegetation patterns wrought by 

farming and ranching. These would not be 

evident to most visitors. Indeed, many have 

recognized the unique nature and significance 

of this largely unchanged landscape: the City 

of Rocks area was officially identified for 

these qualities prior to its establishment as a 

Reserve through the following designations 

and documentation:

•	 California Trail National Historic 

Landmark designation (1966)

•	 City of Rocks National Natural Landmark 

designation (1973)

•	 NPS Special Resource Study (1976)

•	 Establishment of the Research Natural 

Area by the Bureau of Land Management 

(1985 Cassia Resource Management Plan 

and 1987 USFS Sawtooth National Forest 

Land and Resource Management Plan)

•	 City of Rocks National Reserve 

designation (1988)

•	 Cassia County Historical Preservation 

Zone (1993)

•	 Castle Rocks State Park (August 21, 2003)

As a result, past actions have highlighted the 

significance of the Reserve’s scenic qualities for 

future generations, a long-term beneficial effect.

Present actions include continuing to manage 

these areas in accordance with their established 

significance and enhancing opportunities for 

preservation of the area’s natural and cultural 

resources. The ongoing focus on establishing 

major visitor facilities outside the Reserve, 

combined with establishing appropriate visitor 

facilities within the Reserve, has also had a 

long-term beneficial effect on preserving these 

scenic views.

Future actions would also contribute minor 

to moderate long-term beneficial effects on 

the preservation of scenic resources, where 

jurisdiction and/or authority exist. These actions 

include ongoing review of existing visitor use 

facilities and viewpoints inside the Reserve and 

development of alternatives that avoid impacts 

on some resources through the GMP process 

and development of the Rim development 

concept plan. If nearby development 

proposals associated with the Granite Pass 

viewshed occurred (for example, installation 

of transmission lines or wind turbines), 

there would be localized moderate to major 

cumulative adverse impacts.

When actions in alternative A are added to the 

localized minor to moderate adverse effects 

of past actions, the mostly beneficial effects 

associated with present actions, and the current 

minor to moderate beneficial effects of future 

actions, there would be cumulative negligible 

to minor beneficial effects on scenic resources 

within the Reserve. If development proposals 

were implemented in the future within the 

viewshed, such as the one toward Granite Pass, 

however, there would be localized moderate 

to major cumulative adverse effects. Similarly, 

impacts associated with alternatives B–D would 

also have minor cumulative beneficial effects 

when combined with the localized effects of past 

actions. Cumulative beneficial effects would be 

enhanced in alternatives B–D primarily because 

of the proposed implementation of the Rim 

DCP recommendations and GMP zoning, which 

in several cases would enhance identified scenic 

views for visitors and which would expand 

protection through zoning by establishing a 

California Trail Zone.

CONCLUSION

Alternative A would have negligible to minor 

long-term beneficial effects on scenic viewsheds. 

Alternatives B–D would have minor to moderate 

localized long-term beneficial effects on 

scenic viewsheds.

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PARK OPERATIONS AND PARTNERSHIPS

Impacts on Park Operations and 

Partnerships

Impact Intensity

Negligible Park operations and partnerships 

would not be affected, or the effects 

would be at low levels of detection 

and would not have an appreciable 

effect on Reserve operations.

Minor The effects on park operations and 

partnerships would be detectable 

and would be of a magnitude that 

would not have an appreciable effect 

on park operations.

Moderate The effects on park operations 

and partnerships would be readily 

apparent and would result in a 

substantial change in park operations 

in a manner noticeable to staff and 

the public.

Major The effects on park operations 

and partnerships would be readily 

apparent, would result in a 

substantial change in park operations 

in a manner noticeable to staff and 

the public, and would be markedly 

different from existing operations.

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

There would continue to be negligible to 

moderate adverse and beneficial effects on park 

operations and partnerships from ongoing 

management and administration of the Reserve, 

including for maintenance of buildings, roads, 

parking areas, campgrounds, fences, gates, and 

trails; interpretation, including both public 

programming and maintaining structures, 

such as wayside exhibits; cultural and natural 

resources management; and management of 

other visitor use facilities, such as trail signs, 

picnic areas, and vault toilets. The Reserve 

maintains approximately 10 miles of roads, 102 

campsites, 3 group sites, 14 parking areas, more 

than 1,800 signs, 13 buildings,13 vault toilets, 18 

vehicles, 22 pieces of special-use equipment, a 

utility system, 7 wells, and 3 acres of landscaping 

(Reserve 2010b: p. 28).

Reserve staff would also continue to create and 

deliver public programs, conduct inventories 

of cultural and natural resources, maintain 

buildings, assist visitors, manage campgrounds 

and the visitor center, administer grazing permits 

and climbing, and generally conduct all of the 

day-to-day activities it takes to run the Reserve.

Funding is allocated across five divisions—

Integrated (Natural and Cultural) Resource 

Management, Visitor Services and 

Interpretation, Climbing Management and 

Compliance, Maintenance and Operations, and 

Management and Administration—and is used 

primarily for staff salaries and some operations. 

During day-to-day operations, Reserve staff 

would also maintain the NPS and IDPR 

partnership through the existing cooperative 

agreement. The cooperative agreement 

between the National Park Service and the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

allows for flexibility in assigning appropriate 

state or federal authorities to various day-today operations. The National Park Service 

brings more stringent standards of natural and 

cultural resource management and national 

recognition, while the Idaho Department of 

Parks and Recreation provides a local face to 

government, simplified administrative processes, 

personnel, and an emphasis on visitor services 

and recreation. Resource sharing between the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

and the National Park Service for the Reserve 

and Castle Rocks State Park results in longterm beneficial impacts for both agencies. For 

example, when Castle Rocks State Park was 

established, management staff levels remained 

nearly constant despite the overall complexity 

of the arrangement and the increase in managed 

land. In addition, the joint use of a shared visitor 

center and maintenance and operations division 

enables a lower capital outlay than if the Reserve 

and Castle Rocks State Park were managed 

separately (Reserve 2010b: p. 9).

Reserve staff would also continue to maintain 

a variety of agreements with other individuals 

and agencies within and outside the Reserve 

and initiate and maintain partnerships with 

other state, federal, county, and nonprofit 

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organizations. Staff would also continue to work 

with private landowners within and outside 

the Reserve on issues of mutual concern. This 

ongoing partnership would result in long-term 

negligible to minor adverse (from staff time and 

costs) and beneficial effects from actions taken 

to maintain good community relationships 

and from new or expanded opportunities for 

cooperative management actions.

The Reserve would also continue to work with 

Cassia County to maintain jurisdictional roads 

within City of Rocks, a long-term beneficial 

and minor adverse effect. Effects would be 

beneficial because of the county’s continued 

financial responsibility for road maintenance, 

while adverse effects would continue to 

occur from staff time to coordinate with the 

county to ensure management to NPS/IDPR 

road standards.

Ongoing inventory and monitoring of Reserve 

resources by the NPS UCBN I&M program 

would have minor to moderate long-term 

beneficial effects on park operations and 

partnerships. Inventory and monitoring would 

advance understanding of Reserve resources, 

leading to improvements in management, 

but the programs would also result in minor 

adverse effects, because of the additional staff 

time required for implementation. The internal 

focus would ensure systematic collection of 

knowledge and the ability to detect change in the 

condition of Reserve resources.

Minor to moderate long-term beneficial 

effects and negligible to minor adverse effects 

on park operations and partnerships would 

continue to occur with active management 

of Reserve resources, including conducting 

resource projects, inventories, and monitoring 

for communities that are not meeting desired 

conditions. Long-term ecological monitoring 

programs coupled with inventories and resource 

projects would improve Reserve understanding 

of resources over time.

Maintaining, administering, and staffing the 

existing array of facilities and conducting the 

same or a similar array of programs would 

continue to be primary activities for Reserve 

staff. This would include retaining maintenance, 

operations, and housing at the Castle Rocks 

Administrative Unit. Construction of a new 

visitor facility could require additional staff or 

could allow for expansion of current staff into 

a larger area. Because the new facility would 

be located a few miles from the current facility 

(closer to the Reserve), it would increase travel 

time for some staff and would also probably 

increase the number of trips current staff would 

make to administer Reserve operations from the 

administrative/maintenance area, a minor longterm adverse effect. The new facility could also 

improve visitor understanding of and protection 

for Reserve resources, an indirect negligible to 

minor long-term beneficial effect on Reserve 

operations from potential reduction in impacts 

on Reserve resources. Long-term beneficial 

effects would also result from improving staff 

facilities, either by construction of new offices 

in the new visitor center or by expansion of 

existing offices in the current visitor center. 

Similarly, the Castle Rocks State Park Master 

Plan and the Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive 

management plan called for expanding Smoky 

Mountain Campground to its original buildout of 100 sites. Because 38 of these have been 

constructed, there could be up to another 

62 sites: maintenance and administration of 

additional campsites would lead to long-term 

minor adverse effects on park operations.

In addition to maintaining current operations 

and facilities, Reserve staff often has several 

projects (including many with one-time funding) 

to administer or implement. Under alternative 

A, these would include an inventory of night 

sky resources and soundscapes, reducing 

reflective light within the Reserve, crafting 

or implementing a variety of management 

plans, and using these planning processes or 

implementation opportunities to make better 

decisions about resource protection within the 

Reserve. Other projects would also include 

working with a private landowner to survey 

and document the Kelton-Boise stage station, 

conducting archeological inventory and 

protection actions for the California Trail, and 

rehabilitating the Circle Creek impoundment.

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Enabling access for climbers would continue 

to be managed according to natural and 

cultural resource considerations. For example, 

where climbing routes are proposed, new 

trail alignments would take into consideration 

access paths that would avoid the development 

of social trails; and these would be monitored 

to limit staging area impacts; limit impacts 

on wildlife, such as nesting raptors; and 

avoid impacts on cultural resources 

(Reserve 2010b: p. 9–10).

Maintaining the current fire management 

program, including suppression of all wildfires, 

would continue to include reliance on 

interagency agreements and fire management 

expertise, as well as dependence on Reserve 

staff, who would manage initial incidents and 

conduct hazard fuel reduction and other dayto-day activities. Incident-related activities 

would probably continue to be conducted by 

other agency staff and through nationwide 

fire incident management operations. Over 

time, because the natural fire regime has been 

altered and because a full suppression program 

would not return the natural role of fire to the 

ecosystem, fires within the Reserve could cover 

a wider area and could be more difficult to 

control, resulting in greater costs to implement 

protection of Reserve facilities and resources 

unable to withstand fire, a long-term minor to 

moderate adverse effect.

ALTERNATIVE B IMPACTS

As in alternative A, negligible to moderate 

adverse and negligible to moderate beneficial 

effects on park operations and partnerships 

would continue from ongoing management 

and administration of the Reserve using the 

NPS and IDPR cooperative agreement, as 

well as partnerships with other agencies and 

organizations. As in alternative A, managing the 

Reserve’s natural and cultural resources would 

result in minor to moderate long-term beneficial 

effects and negligible to minor adverse effects on 

park operations and partnerships.

Differences in alternative B would primarily 

result from:

•	 focusing on self-directed and wildernesstype visitor experiences with additional 

unstaffed kiosks, wayside exhibits, and 

signs

•	 retaining the current visitor center in the 

same location and remodeling it, rather 

than constructing another visitor facility

•	 constructing an amphitheater at Smoky 

Mountain Campground, along with an 

additional camping area

•	 constructing a new equestrian staging area 

near the Bread Loaves intersection or in 

another location within the Reserve

•	 constructing a vehicle turnaround at 

Indian Grove

•	 expanding the fire management program 

to include the opportunity to work with 

partners to use prescribed fire

•	 partnering with other agencies to expand 

the trail system within and outside the 

Reserve

•	 improving the Reserve campsites, parking 

areas, trailheads, and other associated 

facilities based on the recommendations 

in the Rim development concept plan

Combined, these actions would require 

additional staffing (approximately three new 

positions) and expanded responsibilities 

for current staff to plan for, maintain, and 

administer new facilities, a minor to moderate 

long-term adverse effect. There could also be 

beneficial effects from reducing the need for 

management operations (such as providing 

more self-guided interpretation in the Reserve); 

avoiding duplication of efforts by Reserve 

partners and cooperating organizations (such 

as for fire and trails management); and reducing 

visitor use impacts (from changes suggested by 

the Rim development concept plan).

Specific partnership opportunities would be 

sought to maintain or jointly manage the county 

road through the Reserve (an action that could 

improve management of the road but would 

increase Reserve responsibilities); to develop 

trail linkages to areas outside the Reserve; and to 

implement curriculum outreach to schools.

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In addition to impacts from maintaining 

current operations and facilities and 

conducting the one-time projects identified 

in alternative A, one-time and short-term 

actions in alternative B would include the 

expansion of educational curriculum, selfguided, and pre-visit interpretive materials; 

the creation of a long-range interpretive plan; 

additional cultural resource inventory and 

preservation work; and the development of 

an archeological management plan and a 

soundscape management plan. Administering 

these activities would require additional staff 

time, resulting in additional short-term adverse 

impacts on park operations and partnerships 

while simultaneously resulting in more 

informed decision-making related to resource 

preservation in the Reserve, a direct or indirect 

long-term beneficial effect. Maintaining a 

terrain-defined boundary for the Research 

Natural Area would also improve management 

efficiency. Eliminating grazing from riparian 

areas and from the California Trail and Visitor 

Facilities and Access Zones could have shortterm adverse impacts on park operations 

because of increased labor needs for restoration. 

Nevertheless, long-term beneficial effects would 

result from minimizing the need for future longterm management of these areas.

In addition to fire management impacts noted 

in alternative A, using prescribed fire to benefit 

fire-dependent plant communities could have 

long-term beneficial effects by reducing costs 

associated with managing potentially more 

extensive wildfires in the Reserve.

ALTERNATIVE C IMPACTS

Impacts and actions in alternative C would 

be similar to alternative B: both negligible to 

moderate adverse and beneficial effects would 

occur from maintaining existing park operations 

and partnerships. Differences in alternative 

C, compared to alternative B, would primarily 

result from:

•	 expanding the interpretive program 

to include an outdoor learning center/

amphitheater at Smoky Mountain 

Campground

•	 constructing a new visitor center, similar 

to but smaller than in alternative A

•	 establishing a grazing buyout program

•	 expanding the Reserve boundary

As in alternative B, these actions would 

combine to produce minor to moderate longterm adverse and minor to moderate longterm beneficial effects on park operations 

and partnerships by requiring more staff 

(approximately five new positions) and 

increasing responsibilities for current staff, 

while improving opportunities for efficient 

management and partnerships in the region by 

expanding opportunities and the influence of 

the Reserve. Additional beneficial effects would 

be conferred by improvements in partnerships 

with the UCBN I&M program and other federal, 

state, tribal, and private partners to promote 

an ecosystem management approach within 

the Reserve and on surrounding public lands. 

Partnerships, if implemented, could lead to 

greater communication and cooperation and 

regional ecosystem preservation actions.

The partnership opportunities identified in 

alternative B would be expanded in alternative 

C. As in alternative B, adverse effects would 

arise from additional management actions and 

responsibilities, while beneficial effects could 

include new opportunities or partnerships 

that would reduce direct management needs. 

Some actions that the National Park Service 

would ordinarily undertake on its own could be 

conducted with partners, thereby limiting the 

number of staff and the direct costs required for 

implementation.

Currently, the boundary of the Reserve and of 

the Smoky Mountain lease are difficult to fence, 

sign, and communicate to visitors and agency 

personnel because the jurisdictional boundaries 

(along topographic map section lines) contain 

steep slopes and right angles over rugged 

mountain terrain. Including this area within 

the Reserve boundary would therefore result in 

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long-term beneficial effects on park operations. 

Combined, there would be both short- and 

long-term adverse and beneficial effects on park 

operations and partnerships. Adverse effects 

from the boundary adjustment would occur 

because of additional management actions and 

responsibilities, while beneficial effects could 

include new opportunities or partnerships that 

would reduce management needs, such as the 

simplification of the boundary.

Along with impacts from maintaining current 

operations and facilities and conducting the 

one-time projects identified in alternatives 

A and B, additional actions would take place 

under alternative C. These would include 

promoting ecosystem processes in management 

of the Reserve; expanding natural and cultural 

resource research opportunities within the 

Reserve; identifying commercial opportunities 

for a shuttle to link the Reserve with Castle 

Rocks State Park; expanding wildlife monitoring; 

and improving connections to researchers and 

research findings. Combined, additional shortterm adverse impacts on park operations and 

partnerships would occur that would lead to 

direct or indirect long-term beneficial effects, 

because of improved decision-making regarding 

resource preservation. As in alternative B, 

maintaining a terrain-defined boundary for the 

Research Natural Area would result in increased 

management efficiency, and modifying grazing 

allotments could benefit natural and cultural 

resources. If grazing allotments were eventually 

reduced, there could be fewer administrative 

needs associated with their management. As 

in alternative B, managing naturally occurring 

fire could have long-term beneficial effects by 

reducing costs associated with potentially more 

extensive wildfires in the Reserve.

Overall, management of Reserve resources 

would improve. Increasing visitor understanding 

of Reserve resources would indirectly benefit 

resource management by increasing support 

for these activities. The greater emphasis 

on providing research opportunities and 

disseminating information associated with 

resources would have a direct or indirect minor 

long-term beneficial effect on Reserve resources.

ALTERNATIVE D IMPACTS

Impacts and actions in alternative D would 

be similar to alternatives B and C, with both 

negligible to moderate adverse and beneficial 

effects from maintaining existing park 

operations and partnerships. Differences in 

alternative D, compared to alternative B, would 

primarily result from

•	 constructing a much larger visitor center 

with a co-located amphitheater (instead 

of an amphitheater at Smoky Mountain 

Campground)

•	 expanding parking at the Indian Grove 

overlook, rather than just a turnaround as 

in alternatives B and C

•	 focusing on experiential interpretive 

programming with an emphasis on 

ranching, local history, and heritage 

tourism within the Reserve

•	 expanding the boundary (as in 

alternative C)

As in alternatives B and C, these actions would 

combine to result in minor to moderate longterm adverse and minor to moderate longterm beneficial effects on park operations 

and partnerships by requiring more staff 

(approximately five new positions, the same 

as in alternative C). Alternative D would not 

place as much of an emphasis on partnerships 

as would alternative C; however, there would 

also be a limited range of beneficial effects 

from partnerships in alternative D (similar to 

alternative B).

In addition to impacts from maintaining current 

operations and facilities and conducting most of 

the one-time projects identified in alternatives 

A, B, and C, additional actions would take 

place as part of alternative D. These could 

include facilitating in-depth and fee interpretive 

programming; and Parks as Classroom or 

climbing schools for youth. As in alternatives B 

and C, additional short-term adverse impacts 

on park operations and partnerships would lead 

to direct or indirect long-term beneficial effects 

from better decision-making associated with 

resource preservation; there would be improved 

efficiency associated with maintaining a terrain3 through 5_CIRO_DGMP_031515.indd 442 3/17/2015 10:42:02 
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defined boundary for the Research Natural Area; 

and managing naturally occurring fire would 

have long-term beneficial effects by reducing 

costs associated with managing more extensive 

wildfires. Impacts associated with grazing 

management would be similar to alternative A.

Improved management of natural and cultural 

resources would result from improved 

understanding of resources through inventory 

and monitoring and from dissemination and 

fostering of research within the Reserve.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures to minimize impacts on park 

operations and partnerships (as appropriate to 

the alternative) would include:

•	 Monitor construction activities to 

minimize impacts on park operations 

and to ensure adherence to 

mitigation measures.

•	 Design new building construction to reach 

silver or greater certification by the LEED 

rating system.

•	 Use functional, energy-efficient appliances 

and heating and cooling systems in 

new buildings.

•	 Employ contractors and term employees 

to facilitate short-term work increases.

•	 Orient and inform contractors 

and partners about the special 

sensitivity associated with protecting 

Reserve resources.

•	 Coordinate work among partners to 

increase cooperation and minimize 

duplication of effort.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Because City of Rocks has only been a unit 

of the National Park System since 1988, there 

has been less time than in some other parks 

for cumulative impacts associated with park 

operations to occur. Since establishment, the 

Reserve staff has remained small, while Reserve 

influence and popularity have continued 

to grow. An accretion of responsibilities 

commensurate with this growth has also 

occurred, associated with management of the 

Reserve and impacting its staff. Visitation to the 

Reserve increased to nearly 100,000 in 2011. 

During that same time, permanent staffing 

also increased. Currently permanent staffing 

is supplemented by approximately 18 seasonal 

employees and a varying number of volunteers. 

Since the establishment of Castle Rocks State 

Park in 2003, the staff at the Reserve has also 

taken on additional responsibilities.

The Reserve has fewer facilities than most 

national park units of similar size, operation, and 

visitation. This is because most of the facilities 

are owned and managed by the state of Idaho 

and are jointly used by Castle Rocks State Park. 

Despite county ownership and management 

of slightly more than half of the road mileage 

within the Reserve, road maintenance comprises 

a substantial portion of the operations budget.

Past actions include establishment of the 

Reserve and construction or use of facilities 

near the town of Almo, Idaho, including for 

administration, maintenance, and housing. At 

the time of the comprehensive management 

plan (1996), the Reserve’s administrative 

facilities were located in Twin Falls, Idaho; no 

housing was provided for employees and little 

was available in Almo (Reserve 1996a: p. 65). 

The Castle Rocks Administrative Unit in Almo 

has been used for housing and administration 

facilities since 1998. The comprehensive 

management plan called for approximately 28 

FTE employees, with minimum base funding 

of $900,000 (based on 1993 dollars), even 

though the 1993 budget was $295,000 (Reserve 

1996a: p. 64). The original campground (located 

within Section 36) within City of Rocks predates Reserve establishment (it was created 

when this area was public land managed by the 

state), whereas Smoky Mountain Campground 

was constructed following approval of the 

comprehensive management plan (completed 

in 1996). In 1987, there were approximately 51 

campsites within Section 36 (Reserve 1996a: p. 

123). Population growth adjacent to the Reserve 

boundary increased at a rate of 11.6% from 2002 

to 2007, an impact that may increasingly affect 

visitor access within the Reserve (U.S. Census 

Bureau 2010).

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Present actions include ongoing administration 

of the Reserve through the Idaho Department 

of Parks and Recreation, based on NPS and 

IDPR funding of various components and 

staff associated with Reserve management and 

operations. Reserve staff would continue to 

divide their responsibilities between the national 

and state park units.

Future actions could include construction of 

a visitor center (alternatives A, C, and D), an 

amphitheater at Smoky Mountain (alternatives B 

and C), an outdoor learning center (alternative 

C), a turnaround (alternatives B and C) possibly 

with parking (alternative D) near Indian Grove 

Overlook on the Logger Springs Road, as well 

as other facilities. Alternatives B, C, and D also 

call for additional staffing (three permanent 

staff in alternative B and five in alternatives C 

and D). Similarly, as described in “Chapter 3: 

Alternatives,” additional funding would be 

needed to implement the proposals in B, C, and 

D—both in one-time funds and base funding.

When actions in alternatives A—D are added 

to the effects of other past, present, and future 

actions, minor to moderate adverse and 

beneficial effects would continue to impact park 

operations and partnerships.

CONCLUSION

Alternatives A–D would continue to have minor 

to moderate adverse impacts on park operations 

and long-term moderate beneficial impacts 

from partnerships. Alternatives C and D would 

use partnerships to the greatest advantage, 

including additional staff and more efficient 

operations. This improvement, combined with 

RNA boundary changes to increase efficiency in 

the field, would lead to greater beneficial effects 

under C and D. Alternative B would offer slight 

improvements over alternative A, with additional 

staffing but slightly reduced operations from its 

inward, self-directed focus.

SOCIOECONOMICS

Impacts on Socioeconomics

Impact Intensity

Negligible There would be no measurable effect 

on the socioeconomic environment.

Minor A small sector of the local or regional 

economy would be affected; however 

the effect would not be readily 

apparent.

Moderate A small sector of the local or regional 

economy would be affected and this 

effect would be measurable but would 

not alter socioeconomic structure or 

functions.

Major Changes in the regional economy 

would occur and would be readily 

apparent in shifts in the key economic 

functions and structure. New 

economic sectors could be created or 

others eliminated.

ALTERNATIVE A–D IMPACTS

Most socioeconomic indicators (demographics 

and housing availability, community assets 

[public utilities, services, facilities], and public 

health and safety) would not be affected by the 

actions proposed in this general management 

plan. Those indicators that could be affected 

include income and employment opportunities, 

grazing revenue and expenditures, and federal 

and private land ownership.

Income: The Reserve would continue to 

contribute beneficial effects to the local and 

regional economy. Existing income at the 

Reserve is composed of base and project 

funding. Base funding is contributed by both the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation and 

the National Park Service, while project funding 

primarily comes from the National Park Service. 

In 2012, combined funding was $818,949. 

Base funding is primarily used for staff salaries 

and operations.

Congress also appropriates funds to the 

National Park Service for one-time projects, 

which are awarded based on NPS priorities and 

Reserve needs. In fiscal year (FY) 2012, nonbase funding accounted for 4.6% ($37,985) 

of the total budget ($818,949) for the Reserve 

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and Castle Rocks State Park, and provided 

for a range of projects including campsite and 

trail maintenance and volunteer programming. 

Because the Reserve budget comprises only a 

small percent of the total income generated by 

the portion of Cassia County where the Reserve 

is located, annual management and operations 

expenditures would continue to have a minor 

beneficial effect.

Employment: Employment is a subset of Reserve 

income and includes approximately 17.2 fulltime-equivalent employees (in NPS FY 2009). 

(One FTE is equivalent to working 2080 hours 

per year.) In 2012, 15.2 FTE employee salaries 

and benefits accounted for the largest single 

category of expenditures, totaling $621,055, 

or 75.8% of the Reserve budget (pers. comm. 

Keck 2012).

Although the Reserve employs a relatively high 

number of people compared to some economic 

sectors in Almo, the Reserve staffing level is 

too low to have more than a small effect on 

employment opportunities. As a result, there 

would continue to be minor long-term beneficial 

effects on the local economy and negligible longterm beneficial effects on the regional economy 

from staffing the Reserve.

Grazing: The Reserve is among a number 

of NPS units that permit regulated livestock 

grazing. The National Park Service and the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

assumed management of grazing on publicly 

owned rangeland within the Reserve at its 

establishment, when grazing allotments 

were transferred from the Bureau of Land 

Management. Livestock grazing also accounts 

for the primary use of private land within the 

Reserve. According to Sharp and Sanders (1978):

The economic livelihood of the permittees 

using the allotments addressed in this plan 

is largely dependent on their being able to 

continue to graze the number of livestock 

they currently are (1996b: p. 3).

Currently, these six permittees use six grazing 

allotments to graze cattle on 7,000 acres of 

public land in the Reserve with an estimated 

774 active animal unit months. Livestock are 

also grazed on another 4,000 acres of privately 

owned land within the Reserve. Grazing 

allotments generate some income for the 

Reserve (less than $1,000 per year), although 

it costs the Reserve much more to manage 

the allotments. In general, grazing income is 

static. Therefore reductions in grazing under 

alternatives B (attrition) or C (buyouts) could 

potentially result in fewer administrative needs 

and more funding for other activities.

To protect nongrazed areas within the Reserve, 

staff would continue to maintain approximately 

50 miles of exclusion fences. As noted in the 

business plan, a large number of these fences 

need extensive repair, an action that the 

Reserve would continue to undertake because 

fence replacement may be cost-prohibitive 

for permittees, and requiring maintenance or 

replacement could disrupt community relations. 

Because the Reserve cannot entirely bear the 

cost from base funds, however, alternate funding 

sources would continue to be sought (Reserve 

2010b: p.21).

With the proposed boundary expansion in 

alternatives C–D, minor adverse economic 

impacts would affect the Bureau of Land 

Management from the loss of revenue associated 

with approximately 3,595 acres of lands 

transferred under alternative C and alternative 

D. Because these lands contain grazing 

allotments, the Bureau of Land Management 

receives approximately $1.35 per animal unit 

month (one cow/calf pair for a month) for the 

3,595 acres. Because BLM responsibilities for 

grazing allotments—such as monitoring range 

condition, collecting fees, and conducting site 

visits throughout the grazing season to ensure 

grazing is according to permit conditions—and 

other associated activities would diminish, there 

would also be negligible beneficial effects from 

a slight reduction in administrative activities, in 

addition to the loss of grazing revenue.

Gateway communities: Almo and Oakley, as well 

as other small gateway communities such as 

Albion, Burley, and Snowville, would continue 

to experience an increase in the number of 

vehicles traveling toward the Reserve entrances 

during the week, but would especially encounter 

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surges on spring, summer, and fall weekends 

overall and during the summer travel season. 

Nearby and distant communities would also 

probably experience some negligible to minor 

beneficial socioeconomic effects based on 

federal and state expenditures for salaries, 

Reserve operating costs, and construction.

Reserve revenue: The Reserve collects revenue 

from merchandise sold in the bookstore, as 

well as for camping, grazing, special events, and 

donations. Castle Rocks State Park additionally 

collects revenue from camping, lodging, motor 

vehicle entrance fees, special events, and book/

gift sales. Castle Rocks State Park also collects a 

day-use fee. All revenue except for merchandise 

and donations is pooled into a statewide parks 

fund and then reallocated as a portion of IDPR’s 

appropriated base budget. In FY 2012, the 

Reserve and Castle Rocks State Park collected 

$270,940 in revenue. Camping in the Reserve 

contributed 45% of this amount. Revenue from 

merchandise is used to replace stock, fund a 

visitor services employee, and to offset other 

operational expenses such as printing maps 

and brochures.

At least 80% of the Reserve’s $146,000 

operational expenses are spent locally (in 

Minidoka and Cassia counties and elsewhere 

in southern Idaho) on such items as utilities, 

services, and supplies, which would continue 

to provide localized moderate long-term 

beneficial effects.

Employee spending: Employee spending would 

also continue to have negligible to minor longterm beneficial effects. Most current full-time 

employees live within the town of Almo, while 

some other seasonal employees also live in 

neighboring towns, including Elba, Oakley, 

Burley, Rupert, and Heyburn. As a result, some 

employee spending benefits local communities 

from property taxes, rent payments, and other 

expenditures at local and regional businesses. 

However most retail services, including 

groceries, are located in more distant towns and 

cities. If more employee housing was provided 

in one of the surrounding towns, as proposed in 

alternatives B–D, additional negligible to minor 

beneficial effects would result.

Visitor spending: There would also continue to 

be negligible to moderate long-term beneficial 

effects on local and regional economies 

from visitor spending on supplies, gifts, food 

services, and lodging. According to the Money 

Generation Model data, City of Rocks received 

92,484 visitors in calendar year 2010, with 

visitors spending approximately $6,278,000 

(all visitors); $5,959,000 of which was spent 

by nonlocal visitors. From this the Reserve 

generated 85 jobs, $2,078,000 in labor income, 

and $3,361,000 in value-added income (Stynes 

2010, Table A-1). This report, however, indicates 

that no visitors camped within the Reserve, 

and therefore underreports overall spending. 

Because it also shows only two employees 

(perhaps because of the way the NPS/IDPR 

partnership is reported), it also underestimates 

overall Reserve contributions to the community/

regional economy.

Federal and private land: As noted in “Chapter 

4: Affected Environment,” rangeland covers 

68% of Cassia County, and 28% is used for 

agriculture. Fifty-seven percent of the county’s 

land is managed by federal agencies and 40% is 

privately owned. For these federal lands, Cassia 

County received $1,799,812 for payment-in-lieuof-taxes (PILT) in 2009. Only Elmore County 

(which contains Mountain Home Air Force 

Base) received more federal money in Idaho 

(BLM 2009). Payment in lieu of taxes, which 

is annually appropriated through Congress, 

helps to offset the lack of property tax revenue 

received by county governments when federally 

owned land is predominant in a county.

Under alternative A, the amount of federally 

owned land within the Reserve would probably 

remain similar to that currently owned, 

approximately 14,407 acres. Although there is 

private land within the boundary of the Reserve, 

it could be purchased by the federal government 

only on a “willing seller/willing buyer” basis (if 

the private landowner were willing to sell and 

the federal agency had or could obtain the funds 

to purchase). During the last 24 years, property 

purchases within the Reserve have occurred 

only opportunistically or as means to alleviate 

hardship situations.

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Alternatives C and D (if selected for 

implementation and approved by Congress) 

would expand the Reserve boundary by 4,247 

acres. Most of the proposed expansion land 

in these alternatives is already in the federal 

public domain, including 3,595 acres (85%) in 

alternatives C and D. As a result, the amount of 

private land interest that could be purchased 

by the federal government from willing 

sellers in alternative A would continue to be 

approximately 4,427 acres. With the boundary 

expansion in alternatives C and D, there could 

be up to an additional 652 acres of affected 

private lands.

The proposed boundary expansion in 

alternatives C and D could affect two private 

landowners. If these lands or interest in lands 

were indeed purchased through the willing 

seller/willing buyer authority, Cassia County 

could gain approximately $8,263.00 for the 

additional 4,247 acres in alternatives C and 

D if the PILT allocation amount per acre 

remained the same. Based on this, there could be 

negligible to minor adverse effects from slightly 

increasing federal land ownership in Cassia 

County. However, that effect would be negligible 

if only conservation easements were acquired to 

protect the resources and/or achieve the desired 

benefits to the Reserve.

Transferring the federal lands now managed 

by the Bureau of Land Management in 

alternatives C or D would reduce income 

currently generated on these lands. Overall, the 

proposed transfer of 4,247 acres would have a 

negligible adverse effect on BLM holdings in 

Cassia County because these lands comprise 

approximately 0.00082%, of the 516,050 acres 

of BLM holdings in the county. As noted above, 

a portion of these other lands identified as part 

of the boundary expansion currently generate 

income for the Bureau of Land Management 

because they comprise portions of grazing 

allotments. Based on the most recent data, the 

Bureau of Land Management obtains $1.35 per 

animal unit month for grazing allotments.

Private property: There could also continue to 

be negligible to minor or moderate localized 

adverse impacts on private property / private 

landowners from the presence of the Reserve. 

Although the Reserve would continue to provide 

information to climbers and others about private 

property within City of Rocks, including posting 

in some popular boundary areas on behalf of 

private property owners, it is likely that there 

would continue to be negligible to minor adverse 

effects on private landowners associated with 

recreational use of the Reserve and surrounding 

area. Impacts that have occurred in the past 

include concerns about trespassing, damage 

to rocks, liability associated with climbers and 

other recreational visitors, and effects on or 

destruction of private property, such as damage 

to fences or livestock water sources. Other 

impacts have included chasing of cattle, gates 

not left as they are found (open or closed), and 

trail erosion.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures to minimize impacts on 

socioeconomics (as appropriate to the 

alternative) would include:

•	 Continue implementation of the willing 

seller/willing buyer concept regarding 

future federal land purchases from private 

landowners.

•	 Continue to issue permits for use of 

grazing allotments unless permittees 

abandon use of these.

•	 Continue implementation of the NPS/

IDPR cooperative agreement for 

management of the Reserve.

•	 Continue to provide some employee 

housing in Almo, combined with 

facilitating opportunities for employee 

housing elsewhere.

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CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Over time, both the Reserve and funding 

for it have increased. After the Reserve was 

established, approximately 2,313 acres of land 

was sold by willing sellers. As noted in the 

business plan, although IDPR base funding 

decreased from FY 2001 to FY 2004, there 

was a concurrent increase in the overall base 

budget as a result of efforts to develop visitor 

infrastructure and protect resources after the 

2003 opening of Castle Rocks State Park, as well 

as from implementation of parts of the Castle 

Rocks State Park Master Plan, and subsequent 

facility expansions in 2007. In addition, the 

National Park Service approved a base budget 

increase of $162,000 to preserve and protect 

cultural and natural resources in 2009. Adjusting 

for inflation to calculate constant dollars, the 

base budget therefore increased by $15,000. This 

was an increase of 0.25% (Reserve 2010b: p. 55). 

The Reserve currently projects that its budget 

would decrease slightly.

Visitation to the Reserve has also increased. 

Ongoing increases in visitation could continue 

to affect the demand for lodging in gateway 

communities, such as Almo and Oakley, 

contributing to additional visitor spending in 

these areas for goods and services, a beneficial 

effect, depending on the degree to which 

these areas are able to accommodate this use. 

Currently, although both food and lodging are 

available in these areas during peak periods, 

food services are diminished during off-peak 

periods. If shoulder-season visitation increased, 

there could be minor cumulative adverse 

impacts from visitors seeking these services 

elsewhere and therefore staying outside of the 

immediate local communities.

As described in “Chapter 4: Affected 

Environment,” there were 179 federal employees 

and 1,444 state and local government employees 

in Cassia County in 2000, working for places 

such as the Reserve, Castle Rocks State Park, 

the U.S. Forest Service, and the Bureau of 

Land Management, in addition to other state 

and federal agencies. The number of federal 

employees has decreased from approximately 

234 in 1980, while the number of state and 

local employees increased by approximately 

50% during the same time period. Because of 

fluctuation in federal and state budgets, it is 

likely that these figures would also continue to 

increase and/or decrease.

As noted above, there were approximately 

925,050 acres of federal land in Cassia County, 

for which Congress allocated $1,799,812 in 

PILT funds in 2009. Land within the Reserve 

comprises approximately 11,000 acres of this. 

Another 7,630 acres are federally owned but are 

not part of the Reserve or adjoining USFS or 

BLM land. “Chapter 4: Affected Environment” 

shows that the U.S. Forest Service managed 

387,053 acres, and the Bureau of Land 

Management managed 516,050 acres in 2009. 

Therefore federally owned lands in the Reserve 

comprise a small part of the overall federal land 

acreage in the county.

If all private lands within the Reserve were 

purchased in alternative A, approximately 

4,427 acres would become federally owned. 

Although this is unlikely to occur and is not 

planned within the 20–25 year time frame of this 

plan, this area would comprise an additional 

0.0024% of the total 1,642,624 acres of land 

within Cassia County. In alternative C, another 

4,247 acres could be added to federal lands 

with the boundary expansion, adding to county 

federal lands by 0.0026%. In alternative D, 

another 1,549 acres could be added to federal 

lands with the boundary expansion, comprising 

an additional 0.0009% of the lands within the 

county. Because, as noted above, it is likely that 

Congress would continue to authorize PILT 

funds, Cassia County would gain approximately 

$8,263.00 for the additional 4,247 acres in 

alternative C or approximately $3,015.00 for 

the additional 1,549 acres in alternative D, if 

the PILT allocation amount per acre remained 

the same. Based on this, there would continue 

to be negligible to minor adverse effects from 

additional federal land ownership in Cassia 

County. These effects, however, would be greater 

in alternatives C and D than in alternatives A or B.

When actions in alternative A are added to the 

effects of other past, present, and future actions, 

there would be minor cumulative beneficial 

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effects on income and employment in Cassia 

County. Minor to moderate beneficial effects 

would occur related to tourism spending and 

job creation; some communities, such as Almo, 

would experience minor beneficial effects; and 

negligible to minor adverse effects would result 

from slightly more federal land ownership. 

Similarly, when actions in alternative B are added 

to the effects of other past, present, and future 

actions, effects would be similar. Alternatives 

C and D would add minor, rather than 

negligible to minor adverse effects from federal 

land ownership.

CONCLUSION

There would generally continue to be longterm negligible to minor beneficial effects on 

the socioeconomic environment in the region 

(Cassia County), whereas these effects would 

probably be minor in the local area. Based 

on the Money Generation Model data, the 

Reserve contributes to the economic base 

in Cassia County by drawing both local and 

nonlocal visitor spending to the area. Although 

additional staff would be added to the Reserve 

in alternatives B–D (three in alternative B and 

five in alternatives C and D), the impact of the 

Reserve on direct employment opportunities 

in Cassia County would remain negligible to 

minor (with approximately or slightly more than 

20 FTEs). According to the Money Generation 

Model data, visitor spending associated with 

the Reserve would continue to generate 85 area 

jobs (just over four times the number of Reserve 

FTEs). If grazing allotments remained the same, 

these would continue to contribute to Reserve 

income and operations funding. Similarly, 

continued visitor spending for camping and 

other activities would also contribute. Negligible 

to minor long-term adverse effects from 

slightly more federal land ownership could 

be contributed by the proposed expansion of 

the Reserve in alternatives C–D. If additional 

private lands were acquired, there would also be 

short- or long-term beneficial effects on some 

individual landowners from income generated 

by the sale of land.

SPECIAL USES AND DESIGNATIONS

IMPACTS ON GRAZING AND LIVESTOCK 

TRAILING

Impact Intensity

Negligible Impacts on grazing operations 

would not be measurable or 

perceptible.

Minor Impacts on grazing operations 

would be perceptible, with the 

action causing a slight change in 

grazing operations, but the change 

would be localized.

Moderate Impacts on grazing operations 

would be apparent, with the action 

causing limited changes in grazing 

operations.

Major Impacts on grazing operations 

would be readily apparent or 

widespread, with the action causing 

substantial changes in grazing 

operations.

Background

When the National Reserve was established in 

1988, Congress recognized that appropriate 

management included maintenance of the 

“historic rural setting” (PL 100-696). According 

to the comprehensive management plan:

the historic rural setting is the sum total of 

ranching land-use patterns and artifacts 

accumulated through 150 years of EuroAmerican use and development. It comprises 

the spacious open expanse and the fence 

lines, corrals, trailing routes, and water 

sources of ranching operation. It is the largeacre fenced fields and gravel roads on section 

lines. It imparts an increasingly rare and 

scenic quality reminiscent of the American 

West and thus constitutes a significant value 

of the Reserve (Reserve 1996a: p. 106).

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Although NPS policy and 36 CFR 2.60 prohibit 

livestock use in park units where that use is not 

expressly authorized, the legislative mandate 

at City of Rocks is to “protect the historic rural 

setting” and to facilitate continuing private 

use in the Reserve. This was determined by 

the Regional Solicitor to be sufficient authority 

to allow continued managed grazing within 

the Reserve (Reserve 1996a). As noted by 

Back (1991):

This interpretation of Congressional intent 

was validated by the opinion rendered by 

the Assistant Regional Solicitor, Pacific 

Northwest Region. The Solicitor’s opinion 

was predicated on 36 CFR Sec. 2.60 (a) (3), 

which states that livestock use is prohibited 

except when it is “. . . necessary. . . or required 

in order to maintain a historic scene” (as 

quoted in the Reserve’s comprehensive 

management plan).

Grazing is integral to the history of the 

Reserve and represents one of the interpretive 

themes in the Reserve’s 1996 comprehensive 

management plan; however, grazing also 

impacts trails, vegetation, and cultural sites 

among other resources, and adds a layer of 

management responsibility and additional needs 

for community engagement (Reserve 2010b: p. 

9–10). During alternatives scoping, concerns 

were expressed about how the alternatives 

would affect grazing and livestock trailing use 

of the Reserve. As a result, this impact topic 

was included.

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

Livestock use (grazing and trailing) would 

continue to occur within City of Rocks as it 

has since about 1843, beginning with the first 

emigrant wagon trains on the California Trail 

(Reserve 2008a: p. 3). As homesteads were 

established between 1867 and 1910, grazing 

continued and crop cultivation began. Although 

crop cultivation ended in 1952, grazing 

continues both on public and private lands 

within the Reserve. Sharp and Sanders (1978) 

state that “the interrelationship of private and 

public lands is such that if any part of this cyclic 

grazing pattern is removed, it would be difficult 

for a ranch to continue to operate” (Reserve 

1996b: p. 3). The 2008 grazing management plan 

further explains that “the economic livelihood 

of the permittees using the allotments addressed 

in this plan is largely dependent on their being 

able to continue to graze their current numbers 

of livestock” (Reserve 2008a: p. 3). As a result, 

long-term negligible to minor adverse and 

minor to moderate beneficial effects would 

persist from continuing grazing and livestock 

trailing, and from continuing to employ the 

following management objectives within the 

comprehensive management plan that recognize 

the historic importance of livestock use:

•	 Manage livestock use such that an 

appropriate balance between grazing and 

natural resources protection, cultural 

resources preservation, recreational use, 

and scenic quality is assured.

•	 Through managed grazing and ranching 

activities protect, preserve, and interpret 

the historic rural setting.

•	 Provide for managed use of designated 

pasture lands within the Reserve (Reserve 

1996a: p. 1).

•	 Maintain or establish upward trend (range 

improvement) on all range sites.

•	 Protect sensitive resources to the greatest 

extent possible, including threatened and 

endangered species and wetlands.

•	 Initiate vegetative management to enhance 

the natural landscape when and where 

appropriate.

•	 Use livestock grazing to obtain and 

maintain the landscape objectives 

(Reserve 1996a; p. 5).

Within the Reserve, grazing would continue to 

be managed for optimum natural vegetation, 

scenic quality, and livestock use appropriate 

to the historic rural setting and other managed 

uses of the Reserve. Specifically, grazing would 

continue to be managed to maintain the historic 

rural setting as called for by Reserve legislation.

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Similarly, there could be both minor beneficial 

and adverse impacts from continuing to use the 

following program guidelines (from the grazing 

management plan) to achieve comprehensive 

management plan goals related to grazing:

•	 The natural and cultural resources and 

scenic quality of City of Rocks may not be 

impaired by livestock use.

•	 In all issues related to range use, 

management decisions will be based 

first on whether or not resources will be 

impaired.

•	 The 1991 AUM total for the Reserve is 

established as the maximum level for 

range use.

•	 Private lands purchased by City of 

Rocks and vacated allotments may be 

incorporated into the Reserve’s grazing 

program and the available animal unit 

months may be used by one or more of the 

remaining permittees.

•	 Existing landowners and permittees 

(within the City of Rocks boundary) have 

preferential status for future allotment 

permits.

•	 Current allotments, which include City 

of Rocks and BLM or USFS lands outside 

the Reserve, will continue to be redefined 

(where feasible and by mutual agreement 

with the respective agency) so that all 

grazed public lands within City of Rocks 

are exclusively City of Rocks allotments.

•	 As new City of Rocks allotments are 

established, the carrying capacity for 

each will be determined. These carrying 

capacities will become the maximum 

AUM levels for future use (Reserve 1996b: 

p. 1–2; bracketed information Reserve 

2008a: p. 2).

Because grazing within City of Rocks originated 

with management by the U.S. Forest Service 

and the Bureau of Land Management, there 

were no fences that separated the public lands 

in City of Rocks from the public lands outside 

of it. In many allotments, current fences often 

envelop a range of jurisdictional boundaries. 

For example, there can be private, City of Rocks, 

and BLM lands fenced within one pasture 

and/or allotment.

Although sections of the allotments between 

the Reserve and some adjacent BLM and USFS 

public lands have since been fenced, unfenced 

Reserve/USFS lands are still found on one 

allotment (Graham Creek), unfenced Reserve/

BLM lands are found on four allotments (Smoky 

Mountain, Heath Canyon, Trail Canyon, and 

Tracy Lane), and unfenced Reserve/private lands 

are found on three allotments (Graham Creek, 

Trail Canyon, and Heath Canyon). Therefore 

grazing management is currently coordinated 

with an adjacent landowner (Bureau of Land 

Management, U.S. Forest Service, or private) on 

five of six allotments.

Where the Bureau of Land Management comanages allotments, land management is guided 

by the Cassia Resource Management Plan. USFS 

management is guided by the Sawtooth National 

Forest plan (Reserve 2008a: p. 4). There are 

also natural barriers to livestock movement in 

some areas within the allotments that allow 

the concentration of grazing to be managed in 

pastures without fencing, an indirect beneficial 

effect for both the Reserve and permittees, 

because this reduces the need to build or 

maintain fencing.

Pasture and some allotment fences, however, 

are maintained by permittees prior to use of 

allotments and/or the pastures within them. As 

a result, Reserve permittees would continue to 

ensure that fences and water diversions within 

existing pastures/allotments were in good 

working order prior to allowing livestock into 

the pasture/allotment at the beginning of the 

grazing season. Therefore, there would continue 

to be minor localized adverse effects on grazing 

permittees from maintaining these each season.

More than 11,000 acres (approximately 76%) 

of the land within the Reserve boundary would 

continue to be grazed. Of this approximately 

4,000 acres (36%) is privately owned. According 

to the 2008 draft grazing management plan, a 

portion of this grazed area was originally seeded 

with several species of crested wheatgrass. The 

four lower-elevation basins have had a long 

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history of rangeland seeding on them (Reserve 

2008a: p. 49). The following allotments were 

seeded with crested wheatgrass when privately 

owned or when managed by the Bureau of 

Land Management or U.S. Forest Service: 

approximately 160 acres of Graham Creek, the 

40-acre BLM Circle Creek allotment leased 

to the Reserve, most of the 400-acre Kempton 

allotment, most of the private land and some 

of the BLM land in the Trail Canyon allotment, 

and approximately 240 acres of the Tracy Lane 

allotment (Reserve 2008a: p. 14–38). To the 

extent that these areas continue to produce 

forage as a result of these seedings, they would 

continue to be the most productive forage 

areas in allotments where they were present, a 

minor to moderate long-term beneficial effect 

on grazing.

Under alternative A, most of the grazing 

allotments identified in the 2008 grazing 

management plan would continue to be used 

(see table 45). In addition, recommendations 

for improving the range condition and 

monitoring of allotments would also continue 

to be implemented. This plan resulted in the 

closure of the Circle Creek allotment to increase 

protection for and public access to the California 

Trail. Because the same number of livestock are 

permitted to graze elsewhere within the Reserve, 

closure of this area has had a negligible adverse 

effect on grazing.

Table 45. Comparison of Grazing Allotments 1989 and 2013

Allotment 1989 acres 

Public Land

2013 acres 

Public Land

1989 AUM

Public Land

2013 AUM

Public Land

Circle Creek 1,118 0 16 0

Emery Canyon* 898 1,030 106 22

Graham Creek 2,665 3,190 201 222

Heath Canyon 1,674 1,080** 13 21

Kempton N/A 400 N/A 84

Tracy Lane 395 560 47 49

Trail Canyon 1,365 740 89 56

TOTALS 8,115 7,000 472 454

*Formerly part of Walters Creek Allotment, which is now managed by the U.S. Forest Service, and configured differently.

**Only 240 acres are actually grazed

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Long-term beneficial effects would continue 

from the Reserve Superintendent’s authority to 

transfer livestock grazing permits to immediate 

family members/heirs. This could only be done 

at the written request of the current lessee, 

and permittees would continue to be unable to 

transfer or sell permits (Reserve 2008a). Adverse 

effects could continue when the Reserve and 

the Bureau of Land Management differ as to 

the acceptance of a transfer of grazing rights, as 

occurred in Trail Canyon (BLM comments on 

preliminary DEIS, Chapter 5, p. 166).

A reduced range condition has resulted in the 

Reserve because grazing has caused an increase 

in native woody plants (especially sagebrush and 

rabbitbrush), an increase in nonnative plants 

resistant to grazing, and a decrease in native 

perennial grasses and forbs. This constitutes 

a minor to moderate localized adverse effect 

on livestock grazing and trailing (Reserve 

1996a: p. 44). Under the grazing management 

plan, prescribed fire was proposed as a tool 

to minimize the incidence of brush and trees 

in some allotments; however, the Reserve 

currently operates under a full suppression fire 

management program and therefore cannot 

employ either prescribed fire or fire use in 

managing grazing allotments. Although some 

prescribed fire would continue to be used in 

adjacent BLM and USFS grazing allotments, 

no prescribed fire would be used to manage 

Reserve grazing allotments under alternative A, 

resulting in continued long-term minor to 

moderate localized adverse effects on grazing if 

range conditions continued to deteriorate.

Updating the grazing management plan, 

including conducting environmental impact 

analysis on the current and proposed actions, 

could result in some modifications to the way 

grazing allotments are overseen. The plan calls 

for additional diversion of water for livestock, 

management of grazed areas to improve 

existing grazing and resource conditions, 

and implementation of other proposed 

recommendations within the plan, such as 

prescribed fire if the fire management plan was 

also updated. Combined, these actions could 

have a range of negligible to moderate beneficial 

and minor to moderate localized adverse effects 

on livestock grazing, depending on specific 

measures identified, but they would be unlikely 

to adversely affect trailing.

IMPACTS COMMON TO ALTERNATIVES B–D

In all alternatives, except for alternative C, the 

Reserve would continue to manage grazing 

to meet long-range objectives to preserve and 

protect the significant natural and cultural 

resources within it and to maintain grazing at an 

economically viable level for the permittees, a 

long-term minor to moderate beneficial effect on 

grazing and livestock trailing. Livestock trailing 

would also continue to be permitted in all zones 

(except for the Research Natural Area Zone), a 

long-term minor beneficial effect.

As in alternative A, grazing in riparian areas and 

wetlands would be systematically eliminated 

in all alternatives through fencing and/or other 

modifications, such as timing, and grazing 

would continue to be prohibited in the Research 

Natural Area. Although the Research Natural 

Area would be expanded, areas of expansion are 

not currently used for grazing. The negligible 

loss of grazing area attributed to fencing out 

wetlands and riparian areas would have a 

long-term negligible to minor adverse effect on 

allotments and long-term beneficial effects on 

Reserve resources, including vegetation and 

water resources.

If the fire management plan was updated, as 

called for, to include fire use and/or other 

techniques such as prescribed fire or expansion 

of hazard fuel reduction, its implementation 

could reduce or expand the incidence of 

shrubs in grazing allotments. Short-term 

negligible impacts could occur during hazard 

fuel reduction activities and short-term minor 

to moderate adverse effects could result from 

implementing fire use. These would be offset 

by long-term negligible to moderate beneficial 

effects to livestock grazing from improvements 

in range condition (which would probably 

equate to better forage for livestock).

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ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE B

In alternative B, reductions in allotments could 

occur if permittees discontinue requests for 

permits, based on changing business models or 

abandonments, or for noncompliance with the 

conditions of their permits. Although the total 

number of livestock and animal unit months 

could decrease under this approach, this could 

only occur through attrition over time. As a 

result, there would continue to be grazing but 

it could eventually happen at a reduced level. If 

these allotment reductions occurred through 

attrition, there could be opportunities to reduce 

grazing in the California Trail Zone or the Visitor 

Facilities and Access Zone. However the degree 

of resulting attrition is unknown, and impacts 

could therefore range widely. Modifications to 

grazing allotments would allow for the same 

number of livestock and animal unit months 

associated with allotments. Reductions in 

allotments could only occur if permittees 

abandoned their allotment or if there was 

consistent failure to comply with the conditions 

of the permit.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE C

In alternative C, reductions in overall grazing 

would occur if permittees chose to take 

advantage of grazing buyouts. This could 

decrease the total number of livestock and 

animal unit months in the Reserve. Depending 

on the permittee, grazing buyouts could have 

long-term minor beneficial effects from the 

one-time income or moderate adverse effects if 

the permittee continued livestock operations but 

was unable to compensate for the loss of grazing 

area within the Reserve.

Proposed boundary expansion could result 

in minor to moderate adverse effects on 

BLM grazing management. Lands within the 

boundary modifications proposed in alternatives 

C are currently part of existing BLM-managed 

grazing allotments. It is likely that if transfer 

within the Department of the Interior (DOI) 

from the Bureau of Land Management to 

the National Park Service occurred, that the 

grazing allotments on these lands would be 

initially retained; however, it is unknown what 

provisions would be in any DOI agreement or 

legislation related to the boundary adjustment. 

Therefore managing the allotments would 

continue to require cooperation between the 

Bureau of Land Management and the National 

Park Service / Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation. Later, the grazing permittees would 

probably have the option of participating in the 

grazing buyout program established under this 

alternative.

If the boundary expansion was approved, one 

allotment would be fully transferred (Circle 

Creek) and three others would be partially 

transferred (BLM Smoky Mountain, BLM 

Junction Seeding, and BLM Almo Flat) under 

alternative C.

Because shared management of allotments 

(one allotment owned/managed, for example 

by the National Park Service, the Bureau of 

Land Management, and a private landowner) 

began when the Reserve was created, the Bureau 

of Land Management and the Reserve have 

established administrative procedures that 

would assist if this were to occur again, therefore 

limiting adverse effects. For instance, the 2008 

grazing management plan identifies the portion 

of each allotment owned by the National Park 

Service, Bureau of Land Management, and 

private landowners, and billing for animal unit 

months is split between these for the Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation and the 

Bureau of Land Management.

ALTERNATIVE D IMPACTS

Impacts associated with alternative A would 

continue in alternative D. There are no proposed 

changes in livestock numbers or season of use. 

As in alternative B, modifying grazing allotments, 

such as to exclude grazing in the Visitor Facilities 

and Access Zone but allowing for the same 

number of livestock and animal unit months 

would have no effect on existing permittees.

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Many impacts on grazing from alternative D 

would be similar to alternative B. In addition, 

lands within the boundary modifications 

proposed in alternatives C and D are currently 

part of existing BLM-managed grazing 

allotments. Although grazing allotments on 

these lands would be retained if transferred 

within the Department of the Interior from the 

Bureau of Land Management to the National 

Park Service, managing the allotments would 

continue to require cooperation between the 

Bureau of Land Management and the National 

Park Service / Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation. If the expansion was approved, 

one would be transferred (BLM Circle Creek) 

and two split (BLM Almo Flat and BLM Smoky 

Mountain) under alternative D. As in alternative 

C, if allotments were split between the Bureau of 

Land Management and the Idaho Department 

of Parks and Recreation, the AUM billing would 

be split between the allotment owners according 

to established procedures.

Because of the emphasis in this alternative on 

public participation in activities associated 

with ranching (including grazing operations), 

livestock grazing and trailing would probably 

continue at current levels, resulting in no effect 

on these activities.

As in alternative B, the Reserve would consider 

removing cattle pasture allocations from 

the Visitor Facilities and Access Zone where 

possible. This would constitute a negligible to 

minor adverse effect on livestock grazing and 

trailing because there would be no increase in 

allotments or animal unit months.

Opportunities to allow visitor participation in 

cattle drives, mending or constructing fences, 

monitoring grazing allotments, and branding 

demonstrations, among other activities, could 

result in minor beneficial or adverse effects on 

grazing and trailing, depending on the degree 

to which these activities enhanced or hindered 

day-to-day activities of permittees.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Past actions that have affected grazing and 

livestock trailing include dryland farming. 

According to the 2008 draft grazing management 

plan, when climate conditions changed and 

these farms were abandoned in the 1920s, 

the land was slow to revert back to its natural 

vegetation and forage production was limited. 

With the availability of crested wheatgrass in the 

late 1940s and 1950s, much of the area that had 

been farmed was cleared of brush and seeded 

with crested wheatgrass. Prior to seeding crested 

wheatgrass, the availability of spring and fall 

forage generally determined how many cattle a 

ranch could run. The crested wheatgrass seeding, 

however, increased the amount of forage and 

also gave the associated depleted native ranges 

an opportunity for recovery and improvement 

in ecological condition, albeit to a nonnative 

assemblage of species (Reserve 2008a: p. 3). As 

noted in the “Vegetation” section of this GMP, 

the species composition of most of the lower 

elevation basins has been altered by past uses.

According to the preliminary natural resource 

condition assessment, historical land 

management activities, livestock grazing, and fire 

suppression have probably reduced the natural 

fire frequency in the past 150 years, resulting in 

the dominance of woody species (Appendix A 

and Morris 2006 in Erixson and Corrao 2011). As 

successional processes occur, dominant species 

change from sagebrush to Utah juniper and 

finally to pinyon pine (Reserve 2008a: [Appendix 

A] p. 54). This has resulted in invasion of some 

areas by woody species, including sagebrush and 

juniper. Other allotments are dominated by curlleaf mountain mahogany and juniper.

As a result, the heavy fuel load provided by 

woody species probably contributed to the 

intensity and spread of wildfires in 1999 and 

2000. Without some type of brush and tree 

control, range condition for grazing would 

probably continue to deteriorate, while future 

fires of higher intensity would continue to pose 

a threat to the Reserve. As noted in the 2008 

draft grazing management plan, an accumulation 

of fine fuels (such as grasses) also increases the 

chance of wildfire ignition (Reserve 2008a: p. 5).

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Since the Reserve was established, there has 

been a reduction in availability of approximately 

1,115 acres of available grazing area within 

City of Rocks, which can be attributed to the 

loss of grazing from the former Circle Creek 

allotment and redistribution of grazing to other 

allotments, including the Kempton, which was 

added from purchased lands. There has also 

been a reduction of approximately 18 animal 

unit months (table 45). Outside the Reserve, 

grazing areas have remained fairly stable. The 

Reserve is surrounded by grazing on private 

and public lands, including approximately 2,005 

acres on BLM-managed lands (Reserve 2008a) 

and an unknown number of acres on USFSmanaged lands.

Currently, six permittees graze cattle on 

approximately 7,000 acres of public land in the 

Reserve and 4,000 acres of private land for a 

total of approximately 11,000 acres or 76% of 

the 14,407 acres of land within the boundary 

(Reserve 2010). Reserve lands are grazed by 

an estimated 472 animal unit months in six 

allotments. Table 45 shows a comparison 

between past grazing in the Reserve at 

establishment in 1989 and in 2013.

Present actions include the recent project to 

build a half-acre exclosure around a spring and 

riparian area at Indian Grove within the Graham 

Creek allotment.

When actions in alternative A are added to 

the effects of other past, present, and future 

actions, there would continue to be negligible 

to minor cumulative adverse effects on grazing 

and livestock trailing. Alternative B would 

have minor to moderate cumulative adverse 

effects on grazing and negligible beneficial 

effects on livestock trailing, which would 

continue to be allowed. Over time, alternative 

C could eventually result in cessation of grazing 

within the Reserve, depending on how many 

permittees took advantage of the voluntary 

grazing buyout program. Alternative D would 

have the potential to improve flexibility 

associated with livestock grazing because of the 

boundary expansion. Alternative D would have 

similar cumulative negligible to minor adverse 

and beneficial effects on grazing and beneficial 

effects on livestock trailing.

CONCLUSION

Existing impacts on grazing and livestock trailing 

would continue in alternative A. The number 

of animal unit months would not change under 

alternative A. Grazing and livestock trailing 

would continue to be permitted in all zones 

except for the Research Natural Area Zone 

under alternatives A–D. Future opportunities 

to reduce grazing in the California Trail Zone 

in alternatives B–D and in the Visitor Facilities 

and Access Zone in alternatives B and D could 

result in a negligible to minor adverse effects 

on grazing; however, livestock trailing would 

continue to be permitted. Long-term negligible 

beneficial effects could also result from 

alternative D because of visitor participation 

in activities related to grazing and livestock 

trailing, thereby increasing understanding 

and support. If boundary expansion occurred 

in alternative C or D, there would probably 

be internal adjustments to management of 

grazing allotments. If boundary expansion 

occurred, grazing would probably continue 

under alternative D, resulting in minor 

beneficial effects. However, it is unknown what 

provisions would be attached to the agreement 

or legislation related to grazing in alternative 

C. Therefore, alternative C would probably 

have minor to moderate adverse effects on 

grazing, depending on voluntary participation 

in the grazing buyout program, and negligible 

beneficial effects on livestock trailing, which 

would continue to be allowed.

SPECIAL USES AND DESIGNATIONS

Impacts on City of Rocks National Natural 

Landmark

Background

The National Natural Landmarks Program 

recognizes and encourages the conservation 

of sites that contain outstanding biological 

and geological resources, regardless of land 

ownership. It is the only natural areas program 

of national scope that recognizes the best 

examples of biological and geological features 

in both public and private ownership. National 

natural landmarks are owned by a variety of 

land stewards, and participation in the program 

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is voluntary. National natural landmarks are 

selected for their outstanding condition, 

illustrative value, rarity, diversity, and value to 

science and education (NPS 2012e).

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

Minor long-term beneficial effects would 

occur from proactively preserving the features 

associated with the national natural landmark. 

Additional moderate long-term beneficial 

impacts would ensue from conducting a 

systematic inventory of the pinnacles and 

sensitive rock features included in the national 

natural landmark. This inventory would expand 

a partial photographic assessment of the features 

within the Reserve portion of the national 

natural landmark conducted in the mid-1990s. 

Beneficial impacts would occur from improving 

understanding of these features and potentially 

using the inventory for an update of the national 

natural landmark and/or its boundary if the 

national natural landmark was found to have 

omitted some key rock features, a minor to 

moderate long-term beneficial effect. These 

could include aligning the NNL boundary to 

include the rocky areas in the northern end of 

the Reserve.

Minor to moderate localized adverse effects 

would continue to be contributed from a 

variety of actions associated with recreational 

use and grazing. Grazing impacts may include 

exacerbated natural exfoliation of rocks, 

where livestock rub against sensitive areas 

(such as concave depressions where cavernous 

weathering is present) as they seek shade. 

Climbing impacts may include marring the 

face of rock pinnacles and purposefully or 

inadvertently breaking off flakes or holds. 

Other recreational uses, such as scrambling 

in or around pinnacles that are on a narrow 

pedestal, may cause these pinnacles to topple. 

For example, since the Reserve’s comprehensive 

management plan was published, a small 

pinnacle feature with cavernous weathering 

east of the Bath Rock trailhead was toppled. 

Rock features with cavernous weathering and 

blistering are among the most fragile and most 

susceptible to impacts.

ALTERNATIVE B–D IMPACTS

Beneficial and adverse impacts from alternative 

A would continue. The proposed Reserve 

boundary expansion in alternatives C and D 

would also encompass a portion of the national 

natural landmark that currently lies outside of 

the east boundary of the Reserve. Including 

additional features within both the national 

natural landmark and the Reserve boundary 

would have minor to moderate long-term 

beneficial effects, if this expansion was approved 

by Congress through legislation. Beneficial 

effects would also occur if pinnacles on private 

lands were later purchased via a willing seller/

willing buyer transaction.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures to minimize impacts on the national 

natural landmark (as appropriate to the 

alternative) would include:

•	 Improve visitor education and 

interpretation associated with the national 

natural landmark.

•	 Initiate cooperative management of areas 

within the national natural landmark 

(alternative C).

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

When it was initially reviewed, the geologic 

recommendations for the national natural 

landmark identified only the state-owned 

Section 36, along with one whole (25) and one 

partial (26) section in the Sawtooth National 

Forest (Jones 1973). Most of the significant 

landforms, however, were identified in parts 

of sections 25, 26, and 36 (township 15 south, 

range 23 east); in sections 19, 30, and 31 

(township 15 south, range 24 east); and in 

sections 11, 12, and 13 (township 16 south, 

range 23 east) (Reserve 1996a: p.12). At the 

time of designation, landowners of the national 

natural landmark included the Bureau of Land 

Management, the U.S. Forest Service (Sawtooth 

National Forest), the state of Idaho, and several 

private property owners. Designated for three 

key geologic erosional features—bornhardts, 

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tors, and inselbergs—it was tentatively 

identified as the type location (place where 

first identified/described) for inselbergs in the 

NNL nomination (see the “Geology” section in 

“Chapter 4: Affected Environment”).

Past actions that have contributed to cumulative 

effects on the national natural landmark include 

new NNL regulations that resulted in a 90-

day opportunity to withdraw from the NNL 

designation. In the case of Cassia Silent City 

of Rocks National Natural Landmark, two 

landowners, J. R. Simplot Company and Mr. 

Robert D. Eck, requested withdrawal. The two 

withdrawals resulted in a combined reduction 

in area of approximately 207 acres, making the 

current landmark boundary approximately 

18,687 acres, a long-term cumulative adverse 

effect. Current actions to preserve the features 

associated with the national natural landmark 

within the Reserve would continue to have 

minor cumulative beneficial effects. Potential 

future actions, such as conducting an inventory 

of NNL pinnacles and possibly updating the 

boundary or purchasing lands that have been 

withdrawn, would also have minor to moderate 

cumulative beneficial effects. When actions in 

the alternatives are added to past, present, and 

future actions, minor adverse and beneficial 

cumulative effects would occur.

CONCLUSION

Alternatives A–D would have a range of minor to 

moderate long-term beneficial effects, coupled 

with minor to moderate localized adverse 

effects. Beneficial effects would be greater in 

alternatives C and D, compared with A and B.

SPECIAL USES AND DESIGNATIONS

Impacts on City of Rocks National 

Historic Landmark

Impacts would be the same as described in the 

“Cultural Landscapes” section.

SPECIAL USES AND DESIGNATIONS

Impacts on California National Historic Trail

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

The Reserve would continue to manage 

approximately 3.5 miles of the California Trail on 

public land, while another approximately 6 miles 

would be within the Reserve on private land. 

This “historic route and its historic remnants 

and artifacts” would continue to be identified 

and preserved for public use and enjoyment as 

identified in the National Trails System Act (PL 

90-543). (See also the “Cultural Landscapes” 

section in this chapter.)

Based on the cultural landscape inventory (NPS 

2008a), ongoing minor impacts on California 

Trail resources (such as from grazing) would 

continue, including livestock trampling ruts, 

erosion, and continued loss of axle grease 

inscriptions from weathering. Because the 

axle grease inscriptions cannot be protected 

from natural weathering without extensive 

modifications to rocks, which would adversely 

affect the cultural landscape, existing efforts to 

conduct a systematic photographic inventory of 

the axle grease inscriptions would have longterm minor to moderate beneficial impacts by 

preserving these otherwise transient resources 

for future research, interpretation, and 

public interest.

ALTERNATIVE B–D IMPACTS

Long-term beneficial effects would be 

contributed by developing a plan to preserve 

the California Trail ruts under alternatives B–D. 

If grazing was eventually excluded from the 

California Trail Zone under alternatives B and C, 

there would be long-term moderate beneficial 

effects to California Trail resources.

With the proposed boundary expansion in 

alternatives C and D, approximately 1.1 miles 

of the California Trail would be added to the 

Reserve. If Congress authorized this expansion 

under either of these proposals, there would be 

long-term minor to moderate beneficial effects 

from preservation and investigation of the 

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additional 1.1-mile section of the trail, including 

from minimizing other uses that could occur in 

this area under BLM management.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM ALTERNATIVES 

B and D

Acquiring an easement from private landowners 

on the southwest side of the Reserve to protect 

a section of California Trail extending toward 

Granite Pass would have additional long-term 

moderate beneficial effects from ensuring that 

potential future impacts that could adversely 

affect this area would not occur.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures would be the same as listed under the 

“Cultural Landscapes” section.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

(See “Cultural Landscapes” section in 

this chapter.)

CONCLUSION

There would continue to be minor beneficial 

effects on the California National Historic Trail in 

alternatives A and B. alternatives C and D would 

contribute additional beneficial effects from a 

possible boundary expansion that would include 

more of the trail within the Reserve and from a 

possible easement that could increase protection 

for the California Trail in alternative D.

SPECIAL USES AND DESIGNATIONS: 

RESEARCH NATURAL AREA

Impacts on Research Natural Area

ALTERNATIVE A IMPACTS

Under alternative A, the Research Natural 

Area would remain at approximately 315 acres 

(approximately 2% of the Reserve) and would 

continue to be managed according to the 

following objectives:

1. Preserve a wide range of undisturbed, 

representative areas that typify important 

forest, shrubland, grassland, alpine, 

wetland, and similar natural situations 

that have special or unique characteristics, 

or provide outstanding examples of 

geological, biological, or ecological 

processes of scientific interest and 

importance.

2. Preserve and maintain genetic diversity.

3. Protect against deleterious environmental 

disturbance.

4. Provide student and professional 

education.

5. Serve as a baseline area for measuring 

long-term ecological changes.

6. Serve as a control area for comparing 

results from manipulative research 

conducted elsewhere (NPS 2004a).

Managing the Research Natural Area for these 

purposes would continue to provide long-term 

minor to moderate beneficial effects. According 

to the natural resources condition assessment 

of the Research Natural Area, it is an excellent 

reference site for monitoring the effects of 

management actions in similar sites outside the 

Research Natural Area. This is because it can 

provide baseline data for long-term monitoring 

of natural changes, including wildfire and 

climate change in the singleleaf pinyon 

community (Erixson and Corrao 2011). The 

Research Natural Area preserves a healthy stand 

of old-growth singleleaf pinyon pine (Pinus 

monophylla) at the northernmost distribution of 

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the species and associated community; it was the 

first of four research natural areas established 

in Idaho to preserve the singleleaf pinyon; it 

contains a high incidence of this species; and 

can therefore help preserve the genetic diversity 

of the singleleaf pinyon community (Bell and 

Barton 2010). The pinyon pines in the Research 

Natural Area are also taller and older than the 

average trees across the range of the species 

(Bell and Barton 2010). According to Miller, 

Tausch, and Waichler (1999), old-growth stands 

of pinyon-juniper are rare and structurally 

complex with higher levels of biological diversity 

(Bell and Barton 2010).

The Research Natural Area would continue 

to be used for nonmanipulative research, 

education, and other activities that would not 

detract from its research values, and actions such 

as grazing and livestock trailing would continue 

to be prohibited. The Research Natural Area 

would continue to protect a moderately intact 

ecological area with little evidence of human 

use and few nonnative species. The Research 

Natural Area would also remain open to the 

public, including climbers accessing traditional 

or previously established routes.

Negligible to minor long-term beneficial 

effects on RNA resources would result from 

administrative changes to an unused portion 

of an existing grazing allotment that slightly 

overlaps the western boundary of the Research 

Natural Area. Working with the permitee, 

Reserve staff would realign the allotment 

to eliminate this steep section where no 

grazing occurs.

Although a 100-acre expansion to the west of the 

current Research Natural Area was proposed in 

the Reserve’s comprehensive management plan 

(Reserve 1996a), it was not delineated on a map 

nor did it become part of the Research Natural 

Area. This proposed expansion may conform to 

a recommendation by the Idaho Natural Areas 

Coordinating Committee that was not accepted 

by the U.S. Forest Service.

IMPACTS COMMON TO 

ALTERNATIVES B–D

In addition to impacts in alternative A, 

there would be a variety of beneficial effects 

contributed by the action alternatives.

Compared to alternative A, expansion of the 

Research Natural Area and its designation as 

a separate zone would focus the purposes of 

the Research Natural Area. The revised zone 

boundary would improve management of the 

area by identifying the boundary using the 

natural contours of the landscape, such as 

natural terrain, rather than topographic section 

lines that do not conform to these and cannot 

be detected in the field. As a result, the Research 

Natural Area would be easier to administer in 

alternatives B–D.

Alternatives B, C, and D would have long-term 

beneficial effects from slight (alternatives B and 

D) to moderate (alternative C) expansion of 

the boundary to encompass additional areas 

identified by a research study of the Research 

Natural Area (Bell and Barton 2010). Although 

this report recommended expansion to the 

west, the boundary in alternatives B, C, and 

D would be expanded primarily to the south 

and east, while also taking in a small area to 

the west. Alternative D would allow for the 

largest expansion, extending the boundary 

farther to the east. The Research Natural 

Area would encompass approximately 491 

acres (approximately 3% of the Reserve) 

in alternatives B and D and 662 acres 

(approximately 4% of the Reserve) in alternative 

C. This expansion could improve opportunities 

for visitors to explore an area of southern Idaho 

in its natural condition with few human impacts.

Extending the Research Natural Area would 

increase available wildlife habitat for several 

Idaho Sensitive Species and expand general 

wildlife habitat protection, encompassing an 

additional area characterized by old-growth 

pinyon pine and more habitat for the cliff 

chipmunk and pinyon mouse, two Idaho 

Sensitive Species. Because more resources 

would be protected within the boundary of the 

Research Natural Area Zone and no additional 

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development would be allowed (aside from 

trails and traditional or established climbing 

routes), there would be long-term negligible to 

minor adverse effects associated with continued 

use for research, hiking, and climbing, and 

moderate localized long-term beneficial effects 

from enhancing and expanding protection of 

this area.

Expansion of the Research Natural Area 

would not affect grazing, except for the slight 

adjustment to the western boundary. As in 

alternative A, grazing and livestock trailing 

would continue to be prohibited in the Research 

Natural Area. Because there would be no loss 

of actual grazing area as a result of the changes, 

there would be no effect on grazing.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE B AND C

In alternatives B and C there would be an 

expanded focus on climate change research 

(for example, studying vegetation changes) to 

better understand changes in ecosystems over 

time. This could have long-term beneficial 

effects if changes in climate occur faster 

than anticipated and could direct potential 

mitigation, if necessary, to address these effects. 

Long-term beneficial effects could also result 

if the Reserve is successful in working with the 

Idaho Department of Fish and Game to prohibit 

hunting in the Research Natural Area.

ADDITIONAL IMPACTS FROM 

ALTERNATIVE C

In addition to beneficial effects identified in 

alternatives B and D, there would continue to be 

negligible to minor adverse effects from existing 

research and recreational activities, combined 

with localized minor to moderate long-term 

beneficial effects from protecting a larger area 

from development.

The expanded Research Natural Area in 

alternative C would also allow for enhanced 

research opportunities on landscape-scale 

natural resources topics, including climate 

change. The expanded Research Natural 

Area would provide additional research 

opportunities, including paired vegetation 

studies to compare and contrast plant and 

animal adaptation to changing natural 

conditions. Opportunities for research could 

offer long-term minor beneficial effects by 

facilitating a better understanding of wildlife and 

wildlife habitat, which could indirectly benefit 

protection of plants and wildlife, as well as other 

resources. Although a better understanding 

of the boundary of the Research Natural Area 

would also occur in alternatives B and D from a 

slight expansion, alternative C would potentially 

offer more opportunities for research from a 

larger Research Natural Area.

MEASURES TO AVOID, MINIMIZE, OR 

MITIGATE IMPACTS

Measures to minimize impacts on the Research 

Natural Area would be the same as identified 

in other resource sections throughout this 

document. In addition, the following measure 

would be used:

•	 Use permits to ensure that use is 

consistent with the RNA purpose of being 

managed for nonmanipulative geologic or 

biological research and education.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

See “Land Use” section.

CONCLUSION

Alternative A would continue to have longterm minor adverse and long-term minor to 

moderate beneficial effects. Alternative C would 

avoid most of the adverse effects related to 

managing the Reserve along section lines, rather 

than terrain boundaries, while alternatives B 

and D would result in protection of more key 

resources within the Research Natural Area. As 

a result, alternatives B–D would avoid adverse 

effects that would occur in alternative A, while 

contributing long-term beneficial effects. 

Greater beneficial effects in alternatives C and D 

would occur because of the increased area in the 

Research Natural Area Zone that would enhance 

protection for some sensitive species.

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UNADVOIDABLE ADVERSE IMPACTS

The historic pattern of land use within the 

Reserve is a moderate unavoidable adverse 

impact that has left a mark on the distribution 

and abundance of native vegetation and plant 

communities over time, including converting 

native vegetation communities to agricultural 

cropland and converting these same areas 

and homesteads to rangeland for livestock 

grazing. This pattern of land use has affected 

evidence of the California Trail, the key resource 

for which the Reserve was established. This 

change in land use began at the end of the 

emigration period and continued through the 

homesteading era, when lands were divided by 

fences, and homesites, ranches, and croplands 

were developed. As described in other sections, 

these impacts can still be seen in the Reserve 

landscape today and would continue to be 

present under all alternatives. Development 

of recreational facilities has also contributed 

to unavoidable adverse impacts, although 

these facilities also allow visitors to experience 

historic and natural resources and recreational 

opportunities within the Reserve that would 

otherwise be unavailable. Minor long-term 

beneficial effects, would be contributed by 

alternatives C and D with expansion of the 

boundary of the Reserve to protect additional 

natural and cultural resources. Some of these 

resources could eventually be restored to their 

historic appearance, such as along the California 

Trail in alternatives C and D and through the 

potential use of fire in alternatives B–D.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHORT-TERM USE 

OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND MAINTENANCE 

AND ENHANCEMENT OF LONG-TERM 

PRODUCTIVITY

Most of the land within City of Rocks would 

remain open and unaltered by development 

under all alternatives. Because the Reserve is 

a unit of the national park system, proposed 

actions within the Reserve have been designed 

with long-term use in mind. Therefore the area 

is, by definition, one that would be preserved 

in perpetuity. Nonetheless, the range of visitor 

use facilities that are available under alternative 

A, or that would be available under alternatives 

B, C, or D, are those that appeal to and would 

continue to be used by the current range of 

visitors to the Reserve, including for camping, 

hiking, climbing, mountain biking, horseback 

riding, and other activities.

Although learning about the Reserve has 

become an online activity for many, the 

provision of a small visitor center in alternatives 

A and B (with a larger facility that could 

potentially be constructed in alternative A), as 

well as facilities of varying sizes in alternatives 

C and D, would continue to provide a place 

for visitors to be welcomed to the Reserve 

and obtain onsite information from staff. As 

proposed in alternatives C and D, and in a 

future scenario of alternative A, visitors could 

obtain after-hours information from the visitor 

center site, as well as within the Reserve (from 

wayside exhibits, interpretive trails and in 

the information kiosks that would be part of 

alternative B).

This interpretive function has continued to 

be important in national park units because 

it presents an opportunity for visitors and 

staff to interact, which engenders support for 

appropriate uses in parks and generates the 

understanding needed to gather public support 

to preserve nationally significant natural and 

cultural resources in parks. Based on this, what 

could appear to be a short-term need (such as 

for a building and a source of information), is 

actually a key ingredient in welcoming visitors to 

the Reserve and encouraging interaction among 

staff and visitors that almost without exception 

improves the overall visitor experience. 

Providing a visitor center would enhance the 

long-term productivity associated with the 

Reserve, through investments in visitor services 

that later result in support for the Reserve, 

for other national and state parks, and for a 

nationwide system of parks.

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Management of other activities in the Reserve 

is also undertaken with future opportunities 

for research and natural and cultural resources 

preservation and restoration in mind. Expansion 

of the Research Natural Area under alternatives 

B–D would enhance the suitability of the 

expanded area for research, which could 

directly benefit plant and wildlife communities 

within the Reserve. Similarly, the proposed 

expansion of the boundary under alternatives 

C and D would add to a core protected area of 

the California Trail, expanding opportunities 

for long-term preservation of its resources. 

Other actions, such as proposed restoration of 

the Circle Creek impoundment (impoundment 

#1: the only one currently on public land), and 

the ongoing treatment and restoration of areas 

affected by nonnative invasive plants (under 

all alternatives) would enhance the long-term 

productivity of specific areas within the Reserve. 

Similarly, opportunities to reduce the actual 

areal impact of grazing under alternative C 

would also favor long-term productivity over 

short-term use.

IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE 

COMMITMENTS OF RESOURCES

Irreversible commitments of resources are 

actions that result in the loss of resources and 

cannot be reversed. Irretrievable commitments 

are actions that result in the loss of resources but 

only for a limited time.

Although development is considered long-term, 

the effects of development are to some degree 

reversible, and often could, if desired by land 

managers, be removed and rehabilitated or 

restored. Nonetheless, impacts of development 

remain visible on the landscape for decades, 

even centuries. Old roads and trails, even 

the wagon tracks of the emigrants, are visible 

following decades of disuse. If active restoration 

is conducted and contours are restored, 

however, it is possible to diminish the effects 

of development in some habitat types. In 

treed environments an old road trace would 

probably remain visible to the knowledgeable 

in perpetuity, unless a fire occurred and all the 

trees reverted to the same age class. Even then, 

compaction or physical alteration of the area, 

resulting in differential growth can allow the 

presence of an old roadbed to be detected.

Actions proposed within alternatives A–D 

that would “use up” resources would include 

removal of mature trees, excavation of soils 

for foundations, and importation of building 

materials procured elsewhere. This would 

often result in the loss of materials in one 

area and their replacement in another. To the 

degree that nonrenewable resources, including 

minerals and metals, were used, such use would 

preclude other uses and would be an irreversible 

commitment of resources, unless these could 

later be recycled.

Because development of new facilities would 

affect a very small portion of the Reserve and 

because these impacts are small in comparison 

to actions that would occur on private 

lands outside the Reserve, irreversible and 

irretrievable commitments of resources would 

be minor in all alternatives.

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Chapter 6

Public Involvement

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Chapter 6: Public Involvement

Public involvement and consultation efforts were 

ongoing throughout the process of preparing 

this draft GMP/EIS. Public involvement 

methods included Federal Register notices, 

news releases, public meetings and workshops, 

newsletter mailings, and website postings. This 

chapter provides information about each public 

involvement period and summarizes public 

comments received by the National Park Service 

and Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation 

during each phase.

PUBLIC SCOPING

The public was informed about the GMP 

process through a variety of ways. During 

summer 2009, the Reserve placed posters and 

flyers noting the beginning of the GMP planning 

process at strategic locations throughout 

the Reserve, and staff spoke to visitors 

attending summer campground talks at Smoky 

Mountain Campground.

On August 25, 2009, the public scoping process 

officially began when a Notice of Intent to 

prepare an environmental impact statement for 

the Reserve was published in the Federal Register

(Vol. 74, No. 163).

At the end of August, the planning team, 

composed of NPS and Reserve interdisciplinary 

staff, produced and mailed City of Rocks 

National Reserve Newsletter #1 Public Scoping

to approximately 250 people on the Reserve’s 

mailing list. Copies of newsletters were also 

placed at the visitor center counter.

The Reserve distributed a press release on 

September 1, 2009, asking the public to help 

plan for City of Rock’s future. Information 

about the GMP project was posted on the NPS 

Planning, Environment, and Public Comment 

(PEPC) website at http://parkplanning.nps.

gov/ciro, and on the Reserve’s homepage at 

http://www.nps.gov/ciro/parkmgmt/planning.

htm. Both websites provided information 

regarding the Reserve’s GMP and a method 

for the public to submit comments. The Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation also noted 

the GMP planning process on their website 

at http://parksandrecreation.idaho.gov/parks/

cityofrocks. Comments were received from 

the public until the scoping period closed on 

November 15, 2009.

STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT

Prior to the public scoping period, the Reserve 

held an internal planning team workshop 

to identify the stakeholders and develop 

preliminary issues. Cassia County was contacted 

in February 2009 and invited to select local 

county representatives to participate on the 

GMP planning team.

The planning team held individual meetings with 

key stakeholder groups. Stakeholder meetings 

were held with public agencies, including Cassia 

County, the Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation, the Bureau of Land Management, 

and the U.S. Forest Service. Meetings were 

also held with the NPS Upper Columbia Basin 

Network Inventory and Monitoring team and 

scientists from the University of Idaho.

In addition, the planning team sent a letter to 

more than 90 stakeholder groups from agencies, 

organizations, government representatives, 

and a tribal government to encourage their 

participation in the public scoping meetings and 

to offer a separate meeting with the planning 

team. This included the Idaho State Historic 

Preservation Office, the Advisory Council 

on Historic Preservation, and the ShoshoneBannock Tribes.

PUBLIC SCOPING WORKSHOPS AND 

WRITTEN COMMENTS

The National Park Service held five public 

workshops in southern Idaho in September 

and October 2009 to provide the public with 

an opportunity to meet the planning team, to 

Pinyon jays generally occur no farther north 

than the City of Rocks National Reserve.

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learn about the GMP planning process, and to 

provide comments. The workshops included 

a presentation on the Reserve and GMP 

planning process followed by facilitated group 

discussions. Public workshops were held in 

Almo, Burley, Pocatello, Boise, and Ketchum, 

Idaho. In total, 72 people signed in at the 

workshops. Comments from these workshops 

were posted to the PEPC website.

During the public comment period, the planning 

team received 27 written responses in the form 

of letters, emails, newsletter response forms, and 

web comments. In addition, two stakeholder 

meetings were held. On September 23, 2009, the 

GMP planning team met with representatives 

of the Sawtooth National Forest—Minidoka 

Ranger District and the Bureau of Land 

Management—Burley Field Office in Burley, 

Idaho. On October 22, the planning team met 

with the NPS Upper Columbia Basin Network in 

Ketchum, Idaho.

The following representatives, agencies, 

organizations and businesses submitted 

comments at the public workshops and/or 

through written correspondence:

Office of U.S. Congressman Mike Simpson

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

National Park Service Trails Office

National Park Service Upper Columbia 

Basin Network

Bureau of Land Management, Burley 

Field Office

Sawtooth National Forest, Minidoka 

Ranger Station

Idaho State Senator Denton Darrington

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation

Idaho Department of Fish and Wildlife

Cassia County Commission

Cassia County Road and Bridge Department

Cassia County Gateway West Task Force

ACE Fire Protection District

City of Rocks Quick Response Unit

University of Idaho

National Parks Conservation Association

Oregon-California Trails Association

Idaho Back Country Horsemen

The Access Fund

Southern Idaho Tourism

Idaho Alpine Club

Sierra Club

Sawtooth Mountain Guides

Almo Creek Enterprises

Bruesch Ranch

Fairfield Inn and Suites

In winter 2009–10, the planning team published 

and distributed the City of Rocks Newsletter 

#2 Results of Scoping summarizing the public 

comments. All of these comments were 

considered during the development of the GMP 

alternatives; however, some comments make 

recommendations that were outside the scope 

of the GMP or were infeasible due to law and 

policy guidance. Some comments were more 

appropriate for detailed implementation plans.

PUBLIC REVIEW OF THE 

DRAFT ALTERNATIVES

On April 1, 2011, the Reserve issued a press 

release inviting the public to comment on 

the GMP’s preliminary alternatives. On that 

same day, the GMP planning team mailed 

City of Rocks National Reserve Newsletter #3 

Preliminary Alternatives to approximately 450 

people on the GMP mailing list and posted 

the newsletter on the NPS PEPC website. The 

newsletter included the GMP draft management 

zones, preliminary alternatives for management, 

and potential changes to the boundary, among 

other articles.

The 60-day public comment period began 

on April 1 and was announced in the GMP 

newsletter, on the City of Rocks National 

Reserve homepage, and through a Reserve 

press release. The public comment period was 

scheduled to end on June 1, 2011; however, 

the Reserve extended the comment period 

an additional 30 days until July 1 due to local 

public interest.

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On April 26, the Reserve hosted a public open 

house in Almo, Idaho, to present the preliminary 

alternatives to the public. Although more 

attended, 19 people signed in and three pages 

of comments were received and posted to the 

PEPC website.

STAKEHOLDERS BRIEFED

The planning team met with a range of 

stakeholders to brief them in advance of 

public review on the preliminary alternatives. 

Agency comments were also accepted during 

those briefings. The Shoshone-Bannock 

Tribes were provided briefing materials and 

personally offered a formal briefing at their 

request (see the “Consultation” section at the 

end of this chapter). In addition, the planning 

team consulted with scientists from the Upper 

Columbia Basin Network on the preliminary 

alternatives. Agencies and county commissioners 

briefed during this period included the 

Bureau of Land Management, Cassia County 

Commissioners, Idaho Department of Fish 

and Game, Idaho Department of Lands, Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation, Idaho 

State Historic Preservation Office, ShoshoneBannock Tribes, and the U.S. Forest Service.

On December 14, 2011, the Weekly News Journal

published an article entitled “City of Rocks 

visitor’s center” by Jay Lenkersdorfer, who 

attended the Cassia County Commissioners 

briefing on the GMP preliminary alternatives. 

This article announced the publication of 

the preliminary alternatives newsletter and 

upcoming public meeting.

AGENCY AND ORGANIZATION 

WRITTEN COMMENTS

Altogether, during the comment period, the 

Reserve received more than 150 separate 

responses on the preliminary alternatives in the 

form of emails, individual letters, newsletter 

comment cards, and comments posted to PEPC. 

Approximately 83% of the letters came from 

Idaho and Utah, with a few letters coming from 

11 other states and British Columbia.

The following agencies, local governments, 

universities, and nonprofit organizations sent in 

official comment letters:

Idaho Department of Lands

Cassia County Commissioners

ACE Fire Protection District

Cache Peak Civic Association

Department of Geosciences, Boise 

State University

City of Rocks Back Country Byway

American Alpine Club

Back Country Horseman

Boise Climbers Alliance

Idaho Conservation League

Idaho Native Plant Society

National Parks and Conservation Association 

– Northern Rockies

The Access Fund

Western Watersheds Project

Bureau of Land Management

The planning team considered and discussed all 

comments received; however, not all comments 

were incorporated into the GMP alternatives. 

Some comments make recommendations that 

are outside the scope of the GMP or which were 

infeasible due to law and policy guidance. Some 

comments were more appropriate for detailed 

implementation plans.

LIST OF DRAFT GMP/EIS RECIPIENTS

Paper copies of the draft GMP/EIS were sent to 

the following: federal, state, and local agencies 

and officials; tribes; and businesses, institutions, 

and organizations. Additionally, copies were sent 

to 227 individuals on the mailing list.

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Federal Agencies and Officials

Bureau of Land Management, Boise State 

Office, Boise, ID

Bureau of Land Management, Burley Field 

Office, Burley, ID

The Honorable James E. Risch, U.S. Senate, 

Washington, D.C.

The Honorable Mike Crapo, U.S. Senate, 

Washington, DC

The Honorable Mike Simpson, U.S. House of 

Representatives, Washington, DC

National Park Service, Craters of the Moon 

National Monument and Preserve, Arco, ID

National Park Service, Glacier National Park, 

West Glacier, MT

National Park Service, Hagerman Fossil Beds 

National Monument, Hagerman, ID

National Park Service, Minidoka National 

Historic Site, Hagerman, ID

National Park Service, National Trails System, 

Intermountain Region, Salt Lake City, UT

National Park Service, Upper Columbia Basin 

Network, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID

National Park Service, Whitman Mission 

National Historic Site, Walla Walla, WA

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

Seattle, WA

U.S. Forest Service Minidoka Ranger District, 

Burley, ID

U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA

U.S. Geological Survey, Tucson, AZ

State and Local Agencies 

and Officials

Representative Fred Wood, Idaho State 

House of Representatives, District 27, 

Burley, ID

Representative Scott Bedke, Idaho State 

House of Representatives, District 27, 

Oakley, ID

Senator Dean L. Cameron, Idaho State 

Senate, District 26, Rupert, ID

U.S. Congressman Mike Simpson, 2nd 

District of Idaho, Twin Falls, ID

Cassia County Commissioners, Burley, ID

Cassia County Joint School District, 

Burley, ID

Cassia County Road and Bridge, Burley, ID

Cassia County Sheriff, Burley, ID

City of Oakley, Oakley, ID

City of Rocks Back Country Byway Advisory 

Committee, Burley, ID

Idaho Department of Agriculture, Boise, ID

Idaho Department of Environmental Quality, 

Boise, ID

Idaho Department of Fish and Game, 

Jerome, ID

Idaho Department of Lands, Boise, ID

Idaho Division of Water Resources, Boise, ID

Idaho Parks and Recreation, Boise, ID

Idaho Parks and Recreation, East Region, 

Idaho Falls, ID

Idaho Transportation Department, Boise, ID

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Tribes

Shoshone-Bannock Tribes, Fort Hall 

Reservation, ID

Shoshone-Piutes Tribes, Duck Valley 

Reservation, ID

Businesses, Institutions, and Organizations

Albion Normal Heritage Group, Albion, ID

Almo Creek Enterprises, Almo, ID

Archeology Department, Idaho State 

University, Pocatello, ID

Audubon Society, Boise Chapter, Boise, ID

Audubon Society, Pocatello Chapter, 

Pocatello, ID

Back Country Horsemen, Cache Peak 

Chapter, Rupert, ID

Back Country Horsemen of Idaho, 

Rupert, ID

Boise Climbers Alliance and American Alpine 

Club, Boise, ID

Boise State University Department of 

Geosciences, Boise, ID

Boise State University, Geology Department, 

Boise, ID

Box C Ranch, Grouse Creek, UT

Brigham Young University, Idaho, 

Rexburg, ID

Bruesch Ranch, LLC, Almo, ID

Cache Peak Civic Association, Almo, ID

Campus on The Grove, Albion, ID

Cassia County Historical Museum, Burley, ID

Cassia County Historical Society, Burley, ID

Castle Shadows Bed & Breakfast, Almo, ID

College of Southern Idaho, Twin Falls, ID

Durfee Hot Springs, Almo, ID

Exum Mountain Guides

Fairfield Inn & Suites, Burley, ID

Gateway Task Force, Burley, ID

Geologic Society of America, Boulder, CO

Idaho Alpine Club, Moose, WY

Idaho Cattle Association, Boise, ID

Idaho Conservation League, Boise, ID

Idaho National Pioneer Hall of Fame, Burley, 

ID

Idaho Native Plant Society, Loasa Chapter, 

Twin Falls, ID

Idaho Native Plant Society, Pahove Chapter, 

Boise, ID

Idaho Native Plant Society, Sawabi Chapter, 

Pocatello, ID

Idaho State Historic Preservation Office, 

Boise, ID

Idaho State Historical Society, Boise, ID

Idaho Travel and Tourism, Boise, ID

Indian Grove Outfitters, Almo, ID

Mindoka County Museum, Rupert, ID

Mini-Cassia Chamber of Commerce, 

Heyburn, ID

Mini-Cassia Search and Rescue, Burley, ID

National Parks Conservation Association, 

Northern Rockies Region, Livingston, MT

Natural Conservation Service, Burley, ID

Oakley Pioneer Museum, Oakley, ID

Old Homestead Bed and Breakfast, Almo, ID

Oregon-California Trails Association, Idaho, 

Independence, MO

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Oregon-California Trails Association, 

Northwest Chapter, Renton, WA

Pommerelle Ski Resort, Albion, ID

Rock City Mercantile, Almo, ID

Sawtooth Mountain Guides, Stanley, ID

Sawtooth Science Institute, Idaho State 

University, Pocatello, ID

Southern Idaho Tourism, Twin Falls, ID

Sierra Club, Northern Rockies Chapter, 

Pocatello, ID

Simplot Company, Grouse Creek, UT

South Central Idaho Recreation and Tourism 

Association, Twin Falls, ID

Southern Idaho Tourism, Twin Falls, ID

Stanford University, Stanford, CA

The Access Fund, Boulder, CO

The American Alpine Club, Golden, CO

The Boise Climbers Alliance, Boise, ID

The Conservation Fund, Sun Valley, ID

The Idaho Alpine Club, Idaho Falls, ID

The National Outdoor Leadership School, 

Lander, WY

University of Idaho, Moscow, ID

University of Idaho, Twin Falls, ID

Western Watersheds Project, Hailey, ID

Whitman College, Department of Geology, 

Walla Walla, ID

The Wilderness Society, Boise, ID

COOPERATING AGENCIES

Under the National Environmental Policy Act, a 

“cooperating agency” is defined as

any Federal agency other than a lead agency 

which has jurisdiction by law or special 

expertise with respect to any environmental 

impact involved in a proposal (or a 

reasonable alternative) for legislation or other 

major Federal action significantly affecting 

the quality of the human environment.

State and local agencies and American Indian 

tribes that meet the above-mentioned criteria 

may also become cooperating agencies by formal 

agreement (Sec. 1508.5 CEQ regulations).

In August 2012, a memorandum of 

understanding was signed between the 

National Park Service and the Bureau of Land 

Management to enter into a cooperating 

agency status (Sec. 1501.6 CEQ regulations) to 

emphasize agency cooperation in the NEPA 

process. The purpose of the memorandum 

was to provide a framework for cooperation 

to facilitate the timely completion of the GMP 

and associated plans as needed. An advance 

copy of the draft GMP/EIS was submitted to the 

Bureau of Land Management in December 2012 

for review and comment. Extensive comments 

were received from the Bureau of Land 

Management and changes were incorporated 

into this document.

The National Park Service and Idaho 

Department of Parks and Recreation operate 

the Reserve under a long-term cooperative 

agreement that outlines their roles and 

responsibilities with regard to planning and 

management. Therefore, the two did not enter 

into a cooperating agency agreement for the 

purpose of developing this GMP.

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CONSULTATION

Section 106

In accordance with the National Historic 

Preservation Act of 1966 and the Advisory 

Council on Historic Preservation regulations, 

the Reserve must consult the Idaho State 

Historic Preservation Office and related 

organizations regarding any resource 

management proposal that may affect a cultural 

property listed on or found eligible for the 

National Register of Historic Places. Formal 

consultation for section 106 was initiated 

by the planning team in September 2009 

during the initial scoping period for the GMP. 

Letters were sent to the executive director 

and two deputy directors at the Idaho State 

Historical Society in Boise. Letters included 

an invitation to attend stakeholder and public 

meetings and were accompanied by the first 

GMP newsletter (public scoping). At the same 

time, an informational letter was mailed to the 

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation in 

Washington, D.C.

In 2010, the second GMP newsletter (summary 

of public comments) was mailed to the Idaho 

State Historic Preservation Office.

On April 1, 2010, before release of the 

preliminary alternatives, the GMP project 

manager spoke to the SHPO deputy director 

regarding a request from the office to be more 

involved in the planning process. SHPO 

concerns about the GMP project centered 

around 1) climbing activities, 2) the historic 

landscape, and 3) level of development in 

the Reserve.

In December 2010, the planning team briefed 

the Idaho State Historic Preservation Office in 

Boise in advance of release of the preliminary 

alternatives to ensure that any requested 

changes were identified and considered before 

mailing the third GMP newsletter (preliminary 

alternatives) to the public. During March 2011, 

letters and copies of newsletter #3 Preliminary 

Alternatives were sent to the Idaho State Historic 

Preservation Office and the Advisory Council 

on Historic Preservation, soliciting review of 

the alternatives and attendance at the April 

public meetings.

In late 2012, the planning team sent the Idaho 

State Historic Preservation Office a copy of 

the unpublished draft GMP for their review. 

In January 2013, the Idaho State Historic 

Preservation Office mailed the planning team 

comments on the draft GMP. The office’s 

comments mainly focused on proposed 

development in the national historic landmark, 

in particular, the location of the equestrian 

staging area and the process for determining 

that location. These concerns were addressed 

in a meeting with the Idaho State Historic 

Preservation Office in Seattle in February and 

new language was added to the draft GMP to 

address these concerns.

GOVERNMENT TO GOVERNMENT 

CONSULTATION

Consultation with American Indian groups 

and organizations is the responsibility of 

the National Park Service. The Reserve 

superintendent would assist in these 

consultations and represent the Reserve and the 

National Park Service in hosting onsite visits of 

American Indian groups and organizations.

Shoshone-Bannock Tribes

In September 2009 during the initial scoping 

period for the GMP, formal consultation was 

initiated with the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes who 

are associated with City of Rocks. The National 

Park Service has consulted with the ShoshoneBannock Tribes of the Fort Hall Reservation on 

an ongoing basis since the early 1990s when they 

were initially contacted about the City of Rocks 

National Reserve and the Bear River Massacre 

Site near Preston, Idaho.

The planning team sent information packets to 

the Chairman of the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes 

and the Cultural Resources Coordinator in Fort 

Hall, Idaho. The packets included the GMP 

public scoping newsletter and a letter inviting 

the tribe to meet separately with the planning 

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team regarding the GMP. On October 5, 2009, 

the Reserve staff followed up with a phone call 

to the tribe’s Cultural Resources Coordinator 

to be sure that the packet was received and to 

answer any potential questions. No comments 

were received by the planning team.

In winter 2010, a second GMP newsletter 

was mailed to the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes 

providing a summary of public comments 

during the public scoping period.

On January 10, 2011, the NPS Pacific West 

Regional Anthropologist contacted the 

Shoshone-Bannock Tribes to inform them about 

the development of preliminary alternatives. 

The National Park Service then sent the tribes 

a briefing packet on the preliminary alternatives 

in advance of general public review. In March, 

Reserve staff followed up with a phone call 

to determine if there were any comments, 

questions, or concerns on the preliminary 

alternatives. No comments were received at 

this time.

In April 2011, during public review, the 

Shoshone-Bannock Tribes received printed 

copies of the third newsletter (preliminary 

alternatives). No comments were received by 

the National Park Service from the ShoshoneBannock Tribes.

Shoshone-Paiute Tribes

The Shoshone-Paiute Tribes of the Duck Valley 

have expressed an interest in consultation about 

City of Rocks National Reserve as part of the 

general management planning process. In an 

October 2011 response letter to the ShoshonePaiute Tribes, the National Park Service 

welcomed an opportunity to set a date for an 

in-person meeting.

In October 2013, Reserve and NPS staff 

met with the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes, 

the Shoshone-Paiute Tribes, the Idaho State 

Historic Preservation Office, the Bureau of 

Land Management, and the Deputy Keeper 

of the National Register at the Reserve. This 

meeting focused on the proposed traditional 

cultural property nomination that the Bureau 

of Land Management and the tribes have been 

developing. During this meeting, the Reserve 

superintendent updated the tribes about the 

status of the draft GMP. Both the ShoshoneBannock and the Shoshone-Paiute tribes 

received advance copies of the draft GMP for 

comment in November; however, no specific 

comments have been received to date.

Section 7

Formal consultation for section 7 was initiated 

by the planning team in June 2009 with the 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Idaho 

Department of Fish and Game. Each agency was 

sent a letter and a GMP newsletter.

A letter was received from the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service dated June 30, 2009, 

providing the National Park Service with a list 

of endangered, threatened, proposed, and/or 

candidate species and designated critical habitat 

in the area of the Reserve. There were no listed 

species reported, and no proposed species and 

proposed/designated critical habitat. Only one 

candidate species was noted, Christ’s Indian 

paintbrush (Castilleja christii), near the Reserve.

On June 17, 2009, the Idaho Department of Fish 

and Game responded to the species request 

with information that has been provided in the 

affected environment chapter (see “Chapter 4: 

Affected Environment” for more information).

The USFWS website was reviewed again before 

publication of this DGMP/EIS. There were no 

additional species listed.

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References and Appendixes

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Preparers and Consultants

PLANNING TEAM COMPOSITION AND FUNCTION

Kristen Bastis, Integrated Resources Manager, City of Rocks National Reserve, Almo, 

ID, Cultural Resource Issues, Wilderness Eligibility Assessment, and Rim Development 

Concept Plan

Carl Byrd, Chief of Maintenance, City of Rocks National Reserve, Almo, ID, 

Facilities Issues

Dianne Croal, Landscape Architect, NPS Pacific West Region, Seattle, WA, Transportation 

and Facilities Issues, Rim DCP

Marsha Davis, Geologist, NPS Pacific West Region, Seattle, WA, Geology issues, Water 

Resource Issues, Rim DCP, and Mapping

Keith Dunbar, Former Chief of Planning, NPS Pacific West Region, Seattle, WA, 

Project  Oversight

Erv Gasser, Natural Resource Specialist, NPS Pacific West Region, Seattle, WA, Integrated 

Pest Management Issues, Fire Management Issues, Grazing Issues, and Rim DCP

Cathy Gilbert, Former Historical Landscape Architect, NPS Pacific West Region, Seattle, 

WA, Cultural Resource Issues

Trenton Durfee, Natural Resources Ranger, City of Rocks National Reserve, Almo, ID, 

Natural Resource Issues

Kirstie Haertel , Archeologist, NPS Pacific West Region, Seattle, WA, Archeology Issues

Juanita Jones, Chief of Visitor Services, City of Rocks National Reserve, Almo, ID, 

Education and Interpretation Issues, Visitor Experience Issues

Wallace Keck, Superintendent , City of Rocks National Reserve, Almo, ID, Park 

Management and Policy Issues, Natural Resource Issues, Rim DCP, Wilderness Eligibility 

Assessment, Draft GMP/EIS Writing and Photography, and Public Involvement

Allen McCoy, Natural Resources Data Manager, NPS Pacific West Region, Seattle, WA, 

GIS Mapping and Spatial Analysis

Bradley Pavlik, Former Historical Landscape Architect, NPS Pacific West Region, 

Seattle, WA, Newsletter Layout, and Editing

Rose Rumball-Petre, Environmental Protection Specialist, NPS Pacific West Region, 

Seattle, WA, Environmental Analysis, and Rim DCP

Amanda Schramm, Realty Specialist, NPS Columbia-Cascades Land Resources 

Program Center, Seattle, WA, Climate Change Issues, Land Use and Boundary Issues, 

Project Management

The Reserve features geological wonders.

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Brad Shilling, Climbing Ranger, City of Rocks National Reserve, Almo, ID, Rock 

Climbing  Issues

Anna Tamura, Landscape Architect, NPS Pacific West Region, Seattle, WA, Cultural 

Landscape Inventory, Rim DCP

Garth Taylor, East Regional Manager, Idaho Parks and Recreation, Burley, ID, Oversight 

and Review

Cheryl Teague, Former Landscape Architect, NPS Pacific West Region, Seattle, WA, GMP 

Project Manager, Overall Project Organization and Coordination, Public Involvement, 

Draft GMP/EIS Production and Writing, Rim DCP, and Scenic Resources Issues

Chace Thomas, Former Chief of Maintenance , City of Rocks National Reserve, Almo, ID, 

Facilities Issues

Rick Wagner, Chief, NPS Columbia-Cascades Land Resources Program Center, Seattle, 

WA, Analysis of Land and Boundary Modification Issues

Venna Ward, Chief of Administration, City of Rocks National Reserve, Almo, ID, ROLE

Fred York, Former Anthropologist, NPS Pacific West Region, Seattle, WA, Contemporary 

Tribal Communities Issues

OTHER CONTRIBUTORS AND CONSULTANTS

Nancy Ady, Rangeland Management Specialist, BLM Burley Field Office, Burley, ID

Betsy Anderson, Landscape Architect, NPS Pacific West Region, Seattle, WA, Editing

William Back, Former Deputy Regional Solicitor, Pacific Northwest Region, U.S. 

Department of the Interior, Legal Facilities Funding

Lilette Baltodano, Financial Agreements Specialist, NPS Pacific West Region, San 

Francisco, CA, Cooperative Agreements

Ann Barstow, Budget Technician, Pacific West Region, Seattle, WA, Administrative and 

Budget Support

Sara Bodo, Community Planner, NPS Denver Service Center, Denver, CO, Cost Estimating

Kerri Cahill, Visitor Use Management Team Lead, NPS Denver Service Center, Denver, 

CO, Workshop Facilitation

Debbie Campbell, Line Item Construction Program Manager, NPS Pacific West Region, 

San Francisco, CA, Costs

Martha Crusius, Program Chief, Park Planning & Environmental Compliance, NPS Pacific 

West Region, San Francisco, CA, Project Management

Tonnie Cummings, Regional Air Resources Specialist, NPS Fort Vancouver National 

Historic Site, Vancouver, WA, Air Quality Issues

Erin Flanagan, Community Planner, NPS Denver Service Center, Denver, CO, 

Workshop Facilitation

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Lisa Garrett, Division Chief, NPS Inventory & Monitoring – Southeast Region, 

Fort Collins, CO, Natural Resource Issues

Tod Johnson, Fire Management Specialist, NPS Pacific West Region, Seattle, WA, 

Fire issues

Lee Kreutzer, Cultural Resource Specialist, NPS Long Distance Trails Office, 

Salt Lake City, UT, California National Historic Trail Issues

David Louter, Chief of Cultural Resources, NPS Pacific West Region, Seattle, WA, 

Cultural Resources Issues Oversight

Lelaina Marin, Former Outdoor Recreation Planner, NPS Natural Resources Program 

Center, Fort Collins, CO, Natural Soundscapes Issues

Chad Moore, Night Skies Team Leader, NPS Natural Resources Program Center, Fort 

Collins, CO, Natural Soundscapes Issues

Trung-Son Nguyen, Architect, NPS Pacific West Region, San Francisco, CA, NPS Facilities 

Modeling

Stephan Nofield, Former Community Planner, Denver Service Center, Denver, CO, 

Washington, D.C., Foundation Document Production, Workshop Facilitation

Garry Oye, Former Chief, NPS Wilderness Stewardship Division, Washington, D.C., 

Wilderness Issues

Ericka Pilcher, Visitor Use Project Specialist, NPS Denver Service Center, Denver, CO, 

Carrying Capacity Issues, Workshop Facilitation

Judy Rocchio, Air Resources Specialist, NPS Pacific West Region, San Francisco, CA, Air 

Quality Issues

Tom Rodhouse, Ecologist, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, Biogeographic 

Crossroads Issues

Stephanie Toothman, Former Chief of Cultural Resources, NPS Pacific West Region, 

Seattle, WA, Cultural Resources Issues Oversight

Karen Vaage, Former Landscape Architect, NPS Denver Service Center, Denver, CO, Rim 

Development Concept Plan

Elizabeth Waddell, Former Air Quality Specialist, NPS Pacific West Region, Seattle, WA, 

Air Quality Issues

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ACRONYMS AND GLOSSARY

ACRONYMS

ACE Fire Almo Connor Creek Elba Fire Protection District

AEC Atomic Energy Commission

AHA American Heart Association

AML abandoned mine lands

APE area of potential effects

AQRVs air quality related values

ARPA Archaeological Resources Protection Act

ASMIS Archeological Sites Management Information System

AUM animal unit month

BLM Bureau of Land Management

Burke Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture, Seattle, WA

CA cooperative agreement

CAA Clean Air Act

CAFO confined animal feeding operation

CEO compliance enforcement officer

CEQ Council on Environmental Quality

CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

CESU Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit

CIRO City of Rocks National Reserve

CLI cultural landscape inventory

CLIP Climate Leadership in Parks

CMAQ Community Multi-scale Air Quality Model

CMP comprehensive management plan

CPCA Cache Peak Civic Association

CRSP Castle Rocks State Park

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CSCR Cassia Silent City of Rocks

CWPPs community wildlife protection plans

CXT concrete vault toilet

dB decibels

dBA A-weighted decibel

DCP development concept plan

DG disintegrated granite

DOE U.S. Department of Energy

DOI U.S. Department of the Interior

DPS Distinct Population Segment

EA environmental assessment

EIS environmental impact statement

EMTB emergency medical technician basic

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

ESA Endangered Species Act

FLPMA Federal Land and Policy Management Act

FONSI Finding of No Significant Impact

FMP fire management plan

FMSS Facility Management Software System

FTE full-time equivalent

GMP general management plan

GRD National Park Service, Geologic Resources Division

Hagerman Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument

HPZ historical preservation zone

HRS historic resource study

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ICDC Idaho Conservation Data Center

IDAPA Idaho Administrative Procedures Act

IDEQ Idaho Department of Environmental Quality

IDFG Idaho Department of Fish and Game

IDPR Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation

I&M inventory and monitoring

IMPROVE Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments

ISBLC Idaho State Board of Land Commissioners

kg/ha kilograms per hectare

LCS List of Classified Structures

mg/L milligrams per litre

Mm-1 inverse megameters

g/m3 micrograms per cubic meter

MOA Memorandum of Agreement

MOU Memorandum of Understanding

msa stellar magnitudes per square arc second

MW megawatt

mya million years ago

NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards

NEPA National Environmental Policy Act

NHL national historic landmark

NHPA National Historic Preservation Act of 1966

NHT national historic trail

NNL national natural landmark

NOI Notice of Intent

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NOLS National Outdoor Leadership School

NPS National Park Service

NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service

NSP Natural Sounds Program

NTCHS National Technical Committee for Hydric Soils

OPDMDs other power-driven mobility devices

PEPC NPS Planning, Environment, and Public Comment website

PILT payment-in-lieu-of-taxes

PM particulate matter

PM10 particulate matter less than 10 microns in diameter

PM2.5 particulate matter less than 2.5 microns in diameter

PMIS Project Management Information System

ppb parts per billion

PPE personal protective equipment

PRISM Parameter-Elevation Regressions on Independent Slopes Model

QRU Quick Response Unit

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Reserve City of Rocks National Reserve

RAWS remote automated weather stations

RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

RMCO Rocky Mountain Climate Organization

RNA research natural area

ROD Record of Decision

R&PP Recreation and Public Purposes (BLM lease)

RV recreational vehicle

SHPO Idaho State Historic Preservation Office

Tribes Shoshone-Bannock Tribes

UCBN NPS Upper Columbia Basin Network

UCBN I&M Upper Columbia Basin Network Inventory and Monitoring Program

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

USFS U.S. Forest Service

USFWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

YCC Youth Conservation Corps

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GLOSSARY

A

A-weighted decibel: a unit that measures 

sound pressure, adjusted to the A weighting 

scale, which provides a formula for discounting 

sounds at low (<1 kHz) and high (> 6 kHz) 

frequencies.

accessibility: the provision of NPS programs, 

facilities, and services in ways that include 

individuals with disabilities, or makes available 

to those individuals the same benefits available 

to persons without disabilities.

acoustical environment: the physical sound 

resources at a particular location, regardless 

of audibility. The acoustical environment may 

include wildlife, waterfalls, wind, rain, and 

cultural or historic sounds.

adaptive management: adaptive management 

is a systematic process for continually improving

management policies and practices 

by learning from the outcomes of 

operational programs.

affected environment: existing natural, 

cultural, and social conditions of an area that are 

subject to change, both directly and indirectly, as 

a result of a proposed human action.

aggradation: the process by which a stream’s 

gradient steepens due to increased deposition 

of sediment.

air quality designations: designated under 

the Clean Air Act, Class I areas are those areas 

that are afforded the highest level of protection 

from air pollutants. Mandatory Class I areas 

were designated by Congress and include 

international parks, national wilderness areas or 

national memorial parks larger than 5,000 acres, 

or national parks larger than 6,000 acres, that 

were in existence (or authorized) on August 7, 

1977. Class II areas are all areas not designated 

Class I where additional air pollutant inputs may 

be permitted up to certain levels.

alluvial fan: a triangular deposit of sediment 

left by a stream that has lost velocity where it 

exits a narrow mountain valley onto a more 

gently sloping plain or broad valley.

alluvium: a deposit of sediment left by a stream 

along its channel or floodplain.

Almo Pluton: the name of a granite intrusion in 

the Albion Mountains.

alternatives: sets of management elements that 

represent a range of options for how or whether 

to proceed with a proposed project.

amphibolite: a metamorphic rock consisting 

mainly of amphibole (shiny, black, oriented 

needle-shaped crystals) and plagioclase minerals 

with lit tle or no quartz.

animal unit month: the amount of forage 

needed by an “animal unit” grazing for one 

month based on a forage allowance of 26 

pounds per day. The animal unit is typically 

defined as one mature 1,000-pound cow and her 

suckling calf.

anticline: a convex upward fold of rock layers, 

the central part of which contains the oldest 

layer of rock. The crest of the fold is the fold 

axis. If the fold plunges at both ends, then it is 

referred to as a structural dome, which can be 

either symmetrical (circular) or asymmetrical 

(elongated).

anuran: one of the orders of amphibians 

characterized by the absence of a tail, as the 

frogs and toads.

appropriate use: a use that is suitable, proper, 

or fitting for a particular park, or to a particular 

location within a park.

archean: the earlier part of Precambrian time.

archeology: the scientific study, interpretation, 

and reconstruction of past human cultures from 

an anthropological perspective based on the 

investigation of the surviving physical evidence 

of human activity and the reconstruction of 

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related past environments. Historic archeology 

uses historic documents as additional sources 

of information.

archeological resource: any material 

remains or physical evidence of past human 

life or activities that are of archeological 

interest, including the record of effects of 

human activities on the environment. An 

archeological resource is capable of revealing 

scientific or humanistic information through 

archeological research.

argillic: sediment and soil that contain clay.

aridisol: soils that form in deserts and xeric 

shrublands, forming under arid to semi-arid 

conditions and having a low concentration of 

organic matter.

artesian: ground water that is confined under 

hydrostatic pressure.

B

Basin and Range province: a large 

geographic region characterized throughout 

by a common physiography, in this case block 

faulted mountain ranges separated by downdropped basins, and differing significantly from 

adjacent areas.

Backcountry: primitive, undeveloped portions 

of park units, some of which may be managed 

as “wilderness.”

biome: a large naturally occurring community 

of flora and fauna occupying a major habitat.

biotic crust: a biological soil crust composed 

of living cyanobacteria, green algae, brown 

algae, fungi, lichens, and/or mosses. Commonly 

found in arid regions around the world, 

cryptobiotic soils go by many names, including 

cryptogamic, microbiotic, or microphytic soils 

or crusts. Soil crusts are important members of 

desert ecosystems and contribute to the wellbeing of other plants by stabilizing sand and 

dirt, promoting moisture retention, and fixing 

atmospheric nitrogen. Because of their thin, 

fiberous nature, cryptobiotic soils are extremely 

fragile systems.

bornhardt: a dome-shaped granite-gneiss 

monolith formed by weathering and erosion, 

usually in arid and semi-arid climates.

borrow pit: an excavated area where sand or 

gravel has been removed.

Bortle Dark-Sky Scale: a qualitative scale 

relying on visual appearance to determine which 

of the 1 (pristine) to 9 (urban) classes a night sky 

falls within.

C

candidate species: species not currently 

protected under the Endangered Species Act 

but under consideration by the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service for addition to the list of 

federally threatened or endangered species.

carbonates: a class of minerals and rocks 

containing anionic CO3 bonded to one 

or more cations, most commonly calcium 

and magnesium.

Castle Rocks Interagency Recreation Area:

includes 480 acres of the Sawtooth National 

Forest (Minidoka Ranger District), 400 acres of 

the Bureau of Land Management’s Burley Field 

Office (Twin Falls District), and 1,420 acres of 

the Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation’s 

Castle Rocks State Park.

Cenozoic: an era of geologic time beginning 

with the Tertiary period.

cirque: a deep, steep-walled, generally flatfloored, semi-circular basin eroded out of a 

mountain by a glacier, usually forming a blunt 

upper end of an alpine valley; shaped like 

an amphitheater.

climate change: refers to any distinct change in 

measures of climate lasting for a long period of 

time. In other words, “climate change” means 

major changes in temperature, rainfall, snow, 

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or wind patterns lasting for decades or longer. 

Climate change may result from 1) natural 

factors, such as changes in the sun’s energy or 

slow changes in the earth’s orbit around the sun, 

2) natural processes within the climate system 

(such as changes in ocean circulation), 3) human 

activities that change the atmosphere’s make-up 

(e.g., burning fossil fuels) and the land surface 

(such as cutting down forests, planting trees, 

building developments in cities and suburbs).

Code of Federal Regulations (CFR): a 

publication that codifies the general and 

permanent rules or regulations published in 

the Federal Register by the executive branch 

departments and agencies of the federal 

government and which carry the force of law. 

The citation “36 CFR 1.1” refers to part 1, 

section 1, of title 36.

colluvium: unconsolidated, heterogeneous 

soil and/or rock material found on hillslopes 

resulting from mass wasting under the influence 

of gravity.

commercial service: any visitor-related service, 

activity, or facility for which compensation, 

monetary or otherwise, is exchanged. By law, all 

commercial services in parks must be authorized 

by the superintendent. Commercial services can 

originate within the park or outside.

community: any grouping of populations 

of different organisms that live together in a 

particular environment.

conserve: to protect from loss or harm; 

preserve. Historically, the terms conserve, 

protect, and preserve have come collectively 

to embody the fundamental purpose of the 

National Park Service—preserving, protecting 

and conserving the resources contained within 

the national park system.

competent: a geological term that describes 

how well annealed a rock is; it means 

well indurated.

consultation: a discussion, conference, or 

forum in which advice or information is sought 

or given, or information or ideas are exchanged.

cove: a topographic hollow, often rounded, 

that is surrounded by mountains and accessed 

through water gaps and low passes through 

the mountains.

crustal: pertaining to the outermost layer of an 

exposed rock surface.

cultural landscape: cultural landscapes are 

defined as areas that reflect human adaptation 

and use of natural resources during one period 

or over time, as expressed in the way that 

land is organized and divided into patterns 

of settlement, land use, circulation systems, 

and structures. Cultural landscapes may be 

composed of a series of historic districts or may 

be the landscape associated with one district.

cultural resource: an aspect of a cultural 

system that is valued by or significantly 

representative of a culture or that contains 

significant information about a culture. A 

cultural resource may be a tangible entity or a 

cultural practice. Tangible cultural resources 

are categorized as districts, sites, buildings, 

structures, and objects for the National 

Register of Historic Places; and as archeological 

resources, cultural landscapes, structures, 

museum objects, and ethnographic resources for 

NPS management purposes.

D

defile: a narrow passage, gorge, or notch.

dispersed camping: camping on public lands 

away from developed recreation facilities. 

Dispersed campsites are undeveloped, and are 

generally not signed as campsites. These sites 

may or may not have a rock fire ring and will 

not have public tables or restrooms. Most of 

BLM-managed lands are open to dispersed 

camping, unless signed otherwise and as long as 

the use does not conflict with other authorized 

uses such as in areas that are posted as being 

“closed to camping” or in some way adversely 

affects wildlife species, livestock, or natural or 

cultural resources.

desired future conditions: the future 

condition of resources needed to meet 

a management objective. Desired future 

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conditions are based on ecological, social, and 

economic considerations during the land and 

resource management planning process.

developed area: an area managed to provide 

and maintain facilities (such as roads, 

campgrounds, and housing) that serve park 

staff and visitors. It includes areas where 

park development or intensive use may have 

substantially altered the natural environment or 

the setting for culturally significant resources.

dikes: veins of igneous rock intruded into a 

host rock.

dome: a round or oval bulge on the Earth’s 

surface, containing the oldest section of rock in 

its raised, central part.

dryland farming: a mode of farming for 

nonirrigated cultivation of dry lands, practiced 

in regions of slight or insufficient rainfall, that 

relies mainly on tillage methods rendering the 

soil more receptive of capturing and conserving 

moisture and on the selection of suitable crops 

based on the timing of the predominant rainfall 

in relation to the seasons.

duripan: a horizon in a mineral soil that is 

characterized by cementation by silica.

E

easement: a right or privilege one may have on 

another’s land. For example, an easement may 

allow a utility company to build and maintain 

electrical transmission lines through another 

landowner’s property, but take no other actions 

beyond those defined in the easement.

echolocation: the location of objects by 

reflected sound, in particular that used by 

animals such as dolphins and bats.

ecoregion: a biological subdivision of the 

earth’s surface delineated by the flora and fauna 

of the region.

ecosystem: an arrangement of living and nonliving things and the forces that move them. 

Living things include plants and animals. Nonliving parts of ecosystems include rocks and 

minerals. Weather and wildland fire are two of 

the forces that act within ecosystems.

Elba Quartzite: the name of a rock formation 

(layer) in the Albion Mountains composed of 

metamorphosed quartz sandstone.

endangered species: plant and animal species 

that are in danger of extinction throughout all or 

a significant portion of their range. Endangered 

species are identified by the Secretary of the 

Interior in accordance with the Endangered 

Species Act of 1973.

Enlarged Homestead Act of 1909: one 

of the many homestead acts that gave an 

applicant ownership of land, typically called a 

“homestead,” at little or no cost. The 1909 act 

increased the acreage from 160 to 320 acres.

environmental impact statement (EIS): a 

public document, required under the National 

Environmental Policy Act that identifies 

alternatives and analyzes their effects on the 

human environment.

erosion: the wearing away of land surface 

either by natural chemical or physical processes 

(including water, wind, or ice) or human or 

animal activities.

exclosure: an area from which unwanted 

animals are excluded.

executive orders, memoranda, or 

proclamations: regulations having the 

force of law issued by the President of the 

United States to the executive branch of the 

federal government.

exfoliation joints: the type of fracture 

or jointing formed by pressure-release; 

expansion joints.

extirpation: local extinction or the condition 

of a species that ceases to exist in the chosen 

geographic area of study, though it still exists 

elsewhere.

F

fauna: the animal life of a region or 

geological period.

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Federal Land Policy and Management 

Act of 1976 (FLPMA): the Bureau of Land 

Management manages land under the Federal 

Land Policy and Management Act of 1976, 

as amended. The Federal Land Policy and 

Management Act is the BLM’s “organic act” that 

establishes the agency’s multiple-use mandate to 

serve present and future generations.

Federally listed species: a species, subspecies, 

or distinct vertebrate population segment that 

has been added to the federal lists of endangered 

and threatened wildlife and plants as they 

appear in the Code of Federal Regulations.

fire management activities: includes fire 

planning; management strategies, tactics, and 

alternatives; prevention; preparedness; and 

education that addresses the role of mitigation, 

post-fire rehabilitation, fuels reduction, and 

restoration activities in fire management.

fire management plan: a strategic plan that 

defines a program to manage wildland fires 

based on an area’s approved land management 

plan. Fire management plans must address a full 

range of fire management activities that support 

ecosystem sustainability, values to be protected, 

protection of firefighters and public safety, 

public health, and environmental issues, and 

must be consistent with resource management 

objectives and activities of the area.

fire regime: the combination of fire frequency, 

predictability, intensity, seasonality, and extent 

characteristics of fire in an ecosystem.

floodplain: the area surrounding a stream 

subject to flooding when the stream overflows its 

banks at times of high water, the size of which is 

usually described as some interval of recurrence 

(10, 20, 50, 100, or 500 years).

fluvial: of or pertaining to the flow and action of 

a stream or river.

flora: plant or bacterial life forms of a region or 

geological period.

forb: a herbaceous flowering plant other than 

a grass.

fossiliferous: adjective describing a rock that 

contains fossils.

foundation document: a document that begins 

a national park unit’s planning process and sets 

the stage for all future planning and decisionmaking by identifying the unit’s mission, 

purpose, significance, special mandates, and 

broad mission goals. It is incorporated into a 

unit’s general management plan, but may also be 

produced as a stand-alone document for a unit.

free rock-climbing: the most commonly used 

method to ascend climbs refers to climbs where 

the climber’s own physical strength and skill are 

relied on to accomplish the climb.

frontcountry: areas of a park that are 

easily accessible to visitors (as opposed to 

backcountry) and are more frequently used, 

often by single-day visitors. The frontcountry 

contains developed areas and is generally 

located along or accessed by transportation 

corridors.

G

gateway community: a community that exists 

in close proximity to a unit of the national park 

system, whose residents and elected officials 

are often affected by the decisions made in the 

course of managing the park unit, and whose 

decisions may affect the resources of the park. 

Because of this, there are shared interests 

and concerns regarding decisions. Gateway 

communities usually offer food, lodging, and 

other services to park visitors. They also provide 

opportunities for employee housing, and a 

convenient location to purchase goods and 

services essential to park administration.

geographic information system (GIS): both a 

database designed to store geographic data and 

a set of computer operations that can be used to 

analyze the data.

geologic resources: features produced from 

the physical history of the earth, or processes 

such as exfoliation, erosion and sedimentation, 

glaciation, karst or shoreline processes, seismic, 

and volcanic activities.

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geomorphic: pertaining to the form or 

features of the Earth’s surface; pertaining 

to geomorphology.

geothermal: pertaining to heat derived from 

within the Earth.

general management plan (GMP): a plan 

that clearly defines direction for resource 

preservation and visitor use in a park and serves 

as the basic foundation for decision making. 

General management plans are developed with 

broad public involvement.

GHG sources: natural and man-caused sources 

of greenhouse gases.

gneiss: a foliated metamorphic rock marked by 

bands of coarse grained, light-colored minerals 

such as quartz and feldspar that alternate with 

bands of finer grained, or elongated darkcolored minerals.

granite core: the inner or central part of a 

convex upward fold of rock layers that has been 

intruded with granite in its center.

Green Creek Complex: the name of rock 

formation in the Albion Mountains consisting 

of an assemblage of different rock types (granite 

gneiss, amphibolite schist).

groundwater: water below the ground surface 

filling voids in soil or rock layers. The source 

of groundwater is precipitation (rain, snow, or 

glacial melt) that has percolated downward from 

the surface.

grus: an accumulation of angular, coarsegrained fragments resulting from the granular 

disintegration of crystalline rocks, especially 

granite, generally in an arid or semiarid region.

grussic sand: an accumulation of sand derived 

from the granular disintegration of granitic rock, 

whether weathered in place or transported and 

redeposited.

grussic regolith: a thick accumulation of 

unconsolidated sediment that usually weathered 

in place from its parent rock, in this case, of 

granitic origin.

H

habitat: the natural abode of an organism, 

including all biotic, climatic, and all factors 

affecting its life.

head box: a head box is a wooden or concrete 

box built over a spring to keep livestock from 

trampling and compacting the wet soil around 

the spring and deteriorating the water quality. 

Spring water then collects in the head box (kind 

of like a well) and a pile siphons off the water 

and transports it to a water trough or stock tank.

historic district: a geographically definable 

area, urban or rural, possessing a significant 

concentration, linkage, or continuity of sites, 

landscapes, structures, or objects, united by 

past events or aesthetically by plan or physical 

developments.

historic property: a district, site, structure, 

or landscape significant in American history, 

architecture, engineering, archeology, or 

culture; an umbrella term for all entries listed 

or eligible for listing in the National Register of 

Historic Places.

hogback: an elongated, narrow, sharp-crested 

ridge formed by the outcropping edges of very 

steeply inclined or highly tilted resistant rocks, 

usually greater than 20 degrees inclination.

Holocene: the second epoch of the Quaternary 

Period, beginning approximately 10,000 years 

ago and continuing to the present time.

homestead act: one of three U.S. federal laws 

that gave an applicant ownership at no cost of 

farmland called a “homestead” – typically 160 

acres of undeveloped federal land west of the 

Mississippi River.

hydrocarbons: any organic compound 

consisting of hydrogen and carbon.

hydrophytic: pertaining to a plant that either 

grows in water, either submerged, emergent or 

floating, or that requires large quantities of water 

for its growth.

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hydrothermal: of, or pertaining to, the actions 

or products of heated water, such as a mineral 

deposit precipitated from a hot aqueous 

solution—for instance, mineral deposits around 

hot springs.

I

impact: the likely effect of an action or 

proposed action upon specific natural, cultural 

or socioeconomic resources. Impacts may 

be direct, indirect, individual, cumulative, 

beneficial, or adverse.

impact topics: specific natural, cultural, 

or socioeconomic resources that would be 

affected by the proposed action or alternatives 

(including no action). The magnitude, duration, 

and timing of the effect on each of these 

resources is evaluated in the impact section of an 

environmental assessment or an environmental 

impact statement.

impairment: an impact on any park resource 

or value may constitute an impairment, but 

would be more likely to do so to the extent that 

it has a major or severe adverse effect upon 

a resource or value whose conservation is 

necessary to fulfill specific purposes identified 

in the park or identified as a goal in the park’s 

general management plan or other relevant NPS 

planning documents.

impoundment: a pool of water formed by a 

dam or pit, to supply water for livestock and/or 

wildlife and to control gully erosion.

indigenous: a species that occurs naturally in an 

area; a synonym for native species.

inselberg: a prominent, steep-sided, usually 

smooth and rounded residual knob rising 

abruptly from and surrounded by an extensive 

and nearly level lowland, typically occurring in 

arid and semi-arid regions; a mountain island.

integrity: the authenticity of a property’s 

historic identity, evidenced by the survival of 

physical characteristics that existed during the 

property’s historic or prehistoric period.

interagency: coordination, collaboration, and 

communication among cooperating agencies.

invasive plant/species: generally, this 

term refers to a subset of plants or animals 

that is introduced to an area, survives, and 

reproduces, and causes harm economically 

or environmentally within the new area of 

introduction. Invasive species displace native 

species and may have the ability to cause largescale changes in an ecosystem. A nonnative plant 

that has the ability to spread in existing growing 

conditions outside of its native habitat.

Inventory and Monitoring Program: an 

NPS initiative to acquire the information and 

expertise needed by park managers in their 

efforts to maintain ecosystem integrity in the 

approximately 270 national park system units 

that contain significant natural resources.

L

light pollution: the illumination of the night 

sky caused by artificial light sources, decreasing 

the visibility of stars, and other natural sky 

phenomena. Also includes other incidental or 

obtrusive aspects of outdoor lighting such as 

glare, trespass into areas not needing lighting, 

alternation of nighttime landscape, and negative 

impact on ecosystems.

lightscape: a natural lightscape is defined as 

those natural resources and values that exist in 

the absence of human-caused light.

lithic: of or relating to stone.

lithic scatters: a surface scattering of flaked 

stone material that is evidence of primitive 

tool making.

loess: a widespread homogenous, 

unconsolidated blanket deposit consisting 

primarily of silt that is produced by the erosion 

of outwash and transported and redeposited 

by wind.

M

management zone: a geographical area for 

which management directions have been 

developed to determine what can and cannot 

occur in terms of resource management, visitor 

use, access, facilities or development, and park 

operations. Each zone has a unique combination 

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of resource and social conditions and a 

consistent management direction. Different 

actions are taken by the National Park Service in 

different zones.

Memorandum of Agreement or 

Memorandum of Understanding: short 

written statements outlining the terms of an 

agreement, transaction, or contract between 

two or more parties. Memorandums of 

understanding tend to be the over-arching 

pledge of cooperation, while memorandums of 

agreement tend to specify exchange of funds 

or services.

metamorphic rock: a type of rock that has 

undergone chemical or structural changes when 

subjected to tremendous heat and/or pressure.

metasedimentary: of, or pertaining to, 

metamorphic rocks of sedimentary origin.

metates: a stone block with a shallow concave 

surface for grinding corn or other grains.

micro-seismicity: of, or pertaining to, small 

scale earthquakes or Earth vibrations.

Miocene: an epoch of the upper 

Tertiary period.

mitigation: a modification of a proposal 

to lessen the intensity of its impact on a 

particular resource. Actions can be taken to 

avoid, reduce, or compensate for the effects of 

environmental damage.

mollisol: a dark, thick upper soil horizon.

montmorillonitic: of, or pertaining to, a 

common class of clay minerals derived from 

the chemical alteration of feldspars; known to 

shrink and swell upon drying and wetting.

moraine: a geomorphologic name for a 

landform composed mainly of unsorted, 

unstratified, and unconsolidated sediment that 

has been deposited by a glacier.

morphometry: the measure and mathematical 

analysis of the configuration of the Earth’s 

surface and of the shape and dimensions of 

its landforms.

multi-pitch climb: the ascent of climbing 

routes with one or more stops at a belay station. 

Each section of actual climbing between stops at 

the belay stations is called a pitch.

muscovite: a potassium alumino-silicate 

mineral of the mica group. It is usually 

colorless, silver, or pale brown and lustrous. It 

is platey and flakes into thin brittle sheets along 

cleavage planes.

mycorrhizae: a symbiotic mutualistic 

association between a fungus and the roots 

of a vascular plant. The fungus colonizes 

the host plant’s roots and is an important 

component of soil life and soil chemistry. The 

plant provides the fungus with carbohydrates 

and the fungus provides the plant with more 

water and mineral nutrients due to its greater 

absorption capabilities.

N

National Ambient Air Quality Standards:

allowable concentrations of air pollutants in the 

ambient (public door) air as specified in 40 CFR 

50.NAAQS and based on air quality criteria. 

These are divided into primary and secondary 

standards, which allow for adequate margins of 

safety to protect the public health and welfare.

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA):

an act of Congress passed in 1969 declaring a 

national policy to encourage productive and 

enjoyable harmony between people and the 

environment, to promote efforts to prevent or 

eliminate damage to the environment and the 

biosphere and stimulate the health and welfare 

of people, and to enrich the understanding of 

the ecological systems and natural resources 

important to the nation, among other purposes.

national historic landmark: the highest level 

of distinction for a cultural property in the 

National Register of Historic Places.

national natural landmark: national natural 

landmarks are nationally significant natural areas 

designated by the Secretary of the Interior. To be 

nationally significant, a site must be one of the 

best examples of a type of biotic community or 

geologic feature in its physiographic province.

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National Park Service Organic Act of 1916:

the National Park Service preserves unimpaired 

the natural and cultural resources and values 

of the national park system for the enjoyment, 

education, and inspiration.

national park system: the sum total of the land 

and water now or hereafter administered by the 

Secretary of the Interior through the National 

Park Service as park, monument, historic site, 

parkway, recreational area, or other purposes.

Native American consultation: consultation 

required by various laws, regulations, 

executive orders and policies relative to 

indigenous peoples who may have traditional 

or contemporary interests in the lands 

now occupied by parks. Consultation done 

in compliance with legal requirements is 

considered to be government-to-government 

consultation when federally recognized 

American Indian tribes and Alaska Natives 

are involved.

native species: a species that occurs naturally 

in an area, and that has not been introduced by 

humans either intentionally or unintentionally. A 

synonym for indigenous species.

natural quiet: refers to the state of having only 

natural sources of sound; wind, rustling leaves, 

water, and animal calls are examples.

night sky: a sky free of artificial light sources 

and light pollution.

No-Action Alternative: the most likely 

condition expected to exist in the future if 

current management continues unchanged.

noncalcareous: said of a substance, usually a 

rock, that does not contain calcium carbonate.

nonnative species: along with “introduced 

species” and “nonindigenous species,” this 

is one of the most commonly used terms to 

describe a plant or animal species that is not 

originally from the area in which it occurs. 

Similar terms include “alien species,” “exotic 

species,” and “foreign species.” This term has 

also been defined as a species whose presence is 

due to intentional or unintentional introduction 

as a result of human activity.

non-use (grazing lands): BLM grazing 

applications for temporary non-use based 

on permittee requests are processed on an 

annual basis. There is no charge unless the 

permittee has not filed an application prior 

to the billing process. BLM regulations state 

that a permittee can be in temporary non-use 

for up to 3 consecutive years. The Bureau of 

Land Management can place an allotment into 

conservation non-use for 10 years. Neither case 

changes the status of the allotment that has 

been identified in the land use plan as a grazing 

allotment. Other permittees/public can file 

applications to use the grazing preferences in 

allotments in temporary nonuse status.

Notice of Intent: a notice in the Federal 

Register of the intent to prepare an 

environmental impact statement on a 

proposed action.

NPS Management Policies 2006: guiding 

principles and procedures that set the 

framework and provide direction for NPS 

management decisions. NPS policies are guided 

by and consistent with the U.S. Constitution, 

public laws, executive proclamations and orders, 

and regulations and directives from higher 

authorities. Policies translate these sources of 

guidance into cohesive directions. Management 

Policies 2006 (NPS 2006) is applicable across 

the National Park Service. Director’s orders 

supplement and may amend Management 

Policies 2006.

NPS Organic Act: in 1916, the National Park 

Service Organic Act established the National 

Park Service to “promote and regulate use 

of parks” and defined the purpose of the 

national parks as “to conserve the scenery 

and natural and historic objects and wild life 

therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the 

same in a manner and by such means as will 

leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of 

future generations.”

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O

Oligocene: an epoch of the lower Tertiary 

period. A geologic period that extends from 

about 34 million to 23 million years before the 

present. The Oligocene follows the Eocene 

epoch and is followed by the Miocene epoch.

orogeny: the process by which rock structures 

within mountains were formed, including 

folding, faulting, thrusting, plastic folding, 

metamorphism, and plutonism.

orographic: pertaining to the lifting of an air 

current as it passes up and over a mountain.

P

Pachic Haplocryolls: one of the 25 detailed 

soil map units for City of Rocks National 

Reserve. Other map units are Conneridge, 

Hymas, Howcan, Hutchley, to name a few.

Paleozoic: the earliest era of after the 

Precambrian period.

panhole: a very shallow, flat-bottomed hollow 

on the upper surface of a rock ranging in size 

from a few centimeters to several meters.

park: any unit of the national park system, 

no matter what its title designation is (such 

as national monument, national battlefield, 

national historical park, national historic site).

pegmatite: a coarse-grained granitic rock 

with exceptionally large crystals, formed from 

a magma that contained a high proportion 

of water.

pinnacle: a tall, very slender, tapering or 

pointed tower or pillar of rock.

pitons: a peg or spike driven into a rock or crack 

to support a climber or a rope.

Planning, Environment, and Public 

Comment (PEPC) System: an online 

database designed to facilitate the project 

management process in conservation planning 

and environmental impact analysis. It assists 

NPS employees in making informed decisions 

with regard to a number of compliance 

issues throughout the planning, design, and 

construction process.

planning: an interdisciplinary process for 

developing short- and long-term goals and 

alternatives for visitor experience, resource 

conditions, projects, facility type and placement, 

and other proposed actions.

Pleistocene: the first epoch of the Quaternary 

Period, beginning 2 million to 3 million years 

ago and ending approximately 10,000 years ago.

pluton: an igneous intrusion, usually of granitic 

rock, that may be exposed upon weathering of 

the overlying rock layers.

population: a group of potentially interbreeding individuals of the same species found 

in the same place at the same time.

porosity: the percentage of a soil, rock, or 

sediment’s volume that is made up of pores 

(air space).

Precambrian: the first era of geologic time, 

preceding the Paleozoic.

prehistoric: of, relating to, or existing before 

recorded history.

prescribed fire: any fire ignited by management 

actions to meet specific objectives.

preservation: the act or process of applying 

measures to sustain the existing form, integrity, 

and material of a historic structure, landscape, 

or object. Work might include preliminary 

measures to protect and stabilize the property, 

but generally focuses on the ongoing 

preservation, maintenance, and repair of historic 

materials and features rather than extensive 

replacement and new work (NPS DO-28).

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projected implementation costs: a projection 

of the probable range of recurring annual costs, 

initial one-time costs, and life-cycle costs of 

plan implementation.

Proterozoic: a more recent subdivision of 

the Precambrian.

public involvement (also called public 

participation): the active involvement of 

the public in NPS planning and decisionmaking processes. Public involvement occurs 

on a continuum that ranges from providing 

information and building awareness, to 

partnering in decision-making.

purpose: the specific reason(s) for establishing a 

particular park unit.

Q

Quaternary: the second period of the 

Cenozoic era.

R

Record of Decision (ROD): the document 

that states which alternative analyzed in an 

environmental impact statement has been 

selected for implementation and explains the 

basis for the decision. The decision is published 

in the Federal Register.

rehabilitation: the act or process of making 

possible a compatible use for a property 

through repair, alterations, and additions while 

preserving those portions or features which 

convey its historical or cultural values.

restoration: the act or process of accurately 

depicting the form, features, and character of a 

property as it appeared at a particular period of 

time by means of the removal of features from 

other periods in its history and reconstruction 

of missing features from the restoration 

period. The limited and sensitive upgrading of 

mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems 

and other code-required work to make 

properties functional is appropriate within a 

restoration project.

research natural area (RNA): research natural 

areas are part of a national network of sites 

administratively designed to facilitate research 

and preserve natural features. Research natural 

areas are usually established in a typical example 

of an ecological community type, preferably 

one having been little disturbed in the past 

and where natural processes are not unduly 

impeded. The tract is set aside permanently 

and is managed exclusively for approved 

nonmanipulative research; i.e., research that 

measures but does not alter existing conditions. 

Activities in research natural areas are restricted 

to nonmanipulative research, education, and 

other activities that will not detract from an 

area’s research values. A research natural 

area in a park is designated by the National 

Park Service.

residuum: in situ residue of weathered rock.

rhyolite: any of a group of felsic igneous rocks 

that are the extrusive equivalents of granite.

S

SUM06: the sum of the hourly average ozone 

concentrations equal to or greater than 

0.060 ppm.

sacred sites: certain natural and cultural 

resources treated by American Indian tribes and 

Alaska Natives, and Native Hawaiians as sacred 

places having established religious meaning and 

as locales of private ceremonial activities.

saprolite: a soft, earthy, clay-rich, thoroughly 

disintegrated rock formed in situ by chemical 

weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks.

schist: a coarse-grained, strongly foliated 

metamorphic rock.

scoping: public involvement is a key component 

of the GMP process. In this part of the process, 

the general public, federal, state, and local 

agencies and organizations are provided an 

opportunity to identify concerns and issues 

regarding the potential effects of proposed 

federal actions. The opportunity to provide 

input is called “scoping.”

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scrambling: is a method of ascending rocky 

faces and ridges. It is an ambiguous term 

that lies somewhere between hillwalking and 

rock climbing.

section 7: refers to section 7 of the Endangered 

Species Act of 1973, which requires federal 

agencies to consult with the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service or the National Marine 

Fisheries Service if a proposed action 

might affect a federally listed species or its 

critical habitat.

section 106: refers to section 106 of the 

National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, 

which requires federal agencies to take 

into account the effects of their proposed 

undertakings on properties included or eligible 

for inclusion in the National Register of Historic 

Places and give the Advisory Council on Historic 

Preservation a reasonable opportunity to 

comment on the proposed undertakings.

Sevier orogenic belt: the name of the 

geologic deformations that occurred along 

the eastern edge of the Great Basin in Utah, 

and positioned between the Nevadan orogeny 

(Sierra Mountains) to the west and the Laramide 

orogeny (Rocky Mountains) to the east.

sheetwash: sediment transported by sheet 

flow – the overland laminar flow or downslope 

movement of water taking the form of a thin, 

continuous film over relatively smooth soil 

or rock surfaces and not concentrated into 

channels larger than rills.

significance: statements of why, within a 

national, regional, and systemwide context, 

the park’s resources and values are important 

enough to warrant national park designation.

skarn: a Swedish mining term for limestones 

and dolomites that have been replaced with iron 

ore silicate and sulfide deposits.

soundscape: the human perception 

of the acoustical environment. See 

“acoustical environment.”

special mandates: legal mandates specific to a 

park unit that expand upon or contradict a park 

unit’s legislated purpose.

species of concern: an informal term used to 

designate at-risk species that may be in need of 

targeted conservation efforts. Species of concern 

are not defined in the Endangered Species Act 

and receive no legal protection.

spire: a rock pinnacle.

sport rock-climbing: a style of climbing 

typically involving short (less than a rope length) 

routes with fixed bolt protection. Previewing and 

practicing a climb is common and the emphasis 

is on technical difficulty rather than adventure. 

Climbs tend to involve less physical risk and 

rarely continue to summits. Routes generally 

end at top fixed anchors where the sustained 

difficulty of the climb lessens or the character of 

the rock changes.

spray: an open fan-shaped arrangement of 

mica minerals in a rock as opposed to a stacked 

(book) arrangement.

stake: a Mormon term that means a designated 

geographic area of inhabitants that is divided 

into wards and branches.

state historic preservation officer (SHPO):

an official in each state appointed by the 

governor to administer the state historic 

preservation program and carry out certain 

responsibilities relating to federal undertakings 

in the state (NPS DO-28).

strata: sedimentary rock layers.

T

talus: a pile of large rock fragments lying at the 

bottom of a cliff or steep slope from which they 

have broken off.

technical rock-climbing: climbing involving a 

rope and some means of protection, as opposed 

to scrambling or glacier travel.

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tectonic: pertaining to forces and geologic 

events associated with the broad architecture 

of the upper part of the Earth’s crust, whereas 

structural geology pertains to more localized and 

smaller deformation features.

Tertiary Period: a geological time interval 

that covers roughly the time span between 

the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs and 

the beginning of the most recent ice age, 

approximately 65 million to 1.8 million 

years ago.

threatened and endangered species: as 

defined in the Endangered Species Act of 

1973 as amended (Public Law 93-205; 87 Stat. 

884), “endangered species” is “any species 

which is in danger of extinction throughout 

all or a significant portion of its range” and 

a “threatened species” is “any species which 

is likely to become an endangered species 

within the foreseeable future throughout all 

or a significant portion of its range.” Whether 

a species is threatened or endangered is 

determined by the following factors: (1) present 

or threatened destruction, modification, 

or curtailment of its habitat or range; (2) 

overutilization for commercial, sporting, 

scientific, or educational purposes; (3) disease or 

predation; (4) inadequacy of existing regulatory 

mechanisms, or (5) other natural or humanmade factors.

tor: a Celtic term for a high, isolated, craggy 

hill, pinnacle, or rocky peak; or a pile of rocks, 

much-jointed and usually granitic, exposed to 

considerable weathering, and often assuming 

peculiar or fantastic shapes, as the granite rocks 

standing as prominent masses on the sides and 

tops of hills in Devon and Cornwall, England. 

Results from subsurface weathering through 

the action of acidic ground water penetrating 

along joint systems, subsequently hollowed by 

mechanical stripping of loose material.

traditionally associated peoples: social 

cultural entities such as tribes, communities, and 

kinship units exhibiting a continued identity 

and associated with a specific park unit, area, 

or resource.

traditional cultural resource: any site, 

structure, object, landscape, or natural resource 

feature assigned traditional, legendary, religious, 

subsistence, or other significance in the cultural 

system of a group traditionally associated with it.

traditional cultural property: traditional 

cultural resources eligible for or listed in the 

National Register of Historic Places. They are 

resources to which American Indian tribes 

attach cultural or religious significance and may 

include structures, objects, districts, geological 

and geographical features, and archeology.

traditional rock climbing: a style of climbing 

where protection is typically placed by the 

leader with value placed on unpracticed ascents 

and higher degrees of personal risk than in sport 

climbing. The ascents are normally done from 

the ground to the top of the route and any fall 

or weighting of the rope generally dictates that 

the climber be lowered to the ground or stance 

to restart the climb. Traditional climbing routes 

are typically protected by artificial chock stones, 

although in areas with few cracks, bolts placed 

by hand by the leader during the ascent are 

considered acceptable. Traditional climbs are 

generally multi-pitch climbs and summits are 

common objectives.

trailing (of livestock): the controlled moving 

of livestock under immediate human direction.

turbidity: a measure of the optical clarity of a 

liquid (water). Optical clarity in water is affected 

by the scattering and absorption of light by 

suspended material, such as clay, silt, sand, and 

organic and inorganic particulates and plankton.

U

Unihedron sky quality meter: a meter for 

measuring sky brightness.

unmetamorphosed: rock that has not be 

metamorphosed (has not undergone chemical 

or structural changes due to tremendous heat 

and/or pressure).

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U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS): the 

federal agency responsible for implementing 

the provisions of the Endangered Species Act, 

including listing species, developing recovery 

plans, etc.

user capacity: the type and level of use that can 

be accommodated while sustaining the quality 

of park resources and visitor opportunities 

consistent with the purposes of the park unit. 

It is not necessarily a set of numbers or limits, 

but rather a process involving establishing 

desired conditions, monitoring, evaluation, and 

actions (managing visitor use) to ensure values 

are protected.

V

viewshed: the visible areas seen from identified 

viewpoints.

visitor experience: the perceptions, feelings, 

reactions, and activities of a park visitor in 

relationship to the surrounding environment.

visitor use: the types of recreation activities 

engaged in by visitors, including the type of 

activity, visitor behavior, timing, and distribution 

of use.

W

W126: the cumulative sum of hourly ozone 

concentrations, with hourly values weighted 

according to their magnitude.

watershed: an area of terrain that collects and 

discharges runoff to a given point. It is often 

used synonymously with drainage basin or 

catchment area.

wet deposition: particles that are removed from 

the air and transferred to the Earth’s surface by 

rain, snow, clouds, or fog.

wetland: as defined by the U.S. Army Corps 

of Engineers, a wetland is an area inundated 

or saturated with surface or groundwater at a 

frequency and duration sufficient to support, 

and that under normal circumstances does 

support, a prevalence of vegetation typically 

adapted for life in saturated soil conditions.

wilderness (designated): an area of land 

designated by Congress to be managed 

according to the Wilderness Act of 1964.

wildland: an area in which development 

is essentially nonexistent, except for 

roads, railroads, power lines, and other 

transportation facilities.

wildland fire: any nonstructural fire that occurs 

on wildlands that is not a prescribed fire.

wildland urban interface: the line, area, 

or zone where structures and other human 

development meet or intermingle with 

undeveloped wildland or vegetative fuels.

windrow: a row or berm of soil similar in 

appearance to mowed and raked hay before 

being baled.

Z

zone: see “management zone.”

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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Selected List of Abbreviations

BLM Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Department of the Interior

Cassia Cassia County, Idaho

DOJ U.S. Department of Justice

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

HRA Historic Research Associations, Inc. and Amphion

IDEQ Idaho Department of Environmental Quality

IDFG Idaho Department of Fish and Game

IDPR Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation

ISBLC Idaho State Board of Land Commissioners, Idaho Department of Lands

NPS National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior

NSP Natural Sounds Program

Reserve City of Rocks National Reserve

RMCO The Rocky Mountain Climate Organization

UCBN Upper Columbia Basin Network

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

USDA-NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture

USFS U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture

USFWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior

USGCRP United States Global Change Research Program

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Selected Bibliography

Aho, K., and A. D. Forman

2010 Classification of City of Rocks National Reserve Vegetation Data to Support the Vegetation 

 Mapping Program. Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/UCBN/NRTR—2010/313. 

 Prepared for the National Park Service, Fort Collins, CO.

 Anderson, A. L.

1931 “Geology and Mineral Resources of Eastern Cassia County, Idaho.” Idaho Bureau of Mines 

and Geology Bulletin 14: 49–59.

Anderssen, S. H., R. B. Nicolaisen, and G. W. Gabrielsen

1993 “Autonomic Response to Auditory Stimulation.” Acta Paediatrica 82: 180–89.

Armstrong, R. L.

1968 “Mantled Gneiss Domes in the Albion Range, Southern Idaho.” Geological Society of America 

Bulletin 79: 1295–1314.

Arrington, Leonard J., and Davis Bitton

1979 The Mormon Experience: A History of the Latter-day Saints. New York, NY: Knopf.

Back, William D.

1991 “Memorandum to Chief, Resource Management and Visitor Protection, NPS, PNW Region 

from Office of the Regional Solicitor.” Subject: Grazing at City of Rocks National Reserve. 

From: Assistant Regional Solicitor, NPS Pacific Northwest Region. July 15, 1991.

Barnett, T., R. Malone, W. Pennell, D. Stammer, B. Semtner, and W. Washington

2004 “The Effects of Climate Change on Water Resources in the West: Introduction and 

Overview.” Climatic Change 62(1): 1–11.

Bastis, Kristen

2012 Phone conversation between Kristen Bastis, Integrated Chief of Resources, City of Rocks 

National Reserve and Rose Rumball-Petre, Environmental Protection Specialist, NPS Pacific 

West Region, May 8, 2012, regarding climbing and archaeology.

Bejder, L., A. Samuels, H. Whitehead, H. Finn, and S. Allen

2009 “Impact Assessment Research: Use and Misuse of Habituation, Sensitisation, and Tolerance 

in Describing Wildlife Responses to Anthropogenic Stimuli.” Marine Ecology Progress Series

395: 177–85.

Bell, J., and D. Barton

2010 Natural Resource Condition Assessment City of Rocks National Reserve—Research Natural 

Area. Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/UCBN/NRTR—2010/299. Prepared for the 

National Park Service, Fort Collins, CO.

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Bengston, Ginny

2003 Northern Paiute and Western Shoshone Land Use in Northern Nevada: A Class I Ethnographic/

Ethnohistoric Overview. BLM Cultural Resources Series No. 12. Submitted by SWCA, Inc. 

Environmental Consultants to Bureau of Land Management, Nevada State Office, Reno, NV.

Berglund, B., T. Lindvall, and D. Schwela

1999 Guidelines for Community Noise. Prepared for the World Health Organization, Geneva, 

Switzerland.

Best, Allen

2004 “The De-icer that Tames Western Roads.” High Country News, March 15, 2004. Available on 

the Internet at http://www.hcn.org/issues/270/14621. Accessed May 8, 2012.

Bortle, J. E.

2001 “Introducing the Bortle Dark-Sky Scale.” Sky and Telescope, February 2001: 126–29.

Brown, T. J., B. L. Hall, and A. L. Westerling

2004 “The Impact of Twenty-first Century Climate Change on Wildland Fire Danger in the 

Western United States: An Applications Perspective.” Climatic Change 62(1): 365–88.

Brumm, H., and H. Slabbekoorn

2005 “Acoustic Communication in Noise.” Advances in the Study of Behavior 35: 151–209.

Bureau of Land Management (BLM)

1983 “Research Natural Area Recommendation for City of Rocks.” Unpublished report. Burley, ID: 

BLM, Burley District Office.

1985 Cassia Resource Management Plan. Burley, ID: BLM, Burley District Office.

1987 Amendment to Cassia Resource Management Plan. Burley, ID: BLM, Burley District Office.

2007 “Idaho BLM Geothermal Lease Sale Nets Over $5.7 Million.” BLM website news release: 

http://www.blm.gov/id/st/en/info/newsroom/2007/06/idaho_blm_geothermal.html. Accessed 

September 2012.

2009 “Payment in Lieu of Taxes (PILT): Payments to Idaho Counties for 2009.” U.S. Department of 

the Interior, Bureau of Land Management website: http://www.blm.gov/id/st/en/info/about_

blm/facts_and_figures/pilt.html. Accessed July 6, 2012.

2010 “Decision Record and Finding of No Significant Impact: Castle Rocks Climbing.” 

Environmental Assessment: ID-220-2009-EA-3768. Cassia County, ID. Burley, ID: BLM, 

Burley District Office.

2012a Email from Nancy K. Ady, BLM Rangeland Management Specialist, and Michael Courtney, 

BLM Burley Field Manager, to Rose Rumball-Petre, NPS Environmental Protection 

Specialist, 18 July 2012, regarding BLM input on draft environmental impact statement 

(DEIS).

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2012b “Data from BLM for City of Rocks General Management Plan—What BLM Resources May 

Be Impacted By the Alternatives.” Burley, ID: BLM, Burley District Office.

2013a “Record of Decision Released.” BLM news release: Gateway West Transmission Line 

Project. Boise, ID: BLM, Boise District Office.

2013b Proposed Decision Record and Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI), Cassia Resource 

Management Plan Amendment at Castle Rocks. Burley, ID. Burley Field Office.

Bureau of Mines

1993 “Mineral Resource Investigation of the Cache Peak Study Area, Cassia County, Idaho.” Alan 

R. Buehler, Western Field Operations Center, Spokane, WA.

Bureau of Reclamation

2005 2005 Joint Examinations by the National Park Service and Bureau of Reclamation: Circle 

Creek Impoundments, July 2005. City of Rocks National Reserve. Almo, ID.

Cassia County, Idaho (Cassia County)

1998 City of Rocks Back Country Byway, Rural Heritage Stewardship Handbook and Byway 

Management Plan. Prepared for Cassia County, Idaho, by the City of Rocks Back Country 

Byway Advisory Committee. Available on the Internet at http://visitsouthidaho.com/pdf/

city_of_rocksmgmt.pdf. Accessed July 25, 2012.

2006 Cassia County Comprehensive Plan. Revised. Burley, ID: Cassia County Planning & Zoning/

Building Department.

2009 Cassia County Public Land Use Policy Plan. Resolution Number 2009-022. Burley, ID: Cassia 

County Board of Commissions.

2011 Email message from Kerry McMurray, Cassia County Administrator, to Wallace Keck, City of 

Rocks National Reserve Superintendent, 22 November 2011, regarding traffic study.

2013 Cassia County website. Burley, ID. Available on the Internet at http://www.cassiacounty.org/

about-cassia-county/history.htm Accessed September 9, 2013.

n.d. “Chapter 7: General Purposes of Zones.” In Cassia County Code. Available on the Internet at 

http://www.cassiacounty.org/countycode/publications/title9/Title9_Chapter7.pdf. Accessed 

July 25, 2012.

Chambers, Jeanne C.

2008 “Climate Change and the Great Basin.” In Collaborative Management and Research in the 

Great Basin: Examining the Issues and Developing a Framework for Action, edited by Jeanne 

C. Chambers, Nora Devoe, and Angela Evenden, 29–32. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-204. 

Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research 

Station.

Chance, David H.

1989 “The Tubaduka and the Kamaduka Shoshoni of the City of Rocks and Surrounding Country.” 

Prepared for the National Park Service, Pacific West Regional Office, Seattle, WA.

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Chance, David H., and Jennifer V. Chance

1990 “The Archaeological Reconnaissance of the City of Rocks Reserve.” Prepared for the 

National Park Service, Pacific West Regional Office, Seattle, WA.

1993 “Riddles of a Stagecoach Station and other Questions at the City of Rocks.” Contract 1443-

PX9000-92-158. Prepared for the National Park Service, Pacific West Regional Office, Seattle, 

WA.

Christensen, Scott R.

1999 Sagwitch: Shoshone Chieftain, Mormon Elder, 1822–1887. Logan, UT: Utah State University 

Press.

Cinzano, P., F. Falchi, and C. D. Elvidge

2001 “The First World Atlas of the Artificial Night Sky Brightness.” Monthly Notices of the Royal 

Astronomical Society 328: 689.

City of Rocks National Reserve (Reserve)

1993 “The Twin Sisters Resource Study.” Prepared by Maura Longden. Unpublished study on file 

at the Reserve Library, Almo, ID.

1996a Final Comprehensive Management Plan, Development Concept Plan, Environmental Impact 

Statement: City of Rocks National Reserve. Seattle, WA: NPS Pacific Northwest Regional 

Office.

1996b Grazing Management Plan, City of Rocks National Reserve. Prepared by Kenneth D. 

Sanders, Stephen C. Bunting, and R. Gerald Wright for the National Park Service and the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation. Moscow, ID: Idaho Forest, Wildlife and Range 

Experiment Station, University of Idaho.

1996c Resource Management Plan for City of Rocks National Reserve. Prepared for the National 

Park Service and the Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation, Almo, ID.

1997 Interim Trail Management Plan. Almo, ID: City of Rocks National Reserve.

1998a City of Rocks National Reserve Climbing Management Plan and Finding of No Significant 

Impact. Seattle, WA: NPS Pacific West Regional Office.

1998b City of Rocks National Reserve Interpretive Prospectus. Prepared for the Idaho Department of 

Parks and Recreation, Almo, ID.

2003 “Restroom Improvements at Finger Rock: Finding of No Significant Impact.” Almo, ID: City 

of Rocks National Reserve.

2004 “Finding of No Significant Impact: Borrow Pit Restoration Project.” Almo, ID: City of Rocks 

National Reserve.

2005a “City of Rocks National Reserve, Idaho: 2005 Joint Examinations by National Park Service 

and Bureau of Reclamation, Circle Creek Impoundment Dams.” Prepared for the Bureau of 

Reclamation and the National Park Service. Denver, CO: NPS, Denver Service Center.

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2005b Fire Management Plan: City of Rocks National Reserve. Prepared in cooperation with the 

National Park Service Pacific West Region Fire Program, City of Rocks National Reserve 

staff with assistance from Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument staff. Available 

on the Internet at http://www.nps.gov/ciro/parkmgmt/loader.cfm?csModule=security/

getfile&PageID=109327. Accessed September 2012.

2006a City of Rocks National Reserve and Castle Rocks State Park: Weed Management Plan, 2006–

2010. Prepared by Jodi Vincent. Almo, ID.

2006b “Official Minutes and Recommendations.” Climbing Management Plan internal 

review, January 18–19, 2006. Prepared by the City of Rocks GMP planning team, IDPR 

Headquarters, Boise, ID.

2007 Draft City of Rocks National Reserve Foundation Statement. Seattle, WA: NPS Pacific West 

Regional Office.

2008a City of Rocks National Reserve Draft Grazing Management Plan Revision and Update.

Prepared by Kenneth D. Sanders, Stephen C. Bunting for the National Park Service and the 

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation. Moscow, ID: Idaho Forest, Wildlife and Range 

Experiment Station, University of Idaho.

2008b Cultural Landscapes Inventory: City of Rocks National Reserve. Seattle, WA: NPS Pacific West 

Regional Office.

2009a City of Rocks National Reserve. Unigrid brochure. Harpers Ferry, WV: NPS Harpers Ferry 

Center.

2009b City of Rocks National Reserve Visitor Study: Fall 2008. Report 208, prepared by the Park 

Studies Unit, Visitor Services Project. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho.

2009c Water Quality Monitoring in City of Rocks National Reserve. Prepared as resource brief by the 

Upper Columbia Basin Network Inventory and Monitoring Program. National Park Service. 

Seattle, WA.

2010a City of Rocks National Reserve Acoustical Monitoring Report Natural Resource Report NPS/

NRPC/NRTR—2010/001. Prepared for the National Park Service, Fort Collins, CO.

2010b City of Rocks National Reserve Business Plan. Almo, ID: City of Rocks National Reserve.

2010c Climate Friendly Parks: City of Rocks National Reserve Action Plan. Available on the Internet 

at http://www.nps.gov/climatefriendlyparks/downloads/Action%20Plans%20and%20

Inventories/CIRO-Climate-Friendly-Plan-Final.pdf. Accessed September 2012.

2010d Superintendent’s Compendium for City of Rocks National Reserve (internal document).

2011 Finding of No Significant Impact: Circle Creek Overlook Parking Lot Relocation Environmental 

Assessment. Almo, ID: City of Rocks National Reserve.

2011a Finding of No Significant Impact: Circle Creek Overlook Trails Environmental Assessment. 

Almo, ID: City of Rocks National Reserve.

2012a “Monitoring of Human Caused Nitrogen Deposition.” Resource Brief, City of Rocks 

National Reserve, ID. Available on the Internet at http://www.nps.gov/ciro/naturescience/

upload/Final-Nitrogen-Resource-Brief_2012.pdf. Accessed May 2012.

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2012b Rim Development Concept Plan for City of Rocks National Reserve. Draft plan, August 2012. 

Seattle, WA: National Park Service, Pacific West Regional Office.

2014 “2014 Operation Plan and Guidelines For the Management of City of Rocks National Reserve 

(CIRO).” Revised edition (updated from 2009). Almo, ID: City of Rocks National Reserve.

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2012 Personal communication from Richard Clemmer to Frederick F. York, NPS Regional 

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Appendices

Appendix A: Reserve Legislation

Appendix B: Pertinent Laws, Policies, and Procedures

Appendix C: City of Rocks National Reserve Wilderness Eligibility Study

Appendix D: Rim Development Concept Plan for City of Rocks National Reserve

Appendix E: Analysis of Boundary Adjustment and Land Protection

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Appendix A: Reserve Legislation

Appendix A: Reserve Legislation

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Appendix B: Pertinent Laws, 

Policies, and Procedures

The following is a list of the laws, executive orders, NPS policies, and operational procedures that are most 

pertinent to the planning for the future protection, use, and management of City of Rocks National Reserve:

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

Antiquities Act of 1906

Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979

Cassia County Comprehensive Plan and Zoning Ordinance

Director’s Order 28: Cultural Resource Management

Director’s Order 77: Natural Resource Protection

Endangered Species Act

Executive Order 12898, “Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and 

Low-Income Populations”

Executive Order 13007, “Indian Sacred Sites”

Executive Order 13112, “Invasive Species”

Executive Order 13186, “Responsibilities of Federal Agencies to Protect Migratory Birds”

Executive Order 13443, “Facilitation of Hunting Heritage and Wildlife Conservation”

Executive Order 13514, “Federal Leadership in Environmental, Energy, and Economic Performance”

General Authorities Act of 1970

Historic Sites Act of 1935

Idaho State Law – Title 58 (Public Lands), Chapter 5 (State Parks and State Forests)

Migratory Bird Treaty Act

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969

National Historic Preservation Act of 1966

National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) Section 106

NHPA Section 110

NHPA Section 111

National Park Service Organic Act

National Park Service Strategic Plan

National Parks and Recreation Act of 1978

National Trails System Act

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990

NHPA Section 112

NPS Management Policies 2006

NPS Program Standards: Park Planning

Redwood Act of 1978

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Appendix C: City of Rocks National 

Reserve Wilderness Eligibility Study

Appendix C: City of Rocks National 

Reserve Wilderness Eligibility Study

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Appendix D: Rim Development Concept 

Plan for City of Rocks National Reserve

Appendix D: Rim Development 

Concept Plan for City of Rocks 

National Reserve

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Appendix E: Analysis of Boundary 

Adjustment and Land Protection

As one of the provisions of Public Law 95-625, the National Parks and Recreation Act of 1978,

Congress directed that the National Park Service consider, as part of a planning process, what 

modifications of external boundaries might be necessary to carry out park purposes. Subsequent to this 

act, Congress also passed Public Law 101-628, the Arizona Desert Wilderness Act. Section 1216 of this act 

directs the Secretary of the Interior to develop criteria to evaluate any proposed changes to the existing 

boundaries of individual park units. Section 1217 of the act calls for the National Park Service to consult 

with affected agencies and others regarding a proposed boundary change, and to provide a cost estimate of 

acquisition cost, if any, related to the boundary adjustment.

The NPS Management Policies 2006 (3.5 Boundary Adjustments) state that the National Park Service 

will conduct studies of potential boundary adjustments and may make boundary revisions for the 

following reasons:

•	 To include significant resources or opportunities for public enjoyment related to the purposes of 

the park

•	 To address operational and management issues such as boundary and identification by topographic 

or other natural features

•	 To protect park resources critical to fulfilling park purposes

NPS policies instruct that any recommendation to expand park boundaries be preceded by determinations 

that the added lands will be feasible to administer considering size, configuration, ownership, cost, and 

other factors, and that other alternatives for management and resource protection have been considered 

and are not adequate.

The following is a review of the criteria for boundary adjustments as applied to City of Rocks National 

Reserve. The preferred alternative, alternative B, does not include a change in the current Reserve 

boundary. However, this analysis is included as supporting documentation for alternatives C and D, which 

include recommendations for boundary changes to the Reserve. One land area totaling approximately 

4,247 acres, involving three parcels, is proposed for addition to the Reserve boundary under both 

alternative C and alternative D.

•	 Lands of the United States as currently managed by the Bureau of Land Management—one parcel of 

approximately 3,595 acres, including 240 acres under the use of the Idaho Department of Parks and 

Recreation through R&PP leases (R&PP leases: I-28350, IDI-32732 and ROW leases: IDI-31531 and 

IDI-30770)

•	 Tracy, J.E. Inc.—one parcel of approximately 364 acres (private ownership subject to county 

ordinances would remain, or an appropriate resource protection interest could be purchased by 

willing buyer from the willing seller)

•	 Ward, Harold Olen, Trustee—one parcel of 288 acres attached to a larger parcel currently within the 

Reserve (private ownership subject to county ordinances would remain, or a conservation easement 

could be purchased by willing buyer from willing seller)

All property owners proposed for inclusion in the Reserve boundary under alternatives C and D have 

been notified in advance and consulted prior to the public release of the draft general management plan. 

This proposed boundary change would require congressional legislation to authorize a revision to the 

Reserve boundary.

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Significant Resources or Opportunities for Public Enjoyment Related to the 

Purposes of City of Rocks National Reserve

The lands within the proposed alternative C and D boundary expansion are primarily associated 

with Smoky Mountain, which—at 7,580 feet—is covered by Idaho’s largest intact pinyon pine (Pinus 

monophylla) woodland. These lands include Smoky Mountain Campground (and proposed campground 

expansion), equestrian and hiking trails (as well as the potential for more recreational trails to the peak), 

and the California National Historic Trail, the primary nationally significant resource that the Reserve 

was charged to preserve and interpret. Potential public recreational opportunities associated with the 

boundary expansion include the development of the outdoor learning center and visitor center proposed 

by this GMP, with views of the historic trail entering City of Rocks; a potential hiking trail to one of the 

area’s higher summits; experiences along the trails of old-growth pinyon and associated wildlife; and 

recreational hunting.

The proposed boundary expansion area for alternatives C and D contains two riparian areas that originate 

in the Albion Mountains and drain into the alluvial fans and the Almo Valley. Riparian areas are unique 

natural habitats that provide excellent birding and wildflower viewing opportunities. The parcels also 

contain grand geological features such as an isolated schist monolith and Elba Quartzite cliffs and boulder 

fields. With the expansion, dispersed camping on BLM lands would be organized, and sanitation facilities, 

picnic tables, fire rings, as well as a proposed bivouac (social camping) area would be installed. This would 

address existing visitor safety concerns and improve the overall visitor experience, as well as coordinate 

land uses between livestock grazing and visitor use outside the designated campground. Natural plant 

ecology and succession would be monitored and managed under NPS management guidelines.

Operational and Management Issues Related to Access and Boundary 

Identification by Topographic or Other Natural Features

The expansion described in alternatives C and D provides a more logical entry point and boundary 

to the Reserve from the gateway community of Almo. The entry and boundary are easily identified 

and communicated to visitors as defined by primary roads. Visually and from a resource management 

perspective, the transition from sagebrush steppe to pinyon-juniper woodlands closely resembles the 

proposed boundary north of City of Rocks Road. The expansion would also place the Smoky Mountain 

Campground and IDPR leases within the Reserve, allowing for cost-sharing of this critical recreational 

facility to the Reserve. Additionally, the entire Smoky Mountain physiological features would be included 

under a single agency, mission-tasked with recreation management, scientific study, and resource 

protection of the pinyon-juniper woodland. Currently, the jurisdictional boundaries are difficult to fence, 

sign, and communicate to visitors and agency personnel due to steep slopes and angular boundaries 

traversing rugged mountain terrain.

Protection of Park Resources and Fulfillment of Park Purposes

The boundary adjustment in alternatives C and D emphasizes and aids consistent ecological protection of 

the northernmost pinyon pine woodland and associated biotic community. The pinyon is important both 

ecologically and ethnographically and is related to two of the Reserve’s significance statements:

•	 The Reserve embraces the western rural setting by preserving remnants of traditional occupation, 

transportation, and land use of prehistoric and historic peoples.

•	 The Reserve occurs at a biogeographic crossroads and protects a rich ecological diversity, providing 

exceptional opportunities for scientific study and shared learning.

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As scientists and researchers learn more about the Reserve’s pinyon forest, it has become apparent that 

this location may play a role in understanding climatic changes in the Northern Basin and Range of the 

Intermountain West. At the crossroads and extreme edges of biogeographic regions, the effects of climate 

change may first be observed as ebbs and flows of plant and animal populations and diversity. The Reserve, 

and in particular Smoky Mountain, is just such an area. Research identifying the importance of this habitat 

to pinyon jays, as well as the arrival, age, and advancement of the forest is currently underway. Other 

questions could be answered here as well, such as the potential for the woodlands to advance north, or 

the success or inability of pine bark beetle to attack the pinyon. These unique resources attract further 

research, learning, and understanding of the natural environment, which is a key goal of this general 

management plan and part of the mission of the National Park Service.

Feasibility to Administer the Lands Added Through Boundary Adjustment

The recommended boundary adjustment described in alternatives C and D would be feasible for the 

National Park Service to manage and without substantially adding to the NPS or IDPR workload. 

The added acreage would create a logical block of land contiguous with the existing park boundary. 

Approximately 240 acres within the proposed boundary adjustment area are already being managed by 

Reserve staff under the jurisdiction of two R&PP leases, which contain the Smoky Mountain Campground 

and equestrian day-use area.

Administration of the additional acres by the National Park Service might reduce the amount of federal 

presence needed to manage and protect the land and critical natural and cultural resources. Activities 

that impact resources are occurring on BLM lands immediately surrounding the campground; however, 

BLM enforcement is often unable to respond in a timely manner or to address the level of use or conflict 

resolution. Reserve employees are currently on site daily but do not have the jurisdiction to prevent or 

mitigate the impacts. If the boundary were adjusted to include lands around the campground, Reserve staff 

would be able to observe and enforce protective regulations.

There are no known environmental hazards associated with either private or federal lands and appropriate 

site inspections and hazardous material surveys would be conducted prior to acquisition.

Protection Alternatives Considered

Private property within the adjusted alternative C and D boundary is subject to Cassia County land 

ordinances and is currently zoned multiple-use, with the exception of a strip along the entrance road 

designated as part of the Historical Preservation Zone. Historic land uses by private property owners are 

compatible with the Reserve concept. Public lands within the proposed boundary adjustment area are 

currently under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Land Management. The GMP planning team considered 

continuing this jurisdiction but designating those lands as a monument/preserve, similar to the Craters of 

the Moon National Monument and Preserve. After consideration, it was determined that the parcel simply 

wasn’t large enough to warrant the dual management approach.

Another option was to expand the IDPR R&PP lease to include the entire boundary expansion area, so 

that it could be managed consistently with the campground and other recreation facilities. This was less 

desirable on three accounts:

The National Park Service would still be restrained from consistently managing the pinyon woodland or 

sharing in the cost of providing needed recreational facilities.

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City of Rocks National Reserve DGMP/EIS

577

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation cannot achieve the resource management objectives alone, but 

can be an active partner with the National Park Service through the existing cooperative agreement.

The Bureau of Land Management would still need to dedicate resources to writing compliance reports and 

managing the lease, thus taxing that bureau even more.

The boundary adjustment in alternatives C and D would support the conversion of the R&PP lease to an 

R&PP patent to the state of Idaho.

Proposed Additions to the Park Boundary and Other Adjustments

Under the preferred alternative, no boundary adjustment is proposed. However, alternatives C and D 

both propose approximately 4,247 acres for inclusion within the boundaries of City of Rocks National 

Reserve. Congressional action would be required to authorize this change and authorize and appropriate 

the funds from the Land and Water Conservation Fund, which would be necessary to acquire interests 

in private lands from willing sellers. Two parcels of private lands would be included within the proposed 

boundary change, but retaining private ownership is consistent with the Reserve concept. Some land 

within the proposed boundary change is currently managed by the Twin Falls District (Burley Field Office) 

of the Bureau of Land Management. These lands could be administratively transferred to the National 

Park Service. The Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation R&PP leases could be administered by the 

National Park Service, or as outlined in a revised cooperative agreement, but it would be preferable to have 

the leased BLM lands become State of Idaho lands by an R&PP patent.

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Chapter 6 through the end_CIRO_DGMP_031515.indd 578 3/16/2015 3:51:37 

EXPERIENCE YOUR AMERICA

Priority Mail

Postage and Fees 

PAID

U.S. Department of the 

Interior

Permit No. G-83

National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation

City of Rocks National Reserve

P.O. Box 169

Almo, ID 83312

Prepared by:

National Park Service

Pacific West Region-Seattle Office

Park Planning and Environmental Compliance

909 1st Avenue

Seattle, WA 98104