Final Environmental Impact Statement

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and 

Environmental Consequences

Introduction

This chapter describes the physical, biological, social, and economic environments of the project 

area and the effects of implementing each alternative on that environment. The effects analysis 

and disclosure presented here is tiered to the analysis presented in the Final EIS for the Revised 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Black Hills National Forest (USDA Forest Service 

1996a), and the Final EIS for the Phase II Amendment to the 1997 Revised Land and Resource 

Management Plan for the Black Hills National Forest (USDA Forest Service 2005a).

This chapter presents the scientific and analytical basis for the comparison of alternatives 

presented in Chapter 2. Analysis of direct, indirect and cumulative effects of the alternatives was 

completed by the ID team incorporating field observations, surveys and review; aerial 

photography; resource modeling; literature review; past experience and professional judgment; 

information obtained through monitoring; Forest Plan direction and analysis; and public 

participation. Direct and indirect effects are effects that could be expected from the 

implementation of this project. Direct effects are those occurring at the same time and place as 

the initial cause or action. Indirect effects occur later in time or in a different location than the 

activity that causes them. Direct and indirect effects of the proposed action and alternatives were 

analyzed over a period extending ten years into the future, unless stated otherwise.

Cumulative effects are effects of this project when added to the effects of other actions.

Cumulative effects analysis accounts for the incremental addition of direct and indirect effects of 

this project, added to past, present and reasonably foreseeable effects from other sources. The 

area analyzed for cumulative effects is the area within the Forest boundary, unless otherwise 

stated. The time horizon evaluated for cumulative effects analysis was generally ten years into 

the future, unless otherwise stated.

Past, Present, and Reasonably Foreseeable Activities

Past actions are addressed by the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) in the following 

manner: “Generally, agencies can conduct an adequate cumulative effects analysis by focusing 

on the current aggregate effects of past actions without delving into the historical details of 

individual past actions.” (CEQ Memo of June 24, 2005.) In other words, the effects of all past 

actions have created the current affected environment and existing condition; consequently,

specific past actions do not need to be identified for the cumulative impacts analysis. In general, 

past actions that have taken place over the last 100 years include grazing, timber harvest, mining 

and exploration, recreational camping and travel, wildfires, prescribed burning, and small 

product removal (i.e., post and poles, and firewood).

Present actions are typically ongoing activities and are treated similarly to past actions. These 

activities include winter recreation such as snowmobiling and skiing; summer recreation such as 

hunting, dispersed camping and off-highway vehicle use; commodity uses such as gathering of 

fuelwood and other forest products, and livestock grazing; timber harvest and commercial fuel 

management, and associated road construction and reconstruction; wildfire suppression; noxious 

weed treatments; and other activities.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Reasonably foreseeable actions are those Forest Service actions that are formal proposals or 

decisions not yet implemented at the time of the analysis, and those non-Forest Service actions 

whose implementation is no longer speculative. Activities that add to the effects of designated 

travel routes include wildfires, timber harvesting, fuel reduction, livestock grazing, and 

recreational uses (hunting, hiking, motorized recreation, etc.). In general, it is assumed that 

Forest actions would continue at roughly the rate experienced over the last 10 years. It is 

assumed that the rate of private land subdivision and development, and the requests for access to 

these private parcels, would increase over what has been seen in the last 10 years.

The existing condition described in Chapter 2 for Alternative A is the baseline for the affected 

environment and environmental consequences that are discussed in the sections below. This 

existing condition includes cross-country travel and route proliferation on the Forest.

See Appendix E for a partial listing of past, present and reasonably foreseeable future activities 

considered in the cumulative effects analysis for this project.

General Assumptions for All Alternatives

In developing the range of alternatives, the following assumptions were used. These assumptions 

were also made when evaluating the effects of the alternatives. Under any of the action 

alternatives:

The public would generally observe and comply with the proposed transportation 

system. Specifically, motorized users would use only motorized routes designated on the 

motor vehicle use map, and would refrain from using routes not designated on that map.

Motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping activities would not enter into or cross 

perennial streams.

More areas open for motorized game retrieval would generally be expected to generate 

more use of these areas.

Concentrating vehicle use to reduce effects on routes and areas not designated would

increase use and possibly effects on routes and areas that are designated.

Resources Not Addressed

In this EIS, the Forest Service addresses the effects of the proposal and alternatives to a number 

of resources. The lands and minerals resources would not be affected by this proposal and thus 

are not addressed here at length. More specifically, this proposal would not affect legally held 

rights of access. As described earlier, there are about 300,000 acres of lands of other ownerships 

within the proclaimed Forest boundary. The acreage and pattern of distribution of these 

individual parcels of intermingled lands has influenced the development of the Forest 

transportation system, and would continue to do so under any alternative selected. The Forest 

Service has authorized a number of rights-of-way and easements allowing landowners 

reasonable access to their property across National Forest System lands, as required by law. 

These routes are included in the analysis in this document as appropriate. The agency would 

continue to provide for reasonable access as required by law under any alternative selected. 

Since the decision on this project would not affect legal access, the effects of the alternatives on 

such access are not discussed here at length.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Recreation

Introduction

Recreation in the Black Hills has been occurring for centuries. In the early days, activities that 

are considered recreational today were more of a way of life. Native Americans used the lands as 

hunting grounds and places to collect medicinal plants. With General Custer‘s expedition in 1874 

came an influx of white settlers into the region in search of gold. Mining towns soon appeared 

everywhere, establishing travelways that are still used today. The first parks were established 

within and around the Black Hills, which increased tourism opportunities. These included Wind 

Cave National Park in 1903, Devil‘s Tower National Monument in 1906, Jewel Cave National 

Monument in 1908, and Mount Rushmore National Memorial in 1927.

By 1933, the arrival of the Civilian Conservation Corps helped to improve roads, bridges, and 

trails to access the area and improve the resources of the region. By the 1960s, Forest managers 

wanted to increase tourism activities. Campgrounds, picnic areas, and other recreational 

infrastructure, such as cabins and hiking trails were developed to provide places for people to 

recreate.

Today, visitors to the Black Hills enjoy a variety of recreational opportunities such as developed 

and dispersed camping, picnicking, driving along scenic byways, hiking, mountain biking, 

horseback riding, wilderness experiences, fishing and hunting, rock climbing, water-related 

activities, winter activities, interpretive and educational sites, fire lookout towers, and 

observation sites. Motorized users of the Black Hills include a variety of off-highway vehicles, 

such as all-terrain vehicles, utility vehicles, jeeps, and off-highway motorcycles as well as a 

variety of highway-legal vehicles such as passenger cars, trucks, vans, buses, motorhomes, and 

touring motorcycles.

Applicable Laws, Regulations, Policy, and Forest Plan Direction

Providing outdoor recreation opportunities with minimum impacts to natural resources is a 

primary goal in the Forest Service Strategic Plan (USDA Forest Service 2004d). OHV use has 

been allowed on National Forest System lands since prior to the 1970s and is one of the fastest 

growing recreational activities on public lands. Two objectives of the Strategic Plan are to (1) 

emphasize improvement of public access and (2) improve the management of OHV use to 

protect natural resources, promote safety, and minimize conflicts among users (USDA Forest 

Service 2004d).

Variation in State Laws for Motorized Activities - Lands administered by the Forest lie in two 

states: South Dakota (containing about 83 percent of the Forest) and Wyoming (17 percent).

Each State has different laws that impact the motorized travel opportunities on the Forest. In 

2002, the Wyoming legislature signed into law Wyoming Statute 311-101, which resulted in a 

recreational program for registering OHVs on designated trails, routes, and areas. The Bearlodge 

Ranger District, which lies entirely in Wyoming, enrolled 24 miles of roads to be open to 

vehicles 50 inches wide or less (to be managed as motorized trails for public use) and about 258 

miles of roads open to all vehicles. Wyoming State law allows drivers of any age on the routes 

designated as trails. Trails enrolled under the program require an OHV sticker, while enrolled 

roads require a licensed driver and the vehicle to display either an OHV sticker or license plate.

South Dakota currently does not have an OHV program. South Dakota State traffic law 32-20-12 

regulates motorized opportunities on highways and roads within the Forest. Roads classified as 

―public roads‖ require licensed drivers and that motor vehicles be registered; otherwise motor 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

vehicles may be operated in the outer edge of road ditches. Roads under Forest Service 

jurisdiction and open to motorized use are considered public roads.

State Law for Dispersed Camping - Dispersed camping sites are widespread through the Black 

Hills, especially in Wyoming. The lower density of dispersed camping in South Dakota is likely 

due to the restriction on open fires by South Dakota State statue 34-35-15, established in 1941.

Visitors recreating in South Dakota are only allowed to have campfires in developed 

campgrounds with established fire grills. Wyoming does not restrict open fires except by special 

orders during periods of drought. Different user groups have developed the existing sites based 

on their accessibility and the experiences they are seeking. Dispersed campsites across the Forest 

are occupied primarily in the summer recreation season and during the fall hunting season. Most 

of the campsites lie within 300 to 500 feet of open roads.

Forest Plan Direction for Recreation Opportunities - One of the goals of the Forest Plan is to 

provide a range of recreational opportunities. Several management aspirations are as follows:

Forest trails will provide recreation opportunities for persons with disabilities, hikers, mountain 

bikers, cross-country skiers, snowmobiles, horseback riders, ATVs, motorbikes, and four-wheel 

drive vehicles. Trails typically will be managed to minimize user conflicts. The trail system will 

link many recreation points of interest, other agency trails, and communities to provide a diverse 

array of recreational opportunities and travel routes. The majority of trail opportunities will be 

oriented towards day use with opportunities for multi-day trips on a system of interconnecting 

trails (USDA Forest Service 2006a).

Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) Direction - The Forest Plan identified all ROS 

classes as guidelines with the exception of those in Management Emphasis Area 2.2, Research 

Natural Areas, in which the semi-primitive nonmotorized ROS class is a standard (USDA Forest 

Service 2006a).

As a Forest guideline, dispersed recreation is discouraged within 100 feet from lakes and streams 

unless exceptions are justified by terrain (USDA Forest Service 2006a). A Forest standard for 

dispersed camping within the Peter Norbeck Scenic Byway (MA 4.2A) prohibits camping within 

300 feet of highways and Forest development roads, except in developed campgrounds (USDA 

Forest Service 2006a).

Developed recreation sites, such as trailheads, are not to be located in or immediately adjacent to 

known locations of Region 2 sensitive or plant species of local concern (USDA Forest Service 

2006a).

Forest Special Orders Affecting Travel Management - An executive special order, signed on 

June 17, 1992, prohibits dispersed camping within the Spearfish Canyon Scenic Byway. 

(Executive Order 23)

Hunting - The Forest is open to public hunting for a variety of game species including turkey, 

elk, deer, mountain goat, bighorn sheep, and mountain lion. Mountain goat and mountain lion 

hunt seasons are very limited in terms of animal quota and amount of hunt time. The majority of 

the hunters come to the Forest for elk, turkey, and deer seasons in the fall between August and 

December. Table 8 indicates the number of licenses sold and animals harvested from the Forest 

in 2006 for elk and deer species. National Forest System lands account for the majority of public 

lands within the hunt areas.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Table 8. Hunting in the Forest for 2006 as represented in reports from Wyoming and South Dakota 

Game and Fish Departments*

Location and animal Hunt areas Licenses sold Animal harvests

South Dakota

Elk

Deer

Black Hills

Black Hills

2,670

8,932

1,358

6,810

Wyoming

Elk

Deer

Mule Deer

1; 116

2; 4

2; 4

505

2,619

2,619

225

3,566

1,124

* Not all the hunting occurred on National Forest lands. There are additional public lands, State lands and private 

properties within these hunt areas open to public hunting opportunities.

Methodology

Recreation is a social resource in that it‘s based on personal interpretation. What might be 

considered a quality experience for one person, may not necessarily apply to another. No amount 

of research can adequately be utilized to measure the effects on the quality of recreation someone 

may encounter. Research documents were reviewed to provide an understanding of how different 

experiences could impact recreation activities. The analysis is largely based on information from:

Attributes contained in GIS for roads and recreation

Personal professional knowledge of recreation resources

Personal professional experience working with various recreation user groups

During the scoping process the public indicated that the relationship of motorized and 

nonmotorized recreation was one of the most important issues. There is a desire for quality 

recreation experiences, while addressing potential conflicts between the different users. Concern 

was expressed regarding potential impacts to nonmotorized recreation uses including damage to 

trail surfaces, noise, safety, and reduction in quality of nonmotorized recreation experience due 

to user conflicts. Concern was also expressed regarding potential impacts between different 

motorized user groups.

Issues

From the public involvement, the Forest identified public concerns that should be analyzed in 

detail in the EIS. Three of the issue statements relate to the recreation resource:

Issue 2 - Effects on recreational opportunities. Recreational opportunities can be divided into 

two categories; motorized and nonmotorized. The designation of motorized opportunities, 

particularly the designation by vehicle class, may affect nonmotorized opportunities. With the 

variety of motorized vehicles on the market, recreational experiences between the motorized 

users could be impacted when travel routes are shared. The opportunities for motorized dispersed 

camping and motorized game retrieval could also be impacted as a result of designating travel

routes.

Indicators

Miles of road open to all vehicles

Miles of road open to highway-legal vehicles only

Miles of trail open to all vehicles, including rock crawlers

Miles of trail open to vehicles 50 inches or less in width (WY only)
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Miles of trail open to vehicles 65 inches or less in width (SD only)

Miles of motorcycle trail

Concentrated, cross-country travel areas less than 5 acres

Acres open to game retrieval

Acres open to dispersed camping

Number of motorized trailheads

Issue 3 - Effects of transportation system design on management capabilities. How 

particular routes are classified for motorized-mixed-use opportunities could impact unlicensed 

drivers opportunities to recreate with families.

Indicator

Miles of roads converted to trail

Issue 4 - Social and economic concerns. Where the motorized travel routes are identified could 

impact businesses and private property.

Indicators

Miles of designated motorized routes within 300 feet of lands of other ownerships

Number of trailheads within 3 miles of a gateway community

Affected Environment

The Forest is a regionally important recreation destination in South Dakota and Wyoming. The 

natural and cultural diversity within the rugged hills provides the basis for a wide variety of 

recreational activities and is vital to the area‘s recreation and tourism industries. Interspersed in 

and around the Forest are five National Park Service units including Devil‘s Tower National 

Monument and Mount Rushmore National Memorial. Custer and Bear Butte State Parks, Bureau 

of Reclamation lands, and historic towns also lie within the area.

Since the Forest is a popular recreational destination, visitors to the Forest use motorized access 

to a high degree. In 2004, the National Visitor Use Monitoring survey for the Black Hills 

estimated that 1.2 million people visit the region annually. ―Driving for pleasure‖ was identified 

as one of the top five activities, and as the second highest reason people visit the Forest (USDA 

Forest Service 2004c). In 2006, based on the survey information, the Forest Supervisor 

developed a marketing strategy for the Forest, ―Access for the Ages‖, which focuses recreation 

opportunities on specialized campgrounds, roaded recreation opportunities and a system of trails 

connecting communities showcasing the user-friendly access provided by the Forest to yearround family activities. The Forest offers hundreds of miles of Federal and State highways, 

County roads and Forest roads, including the Norbeck and Spearfish Scenic Byways.

As stated earlier, Forest visitors enjoy a wide variety of recreation opportunities, including onand off-road motorized use. Some motorized use is required to access most of these 

opportunities, no matter what the visitor‘s recreational preference may be.

To provide a variety of recreational experiences for the visitor, the Forest utilized a classification 

system referred to as Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS). ROS is a planning and 

management tool that categorizes recreation opportunities into six settings, ranging from 

primitive to urban (see Glossary). The Forest Plan identified four of the six settings for its 

management emphasis including primitive, semi-primitive nonmotorized, semi-primitive 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

motorized and roaded natural. The roaded natural category was further expanded to add another 

category called roaded natural nonmotorized to provide the Forest with additional diversity.

Table 9 shows the acres and percent of Forest area within each of the ROS classifications. Within 

ROS classes, visitors can expect to find a variety of recreational activities, including developed 

and dispersed, motorized and nonmotorized opportunities.

The majority of the motorized travel system on the Forest is accessible by passenger type 

vehicles including cars, trucks, vans, buses, motor homes, SUVs, and touring motorcycles. Offhighway vehicles, including ATVs, jeeps, and off-highway motorcycles were sampled in the 

2004 National Visitor Use Monitoring survey, but ranked 11th (2.99 percent) among the 25 types 

of recreational activities sampled as the primary purpose for visits to the Forest (USDA Forest 

Service 2004c).

Table 9. Black Hills National Forest ROS classes

ROS Acres Percent of National Forest acres

Primitive 14,847 1.19

Semi-primitive nonmotorized 36,237 2.91

Semi-primitive motorized 11,996 0.96

Roaded natural 1,105,582 88.71

Roaded natural nonmotorized 78,177 6.27

Total 1,246,839

Motorized recreation on the Forest can be divided into five user groups including passenger 

vehicles, four-wheel drive vehicles, all-terrain vehicles, utility vehicles, and off-highway 

motorcycles. Each group represents a different motorized need for their experience. Some users 

prefer roads, some trails, and some prefer the freedom to traverse the forest environment. 

Scoping comments on the proposed action indicated that the customers of the Black Hills 

National Forest prefer to see a variety of motorized recreation opportunities.

There are three ways motorized users travel on the Forest: roads, trails and cross-country. Roads 

are described by maintenance levels as identified in the engineering section. These maintenance 

levels allow the managers to construct or reconstruct routes to the standard appropriate to the 

intended use. The higher the maintenance level, the better quality the road is and the higher the 

expected speed will be. These roads are referred to as main arterial roads, and they often lead to 

points of interest such as campgrounds and picnic areas. Lower maintenance level roads tend to 

require higher clearance vehicles, such as trucks and sports utility vehicles. These routes may not 

lead to a particular recreation destination, but are often used by hunters or visitors that want a 

deeper woods experience. Due to the roughness of the route, they are travelled at reduce speeds.

Motorized trails are often defined by trail classes. The Black Hills National Forest currently has 

a limited number and mileage of designated motorized trails available to public motorized travel, 

(see Table 7 Alternative A), which have not been categorized into trail classes. Once the travel 

management process is completed, trails will be defined by classes corresponding to 

opportunities. As with road maintenance levels, the higher the trail class is, the better quality the 

trail is. Lower trail classes would identify rougher trails that may be more suitable for slower 

speeds such as rock-crawling opportunities.

Cross-country travel on the Forest has increased over time as off-highway vehicles, all-terrain 

vehicles and motorcycles have become more popular forms of recreational travel. In addition to 

cross-country travel, users often employed routes created from timber sales or mining activities 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

to traverse the countryside and avoid the main road systems. These routes were closed after 

management activities using vegetation or closure devices to discourage motorized travel and 

were never considered part of the overall transportation system for the Forest. They are referred 

to as unauthorized routes (see the engineering section). As off-highway travel became more 

popular, these unauthorized routes were discovered and ―adopted‖ by the public as motorized 

riding opportunities. In addition to management-created unauthorized routes, user-created routes 

have also developed from continuous use by the public. These routes were often not designed to 

professional standards, but formed as a motorized vehicle continuously traversed the ground 

creating tire ruts in the soil. Today, the Forest has identified 4,109 miles of unauthorized and 

user-created routes across the Forest. Approximately 7 percent of these routes lie within areas 

designated as nonmotorized areas on the Forest.

In February 2008, the report, ―Off-Highway Vehicle Recreation Use in the United States‖ was 

produced to identify statistical information about OHV use. A phone survey was conducted to 

measure participation in outdoor recreation. Nearly 92,000 people were surveyed between 1999 

and 2007. The report showed a dramatic increase in retail sales nationwide of ATVs and offhighway motorcycles between 1995 (368,600 total units sold) and 2003 (8,010,000 total units 

sold). The report also provided data by individual states population segment 16 years and older 

participating in an OHV program. Interestingly, Wyoming ranked highest in the nation for 

percentage of state population participating in OHV use, while South Dakota ranked 8

th in the 

nation (Cordell 2008).

Environmental Effects Analysis

Direct and Indirect Effects

Alternative A – No Action

The Forest currently has 3,740 miles of National Forest System roads open to motorized travel 

yearlong and 692 miles seasonally, excluding roads under other jurisdiction, and 864,000 acres 

(72 percent) of National Forest System lands open to off-road (cross-country) motorized travel 

for recreation and game retrieval. Approximately 12 miles of officially designated motorized 

trails exist in South Dakota, while Wyoming has designated 24 miles of closed National Forest

System roads open to motorized vehicles 50 inches wide or less under the Wyoming OHV 

program. Also, in Wyoming, all National Forest System roads open to motorized vehicles have 

been enrolled in the Wyoming OHV program, thus requiring all vehicles to either be highwaylegal or display an OHV sticker. Across the Forest, current management policy is to close all new 

temporary or nonsystem management-created routes to motorized use. In addition, under this 

alternative there is no special designation for motorcycle trails or rock-crawler areas.

Motorized opportunities. The National Forest System roads currently open to all forms of 

motorized travel would continue to provide access for highway-legal vehicles for a variety of 

recreational activities. All new temporary or nonsystem management-created routes would 

generally continue to be managed as closed to public motorized use. Attempts have been made to 

close these unauthorized roads by revegetation, physically barricading or signing as closed to 

motorized access. Unauthorized roads could occur anywhere on the Forest, including in areas 

open or closed to cross-country travel.

The motorized opportunity on the Forest is a shared component with all motorized users. The 

limited amount of motorized trails open to vehicles 50 inches wide or less means that these users 

are mixing with full-size vehicles on higher speed roads creating a safety concern for accidents.

In an effort to avoid these conflicts, ATVs and motorcycle users usually find their own places to 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

recreate, thus creating their own trail systems for their personal desires. Some of these usercreated trails are along old roads that may have been used for logging or other resource activity 

(unauthorized roads). Motorcycle riders, in particular, have created their own trail system within 

areas open to cross-country travel since the designated motorized trails do not offer the narrow 

experience they prefer. Continued use of these trails can and would continue to cause 

environmental harm, especially those located in environmentally sensitive areas. Motorized 

vehicles that are not highway legal in South Dakota would be restricted to designated trails to 

comply with State law. Roads under Forest Service jurisdiction open to motorized use would 

require motorized vehicles to be highway legal and to be operated by licensed drivers. In 

Wyoming, vehicles that are not highway legal must have an OHV sticker under State law and 

must be operated by a licensed driver on National Forest roads. Families with unlicensed drivers 

for either State would be restricted to trails only. This would limit families with unlicensed 

drivers to 12 miles of officially designated trails in South Dakota and 24 miles of trails in 

Wyoming. While Wyoming motorized trails do have a limited amount of looping opportunities, 

South Dakota does not, requiring the families to traverse the same trail twice.

Private land, State land and other Federal ownership accounts for 20 percent of the acreage 

within the Black Hills National Forest boundary, or about 300,000 acres. Many landowners are 

concerned that the motorized activities in the Black Hills would impact their land and access; 

others are concerned that they would not be able to access the designated trail system from their 

homes, requiring them to trailer to designated trailheads. Under Alternative A, 504 miles of 

National Forest System roads, 4 miles of trails, and 523 miles of other jurisdiction roads (such as 

County or Federal highways) would be located within 300 feet of private property and open to 

motorized use either seasonally or yearlong. Access to these properties is maintained for 

highway-legal vehicles, but non-highway-legal vehicles may be restricted. Landowners with 

non-highway legal vehicles or unlicensed drivers could be required to trailer to designated 

trailheads to access trails.

Cross-country travel. As a result of the continued cross-country travel opportunities, there 

would be continued confusion to recreation users with regards to travel management policy and 

restrictions. In areas where roads are closed to motorized use, but the Forest land surrounding the 

roads is open to motorized use, visitors could be likely to utilize the closed road illegally rather 

than traverse the Forest. With 864,000 acres of Forest land (72 percent) open to cross-country 

travel, motorized access would likely continue on unauthorized routes. It is likely within these 

open cross-country areas that additional user-created trails could form as riders cut through the 

landscape and connect unauthorized routes together.

Recreation conflicts occur when participation in one recreation activity reduces the recreation 

experience of another user. Conflicts are often between motorized and nonmotorized 

recreationists. However, conflicts can also occur between individual motorized users when crosscountry travel leaves unsightly damage to the land and motorized users fail to implement the 

―tread lightly‖ principles, or when ATVs access trails being utilized by motorcycles. User 

conflicts would continue to increase under this alternative as more motorized recreation occurs 

on lands with unrestricted motorized cross-country travel. Motorized recreation use is increasing 

and as this use increases, more people would travel cross-country in places where it is allowed.

Conflict deriving from motorized cross-country travel would be reduced when site-specific 

planning is completed and implemented, or when emergency closures are put into effect.

Landowners whose property is adjacent to National Forest lands open to cross-country travel 

could access the Forest with their off-road vehicles from their back yards. This could create new 

trails or continually damage unauthorized trails already established. Open cross-country travel 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

provides the opportunities for landowners to ride outside their homes without having to trailer 

their unlicensed vehicles to designated trailheads. Over time, as these trails become permanent 

marks on the landscape, other motorized users would follow them and could trespass on private 

property. Conflicts between adjacent landowners and the general public following unfamiliar 

trails could result from these unauthorized routes.

There would be no effect on people with disabilities or those people not physically fit to walk 

distances, because the same opportunities for motorized travel would be available to any visitor 

of the National Forest.

Recreation opportunity spectrum. Ten percent of the Forest has been designated as primitive, 

semi-primitive nonmotorized, or roaded natural nonmotorized ROS classes. These ROS classes 

are designed to offer the public an opportunity for a quiet experience. Some of these areas have 

designated nonmotorized trail systems for hiking, horseback riding, or mountain biking 

opportunities. Others offer opportunities for the public to explore on their own. All areas have 

unauthorized or low maintenance roads that the public is free to use for nonmotorized activities. 

Table 10 indicates the total number of miles of roads by maintenance level that lie within areas 

designated as semi-primitive nonmotorized or roaded natural nonmotorized ROS classes.

Table 10. Miles of road within semi-primitive nonmotorized (SPNM) and roaded natural 

nonmotorized (RNNM) areas

Road Type Miles in SPNM Miles in RNNM

ML 1 31 152

ML 2 23 65

ML 3 5 22

ML 4 4 6

Other jurisdiction 5 13

Unauthorized/user created 40 182

Total route miles 108 440

Table 11. Alternative A roads or trails open and closed to motorized use within semi-primitive 

nonmotorized or roaded natural nonmotorized areas

Miles in SPNM Miles in RNNM

Roads or trails open to motorized activities 36 107 

Roads or trails closed to motorized activities 72 333 

Total route miles 108 440

Although the desired condition of these ROS classes is to offer a solitude experience, many are 

affected by existing roads open to motorized activities. Of the semi-primitive nonmotorized 

class, only the Research Natural Areas and Fort Meade Watershed restrict or close roads to 

motorized use inside the boundary of ROS designation. Of the roaded natural nonmotorized 

class, 5 of the 22 areas restrict motorized access inside the designated boundary. For some of the 

areas, such as Little Spearfish Creek, Norbeck Wildlife Preserve, or McIntosh Fen semiprimitive nonmotorized areas, access roads are main system Level 4 roads or Federal highways 

that provide access to other parts of the Forest. In other cases, the access roads are low-level 

maintenance roads that provide access to the areas or trailheads, such as Sand Creek, Lower Hell 

Canyon, Eagle Cliff, and Pactola Spillway. The smaller the nonmotorized area, the bigger an 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

impact motorized access has on it. Regardless of the purpose of the road, motorized access into 

nonmotorized areas affects the quiet and serene experience that some visitors desire.

Continued implementation of this alternative would not be consistent with Forest Plan guideline 

5101 for ROS designation. Motorized opportunities would continue to impact areas with semiprimitive nonmotorized and roaded natural nonmotorized designations. The Forest Plan ROS 

standard for the five areas assigned as Management Emphasis 2.2, Research Natural Areas, has 

been achieved by eliminating or restricting motorized access within the designated areas. The 

two areas identified as primitive ROS setting, Black Elk Wilderness, and Inyan Kara Inventoried 

Roadless Area, also meet the Forest Plan ROS guideline by restricting motorized access within 

their boundaries.

Table 12. Analysis indicators for Alternative A

Indicators Unit of measure

Miles of road open to all vehicles (motorized mixed use)

Yearlong – Wyoming only; license plate or OHV sticker

Seasonally – Wyoming only; license plate or OHV sticker

160 miles

12 miles

Miles of road open to highway legal vehicles only

Yearlong

Seasonally

3,580 miles

656 miles

Miles of trail open to all vehicles, including rock crawlers

Yearlong

Seasonally

0 miles

0 miles

Miles of trail open to vehicles 50 inches or less in width (WY only)

Yearlong

Seasonally

0 miles

24 miles

Miles of trail open to vehicles 65 inches or less in width (SD only)

Yearlong

Seasonally

12 miles

0 miles

Miles of motorcycle trail

Yearlong

Seasonally

0 miles

0 miles

Beginner practice areas less than 5 acres 0 areas

Acres open to motorized cross-country travel 864,000 acres

Acres open to motorized game retrieval 864,000 acres

Acres open to motorized dispersed camping 864,000 acres

Number of motorized trailheads 7 trailheads

Miles of roads converted to trail 0 miles

Miles of designated motorized routes within 300 feet of lands of other ownership 504 miles

Number of trailheads within 3 miles of a gateway community 0 trailheads

Dispersed camping. Motorized dispersed camping would continue to occur anywhere on the 

Forest with minimal restrictions with the exception of the Norbeck area, wilderness, research 

natural areas, Spearfish Canyon, and any area specifically designated through a Forest special 

order to prohibit dispersed camping.

Game retrieval. The greatest impact to hunters occurs when motorized vehicles access areas 

designated nonmotorized. Under this alternative, with 72 percent of the Forest‘s land base open 

to cross-country travel, big game hunters have many opportunities to utilize any motorized 

vehicle to retrieve their harvests for any game species, including turkey, elk, deer, mountain lion, 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

and mountain goat. For the nonmotorized hunter, 28 percent of the National Forest System land 

area is restricted for motorized access.

When motorized hunters impact the nonmotorized areas during hunting seasons, it affects those 

hunters whose methods of accessing, scouting, stalking, and retrieving are by foot or horse. To 

some extent, even in open cross-country areas, those motorized hunters who stay on roads and 

trails can be affected by hunters who travel cross-country. Their hunting experience may be 

reduced or spoiled by others who might use motorized vehicles to travel cross-country to scout 

for game, access favorite hunting areas, and drive or chase game for a better shot or to retrieve 

game. For many, the noise created by motorized vehicles diminishes the hunting experience 

because it disturbs and displaces game animals from the immediate area. The effects are more 

pronounced where motorized cross-country use is more common, such as on flatter or more open 

terrain. Fewer hunters are affected in the heavily timbered and or steeper areas where there is 

less opportunity for motorized cross-country travel, or in areas currently closed to cross-country 

travel.

Continued forest management activities, such as timber harvesting or prescribed burning, can 

also displace game species and affect a successful hunt. Some hunters have complained that if an 

area of the Forest restricts motorized access, it should restrict that access to all, including Forest 

managers and its contractors and permittees.

Roadless. The Inyan Kara, Sand Creek, and Beaver Park roadless areas make up the roadless 

inventory for the Forest. A characteristic of roadless areas is to provide for solitude and primitive 

experiences that are affected only through forces of nature and human influence is substantially 

unnoticeable. These areas are designated nonmotorized areas by Forest Plan direction.

Inyan Kara lies within Management Area 3.2A and has a Forest Plan guideline ROS 

classification of primitive. The mountain is completely surrounded by private ranches and 

Wyoming Highway 585 lies about 3 miles east. Vehicular noise can be heard on the mountain, 

but is muffled by the distance. There is no designated nonmotorized trail.

Beaver Park lies within Management Areas 3.32 (north), and 5.3B (west), both of which have 

Forest Plan guidelines of semi-primitive nonmotorized ROS classifications. The southern portion 

lies within Management Area 4.1, with a Forest Plan guideline of roaded natural nonmotorized 

ROS classification. Along the western and northern borders of Beaver Park is NFS road 139, a 

road about 6 miles long open seasonally to all vehicles. Interstate 90 and a subdivision lie less 

than a mile from the eastern border of Beaver Park. Centennial Trail runs through Bulldog 

Gulch, less than a mile south of road 139.

The Sand Creek roadless area is made up of Management Areas 3.7 and 4.1, both with a Forest 

Plan guideline of roaded natural nonmotorized ROS classification; and Management Area 3.1, 

with a Forest Plan guideline of semi-primitive nonmotorized ROS classification. Several open 

motorized public roads lie adjacent to the Sand Creek boundary, including NFS roads 863, 866, 

802.1A, 802, and 864. There are additional NFS roads inside the boundary of Sand Creek 

roadless area that are currently closed to motorized public use. Sand Creek has no designated 

nonmotorized trails.

Motorized activities along the borders of any roadless area can create additional unnatural noise.

Motorized routes along the border create a more direct source of unnatural noise than that from 

roads outside the boundaries, such as interstate highway traffic, subdivisions, or ranches. The 

extent of the impact derives in part from the personal preferences of the visitor and the desired 

experience they are seeking. Some visitors will tolerate unnatural noises for short durations, 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

while others may not. Visitors traversing the ridges will experience more noise impacts than 

those within the creek bottoms due to the natural terrain and vegetation that help buffer noise.

Roads mentioned for Sand Creek and Beaver Park‘s NFS road 139 are maintained and utilized 

by the public and Forest Service regularly. These routes serve as the boundaries for these 

roadless areas and their management is consistent with Forest Plan management area direction 

and ROS settings.

Alternative B - Modified Proposed Action

This alternative would designate a total of 4,129 miles of motorized opportunities on roads and 

trails yearlong and 1,175 miles seasonally for all types of vehicles. Motorcycle trails would 

account for 76 miles, while trails 50 inches wide or less in Wyoming would account for 95 miles 

and trails 65 inches wide or less in South Dakota would account for 319 miles. Trails open to all 

vehicles, which includes rock crawling opportunities would total 173 miles. Most seasonal 

designation of trails and roads would overlap with snowmobile trails or big game habitat areas.

Dispersed camping would be restricted to within 100 feet of designated roads, while game 

retrieval would be restricted to 300 feet off of designated routes for retrieval of elk.

Motorized opportunities. The proposed routes for motorized designation consist mostly of a 

variety of roads. Those using passenger type vehicles would not experience any change in access 

to developed sites or recreational trailheads. Users desiring off-road opportunities would 

experience changes with the closure of cross-country travel and the limitation to designated 

routes. Motorized users who desire challenging experiences with cross-country travel may find a 

road-based system dull and not challenging enough.

Routes designated in South Dakota as trails open to all vehicles tend to be more rugged and 

rocky requiring higher clearance vehicles to traverse the ground. Some of these trails also 

include routes specifically suited for rock-crawling-type vehicles. These route miles may provide 

a more challenging ride for people than a typical road-based system.

To provide a trail experience, some routes would be restricted to vehicles 65 inches wide or less 

for South Dakota and 50 inches wide or less for Wyoming to reduce conflicts with larger 

vehicles. These routes have grass or native surfaces rather than gravel and can provide for a 

narrower trail experience that some visitors prefer if managers choose to limit maintenance along 

the road to the specified widths. Over time, these routes would narrow as vegetation naturally 

encroaches on the road. However, if these routes are needed for future management activities 

such as logging, the trail experience would be lost at least temporarily as the roads are 

reconstructed to a wider width to accommodate logging vehicles. In Wyoming, these trails would 

require an OHV sticker and would be open to drivers of any age to operate vehicles 50-incheswide or less, while in South Dakota these trails would be available for both highway-legal and 

non-highway-legal vehicles with widths of 65 inches or less.

The larger trail width limits in South Dakota would provide additional opportunities for people 

with side-by-side vehicles, commonly referred to as UTVs (utility-terrain vehicles). A large 

number of UTVs currently manufactured vary in width up to 65 inches or more; many are in the 

range of 60 to 62 inches in width (see process paper in the administrative record.) Families, 

friends, and clubs riding a combination of recreational vehicles up to 65 inches in width could all 

travel together for a trail ride in South Dakota. However, in Wyoming, State law limits the size 

of vehicles capable of travelling on them to 50 inches in width or less. UTVs are generally wider 

than 50 inches and would be restricted from travelling the trails in Wyoming.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Although there would be more opportunities for motorized recreation for vehicles 65 inches 

wide or less in South Dakota and 50 inches wide or less for Wyoming as a result of restricting 

motorized access on some NFS roads under this alternative, conflicts between motorized users 

would continue to occur on all designated routes. Also, conflicts between management activities 

and motorized users could occur on routes designated as trails if administrative use of these 

routes allows access by full size vehicles. Safety concerns for head-on collisions, particularly 

along blind corners, could occur on any road designated for motorized use between full-size 

vehicles and vehicles 50 to 65 inches wide or less. Conflicts between motorcycles could occur 

with collisions along the narrow trail if speeds are too fast or visual impairments from the 

vegetation exists. Please refer to the Engineering section in this document for further discussion 

of safety of motorized mixed uses on roads.

Single-track (motorcycle) trails have been proposed in South Dakota. These trails offer a narrow 

riding experience that motorcyclists prefer. The trails are not designed for looping opportunities; 

however, riders could travel back to their starting points by accessing other roads or trails open 

to all users or vehicles 65 inches or less. Traveling these other routes could reduce their desired 

narrow experience, but would allow a change in scenery. To continue with the narrow 

experience, single-track users may just turn around and return on the same path.

Due to the purpose for which many roads were constructed or established, it is likely that some 

of the motorcycle trails have sufficient width to accommodate ATVs. Over time, ATVs create 

two tracks, which could make it difficult for single-track vehicles (motorcycles) to negotiate the 

trail. Since the designated system consists mostly of roads that were designed for management 

activities, the recreating public may be impacted by logging traffic, road equipment, fire 

equipment, etc., as the Forest continues to manage the resources of the land. It is expected that 

some routes may be closed temporarily to reduce user conflicts and safety hazards until 

management activities are completed. These temporary closures would displace motorized use to 

other locations, which could increase resource impacts and possible damage.

Under this alternative, more opportunities would exist for non-highway-legal vehicles to travel 

the designated system. Any route identified open to all motorized use would be open to nonhighway-legal vehicles for South Dakota; Wyoming would still require non-highway-legal 

vehicles to display an OHV sticker. State law would still require operators to carry a driver‘s 

license when operating on public roads. Designated trails would offer the only opportunities for 

unlicensed drivers to travel. Families with unlicensed drivers would likely enjoy the motorized 

opportunities designed in this alternative. This alternative offers 1,000 miles of trails between 

both States open to a variety of motorized use either yearlong or seasonally.

For private, State, and other Federal ownership lands, this alternative would have 490 miles of 

NFS roads, 30 miles of trails, and 523 miles of other jurisdiction roads (such as county or 

Federal highways) located within 300 feet of private property open to motorized use either 

seasonally or yearlong. Access to these properties would be maintained for highway-legal 

vehicles, but non-highway-legal vehicles may be restricted. Landowners and other users with 

non-highway-legal vehicles or unlicensed drivers would be required to trailer to designated 

trailheads to access trails.

Trailheads. Thirty-one trailheads have been identified for this alternative to provide parking 

opportunities for recreation activities. Of these, 10 are within 3 miles of communities that offer 

amenities such as hotels, gas stations, and restaurants. Additional trailheads may also be located 

within 3 miles of amenities along major highways that are outside communities.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Recreation opportunity spectrum. As compared with Alternative A, Alternative B would open 

additional roads to motorized opportunities inside areas with ROS settings for nonmotorized

activities (see Table 13). For semi-primitive nonmotorized areas, three areas – Dugout, Cook 

Lake, and Sundance Burn – would have roads opened to motorized use. On the other hand, 

Beaver/Bear Gulch and Norbeck Wildlife Preserve would see roads closed to motorized use. All 

other semi-primitive nonmotorized areas remain unchanged from Alternative A. Both Cook Lake 

and Dugout would offer opportunities to connect motorized trails 50 inches wide for looping 

opportunities, while Sundance Burn would identify a trail to an overlook. Overall, this 

alternative would open 2 miles of new routes to motorized use within semi-primitive 

nonmotorized areas.

Of the roaded natural nonmotorized areas, Bogus Jim, Smith Draw, Eagle Cliff, Forbes Gulch, 

and Wood Canyon would see new roads opened to motorized use. Forbes Gulch would have

approximately 4 miles of motorized trail designated open to all vehicles by special permit only 

for motorized events. Smith Draw, Wood Canyon, and Bogus Jim would see an increase in 

motorized use through designation of trails open to vehicles 50 inches wide or less (in Wyoming) 

or 65 inches or less (in South Dakota), or motorcycles, while Black Fox, Lower Rapid Creek, 

Battle Creek, Swede Gulch, Pactola Spillway, Buckhorn/Bear Gulch, and Management Area 

5.43, Big Game and Resource Production, would see reductions in motorized access to currently 

open roads. Overall, this alternative would open 2 miles of new routes to motorized use within 

roaded natural nonmotorized areas.

Table 13. Alternative B roads or trails open and closed to motorized use within semi-primitive 

nonmotorized or roaded natural nonmotorized area

Miles in SPNM Miles in RNNM

Roads or trails open to motorized activities 38 (36)* 109 (107)*

Roads or trails closed to motorized activities 70 (72)* 331 (333)*

Total route miles 108 440

* Alternative A mileages shown in parentheses

This alternative would not meet Forest Plan guideline 5101 for ROS designations in that more 

motorized opportunities would be offered within, and would continue to impact areas with semiprimitive nonmotorized, and roaded natural nonmotorized designations. The Forest Plan ROS 

standard for the five areas assigned as Management Area 2.2, Research Natural Areas, has been 

achieved. The two areas identified as primitive ROS setting, Black Elk Wilderness and Inyan 

Kara Inventoried Roadless Area would also be consistent with the Forest Plan ROS guideline by 

restriction of motorized access within their boundaries.

Cross-country travel. This alternative would eliminate recreational experiences associated with 

cross-country driving. Recreation conflicts associated with cross-country travel would also be 

eliminated. Over time, unauthorized trails within open cross-country areas would revegetate.

Motorized users desiring the experience of cross-country travel would need to find other areas to 

recreate on neighboring lands such as the Railroad Buttes motorized use area.

Most National Forest System lands would still be accessible to some degree by motorized 

vehicles under this alternative as the road and trail network is generally dense enough that people 

would not have to walk more than a mile to reach a road or trail. Some people may view the 

restriction on motorized cross-country use as a loss of recreation opportunity. Restricting 

motorized cross-country travelers to roads and trails would have little to no effect on motorized 

visitors who only use roads and trails now.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Dispersed camping. Dispersed camping would be restricted to 100 feet off of designated roads, 

although not all areas along designated roads are suitable for dispersed camping due to 

topography and vegetation. This could result in campsites being very close to motorized roads.

Dust and noise from adjacent roads could impact campsites. No motorized dispersed camping 

would be allowed from any designated motorized trail. Therefore, dispersed campers desiring 

more distance off a road would be displaced. For Alternative B, the current management 

direction that restricts motorized dispersed camping would be the same as Alternative A.

Game retrieval. Off-road motorized game retrieval opportunities under this alternative would be 

restricted to 300 feet for retrieval of harvested elk only off of designated routes. Limiting 

motorized hunters to this specific distance for elk retrieval only would reduce the conflicts 

between motorized and nonmotorized hunters, but could create more illegal road hunting 

problems for game enforcement officers. Under Alternative B, motorized hunters would not be 

allowed to travel cross-country to scout for game or access favorite hunting areas.

Roadless. Please refer to Alternative A for discussion and description of the roadless areas. 

There are no motorized routes proposed in the Inyan Kara roadless area.

Besides NFS road 139 proposed to be open seasonally for all vehicles, a 4-mile currently 

unauthorized route on the south side of Beaver Park within Forbes Gulch is proposed for 

motorized events under a special use permit for three or four weekends of the year. Forbes Gulch 

lies within Management Area 4.1 and is about 2 miles from the Centennial Trail.

No new motorized use is proposed in the Sand Creek Roadless Area, including the Cranberry 

Springs route. All other roads bordering Sand Creek as described in Alternative A would 

continue to be open to all vehicles.

As with Alternative A, one impact to roadless areas from motorized use is noise, which affects 

the solitude and primitive nature that characterizes roadless areas. Proposed use of the Forbes 

Gulch route under a special use permit would likely create more noise impacts during the event.

Since this is a bottomland route, the noise would be louder on the adjacent ridges. Visitors 

traversing the area 2 miles away on the Centennial Trail, also located in a bottomland area in 

Bulldog Gulch, may hear distant rumbling of vehicular traffic due to the terrain and vegetation 

that can act as a natural barrier to noise. Any ridges within any of the roadless areas would 

experience the greatest impacts from vehicular noise from roads adjacent to the roadless areas or 

several miles away, such as interstate highway traffic, ranches, and subdivisions.

The recreational emphasis for MA 4.1 is nonmotorized recreation (goal 4.1-401). The proposed 

Forbes Gulch route would not meet a Forest Plan guideline for roaded natural nonmotorized 

ROS setting (guideline 5101) or guidelines identified for transportation and travel. Guideline 

4.1-9102 does allow limited motorized travel on designated routes, to conduct vegetation 

management and states ―generally the road system will be closed to motorized travel‖.

Table 14. Analysis indicators for Alternative B

Indicators Unit of measure

Miles of road open to all vehicles (motorized mixed use)

Yearlong

Seasonally

2,226 miles

588 miles

Miles of road open to highway legal vehicles only

Yearlong

Seasonally

1,240 miles

249 miles
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Miles of trail open to all vehicles, including rock crawlers

Yearlong

Seasonally

173 miles

65 miles

Miles of trail open to vehicles 50 inches or less in width (WY only)

Yearlong

Seasonally

95 miles

95miles

Miles of trail open to vehicles 65 inches or less in width – (SD only)

Yearlong

Seasonally

319 miles

177 miles

Miles of motorcycle trail

Yearlong

Seasonally

76 miles

1 miles

Beginner practice areas less than 5 acres 0 areas

Acres open to motorized cross-country travel 0 acres

Acres open to motorized game retrieval – 300 feet 179,000 acres

Acres open to motorized dispersed camping – 100 feet 63,500 acres

Number of trailheads 31 trailheads

Miles of roads converted to trail 207 miles

Miles of designated motorized routes within 300 feet of lands of other ownership 490 miles

Number of trailheads within 3 miles of a gateway community 10 trailheads 

Alternative C

This alternative would designate 4,353 miles of motorized opportunities on roads and trails 

yearlong and 1,362 miles seasonally for all types of vehicles. Motorcycle trails would account 

for 134 miles, while trails 50 inches wide or less would total 80 miles in Wyoming and trails 65 

inches and less for South Dakota would total 380 miles. Trails open to all vehicles, which 

includes rock-crawling opportunities would total 176 miles. Most seasonal designation of trails 

and roads would overlap with snowmobile trails or big game habitat areas. In addition to the 

designation of roads and trails, three small areas, less than 5 acres each, would be set up as 

beginner practice areas. Dispersed camping would be restricted to within 300 feet of designated 

roads, while game retrieval would be allowed in a designated area of about 385,500 acres open 

for cross-country retrieval of harvested elk or deer.

Motorized opportunities. For South Dakota, this alternative would designate more routes and 

trails to provide increased motorized travel opportunities for families or motorized clubs that 

have a combination of recreational vehicles. However, all motorized users would be competing 

for access along routes, thus possibly increasing conflicts between motorized user groups. Some 

routes may not be wide enough to accommodate passage of two vehicles and additional safety 

concerns could result. As with Alternative B, Wyoming trail opportunities would be available for 

vehicles 50 inches or less. Please refer to the Engineering section of this document for further 

information on safety implications of the alternatives. Passenger type vehicles would not 

experience any change in access to developed sites or recreational trailheads.

Routes designated in South Dakota as trails open to all vehicles tend to be more rugged and 

rocky requiring higher clearance vehicles to traverse the ground. Some of these trails also 

include routes specifically suited for rock-crawling type vehicles. These route miles may provide 

a more challenging ride for people than a typical road-based system.

The increase in single-track (motorcycle) trails over Alternative B would provide additional trails 

for motorcyclists to travel. As with Alternative B, there would be a limited amount of looping 

opportunities for these trails requiring the rider to access other roads or trails or turn around and 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

travel the same path. Similar experiences and conflicts would result for single-track trails as with 

Alternative B.

As with Alternative B, the designated system of Alternative C would consist mostly of roads that 

were originally designed for management activities. As the Forest continues to manage the 

resources of the land, the recreating public could be impacted by logging traffic, road equipment, 

fire equipment, etc. It is expected that some routes would be closed temporarily for public safety 

until management activities are completed. These temporary closures would displace motorized 

users to other locations, which could increase resource impacts and possible resource damage.

Under this alternative, opportunities for motorized travel would increase for highway-legal and 

non-highway-legal vehicles. In South Dakota, any route identified as open to all motorized use 

would be open to non-highway-legal vehicles. Wyoming would still require non-highway-legal 

vehicles to display an OHV sticker. State law would still apply for both states, in that vehicle 

operators would be required to carry a driver‘s license when operating on public roads.

Designated trails would offer the only opportunities for unlicensed drivers to travel. Families 

with unlicensed drivers would find this alternative more accommodating with the addition of 

more trails to explore with their children. This alternative would offer 771 miles of trails open to 

a variety of motorized use either yearlong or seasonally. While more trails would be available in 

South Dakota, less would be available in Wyoming with limited looping opportunities as 

compared with Alternative B. Families would need to plan their trips more under this alternative 

to avoid running into public roads that unlicensed children could not legally travel.

For private, State, and other Federal ownership lands, this alternative would have 500 miles of 

NFS roads, 32 miles of trails, and 523 miles of other jurisdiction roads (such as county or 

Federal highways) located within 300 feet of private property open to motorized use either 

seasonally or yearlong. Access to these properties would be maintained for highway-legal 

vehicles, but non-highway-legal vehicles may be restricted. Landowners with non-highway-legal 

vehicles or unlicensed children may be required to trailer to designated trailhead to access trails.

Trailheads. Thirty-four trailheads would be identified in this alternative to provide parking 

opportunities. Of these 34 trailheads, 11 would be within 3 miles of communities that offer 

amenities such as hotels, gas stations, and restaurants. Additional trailheads may also be located 

within 3 miles of amenities along major highways that are outside communities.

Recreation Opportunity Spectrum. Alternative C would have more impacts to the 

nonmotorized ROS classes than Alternative B due to additional routes proposed for motorized 

access (Table 15). Some nonmotorized areas would see motorized use restricted on some routes 

while others would have increased motorized opportunities. The greatest new motorized access 

would occur in the Smith Draw, Lower Rapid Creek, and Pactola Spillway roaded natural 

nonmotorized areas; and the Sundance Burn semi-primitive nonmotorized area. Alternative C 

would open 2 miles of new routes to motorized use in areas designated as semi-primitive 

nonmotorized ROS; and 22 miles of new routes in areas designated as roaded natural 

nonmotorized.

Table 15. Alternative C roads or trails open or closed to motorized use within semi-primitive 

nonmotorized or roaded natural nonmotorized areas

Miles in SPNM Miles in RNNM

Roads or trails open to motorized activities 38 (36)* 129 (107)*

Roads or trails closed to motorized 

activities 70 (72)* 311 (333)*
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Total route miles 108 miles 440 miles

* Alternative A mileages shown in parentheses

This alternative would not meet Forest Plan guideline 5101 for ROS designations because more

motorized opportunities would be offered within, and would continue to impact areas with semiprimitive nonmotorized and roaded natural nonmotorized designations. The Forest Plan ROS 

standard for all five areas assigned as Management Area 2.2, Research Natural Areas, would be 

achieved. Two areas identified as primitive ROS setting, Black Elk Wilderness and Inyan Kara 

Inventoried Roadless Area would also meet the Forest Plan ROS guideline by restricting 

motorized access within their boundaries.

Cross-country travel. As with Alternative B, this alternative would close the Forest to crosscountry travel. Users desiring off-road opportunities would be limited to designated routes.

Those who desire challenging experiences typical of cross-country travel may find a road-based 

system dull and not challenging enough. The areas suitable for rock crawling could become 

over-run as users look to these areas to fulfill the challenging rides they once experienced 

through cross-country travel. The increased use of these areas may result in higher maintenance 

and eventually lead to closure if resource damage becomes too great.

To accommodate beginning motorized users, three areas would be provided as beginner practice 

areas. These areas would be small in scale, less than 3 acres, but would provide sufficient room 

to practice operating an off-highway vehicle in a controlled setting. Designating these three areas 

could create problems for managers if this activity is highly desired by the public, and users 

could soon overwhelm the small areas, resulting in conflicts between users and potential safety 

concerns. As use increased in these areas and track patterns become set, racetracks could 

ultimately develop.

Dispersed camping. Under this alternative, motorized dispersed camping would be restricted to 

300 feet off of designated routes. Not all areas along designated routes may be suitable for 

dispersed camping due to topography and vegetation. The increased distance allowed off of 

designated routes, as compared with Alternative B, would allow additional space for users to pull 

off the motorized road, and could reduce the incidence of dust and noise related to camping on 

the edge of a road. Most existing dispersed campsites in the Forest are within 300 feet of a 

designated motorized road. Those campsites that are further away would be closed for use and 

rehabilitated.

Game retrieval. During the initial scoping period for this project, South Dakota Game, Fish and 

Parks Department offered an alternative to the proposed action of designating a distance of up to 

one mile either side of any motorized road or trail for big game retrieval. The Forest Service 

reviewed this proposal, and determined it would result in little or no change from the current 

condition of the Forest, thus the proposal was eliminated from further consideration.

Table 16. Analysis indicators for Alternative C

Indicators Unit of measure

Miles of road open to all vehicles (motorized mixed use)

Yearlong

Seasonally

2,878miles

922 miles

Miles of road open to highway legal vehicles only

Yearlong

Seasonally

704 miles

70 miles

Miles of trail open to all vehicles, including rock crawlers
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Yearlong

Seasonally

118 miles

48 miles

Miles of trail open to vehicles 50 inches or less in width (WY only)

Yearlong

Seasonally

80 miles

73 miles

Miles of trail open to vehicles 65 inches or less in width (SD only)

Yearlong

Seasonally

380 miles

196 miles

Miles of motorcycle trail

Yearlong

Seasonally

134 miles

25 miles

Beginner practice areas less than 5 acres 3 areas

Acres open to motorized cross-country travel 0 acres

Acres open to motorized game retrieval – designated area 385,500 acres

Acres open to motorized dispersed camping – 300 feet 184,000 acres

Number of trailheads 34 trailheads

Miles of roads converted to trail 205 miles

Miles of designated motorized routes within 300 feet of lands of other ownership 500 miles

Number of trailheads within 3 miles of a gateway community 11 trailheads

However, the Forest Service developed Alternative C, which would designate an area for offroad motorized game retrieval on approximately 385,500 acres (32 percent) of the Forest. This 

area is considerably smaller than currently allowed, but would allow unrestricted off-road game 

retrieval opportunities for the motorized hunter during elk and deer season (September to 

December) for South Dakota and Wyoming. The designated area proposed in this alternative has 

traditionally been open year-round to cross-country travel and would not likely create any new 

effects to the nonmotorized hunter. There is no data available to determine how many Black 

Hills hunters retrieve game by motorized means. It is possible that this smaller motorized game 

retrieval area could be heavily impacted, creating the potential for an increase in resource 

damage. However, it is likely that the designated area would continue to see management 

complications in areas where roads are closed to motorized use, but the land area is open to offroad motorized game retrieval since this is the case with the current management (see Alternative 

A discussion under cross-country travel). Only hunters would be allowed to travel off-road for 

retrieval of harvested elk or deer. No recreational off-road travel would be allowed in this 

alternative.

Outside of the designated off-road motorized game retrieval area, the density of motorized routes 

proposed would be relatively high allowing good access to the Forest. This alternative would 

require that animals harvested be dragged to a designated motorized route from as little as a halfmile to two miles distant, depending on the hunt area.

Roadless. Please refer to Alternative A for discussion and description of the roadless areas. 

Proposed motorized routes are the same for this alternative as with Alternative B and the effects 

to the roadless characteristic, ROS settings and management area direction are also the same.

Alternative D

This alternative would designate a total of 3,197 miles of motorized opportunities on roads and 

trails yearlong and 767 miles seasonally for all types of vehicles. Motorcycle trails would 

account for 21 miles, while trails 50 inches or less in Wyoming would account for 31 miles and 

trails 65 inches or less in South Dakota would equal 150 miles. Trails open to all vehicles, which 

includes rock crawling opportunities totals 118 miles. Most seasonal designation of trails and 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

roads would overlap with snowmobile trails or big game habitat areas. No motorized dispersed 

camping or game retrieval would be allowed under this alternative. Vehicles that are not highway 

legal would be restricted in South Dakota to designated routes; in Wyoming, operators of these 

vehicles would be required to purchase a State OHV sticker to ride designated roads and trails.

Motorized opportunities. Reduction of motorized access would concentrate motorized use into 

smaller areas, which could create additional environmental impacts and more conflicts between 

motorized users. The biggest reduction of motorized access would be seen on routes designated 

as trails less than 50 or 65-inches wide (depending on the State) for ATVs, UTVs, motorcycles, 

and rock crawlers. As with the above alternatives, passenger type vehicles would continue to 

have access to popular recreation places such as campgrounds and picnic areas.

With the reduction of motorized trail opportunities, users would share motorized routes similar 

to Alternative A. Highway-legal ATVs and UTVs would be able to travel the same routes as full 

size vehicles, thus creating the same conflicts between motorized user groups as the other 

alternatives. Motorcycle users would see their trail experience opportunity reduced to 21 miles.

The repeated use of these 21 miles could create additional rutting and possible resource damage.

As with Alternatives B and C, the single-track trails are not a looped experience, requiring the 

rider to traverse the same trail back to the starting point or circle around on other routes designed 

for wider vehicles. Thus, motorcyclists would not have the narrow trail experience, which is 

more challenging.

The smaller number of trail opportunities relative to other alternatives would concentrate the 

recreating public into smaller areas. Impacts from vehicle traffic associated with management 

activity could also increase road closures to the public for safety reasons and further concentrate 

motorized recreation, particularly for the non-highway legal vehicles, which could increase 

resource impacts and resource damage. Additional closures to motorized use would be felt more 

with families with younger unlicensed drivers as they try to find places for their young to ride 

legally. The lesser number and mileage of trails available within South Dakota and Wyoming 

would diminish the opportunity for these motorized families to ride together. With this 

alternative, the designated trails may not be looped and could dead end at roads. The experience 

for families would be similar to single track by requiring the families with younger unlicensed 

drivers to traverse the same trail back to the starting point. Repeated use of short segment trails 

(less than 5 miles) could result in higher levels of resource damage through continued use.

For this alternative, public safety was given additional consideration. Vehicles that are not 

highway legal would be restricted in South Dakota to only trail systems and a few designated 

roads that connect the trails. As with Alternatives B and C, any route identified open to all 

motorized use would be open to highway-legal and non-highway-legal vehicles for South 

Dakota; Wyoming would still require non-highway-legal vehicles to display an OHV sticker.

State law would still apply for both states, in that vehicle operators would be required to carry a 

driver‘s license when operating on public roads. Designated trails would offer the only 

opportunities for unlicensed drivers to travel. This alternative would offer 320 miles of trails and 

580 miles of roads open to a variety of motorized use either yearlong or seasonally.

For South Dakota, seven motorized trail systems were designed to provide non-highway-legal 

vehicles a place to recreate. Some areas would provide a good day‘s ride (perhaps about 40 to 60 

miles of interconnecting routes) while others are small (perhaps several miles to about 20 miles 

of routes). These smaller areas could provide beginners opportunities to practice; however, 

experienced riders might soon become bored with the short distances. There are also many dead 

end routes and trails that would require users to traverse back to the beginning. The increase in 

trail width for South Dakota (trails 65 inches or less in width) would allow UTVs and ATVs to 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

recreate together. None of the motorized trail systems are linked together with trails or routes, 

which would obligate non-highway-legal motorized users to use trailers between the areas.

Not all the routes designated open to non-highway-legal vehicles have designated trailheads, so 

users would be required to park on the roadsides in order to access the route. Continual use of 

these routes could create resource damage from repeated roadside parking. Competition between 

users (highway legal and non-highway legal) to access this limited area is expected to be high 

since these areas offer trail opportunities rather than roads to ride. Trails may offer a more 

narrow experience than many motorized riders desire.

For private, State, and other Federal ownership lands, this alternative would have 423 miles of 

NFS roads, 22 miles of trails, and 523 miles of other jurisdiction roads (such as county or 

Federal highways) located within 300 feet of private property open to motorized use either 

seasonally or yearlong. Under this alternative, with more routes identified as open to highway 

legal only, landowners would be required to license their recreational vehicles to travel from 

their homes or trailer their non-highway-legal vehicles to designated trailheads. Access to these 

properties would be maintained for highway-legal vehicles, but non-highway legal vehicles may 

be restricted. Landowners with non-highway legal vehicles or younger unlicensed operators may 

be required to trailer to a designated trailhead to access trails.

Trailheads. Twenty-three trailheads would be identified for this alternative to provide parking 

opportunities. Of these, seven would be located within 3 miles of communities that offer 

amenities such as hotels, gas stations, and restaurants. In addition, since non-highway-legal 

vehicles would be restricted to trail areas, 14 trailheads would be connected to the designated 

trail system, while the others are connected to highway-legal-only roads. Additional trailheads 

may also be located within 3 miles of amenities along major highways that are outside 

communities.

Recreation Opportunity Spectrum. Under this alternative, alignment of motorized travel with 

ROS nonmotorized classes would be improved considerably over Alternative A; however, where 

other jurisdiction roads or Forest Service maintenance level 3, 4, or 5 coincide with 

nonmotorized areas the potential for motorized conflict would still exist. As compared with 

Alternative A, no additional routes would be open for motorized use and restrictions on 

motorized use are proposed for 12 miles and 30 miles in semi-primitive nonmotorized and 

roaded natural nonmotorized, respectively (Table 17). In addition to closing some routes inside 

designated ROS nonmotorized classes, some roads outside these boundaries would also be 

closed to motorized use, thus providing more nonmotorized experience.

Table 17. Alternative D roads or trails open or closed to motorized use within semi-primitive 

nonmotorized or roaded natural nonmotorized areas

Miles in SPNM Miles in RNNM

Roads or trails open to motorized activities 24 (36)* 77 (107)*

Roads or trails closed to motorized activities 84 (72)* 363 (333)*

Total route miles 108 440 

* Alternative A mileages shown in parentheses

This alternative would not meet Forest Plan guideline 5101 for ROS designations because

motorized opportunities would continue to impact areas with semi-primitive nonmotorized and 

roaded natural nonmotorized designations. However, this alternative if implemented would make 

progress toward meeting this guideline by making less route miles in these areas available to 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

motorized use. The Forest Plan ROS standard for all five areas assigned as Management Area 

2.2, Research Natural Areas, would be achieved. The two areas identified as primitive ROS 

setting, Black Elk Wilderness and Inyan Kara Inventoried Roadless Area would also be 

consistent with the Forest Plan ROS guideline by restricting motorized access within their 

boundaries. This alternative would offer more opportunities than any other alternative for the 

solitude experience desired by nonmotorized users, by making fewer routes available for 

motorized use both within and outside of many of the nonmotorized ROS classes.

Cross-country travel, dispersed camping, and game retrieval. This alternative would restrict 

motorized use to designated routes and would offer no off-road opportunities anywhere on the 

Black Hills for any recreation purpose. Cross-country travel effects are similar to above 

alternatives. Users desiring a more rugged means of travel may find the trails open to all vehicles 

a little more challenging than riding the road-based system. These trails include more rugged 

routes for higher clearance vehicles rather than passenger cars. However, the reduction in 

mileage of these trails under this alternative would tend to concentrate users, creating additional 

motorized conflicts as motorized users try to experience their desired activity.

The prohibition of motorized dispersed camping would be greatly felt during the fall hunting 

season within both states. The Black Hills has hundreds of dispersed campsites along roads that

are currently open to motorized vehicles during deer and elk hunting seasons. These campsites 

allow hunters to camp closer to their desired hunting grounds. Without this dispersed camping 

opportunity, hunters might utilize developed campgrounds creating overflow situations and 

increases in maintenance and resource damage.

Dispersed camping by recreationists during the summer would be impacted more in Wyoming 

than South Dakota since the latter state has a ban on open fires. Many visitors who camp during 

the summer in Wyoming are in large groups of 4 to 8 campers, and tend to be families. The 

opportunity to dispersed camp currently allows these groups to be louder than would be 

acceptable in developed campgrounds, and to have a larger campfire for a group setting. Under 

this alternative, these groups might also seek out developed campgrounds, thus creating conflicts 

with other campers.

The prohibition on motorized off-road game retrieval would limit access for hunters. Hunters 

would have to use existing motorized roads and trails to retrieve harvested game, which could 

create more road hunting situations for game enforcement officers. Depending on the location of 

the hunt, hunters might have to drag their animal from one-half mile to two miles to the nearest 

motorized route. Hunters incapable of this physical activity might have to find alternative means, 

such as outfitters and horses to get their harvested animal to a motorized route.

Table 18. Analysis indicators for Alternative D

Indicators Unit of measure

Miles of road open to all vehicles (motorized mixed use)

Yearlong

Seasonally

580 miles

265 miles

Miles of road open to highway legal vehicles only

Yearlong

Seasonally

2,297 miles

361 miles

Miles of trail open to all vehicles, including rock crawlers

Yearlong

Seasonally

118 miles

48 miles

Miles of trail open to vehicles 50 inches or less in width (WY only)
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Yearlong

Seasonally

31 miles

31 miles

Miles of trail open to vehicles 65 inches or less in width (SD only)

Yearlong

Seasonally

150 miles

62 miles

Miles of motorcycle trail

Yearlong

Seasonally

21 miles

0 miles

Beginner practice areas less than 5 acres 0 areas

Acres open to motorized cross-country travel 0 acres

Acres open to motorized game retrieval 0 acres

Acres open to motorized dispersed camping 0 acres

Number of trailheads 23 trailheads

Miles of roads converted to trail 146 miles

Miles of designated motorized routes within 300 feet of lands of other ownership 423 miles

Number of trailheads within 3 miles of a gateway community 7 trailheads

Roadless. Please refer to Alternative A for discussion and description of the roadless areas. This 

alternative would close to motorized use NFS roads that border both the Sand Creek and Beaver 

Park roadless areas. Near Sand Creek, NFS roads 866, 802.1A, and 864 would be closed to 

public motorized use and near Beaver Park, NFS road 139 would be closed to such use. This 

could provide greater opportunity for solitude within both of these roadless areas. There would 

be no change for Inyan Kara Roadless Area from current management

This alternative would meet Forest Plan guidelines for ROS settings and transportation and 

travel resources.

Alternative E

This alternative proposes the same designated motorized system as Alternative A, but would 

eliminate all motorized opportunities for dispersed camping and game retrieval. A total of 3,776 

miles of motorized routes and trails, seasonally or yearlong, would be available for all types of 

vehicles. Of this, only 24 miles would be designated as trails open to vehicles 50 inches or less in 

width in Wyoming and 12 miles of trails for vehicles 65 inches or less in South Dakota, and no 

trails would be designated for motorcycle or other vehicles, including rock crawlers.

Motorized opportunities and recreation opportunity spectrum. Under Alternative E, since 

the motorized routes are the same as Alternative A, effects to motorized opportunities and ROS 

would be the same as those under Alternative A.

Table 19. Analysis indicators for Alternative E

Indicators Unit of measure

Miles of road open to all vehicles (motorized mixed use)

Yearlong

Seasonally

160 miles

12 miles

Miles of road open to highway legal vehicles only

Yearlong

Seasonally

3,580 miles

656 miles

Miles of trail open to all vehicles, including rock crawlers

Yearlong

Seasonally

0 miles

0 miles

Miles of trail open to vehicles 50 inches or less in width (WY only)
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Yearlong

Seasonally

0miles

24 miles

Miles of trail open to vehicles 65 inches or less in width (SD only)

Yearlong

Seasonally

12 miles

0 miles

Miles of motorcycle trail

Yearlong

Seasonally

0 miles

0 miles

Beginner practice areas less than 5 acres 0 areas

Acres open to motorized cross-country travel 0 acres

Acres open to motorized game retrieval 0 acres

Acres open to motorized dispersed camping 0 acres

Number of trailheads 7 trailheads

Miles of roads converted to trail 0 miles

Miles of designated motorized routes within 300 feet of lands of other ownership 504 miles

Number of trailheads within 3 miles of a gateway community 0 trailheads

Cross-country travel and dispersed camping, and game retrieval, and roadless. Alternative 

E proposes no cross-country travel, no motorized dispersed camping, and no off-road motorized 

game retrieval. Effects to these recreation opportunities would be the same as those under 

Alternative D.

The discussion for roadless effects would be similar to Alternative A. No changes from current 

management on these areas would occur under Alternative E.

Comparison of Recreation Opportunities by Alternative

Table 20. Comparison of motorized recreation opportunities among alternatives 

Type of vehicle Alt. A Alt. B Alt. C Alt. D Alt. E

Passenger No effect No effect No effect No effect No effect

Trails open to all, 

including 

4x4’s,jeeps,suv, 

rock crawlers

No special 

designation 173 miles 176 miles 118 miles No special designation

Trails < 65-inches

(SD only)

12 miles; no 

loops

319 miles; 

loops possible

380 miles; 

loops possible

150 miles; 

loops limited 

12 miles; no 

loops

Trails < 50-inches 

(WY – OHV sticker 

required)

24 miles; 

loops limited

95 miles; 

loops possible

80 miles; 

loops possible

31 miles; 

loops limited

24 miles; 

loops limited

Single track trails 0 miles 76 miles; 

loops limited

134 miles; 

loops limited

21 miles; 

loops limited 0 miles

Families with 

younger 

unlicensed drivers 

Trails = 36 

miles; or 

cross-country 

travel

Restricted to 

trails = 663 

miles

Restricted to 

trails = 771 

miles

Restricted to 

trails = 320 

miles

Restricted to 

trails = 36 

miles

Recreational 

cross-country 

travel

864,000 

acres; 

including 

opportunities 

on 

unauthorized 

routes

0 acres; no 

unauthorized 

routes

10 acres; 

three small 

areas 

designated as

beginner 

practice 

areas; no 

unauthorized 

0 acres; no 

unauthorized 

routes

0 acres; no 

unauthorized 

routes
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

routes

Game retrieval

864,000 

acres; 

including 

opportunities 

on 

unauthorized 

routes

179, 000 

acres; 

restricted to 

300 feet from 

designated 

routes

385,500 

acres; 

restricted to 

designated 

area

0 acres0 acres

Motorized dispersed 

camping

864,000 

acres

63,500 acres; 

restricted to 

100 feet from 

designated 

route

184,000 

acres; 

restricted to 

300 feet from 

designated 

route

0 acres 0 acres
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Cumulative Effects

The cumulative effects area for the recreation resource includes other public lands, including 

those managed by the Bureau of Land Management, the States of South Dakota and Wyoming, 

National Park Service, Buffalo Gap National Grasslands, and Thunder Basin National 

Grasslands, and private properties within a 2-hour drive of the Forest.

As the Travel Management Rule is implemented on National Forest System lands, a reduction in 

cross-country motorized travel and motorized use of unauthorized routes would occur on these 

lands. New motor vehicle restrictions imposed on Thunder Basin and Buffalo Gap National 

Grasslands would also displace motorized users that desire this type of riding experience, adding 

to the effects that would occur under Alternatives B, C, D, and E. Areas that might be designated 

on these lands under future travel management decisions could become overrun with motorized 

users, increasing resource impacts and management concerns. Other Federal properties could 

also see an increase in motorized use if cross-country travel is made available. Users who till 

now have had the freedom to choose their own routes to ride could find it difficult to adapt to the 

new designated system. Some public lands could provide a small mileage of motorized trails or

roads, causing motorized users to relocate to find more opportunities.

Under all alternatives, designated routes that dead-end may be points for creation of illegal trails, 

which would pose additional burdens on law enforcement and cause resource damage. These 

illegal trails could increase the need for additional restrictions or closures for motorized use, and 

thus reduce motorized opportunities even more over time. However, it is also likely that as any 

designated motorized system is implemented over the next several years, new routes could be 

added to connect these dead-end routes and improve looping opportunities for users, as well as to 

connect more trails to communities or destinations. Additional environmental analysis through 

vegetation management activities could provide more opportunities for motorized access and for 

improvements to the designated system.

Under Alternatives D and E, the prohibition on cross-country game retrieval could cause 

motorized users to choose to hunt on private property rather than Federal lands. This could result 

in an increased number of game animals on Federal lands, and create other management 

problems, such as more competition for forage.

In the future, demand for motorized opportunities is likely to continue to increase as OHV sales 

and the population increase in the Black Hills. More trail demands would occur as more families 

with young children utilize motorized travel as a form of recreation. Despite the fact that 

increases in fuel prices are not likely to reduce OHV recreation activities, more locals (those 

users living within a 2 to 3 hour drive) would utilize the Black Hills for their recreation 

preference. In addition, business opportunities could develop on private properties, within the 

cumulative effects analysis area, to provide cross-country areas for motorized users seeking 

opportunities to hill climb or mud-bog.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Engineering and Transportation

Introduction

Beginning in the 1880s, railroads and stagecoach lines were built to accommodate the thousands 

of people who were coming to the Black Hills in response to the discovery of gold. An extensive 

rail system was developed to haul mining timbers from the Forest to the mines. Large tracts of 

forest were cut in order to provide timber to the growing mining industry and to provide housing 

for the people living in the Black Hills. In 1897, the Black Hills Forest Reserve was established, 

and in 1898, the first Federal timber sale was sold to Homestake Mining Company. By the 

1920s, a major highway system was developed and a Forest road system was initiated. Tourism 

also justified the construction of a transportation system that was adequate for automobiles, 

which during the 1930s was augmented by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). Subsequent 

years have seen further augmentation providing a well-spaced, efficient system of roads of all 

maintenance levels for many different users.

Within the 1.5 million acres encompassed by the Forest boundary lie some 300,000 acres of 

other ownerships, most of which are in private ownership. The wide distribution of these parcels 

has a strong influence today on road system characteristics. Private and local jurisdictions 

continue to request additional access roads as development proceeds. 

The transportation system currently in place within the Forest is a result of early settlement 

patters and the historic uses described above, as well as the public‘s expectation that the Forest is 

available for their use through an extensive road system. The area has since been extensively 

managed for timber production, livestock grazing, mining activities, big game hunting, wildlife, 

insect and disease risk, fuels; and for recreational activities along roads and trails that include 

hiking, horseback riding, mountain bike riding, off-road vehicle use and snowmobile riding.

Use of ATVs, OHVs, SUVs and other four-wheel-drive vehicles boomed nationwide in the late 

1980s and early 1990s and has continued to grow. The physical characteristics of these vehicles 

have changed as well towards larger, more powerful machines. The increased flexibility of these 

new machines and increased marketing emphasis from industry has resulted in an increased 

popularity for recreational riding and access, and for utilitarian purposes such as livestock 

management. As use of these machines has increased, there has been a corresponding increase in 

conflicts with other motorized and nonmotorized users, and an increase in resource impacts.

Concerns nationally over the high level of conflicts and resource impacts led to the creation of 

the Forest Service 2005 Travel Management Rule requiring the Forest Service to address these 

issues in a standard fashion nationwide. This analysis and subsequent decision will result in a 

Travel Management Plan for the Black Hills. The Travel Management Plan by regulation will 

concentrate on motorized travel opportunities while considering nonmotorized activities and will 

close all nondesignated, cross-country motorized travel. The engineering and transportation 

aspects analyzed here are centered on the criteria identified in 36 CFR 212.5

There are currently 9,985 miles of inventoried roads and routes that are within or cross the Forest 

boundary. These routes fall under three categories as listed in Table 21 and include other public 

roads, engineered/constructed roads, reclaimed timber skid trails, temp roads that were never 

intended for long term use, and user created routes.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Table 21. Miles of inventoried routes by category for the Black Hills National Forest

Category Miles of routes

Density 

(miles/square mile)

National Forest System roads 5,056 2.11

County, State and Federal roads (other public 

roads)

820 0.34

Nonsystem – unauthorized roads / routes 4,109 1.72

Total 9,985 4.18

Note: These figures were taken from the Forest Service Infrastructure GIS database. The analysis area encompasses 

2,391 square miles within the Forest Boundary.

Forest System Road Density

The average density of all Forest System and other public roads within the Forest boundary was 

calculated to be 2.45 miles/square mile. For comparison, the density of unauthorized routes was 

1.72 miles/square mile.

National Forest System roads within the Black Hills National Forest generally display an even 

distribution with pockets of higher density around cities and major points of interest. Road 

densities for the NFS roads network have been calculated at several scales. Results at the levels 

of the management area, ranger district, Forest, and range allotments and maps showing road 

density polygons by system type are shown in the Appendix of the 2007 Black Hills Travel 

Analysis Report (USDA Forest Service 2007a).

Regional Connectivity

The Forest is highly connected to the wider region by 12 Forest highways designated under the 

Public Lands Highways Program of the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA21). 

These roads are owned by the State, County, or Forest Service, and qualify for Federal funding 

for improvement or enhancement. Interstate 90 skirts the periphery of the Forest crossing South 

Dakota from west to east and passes along the east central and northeastern edges of the Black 

Hills. I-90 serves as a major access corridor to the Forest.

National Forest System Roads

The roads that are maintained and used for Forest management and other uses are referred to as 

National Forest System roads. These roads are maintained to various standards depending on 

their function, level of use, and management. Of the approximately 9,985 miles of inventoried 

motorized routes on the Forest, there are 5,056 miles of NFS roads. Roads across the Forest fall 

within multiple jurisdictions as described in the following paragraphs.

The 5,056 miles of NFS roads are under the jurisdiction of the Forest Service and are identified 

with a NFS road number. The Forest Service has direct maintenance and repair responsibilities 

for NFS roads. Roads across Forest land but under other jurisdictions such as private or other 

agency such as county are numbered, maintained and repaired by that specific jurisdiction.

Several of the longer, cross-forest roads have sections that are Forest Service jurisdiction and 

sections that are county jurisdiction. The county sections primarily serve portions of the Forest 

with high private land density and or high public traffic volumes. Some high-speed arterial 

roads, such as Deerfield Road and Sheridan Lake Road (both paved), are entirely under the 

jurisdiction of the counties. County and Forest Service representatives meet periodically to 

discuss issues related to county and Forest Service-jurisdiction roads that are of joint interest 

particularly if a major change such as realignment or a surfacing change is planned for a road.

Road jurisdictions are periodically transferred as situations change. Roads across Forest land but 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

under State jurisdiction are maintained and repaired by the State and have State road numbers. 

Similar meetings are held with State representatives on issues of joint interest.

Roads within the National Forest System network are categorized into three functional classes: 

arterial, collector, and local roads. Arterial roads are the primary roads of the Forest, providing 

connections between human populations, major recreation sites, highways, and collector routes.

Collector roads are those that collect and distribute traffic to multiple access points or local 

roads. Local roads provide access to smaller and specific sites and form a network within the 

Forest to provide administrative, commercial, and recreation access. The local roads can also be 

single-purpose roads (e.g., used for timber, recreation or mineral extraction access) that are 

designed for intermittent use and are generally closed to vehicular traffic when not in use.

Maintenance Levels

Forest Service policy establishes five maintenance levels, which define the level of service 

provided by and maintenance required for a specific road.

ML 1 roads have been closed to vehicular traffic for periods of over 1 year. Resource protection 

measures have been performed if necessary, usually resulting in a grassed-over roadbed (i.e., 

these roads are  ̳put in storage‘ until the time they are needed again for resource management).

ML 2 roads are primarily one lane, native surface roads for high-clearance vehicles. They are 

usually very low speed with minimal traffic volumes. They are used for activities such as hiking, 

biking, OHV riding, forest management, and resource extraction.

ML 3, 4, and 5 roads are typically crowned, bordered with vegetated ditches, and have cross 

drains that are generally appropriately spaced for erosion control purposes. ML 3 roads are 

typically single-lane with aggregate surfacing. ML 4 roads provide a moderate level of user 

comfort, can be single- or double-lane, and have mostly aggregate (gravel) surfacing. ML 5 

roads provide the highest standard of maintenance, are generally two lanes, and paved.

Table 22. Miles of existing road by maintenance level for Forest Service-jurisdiction roads within 

the Black Hills National Forest

Maintenance level Miles Percent of total

1 1,316 26.0

2 3,083 61.0

3 510 10.1

4 143 2.8

5 4 0.1

Total 5,056

Unauthorized Routes

The 4,109 miles of nonsystem motorized routes in the Forest are not maintained by the Forest 

Service. A large number of the nonsystem routes are also temporary roads that were constructed 

for vegetation or timber management, and mining and homestead access. They have a road 

template but they have been closed, revegetated, and not put on the system. They are referred to 

in the Travel Management Rule as unauthorized roads and routes because they are not part of the 

Forest transportation system and are not officially recognized by the Forest Service. This statistic 

represents 41 percent of all inventoried roads and routes and is a number equivalent to 81 percent 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

of all NFS roads in the Forest inventory. The nature of these roads varies, but they are primarily 

two-track roads that came into being by vehicles leaving NFS roads. The routes were traveled 

with sufficient frequency to leave an easily noticeable traveled way. Many of these routes are 

relatively short. Because they are unplanned, they are more likely to be poorly located on the 

landscape and more likely to have higher erosion potential. The positions of these routes were 

obtained primarily from interpretation of aerial photographs and input from users. Many of them 

have not been ground verified. Attempts are made to close problem routes when possible;

however, funding and physical location of the routes often limit these efforts.

National Forest System Trails

The trails that are maintained and used for forest management and other uses are referred to as 

National Forest System trails. There are 35 hiking trails that are maintained to various standards 

depending on their function, level of use, and management. There are 323 miles of inventoried 

hiking trails on the Forest; 14 miles of these on the Centennial trail are designated for motorized 

use. Mountain bikes are prohibited from using trails that are located in the Black Elk Wilderness.

There are 22 miles of roads on the Bearlodge Ranger District that are currently managed as 

motorized trails for vehicles less than or equal to 50 inches in width.

Cross-Country Travel

Cross-country travel on the Forest increased over time as off-highway vehicles, all-terrain 

vehicles and motorcycles became more popular as forms of recreational travel. Public utilized 

routes were created from timber sales or mining activities to traverse the countryside and avoid 

the main road systems. These routes were closed after management activities using vegetation or 

transportation needs for the Forest. They are referred to as unauthorized routes. As off-highway 

travel became more popular, these unauthorized routes were discovered and ―adopted‖ by the 

public. These routes may not be associated with any road template, but formed as a motorized 

vehicle continuously traversed the ground creating tire ruts or ―two tracks‖.

Applicable Laws, Regulations, Policy, and Forest Plan Direction

Travel Management Rule – 2005

The Travel Management Rule (the Rule -- Federal Register, Vol. 70 No. 216, see Appendix A) 

amended regulations at 36 CFR 212, 251 and 261, and removed obsolete direction at 36 CFR 

295. This rule specifically requires the designation of any roads, trails, and areas that are to be 

open to motor vehicle use on a National Forest. The rule also directs that designations be made 

by class of vehicle and by season of use, where appropriate and necessary. Motor vehicle use 

would be prohibited on routes and areas not designated open to use.

The decision resulting from this EIS will be used to generate a motor vehicle use map that 

provides the designation information. The modes of travel categories that can be designated are 

listed below. The designation ―Roads Open to All Vehicles‖ includes smaller off-highway 

vehicles that may or may not be licensed for highway use, or highway-legal (motorized mixed 

use).

Modes of travel

Roads open to all vehicles

Roads open to all vehicles - seasonally

Roads open to highway legal vehicle only

Roads open to highway legal vehicles only – seasonally
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Trails open to all vehicles

Trails open to all vehicles - seasonally

Trails open to vehicles less than or equal to 50 inches

Trails open to vehicles less than or equal to 50 inches - seasonally

Trails open to motorcycles only – single track

Special designations (such as vehicles 65 inches wide or less)

State Laws Concerning Vehicle and Operator Licensing

South Dakota and Wyoming State Laws describe the legal requirements for motorized vehicles 

and operators using public highways in the Black Hills. These laws currently require that 

motorized vehicles operating on public highways be registered and licensed by the State (or be 

highway-legal), and that operators have a valid state driver‘s license. National Forest System

roads open to the public for motorized use (MLs 2-5) in the Black Hills are considered public 

highways. Wyoming has an additional statute that allows unlicensed or non-highway-legal 

vehicles to drive on selected ―enrolled‖ roads if they display a Wyoming OHV sticker. The 

Travel Management Rule allows the Forest to make designations under 36 CFR 212.55 

concerning motor vehicles that are not in accordance with State law under appropriate 

circumstances. State traffic laws do not apply to National Forest System trails; therefore, nonhighway-legal vehicles and unlicensed operators are allowed on designated Forest Service 

motorized trails. Also, State traffic laws do not apply to cross-country travel.

Applicable South Dakota laws are SDCL 32-20-2 Driver License; SDCL 32-20-12 Operation; 

and SDCL 32-20-13 Licensing. Wyoming Statute 311-101 resulted in establishment of the OHV 

program, which includes enrolled roads and a sticker program.

National Highway Safety Act of 1966 – 23 U.S.C. 402

The Forest Service works with the Federal Highways Administration under the authority of the 

Highway Safety Act of 1966 (P.L. 89-564) to make travel on National Forest System roads as 

safe as practicable. This Federal law authorizes State and local governments and participating 

Federal agencies to identify and survey accident locations, design, construct, and maintain roads 

in accordance with safety standards; to apply sound traffic control principles and standards; and 

to promote pedestrian safety. Forest Service policy (FSM 7733.03) is to operate and maintain 

NFS roads that are managed as public roads to provide for safe passage by prudent drivers in 

standard passenger cars (NFS ML 3, 4 and 5 roads).

Forest Plan Direction

Listed below are some of the current Forest Plan Goals that are applicable to transportation. See 

Appendix F for a more complete listing of recommended amendments to the Forest Plan.

Goal 3, Discussion Section:

―The density of the Forest Development Road system where timber will be harvested will 

generally range between two and five miles per square mile, with the average density 

around 2.6 miles per square mile.‖

Goal 4, Objective 416:

―Maintain and construct trails as displayed in the following table:‖

Nonmotorized trails (1996) 293 miles

Motorized trails (1996) 14 miles
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Nonmotorized trail construction 204 miles

Motorized trail construction, or conversion 

from road to motorized trail 15 miles (per decade)

Total Forest trail system 526 miles (total miles at end of decade)

Reconstruction 100 miles (per decade)

Goal 4, Objective 421:

―Provide the following road system:‖

Roads (By the end of the first decade)

Suitable for public use 4,700 miles

Passenger car -1,200

High clearance vehicles – 3,500

Roads closed to vehicles 500 miles

TOTAL 5,200 miles

Guideline 9205:

When maintaining all roads, use the following requirements:

a. All arterial and collector roads – maintenance levels 3, 4, 5;

b. Local roads open to low-clearance vehicles – maintenance levels 3, 4, 5;

c. Local roads open to high-clearance vehicles – maintenance level 2; and,

d. Local roads closed between resource management activities – maintenance level 1.

Methodology

The Forest Service identified public concerns with the proposed action during scoping. Those 

concerns were summarized as general issues. Characteristics of the travel management systems 

were identified to help define and evaluate the alternatives. The characteristics were summarized 

as indicators and were used to evaluate the effects of implementing each alternative. The 

following issues and their indicators apply to the engineering and transportation analysis:

Issue 3 - Effects of transportation system design on management capabilities. The 

alternatives considered in the EIS may have effects on the Forest‘s ability to proactively 

designate and manage system roads and trails, while assessing public safety and optimizing 

recreation experiences. The alternatives considered will have different effects on how the 

transportation system is able to address management concerns (such as law enforcement, fire 

access, private access, grazing permitee access, user education, signing, and maintenance) while 

reducing management costs and focusing limited resources. Addressing many of the 

management concerns will be dependent on available funding sources, which will most likely be 

limited. The transportation system design can also affect public safety depending on the miles of 

motorized-mixed-use roads. Any roads identified for motorized-mixed use will be reviewed in a 

mixed-use roads analysis that includes mitigation to make reasonable accommodations for the 

public‘s safety. The following are the indicators used to analyze this issue.

Indicators

Miles of road open to all vehicles
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Miles of road open to highway-legal vehicles only

Miles of trail open to all vehicles

Miles of trail open to vehicles 50 inches or less (Wyoming)

Miles of trail open to vehicles 65 inches or less (South Dakota)

Miles of motorcycle trail

Number of trailheads

Number of perennial stream crossings

Miles of open roads to be closed

Miles of closed roads to be reopened

Miles of road converted to trails

Miles of new routes to be converted from unauthorized.

Number of dead-end spurs

Miles of motorized-mixed-use roads open yearlong

Miles of motorized-mixed-use roads open seasonally

Total miles of motorized-mixed-use roads

Miles of roads at maintenance levels 3, 4, and 5

Issue 4 - Social and Economic Concerns. The alternatives considered in the EIS may affect the 

economic sustainability of local businesses and communities. Effects may be related to sound 

level (noise), dust (air quality), trespass and access to private property, distance from motorized 

routes to private land, traffic levels, and miles of routes open to motorized use. The following are 

the indicators used to analyze this issue:

Indicators

Miles of motorized routes within 0.5 miles of a nonmotorized trail

Miles of National Forest System motorized routes through or within 300 feet of lands of 

other ownerships

Number of motorized trailheads within 3 miles of a gateway community

Miles of motorized routes

Assumptions

Current Forest funding resources would be augmented to the extent necessary to develop 

and maintain a resulting transportation system by fees, grants, partnerships, and 

cooperative agreements.

A sound emission limit for ATVs and motorcycles would be established and enforced at 

96 DB(A) using the SAE J-1287 measurement standard.

Law enforcement activity, voluntary compliance, and active public information efforts 

would result in the recreating public complying for the most part with the modes of 

travel designations to be established by this decision and as published on the upcoming 

motor vehicle use map.

Forest roads or trails that are being actively used for timber hauling would be 

temporarily closed to OHV use even if they have been officially designated for use on 

the motor vehicle use map.

Roads and trails would be adequately signed.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Affected Environment

Safety – Mixed-Use Analysis

In the 2005 Travel Management Rule, the Forest Service acknowledges the need or option to mix 

highway-legal and non-highway-legal traffic on some National Forest System roads. These 

designation decisions will be advised by professional engineering studies and will include design 

features deemed appropriate by engineering studies. Guidelines for Engineering Analysis of 

Motorized Mixed Use on National Forest System Roads (USDA Forest Service 2005) outlines 

the procedures to be undertaken and factors to consider while analyzing the safety risks of 

authorizing highway-legal vehicles (licensed) and non-highway-legal vehicles (unlicensed OHV) 

to operate on the same road (motorized mixed use). Safety and engineering considerations are to 

be evaluated while conducting the motorized mixed-use studies.

In 2009, motorized mixed-use analyses (professional engineering studies) were conducted 

selected ML 2 – ML 4 roads by the Forest‘s engineering department. These roads are the Forest‘s 

arterials and collectors and the main access routes that the public uses to get to the Forest. 

Professional engineering analysis and judgment were used to evaluate the potential for a crash as 

well as the severity of an accident should a crash occur. The crash potential rating is based on 

roadway factors such as traffic volume and type, surface type and condition, sight distances, 

driving speeds, and roadway alignment (horizontal and vertical curves). Crash severity ratings 

were based on roadside conditions (natural ground slopes, slope/height of embankments, and 

large unyielding features next to the road), speed, and traffic types (the larger the difference in 

size of vehicles, the greater the severity). The final decision on designation of motorized mixeduse roads will be informed by these studies (USDA Forest Service 2009i).

South Dakota State Law Considerations

South Dakota State Law permits properly outfitted OHVs to be licensed as highway legal and, 

when operated by a licensed driver with proof of insurance, they can be driven on public roads 

and highways (except the interstate).

National Forest System roads that are open to (not necessarily maintained for) passenger car 

traffic are considered public highways, which include maintenance level 2 - 5 roads. It is the 

opinion of the South Dakota Attorney General‘s Office that unlicensed (non-highway-legal) 

OHVs are prohibited from using National Forest System road maintenance level 2 - 5 roads, 

where passenger car travel is allowed (letter from the Assistant Attorney General of South 

Dakota, December 7, 2007). Allowing unlicensed (non-highway-legal) vehicles on National 

Forest System roads that allow for passenger car travel would therefore not be in accordance 

with South Dakota State law.

“Given the foregoing, it is my opinion that, absent any court opinion to the contrary, the 

Forest Service can designate particular Level 2 roads as either open or closed to the 

public for passenger car traffic. If it designates a particular Level 2 road as closed to 

passenger car traffic generally, then the road would not be a “public highway” for state 

law purposes and off-road vehicles may be used on the road consistent with SDCL 32-

20-12. If it opens a road to passenger car traffic generally, off-road vehicles may not be 

used on the roads.” (Letter from the Assistant Attorney General of South Dakota, 

December 7, 2007.)

Alternatives B, C, and D contain roads that are proposed to be designated for motorized-mixed 

use. Such a designation would allow mixing of highway-legal and non-highway-legal vehicles 

on designated National Forest System roads. The Travel Management rule provides that:
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

―Traffic on roads is subject to State traffic laws where applicable except when in 

conflict with designations established under subpart B of the part or with the rules at 36 

CFR part 261.‖ (36 CFR 212.5(a)(1)). 

The departure from State law in South Dakota in this case relates only to the portion of the law 

defining which OHVs are highway legal, determined by how they are outfitted, registered, and 

licensed. All other provisions of the State law defining the legal use of public highways such as 

valid driver‘s license, liability insurance, age requirements and helmets for those under 18 would 

still be in effect on National Forest System roads.

Wyoming State Law Considerations

Wyoming also allows utility terrain vehicles (UTVs, referred to in Wyoming State law as multipurpose vehicles) to be outfitted, licensed, and ridden as highway-legal vehicles on roads. Unlike 

South Dakota, motorized mixed use of MPVs in Wyoming on public highways is allowed under 

a special program. The State of Wyoming has implemented an Off-road Recreational Vehicle 

(ORRV) Program to help manage MPVs in Wyoming. The program describes vehicle 

requirements, operator licensing, and road types and includes a registration sticker program to 

help fund the program. Roads and trails that have been designated by land managers for nonhighway-legal vehicle travel are referred to as ―enrolled‖. The ORRV program has no specific 

safety evaluations necessary to enroll a road. Designating motorized-mixed use on a public 

highway in Wyoming that is not enrolled would not be in accordance with Wyoming State law.

As in South Dakota, roads in Wyoming designated as ―open to highway-legal only‖ will allow 

highway-legal OHVs to mix with cars and trucks on public highways. Roads designated as 

―open to all vehicles‖ (motorized-mixed use) will allow non-highway-legal MPVs to mix with 

highway-legal MPVs and cars and trucks. The difference between highway legal and nonhighway legal is how the vehicle is outfitted with lights, horns, mirrors, etc. All other 

requirements to operate a vehicle, such as driver‘s license, liability insurance, helmets under 18, 

etc., remain in place. A summary of the current State law requirements for both states is in Table 

23.

Safety – Motorized-mixed-use Indicator Measures

By the State laws in effect, South Dakota and Wyoming have determined that OHVs that are 

properly outfitted and ridden are safe enough to be on roads with full-sized vehicles in most 

cases (see Table 23). This situation is common to all alternatives. The difference between the 

alternatives is in the miles of roads of each maintenance level that are proposed for motorizedmixed use. The decision on this proposal will be informed by the mixed-use study described 

earlier. In general, roads with motorized-mixed use will likely have a higher safety risk than 

those without mixing because there may be OHVs present that do not have all of the equipment 

required for highway-legal vehicles. Miles of road where mixed use is proposed can be used to 

compare alternatives.

Table 23. Summary of State law requirements

South Dakota Wyoming

Roads

ML 2, 3, 4, 5

Highway-legal machine

Drivers license (16)

Insurance

Minimum age 14 (restricted)

Ditches – Min 12 years

Highway-legal machine

drivers license (17)

insurance

Minimum age 14 (restricted)

Enrolled roads NA WY sticker
Final Environmental Impact Statement

drivers license

OR

WY license plate

drivers license

proof of insurance

need lights at night

Don’t need horn or mirror

Mixed-use 

roads

Everything required by SD State law 

except a Highway-legal machine

(Includes a drivers license)

Is similar to WY enrolled roads

Roads must be enrolled in the Wyoming 

ORV program

Trails Non-highway-legal machine

No age limit

Trails must be enrolled in the Wyoming 

ORV program

Enrolled trails NA

Non-highway-legal machine allowed

No age limit

WY sticker

Enforcement

The enforcement of motorized-travel restrictions is an important part of the successful 

implementation of the Travel Management Rule. Current law enforcement has been limited by 

scarce resources, an uninformed public, and a complex matrix of closure orders. Enforcement of 

the recent mixed-use opinion from the South Dakota State Attorney General‘s Office would have 

immediate impacts on out-of-state riders without license plates and local individuals who do not 

have a driver‘s license or who ride machines that are not highway legal in South Dakota. Limited 

enforcement success has likely contributed to increased road and area use violations, user

conflicts, and resource damage.

In some respects, enforcement of the new travel management rules would likely be more 

efficient and effective after implementation. A motor vehicle use map would be available. Route 

identification signs corresponding to which roads are designated for travel should be on the 

ground. Off-route motorized travel in nondesignated areas would be prohibited. There are a large 

percentage of motorized users, including individuals, motorized and nonmotorized groups, 

landowners and businesses that are knowledgeable and concerned that the Forest is protected and 

that access to the Forest be preserved. The conscious efforts of this large group may aid 

significantly in informing the relatively small group that is either uninformed or unwilling to 

recreate in a manner that is legal and responsible.

Signs

The 2005 Travel Management Rule reduces reliance on signing on the ground somewhat with 

the requirement of the production and use of a motor vehicle use map. The motor vehicle use 

map describes the vehicle types that are legal on designated roads and trails, the seasons in 

which use is allowed, and places the burden on the user to know their own location. With the 

availability of the motor vehicle use map to the Forest user, the simple presence of motorized 

vehicles where such use is prohibited would be all that is required for a citation to be upheld; 

however, a current and effective system of signs could be very helpful in reducing citations.

Clearly marked roads and trails aid all users in knowing what to expect on the route ahead. Trails 

can be signed for user restrictions, difficulty levels, distance, connections, etc. A properly signed 

trail is important to the success of the trail system. Installation and maintenance costs for trail 

signing must be considered when designing the sign plan for a trail system. Signs would be an 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

important mitigation tool if roads are designated as open to all vehicles to inform the public of 

the potential presence of non-highway legal OHVs.

It is possible that vandalism of Forest signs would decrease after implementation of the rule if 

Forest users recognize that destroying a sign that locates a route that is open to motorized travel 

will reduce the usability of the system overall. A road and trail system map would be available 

but the loss of signs would make it more difficult for users to determine where travel is legal.

New or increased funding sources would likely be necessary to provide signs for a new trail 

system. Future signing efforts would likely reflect a selective process based on monitoring and 

evaluation of need.

Sound Levels

An increasingly important issue in the Black Hills and across the nation is the sound level 

associated with off-highway vehicles especially in otherwise quiet areas. Feedback resulting 

from requests for comments here in the Black Hills has indicated serious concerns from 

nonmotorized users and adjacent landowners about sound levels as OHV motorized recreation 

escalates. The effect of high sound levels on wildlife is also of concern. The Forest Service does 

not currently have a stationary sound limit for the Black Hills.

There is an industry standard applied to many OHVs for the sound level produced by the 

machines when manufactured. However, because of aftermarket changes and deterioration of 

mufflers with use, many of those machines exceed the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) 

levels. The sound level of some machines has produced a negative attitude toward some OHV 

recreation and has likely contributed to the loss of OHV riding areas across the country.

Land management agencies, including the Forest Service, and some states across the country 

have started establishing legal limits for sound emissions from OHVs including motorcycles. It 

has been proposed that this decision would establish a 96 DB(A) sound emission limit for OHVs 

on Black Hill National Forest roads and trails. This limit is common to all alternatives. Limiting 

the allowable sound level for OHVs to a level of 96 DB(A) would very likely help mitigate some 

of the user conflicts on the Forest. The Black Hills National Forest is planning to adopt a 96 

dB(A) sound limit based on the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) J1287 Stationary Test. 

This limit has been selected because 96 dB(A) is the lowest limit that does not prohibit the use of 

OHVs meeting EPA sound limits. EPA standards will pre-empt the adoption of more stringent 

state standards. Most vehicles able to pass the 96 dB(A) stationary test meet or exceed the EPA 

test. The SAE J1287 Stationary Test is the most practical for the field and for enforcement 

testing. Using the OEM standard sound level would also help reduce the costs to the motorized 

users if they purchase a machine that complies with the standard, maintain the mufflers and 

spark arrestors, and avoid replacing the original equipment with equipment at a higher sound 

level. Recreationists who currently use machines that exceed the limit would have to make the 

necessary modifications. Equipment that meets the sound limits is available for most machines in 

use today.

Sound limits and sound measurements are being used successfully in other forests and natural 

resource areas. Enforcement of the sound level limit is key to the success of those programs. A 

simple sound measuring instrument is available at a reasonable cost. Testing using the SAE 

standard J-1287 is relatively fast and straightforward; however, proper equipment and training is 

necessary. Testing could be performed by dealers, cooperators, volunteers, and Forest Service 

law enforcement officers. Testing could be conducted at dealerships, trailheads, and spot 

checkpoints to assist OHV users in determining if they are within the limit.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Indicator measures that allow determining the differences between alternatives relating to sound 

level conflicts have been developed. The first indicator measure is the distance that a designated 

route is away from private land. Many private landowners value quiet, natural landscapes and 

privacy, and close proximity would present a risk of conflict with those values. A secondary risk 

would be presented by the opportunity close proximity would present for unauthorized incursion 

onto private land. A distance of 300 feet from private land was selected as an indicator because it 

is the approximate distance at which the sound emitted from a motorized vehicle at a sound level 

of 96 DB(A) would attenuate to approximately 50 DB(A) which is the sound level of an average 

office. This ending sound level assumes normal attenuation based on distance only; however, it 

is probable that there would be additional attenuation in most situations based on interference 

from topography and vegetation. The expected resulting sound level would not equate to a forest 

setting on a quiet night; however, it would not be expected to be much higher than ambient noise 

during the day with normal human activity and the wind blowing.

The second indicator measure is the distance that a designated route is away from nonmotorized 

trails. Many nonmotorized users of the Forest value quiet, wildlife viewing, and natural 

landscapes, and close proximity with motorized users and high sound levels would present a risk 

of conflict with those values. Again, a secondary risk would be presented by the opportunity 

close proximity would present for unauthorized incursion onto nonmotorized trails. A distance of 

0.5 mile from nonmotorized trails was selected as an indicator because it is the approximate 

distance at which the sound emitted from a motorized vehicle at a sound level of 96 DB(A)

would attenuate to approximately 30 DB(A) which is the sound level of a whisper. This ending 

sound level assumes normal attenuation based on distance only; however, again it is probable 

that there would be additional attenuation in most situations base on interference from 

topography and vegetation. The expected resulting sound level would not equate to a forest 

setting on a quiet night; however, it would not be expected to be much higher than ambient noise 

during the day with normal human activity and the wind blowing.

Air Quality

Air quality components that will be evaluated in this analysis are fugitive dust emissions, 

exhaust emissions, and the potential for ozone production.

The Federal Clean Air Act as amended is the principal framework for air quality regulation in the 

United States. The Clean Air Act grants each state primary responsibility for assuring that air 

quality within the state is consistent with national ambient air quality standards established by 

the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This is achieved through establishment of 

source-specific limitations on discharges of air pollutants. The EPA retains oversight authority, 

approves state air quality programs, and reviews and approves all major air quality permits 

issued by the states. In South Dakota, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources 

(DENR) is the administrative authority for the Clean Air Act.

Air quality within Black Hills National Forest is addressed in the Forest Plan Environmental 

Impact Statement. Overall, air quality within Black Hill National Forest is very good. Air quality 

is better than national ambient air quality standards (NAAQs) for all pollutants.

Air pollution in the form of PM10, particulate matter smaller than 10 microns diameter, has been 

an issue in the Rapid City area. The Forest Plan EIS notes that the Rapid City area had been 

classified as an area that is not attaining the national ambient air quality standards for PM10

particulates. In September, 2005, DENR submitted a letter to EPA requesting that the Rapid City 

area be reclassified as an area attaining the PM10 national ambient air quality standard. EPA 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

agreed, and a notice was published in the Federal Register on Dec 9, 2005, providing public 

notice of the reclassification.

Dust

Fugitive dust emissions on National Forest System roads are associated with traffic on unpaved 

roads. These emissions typically are localized and temporary, and their extent depends on 

weather conditions, the road surface material, moisture levels, vehicle speeds, vehicle weights, 

and the amount of traffic. Most of the unpaved ML 3 and 4 roads under Forest jurisdiction are 

located in unpopulated areas with relatively low traffic volumes. Dust issues on ML 2 roads 

typically are less severe. Dust abatement is a relatively expensive activity and is dependent on 

budget levels and priorities. Historical budgets have not been sufficient to support other than 

minimal abatement activities on roads with high logging truck activity. 

Concentrating motorized use on roads and trails and developing trailheads can potentially 

increase the amount of dust created in some areas. Converting roads to trails or otherwise 

creating new motorized trails will create an opportunity to route trails through materials that are 

less likely to give off dust; to bring in stable, low-dust, surfacing materials; and to try new 

surface stabilization chemicals. A new or increased source of trail-related funding would likely 

have to be found to do this.

An indicator measure that is used to determine the differences between alternatives related to 

unwanted dust emissions is the miles of routes within 300 feet of lands of other ownerships.

Ozone

Motor vehicle exhaust and industrial emissions, gasoline vapors, chemical solvents, and natural 

emissions of some tree species are some of the sources of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile 

organic compounds (VOC) that help to form ozone in the presence of sunlight. Because ozone is 

a secondary pollutant formed in the atmosphere, ozone concentrations at any one location are 

influenced by larger regional air quality conditions. The EPA is currently evaluating a new 

primary and secondary ambient air quality standard for ozone. At this time, all areas within the 

Black Hills National Forest remain in compliance with the NAAQS for ozone. It is possible that 

some areas such as Custer County may be designated as nonattainment areas for both the 

primary and secondary ozone standards at some time in the future; however, until EPA sets the 

new standard, changes in attainment status remain speculative.

Costs

Economic Feasibility

The monetary costs associated with the road system in the Black Hills are substantial to the 

Forest Service, the counties and the State and Federal highway organizations. The estimated 

costs to the Forest Service to manage NFS roads to standard, for the long term, are calculated 

using the Forest Service Infrastructure (INFRA) database. The INFRA database summarizes 

annual and deferred maintenance costs and overhead. Annual maintenance costs include such 

things as routine road surface blading and culvert cleaning, and the annualized cost of replacing 

signs and road surfaces, mostly gravel. Deferred maintenance costs reflect maintenance that was 

not performed when it was scheduled and was delayed for a future period. These costs could 

include aggregate replacement, and culvert and sign replacement. The estimated costs for ML 1, 

2, 3, 4, and 5 roads for annual and deferred maintenance are shown below.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Table 24. Annual and deferred maintenance costs for existing National Forest System roads on the 

Black Hills (2007 figures)

Maintenance 

level Miles Annual maintenance cost

Deferred maintenance 

cost

1 1,310 * **

2 3,117 ***218,260+ **

3 510 6,408,940 11,712,273

4 143 1,539,646 4,210,111

5 4 73,544 750,097

Total 5,084 $8,240,390+ $16,672,481+

*These roads are closed to motorized traffic. They are left to revegetate and are typically not maintained unless 

monitoring efforts have identified a need to prevent or mitigate erosion damage.

** There is not sufficient data in INFRA to formulate an accurate estimate for deferred maintenance on these roads.

*** The INFRA data is not complete for these roads. This estimate was based on local estimated blading costs per mile 

and maintaining each road once every five years. It does not include the maintenance costs of gates, signs and 

culverts, which if known would add to the total.

The historical resources expended to perform the reconstruction, maintenance, and repair of all 

Forest Service roads and trails are shown in Table 25.

The congressional appropriation budget for planning, construction, capital improvement, and 

maintenance of Forest roads and trails on the Black Hills National Forest has fluctuated 

noticeably in the 6 years detailed above (Table 25). The road funding decreased from $3.2 

million in 2003 to $2.1 million in 2006, a 34 percent decrease. Much of that decrease rebounded 

in 2007 and 2008; however, the long-term trend is down, especially if inflation is considered. 

Trail funding followed a similar trend but did not recover substantially. Future allocations are 

based on political priorities that are based only partially on the need and are difficult to predict.

Road and trail deposits (10% Fund) are 10 percent of Black Hills National Forest timber receipts 

that are returned to the Forest Service. The amount of this fund that is available for road and trail 

maintenance varies directly with the amount and value of timber sold and with internal Forest 

allocation priorities. Large variations in the amount and value of timber sold would have an 

impact on this source of funds.

Table 25. Road and trail management funding sources

Funding 

source

Type FY 2003 FY 2004 FY-2005 FY 2006 FY 2007 FY 2008

FS –

Congressional 

appropriations

Road 

construction / 

maintenance 

fund

$3,244,000 $2,934,600 $2,324,784 $2,132,596 $3,085,900 $2,818,400

Trail 

construction / 

maintenance 

fund

$270,900 $236,700 $209,700 $148,000 $174,000 $161,400

Road and trail 

deposits

(timber 

receipts)

10% Fund 

(LG) $400,000 $77,100 $45,000 $243,733 $211,800 $304,400

Forest 

Service total $4,033,400 $3,248,400 $2,579,484 $2,524,329 $3,645,000 $3,284,200

Timber sale 

(TS)

purchasers 

direct 

Timber sale

road 

reconstruction

$496,265 $839,280 $182,560 $413,308 $258,968 $265,829

Timber sale $67,200 $55,055 $72,124 $115,884 $95,528 $158,129
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

road 

maintenance

Maintenance 

deposits $4,928 $6,111 $8,068 $0 0 $1,228

Surface rock 

replacement $120,169 $75,491 $89,464 $42,175 $37,621 $179,240

Reconstruction 

deposits $201,358 $100,834 $141,372 $95,682 $56,654 $74,285

Timber 

purchasers 

total

$889,920 $1,076,771 $493,588 $667,049 $448,717 $678,711

Total funding $4,923,320 $4,325,171 $3,073,072 $3,191,378 $4,093,717 $3,962,911

Capital improvement funds acquired to conduct trail and road improvement work necessary to 

bring the system up to the desired objective have been sporadic and minimal in past years.

However, the Forest has benefited from a regional bridge program that has funded 11 bridge 

replacements in the last 7 years.

A portion of the road maintenance on Forest roads is performed by timber purchasers and fuels 

treatment contractors on roads where timber products are being transported. The cost of road 

maintenance work performed by the purchasers is shown in Table 25. The level of expenditure is 

linked to the volume of timber, number of sales, and the miles of road needed to remove the 

timber from the Forest. Road maintenance needed due to impacts from timber sales is funded by 

the purchasers in two ways. The first is road-maintenance work performed by the purchasers 

directly. The second is payments for maintenance and surface rock replacement that are made to 

the Forest Service, who then contracts or performs the work. In addition, timber sale receipts are 

used for road reconstruction deposits that fund engineering services necessary to design the 

reconstruction elements of the timber sale road specifications. These road reconstruction funds 

are collected based on the actual cost to the Forest Service for these services.

The overall level of Federal funding and timber purchaser expenditures is not sufficient to 

perform the short- and long-term maintenance needs identified for NFS roads in general. The 

annual road maintenance resources are approximately 50 percent of what is needed based on the 

INFRA database. The Federal portion of that funding is trending downward. This is not a new 

situation and requires the Forest to prioritize annual and deferred maintenance needs each year.

The increased use of roads, particularly the ML 2 roads, subsequent to the implementation of the 

rule could put increased pressure on limited maintenance resources.

Maintenance Costs – Motorized OHV Routes

Maintenance of Forest Service routes can be described in two categories, annual and deferred.

Costs of maintenance will vary widely based on physical location of the work, amount of use on 

the route, route surface type and condition, economic climate, and whether the work is 

performed by agency employees or contractors.

Annual maintenance consists of minor route work that is done on a cyclical basis. Annual 

maintenance costs for local roads can range from $250 per mile for maintenance of dips and 

outlet ditches (minimal ML 2 requirements) to $500 per mile for light reconditioning of a local 

road. Light reconditioning includes the blading and shaping of the road and ditch, minor roadside 

clearing and brushing, cleaning corrugated metal pipe (culvert) inlets and outlets, and cleaning 

rolling dips, grade dips, and outlet ditches. The current maintenance goals for ML 2 roads are to 

check them once every 5 years and address maintenance issues if necessary. That would equate 

to project maintenance costs of $1,250 to $2,500 per mile of road maintained. Deferred 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

maintenance refers to route work that goes beyond the scope of annual maintenance. This work 

may be required to repair routes that have deteriorated or to address events such as landslides, 

flooding, or heavy spring runoff, which have affected the route condition. 

Deferred maintenance costs range higher than those for annual maintenance. Costs may include 

acquisition and installation of gates, cattleguards, signs, aggregate surfacing, culverts, and stream 

crossing improvements, pit development, and equipment mobilization. Depending on the amount 

of work, these costs can add up quickly. For example, route gates and cattleguards can range 

from $1,800 to $3,000 each.

Environmental Effects Analysis

A roads analysis was conducted on Black Hills National Forest high-speed roads resulting in a 

Roads Analysis Report published in October 2005. A travel analysis was conducted on highclearance roads, trails, and unauthorized routes resulting in a Travel Analysis Process Report 

published in September 2007 (USDA Forest Service 2007a). These reports provide a technical, 

science-based review of the Black Hills National Forest transportation system. The objective of 

these reports was to provide information to assist managers in making decisions concerning the 

environmental sustainability, socially acceptability, and economic feasibility of the Forest 

transportation system. Both the Roads Analysis Report and the Travel Analysis Process Report 

are hereby incorporated by reference in this analysis. The information in these reports was used 

in varying degrees in developing the environmental analysis here and throughout the specialist‘s 

reports for this EIS. Refer to the recreation section for a greater discussion on the motorized 

opportunities on the Forest.

The number and uncertainty of the variables involved makes it very difficult to estimate 

projected costs of implementing the action alternatives. Given these difficulties, the Forest 

Service acknowledges the results may not prove accurate over time. Rather, the purpose of the 

cost analysis that follows is to present a reasonable estimate based on the best information 

available, including experienced costs where applicable and assumptions as noted. It is believed 

this information is sufficient to evaluate system costs against a business plan, as well as to 

reliably compare the levels of costs that could be experienced under the alternatives.

A 10-year period was selected for analysis for several reasons. First, the initial business plan 

assumed a 10-year period. Second, 10 years can provide enough time for reasonable 

implementation of a program of work and identification of costs involving construction, 

reconstruction, and maintenance. Also, a period longer than this time would require speculation 

on changing costs, new technology, and changes in management direction. The expected 

maintenance and development work that would be conducted under the alternatives, and the 

costs used in the analysis, are explained in the Action Alternatives section below.

Alternative A - No Action

Direct Effects

If implemented, this alternative would result in little change from the current situation. Users 

would likely continue to create unauthorized routes. Mixed use and use of roads by unlicensed 

operators would likely continue on all Forest roads unless there is an effective public information 

campaign and the restrictions on non-highway-legal vehicles on all Forest roads are enforced.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

User conflicts over excessive sound levels would likely continue at the current level or increase.

This would likely be most serious near private property in or near the Forest. Certain users 

would likely continue to modify stock exhaust systems to increase sound emissions.

Citizen complaints concerning dust levels created primarily from ATVs would likely continue at 

the present rate or increase with the projected increase in ATVs.

Funding for maintenance and repair of roads and trails would likely continue to vary subject to 

changing Federal budgetary priorities. The material condition of the road and trail system would

likely deteriorate over the long term. The costs to repair damage caused by unauthorized routes 

would likely increase. Estimated costs of implementing this alternative are shown in the tables 

below under the Action Alternatives section.

Indirect Effects

In the absence of any outside changes at the state and county level that would affect the 

operation of non-highway-legal vehicles, the overall risk to the safety of non-highway-legal 

operators on the Forest could increase. Projects to close and repair resource damage related to 

unauthorized routes would likely compete with other worthwhile projects for funding.

User conflicts between motorized and nonmotorized advocates and the resultant animosity that is 

sometimes demonstrated would likely increase. The backlash from nonmotorized users would be

likely to continue or increase.

Action Alternatives

Direct and Indirect Effects

Roads Open to All Vehicles (Motorized-Mixed Use)

Direct Effects - If implemented, Alternative E would likely present the safest overall system of 

the action alternatives based solely on the lower number of miles open to all vehicles. It is 

similar to the no action alternative in the amount of mixed-use designated; however, its 

restricting of OHV traffic to roads and trails should result in less accidents because the travel 

would be on roads with less steep grades than the off-road topography that would be allowed 

under A. This assumes that public information and enforcement activities are successful in 

restricting the majority of the OHV traffic to the Forest roads. Alternative D would be the next 

safest alternative based on the number of miles and that the mixed use should occur in more 

limited areas. Alternatives B and C, with the high number of miles of mixed-use roads would be 

the least safe of the alternatives with B being slightly safer.

Table 26. Miles of roads open to all vehicles (motorized-mixed use) by alternative

Indicator measure in miles Alt. A Alt. B Alt. C Alt. D Alt. E

Roads open to all vehicles - yearlong 148 1,638 1,956 315 148

Roads open to all vehicles - seasonally 12 588 922 265 12

Total roads open to all vehicles 160 2,226 2,878 580 160

The small number of miles for Alternatives A and E reflect the roads enrolled in the Wyoming 

Off-Road Recreational Vehicle (ORRV) Program. They are the only roads where motorizedmixed use is currently legal under State law.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Indirect Effects - The implementation of any of the action alternatives could reduce the risk of 

accidents involving non-highway-legal vehicles and operators by effectively reducing that traffic 

on Forest. This assumes that enforcement of applicable State laws and the resultant Travel 

Management Decision are advertised and enforced at an adequate level.

Sound Levels

Direct Effects - All of the action alternatives contain the proposal to establish a sound level 

restriction of 96 DB(A) as measured by SAE standard J-1287. This restriction alone, if effective, 

should reduce the number of user conflicts and complaints that are based on sound. It would 

establish a framework for testing vehicles for sound emission and allow law enforcement to issue 

citations.

Concerning the indicator designed to approximate the effect of sound levels on conflicts and 

complaints from private landowners in the Forest (miles within 300 feet), implementation of 

Alternative D should provide the best results. Alternatives B, C, and E are relatively equal in the 

number of miles of routes that are near private land.

Table 27. Miles of National Forest System routes near lands of other ownership and nonmotorized 

trails by alternative

Sound level indicator measure Alt. A Alt. B Alt. C Alt. D Alt. E

Miles of routes within 300 feet of lands 

of other ownership 504* 490 500 423 504

Miles of routes within 0.5 mile of a 

nonmotorized trail 318** 358 382 211 318

* In addition, 250 miles of inventoried unauthorized (nonsystem) routes currently exist here, for a total of 754 miles of 

routes within 300 feet of lands of other ownership. 

** In addition, 250 miles of inventoried unauthorized (nonsystem) routes currently exist here, for a total of 568 miles of 

routes within 0.5 mile of a nonmotorized trail.

The indicator designed to compare the relative quiet experienced by users on nonmotorized trails 

is the number of miles of motorized routes within 0.5 miles of nonmotorized trails. If 

implemented, Alternative D should be significantly more effective in this area. Alternative C, B, 

and E would be less effective in that order.

Indirect Effects - The establishment of maximum sound emission levels could sensitize the 

general public to the importance of the issue and could have impacts outside the Forest as well. It 

is possible that moving existing cross-county traffic onto designated roads and trails would

increase the average sound levels in some areas.

Air Quality

Direct Effects - Direct effects primarily include vehicle exhaust and fugitive dust from roads 

and trails. To determine potential impacts to air quality by alternative, a relevant indicator is 

vehicle miles traveled. It is difficult to determine if changes in vehicle miles traveled would 

occur under any of the action alternatives. One possible proxy for this indicator could be miles of 

open NFS roads. From the existing condition (Alternative A – 3,740 miles), the greatest 

reduction is seen under Alternative D (2,877 miles). This is a difference of 863 miles. If total 

vehicle miles traveled were to decrease accordingly, vehicle exhaust and fugitive dust levels 

would also decrease. However, the change in open miles does not necessarily equate to a change 

in use or vehicle miles traveled. Each of the action alternatives would also reduce the current 

pattern of dispersed cross-country motorized travel to varying degrees, and would focus this use 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

on designated routes. Direct effects to air quality, therefore, are expected to be similar for all 

alternatives with a possibility of increased emissions among the action alternatives that have 

more miles of open roads.

Vehicle Exhaust - The EPA, through the implementation of standards for new vehicles, regulates 

vehicle exhaust emissions. States may also impose vehicle-emissions testing programs for 

vehicles registered in their state. Vehicle traffic and associated emissions may increase slightly 

for alternatives with more miles of open roads. Emissions associated with vehicle traffic would 

include nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions from vehicle tailpipes. 

Diesel-fueled vehicles would also emit small amounts of sulfur oxides (SOx). Forest visitors 

could reduce exhaust emissions by ensuring good maintenance of engines and exhaust systems 

and the use of appropriate fuels.

Direct effects to air quality from vehicle exhaust emissions are expected to be similar for all 

alternatives with a possibility of increased emissions among the action alternatives that have 

more miles of open roads.

Dust – Please refer to Table 28 for a display of miles of National Forest System routes near lands 

of other ownerships. This indicator was selected to compare the possible dust levels experienced 

by owners of private land in or near the Forest. All action alternatives would reduce mileages 

from the current level by eliminating unauthorized routes within 300 feet of lands of other 

ownerships. Alternative D should be more effective in this area since it has the lowest number of 

miles in this category. Alternatives B, C, and E would be less effective and are relatively equal in 

the number of miles of routes that are near private land.

Table 28. Miles of National Forest System routes near lands of other ownership and nonmotorized 

trails by alternative

Dust indicator measure Alt. A Alt. B Alt. C Alt. D Alt. E

Miles of routes within 300 feet of lands 

of other ownership 504* 490 500 423 504

* In addition, 250 miles of inventoried unauthorized (non-system) routes currently exist here, for a total of 754 miles of 

routes within 300 feet of lands of other ownership.

Indirect Effects - It is possible that moving existing cross-country traffic onto designated roads 

would increase the engine exhaust and dust levels in some areas, and decrease it in others.

Cost

Direct Effects - It is difficult to estimate all costs due to the uncertainty of a number of variables 

including OHV motorized use on trails. Therefore, it is necessary to make some assumptions to 

compare costs between alternatives. The exact, long-term effect of increased use of OHVs 

(mostly ATVs) on ML 2 roads on the Black Hills National Forest is unknown although it is 

expected to increase the need for maintenance activities. The cost to create and maintain new 

trails 65 inches or less in width, and motorcycle single-track trails would vary significantly based 

on many factors. The cost of implementing design features at perennial stream crossings would 

depend on the size of the streams and the type of crossings. The final size, location, and 

complexity of trailheads would have a significant impact on the cost. The engineering design 

work has not yet been completed on which to base detailed cost estimates for the above 

indicators for each alternative.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Concerning annual maintenance, it is expected that motorized trails would require work similar 

to that experienced on a ML2 road, and costs would be similar. For the purpose of this analysis, 

an average cost of $350/route mile will be used.

Deferred maintenance costs would include work required to address perennial stream crossings. 

Design criteria for these crossings could include concrete mats, culverts, and trail bridges, 

depending on conditions. The costs would be associated with the size of the crossing, soils on the 

site, topography, and type of crossing. Estimates of costs for materials that might be required at a 

typical crossing include:

Trail Bridge - $10,000 to $15,000

Concrete mats (improve stream crossing, size 4 x 16 feet) - $700

Culvert (30 inch diameter) - $600

Based on past experience, most crossings would only require hardening or culvert installation. 

For this analysis, a cost of $1,000 per perennial stream crossing will be used. This cost will be 

applied to those stream crossings identified in Appendix B as requiring remediation or 

monitoring.

Deferred maintenance could also include reconstruction or limited construction necessary to 

bring a route to Forest Service standards or address safety and resource concerns. As previously 

stated, these costs would vary based on the equipment used, route surface type and condition, 

physical location and topography, amount of use, economic climate, and whether the work is 

performed by agency personnel or contractors. Estimates to construct a new OHV route under 

contract, both on the Black Hills National Forest and on other Region 2 national forests have 

ranged up to $20,000 per mile. Constructing an OHV route on or near a previous road template 

may result in lower costs. It is estimated that route reconstruction costs on the Forest could range 

from $5,000 to $20,000 per mile. For this analysis, a reconstruction/construction cost of 

$10,000/route mile will be used. 

Based on these estimates, projected costs under each alternative are shown in the tables below.

Table 29. Estimated annual maintenance costs for motorized OHV system

Cost indicator measures Alt. A Alt. B Alt. C Alt. D Alt. E

Miles of road open to all vehicles 160 2,226 2,877 580 160

Miles of trail open to all vehicles 0 173 176 118 0

Miles of trail open to vehicles 50

inches or less (WY) 24 95 80 31 24

Miles of trail open to vehicles 65 

inches or less (SD) 12 319 380 150 12

Miles of motorcycle (single-track) 

trail 0 76 134 21 0

Total OHV system mileage 196 2,589 3,647 900 196

Annual maintenance cost 

($350/mile) $68,600 $906,150 $1,276,450 $315,000 $68,600

Adjusted annual maintenance 

cost* $83,462 $1,102,470 $1,552,997 $383,246 $83,462

*Adjusted annual maintenance cost based on a 10-year implementation period. Annual maintenance cost was inflated to 

the term mid-point (5 years) at 4 percent per year, to derive the values shown on this line. Multiplied by 10, these 

estimate the total program costs over the period by alternative.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Table 30. Estimated deferred maintenance costs for motorized OHV system

Cost indicator measures Alt. A Alt. B Alt. C Alt. D Alt. E

Number of perennial stream 

crossings requiring remediation* 0 16 21 7 0

Stream crossing cost (@$1,000) $0 $16,000 $21,000 $7,000 $0

Number of new trailheads to be 

constructed (7 existing) 0 24 27 16 0

Trailhead cost (@$20,000) $0 $480,000 $540,000 $320,000 $0

Miles of new routes to be 

converted from unauthorized 

(citizen routes and district routes)

0 210 284 70 0

Construction/reconstruction cost 

($10,000/mile) $0 $2,100,000 $2,840,000 $700,000 $0

Total deferred maintenance cost $0 $2,596,000 $3,401,000 $1,027,000 $0

Annual deferred maintenance 

cost** $0 $315,843 $413,784 $102,700 $0

* See Appendix B for a complete list of stream crossings that would require remediation or monitoring.

**Annual deferred maintenance cost based on a 10-year implementation period. Total cost was inflated to the term midpoint (5 years) at 4 percent per year and then divided by 10 to produce this value.

Alternatives B, C and D would add varying mileages of routes identified by citizens, and routes 

defined by ranger districts to complete loops or otherwise complement the motorized route 

system. These routes are the ones most likely to require reconstruction or limited new 

construction to provide recreation opportunity in an environmentally sustainable manner.

Table 31. Estimated motorized OHV system annual cost – first 10 years

Cost indicator measures Alt. A Alt. B Alt. C Alt. D Alt. E

Annual maintenance cost $83,462 $1,102,470 $1,552,997 $383,246 $83,462

Annual deferred maintenance cost $0 $315,843 $413,784 $102,700 $0

Total annual cost – first 10 years $83,462 $1,418,313 $1,966,781 $485,946 $83,462

To fully implement Alternative B, C or D would be quite costly and beyond the reach of any 

funding currently available, thus it would likely require user fees to construct and maintain the 

system. If implemented, Alternative E would not create a motorized trail system outside of using 

existing roads and would be the most supportable with current funding. Additional resources 

through partnerships, grants, and fees to implement and maintain a system would be needed. The 

success of those efforts will determine in large part how quickly such a system could be 

implemented and its long-term size. Any alternative based solely on allocations for roads and 

trails may not be able to meet the purpose and need to identify and designate an official 

transportation system that balances the physical, biological, and social values of the forest. Many 

opportunities for the public to access the Forest could be shut down.

Table 29 provides a relative cost comparison of projected annual maintenance needs for 

Alternatives B, C, and D. Table 30 shows annual deferred maintenance costs over a 10-year 

period. Table 31 displays total annual costs of the alternatives, and shows that Alternative D 

would have significantly lower annual costs than Alternatives B and C. Alternative C would be 

the most costly, with Alternative B a close second.

Indirect Effects - The successful implementation and financing of an appropriately sized OHV 

recreational system in the Black Hills could increase local involvement in the direct support of 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

the system in the form of individual and user group volunteer efforts, partnerships, and co-op 

programs. It could increase the level of voluntary compliance with the rules, thus augmenting 

law enforcement efforts. A viable system could also have significant long-term economic benefit 

to local businesses and communities from steady or increased motorized recreation users from 

local areas and out of state. Successful implementation could also serve as an example that could 

be emulated statewide. The need for funding of a successful system may also have an influence 

on State legislation in the long term.

Cumulative Effects

Past, Present, and Foreseeable Actions

The cumulative effects area for engineering and transportation includes the area within and 

immediately adjacent to the Black Hills National Forest boundary. A time scale of 2 to 5 years is 

based on the time over which one can expect to predict reasonably foreseeable actions.

As local communities continue to grow and as tourism continues to increase, more people may 

come to the Forest to visit and recreate. The easier it is for people to visit and recreate on the 

Forest, the greater the demand that would be placed on the transportation system. The increased 

demand would likely lead to increased maintenance needs.

Over time, and as funding permits, the travel management plan would be implemented on the 

ground. Travel management and motorized mixed-use signage would allow the public to easily 

identify which modes of travel are allowed on which roads and trails. Rehabilitation of system 

and unauthorized routes would reduce the on-the-ground transportation system and actual route 

miles, as well as the associated maintenance costs. System and unauthorized routes that are 

converted to other uses (roads or trails) would further reduce the system miles and the 

environmental impacts.

The enforcement of State laws concerning the use of highway-legal vehicles and licensed 

operators on NFS roads should improve the safety environment involving OHV recreation. The 

enforcement of the new sound limit on OHVs could reduce animosity from nonmotorized users 

of the Forest.

The transportation system would continue to evolve in an effort to meet future access needs for 

commodities and recreational opportunities across the Forest. The size of the transportation 

system would also change to respond to any negative environmental effects of certain routes 

discovered during monitoring efforts and any fluctuations to available resources. The designation 

of roads and trails for OHV use would continue to evolve guided by environmental analysis 

conducted for vegetation management projects.

Implementation and enforcement of policies outlined in the Travel Management Decision could 

have an effect on the policies of surrounding city, county, and State governments.

Regarding effects to air quality, the cumulative effects boundary for analysis of fugitive dust is 

the project area, because these emissions are typically temporary and localized. The boundary for 

analysis of criteria pollutant concentrations including ozone extends from the Forest boundary 

some 250 miles to the north, west, and south. The intent is to recognize other regional emissions 

sources including those in eastern Wyoming, and parts of Montana and North Dakota. The time 

bound for effects analysis extends from the past five years to ten years in the future. 

Existing point and area sources of air pollution within the project area and surrounding region 

include the following:
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

gasoline and diesel-fueled vehicle tailpipe emissions of VOCs, NOx, CO, SO2, and 

particulate matter in the size ranges of less than 10 microns in diameter (PM10), and less 

than 2.5 microns in diameter (PM2.5);

oxides of sulfur (SOx), NOx, VOCs, PM10, PM2.5, and fugitive dust emissions from 

coal-fired power plants and coal mining and processing;

fugitive dust (in the form of PM10 and PM2.5) from vehicle traffic on unpaved roads, 

wind erosion in areas of soil disturbance, and road sanding during winter months;

exhaust emissions, primarily CO, NOx, PM2.5, and formaldehyde, from existing natural 

gas fired compressor engines used in production of natural gas;

natural gas dehydrator still-vent emissions of NOx, CO, BTEX and n-hexane; and

long-range transport of pollutants from distant sources contributing to regional haze.

Projects contributing fugitive dust emissions in the project area include motorized travel on 

unpaved roads, construction projects and mine and quarry operations. It is expected that 

implementation of this project would contribute to fugitive dust levels in some areas within the 

project area, but since fugitive dust generally does not travel very far it is not expected to 

contribute to measurable levels on a project area basis. Fugitive dust from any alternative is 

expected to be temporary and highly localized; therefore, the project would contribute minimally 

to cumulative ambient particulate matter concentrations.

It is difficult to estimate the contributions of ozone-precursor compounds that might occur from 

implementation of any of the alternatives, but it is expected that the incremental contributions to 

the total atmospheric load of such compounds from this project will be negligible under any of 

the alternatives.

Implementation and Monitoring

The transportation system that could be designated by this decision has the potential to be very 

large and complex. The selection of any of the action alternatives would bring numerous changes 

to the existing system. Implementation of a fully developed motorized trail system would have to 

be a staged process. Roads and trails whose existing condition are adequate to hold up under the 

designated traffic could be shown on the first edition of the motor vehicle use map and be 

available for use immediately. Trails that need to be constructed or reconstructed from roads 

would not be opened until resources are available and construction or reconstruction and signing 

are complete. The timetable for implementing this part of the system would depend directly on 

the rate at which resources become available.

The road and trail system would have to be monitored on a continuing basis to evaluate how 

each section is holding up to the designated use. Maintenance schedules would be set based on 

wear related to use, location, trail or road surface materials, availability of resources, etc. Some 

routes that are not sustainable would have to be rerouted or closed. Any conditions that result in 

significant user conflicts would also have to be monitored and modified as necessary.

Socio-Economics

Introduction

Socio-economic concerns are an important consideration for Forest Service management of 

public lands. The study area for the socio-economic discussion focuses on public lands managed 

by the Black Hills National Forest, which include portions of northeastern Wyoming and 

southwestern South Dakota. The social and economic discussion attempts to identify potential 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

effects that Forest Service travel management decisions may have on people using and valuing 

the natural resources that the Black Hills National Forest provides and on local, county, and 

regional economic systems.

User conflicts are primarily related to social values among motorized and nonmotorized users of 

the Forest. Some of the conflict is ―related to the rate of speed at which their preferred 

recreational activities take place and the noise generated by recreational machines‖ (Thompson 

et al. 2007). Travel management decisions are most likely to affect tourism-related sectors. 

Direct economic impacts in the Black Hills region derive from users who purchase services and 

goods associated with their motorized activities on the Forest.

The effects of the proposed project on social and economic resources were incorporated into the 

development of key issues. This section addresses the potential social and economic effects of 

the alternatives.

Background

Preliminary public involvement was initiated in 2003 in an effort to familiarize the public and 

stakeholders throughout the Black Hills region with the objectives of travel management. 

Between 2003 and 2007, the Black Hills National Forest hosted and participated in numerous 

public meetings and workshops in Wyoming and South Dakota.

Between 2004 and 2006, the Off-highway Vehicle and Travel Management subcommittees of the 

Black Hills National Forest Advisory Board conducted a number of public meetings to solicit 

general comments on travel management. The meetings were held in South Dakota and 

Wyoming. The purpose of these meetings was to gather input to help develop recommendations 

for future OHV policy planning.

The Travel Management subcommittee also distributed a User Needs Assessment Questionnaire 

to solicit comments from both OHV and non-OHV users to evaluate the potential for 

establishing a designated OHV trail system on the Black Hills National Forest. The 559 

comments submitted helped the subcommittee define opportunities for an OHV trail system and 

understand potential conflicts with other users.

The National Off-highway Vehicle Conservation Council (NOHVCC), in cooperation with the 

Black Hills National Forest, conducted an OHV Route Designation Workshop in October 2006 

for agency personnel and the public. The purpose of this workshop was to further public 

understanding of the Travel Management Rule.

Four ―Travelways‖ Workshops were conducted by the Forest during November, 2006. The 

purpose of these workshops was to gather public input and ideas for the development of a 

proposed action. A product from these workshops was a collection of site-specific information 

from participants about the Forest after they completed a mapping exercise.

The public was also asked to provide input to Forest staff on routes they wanted to remain open 

and/or those routes that may be in conflict with other desired conditions sought by the public on 

National Forest System lands. This initial public involvement effort resulted in the agency 

receiving numerous comments on individual routes, a large number of general comments, and 

some areawide comments. This preliminary public input helped the Forest develop a proposed 

action. In response to the proposed action and public meeting, 756 comments were received.

Based on the public scoping comments, along with resource-related input from the 

interdisciplinary team, a set of key issues were developed to carry forward into the 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

environmental analysis process. The effects of the proposed project on social and economic 

resources were also incorporated into key issues during the EIS development process. That issue

(Issue 4) is discussed below.

Applicable Laws, Regulations, Policy, and Forest Plan Direction

A number of laws, regulations, and policies provide regulatory and agency guidance for the 

preparation of social and economic analyses, such as:

National Forest Management Act of 1976 (NFMA) – 16 U.S.C. 1600

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) – 42 U.S.C. 4321

Executive Order 12898 (February 11, 1994), Federal Actions to Address Environmental 

Justice in Minority Populations and Low Income Populations.

There are also Forest Service handbooks and manuals that include social and economic analysis 

requirements based on other resource direction.

Forest Plan Direction

The following Forest Plan goals and objectives are relevant to the social and economic aspects of 

the Black Hills National Forest management strategy.

Forest Plan Goal 8. Promote Rural Development Opportunities. ―Rural development‖ is the 

management of human, natural, technical, and financial resources needed to improve living 

conditions, provide employment opportunities, enrich the cultural life, and enhance the 

environment of rural America. In the Forest Service, rural development will be accomplished 

through partnerships.

Forest Plan Objective 801. Through the Forest Service‘s ―Strategic Plan for the 90s,‖ provide 

leadership in working with rural people and communities to develop natural resource-based 

opportunities and enterprises that contribute to the economic and social vitality of rural 

communities.

Forest Plan Objective 802. Promote sustainable development in cooperation with local, county, 

State, and American Indian partners.

Forest Plan Objective 803. Recognize the nature and extent of local economic dependencies on 

National Forest activities. Give special attention to resource programs that help diversify rural 

economies.

Forest Plan Objective 804. Coordinate with local communities to recognize local goals to 

maintain desired life styles and social values to participate with and provide appropriate 

assistance to development groups, and to be a reliable partner in giving sufficient advance notice 

about potential changes that may affect local economies.

Forest Plan Objective 805.Utilize human resource programs to achieve employment 

opportunities while meeting natural resource objectives. Provide human resource programs for 

208 enrollee-years each year including the Job Corps and the Senior Community Service 

Employment Program.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Issues and Indicators

This analysis focuses on Issue 4 related to the travel management proposal:

Issue 4: Social and Economic Concerns. The alternatives considered may affect the economic 

sustainability of local businesses and communities. Effects may be related to sound level (noise), 

dust (air quality), trespass and access to private property, distance from motorized routes to 

private land, traffic levels, and miles of routes open to motorized use. The following are 

indicators used to analyze this issue (also see recreation and transportation sections for additional 

discussion).

Indicators

Miles of motorized routes within 0.5 mile of a nonmotorized trail

Miles of National Forest System motorized routes through or within 300 feet of lands of 

other ownerships

Number of motorized trailheads within 3 miles of a gateway community

Miles of motorized routes

In addition to these indicators, this section also examines the potential for employment and labor 

income effects as well as qualitative discussions of public values or interest categories. 

Economic impacts analysis concentrates on motorized and nonmotorized recreational uses of 

roads and routes. It is recognized that roads are used for other motorized purposes such as 

timber, grazing, and access for vegetation and fuel treatments that can affect local economies and 

social conditions. However, motorized access is allowed in restricted areas or on restricted roads 

for administrative purposes, which include fire suppression, weed control, vegetative treatments, 

range developments, administration of allotments, and associated management of livestock. The 

analysis and discussion of social and economic effects focuses primarily on recreation.

Assumptions

A sound emission limit for ATVs and motorcycles will be established and enforced at 96 

DB(A) using the SAE J-1287 measurement standard. Implementation of this feature may 

require a Forest special order.

Current Forest funding resources will be augmented to the extent necessary to develop and 

maintain a resulting transportation system by fees, grants, partnerships, and cooperative 

agreements.

Roads and trails will be adequately signed to show their designated use and be in accordance 

with the motor vehicle use map.

Law enforcement activity, voluntary compliance, and active public information efforts will 

result in the recreating public complying for the most part with the modes of travel 

designations to be established by this decision and as published on the upcoming motor 

vehicle use map.

Data Sources

As part of the current analysis, previous Forest Service travel management NEPA analyses, 

Forest Service technical references, and internal and external research reports were reviewed. A 

limited range of trend estimates exist for the study area and are included or referenced in this 

section.

In addition to economic and social profile information contained within the Final EIS for the 

Phase II Amendment to the 1997 Revised Land and Resource Management Plan for the Black 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Hills National Forest (USDA Forest Service 2005a), this section relies upon and summarizes 

information and analytical results presented in the Black Hills National Forest Travel 

Management Plan: Supplementary Specialist Report – Social and Economic Effects (USDA 

Forest Service 2009c); the reader is referred to that report for a more detailed discussion of the 

information, analysis, assumptions, and results summarized below.

Affected Environment

Study Area

The social and economic analysis includes seven counties within the study area: Crook and 

Weston Counties in northeastern Wyoming; and Custer, Fall River, Lawrence, Meade, and 

Pennington Counties in southwestern South Dakota. This resource report summarizes 

community information presented in the Final EIS for the Phase II Amendment to the 1997 

Revised Land and Resource Management Plan for the Black Hills National Forest (USDA Forest 

Service 2005a).

Population, Demographics, and Diversity

In general, the population within the seven-county area of the Forest has been increasing from 

approximately 120,000 in 1970 to almost 170,000 by 2006 (Figure 5). The early 1990s saw rapid 

growth while more recently, the rate of growth has leveled off, but the population is still 

increasing as a whole. Over the period 1970-2006, population growth in the study area was

somewhat more rapid than the aggregate population growth for South Dakota and Wyoming but 

similar to that of the nation, particularly since the late 1980s (Bureau of Economic Analysis –

Regional Economic Information System (2006)).

As of 2000, the largest age category is 40 to 44 years, and the age group that has grown the 

fastest, as a share of the total, is 45 to 49 years. The age groups that have grown the slowest are 

30 to 34 and 25 to 29 (U.S. 2000 Census).

Figure 5. Total population for the seven-county analysis area (Source: Bureau of Economic Analysis 

– Regional Economic Information System (2006), Table CA30, as cited in EPS 2009.)

The counties in the study area demonstrate low diversity with the exception of Meade and 

Pennington Counties. In Meade County, the Air Force base provides a greater degree of diversity 

than seen in the general population. Rapid City, located in Pennington County, also has a greater 

Population Trends

169,873

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

120.0

140.0

160.0

180.0

1970197319761979198219851988199119941997200020032006

Thousands of People
Final Environmental Impact Statement

level of diversity, often associated with larger cities and universities. Rapid City has a large 

population of American Indians who move to and from the reservations in South Dakota, 

depending on current economic conditions and employment opportunities. There are people 

outside the seven-county area who use the Forest and are interested in future management of the 

forest resources, especially members of Indian tribes who have historically used the area. 

Approximately 15,000 Native Americans live in Rapid City and within the seven counties of 

concern considered in this social analysis (USDA Forest Service 2005a).

The estimated percentage of the population, age 5 and greater, that is considered disabled1 within 

the seven-county Black Hills area as of 2000 (16.9 percent) is lower than that of the nation (19 

percent) and only slightly higher than that of Wyoming (15.4 percent) or South Dakota (16.3 

percent). The percent of the population considered disabled is somewhat correlated with the 

percentage of the population that is over 65 years of age – 14.3 percent for the seven-county area 

versus 14.4 percent for South Dakota, 12.3 percent for Wyoming, and 12.8 percent for the nation 

(EPS 2009).

Information on age, race, and ethnicity specific to visitors of the Black Hills National Forest is 

available from the Forest Service National Visitor Use Monitoring (NVUM) effort. The 

percentage of visitors who were 60 and older (as of 2003 based on NVUM data) was 

approximately 19 percent, which is comparable to the estimated percentage of the area 

population that is 60 years of age or older as of 2000 (17 percent; U.S. Census, as cited in EPS 

2009). The percentage of Forest visitors identified with minority populations (Table 32) are 

within the range of minority population percentages associated with the counties within the 

Black Hills area.

Table 32. Estimated percent of Black Hills National Forest visits, by race (2003)

Race American 

Indian Asian Black/African American

Hawaiian/Pacific 

Islander

Hispanic/

Latino1 White Other

Percent 1.2 1.2 0.3 0.1 1.2 96.3 0.0

Source: USDA Forest Service, 2004d – National Visitor Use Monitoring Database (Version 1.5)

1 Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino was asked as a separate question from other groups and was not mutually exclusive so 

race may total more than 100%

Economic and Social Elements

Economic and social elements are summarized in the Economic Affected Environment section in 

the Phase II FEIS (USDA Forest Service 2005a), which includes a description of employment, 

income, recreation, and tourism. In addition to the information included in the Phase II FEIS,

several additional area trends are relevant to this assessment of travel management.

The Black Hills region is becoming an attractive place to retire. The State of South Dakota has 

several programs in place to encourage retirees to settle. Retirees can bring in outside money,

have time and energy for volunteer activities, and local health care and other services often 

increase to meet retiree needs, thus increasing opportunities for the rest of the community.

 

1

Individuals were classified as having a disability if any of the following three conditions was true: (1) They 

were 5 years old and over and reported a long-lasting sensory, physical, mental or self-care disability; 

(2)They were 16 years old and over and reported difficulty going outside the home because of a physical, 

mental, or emotional condition lasting 6 months or more; or (3) They were 16 to 64 years old and reported 

difficulty working at a job or business because of a physical, mental, or emotional condition lasting 6

months or more. U. S. Census Bureau, 2000 Census of Population and Housing, Demographic Profile. 

Updated every 10 years. http://factfinder.census.gov
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

A second trend in the Black Hills area is a decline in manufacturing employment, which is 

consistent with national declines of manufacturing industries. Often, as manufacturing leaves a 

community, tourism-related businesses grow to fill the hole in the economy. Many tourismrelated jobs are seasonal and do not pay a wage or have benefits that would attract families. As 

families move on, school enrollment is reduced.

Tourism has become a large part of the region‘s lifestyle in that local residents prepare for 

summer tourist traffic by altering their travel routes and activities or opening businesses to 

capture visitor spending. Residents are aware of the natural resources and beauty by which they 

are surrounded and are protective of their area while generally agreeing that some active 

management is also compatible with their lifestyles.

There are uses of motorized routes, other than recreation (e.g., timber, vegetation management, 

grazing, fire suppression), that can have economic impacts; however, motorized access would be 

allowed in restricted areas or on restricted roads for administrative purposes under all 

alternatives. Consequently, many of the subsequent social and economic sections focus on 

impacts related to recreational uses of roads and trails.

OHV Demographic Characteristics

This section briefly describes the demographic characteristics of OHV recreation in the study 

area. In February of 2008, a research report (USDA Forest Service 2008b) in the Internet 

Research Information Series (IRIS), titled Off-highway Vehicle Recreation in the United States 

and its Regions and States: An Update National Report from the National Survey on Recreation 

and the Environment (NSRE), was published to provide statistics describing OHV recreational 

use and users in the United States.

The IRIS report describes the ―population size, percent of U.S. population, sample size, OHV 

participation rate, estimated number of OHV participants, and the proportion that each state 

contributes to the national total of 43 million OHV users.‖ Of special interest to the Black Hills 

study area, Wyoming has the highest participation rate by percentage (34.3 percent) of 

population in the nation. South Dakota has the 8th highest participation rate (27.0 percent).

The user demographic characteristics were divided into five major regions of the country, 

described as North, South, Midwest, West, and Pacific. South Dakota was considered to be in the 

Midwest region. The IRIS report states, ―Twenty-one percent, or 3.2 million of the Midwest‘s 

15.4 million residents, participated in OHV recreation.‖ Wyoming was included in the West 

region, which was described as having the highest OHV participation rate (28 percent) of all the 

regions.

The IRIS report further indicates that OHV users participated in 47 other outdoor recreation 

activities. As a whole, OHV users were found to be more active in other outdoor recreation 

activities than OHV riding, relative to the general population, age 16 and older. For some 

activities, OHV users were reported to participate at more than twice the national rate. In 

particular, OHV users were about three times more likely to participate in the three types of 

hunting (big game, small game, and migratory bird) than was the general public. The 2008 

update to the National Visitor Use Monitoring project reflects that only 1.9 percent of National 

Forest recreational visitors listed their primary activity as OHV use (USDA Forest Service 

2008d).
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Within the study area, only Wyoming has completed a statewide survey and economic 

assessment project focusing on what the study refers to as off-road vehicle (ORV)2use (Foulke 

2006). OHV use has profound implications for public land managers, small businesses, and rural 

homeowners. The intent of the Wyoming survey was to provide a better understanding of the 

impacts associated with ORV use and assist land managers in future ORV-related planning.

Wyoming instituted an ORV permit program in 2002. In order to better serve trail users, 

Wyoming provided project funding to the University of Wyoming to conduct a broad-based 

economic survey and assessment of ORV use in Wyoming. The survey results indicate that ORV 

use in the State of Wyoming is widespread and virtually a year-round activity. Based on the 

approximately 150,000 ORVs in the state, residents spent over $189 million on ORVs and related 

expenses in a 12-month period. During the same period, nonresident ORV users spent an 

estimated $8.4 million in the state. The project results also show that an estimated 679 new jobs 

and almost $18 million in potential earnings are contributed to the state‘s economy by 

nonresident ORV users. State and local government also benefit from ORV expenditures of 

approximately $18.5 million in sales tax, gasoline tax, lodging tax, and permit fees.

Another interesting aspect of the survey focused on the multi-use nature of ORVs that lends them 

to use in other activities. The primary activity was not necessarily riding ORVs solely for that 

experience, but rather as part of participation in hunting, fishing, and other recreational activities.

The Wyoming study also indicates that 45 percent of respondents who are residents of Wyoming3

would ―increase participation in other outdoor activities‖ within the State if told they would be 

unable to ride ORVs in Wyoming; 60 percent of resident respondents traveled more than 50 

miles from home to participate in ORV activities. In contrast, only 21 percent of nonresident 

respondents indicated they would ―increase participation in other outdoor activities‖ if unable to 

ride ORVs in Wyoming; a large majority of nonresident respondents (95 percent) traveled more 

than 50 miles from home. The resident and nonresident results for Wyoming suggest that some 

ORV riders are indeed willing to seek alternative or substitute recreational activities within the 

State, in the event they are unable to participate in ORV activities; however, this willingness 

likely decreases with distance traveled.

Analysis of National Visitor Use Monitoring results shows that the primary factor determining 

the amount spent by visitors was the type of trip (e.g., day vs. overnight), not the type of activity 

or National Forest visited (Stynes and White 2005). When asked what they would do if for some 

reason they were unable to visit the Black Hills National Forest, a slight majority (54 percent) of 

Black Hills National Forest visitors stated that they ―would go elsewhere for the same activity‖. 

Approximately 22 percent would have come back another time while 10 percent would have 

gone elsewhere for a different activity (USDA Forest Service 2004c). More recent National 

Visitor Use Monitoring survey efforts and results, summarized by National Forest for the nation 

(USDA Forest Service 2008c), reveal that approximately 65 percent of visitors who ―would go 

elsewhere for the same activity‖ would travel 50 miles or less to an alternative location. Though 

these responses are not specific to nonlocal motorized use visitors, the results still suggest that 

alternative or substitute sites for recreation opportunities exist and are recognized by visitors to 

the Black Hills National Forest. Some of these substitute sites are also likely to be located within 

 

2 The State of Wyoming has used the term ORV in its Off-Road Recreational Vehicle Act and program. 

This document may use the term ORV in those contexts, but for purposes of consistency will generally use 

the term off-highway vehicle (OHV) to describe all such vehicles. The terms are synonymous.

3

6.6% and 4.6% of WY resident and non-resident respondents visited the Black Hills are respectively. 

Approximately 36 to 37% of all visits were on National Forest System land/
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

the same ―local‖ area (i.e., within 50 miles), thereby helping retain a portion of the benefits 

derived from recreational spending.

Together, the National Visitor Use Monitoring and Wyoming studies do not provide conclusive 

evidence to quantify the probability that nonlocal motorized visitors to the Black Hills National 

Forest, who feel displaced by travel management restrictions, would continue to visit the Black 

Hills area. However, the results from these studies still suggest that some nonlocal ―displaced‖ 

Black Hills ORV users are expected to seek out alternative or substitute sites for motorized use 

and/or alternative recreational activities within the Black Hills area, thereby retaining some 

nonlocal spending and partially offsetting the adverse economic impacts associated with 

potential cumulative effects from motorized access restrictions.

It is uncertain if the Wyoming ORV survey and economic assessment project results can be

applied to the entire Black Hills study area, which also includes Forest land in South Dakota. An 

economic assessment survey similar to the one conducted in Wyoming is in the planning stages 

for South Dakota, but as of the date of this FEIS, it has not been completed.

Much of the information noted above is useful in characterizing large-scale market conditions 

and trends; however, the analysis completed for this final EIS focuses on describing the level of 

motorized and nonmotorized recreation specifically affiliated with the Black Hills National 

Forest.

For the seven-county Black Hills area, annual licenses purchased for motorcycles, ATVs, and 

mopeds increased by 44 percent between 1990 (6,475 licenses) and 2000 (11,220 licenses) and 

jumped by an additional 98 percent by 2008 (18,414 licenses)4. These results suggest an 

increasing attraction to and use of motorized vehicles by local residents in the Black Hills region. 

However, a comparison of National Visitor Use Monitoring data for Region 2 National Forests 

indicates that the percent of National Forest visits involving OHV use as a main (or primary) 

activity has decreased from approximately 3 percent to 2 percent between 2003 and 2007 while 

total numbers of recreational visits has remained relatively unchanged (USDA Forest Service

2008c; USDA Forest Service 2004d).

Recreational Participation and Spending

During 2003, the Black Hills National Forest participated in the National Visitor Use Monitoring

survey process to better understand recreational use on the Forest. The number of visitors 

sampled on the Black Hills National Forest that reported a zip code was 460 survey respondents, 

and approximately 34 percent of that sample was from Pennington County, SD. The state with 

the greatest representation in the National Visitor Use Monitoring survey sample for the Black 

Hills was South Dakota (49 percent), followed by Minnesota (8 percent), Colorado (5 percent) 

and Wisconsin (4 percent). Visitors from Wyoming accounted for 1.7 percent of the sample.

Based on National Visitor Use Monitoring sampling results, approximately 1,425,982 visits 

occurred on the Black Hills during the survey period. The top five primary activities were 

fishing, driving for pleasure, hiking/walking, relaxing, and motorized water activities. In terms 

of total participation (i.e., primary plus secondary participation), the top five activities were 

wildlife viewing, relaxing viewing natural features, driving for pleasure, and fishing. The main 

activity rates were used to estimate visitor use according to activity emphasis. Roughly 18

 

4 Licenses are purchased for more than one year and vehicles are not limited to recreational use (e.g., 

commercial use). Source: South Dakota Department of Revenue and Regulation, Motor Vehicles Division 

(http://www.state.sd.us/drr2/motorvehicle/title/history_of_titles12.htm).
Final Environmental Impact Statement

percent of main activity participation (254,000 visits) involved motorized activities5, with a 

similar percentage (17 percent) involved in nonmotorized activities6(248,000 visits) that used 

roads and trails by foot or nonmotorized transportation (e.g., bikes, skis). Approximately 3

percent of primary activities are associated with OHV use on the Black Hills National Forest, 

compared to approximately 2 percent of all visitors to national forests nationwide (USDA Forest 

Service 2008a). ―All other activities‖7accounted for approximately 68 percent of main activity 

participation. In terms of both total and main activity participation, the most popular 

nonmotorized activity was hiking and walking, while the most popular motorized activity was 

driving for pleasure.

Almost 10 percent of Black Hills National Forest visitors participated in OHV use as a primary 

or secondary activity, while approximately 50 percent engaged in motorized activities of all 

types (including driving for pleasure, in addition to OHV use, but excluding snowmobiling), 

suggesting that changes in motorized activity opportunities are likely to have effects on 

participation in other activities and corresponding economic impacts. Similarly, 46 percent of 

Black Hills National Forest visitors participated, to some degree, in nonmotorized activities, 

implying that changes in participation in these activities are also likely to have ripple effects in 

other activity areas. It is therefore difficult to clearly separate social or economic impacts 

according to motorized or nonmotorized user groups.

The primary factor determining the amount spent by visitors was the type of trip (e.g., day vs.

overnight), not the type of activity or forest visited (Stynes and White 2005). Only nonlocal 

visitors (i.e., visitors who report living more than 50 miles from the Black Hills National Forest, 

according to the definition adopted by National Visitor Use Monitoring) bring ―new‖ money into 

the local communities and therefore have a direct economic impact on the local area. Local 

visitors tend to substitute other local recreational activities or change the time and place for 

continuing the same activity rather than traveling long distances and incurring additional costs to 

do the same activity. Approximately 31 percent of visitors were nonlocal, 64 percent were local, 

and 5 percent were classified as non-primary visitors (indicated that recreating on the Forest was 

not their primary purpose; USDA Forest Service 2009a). Local and nonlocal visitors were further 

divided by those staying overnight on and off the Forest.

The Black Hills National Forest is an above-average spending Forest, as concerns visitors 

(Stynes and White 2006). Spending by nonlocals is highest for overnight snowmobiling ($168 

per visitor per trip, snowmobiling accounted for 2.7 percent of primary activity visits), followed 

closely by overnight cross-country skiing ($156), hunting ($151), and hiking/biking ($137). The 

lowest spending by nonlocals for overnight trips was estimated for primitive 

camping/backpacking ($50), followed by OHV use ($84), and driving ($87). Non-local 

expenditures for day trips ranged from $22 (hiking/biking, driving) to$36 (OHV use) to $62 per 

visitor per trip (snowmobiling). A Wyoming survey of ORV users revealed that residents and 

nonresidents spend an average of $27.04 and $31.07 per person per day on ORV trips (2004$) 

(Foulke 2006) which is similar to National Visitor Use Monitoring data on expenditures for local 

and nonlocal day values ($22 and $36, respectively). While spending gives some comparison 

between activities, the economic impact of these activities depends on the amount of use in each 

of these activities and the economic structure of the local area (e.g., types of industries located 

within the area; types of goods and services produced in the area).

 

5 Activities include driving for pleasure, OHV use, snowmobiling, and ―other motorized activity‖.

6 Activities include hiking/walking, bicycling, other nonmotorized activity, backpacking, horseback riding, 

and cross-country skiing.

7 Activities include 15 activity areas including fishing, hunting, picnicking, viewing wildlife, relaxing, 

camping, visiting historic sites, water activities, nature study, etc.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Employment and Income

In this section, general employment and income trends are outlined along with specific trends 

occurring in those sectors, primarily in recreation and tourism, likely to be most affected by 

changes in Forest Service management.

The majority of employment and income in South Dakota and Wyoming is nonagricultural. 

Wyoming‘s total job growth rate of over 5 percent, recorded in December 2006, was the highest 

in the country. The energy industry contributed approximately one third of both the state‘s total 

earnings growth and job growth (Lui 2007). Wyoming‘s per capita income growth rate of 9 

percent recorded in 2006 was the highest in the nation. The $40,655 of per capita income in 2006 

also earned Wyoming a rank of 6

th in the nation. With a growth rate of 6.3 percent between 2006 

and 2007, Wyoming is still ranked 6

th in the nation with a per capita income of $43,226 (BEA 

2008). In 2006, South Dakota ranked 38th, with a per capita income of $32,030. With a growth 

rate of 5.9 percent between 2006 and 2007, South Dakota‘s rank increased to 34th with a per 

capita income of $33,905.

Employment (and the economy) for the local seven county Black Hills area is relatively diverse 

and therefore less vulnerable to economic disruptions. The area is less reliant on manufacturing 

and professional/technical services and somewhat more reliant on agriculture and resource 

commodities, as well as accommodation and food services (e.g., tourism).

Job growth in the study area has outpaced growth in the two-state area as well as the nation since 

1982, with the exception of a brief period between 2000 and 2002 (EPS, 2009). The largest 

growth within the seven-county study area was in the finance, insurance, real estate, and 

construction sectors. These sectors are associated with increasing population and overall growth 

of the area, residential and commercial building construction and sales, and the development of 

infrastructure required to accommodate population increases. In several counties, the growth in 

vacation and second homes also increased the demand for the finance, insurance, real estate, and 

construction sectors. In association with population growth of the study area, employment in the 

retail trade and service sectors has grown over the 10-year period. Much of this growth is in 

health care services and tourism (EPS 2009).

Real per capita income during the period 1970 to 2006 increased by a total of 84 percent (EPS

2009), while earnings per job rose by only 2 percent, demonstrating the significant impact of 

nonlabor sources of income (e.g., dividends, interest, transfer payments from government such 

as Medicare and social security) which grew by more than 300 percent. These conditions are 

explained in large part by the income sources and services demanded by changing area 

demographics, and in many cases, retired population, as well as changes in government facilities 

(e.g., air force bases). Non-labor income sources may serve as a buffer against local economic 

downturns by providing a source of income separated from the fluctuations of the local 

economy. The drawback of these changing demographics is that the wages associated with 

increasing numbers of jobs involved in the service industry may be lower relative to other 

industry sectors. Correspondingly, services provide a smaller percentage of total earnings 

compared to total employment, in contrast to government and manufacturing. Recreation and 

tourism activities are an important part of the study area economy. Defining tourism is a difficult 

task as the outputs associated with the industry are more abstract than extraction or 

manufacturing industries. Tourism is not a single sector that can be looked at for trends – activity 

occurs in many sectors, often the same sectors in which local residents purchase goods and 

services for their own use, adding to the complexity of the evaluation.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

The study area employed 5,076 people in the travel and tourism industry8, or 7.4 percent of total 

jobs (excluding proprietors and government) in 2006 (U.S. Census – 2008 County Business 

Patterns (CBP 2008), as cited in EPS 2009a). By comparison, this industry accounted for 4.9

percent of national jobs – demonstrating the relative importance of travel and tourism in the 

study area. Nationwide, Lawrence and Custer Counties rank, respectively, in the top 3 percent

and 6 percent of all counties with respect to percentage of the economy accounted for by travel 

and tourism (CBP 2008, as cited in EPSA 2009).

Travel and tourism‘s share of employment has remained somewhat stable, ranging from 7.2

percent to 7.6 percent between 1998 and 2006. While stable, this sector has experienced slightly 

greater volatility compared to employment in other sectors within the study area.

Forest Contributions to Communities and Lifestyles

The Black Hills National Forest Advisory Board is currently working with the Forest to develop 

recommendations and a business plan for a new OHV user fee proposal. Fees would be 

reinvested in the OHV system as guided by the Recreation Enhancement Act. Grants and limited 

appropriated funding would be invested in the OHV system. In addition, the Forest is currently 

studying the feasibility of initiating a Trail Ranger Volunteer Program to assist in the 

management on an OHV trail system.

Acceptable Uses

The Forest Service strives to offer multiple uses on National Forest System lands. Not every acre 

is available or suitable for every use, but there is a place for many if not most recreational uses to 

occur. In some cases, the Forest Service has determined that private lands are the most 

appropriate places for some specific activities, such as motocross tracks; however, with 

management and resource protection, many recreational uses can be acceptable and encouraged 

on National Forest System lands. Juxtaposition of various uses can create some social values 

conflicts because not everyone values or is tolerant of recreational activities they may perceive 

as inappropriate or undesirable. These conflicts would persist unless and until the current and 

future uses of the Forest are tolerated and accepted by all user groups.

Sound Levels (Noise)

An increasingly important issue in the Black Hills and across the nation is the sound level 

associated with off-highway vehicles. Nonmotorized users and adjacent landowners have 

expressed concerns about sound levels as OHV motorized recreation use grows. The Black Hills 

National Forest does not currently have a stationary sound limit. There is an industry standard 

applied to many OHVs for the sound level produced by the machines when manufactured.

However, because of aftermarket changes and deterioration of mufflers with use, many of those 

machines exceed the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) levels. The sound level of some 

machines has produced a negative attitude among some toward some OHV recreation. See the 

Engineering and Transportation section for further discussion on this topic.

Air Quality

Air quality impacts from National Forest System roads are associated with vehicle emissions and 

dust from traffic on unpaved roads. Fugitive dust effects typically are localized and temporary, 

and their extent depends on the road surface types, moisture levels and the amount of traffic.

 

8 Travel and tourism-related jobs are defined as the proportion of an area‘s jobs that are in industries likely 

to be closely associated with travel and tourism, as defined by the BEA‘s U.S. Travel and Tourism 

Satellite Accounts methodology (www.bea.gov/industry/iedguide.htm#ttsa).
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Most of the unpaved ML 3 and 4 roads under Forest jurisdiction are located in unpopulated areas 

with relatively low traffic volumes. Dust issues on ML 2 roads typically are less severe. Dust 

abatement is a relatively expensive activity and is dependent on budget levels and priorities.

Historical budgets have not been sufficient to support other than minimal abatement activities on 

roads with high logging truck activity. Concentrating motorized use on roads and trails, and 

developing trailheads could potentially increase the amount of dust created in some areas. See 

the Engineering and Transportation section for further discussion on this topic.

Trespass and Access

According to the Travel Management Rule, areas and routes not designated on the motor vehicle 

use map would be closed to motorized use. This would be a change from the current situation on 

the Black Hills National Forest, which allows motorized use unless designated as closed.

Problems related to OHV use that have developed or intensified over the last several years 

include noise disturbance to nearby residences, proliferation of trash on the land, traffic through 

residential neighborhoods, trespass onto adjacent ownerships, no legal public right-of-way 

access to some areas of the Forest, and damage to sensitive plant communities and riparian areas.

Environmental Effects Analysis

Direct and Indirect Effects: Methodology

Economic Impacts

Travel management decisions are likely to affect tourism-related sectors in the Black Hills. 

Direct economic impact on surrounding areas is based on users who purchase goods and services 

on their way to or returning from an activity on the Black Hills National Forest. The economic 

impact of access for mining, oil and gas, livestock grazing, and wood products activities should 

not be affected by the decision on this project (see earlier section: Affected Environment: 

Economic and Social Elements).

Economic impact analysis is used to evaluate potential direct, indirect, and induced effects of 

recreational activity (i.e., visits) on the local economy. Economic impacts are estimated using 

region-specific multipliers derived from input-output models. Input-output analysis is a means of 

examining relationships within an economy, both between businesses and between businesses 

and final consumers.

The IMPLAN (Minnesota IMPLAN Group 2003) model used in this analysis translate changes 

in final demand for goods and services into resulting changes in economic effects, such as labor 

income and employment of the affected area‘s economy. The IMPLAN modeling system allows 

the user to build regional economic models of one or more counties for a particular year. The 

regional model for this analysis uses the 2007 IMPLAN data9for the seven-county Black Hills 

area. The data are compliant with the Data Quality Act (Section 515 of Public Law 106-554). 

IMPLAN multipliers are derived from a specific set of cross-sectional data regarding 

employment, output, and expenditures from a single point in time (i.e., year).

The expenditures reported by visitors who responded to the 2003 National Visitor Use 

Monitoring survey have been used to develop spending profiles by activity type (see Stynes and 

White 2005). Expenditures acknowledge the variable costs of using recreational equipment (e.g., 

gasoline to operate motorized vehicles) but do not account for large capital expenditures 

associated with the purchase of items such as motorized vehicles and trailers; there is no 

 

9 Labor income results are adjusted to 2008 dollars using GDP deflators.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

evidence to suggest that travel management planning decisions are likely to have a significant 

impact on this level of purchase behavior. Expenditures10 are allocated to the appropriate 

industry sectors (e.g., retail; accommodations and food services, entertainment) within the 

IMPLAN model. The total employment and labor income impacts, aggregated for all industry 

sectors, for each activity type (e.g., hiking, hunting, etc) provide response coefficients (e.g., 

numbers of jobs generated per 1,000 visits). Response coefficients are combined with estimates 

of numbers of visitors based on National Visitor Use Monitoring data to calculate the economic 

impacts associated with motorized, nonmotorized, and ―all other‖ recreational activities on the 

Black Hills National Forest.

Evaluations of jobs and income do not address the public benefits derived from recreation and 

other uses of National Forest System trails and roads. These benefits are largely based on 

nonmarket values, such as the value of recreational experiences and ecological services. By their 

very nature, these types of benefits are difficult to quantify and monetize. Direction in 40 CFR 

1502.23 and the Forest Service Handbook 1909.15 and 22.35 provides for the use of qualitative 

analysis to evaluate nonmarket effects, and the nonmarket aspects of each alternative are 

therefore discussed and assessed in other resource sections of the EIS and other resource 

specialist reports.

Social Effects

People may hold multiple values for the same resource, or may hold very separate values for 

specific places or experiences. The same route, as well as the conditions of that route, would

have different values to different people.

For this analysis, the values and interests included are based on the comments the public has 

provided during the comment period for the proposed Black Hills National Forest Travel 

Management Plan and DEIS (USDA Forest Service 2009b). This is not a random sample; people 

who choose to respond to any Forest Service comment period are self-selected. However, the 

public‘s responses provide valid information about the range of values, attitudes, and beliefs 

regarding the proposed action. Based on public comments, this analysis centers on the broad 

groups of categories of values and interests listed in Table 33. Note that individuals often have 

values that range across more than one category below.

Table 33. Value and interest categories associated with travel management on the BHNF

Value/interest category Preferences based on:

Plan reliability

Belief that the agency can provide sufficient funding, enforcement, 

administration, and other resources to implement the option/alternative in 

an efficient and equitable manner.

Access

Beliefs and attitudes about public rights to access National Forest System

land, including access by all members of the public (e.g., all age groups, 

families).

Motorized (recreation) 

experience

Values for management plan attributes that affect the quality of motorized 

recreation experience such as concentrated use, trailheads, loop routes, 

cross-country travel for hunting, and dispersed camping.

Motorized use capacity

Values for motorized use capacity on National Forest System lands that 

acknowledge potential changes in the supply and demand for motorized 

use.

 

10 Expenditure categories provided to respondents during the 2003 NVUM survey include loding (motels, 

cabin, BandB), camping, restaurants and bars, gasoline and oil, groceries, local transportation (bus, shuttle, 

etc), recreation and entertainment (guide fees, equipment rentals, etc.), entry/parking/recreation use fees, 

souvenirs/clothing etc., and sporting goods (Stynes and White, 2005)
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Nonmotorized (recreation) 

experience

Values for management plan attributes that improve the perceived quality 

of nonmotorized recreation experience such as reduced 

conflicts/encounters with motorized users, limits on cross-country 

motorized travel, “active” (closed unless open) designations, and 

mitigation of motorized impacts on resources.

Preservation/conservation

Values for natural ecosystems, processes, and ecosystem services, as 

well as efforts to adopt sustainable management strategies that address 

cultural, historic, and spiritual values.

Multiple use Values for conditions favoring multiple and equitable use of National 

Forest System lands.

Local economy Values associated with local economic impacts (e.g., businesses, jobs, 

income).

Community effects/safety Values for improved safety, reduced dust, noise, and other measures to 

reduce adverse impacts to adjacent communities and private landowners.

Direct and Indirect Effects: Results

For details about the results presented below, see the Supplementary Specialist Report: Social 

and Economic Effects (USDA Forest Service 2009c).

Alternative A – No Action

Alternative A reflects the current situation of the Forest transportation system. No additional 

management or changes would be implemented.

Economic Impacts (Current Employment and Income Contributions of Alternative A)

In total, recreational activities associated with primary visits to the Black Hills National Forest

are estimated to contribute 832 annual jobs and approximately $22 million in labor income to the 

local seven-county area (Table 34). These results are based on estimates of current recreational 

visits, as reported by the National Visitor Use Monitoring data, and are therefore assumed to 

represent conditions under Alternative A. These contributions make up less than 1 percent of 

total employment and labor income associated with the seven-county area (see Table 35), but 

may be important contributions to individual communities within the seven-county study area

Local and nonlocal visits associated with nonmotorized recreation (as a primary activity) are 

estimated to be responsible for approximately 70 jobs (8.4 percent of all jobs and income 

contributed by primary Forest visits) and $1.8 million in labor income annually in the seven 

county study area. Local and nonlocal visits associated with motorized activities are responsible 

for similar contribution estimates - approximately 65 jobs and $1.7 million in labor income 

annually, or approximately 8 percent of all jobs and income contributed by recreation. The 

motorized use with the largest economic impact is driving for pleasure, which contributes almost 

5 percent of jobs and labor income from all local and nonlocal visits. OHV use accounted for 1.8 

percent of jobs and income from all activities.

Activities included in the ―All other activities‖ category (e.g., hunting, fishing, camping, viewing 

wildlife, relaxing, etc.) are responsible for a large portion of economic contributors - 697 jobs 

and $18.1 million labor income which is 84 percent to 85 percent of all employment and income 

generated from all local and nonlocal activities analyzed. Hunting, which is included in ―all other 

activities‖ is estimated to account for 8 percent of primary activity visits, contributing 14 full or 

part-time jobs each year to the local area, a relatively small component of total employment 

(18,040 jobs) engaged in the economic sectors most affected by recreation in the seven-county 

area. A percentage of the primary visits associated with hunting are likely to involve motorized 

vehicle use based on data for OHV user activities (USDA Forest Service 2008a).
Final Environmental Impact Statement

When estimating economic impacts (e.g., jobs and labor income), it is important to note that only 

nonlocal visitors bring  ̳new money‘ into the local communities and therefore have a direct

economic impact. Visitors who reside in the local area tend to substitute other local recreational 

activities or change the time and place for continuing the same activity rather than traveling long 

distances and incurring additional costs to do the same activity.

Non-local visits are responsible for 504 of the 832 jobs estimated to be contributed by all types 

of primary visits (see Table 34). Similarly, nonlocal activities account for $12.8 of the $21.6 

million in estimated labor income generated by all recreational activities. Non-local motorized 

use, as a primary activity, is responsible for contributing 30 jobs or 6 percent of employment 

impacts associated with nonlocal visitors and approximately $750,000 in labor income. In 

contrast, nonmotorized use is estimated to contribute 52 jobs or 10 percent of aggregate 

employment impacts, accounting for approximately $1.3 million in income. ―All other use‖ 

activities account for the remaining 84 percent of job and income contributions by nonlocal 

visitors.

Table 34. Employment and labor income contributed by current recreational activity (representing 

economic contributions under Alternative A)1

Nonmotorized Use

Employment

(No. of full and part-time jobs)

Labor income

(2008 dollars)

Direct Indirect and 

induced Direct Indirect and induced

Backpacking Local 0.9 0.3 $ 20,676 $ 11,262

Non-local 0.9 0.3 20,827 11,398

Hiking/walking Local 8.8 3.2 204,643 111,341

Non-local 26.6 9.0 575,224 304,315

Horseback riding

Local 0.6 0.2 13,509 7,350

Non-local 1.8 0.6 37,971 20,088

Bicycling

Local 2.1 0.8 48,287 26,271

Non-local 6.3 2.1 135,727 71,805

Cross-country 

skiing

Local 0.0 0.0 0 0

Non-local 0.0 0.0 0 0

Other 

Nonmotorized

Local 1.0 0.4 24,431 13,292

Non-local 3.2 1.1 68,671 36,330

Total nonmotorized 52.0 17.9 $1,149,966 613,451

Subtotal 70 $1,763,418

Motorized use

Employment

(No. of full and part-time jobs)

Labor income

(2008 dollars)

Direct Indirect and 

induced Direct Indirect and induced

OHV use

Local 4.8 1.8 $ 113,917 $ 63,970

Non-local 5.8 2.2 136,214 75,507

Driving for 

pleasure

Local 15.8 5.7 367,288 207,260

Non-local 11.4 3.8 245,791 131,450

Snowmobiling Local 5.4 1.9 124,521 70,061

Non-local 4.9 1.6 106,185 57,959

Other motorized

Local 0.1 0.0 1,942 1,090

Non-local 0.1 0.0 2,322 1,287

Total motorized 48.2 17.2 $1,098,179 $608,586

Subtotal 65 $1,763,418
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

All other use

Employment

(No. of full and part-time jobs)

Labor income

(2008 dollars)

Direct Indirect and 

induced Direct Indirect and induced

All other 

activities

Local 200 74 $ 4,718,566 $2,592,826

Non-local 313 110 7,001,694 3,776,704

Total Other 513 184 $11,720,260 $6,369,530

Subtotal 697 $18,089,789

Grand total 613 219 $13,968,405 $7,591,566

Grand subtotal 832 $21,559,972

1 Does not include non-primary visits; totals may be off slightly due to rounding

Table 35. Current contributions of Forest-related recreational activity to the local economy, by local 

and nonlocal visits (representing economic contributions under Alternative A)1

Industry

Employment (No. of jobs) Labor income (millions of dollars)

Area totals National Forestrelated Area totals National 

Forest-related

Agriculture 3,998 13 $ 42 $ 0.110

Mining 1,249 5 106 0.634

Utilities 632 2 74 0.270

Construction 8,827 7 327 0.256

Manufacturing 5,476 20 292 0.777

Wholesale trade 2,538 58 141 3.213

Transportation and 

warehousing 14,081 25 344 0.829

Retail trade 2,822 104 127 2.255

Information 1,680 7 70 0.254

Finance and insurance 4,871 13 192 0.528

Real estate, rental and 

leasing

1,913 9 57 0.282

Professional, scientific, 

and technical services 4,378 15 175 0.592

Management of 

companies 411 4 26 0.222

Administration, waste 

management and 

removal services

3,696 32 87 1.008

Educational services 1,285 9 30 0.194

Health care and social 

assistance

10,697 28 552 1.404

Arts, entertainment and 

recreation 3,924 199 93 3.449

Accommodation and 

food services 11,294 270 186 4.493

Other services 7,564 19 137 0.333

Government 19,287 14 1,150 0.964

Total 110,624 852 $4,209 $22.065

Forest Service as % of 

total --- 0.77% --- 0.52%

1 Totals may be off slightly due to rounding
Final Environmental Impact Statement

The total jobs that are estimated to be contributed annually as a result of current nonlocal visits 

(504 jobs) are expected to continue under the No Action Alternative. These job impacts, as well 

as corresponding labor income (approximately $12.8 million) are important annual contributions 

to relevant sectors of the local economy, however, the total job contributions from nonlocal 

recreation are less than 1 percent of the total labor force (110,624 jobs) and approximately 1.7

percent of the labor force associated with the sectors that are most affected by Black Hills 

recreation (i.e., retail trade, accommodations and food services, and entertainment) for the sevencounty area. It is likely that travel management would have a significant effect only on a subset 

of the jobs affiliated with nonlocal visits, namely those jobs contributed by nonlocal motorized 

and nonmotorized activities (82 jobs); potential economic impacts are therefore expected to be 

very small (e.g., less than 0.1 percent of total labor force and less than 0.3 percent of labor 

associated with recreational industry sectors). It is recognized that Forest-related motorized and 

nonmotorized recreation has a substantial impact on the lifestyles and culture of the Black Hills 

area, including the attractiveness of the area from the perspective of a variety of Forest users and 

local residents, however, these results suggest that the economic contributions to the local 

economy are relatively small, even when considering that additional jobs are expected to be 

contributed by other nonlocal visits engaged in motorized and nonmotorized use as a secondary 

activity. Jobs and income contributed by these recreational activities may be an important 

contribution to individual communities, but, as noted below, changes in these contributions as a 

consequence of travel management alternatives are expected to be too small to accurately 

project.

Social Effects of Alternative A

Approximately 864,000 acres of the Forest would remain open to motorized cross-country travel. 

Because some trails do not allow motorized vehicle use is not allowed on some trails, there is 

some level of separation of uses. However, no additional separation of uses would be 

implemented. Those conflicts that currently exist would likely continue under this alternative.

Under no action, there would be no trailheads within 3 miles of a potential gateway community;

however, slightly more miles of authorized motorized routes through or within 300 feet of lands 

outside of National Forest suggests a higher potential for noise and dust impacts to neighboring 

landowners and residents. With no action, 318 miles of motorized routes are within 1⁄2 mile of 

nonmotorized routes suggesting some potential for user conflict compared to other alternatives 

(range from 382 miles under Alternative C to 211 miles under Alternative D). However, the 

presence of relatively unrestricted cross-country travel over 864,000 acres suggests increased 

potential for user conflict between motorized and nonmotorized users, in addition to the 

continuation of many of the adverse effects from user-adopted unauthorized routes associated 

with unrestricted travel.

Alternative A is likely to rank somewhat low with respect to those who are concerned about plan 

reliability due to ongoing concerns about the impacts of motorized travel that may continue 

unmitigated. Individuals holding values related to motorized recreational experience, access, and 

capacity may be have the greatest preference for Alternative A because cross-country motorized 

travel would continue with fewest restrictions. Preferences for Alternative A are expected to be 

low for the ―Nonmotorized (recreation) experience‖ and ―Preservation/conservation interest‖

categories due to the absence of efforts to mitigate the impacts of motorized travel. Preferences 

for Alternative A may be lower with respect to individuals or groups with multiple use interests 

due to perceptions about inequitable accounting for nonmotorized and motorized needs 

respectively. Individuals or groups with interests in community effects may perceive benefits as 

being low for Alternative A due to the feeling that current adverse impacts affecting adjacent 

landowners and nearby residents would continue unmitigated.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives (B, C, D, and E)

Impacts to communities from motorized access would continue under all alternatives. The lack 

of any large areas open to motorized cross-country travel may cause some OHV users to feel 

displaced. This feeling of displacement on the part of OHV users may result in increased trespass 

on lands outside of National Forest and a tendency for noncompliance with motor vehicle use 

map designations. The reduction in current motorized recreation opportunities and the 

concentration of OHV use on the designated transportation system could intensify conflicts 

between motorized and nonmotorized trail users, as well as private and other public landowners, 

due to such things as increased dust and noise. However, prohibiting motorized cross-country 

travel on approximately 864,000 acres may significantly decrease user conflict, especially with 

hunters and other nonmotorized recreational users.

It is expected that active management of OHV use could be costly (see Engineering and 

Transportation section). The construction of new trails and trailheads, maintenance of trails and 

related facilities, education and enforcement, and the need for increased staff would likely strain 

already declining Forest Service budgets. The long-term successful management of the 

transportation system under any of the action alternatives would require user support in terms of 

volunteer services and user fees.

Motorized and nonmotorized recreation activities support jobs in the local communities and 

contribute to the attractiveness, lifestyles, and customs of residents and visitors, as noted in the 

previous discussion of conditions under Alternative A. However, based on the inability to project 

changes in motorized and nonmotorized visits under the action alternatives, as well as the 

relatively small impacts noted above, changes in jobs and income resulting from Alternatives B, 

C, D, and E are expected to be too small to accurately project or detect.

There may be some decrease in motorized visits to the Black Hills as a consequence of 

constraints on motorized travel under the various alternatives; these constraints may be more 

pronounced under Alternatives D and E. However, potential job losses associated with these 

constraints may be offset under Alternatives B and C, in part, by (1) increases in visitors 

associated with nonmotorized activities as conditions contributing to the quality of their 

experience improve, (2) improved long-term management and maintenance of a planned travel 

system and enhanced OHV trail system opportunities, and (3) the potential for some portion of 

displaced motorized users to visit substitute sites and/or participate in alternative outdoor 

recreational activities within the area. Under Alternatives D and E, there may be greater potential 

for offsets due to jobs contributed by increases in visitors associated with nonmotorized activities 

but reduced potential for offsets due to enhancements of motorized travel systems and OHV 

opportunities (relative to Alternatives B and C). The direction of any net changes in jobs and 

income contributed by recreation under action Alternatives B through E are therefore difficult to 

predict.

Alternatives B and C

Implementation of either Alternative B or C would allow for the addition of a large number of 

new OHV trails and roads open to both highway-legal and non-highway-legal vehicles 

(motorized mixed use). Some areas would remain open to motorized travel, but only for the 

limited purposes of dispersed camping and game retrieval. These alternatives would separate 

motorized and nonmotorized uses. Alternative C also considers adding additional motorized 

routes that may be necessary for creating higher quality OHV user experiences than may be 

found under Alternative B.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

There is an attempt to separate some uses by designing an OHV trail system to meet the desires 

of certain user types. The OHV trail system proposed in both alternatives includes a number of 

motorized trail systems. These motorized trail systems would be connected by a series of 

motorized-mixed-use roads. However, given the finite transportation system and lack of any 

areas open to motorized cross-country travel, some OHV users may feel displaced. Others would

enjoy the experience if the OHV trail system adequately accommodates their preferred uses. 

Because the system would have limits, and resource values must be maintained, many locations 

would have to be shared by different user types, and conflict could occur in these areas.

The attempt to balance all uses, reduce conflict, and minimize impacts to resources leads to a

need to balance the volume of use with how much recreational opportunity is available. The 

routes with heavier use would tend to see more conflicts between users. Those areas also tend to 

be easier to access and are often close to the urban interface. These alternatives attempt to clearly 

define user expectations for experiences by showing recreationists where the various uses would 

be allowed or prohibited.

Under Alternative B and C, the greatest number of motorized trailheads (10 and 11 respectively) 

would be located within 3 miles of a potential gateway community, thereby providing access 

points in areas where additional services are available. The number of miles of motorized routes 

through or within 300 feet of lands of other ownerships (490 and 500 for Alternatives B and C 

respectively) suggests that the potential for noise and dust impacts to neighboring landowners 

and residents is higher (but similar to Alternatives A and E). There are similar miles of motorized 

routes within 1⁄2 mile of nonmotorized routes under Alternative B and C when compared to A and 

E, suggesting similar potential for user conflict compared to these alternatives. The potential for 

motorized safety is somewhat lower under Alternative B (as well as C) relative to D and E given 

the greater number of miles of Forest roads open to motorized mixed use.

Alternatives B and C are likely to rank somewhat low with respect to those who are concerned 

about plan reliability, due in part to expectations that current funding levels are unlikely to be 

able to fully support the expense of implementing alternatives B and C. Effective management of 

the OHV trail systems represented in Alternatives B and C would require higher levels of user 

support (e.g., volunteer services, user fees) than management under Alternatives D and E. 

Preferences for Alternatives B and C may be moderate, particularly in comparison to 

Alternatives D and E, for individuals who value motorized recreational experience, access, and 

capacity. However, as implied above, it is difficult to predict final effects due to uncertainty 

about the degree to which improved management and designations of mixed-use roads and 

motorized trail systems for OHV use would help offset perceived losses in recreational 

experience associated with restrictions on cross-country travel.

Given that the age distribution within the seven-county Black Hills area is slightly skewed 

toward older age groups, particularly in Custer, Fall River, and Weston Counties, Alternatives B 

and C may be favored (compared to Alternatives D and E) by certain OHV user segments that 

are somewhat more prevalent in the Black Hills area. These segments include ―middle age 

actives‖ (average age = 43, more affluent, interest in wide variety of activities), ―seniors‖ 

(average age = 70), and ―upper middle class nature lovers‖ (average age = 54, interest in 

viewing/learning) as defined by a review of OHV users on National Forests (USDA Forest 

Service 2008a). The broad activity interests of these OHV user segments suggest that a number 

of motorized vehicle users are likely to hold values related to preservation/conservation interests

that are also preferred by nonmotorized and other types of recreational visitors.

Preferences for Alternatives B and C are expected to be lower or moderate for population 

segments who value nonmotorized (recreation) experience and preservation/conservation due to 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

presence of fewer constraints on and efforts to mitigate the impacts of motorized travel.

Individuals and groups with multiple use interests may have moderated preferences for 

Alternatives B and C because of the attempts being made to account for increasing motorized 

recreation demand, mitigate past damages associated with unrestricted motorized use, and adhere 

to the requirements of the Travel Management Rule. Individuals or groups with interests in 

community effects may have moderate preferences for Alternatives B and C due to perceived 

attempts to mitigated impacts affecting adjacent landowners and nearby residents.

Though there may be some prevailing perceptions about the economic impact of motorized 

recreation that could influence preferences for some of the active management alternatives, 

actual changes in jobs and income resulting from Alternatives B and C are projected to be too 

small to accurately project or detect, as noted in the section regarding economic impacts for 

Alternative A above. It is also noted that potential job losses associated with motorized travel 

constraints under Alternatives B and C may be offset, in part, by (1) increases in visitors 

associated with nonmotorized activities as conditions contributing to the quality of their 

experience improve, (2) improved long-term management and maintenance of a planned travel 

system and enhanced OHV trail system opportunities, and (3) the potential for some portion of 

displaced motorized users to visit substitute sites and/or participate in alternative outdoor 

recreational activities within the area.

Alternative D

This alternative would implement a more limited OHV trail system to meet transportation and 

social recreation needs. Alternative D would allow more separation of uses, but would also 

reduce the opportunities for users of non-highway-legal vehicles, and would concentrate areas 

where these vehicles would be allowed. This would likely affect the recreation experience of 

those who are accustomed to using National Forest System roads and currently open areas.

Under Alternative D, there are a reduced number of motorized trailheads located within 3 miles 

of a potential gateway community, thereby providing reduced access points in closer proximity 

to areas with services, compared to Alternatives B or C. The number of miles of motorized 

routes through or within 300 feet of lands of other ownerships (423) suggests that the potential 

for noise and dust impacts to neighboring landowners and residents is lower compared to the 

other alternatives. There are also reduced miles of motorized routes within 1⁄2 mile of 

nonmotorized routes under Alternative D (211 miles) compared to A, B, and C, suggesting the 

potential for some reductions in user conflict compared to the other alternatives. Potential for 

motorized safety is somewhat higher under Alternative D, relative to B and C given the reduced 

number of miles of Forest roads open to motorized mixed use.

Perceptions about plan reliability may be somewhat improved for Alternative D because of the 

reduced number of trails and roads to be maintained. Effective management of the OHV trail 

systems represented in Alternative D would require higher levels of user support (e.g., volunteer 

services, user fees) than Alternative A, though potentially lower levels compared to management 

under Alternatives B and C. Preferences for Alternative D are expected to be low for individuals 

valuing motorized recreational experience, access, and capacity, though it is difficult to predict 

final effects due to uncertainty about the degree to which improved route management and 

designations would help offset perceived losses in recreational experience, as noted for 

Alternatives B and C above. Preferences for Alternative D are expected to be higher for 

individuals or groups holding values for nonmotorized (recreation) experience and

preservation/conservation due to greater constraints on and efforts to mitigate the impacts of 

motorized travel.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Individuals and groups with multiple use interests may have moderated preferences for 

Alternative D, (similar to Alternatives B and C), as a consequence of the attempts being made to 

account for diverse recreational demand and mitigate past damages associated with unrestricted 

motorized use; some perceptions about inequitable accounting for motorized needs may affect 

these preferences. The reduced number of motorized routes within 300 feet of lands of other 

ownerships may result in somewhat higher preferences for Alternative D by those with values 

based on community effects.

As with Alternatives B and C, there may be some prevailing perceptions about the potential for 

adverse economic impacts related to potential job losses associated with motorized travel 

constraints that could influence preferences for Alternative D, but actual changes in jobs and 

income are projected to be too small to accurately project or detect (as discussed in the section 

above regarding economic impacts for Alternative A). Under Alternative D, there may be greater 

likelihood that potential job losses would be offset by increases in visitors associated with 

nonmotorized activities as conditions contributing to the quality of their experience improve, but 

less of an offset from improved long-term management and maintenance of a planned travel 

system and enhanced OHV trail system opportunities.

Alternative E

Alternative E reflects the current Forest transportation system, without any areas open to 

motorized vehicles or adding any user-created routes. There would be a significant increase in 

the separation of uses due to implementation of the travel management rule, primarily due to 

prohibiting the use of motorized vehicles in areas currently open to such use. Conflicts between 

users could continue, especially in areas of the Forest that have shared uses or in areas where 

user solitude would be disrupted by neighboring motorized activities. This alternative would also 

designate roads in the South Dakota portion of the Forest as open to highway-legal vehicles only.

Under Alternative E, there would be no motorized trailheads located within 3 miles of a potential 

gateway community, implying a reduced number of access points in close proximity to areas 

with services, compared to Alternatives B, C, or D. The number of miles of motorized routes 

through or within 300 feet of lands of other ownerships (504) suggests that the potential for noise 

and dust impacts to neighboring landowners and residents is similar to impacts associated with 

the other alternatives, with the exception of Alternative D (423 miles). There are 318 miles of 

motorized routes within 1⁄2 mile of nonmotorized routes under Alternative E suggesting a similar 

potential for user conflict compared to other alternatives, with the exception of Alternative D. 

Potential for motorized safety is higher under Alternative E, relative to B, C, and D given the 

reduced number of miles of Forest roads open to motorized mixed use (160 miles).

Perceptions of plan reliability may be highest for Alternative E where there is greater potential 

for current funding levels to cover agency expenses while still meeting the requirements of the 

Travel Management Rule. Effective management of the OHV trail systems represented in 

Alternative E would require higher levels of user support (e.g., volunteer services, user fees) than 

Alternative A, though potentially lower levels compared to management under Alternatives B 

and C. Preferences for Alternative E are expected to be lowest for individuals with interests in 

motorized recreational experience, access, and capacity. Preferences for Alternative E are 

expected to be higher for individuals or groups holding values for nonmotorized (recreation) 

experience and preservation/conservation due to greater constraints on and mitigation of the 

impacts of motorized travel.

Preferences for Alternative E may be lower with respect to individuals or groups with multiple 

use interests due to perceptions about inequitable accounting for motorized and nonmotorized 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

recreational activities. Individuals and groups with multiple use interests may have moderated 

preferences for Alternative E, (similar to Alternative B, C, and D), as a consequence of the 

attempts being made to account for diverse recreational demand and mitigate past damages 

associated with unrestricted motorized use, though some perceptions about inequitable 

accounting for motorized needs may affect these preferences.

Individuals or groups with interests in community effects may have moderate preferences for 

Alternative E due to perceived attempts to mitigated impacts affecting adjacent landowners and 

nearby residents. As noted for Alternatives B, C, and D, prevailing perceptions about the 

potential for adverse economic impacts may exist, but actual changes in jobs and income 

resulting from Alternatives B, C, D, and E are projected to be too small to accurately project or 

detect. Similar to Alternative D, there may be greater likelihood that potential job losses would

be offset by increases in visitors associated with nonmotorized activities as conditions 

contributing to the quality of their experience improve, but less of an offset from improved longterm management and maintenance of a planned travel system and enhanced OHV trail system 

opportunities.

Cumulative Effects

The economy can be affected by a variety of factors including population growth, recessions, 

growth of new sectors, tax and economic policy, and others. The management of travel and 

recreation on National Forest lands has a relatively small effect compared to the effects of these 

variables. It should also be noted that IMPLAN models are aggregate representations of the 

cumulative effects of all economic sectors and therefore represent cumulative effects within the 

context of economic conditions.

As local communities continue to grow and as tourism continues to increase, more people will 

come to the Forest to visit and recreate. The easier it is for people to visit and recreate on the 

Forest, the greater will be the potential social and economic impacts. Changes based on 

economy, age distribution, and population can affect how people recreate. The population in the 

study area is expected to continue to grow and Forest use will likely increase. The state of the 

economy, gas prices, food prices, and housing costs can affect how much discretionary income 

people have for recreation. As the population ages, some uses may increase in popularity while 

others may taper. Technological advances in equipment and trends also can affect the activities in 

which people choose to participate.

The loss of OHV recreational opportunities by limiting or prohibiting cross-country motorized 

travel would be partially offset by enhanced OHV trail system opportunities under Alternatives 

B, C, and to a limited extent, D. In addition, commercial opportunities could develop on adjacent 

private properties to provide cross-country areas for OHV users seeking hill-climb, motocross, 

mud-bogging, or rock-crawling activities.

Increasing populations, changing demographics, and increasing emphasis on OHV participation 

may place additional strains on the motorized route system within the Black Hills National 

Forest; however, the effort to adapt to these changing travel and recreation conditions is, in part, 

responsible for the implementation of the Travel Management Planning rule in the first place. A 

range of alternatives in this FEIS presents varying levels of motorized and motorized-mixed-use 

opportunities (i.e., road and trail miles, area open to cross-country travel), thereby recognizing 

issues related to the changes in recreational activity demand and trends. Increasing demand and 

participation may place stress on the route system proposed under each alternative; however, 

efforts to improve long-term management of motorized use under a travel management plan is 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

expected to help adopt to and mitigate adverse effects associated with changing recreational 

demands (see cumulative effects for Engineering and Transportation section).

Some concerns have been raised about the cumulative impact of motorized access restrictions on 

other national forests and/or lands of other ownerships and the resulting effect on overall supply 

of motorized access. As noted in the cumulative effects discussion in the Recreation section

(p. 73), new motor vehicle restrictions on other lands (e.g., Thunder Basin, Buffalo Gap) may 

displace visitors and further concentrate use in permitted areas, thereby creating potential for 

increased resource impacts and management concerns. However, results from a survey of 

Wyoming ORV users (see OHV Demographic Characteristics discussion in this section) suggest 

that some ORV riders would be willing to seek alternative or substitute recreational activities 

within the State if they were told that they would be unable to participate in ORV activities in 

Wyoming; as stated earlier, this willingness likely decreases with distance traveled. Similarly, 

National Visitor Use Monitoring survey results suggest that alternative or substitute sites for 

recreation opportunities exist and are recognized by visitors to the Black Hills National Forest, 

though these responses are not specific to nonlocal motorized use visitors (USDA Forest Service

2004c). Some of these substitute sites are also likely to be located within the same ―local‖ area 

(i.e., within 50 miles). Together, the National Visitor Use Monitoring and Wyoming studies do 

not provide conclusive evidence to quantify the likelihood that nonlocal motorized visitors to the 

Black Hills, who might feel displaced by travel management restrictions, would continue to visit 

the Black Hills area. However, the results from these studies suggest that there is potential for 

some nonlocal ―displaced‖ Black Hills ORV users to seek out alternative or substitute sites for 

motorized use and/or alternative recreational activities within the Black Hills area, thereby 

retaining some nonlocal spending and partially offsetting the adverse economic impacts 

associated with potential cumulative effects from motorized access restrictions.

Civil Rights Impact Assessment

The Civil Rights Policy for the USDA, Departmental Regulation 4300-4, dated May 30, 2003, 

states that the following are among the civil rights strategic goals; (1) managers, supervisors, and 

other employees are held accountable for ensuring that USDA customers are treated fairly and 

equitably, with dignity and respect; and (2) equal access is assured and equal treatment is 

provided in the delivery of USDA programs and services for all customers. This is the standard 

for service to all customers regardless of race, sex, national origin, age, or disabilities. The travel 

management planning process is designed to prevent disparate treatment and minimize 

discrimination against minorities, women and persons with disabilities and to ensure compliance 

with all civil rights statutes, Federal regulations, and USDA policies and procedures.

The travel management plan would not discriminate towards persons with disabilities, because it 

(e.g., restrictions) would apply equally to all groups. Under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act 

of 1973, no person with a disability can be denied participation in a Federal program that is 

available to all other people solely because of his or her disability. However, there is no legal 

requirement to allow people with disabilities use of motor vehicles on roads, trails, or other areas 

that are closed to motor vehicles. Restrictions on motor vehicle use that are applied consistently 

to everyone are deemed not to be discriminatory. The effects of actions outlined under this plan 

would be distributed evenly among the population since access on routes designated as closed to 

motorized use would not prohibit or inhibit use on the basis of race, color, sex, national origin, 

religion, age, disability or marital or familial status. See discussion earlier in this section 

(Population, Demographics, and Diversity) concerning the distribution of visitors by age, 

disability, and minority status; existing information indicates that visitor demographics are 

similar to that of the State and regional populations in general.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Environmental Justice

Executive Order 12898 directs Federal agencies to focus attention on human health and 

environmental conditions in minority communities and low-income communities. The purpose 

of the executive order is to identify and address, as appropriate, disproportionately high and 

adverse human health or environmental effects on minority populations and low-income 

populations.

In the Phase II FEIS, Tables 3-59 and 3-60 highlight the demographic statistics for identifying 

potential communities of concern (USDA Forest Service 2005a). None of the counties in the 

study area contain low-income or minority populations as defined by Executive Order 12898. No 

additional outreach or analysis has been performed, as there would be no disproportionate 

negative effect on such communities under any of the alternatives.

Additional evaluations of minority and low-income population data (USDA Forest Service 

2009c) show no evidence to suggest that the proposed action would have a disproportionate 

adverse effect on low-income populations. Evaluations also show that minority populations for 

the counties in the study area are unlikely to meet the Environmental Justice criterion for a 

minority population and would be unlikely to experience disproportionate adverse effects from 

implementation of any alternative.

Soils

Introduction

Soils of the Black Hills National Forest (the analysis area) have generally been mapped and 

described at an Order 3 (USDA Forest Service 1991) level, which is the level of data generally 

mapped for various Forest uses, such as range planning11. General background soil resource 

information for the Forest is available in the Final Environmental Impact Statement for the 

Revised Land and Resource Management Plan for the Forest (USDA Forest Service 1996a), and 

in the Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Phase II Amendment to the 1997 Revised 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Black Forest (Phase II FEIS; USDA Forest Service 

2005a). Information on various specific components for Forest soil map unit resources have been 

and are periodically updated (such as through the 2007 update to the Lawrence County Soil 

Survey) by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) and have become available to 

the public through an the NRCS website located at http://soils.usda.gov/. Soil information was 

available for the 2007 Travel Analysis Process Report for the District route selection process and 

is not presented again for this Forestwide document.

Applicable Laws, Regulations, Policy, and Forest Plan Direction

The primary law that applies to the soil resource is the National Forest Management Act of 1976 

(16USC 1600-1602, 1604, 1606, 1608-1614), which directs that management prescriptions 

conserve the soil resource and not allow significant or permanent impairment of land 

productivity.

Forest Plan Objectives, Standards, and Guidelines. Standards, guidelines, and management 

directives set forth in the Revised Forest Plan as amended (USDA Forest Service 2006a) include 

measures for the conservation and protection of the soil resource on National Forest System 

 

11 Soil Survey Division Staff. 1993. Soil survey manual. Soil Conservation Service. U.S. Department of 

Agriculture Handbook 18. (Accessed at http://soils.usda.gov/technical/manual)
Final Environmental Impact Statement

lands. Forest Plan standards and guidelines for the soil resource considered applicable to the 

travel management plan include:

1. Manage land treatments to limit the sum of severely burned and detrimentally 

compacted, eroded, and displaced land to no more than 15 percent of any land unit 

(standard 1103; see similar worded Region 2 Soil Management Handbook and Region 2

Watershed Conservation Practices Handbook direction below).

2. Minimize soil compaction by reducing off-road vehicle passes, by skidding on snow, 

frozen or dry soil condition or by off-ground logging systems (guideline 1104).

3. Stabilize and maintain roads and other disturbed sites during and after construction to 

control erosion. (standard 1106)

4. Maintain or improve long-term levels of organic matter and nutrients on all lands. 

(standard 1109)

No soil resource specific direction exists in Forest Plan management area direction. Forest Plan 

standards and guidelines for the conservation and protection of soil resource productivity apply 

to all management areas.

Region 2 Soil Management Direction

The Soil Management Handbook (FSH 2509.18, Region 2 Supplement) provides standards to 

ensure soil quality maintenance. The following standard applies:

―2.23. No more than 15 percent of an activity area will be left in a detrimentally compacted, 

displaced, puddled, severely burned and/or eroded condition. This does not include the 

permanent transportation system.‖

Region 2 Watershed Conservation Practices Handbook Direction

The Region 2 Watershed Conservation Practices Handbook also provides direction with similar 

wording to Forest Plan standard 1103 and the Region 2 Soil Management Handbook. The 

following Management Measure 13 from that handbook applies:

―Manage land treatments to limit the sum of severely burned soil and detrimentally 

compacted, eroded, and displaced soil to no more than 15 percent of an activity area12

(commonly a timber sale cutting unit, prescribed fire burn unit or an allotment pasture).‖

Methodology

The USDA Forest Service Region 2 Soil Management Handbook (USDA Forest Service 1992) 

contains direction targeted at protecting soil resources and soil productivity, which includes the 

inherent capacity of a soil under management to generally support the growth of specified plants, 

plant communities, or a sequence of plant communities. The Region 2 Soil Management 

Handbook and the WO Amendment to FSH 2509.18 Soil Management Handbook (USDA Forest 

Service 1991) include information that applies to areas where vegetation management 

prescriptions are being applied, including timber production sites and livestock forage 

production areas within allotments. The Region 2 Watershed Conservation Practices Handbook 

 

12 An activity area is defined as an area of land impacted by a management activity or activities. It can 

range from a few acres to an entire watershed depending on the type of monitoring being conducted. It is 

commonly a timber sale cutting unit, a prescribed fire burn unit, or an allotment pasture. Soil quality 

standards do not apply to administrative sites or other areas with dedicated uses, including the permanent 

Forest Transportation System.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

(USDA Forest Service 2006c) reiterates that the National Soil Handbook (FSH 2509.18) soil 

quality standards are intended for areas where management prescriptions are being applied, such 

as timber harvest areas and range allotments. They are not intended to apply to administrative 

sites or other areas with dedicated uses such as the designated permanent Forest transportation 

system. Roads, trails, trailheads, the concentrated cross-county areas less than 5 acres (see Table 

7; designated high-intensity motorized use sites that will occupy previously disturbed sites, such 

as gravel pits), and specified parking zones along routes are dedicated to a specific management 

use that precludes other uses of the land (such as for growing trees for harvest or forage for 

wildlife or livestock) and removes the majority of the productive capability of soils at the 

specific location where they occur. Therefore, the soils analysis is primarily focused at the 

various land areas in action alternatives that are designated open to cross-country motorized 

travel. Alternatives that contain land areas open to cross-country motorized travel off of 

designated transportation facilities include Alternatives A (existing condition), B, and C. 

Alternatives D and E restrict motorized travel to the designated transportation system facilities 

with no areas open for motorized cross-country travel.

The following indicators were used to measure the effects to the soil resource across the range of 

alternatives:

Indicators

Acres open to unlimited motorized cross-country travel

Acres open to limited motorized cross-country travel (motorized game retrieval, 

motorized dispersed camping).

Potential effects of the alternatives to the soils resource was part of Issue 1. These effects are 

considered in the EIS to compare how well each alternative meets soil protection requirements. 

The acres open to motorized cross-country travel and the amount and timing of that use can 

potentially alter surface vegetation or soil conditions to a level that soil productivity at specific 

locations could be expected to be impacted.

Assumptions

Based on the information available in Chapters 1 and 2 of the EIS, a number of assumptions 

were made for the soils analysis.

For comparing alternatives, designated Forest transportation facilities for each of the 

alternatives are considered to cause equal amounts of disturbance to the adjacent soil 

resources that are not allocated to the transportation facility. While it is recognized that not 

all of the transportation facilities cause equal amounts of disturbance (it can vary based on 

slope gradients, intensity of use, timing and volume of precipitation, etc.), designated 

transportation facilities can be designed to meet Forest Plan standards and guidelines and 

Region 2 Watershed Conservation Practices (see Design Criteria in Appendix B and the 

management strategies list in the Implementation section of Chapter 2). Implementation of 

such measures would be expected to limit any potential effects to those within an acceptable 

level to continue protecting and maintaining soil productivity conditions.

Not designating routes that currently have less than desired condition elements would likely 

remove from the public transportation system those routes that would be expected to require 

the greatest amount of maintenance. Since the motor vehicle use map is to be updated 

annually (see motor vehicle use map management strategy identified under the 

Implementation section in Chapter 2), an annual update would require periodic documented 

route and other transportation facility reviews or inspections, as well as timely maintenance 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

throughout the year to address and correct identified resource impacts, including any to 

adjacent soil resources. In addition, if inspections or reviews identified that a designated 

route or cross-country motorized use area could not be managed to standard (see Chapter 2, 

Features Shared by All Alternatives, Emergency Closure item), action would be taken to 

close the specific transportation facility or area, such as through a road closure or area 

closure order until a new motor vehicle use map would take effect, and the original facility 

or area would be reclaimed or rehabilitated.

Administrative access (see Chapter 2, Features Common to All Alternatives) would be 

limited in nature and would generally be expected to retain vegetative cover or allow for 

regrowth to the level that water runoff velocity would be at significantly lower levels as 

compared to a designated open transportation facility that experiences multiple passes during 

the same day. It is understood that access needs increase when implementing grounddisturbing projects and the effects of access are disclosed in environmental analysis for those 

projects. While administrative access for fire generally results in significant soil disturbance 

and removal of vegetative cover associated with fire suppression activities (such as during 

dozer line construction) suppression rehabilitation activities are generally implemented to 

meet Water Conservation Practices Handbook Management Measure (design criteria h) 

(USDA Forest Service 2006c) to limit the extent and duration of effects. Part of the burned 

area rehabilitation process and direction could also be expected to include an area or route 

closure period, as needed, to allow vegetation of the general area to establish prior to 

reinitiating any OHV use.

Design Criteria

No additional design criteria specific to the soil resource were included for the action 

alternatives. Dedication of sites to designated routes and trailheads that incorporate the design 

criteria for protecting water resources and limiting the number of acres and the number of 

opportunities (reduced number of trips) for cross-country travel generally addresses design 

criteria that would have been included for meeting the Forest Plan standards and guidelines and 

Region 2 soil quality standards listed above.

Field information and Other Analysis Information

The soil resource evaluation was developed using information presented to the extended team 

(soils was a component of the extended team) from the core transportation management 

interdisciplinary team specialists, background information from existing knowledge of the Black 

Hills and professional judgment.

For this analysis, effects were discussed for the Forest soil resource as a whole rather than 

addressed by each soil map unit across the Forest because 1) the analysis covers such a large area 

(Forestwide) containing a large number of soil map units, 2) we are assuming that sustainable 

and safe travel would be limited to specific slopes with a limited amount of use, and 3) the motor 

vehicle use map could change use areas on an annual basis.

Since specific research is not known to be available for the general Black Hills area, some of the 

most recent literature (Ouren et al. 2007) and other Forest travel management analysis 

documents were reviewed to understand impacts associated with OHV use in other areas. 

Acreage and mileage figures provided are and should be considered approximate since 

information included in Chapters 1 and 2 indicate that motor vehicle use maps are likely to be 

changed as necessary to address resource protection and conservation needs.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Affected Environment

As described in Chapter 1, approximately 4,109 miles of unauthorized OHV routes (not currently 

part of the designated Forest transportation facilities) currently exist on the Forest (see 

Alternative A map in Appendix I, map packet). These routes are generally associated with the 

extensive area of the Forest that is currently open to unlimited cross-country motorized travel. As 

indicated above, these generally were not planned routes with engineering design specified for 

Forest projects; therefore, effects to soil productivity were generally never analyzed. OHV trails 

and use areas currently occur at various concentrations and intensity of use levels throughout the 

Forest. In comparison to designed native surfaced roads, these unauthorized routes are generally 

narrower (65 inches in width or less) than roads, tend to lack drainage structures, and some have 

been observed to occur on steep gradients (for additional information see the Transportation 

section of this chapter). Based on mostly undocumented observations, impacts to soil resources 

currently exist at various levels and locations along unauthorized routes in the open crosscountry motorized use areas. In these areas, vegetative ground cover has been removed, surface 

soil layers have become eroded, soil structure has been altered, surface soil layers have become 

mixed with subsurface layers, or tracks have extended to the bedrock layer. Some trails have 

been observed to contribute to the concentration of water runoff associated with snowmelt or 

precipitation events and have contributed to erosional features (ruts and gullies) at track 

locations (see some of these effects featured in some of the photos located throughout the FEIS). 

The public can readily observe some of these motorized use areas and associated erosional 

features when traveling on some of the main roads or highways located throughout the Forest. 

Past Forest documents have included information regarding impacts to soil resources associated 

with OHV use on Forest lands and closure orders have been issued to reduce impacts to a variety 

of resources. Local newspaper articles in recent years have also reported on and included 

pictures of various OHV effects that have occurred on the Forest and the actions taken to address 

those effects. Some limited funds have become available periodically, which have been used to 

attempt to reclaim some areas, primarily focused at sites near to, or that cross perennial streams 

(to restore some level of vegetation with the intent to reduce sedimentation).

Environmental Effects Analysis

It is important to clearly understand that reclamation or rehabilitation of previously used 

unauthorized user-created routes or OHV-disturbed areas across the Forest is not included as part 

of any of the action alternatives or as part of the decision to be made for this project (see the 

Decision Framework section in Chapter 1); therefore, this is not addressed in the effects analysis 

for any of the alternatives. Those activities would only occur if proposed through other project 

planning processes and decisions.

The decision to allow or prohibit the use of motorized OHV on designated open routes (the 

Forest transportation facility) would generally be expected to have limited effects on adjacent 

soil resources. A route designation decision does have the potential to affect soils indirectly to 

the extent that it may affect the concentration of use on roads and trails. For example, increased 

use in some areas may result in greater levels of OHV parking on the edge of the trail, prompting 

the need for the implementation of more routine maintenance, and affecting the potential for 

impacted areas to recover. In general, more motorized routes and motorized use on National 

Forest System lands could be expected to contribute more potential site disturbances that could 

impact Forest soil resources.

Based on the assumptions listed near the beginning of this section and the sites to be designated 

on the Forest transportation system, the greatest potential for effects to soils from motorized 

recreation are likely to be associated with potential disturbances from areas used for dispersed 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

camping, followed by areas open to game retrieval. While expected to be very limited, the 

potential increase in water runoff velocities from designated facilities can potentially contribute 

to erosion of soil resources located immediately adjacent to transportation facility components. 

Therefore, the amount of area open to motorized cross-country travel is the overriding indicator 

used to evaluate the level of effects to soils, with some minor considerations given to designated 

transportation facilities.

Direct and Indirect Effects

Alternative A - No Action

Indicators

Acres open to unlimited motorized cross-country travel: 864,000

Acres open to limited motorized cross-country travel (motorized game retrieval, 

motorized dispersed camping): 864,000 (approximately 72 percent of total National 

Forest System acreage--1.2 million acres--identified in Chapter 1)

This alternative retains the current 864,000 acres open to motorized unlimited cross-country 

travel, which occurs throughout the entire year. While 864,000 acres is what is ―mapped‖ it is 

somewhat misleading regarding what can be expected for potential site and soil disturbances 

created by OHV use. OHV use would likely occur on less than 864,000 acres because 

accessibility is restricted due to natural or human-developed barriers (vegetation, steep slopes, 

rock outcrops, private land and Forest fences, lakes or other water features, etc.) No changes to 

cross-country motorized dispersed camping and motorized game retrieval would be expected.

This alternative would be expected to have direct and indirect effects similar to some conditions 

that have been observed on the Forest to date (see those discussed in the Affected Environment 

section above) and what has been documented from elsewhere (Ouren et al. 2007). Unregulated 

off-road motorized activities can contribute to disturbed conditions that can result resulting in 

unacceptable levels of soil degradation. A variety of effects associated with OHVs, including 

those to the soil resource, has been compiled and published (Ouren et al. 2007). Abrasion 

removes surface vegetation and roots, which can further contribute to water runoff and erosion. 

Compaction reduces soil voids to various degrees, which can result in limitations to various site 

productivity factors such as the water-holding capacity of the soil or restricting or altering 

vegetative root growth (USDA Forest Service 2006c). Any potentially new or existing 

unauthorized roads and trails in Alternative A would likely continue to contribute to the spread of 

invasive weed species (see the Noxious Weeds section). Various invasive non-native competitive 

plant species including cheatgrass are generally recognized to be less valuable at preventing or 

limiting soil erosion than plant species native to an area.

Depending on the level of use and various site conditions that exist along routes, uncontrolled 

motorized vehicle use off roads and trails can alter soil conditions in areas that are not part of the 

permanent transportation system and contribute to a lowered soil productivity condition than 

what would generally occur naturally at a site. As compared to a designed or designated open 

system, unauthorized roads and trails have greater potential for more impacts to soils due to lack 

of design and placement in a specified location.

While direct and indirect effects would be expected to continue under the no action alternative, 

closure orders would still be a tool for closing areas where resource damage occurs.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Effects Common to all Action Alternatives

As indicated previously, the Region 2 Watershed Conservation Practices Handbook Management 

Measure 13 addresses soil quality as follows:

―Manage land treatments to limit the sum of severely burned soil and detrimentally compacted, 

eroded, and displaced soil to no more than 15 percent of an activity area (commonly a timber sale 

cutting unit, prescribed fire burn unit or an allotment pasture).‖

While slightly different (since it was based on a previous version of the Region 2 Watershed 

Conservation Practices Handbook), Forest Plan standard 1103 has similar wording:

―Manage land treatments to limit the sum of severely burned and detrimentally compacted, eroded 

and displaced land to no more than 15 percent of any land unit.‖

Although the Region 2 Watershed Conservation Practices Handbook management measure, the 

Region 2 soil quality standard and Forest Plan standard 1103 are primarily targeted at timber, 

prescribed fire, and range activities, it is also applicable to other human disturbance activities on 

Forest land. Components of the action alternatives can be expected to benefit or potentially 

contribute to reducing detrimental soil quality conditions that currently exist and would continue 

under Alternative A. The action alternatives would significantly limit or eliminate all acres open 

to motorized cross-country travel; but quantitative benefits are immeasurable at a Forest scale. 

However, the decrease or elimination of areas available for motorized cross-country travel and 

the designation of specific routes open for public motor-vehicle use would concentrate use to 

designated sites and would comply with design criteria 1 (a) of Management Measure 13 (USDA 

Forest Service 2006c):

―Restrict roads, landings, skid trails, concentrated-use sites, and similar soil disturbances to 

designated sites.‖

Designating the greatest amount of OHV use to Forest transportation facilities and to specific use 

areas would implement the design criteria listed above. While concentrated use along designated 

transportation routes could contribute to some effects (such as increasing water runoff velocities 

that could contribute to or result in some level of erosion on adjacent soils), specifying 

designated routes, trailheads, concentrated cross-county areas less than 5 acres (see Table 7)and 

associated route parking/passing zones, could lead to sustainable maintenance for transportation 

facilities (see Chapter 2 of the FEIS) and increased benefits for adjacent soil resources. At this 

time, the amount of maintenance an open route would require and receive in the future is 

unknown; however, an increase in annual maintenance opportunities and levels would generally 

be expected to address and limit effects of concentrated use and keep it within a manageable 

level.

The designation of trailhead facilities (estimated at up to five acres in size for this analysis) 

would further implement that design criteria. Trailheads are generally expected to occur on 

slopes of five percent or less to provide for ease of parking trailers and the loading and unloading 

of OHVs. The numbers of trailheads are 34 in Alternative C, 31 in Alternative B, 23 in 

Alternative D, and 7 each in Alternatives A and E. Even at five acres, the total acreage trailhead 

designation would be less than 200 acres that could contribute to water runoff or to any effects to 

adjacent soil resources. By actually designating such transportation facilities, concentrated OHV 

loading and unloading can be limited to specific locations with the expectation that the facilities 

can be routinely inspected and maintained to specific standards (see Design Criteria in Appendix 

B and the management strategies identified under the Implementation section in Chapter 2) with 

a greater likelihood of preventing impacts to adjacent soil resources.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Mass movement of land surfaces have occurred on the Forest with generally the greatest 

potential for occurrence in the Bear Lodge Mountains. The geology of some areas in the Bear 

Lodge Mountains have characteristics that contribute to a greater likelihood of naturally 

occurring failures on steep slopes or human-caused failures in association with site disturbances 

such as highway and road construction or vegetation removal activities. It is important to note 

that soil displacement in the form of mass movement (also known as slope failures or 

landslides), has not been observed to occur on the Forest with cross-country motorized use. Mass 

movement increases as identified in the Region 2 Soil Quality Handbook, Region 2 Water 

Conservation Practices Handbook, and in Forest Plan standard 1103 are not expected to be an 

issue since no roads would be designed or constructed as part of this decision. Designation of 

transportation facilities in the Bear Lodge Mountains under any of the action alternatives is not 

expected to increase the likelihood of mass movement. The only routes to be designated under 

any of the action alternatives are located on existing routes that currently have some level of 

drainage features designed into them. No user-created routes were included as designated open 

routes within the alternatives for that portion of the Black Hills National Forest. In addition, 

removal of timber canopy is not a part of the activities or decision to be made for this project. 

Therefore, mass movement potential is not expected to increase or decrease as part of this 

project.

When wet, various native surface roads and trails with low strength characteristics13 can be 

susceptible to rutting. Rutted conditions can result in a desire by users to circumvent the 

designated transportation facilities and to access areas not designated as open on the motor 

vehicle use map. Rutted conditions have been observed to contribute to trail widening as 

vehicles avoid the rutted trail locations, and can result in unacceptable impacts to the 

transportation surfaces or drainage features and limit their effectiveness (see the transportation 

report for further information), resulting in concentrating water runoff that can lead to varying 

levels of gully erosion depending on site characteristics. If rutting of routes occurs, the 

assumption is that maintenance of designated routes would occur in a timely manner in 

accordance with protective Forest Service design and trail maintenance standards, and users 

would be expected to be less inclined to divert off the route where soils would be impacted. 

Therefore, effects to adjacent soil resources would be expected to be kept at a minimum level.

Effects Specific to Alternative B

Indicators

Acres open to unlimited motorized cross-country travel: 0

Acres open to limited motorized cross-country travel (motorized game retrieval, 

motorized dispersed camping): 179,000 (approximately 15 percent of 1.2 million acres 

of National Forest System lands from Chapter 1)

Based on the assumptions listed earlier and the indicators above, this alternative can be expected 

to have some of the same direct and indirect effects as those in the no action alternative but to a 

much lesser degree. The greatest potential for effects to the soil resource under this alternative 

from motorized recreation is likely to be associated with potential disturbances from areas used 

for dispersed camping, followed by areas open to game retrieval.

Motorized game retrieval (game retrieval is elk only) can affect soils through disturbance of 

vegetation. However, under this alternative, very few or no effects to the soil resource would be 

 

13 low strength characteristics can be obtained from the NRCS Soils website at 

http://soils.usda.gov/technical/manual/contents/chapter6a.html#1
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

expected. Only one vehicle is allowed for a retrieval of a harvested animal however, more than 

one pass by the vehicle is allowed, only as needed, and no resource damage is allowed for the 

retrieval of an animal (see game retrieval information provided in Actions Common to All Action 

Alternatives Section in Chapter 2). Based on the size that a mature elk can achieve, it may be 

possible, depending on the size of the OHV available, that up to four passes may be needed for a 

smaller, lighter weight vehicle to retrieve an elk (one quarter of the animal per pass), while a 

larger vehicle (generally, heavier than smaller vehicles) may likely only need one entry to 

retrieve a harvested animal. While uncertainty exists, it is expected that since the number of 

passes to retrieve an animal would generally be four entries or less, such a level of use would be 

expected to have limited potential for causing altered soil conditions to the extent that vegetative

productivity of those retrieval sites could not be retained. In addition, game retrieval would 

generally be limited to less than five months a year (September through January), during a period 

when soil moisture conditions are generally lower than conditions that generally occur during 

higher precipitation level months, or frozen soil conditions may be present (climate information 

for Black Hills can be viewed by following the links provided by the High Plains Regional 

Climate Center at http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/). The hunting period within the Black Hills is also 

at the end or after the primary growing season period for the general majority of plants in the 

Black Hills. Based on the soil moisture conditions at this time of the year and the entry 

limitations to retrieve game, it can be expected that there would be a very limited potential to no 

likelihood of soils to be compacted to a detrimental level in areas open to that activity. In 

addition, the entry limitation during the hunting season would generally result in little to no 

observable reductions of vegetative ground cover, or reduce ground cover to the point below that 

expected to keep erosion within tolerable limits (approximately 50 to 70 percent of ground cover 

for soils within the Black Hills).

Recognizing that natural and human restrictive features and conditions prevent access to some of 

the areas open for motorized cross-country travel, it is likely that fewer acres than the total listed 

can or will be accessed. For example, in considering slope, an assumption can be made that there 

may be hunter safety concerns and that there are limitations to the stability of vehicles on certain 

slopes. Slopes of various portions of the Forest were reviewed through a geographical 

information system (GIS) query. While it is likely that the general hunting public would probably 

limit motorized removal of big game to slopes of 15 percent or less, there may be some people 

that operate their vehicles on steeper slopes; therefore, an even greater conservative query was 

reviewed. Simply based on eliminating slopes of 30 percent and greater, game retrieval acreage 

for Alternative B would generally be less than 162,000 acres (approximately 13 percent of the 

Forest). An assumption is that the total acres that would actually be accessed for game retrieval 

would be even further limited by site factors that are not as easily mapped or reviewed with a 

tool such as GIS. These restrictive features can include rock outcrops, soil surface rock 

fragments or boulders, dense understory shrub conditions, private land fences limiting access to 

public lands, lakes and other water features, or some other site condition that would limit the 

desired or safe operability of motorized OHV equipment. Based on the information available and 

presented, risk of impacts to a detrimental level for soils associated with game retrieval as is 

specified in Alternative B is considered to be at a low level.

As mentioned above, motorized use off of designated routes can disturb vegetation, which could 

contribute to some impacts to soils adjacent to specific portions of designated transportation 

system feature. Motorized dispersed camping is associated with access to and from trails and 

parking, which can disturb vegetation and in turn can contribute to effects to soils. The total 

amount of acres actually available for dispersed camping (observations in recent years is that the 

general majority of camping on the Forest is of a motorized nature), and considered to be more 

desirable for camping, is significantly less than the total of what is listed for each alternative. 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Based on site-limiting factors not conducive for locating or setting up campsites, a primary and 

easily mapped feature is slope, which limits the use of a variety of camping equipment and 

camper comfort (the assumption is that the majority of motorized or pull type campers or 

camping equipment would generally access and set up on areas of off-road slopes of 10 percent 

or less). Recognizing there may be a very limited number of campers that may actually access 

slopes greater than 5 percent, a query of less than 10 percent slopes was made to estimate the 

majority of acres where motorized dispersed camping and access would generally be expected to 

occur. The review of that query indicates that only about 1/3 of the total acres listed as available 

to motorized use could or would likely be used under Alternative B with dispersed camping use 

identified (less than 24,000 acres or 2 percent of the Forest). The percentage of the Forest 

desirable or available for motorized camping would likely be even significantly less based on a 

number of other site factors, which are generally not as easily reviewed with the tool of GIS as 

slope, but have been observed. Other factors that limit the desirability or limit the conditions of 

site suitability for motorized camping can include rock outcrops, soil surface rock fragments or 

boulders, presence of poison ivy, presence of various noxious weeds (such as Canada thistle), 

dense understory shrub conditions, high tree stem densities, private land fences, presence of 

Forest permitted livestock and odor of livestock excrement, road noise, and presence or lack of 

surface water.

Motorized dispersed camping in Alternative B is included entirely within areas where game 

retrieval is identified; therefore, total acres of all cross-country travel for Alternative B is 

179,000 acres (approximately 15 percent of National Forest System lands). The existing 

condition (or the no action alternative) currently allows season-long, unlimited motorized crosscountry travel activities on 864,000 acres (approximately 72 percent of 1.2 million acres of 

National Forest System lands). The reduction in the percentage of the Forest open to motorized 

cross-country travel in Alternative B identifies the level of potential benefits that can likely be 

realized to various areas of Forest soil resources. In addition, significantly fewer passes by 

motorized vehicles would be expected to occur on the lands that would continue to remain open 

to cross-country travel.

Areas designated as part of the permanent transportation facility are no longer managed as a soil 

resource and therefore were not used as an indicator. If the permanent transportation facility 

components (considered to be the routes designated, the adjacent parking zones along the routes, 

and the trailheads) are managed to the transportation facility standards specified in the 

Implementation section in Chapter 2 and Appendix B and discussed in the hydrology section of 

this FEIS, any indirect effects associated with the routes to adjacent Forest soil resources are 

expected to be very limited in spatial extent. This includes the annual inspection of routes and 

taking actions to mitigating impacts that may be discovered or the removal of routes from the 

annually issued MVUM if impacts cannot be mitigated. Implementation of Alternative B would 

have approximately half as many miles used by motorized vehicles as compared to the existing 

condition (Alternative A, no action).

In summary, full implementation of Alternative B can be expected to have some of the same 

direct and indirect effects as those in the no action alternative (current conditions) but to a much 

lesser degree. The acreage where cross-country use is allowed would decrease from the current 

864,000 acres to 179,000 acres, a difference of 685,000 acres, or about 55 percent of the total 

Forest area. Resource conditions on the areas where use would no longer occur would improve at 

varying rates as existing disturbed or impacted sites associated with motorized cross-country use 

activity begin to revegetate. It is expected that some sites would require active rehabilitation to 

restore some level of vegetative or productive condition. While uncertainty exists, on the 

179,000 acres that would still be open to limited cross-country use, it is likely that resource 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

conditions would improve to various levels. Depending on individual site characteristics and 

precipitation cycles experienced in the future, areas where game retrieval only is allowed could 

have the most potential for improved conditions (with use generally occurring at times of lowest 

soil moisture contents levels, on potentially frozen soils and with limited number of passes over 

limited number of months and for elk only). In areas where impacts may currently exist and that 

would still be available for dispersed camping in Alternative B, conditions may improve but 

improvement would likely be to a lesser extent or at a slower rate than in the game retrieval areas 

(due to potential for more passes by vehicles, use occurring during a variety of soil moisture 

content levels associated with number of months of camping opportunities).

Effects Specific to Alternative C

Indicators

Acres open to unlimited motorized cross-country travel: 0

Acres open to limited motorized cross-country travel (motorized game retrieval, 

motorized dispersed camping): 485,500 (approximately 40 percent of the total Chapter 1 

identified 1.2 million acres of National Forest System lands)

Based on the assumptions listed earlier and the indicators above, this alternative can be expected 

to have some of the same direct and indirect effects as those in the no action alternative but to a 

much lesser degree. The greatest potential for effects to the soil resource under this alternative 

from motorized recreation is likely to be associated with potential disturbances from areas used 

for dispersed camping, followed by areas open to game retrieval.

Direct and indirect effects of game retrieval in Alternative C would generally be similar to those 

identified and discussed under Alternative B, but could be expected to occur over a larger area 

since more acres would be available and there is greater potential for more game-retrieval-entry 

opportunities since this alternative allows for deer in addition to the retrieval of elk. The same 

GIS slope query exercise used in Alternative B was used for Alternative C analysis. The results 

indicate that less than 337,000 acres (approximately 28 percent of the Forest) would be available 

for motorized game retrieval. Alternative C differs from B in that it allows game retrieval off of 

the designated Forest transportation system for both elk and deer (deer have far more tags 

available than elk); therefore, not only does Alternative C have more acres available for big 

game retrieval as compared to Alternative B, more cross-country motorized entries can be 

expected in Alternative C as compared to Alternative B, which has elk-only game retrieval 

specified (see the Wildlife Section for additional information). Based on the size of the animal, it 

can generally be assumed that only a single entry would be needed to retrieve a deer. Since elk 

are larger animals, it may be possible, depending on the size of the OHV available, that up to 

four passes may be needed for a small vehicle to retrieve an elk (one quarter of the animal per 

pass), while a larger vehicle (generally heavier than the smaller vehicles) may only need one 

entry to retrieve a harvested animal. While uncertainty exists, it is expected that since the number 

of passes to retrieve an animal would generally be four entries or less, such a level of use would 

be expected to have limited potential for causing altered soil conditions to the extent that 

vegetative productivity of those retrieval sites could not be retained. While more opportunities 

are at a greater potential for risk of effects to the soil resource based on acres and more entries as 

compared to Alternative B, the other information presented in Alternative B would also indicate 

that risks of detrimental impacts to the soil resource would be low for Alternative C if game 

retrieval would be implemented to the standard specified in the alternative.

Direct and indirect effects for dispersed camping in Alternative C would be similar to those 

identified and discussed in Alternative B but would occur over a slightly larger area since more 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

acres are available for that recreational activity in Alternative C. A similar GIS query was 

completed for Alternative C as to the query that was completed for Alternative B to indicate the 

amount of acres that might actually be used for dispersed camping. Similar to Alternative B, the 

review of that query indicates that only about 1/3 of the total acres listed as available to 

motorized dispersed camping use would likely be used in Alternative C (less than 58,000 acres 

or approximately 5 percent of the Forest). As with Alternative B, within even those acres,

desirable or available camping would likely be even significantly less based on a number of 

other site factors listed in the discussion for Alternative B above, which are generally not as 

easily mapped as slope, but have been observed. Based on that information, less than 5 percent 

of the Forest for the implementation of Alternative C would likely be used for motorized 

dispersed camping if Alternative C were implemented. Of the action alternatives, Alternative C 

would have the greatest number of acres likely to be used for motorized dispersed camping, 

followed by Alternative B.

As with Alternative B, total acres of motorized cross-country travel for Alternative C cannot be 

calculated by adding game retrieval and motorized dispersed camping acres together. Unlike 

Alternative B, motorized dispersed-camping areas are not entirely inclusive in the game retrieval 

areas of Alternative C; however, there is some overlap resulting in a total area of 485,500 acres 

(approximately 40 percent of National Forest System lands) available for specific, limited 

motorized cross-country activities. As compared to the existing condition, the percentage of the 

Forest open to motorized cross-country travel in Alternative C would be reduced by 

approximately 30 percent, resulting in potential benefits to various areas of soil resources. In 

addition, fewer passes by motorized vehicles would be expected to occur on these lands.

Areas designated as part of the permanent transportation facility are no longer managed as a soil 

resource and therefore were not used as an indicator. If the permanent transportation facility 

components (considered to be the routes designated, the adjacent parking zones along the routes, 

and the trailheads, and specific to this Alternative, concentrated cross-county areas less than 5 

acres (see Table 7) are managed to the road and trail and other transportation facility standards 

specified in the Implementation section in Chapter 2 and Appendix B and discussed in the 

Hydrology section of this FEIS, any indirect effects associated with the routes to adjacent Forest 

soil resources are expected to be very limited in spatial extent. This includes the annual 

inspection of routes and taking actions to mitigating impacts or reclaiming issue areas that may 

be discovered or the removal of routes from the annually issued motor vehicle use map if it is 

determined that impacts cannot be corrected or mitigated. Similar to Alternative B, 

implementation of Alternative C would have approximately half as many miles used by 

motorized vehicles as compared to the existing condition (Alternative A, no action).

In addition, various seasonal closures are identified associated with big game winter range or 

goshawks (see design criteria in Appendix B and the alternative maps in Appendix I, map 

packet). Both seasonal closure periods overlap with all or portions of the climatic season when 

the greatest precipitation is generally experienced in the Black Hills (High Plains Regional 

Climate Center information indicates this as the beginning of April until the end of June) and soil 

moisture is generally at some of the highest levels of the year. While uncertain, there could be 

additional benefits to the soil resources adjacent to routes with seasonal closures as compared to 

routes that are designated open year round. Seasonally closed routes may experience some 

vegetative growth during portions of closure periods, thereby contributing to potentially limiting 

water runoff velocities, which in turn would generally be expected to contribute to reductions in 

erosional forces on adjacent soil surfaces located down slope of transportation facilities.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

In summary, full implementation of Alternative C could be expected to have some of the same 

direct and indirect effects as those in the no action alternative but to a much lesser degree. The 

acreage where cross-country use is allowed would decrease from the current 864,000 acres to 

485,500 acres, a difference of 378,500 acres, or about 30 percent of the total Forest area.

Resource conditions on the areas where use would no longer occur could generally be expected 

to improve at varying rates as existing disturbed or impacted sites associated with motorized 

cross-country use activity begin to revegetate. It is expected that some sites would require active 

rehabilitation to restore some level of vegetative or productive condition. While uncertainty 

exists, on the 485,000 acres that would still be open to limited cross-country use, resource

conditions would also likely improve to varying levels. Depending on individual site 

characteristics and precipitation cycles experienced in the future, areas where game retrieval 

only is allowed could have the most potential for improved conditions (with use generally 

occurring at times of lowest soil moisture contents levels, on potentially frozen soils and with 

limited number of passes over limited number of months). While unknown, in areas where 

impacts may currently exist and that would still be available for dispersed camping in Alternative 

C, conditions may improve but would be expected to be to a lesser extent or at a slower rate than 

in the game retrieval areas (due to potential for more passes by vehicles, use occurring during a 

variety of soil moisture content levels associated with number of months of camping 

opportunities).

Effects Specific to Alternative D

Indicators

Acres open to unlimited motorized cross-country travel: 0

Acres open to limited motorized cross-country travel (motorized game retrieval, 

motorized dispersed camping): 0

In this alternative, no motorized game retrieval off of motorized routes or dispersed camping 

would occur; therefore, no impacts to the soil resource associated with these activities would be 

expected.

Areas designated as part of the permanent transportation facility are no longer managed as a soil 

resource and therefore were not used as an indicator. If the permanent transportation facility 

components (considered to be the routes designated, the adjacent parking zones along the routes, 

and the trailheads) are managed to the road and trail standards specified in the Implementation 

section in Chapter 2 and Appendix B and discussed in the hydrology section of this FEIS, any 

indirect effects associated with the routes to adjacent Forest soil resources are expected to be 

very limited in spatial extent. This includes the annual inspection of routes and taking actions to 

mitigating or reclaiming impacted areas that may be discovered or the removal of routes from

the annually issued motor vehicle use map if impacts cannot be mitigated or corrected. 

Implementation of Alternative D would have about 40 percent of motorized use route miles as 

compared to the existing condition (Alternative A, no action).

In summary, full implementation of Alternative D would be expected to have no direct and 

indirect effects associated with cross-country motorized use as compared to Alternative A 

(current conditions). The acreage where cross-country use is allowed would decrease from the 

current 864,000 acres to 0 acres, a difference of about 70 percent of the total Forest area.

Depending on individual site characteristics and precipitation cycles experienced in the future, 

various exposed areas (where the vegetation component has been lost from the land surface) 

associated with OHV use could be expected to establish some level of a vegetation component 

(although not likely what existed at the site prior to the disturbance) and organic litter layers 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

development would begin to result in fewer visual features of active erosion over time. It is 

expected that some sites would require active rehabilitation to restore some level of vegetative or 

productive condition.

Effects Specific to Alternative E

Indicators

Acres open to unlimited motorized cross-country travel: 0

Acres open to limited motorized cross-country travel (motorized game retrieval, 

motorized dispersed camping): 0

In this alternative, no motorized game retrieval off of motorized routes or motorized dispersed 

camping would occur; therefore, no impacts to the soil resource associated with these activities 

would be expected.

Areas designated as part of the permanent transportation facility are no longer managed as a soil 

resource and therefore were not used as an indicator. If the permanent transportation facility 

components (considered to be the routes designated, the adjacent parking zones along the routes, 

and the trailheads) are managed to the road and trail standards specified in the Implementation 

section in Chapter 2 and Appendix B and discussed in the hydrology section of this FEIS, any 

indirect effects associated with the routes to adjacent Forest soil resources are expected to be 

very limited in spatial extent. This includes the annual inspection of routes and taking actions to 

mitigating or reclaiming impacted areas that may be discovered or the removal of routes from 

the annually issued motor vehicle use map if impacts cannot be mitigated or corrected. 

Implementation of Alternative E would have the same number of designated routes of National 

Forest System lands open for motorized use as the existing condition and no action alternative, 

but none of the unauthorized routes would be open to motorized use in Alternative E; therefore, 

Alternative E would have approximately 46 percent of the route miles as compared to the 

existing condition (Alternative A, no action).

In summary, full implementation of Alternative E would be expected to have no direct and 

indirect effects associated with cross-country motorized use as compared to Alternative A 

(current conditions). The acreage where cross-country use is allowed would decrease from the 

current 864,000 acres to 0 acres, a difference of about 70 percent of the total Forest area.

Depending on individual site characteristics and precipitation cycles experienced in the future, 

various exposed areas (where the vegetation component has been lost from the land surface) 

associated with OHV use could be expected to establish some level of a vegetation component 

(not likely what existed at the site prior to the disturbance) and organic litter layers development 

would begin to result in fewer visual features of active erosion over time. It is expected that 

some sites would require active rehabilitation to restore some level of vegetative or productive 

condition.

Cumulative Effects

The geographic scope of the cumulative effects analysis selected is the entire Forest. Some 

general similarities exist in soils and climates within this area that are within the Black Hills. A 

larger area would include the surrounding lower elevation plains areas outside of the Black Hills, 

but these include a different suite of soils and climatic conditions. A temporal scale of 10 years 

was used and is based on (1) the time over which one can expect to predict reasonably 

foreseeable actions and (2) the time over which one can expect to predict effects of ongoing and 

proposed activities.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

The cumulative effects analysis for the soils resource generally considers impacts of the 

alternatives when combined with the following past, present, and foreseeable future actions and 

events including: (1) designated Forest transportation facility maintenance; (2) closure or 

rehabilitation efforts on routes not open for public use or not maintained for administrative use; 

(3) vegetation treatments; (4) urban interface growth and increased Forest use; and (5) future 

road or trail realignment, reconstruction, or decommissioning. Management actions can 

contribute to alterations in user concentrations, creation of unauthorized routes, maintenance 

needs and levels, the effectiveness of closures, and rehabilitation or some level of recovery of 

closed routes. Cumulatively, these actions can influence vegetative growth and soil erosion.

The designation of a transportation system does not limit the ability of the Forest to use closure 

orders for areas where unacceptable resource damage is identified. This important management 

tool can limit the duration and extent of effects if resource damage is beginning to occur. Effects 

to the soil resource, such as soil erosion features being present, may be reason for the 

implementation of this tool if corrective maintenance is not successful.

Some erosional or drainage issues have periodically been identified for Forest transportation 

facilities and may be tied to inadequate design, maintenance, inspections or repairs, or from a 

climatic event (USDA Forest Service 2007a). Roads that are regularly used, such as those used 

for timber entries, are generally inspected and maintained according to timber sale contract 

specifications. Other transportation facilities on the Forest are assigned a maintenance level and 

follow a Forest maintenance schedule (refer to the Transportation section of this Chapter). 

Various portions of the Forest experienced high-intensity precipitation events in 2008. The 

volume of water was to the level that floodplains and components of the Black Hills 

transportation system (both Forest and other systems) were flooded and impacted and various 

Black Hills communities closed roads, both for human safety and repair needs. Transportation 

facility inspections conducted on the Forest noted slope failures, washouts, and other damage

associated with the high-intensity precipitation events. The assumption for this analysis is if 

there are similar future precipitation events, there would likely be similar maintenance and repair 

implementation, or temporary route closures for Forest motorized trail and trailhead facilities 

since they would be designated as part of the Forest transportation system.

The Forest-urban interface in the vicinity of Rapid City is one of the most rapidly growing areas 

in the State of South Dakota. The rapid population growth has likely contributed to the 

popularity of all-terrain vehicles and the demand for this type of motorized recreation can be 

expected to continue to increase (see Chapter 1). Therefore, it is likely that demand would 

concentrate or use levels would increase on open routes within this general area. Areas with 

concentrated use would wear on drainage structures, which could contribute to increased erosion 

and deposition of material on adjacent soil resources. However, the assumption is that by 

reducing the number of routes inspections would be timely and maintenance would occur soon 

after an issue was identified and any impacts to adjacent Forest soil resources would be kept to a 

minimum.

Following this travel management decision, and potentially concentrating use, there may be a 

need to reroute or rehabilitate some routes. Rehabilitation and relocation activities typically

results in some level of soil disturbance. However, the long-term effects of rehabilitation actions 

would likely contribute to reducing impacts to soil resources, by reducing the potential for soil 

erosion of a site. If a rehabilitation project would be determined to consist of something other 

than routine maintenance of a designated transportation facility, environmental analysis specific 

to the rehabilitation is expected to occur.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

A variety of activities, such as vegetation management activities, recreational activities and other 

management activities are expected to continue on the Forest. Road construction, reconstruction,

and decommissioning as part of managing the Forest designated transportation system are 

expected to continue to move towards Forest Plan objective 309 (USDA Forest Service 2006a).

As identified in previous documents, these activities would likely have various levels of effects 

to soils as identified in the Forest Plan EIS (USDA Forest Service 1996a) and in the Phase II 

Amendment EIS (USDA Forest Service 2005a).

As indicated in the Direct and Indirect Effects section above, implementation of any of the action 

alternatives (B, C, D and E) would be expected to significantly reduce the amount of area open 

to cross-country travel as compared to Alternative A. No rehabilitation of unauthorized routes or 

other disturbed areas associated with OHV use within areas not to be designated open is included 

in any of the action alternatives and no roads are to be closed under this decision. Therefore, no 

immediate beneficial rehabilitation is anticipated to occur off of designated routes and this 

analysis is not considering effects of rehabilitation activities off designated routes. Over time, 

various exposed areas (vegetation component has been lost from the land surface) associated 

with OHV use can be expected to establish some level of a vegetation component (not likely 

what existed at the site prior to the disturbance) and organic litter layers development would 

begin to result in fewer visual features of active erosion over time. The progression of vegetation 

establishment has been observed on the Forest (e.g., closed roads, following fire events) and 

occurs at various rates based on variability in site characteristics. These include soil moisture 

conditions and retention capabilities, other continuing site disturbances, precipitation patterns, 

and seed source availability. In addition, the amount of surface soil components remaining at a 

disturbed site contribute to the length of time it can take areas to establish vegetation and organic 

litter. Sites with no remaining surface soil layers, or where OHV tracks are compacted, may no 

longer have site characteristics to support vegetation establishment and vegetative litter 

accumulation to a level (generally 50 to 70 percent) that would successfully prevent erosion 

without implementing active rehabilitation efforts. Rehabilitation efforts at disturbed locations 

may occur through the implementation of future Forest project planning efforts.

An assumption from Chapter 2 is that the public is generally expected to observe and fully 

comply with the requirements of the designated transportation system with no unauthorized 

access following this travel management decision. As with effects to other resources, the extent 

and degree of effects to the soil resources would be expected to depend to a certain extent on the 

timeliness and effectiveness of maintenance as well as timeliness and effectiveness of future 

closures if designated routes or trailheads could not be maintained to standard (see Chapter 2). 

The assumption is that if transportation facilities are maintained to standard, they would meet 

Forest Plan standards and guidelines and Regional Watershed Conservation Practices. Therefore, 

while the potential for effects associated with motorized dispersed camping and game retrieval 

are expected to be minimal, the implementation of Alternative D could contribute the greatest 

benefit to soil resource conditions by having the least area available to cross-country travel (no 

motorized game retrieval and no dispersed camping) and the least total miles of designated 

motorized routes.

Hydrology

Introduction

This section describes and analyzes effects to the water resource in relation to motorized travel 

on the Black Hills National Forest. One of the key issues identified with this proposal is that the 

number of miles and location of routes proposed for motorized use could affect natural and 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

cultural resources. Specifically, motorized activity could alter aquatic habitat conditions through 

soil erosion and sedimentation and changed hydrology patterns.

Research has shown and personal knowledge confirms that roads can be a major source of 

sediment delivered to streams in watersheds. Research has not established consistent numerical 

criteria for determining when roads are likely to contribute sediment to streams that causes 

adverse effects. Direct, quantitative, cause-and-effect links between roads and the condition of 

aquatic habitat and species have been difficult to document (Gucinski et al. 2001).

From the standpoint of aquatics, it is desirable to have as little impact to the water resource as 

possible. Forest Plan standard 1203 prescribes stream crossings allow for passage of flow and 

sediment, withstand flood flows, allow free movement of aquatic life, and maintain current 

stream dimensions. Forest Plan standard 1212 prescribes that sediment not be introduced to the 

streams from the roads and trails. Executive Order 11988 outlines floodplains and flood flows 

not be changed or impacted, and Executive Order 11990 outlines wetland and riparian areas not 

be impacted.

The area of analysis for the water resource includes all of the water resources contained within 

the Black Hills National Forest.

Applicable Laws, Regulations, Policy, and Forest Plan Direction

Three major laws and regulations apply to the water resource.

Clean Water Act

The Clean Water Act is the primary Federal law in the United States governing water pollution.

The principal body of law currently in effect is based on the Federal Water Pollution Control 

Amendments of 1972, which significantly expanded and strengthened earlier legislation. Major 

amendments were enacted in the Clean Water Act of 1977 and the Water Quality Act of 1987.

Commonly abbreviated as the CWA, the Act established the symbolic goals of eliminating 

releases of high amounts of toxic substances to water, eliminating additional water pollution by 

1985, and ensuring that surface waters would meet standards necessary for human sports and 

recreation by 1983. The Act regulates discharges of pollutants from point sources through a 

permitting system. Nonpoint source pollution is controlled through the use of best management 

practices (BMPs) per State nonpoint source management plans.

Executive Order 11988 – Floodplain Management

Executive Order 11988 requires Federal agencies to avoid to the extent possible long- and shortterm adverse impacts associated with the occupancy and modification of floodplains, and to 

avoid direct and indirect support of floodplain development wherever there is a practicable 

alternative. In accomplishing this objective, "each agency shall provide leadership and shall take 

action to reduce the risk of flood loss, to minimize the impact of floods on human safety, health, 

and welfare, and to restore and preserve the natural and beneficial values served by flood plains 

in carrying out its responsibilities" for the following actions: (1) acquiring, managing, and 

disposing of Federal lands and facilities; (2) providing federally undertaken, financed, or assisted 

construction and improvements; and (3) conducting Federal activities and programs affecting 

land use, including but not limited to water and related land resources planning, regulation, and 

licensing activities (FEMA 2008a).
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Executive Order 11990 – Protection of Wetlands

The purpose of Executive Order 11990 is to "minimize the destruction, loss or degradation of 

wetlands and to preserve and enhance the natural and beneficial values of wetlands". To meet 

these objectives, the Order requires Federal agencies, in planning their actions, to consider 

alternatives to wetland sites and limit potential damage if an activity affecting a wetland cannot 

be avoided. The Order applies to: (1) acquisition, management, and disposition of Federal lands 

and facilities construction and improvement projects which are undertaken, financed or assisted 

by Federal agencies and (2) Federal activities and programs affecting land use, including but not 

limited to water and related land resources planning, regulation, and licensing activities (FEMA 

2008b).

Forest Plan Direction

Presented here are the Forest Plan standards that directly apply to travel management relating to 

the water resource. Listed below some of the Forest Plan standards are design criteria that are in 

the Watershed Conservation Practices Handbook (USDA Forest Service 2006c). Some of the 

Forest Plan standards are Watershed Conservation Practices.

Forest Plan Standard 1203 – Design and construct all stream crossings and other instream 

structures to provide for passage of flow and sediment, withstand expected flood flows, and 

allow free movement of resident aquatic life.

a. Install stream crossings to meet Corps of Engineers and State permits, pass normal flows, 

and be armored to withstand design flows.

b. Size culverts and bridges to pass debris. Engineers work with hydrologists and aquatic 

biologists on site design.

c. Install stream crossings on straight and resilient stream reaches, as perpendicular to flow 

as practicable, and to provide passage of fish and other aquatic life.

d. Install stream crossings to sustain bankfull dimensions of width, depth, and slope and keep 

streambeds and banks resilient. Favor bridges, bottomless arches or buried pipe-arches for 

those streams with identifiable flood plains and elevated road prisms, instead of pipe 

culverts. Favor armored fords for those streams where vehicle traffic is either seasonal or 

temporary, or the ford design maintains the channel pattern, profile and dimension.

Forest Plan Standard 1212 – Apply runoff controls to disconnect new pollutant sources from 

surface and ground water.

Forest Plan Standard 1301 – In the water influence zone (WIZ) next to perennial and 

intermittent streams, lakes, and wetlands, allow only those actions that maintain or improve 

long-term stream health and riparian ecosystem condition.

Forest Plan Standard 1302 – Maintain long-term ground cover, soils structure, water budgets, 

and flow patterns in wetlands to sustain their ecological function, per 404 regulation.

a. Keep ground vehicles out of wetlands unless protected by at least 1 foot of packed snow 

or 2 inches of frozen soil. Do not disrupt water supply or drainage patterns into wetlands.

b. Keep roads and trails out of wetlands unless there is no other practicable alternative. If 

roads or trails must enter wetlands, use bridges or raised prisms with diffuse drainage to 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

sustain flow patterns. Set crossing bottoms at natural levels of channel beds and wet 

meadow surfaces. Avoid actions that may dewater or reduce water budgets in wetlands.

e. Avoid any loss of rare wetlands such as fens and springs.

Forest Plan Standard 1304 – As opportunities arise, and need dictates, relocate or implement 

mitigation measures for roads, trails, water tanks, ponds, water catchments, and similar facilities 

currently located in the WIZ.

Methodology

Indicators

The following indicators will be used to measure the effects to the water resource across the 

range of alternatives:

the number of road/trail crossings on perennial streams,

miles of road/trail within 30 feet of a perennial stream (floodplain), and

miles of road/trail within 119 feet of a perennial stream (WIZ).

Assumptions

The analysis presented here is based on the assumption that design criteria would be 

implemented and adequate funding would be provided for implementation, monitoring and 

enforcement

Design Criteria

Design criteria developed to conserve and protect the hydrologic resource is located in Appendix 

B.

Field Surveys and Other Analysis Information

The analysis is largely based on three sources of information:

Attributes contained in GIS concerning the relationships between water resources and 

roads

Field surveys containing information of condition of the water resources and roads over 

the years

Personal knowledge of the water resources and roads by resource specialists

Affected Environment

The affected environment for the water resource is described in detail in the Forest Plan EIS, 

which is incorporated by reference for this analysis and will not be repeated here. What will be 

discussed here are the components that have the potential to be affected by travel management 

and relate to the major laws and regulations listed above. The agency has provided guidance for 

NEPA analysis and different components that should be considered in the analysis. The areas that 

will be discussed are aquatic ecosystems relating to sediment, bed and bank stability, and 

temperature, wetlands, and floodplains.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Aquatic Ecosystems

Aquatic ecosystems are water dependent 

and the main areas of concern of streams.

Streams are classified perennial, 

intermittent, or ephemeral and are defined 

in the Watershed Conservation Practices 

Handbook (USDA Forest Service 2006c; 

see text box).

There are almost 3,500 miles of drainages 

on the Black Hills National Forest. It is not 

clear how many are intermittent and 

ephemeral drainages. There is an estimated 

950 miles of perennial streams within the 

boundaries of the National Forest with an 

estimated 515 miles on National Forest 

System lands. Sediment, bed and bank 

stability, and temperature are the physical 

components of concern.

Sediment

Most sediment delivered to streams comes from a source zone along streams whose width 

depends on topography, soils, and ground cover. Connected disturbed areas like roads and other 

disturbed soils near streams can deliver sediment during runoff events. Sediment deposits in 

streambeds harm insect populations and fish reproduction. Road and stream crossings on the 

Black Hills National Forest are a concern. There are an estimated 1,778 road/perennial stream 

crossings on the current road system (including unclassified roads and citizen routes), an 

estimated 59 miles of road within 30 feet of a perennial stream, and an estimated 285 miles of 

road within 119 feet of a perennial stream. Most of the sediment is generated when the road is 

closest to the stream and is best reflected with the miles within 30 feet. No streams in the Black 

Hills National Forest are listed as impaired on the Clean Water Act 303(d) list, due to pollutants 

such as sediment derived from roads (SD DENR 2008).

Bed and Bank Stability

Bed and bank stability can be damaged from trampling by animals or humans, vehicle impacts, 

degraded bank vegetation, or excessive flow augmentations. Streams can be made wider and 

shallower, pools and overhanging banks can be destroyed, and much sediment can be added to 

streams. Vehicle impacts are of concern where off-road travel is permitted and streams are 

crossed by vehicles breaking down the streambanks. There are an estimated 1,000 crossings on 

user-created routes.

Temperature

Summer water temperature is increased, and winter water temperature is decreased, by removing 

shade, reducing low flows, or damaging banks so streams are wider and shallower. Dissolved 

oxygen is usually reduced when summer water temperature is increased. Such impacts impair or 

destroy the suitability of water bodies for aquatic biota. This is affected by road crossings that 

remove riparian vegetation, unmitigated low-water crossings, and from off-road vehicles 

crossing streams. Vehicles crossing streams tend to remove riparian vegetation and widen the 

streams, increasing water surface area. Removing riparian vegetation and increasing the water 

surface area increases the solar radiation input in the summer, which increases water 

Perennial stream - A stream or reach of a 

channel that flows continuously or nearly 

so throughout the year and whose upper 

surface is generally lower than the top of 

the zone of saturation in the areas 

adjacent to the stream

Intermittent stream - A stream or reach of 

stream channel that flows, in its natural 

condition, only during certain times of the 

year or in several years. Characterized by 

interspersed, permanent surface water 

areas containing aquatic flora and fauna 

adapted to the relatively harsh 

environmental conditions found in these 

types of environments

Ephemeral stream - A stream that flows 

only in direct response to precipitation in 

the immediate locality (watershed or 

catchment basin), and whose channel is 

at all times above the zone of saturation.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

temperature. It is unknown how many low-water crossings are on the current transportation 

system of an estimated 750 crossings and user-created routes of an estimated 1,000 crossings.

There are several streams listed within the Black Hills National Forest as impaired on the Clean 

Water Act 303(d) list and are not supporting designated beneficial uses due to temperature (SD 

DENR 2008). They are Battle Creek, Bear Butte Creek, Elk Creek, Grizzly Bear Gulch, North 

Fork Rapid Creek, Rapid Creek, Spring Creek, and Victoria Creek. All are streams listed as 

impaired due to natural sources. West Strawberry Creek is also listed as impaired due to 

temperature, but a cause is not listed. French Creek is listed as impaired due to dissolved oxygen 

from natural and drought-related sources. Dissolved oxygen and temperature are directly related.

Wetlands

Wetlands control runoff and water quality, recharge ground water and provide special habitats.

Actions that may alter their ground cover, soil structure, water budgets, drainage patterns and 

long-term plant composition can impair these values. The USDI Fish and Wildlife Service 

completed mapping of wetlands for the National Wetland inventory that includes the Black Hills 

National Forest. This was completed through aerial photo mapping. It is a starting point for 

identifying wetlands. No determination can be made as to whether they are jurisdictional 

wetlands without a site visit to confirm that the three components of a wetland (hydrology, soils

and vegetation) are in place. Generally, if any component is missing, it is not a jurisdictional 

wetland unless the area has been disturbed, and in that case, all three components are not 

required. Wetlands that are isolated and not connected to the waters of the U.S. are not 

jurisdictional wetlands.

A large portion of the mapped wetlands is along ephemeral drainages. From personal 

observations, the hydrology and vegetation are not present to support a jurisdictional wetland 

along these drainages. The water regime modifier in many cases is seasonally flooded. With this 

information and looking at the modifiers, a query of the National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) 

layer was performed using modifiers that suggest more permanent water, such as saturated, semipermanently flooded, and permanently flooded. A list of possible modifiers can be found in 

Appendix A to the water resource specialist‘s report in the project file. This resulted in 120 miles 

of linear wetlands and 1,800 acres of polygon wetlands.

Wetlands are broken down into different categories. On the Black Hills National Forest, there are 

three categories:

Lacustrine - Relating to lakes and a system of inland wetlands and deep-water habitats 

associated with freshwater lakes and reservoirs, characterized by the absence of trees, 

shrubs, or emergent vegetation;

Palustrine - Relating to a system of inland, nontidal wetlands characterized by the 

presence of trees, shrubs, and emergent vegetation (vegetation that is rooted below water 

but grows above the surface). Palustrine wetlands range from permanently saturated or 

flooded land (as in marshes, swamps, and lake shores) to land that is wet only seasonally 

(as in vernal pools); and,

Riverine - Relating to, formed by, or resembling a river and to a system of inland 

wetlands and deep-water habitats associated with nontidal flowing water, characterized 

by the absence of trees, shrubs, or emergent vegetation.

The linear wetlands consist of 1 percent palustrine and 99 percent riverine. The polygon 

wetlands are 91 percent lacustrine, 9 percent palustrine, and less than 1 percent riverine. Ninety-
Final Environmental Impact Statement

six percent (96 percent) of the lacustrine wetlands are the surface waters of Deerfield Lake, 

Pactola Reservoir, and Sheridan Lake.

Floodplains

Floodplains are natural escape areas for floods that temper flood stages and velocities.

Floodplains occur on every stream. Floodplains store water, serve as natural sponges to moderate 

the release of high waters and act as filters to trap sediment and pollutants (Greater Yellowstone 

Coalition 2006). They are important because the loss of the function of floodplains can change 

the timing and peak of floods.

Mapped floodplains for the entire Black Hills National Forest do not exist. FEMA has completed 

maps of counties that participate in the National Flood Insurance Program. This includes all 

counties within the Black Hills National Forest within South Dakota. There are 11,000 acres of 

mapped 100-year floodplain on National Forest in South Dakota. No information or data could 

be located for Wyoming.

The Forestwide Travel Analysis Process Report (USDA Forest Service 2007a) used a buffer of 

30 feet on perennial streams to address the encroachment into floodplains. The number of road 

crossings and miles of road within 30 feet would be a good indicator of possible impacts to the 

floodplain.

The current transportation system and user-created routes on the Black Hills National Forest 

currently have an estimated 750 perennial stream crossings and 59 miles of road within 30 feet 

of a perennial stream.

Environmental Effects Analysis

The effects analysis encompasses the effects resulting from the use, construction, and 

maintenance of designated motorized road and trial systems.

Effects Common to All Alternatives

Sediment

Ouren et al. (2007) state ―Where OHV activity occurs, networks of OHV routes proliferate. 

Wheel cuts and tracks within these networks may serve as water conduits that channel and direct 

water flow containing sediments and contaminants into aquatic ecosystems‖.

There are several ways routes provide direct paths for accelerated runoff transporting sediments 

and road-associated contaminants to natural drainage channels. They include ―(1) inboard 

ditches delivering runoff to a stream at a road-stream crossing, (2) inboard ditches delivering 

water to a cross-drain, (3) where sufficient discharge is available to create a gully or sediment 

plume that extends to the stream channel, (4) roads sufficiently close to streams so that the fill 

slope encroaches on the stream and (5) landslide scars on the road fill‖ (Ouren et al. 2007).
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Sediments can be minimized from roads and trails. Research shows that where cross drains were 

positioned at sufficient distances from streams, the drainage discharge infiltrated the soil and did 

not contribute to sedimentation in streams (Ouren et al. 2007). The Forestwide Travel Analysis 

Report states ―The major 

potential effect of roads on 

streams and lakes is related to 

sedimentation. Serious 

sedimentation in some streams 

would affect some fish and bird 

populations‖ (USDA Forest 

Service 2007a). See Figure 6.

The indicators for sediment are 

1) the number of road and trail 

stream crossings, 2) miles of 

road and trail within 30 feet 

from a stream, and 3) miles of 

road and trail within 119 feet of 

a stream (to lesser extent). The 

closer the road and trail are to 

the stream, the greater the 

chance to introduce sediment to 

the stream.

Bed and Bank Stability

Bed and bank stability along a stream is affected when crossings are not designated or designed.

This is related to traveling cross-country and pioneering new crossings or crossings that are not 

armored. When a crossing is not armored, it can become impassable and then users move to a 

new site, disturbing and 

destabilizing new banks (see 

Figure 7).

Temperature

Temperature of the streams 

can be affected when 

crossings are not designated 

or designed. Crossings not 

designated are related to 

traveling cross-country and 

pioneering new crossings,

which tend to widen the 

streams at the crossings.

Crossings not designed are 

generally low water 

crossings on roads that have 

evolved over the years (see

Figure 8). Widening of the 

stream provides more water surface area to be exposed to solar radiation, thus having the 

potential of increasing water temperature. One widened stream crossing may not be a concern, 

but several can effectively raise the temperature of a stream. Hydrology and fisheries design 

Figure 6. Example of sediment being added to a stream from a 

user-created route in a cross-country-use area

Figure 7. Example of streambank instability from a user-created 

route in a cross-country-use area
Final Environmental Impact Statement

criteria in Appendix B identify 

those low water crossings where 

stream channel widening is 

occurring on existing routes and 

should be remediated. Restoring the 

natural stream channel width at 

these low water crossings would 

eliminate the potential to increase 

water temperatures at these 

crossings. Appendix B also 

identified stream crossings to be 

monitored. These low water 

crossings are currently not resulting 

in stream channel widening to the 

degree that water temperature is 

likely to be affected.

Figure 8. Examples of stream widening and potential effect to water temperature from user-created 

routes when crossings are not armored or properly mitigated

Wetlands

Roads can affect wetlands in several ways. Roads can alter surface water runoff patterns and 

contribute sediment or other contaminants. Road construction can fragment or remove wetland 

habitat. Roads can contribute to the spread of invasive species (including noxious weeds) 

resulting in greater competition with native species for resources. Finally, roads increase access 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

for people and livestock, 

which can lead to 

trampling, cropping, and 

collecting of riparian plant species. Road systems are more likely to affect wetlands in valley 

bottom locations where 

wetland sites and road locations are more likely to coincide, than on drier, upland sites (USDA 

Forest Service 2007a). Road and trails that are not designed and are impacting wetlands are 

related to cross-country travel. They can disrupt flow patterns, contribute sediment, and remove 

vegetation, as well (Figure 9).

Roads and trails can be designed to avoid wetlands and wet areas or minimize the effects to 

wetlands, which would result in minimal impacts to wetlands. The design criteria related to 

wetlands (see Appendix B) would help protect and minimize the impacts from designed roads 

and trails.

Floodplains

The travel analysis report (USDA Forest Service 2007a) discusses how floodplains function in 

the hydrologic environment and how roads can affect them:

―Roads can directly affect physical channel dynamics where they encroach on floodplains or 

restrict channel migration. Floodplains help dissipate excess energy during high flows and 

recharge soil moisture and groundwater. The functions of a floodplain are compromised when 

roads encroach on or isolate floodplains. This can increase discharge velocities during peak flows 

and result in increased bed and/or bank erosion and overall channel in stability. Roads that reduce 

the storage capacity of floodplains can also affect flood magnitudes downstream of the affected 

area. Restricting channel migration can cause channel straightening which increases the stream 

energy available for channel erosion. This can also result in channel instability. Altering channel 

pattern affects a stream‘s ability to transport materials, including wood and sediment‖.

Roads can impact floodplains and affect flood flows in the watershed. Road and stream crossings 

can impact a floodplain when the floodplain is filled to accommodate the crossing (see Figure 

10). This fill can create an effective dike or dam and allow water to pass only through the 

opening of the bridge or culvert. This would usually back up the floodwaters and can raise the 

flood elevation. This also causes 

increased velocity at the 

constriction and can cause scour of 

the stream channel and possible 

channel incision. The number of 

road/stream crossings on perennial 

streams is a good indicator of the 

effects on floodplains. Currently 

there are 1,778 road crossings on 

perennial streams.

Constructed roads in close 

proximity to the creek can also 

affect floodplains. Road fill would 

occupy floodplains and reduce the 

area flood are allowed to spread 

out. With less floodplain area, the 

elevation of the flood would be 

raised. Miles of roads and trails 

Figure 9.Example of wetland crossing from a user-created 

route in a cross-country use area

Figure 10. Example of filling across a floodplain creating 

an effective dike or dam that affects flood flows
Final Environmental Impact Statement

within 30 feet of a perennial stream is another good indicator. Currently there are 59 miles of 

road within 30 feet of a perennial stream.

Comparison of Effects for all Alternatives

Table 36 and displays the water resource indicators by alternative and Table 37 displays the 

number of crossings on impaired streams by alternative. They are presented here to give a 

display of all alternatives in one central location. Discussion of the effects will take place under 

each alternative discussion.

Table 36. Water resource indicators by alternative. These indicators are also applicable to the 

fisheries resource.

Indicator Alt. A Alt. B Alt. C Alt. D Alt. E

Number of road/trail crossings on 

perennial streams Forestwide 1,778 547 536 455 547

Miles of road/trail within 30 feet of 

perennial streams Forestwide 59 20 20 16 17

Miles of road/trail within 119 feet of 

perennial streams Forestwide 285 125 125 100 110

Table 37. Impaired stream crossings by alternative

Impaired stream crossings Alt. A Alt. B Alt. C Alt. D Alt. E

Total number of road/trail 

crossings on impaired streams 

Forestwide

131 30 32 28 28

System road crossings on 

impaired streams 33 25 25 25 28

Nonsystem road crossings on 

impaired streams 98 5 7 3 0

Alternative A – Direct and Indirect Effects

Sediment

This alternative would have the most impacts to the water resource from sediment because of the 

sheer number of unmitigated crossings and miles of road in proximity to streams, as illustrated in 

Table 36. Also, new user-created routes can be added under this alternative, because the Forest 

would be open to cross-country travel. No other alternative would have this kind of impact with 

the potential to add sediment to the streams and aquatic ecosystems. Some of the crossings can 

have effects as illustrated in Figure 6.

Bed and Bank Stability

This alternative would have the greatest effects on bed and bank stability because off-road travel 

and pioneering new trails with stream crossings would continue to occur. None of these new 

crossings and many of the existing crossings would not be mitigated to armor the crossings, thus 

contributing to increased bed and bank instability at the crossings. This is illustrated in Figure 7.

Temperature

This alternative would have the greatest effects on temperature because of the sheer number of 

unmitigated stream crossings. Also off- road travel and pioneering new trails with stream 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

crossings would continue to occur, widening the streams. Figure 8 illustrates widening of 

streams with unmitigated stream crossings. Streams that are impaired due to temperature would

have a negative effect with this alternative because all of the 131 stream crossings would remain 

and new crossings would be created by users due to cross-country travel being allowed. Of the 

131 crossings, 33 are on system roads.

Wetlands

This alternative has the largest area available to off-road travel and consequently the greatest 

potential impacts to wetlands. The greatest potential effects to wetlands are from creating new 

routes by traveling off roads and trails and big game retrieval or dispersed camping. Creating 

new trails and off-road travel through wet areas can have impacts as illustrated in Figure 9.

Floodplains

As indicated by the numbers in Table 36, this alternative would have the most potential impacts 

related to effects to floodplains just by the sheer number of crossings and miles in proximity to 

streams. No other alternative would have this kind of impact. All routes would remain and all 

fills would remain in the floodplains. New user-created trails generally would not introduce fill

into the floodplain, and thus would be expected to have little effect.

Alternative B – Direct and Indirect Effects

Sediment

This alternative would have the second most impact to the aquatic ecosystems from sediment but 

is very similar to Alternatives C and E. There would be a 69 percent reduction in the number of 

stream crossing as indicated in Table 36. Miles of road within 30 feet of streams would be 

reduced by 66 percent and a 56 percent reduction in miles of road would be achieved within 119 

feet of streams. All crossings would have the design criteria applied to them over time, thereby 

reducing impacts to the aquatic resource from sediment.

Game retrieval and dispersed camping under this alternative is not likely to have any adverse 

effects on the water resource and sediment. Guidelines 9107 and 9108, listed in the design 

criteria (Appendix B), would prevent or minimize impact to the water resource from sediment.

The designation of new trailheads in this alternative is not likely to have any adverse effects on 

the water resource. All new trailheads meet standard 1301, Region 2 Water Conservation 

Practices Handbook Management Measure 3 and design criteria  ̳e, which directs the Forest to 

locate new concentrated-use sites outside the water influence zone (minimum 100 feet from 

water‘s edge) if practicable and outside riparian areas and wetlands. Compliance with this 

direction would provide an adequate vegetative buffer to avoid adverse indirect effects to the 

water resource from sediment.

Sediment being added to the streams under this alternative would be minimized when the design 

criteria are implemented to armor the crossings, provide drainage for roads and trails, and 

provide buffers for trailheads. Even with the design criteria in place, sediment would not be 

completely eliminated under this alternative.

Bed and Bank Stability

This alternative would not have an effect on bed and bank stability of the streams. All crossings 

would be designated and have design criteria applied that would armor all crossings so the bed 

and banks would be protected and remain stable. No other bank instability should occur.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Game retrieval and dispersed camping under this alternative is not likely to have any adverse 

effects on the water resource and bank and stream stability. Guidelines 9107 and 9108 listed in 

the design criteria (Appendix B) would prevent or minimize impacts to the water resource and to 

bed and bank stability.

The designation of new trailheads in this alternative is not likely to have any adverse effects on 

the water resource related to bed and bank stability. All new trailheads meet standard 1301,

Region 2 Water Conservation Practices Handbook Management Measure 3, and design criteria 

 ̳e‘, which directs the Forest to locate new concentrated-use sites outside the water influence 

zone (if practicable) and outside riparian areas and wetlands. Compliance with this direction 

would provide an adequate vegetative buffer to protect the bed and bank of the streams.

Temperature

This alternative would have the second most impact to the aquatic ecosystems due to 

temperature but is very similar to Alternatives C and E. There would be a 69 percent reduction in 

the number of stream crossings as indicated in Table 36. Miles of road within 30 feet of streams 

would be reduced by 66 percent. All crossings would have design criteria applied to them over 

time to maintain or reduce stream width, thereby reducing the impacts to the aquatic resource 

from potential temperature increases. Riparian vegetation that provides shade to the streams 

would always be permanently altered at crossings but maintaining proper stream width would

help minimize impacts. Streams that are impaired due to temperature would have a positive 

benefit with this alternative because of the reduction of the number of stream crossings to 30. Of 

those 30 crossings, 25 are on system roads.

Game retrieval and dispersed camping under this alternative is not likely to have any adverse 

effects on the water resource and temperature. Guidelines 9107 and 9108, listed in the design 

criteria section (see Appendix B), would prevent or minimize impact to the water resource from 

temperature.

The designation of new trailheads in this alternative is not likely to have any adverse effects on 

the water resource related to stream temperature. All new trailheads meet standard 1301, Region 

2 Water Conservation Practices Handbook Management Measure 3, and design criteria  ̳e‘, 

which directs the Forest to locate new concentrated-use sites outside the water influence zone (if 

practicable) and outside riparian areas and wetlands. Compliance with this direction would 

provide an adequate vegetative buffer to protect the temperature of the streams.

Wetlands

This alternative has the third largest area available to off-road travel and consequently the third 

most potential for impacts to wetlands. The potential impact would come from big game retrieval 

and dispersed camping if off-road travel occurs through wetlands or wet areas.

Floodplains

This alternative would have the second most impact to floodplains but is very similar to 

Alternatives C and E. There would be a 69 percent reduction in the number of stream crossings

as indicated in Table 36. Miles of road within 30 feet of streams would be reduced by 66 percent.

The design criteria requiring crossing rehabilitation and reducing fill in floodplains (see 

Appendix B) would reduce impacts and restore the floodplains when implemented.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Alternative C – Direct and Indirect Effects

Sediment

This alternative would have the fourth most impact to the aquatic ecosystems from sediment but 

is very similar to Alternatives B and E. There would be a 70 percent reduction in the number of 

stream crossings as indicated in Table 36. Miles of road within 30 feet of streams would be 

reduced by 66 percent and a 56 percent reduction in miles of road would be achieved within 119 

feet of streams. All crossings would have design criteria (see Appendix B) applied to them over 

time, thereby reducing impacts to the aquatic resource from sediment.

Game retrieval and dispersed camping under this alternative is not likely to have any adverse 

effects on the water resource. Guidelines 9107 and 9108 (see Appendix B), would prevent or 

minimize impacts to the water resource from sediment.

The designation of new trailheads in this alternative is not likely to have any adverse effects on 

the water resource. All new trailheads meet standard 1301, Region 2 Water Conservation 

Practices Handbook Management Measure 3 and design criteria  ̳e, which directs the Forest to 

locate new concentrated-use sites outside the water influence zone if practicable and outside 

riparian areas and wetlands. Compliance with this direction would provide an adequate 

vegetative buffer to avoid adverse indirect effects to the water resource from sediment.

Sediment being added to the streams under this alternative would be minimized when the design 

criteria are implemented to armor the crossings, provide drainage for roads and trails, and 

provide buffers for trailheads. Even with the design criteria in place, sediment would not be 

completely eliminated under this alternative.

Bed and Bank Stability

This alternative would not have an effect on bed and bank stability of the streams. All crossings 

would be designated and have design criteria applied that would armor all crossings so the bed 

and banks would be protected and remain stable. No other bank instability should occur.

Game retrieval and dispersed camping under this alternative is not likely to have any adverse 

effects on the water resource and bank and stream stability. Guidelines 9107 and 9108 listed in 

the design criteria (Appendix B) would prevent or minimize impacts to the water resource and to 

bed and bank stability.

The designation of new trailheads in this alternative is not likely to have any adverse effects on 

the water resource related to bed and bank stability. All new trailheads meet standard 1301, 

Region 2 Water Conservation Practices Handbook Management Measure 3, and design criteria 

 ̳e‘, which directs the Forest to locate new concentrated-use sites outside the water influence 

zone (if practicable) and outside riparian areas and wetlands. Compliance with this direction 

would provide an adequate vegetative buffer to protect the bed and bank of the streams.

Temperature

This alternative would have the fourth most impact to the aquatic ecosystems due to temperature 

but is very similar to Alternatives B and E. There would be a 70 percent reduction in the number 

of stream crossing as indicated in Table 36. Miles of road within 30 feet of streams would be 

reduced by 66 percent. All crossings would have design criteria applied to them over time to 

maintain or reduce stream width, thereby reducing the impacts to the aquatic resource from 

potential temperature increases. Riparian vegetation that provides shade to the streams would

always be permanently altered at crossings but maintaining proper stream width would help 

minimize impacts. Streams that are impaired due to temperature would have a positive benefit 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

with this alternative because of the reduction of the number of stream crossings to 32. Of those 

32 crossings, 25 are on system roads.

Game retrieval and dispersed camping under this alternative is not likely to have any adverse 

effects on the water resource and temperature. Guidelines 9107 and 9108, listed in the design 

criteria section (see Appendix B), would prevent or minimize impact to the water resource from 

temperature.

The designation of new trailheads in this alternative is not likely to have any adverse effects on 

the water resource related to stream temperature. All new trailheads meet standard 1301, Region 

2 Water Conservation Practices Handbook Management Measure 3, and design criteria  ̳e‘, 

which directs the Forest to locate new concentrated-use sites outside the water influence zone (if 

practicable) and outside riparian areas and wetlands. Compliance with this direction would 

provide an adequate vegetative buffer to protect the temperature of the streams.

Wetlands

This alternative has the second largest area available to off-road travel and consequently the 

second most potential for impacts to wetlands. The potential impact would come from big game 

retrieval and dispersed camping if off-road travel occurs through wetlands or wet areas.

Floodplains

This alternative would have the fourth most impact to floodplains but is very similar to 

Alternatives B and E. There would be a 70 percent reduction in the number of stream crossings

as indicated in Table 36. Miles of road within 30 feet of streams would be reduced by 66 percent.

The design criteria requiring crossing rehabilitation and reducing fill in floodplains (see 

Appendix B) would reduce impacts and restore the floodplains when implemented.

Alternative D – Direct and Indirect Effects

Sediment

This alternative would have the least impact to the aquatic ecosystems from sediment. There 

would be a 74 percent reduction in the number of stream crossings as indicated in Table 36.

Miles of road within 30 feet of streams would be reduced by 73 percent and a 65 percent 

reduction in miles of road would be achieved within 119 feet of streams. All crossings would 

have design criteria (see Appendix B) applied to them over time, thereby reducing impacts to the 

aquatic resource from sediment.

The designation of new trailheads in this alternative is not likely to have any adverse effects on 

the water resource. All new trailheads meet standard 1301, Region 2 Water Conservation 

Practices Handbook Management Measure 3 and design criteria  ̳e, which directs the Forest to 

locate new concentrated-use sites outside the water influence zone if practicable and outside 

riparian areas and wetlands. Compliance with this direction would provide an adequate 

vegetative buffer to avoid adverse indirect effects to the water resource from sediment.

Sediment being added to the streams under this alternative would be minimized when the design 

criteria are implemented to armor the crossings, provide drainage for roads and trails, and 

provide buffers for trailheads. Even with the design criteria in place, sediment would not be 

completely eliminated under this alternative.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Bed and Bank Stability

This alternative would not have an effect on bed and bank stability of the streams. All crossings 

would be designated and have design criteria applied that would armor all crossings so the bed 

and banks would be protected and remain stable. No other bank instability should occur.

The designation of new trailheads in this alternative is not likely to have any adverse effects on 

the water resource related to bed and bank stability. All new trailheads meet standard 1301, 

Region 2 Water Conservation Practices Handbook Management Measure 3, and design criteria 

 ̳e‘, which directs the Forest to locate new concentrated-use sites outside the water influence 

zone (if practicable) and outside riparian areas and wetlands. Compliance with this direction 

would provide an adequate vegetative buffer to protect the bed and bank of the streams.

Temperature

This alternative would have the least impact to the aquatic ecosystems due to temperature. There 

would be a 74 percent reduction in the number of stream crossing as indicated in Table 36. Miles 

of road within 30 feet of streams would be reduced by 73 percent. All crossings would have 

design criteria applied to them over time to maintain or reduce stream width, thereby reducing 

the impacts to the aquatic resource from potential temperature increases. Riparian vegetation that 

provides shade to the streams would always be permanently altered at crossings but maintaining 

proper stream width would help minimize impacts. Streams that are impaired due to temperature 

would have a positive benefit with this alternative because of the reduction of the number of 

stream crossings to 28. Of those 28 crossings, 25 are on system roads.

The designation of new trailheads in this alternative is not likely to have any adverse effects on 

the water resource related to stream temperature. All new trailheads meet standard 1301, Region 

2 Water Conservation Practices Handbook Management Measure 3, and design criteria  ̳e‘, 

which directs the Forest to locate new concentrated-use sites outside the water influence zone (if 

practicable) and outside riparian areas and wetlands. Compliance with this direction would 

provide an adequate vegetative buffer to protect the temperature of the streams.

Wetlands

This alternative, along with Alternative E, would have the least impact to wetlands. No off-road 

travel would be allowed with this alternative, which would result in no impacts to wetlands. Trail 

systems would generally avoid wetlands and wet areas.

Floodplains

This alternative would have the least impact to the floodplains. There would be a 74 percent

reduction in the number of stream crossings as indicated in Table 36. Miles of road within 30 

feet of streams would be reduced by 73 percent. The design criteria requiring crossing 

rehabilitation and reducing fill in floodplains (see Appendix B) would reduce impacts and restore 

the floodplains when implemented.

Alternative E - Direct/Indirect Effects

Sediment

This alternative would have the third most impact to the aquatic ecosystems from sediment but is 

very similar to Alternatives B and C. There would be a 69 percent reduction in the number of 

stream crossings as indicated in Table 36. Miles of road within 30 feet of streams would be 

reduced by 71 percent and a 61 percent reduction in miles of road would be achieved within 119 

feet of streams. All crossings would have design criteria (see Appendix B) applied to them over 

time, thereby reducing impacts to the aquatic resource from sediment.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Sediment being added to the streams under this alternative would be minimized when the design 

criteria are implemented to armor the crossings, provide drainage for roads and trails, and 

provide buffers for trailheads. Even with the design criteria in place, sediment would not be 

completely eliminated under this alternative.

Bed and Bank Stability

This alternative would not have an effect on bed and bank stability of the streams. All crossings 

would be designated and have design criteria applied that would armor all crossings so the bed 

and banks would be protected and remain stable. No other bank instability should occur.

Temperature

This alternative would have the third most impact to the aquatic ecosystems due to temperature 

but is very similar to Alternatives B and C. There would be a 69 percent reduction in the number 

of stream crossings as indicated in Table 36. Miles of road within 30 feet of streams would be 

reduced by 71 percent. All crossings would have design criteria applied to them over time to 

maintain or reduce stream width, thereby reducing the impacts to the aquatic resource from 

potential temperature increases. Riparian vegetation that provides shade to the streams would

always be permanently altered at crossings but maintaining proper stream width would help 

minimize impacts. Streams that are impaired due to temperature would have a positive benefit 

with this alternative because of the reduction of the number of stream crossings to 28. All 28 

crossings are on system roads

Wetlands

This alternative, along with Alternative D, would have the least impact to wetlands. No off-road 

travel would be allowed with this alternative, which would result in no impacts to wetlands. Trail 

systems would generally avoid wetlands and wet areas.

Floodplains

This alternative would have the third most impact to the floodplains but is very similar to 

Alternatives B and C. There would be a 69 percent reduction in the number of stream crossings

as indicated in Table 36. Miles of road within 30 feet of streams would be reduced by 71 percent.

The design criteria requiring crossing rehabilitation and reducing fill in floodplains (see 

Appendix B) would reduce impacts and restore the floodplains when implemented.

Cumulative Effects

The cumulative effects area is bounded in space as the Forest boundary and in time as the next 5 

to 15 years. Activities considered in this cumulative effects analysis include road and trail use 

and management, mining, recreation, timber harvest, grazing, and reservoir use and 

management. Foreseeable actions include 9 miles of new trails on Bearlodge Ranger District, 10 

miles of new trails on the Northern Hills Ranger District, and 6 miles of new trails and two new 

trailheads on the Hell Canyon Ranger District.

Sediment

Impacts to streams from sediment can come from roads, trails, mining, recreation, timber

harvest, and grazing that occur near streams. Roads and trails can add sediment at crossings if 

not properly designed and mitigated. Mining can contribute point-source impacts adding 

sediment at specific locations. Mining areas are generally historic sites and any new mining 

activities would have BMPs implemented to minimize or eliminate sediment added to streams.

Recreation impacts tend to be minimal, but some are associated with fishing as trails are 

developed along streams. Timber harvest can add sediment if equipment crosses streams to get to 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

units or if skidding occurs along or across streams. This is generally avoided or minimized with 

the implementation of BMPs. Grazing impacts can add sediment along streams when cattle 

trample the banks as they access water.

There would be a positive cumulative impact from travel management with any of the action 

alternatives. This is because the number of stream crossings would be reduced by at least 69 

percent or more and those crossings that remain would be mitigated with design criteria to 

reduce sediment. There would be cumulative impacts from the no action alternative, Alternative 

A, with the continued proliferation of trails with stream crossings and continued use of 

unmitigated stream crossings adding sediment to the streams.

Bed and Bank Stability

Impacts to bed and bank stability can come from roads, trails, mining, recreation, timber harvest,

and grazing that occur near streams. Roads and trails can have impacts at a crossing if it is not 

properly mitigated. When not properly mitigated, crossings can become impassable and new 

crossings may be developed, impacting more bank areas and causing wave action to erode 

unprotected banks. Mining will generally not impact banks unless it occurs in the stream itself.

Recreation impacts tend to be associated with fishing as trails are developed along streams.

Timber operations will generally avoid streambanks except at designated crossings that can 

impact bank stability at the crossing. This is generally avoided or minimized with the 

implementation of BMPs. Grazing impacts can impact bed and bank stability along streams 

when cattle trample the banks as they access water.

There would be a positive cumulative impact from travel management to bed and bank stability 

with any of the action alternatives. This is because the number of stream crossings would be 

reduced by at least 69 percent or more and those crossings that remain would be mitigated with 

design criteria to reduce impacts from users finding new passable crossings. There would be 

cumulative impacts from the no action alternative, Alternative A, with the continued proliferation 

of trails with stream crossings and continued use of unmitigated stream crossings that may cause 

users to find a new crossing that they can navigate, thus affecting bed and bank stability.

Temperature

Impacts to streams from increased water temperature can come from roads, trails, mining, 

recreation, timber harvest, grazing, and reservoirs that occur on or near streams. Roads and trails 

can have impacts at a crossing if it not properly mitigated. When not properly mitigated,

crossings can become very wide. More stream surface area allows for solar radiation absorption, 

and with enough crossings on a stream, stream temperature can increase. Mining would 

generally not impact temperature unless the mining occurs close enough to the stream and 

removes streamside vegetation. Recreation can impact the water temperature of a stream when 

activities are heavy enough along streams to remove or reduce the streamside vegetation. Timber 

operations, with the implementation of BMPs, would avoid streams and generally not affect the 

vegetation shading along the stream. Grazing impacts occur along streams and could impact 

temperature through bank trampling and stream widening when cattle access the water and

reduce the vegetation that shades the streams. Reservoirs on the stream provide more water 

surface area that absorbs solar radiation. The absorption of solar radiation can increase surface 

water temperature of the reservoir and water that flows off the top of the reservoir would 

increase temperature downstream.

There would be a positive cumulative impact from travel management from temperature with 

any of the action alternatives. This is because the number of stream crossings would be reduced 

by at least 69 percent or more and those crossings that remain would be mitigated with design 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

criteria to reduce the width of the crossing to match the stream width. This reduction of the water 

surface area of the stream would have a positive benefit on stream temperature. There would be 

cumulative impacts from the no action alternative, Alternative A, with the continued proliferation 

of trails with stream crossings increasing stream width and continued use of unmitigated stream 

crossings that usually continually get wider, thus impacting stream temperature.

Wetlands

Impacts to wetlands can come from roads, trails, mining, recreation, timber harvest, and grazing.

Roads, trails and mining would contribute point source impacts affecting wetlands at specific 

locations and would be permanent. Recreation would impact wetlands along streams primarily 

where trails are developed. Timber can affect wetlands if equipment tracks through them to get 

to units, but they are generally prohibited from doing so. Grazing impacts can occur across the 

entire area because of the mobility of stock animals and if they are allowed to be in the area too

long, impacts can occur from trampling and browsing of the vegetation.

There would be no cumulative impacts from travel management to wetlands with any of the 

action alternatives. This is because all of the trails generally already exist on the landscape, and 

any new trails would avoid wetlands. Any trails that are impacting wetlands would be mitigated 

or moved. There would be cumulative impacts from the no action alternative, Alternative A, with 

the continued proliferation of trails and direct impact to wetlands if the new trails go through 

wetlands.

Floodplains

Roads have the biggest potential impacts to floodplains. Other impacts can come from mining 

and private land development. All activities can fill and encroach on floodplains. All of these 

activities can have an effect and if enough impacts occur in a watershed, they would potentially 

change the character of floods downstream.

There would be no cumulative impacts from travel management to floodplains with any of the 

action alternatives. This is because all crossings of floodplains already existing on the landscape 

would be mitigated with design criteria to reduce or minimize the fill across floodplains. In 

addition, the number of floodplain crossings would be reduced and eliminated. The no action 

alternative, Alternative A, would not have a cumulative effect on floodplains even with the 

continued proliferation of trails because these new trails generally do not fill in the floodplain 

and will not restrict flood flows.

Monitoring and Recommendations

A stream-crossing inventory protocol needs to be completed for the transportation system that is 

adopted. The purpose is to find crossings not meeting current standards so a fix can be prescribed 

and implemented to reduce the impacts of the all crossings. It is recommended that this be 

completed by stream, starting with the streams that are listed as impaired due to temperature, and 

continuing on to the streams with the most crossings. It should be completed for the entire 

stream, catching crossings that were abandoned and are no longer used. A list of the streams in 

recommended order for completion of the protocol can be found in Appendix B to the water 

resource specialist‘s report in the project file.

Permits

A storm water permit may be required for activities resulting from this EIS. These activities are 

not covered under the Silvicultural exemption that the Forest Service normally uses. Ground 

disturbance of an acre or more is the trigger for this permit. Linear features such as trails would
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

provide for some challenges since the disturbed area is not concentrated. For a trail 65 inches 

wide, it would take approximately 8,000 feet or 1.5 miles of trail to trigger the permit.

Conclusion

Implementing any alternative other than Alternative A would have benefits on the water 

resource. The number of road and trail stream crossing would be drastically cut and new ones 

would not be pioneered in the future. Roads and trails in proximity to a stream would be reduced 

and new ones would not be pioneered. There would be an overall reduction of sediment 

introduced into streams, and low-water crossings would be improved and controlled to reduce 

the impacts due to bed and bank stability and water temperature.

The requirements of the Clean Water Act would be met. Applicable permits (i.e., stormwater, 

404, etc.) would be obtained. Sediment would be controlled by implementing the prescribed 

design criteria that includes watershed conservation practices and best management practices.

Monitoring and completing the stream-crossing protocol would identify abandoned crossings 

that need rehabilitation and existing crossings that need to have the design criteria applied to the 

stream crossings on the road and trail system. Applying improved design measures to crossings 

would minimize and prevent sedimentation of the streams. It would narrowing existing crossings 

and prevents new crossings from widening the stream. This would meet the requirements of the 

Clean Water Act by keeping sedimentation and stream temperature in check at the crossings.

Streams that are listed as impaired should be completed first.

The Executive Order for Floodplains would be complied with when the design criteria, to 

minimize fill in floodplains to facilitate crossings to allow flood flows to pass with minimal 

interruption, is implemented for new roads and trails and when old road and trails are obliterated 

and fill in the floodplains is removed.

The Executive Order for Wetlands would be complied with when the design criteria are 

implemented. They include (1) areas not connected to streams that are wet and have riparian and 

wetland vegetation would be avoided and runoff from the roads and trail would not be drained 

into these areas, and (2) avoid creating elevated roads and trails through wetlands which disrupt 

the flow of water through the wetland.

Forest Plan compliance would be achieved by meeting the requirements of the above laws and 

regulations and implementing the design criteria referenced here and outlined in Appendix B.

Fisheries

Introduction

This section describes and analyzes effects to the fisheries resource in relation to designation of a 

motorized road and trail system on the Black Hills National Forest. Additional information on 

watershed, riparian and aquatic resources can be found in the Wildlife, Plants and Botanical 

Resources, or Hydrology sections of this document and in the project record.

Applicable Laws, Regulations, Policy, and Forest Plan Direction

The Region 2 Watershed Conservation Practices Handbook (Forest Service Handbook 

2509.25) contains proven watershed conservation practices to protect soil, aquatic, and riparian 

systems. If used properly, the watershed conservation practices will meet applicable Federal and 

State laws and regulations, including State Best Management Practices (BMPs).
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Executive Order 12962 – Recreational Fisheries, dated June 7, 1995, directs Federal agencies to 

manage for increased recreational fishing opportunities by providing access for public 

participation and enjoyment of recreational fishery resources.

Executive Order 13474 – Amendments to Executive Order 12962, dated September 26, 2008, 

directs Federal agencies to ensure that recreational fishing is managed as a sustainable activity.

Forest Plan direction specific to fisheries is identified below. Additional direction that 

indirectly benefits fisheries through aquatic and riparian habitat protection is identified in the 

Hydrology section of this document.

Goal 2. Provide for a variety of life through management of biologically diverse ecosystems.

Objective 217. Maintain habitat for game and fish populations at the state objectives in 

effect in 1996.

Objective 219. Maintain or improve instream fisheries habitat. Cooperate with state 

agencies in aquatic ecosystem improvements to meet mutually agreed-upon objectives.

Objective 221. Conserve or enhance habitat for Region 2 sensitive species and species 

of local concern (SOLC). Monitoring will be conducted at a Forestwide level, not at the 

project level, and will be done for habitats or populations.

Objective 238d. Maintain or enhance habitat quality and connectivity for mountain 

suckers, as outlined in specific direction pertaining to aquatic resources (e.g. objectives 

103, 104, 219, standards 1201, 1203, 1205, guideline 1115).

Goal 4. Provide for scenic quality, a range of recreational opportunities and protection of cultural

resources in response to the needs of the Black Hills National Forest visitors and local 

communities.

The following Forest Plan standards and guidelines are pertinent to the fisheries resource. Some 

redundancy with the Region 2 Watershed Conservation Practices Handbook (Forest Service 

Handbook 2509.25) is noted.

Standard 1105. Limit roads and other disturbed sites to the minimum feasible number, 

width, and total length consistent with the purpose of specific operations, local 

topography, and climate (Regional WCP Handbook Management Measure 9).

○ Design Criteria h. Designate, construct, and maintain recreational travelways for 

proper drainage and armor their stream crossings as needed to control sediment.

Standard 1201. Conduct actions so that stream pattern, geometry, and habitats are 

maintained or improved toward robust stream health (Regional WCP Handbook 

Management Measure 5).

Standard 1203. Design and construct all stream crossings and other instream structures 

to provide for passage of flow and sediment, withstand expected flood flows, and allow 

free movement of resident aquatic life (Regional WCP Handbook Management Measure 

4).

○ Design criteria a. Install stream crossings to meet Corps of Engineers and State 

permits, pass normal flows, and be armored to withstand design flows.

○ Design criteria c. Install stream crossings on straight and resilient stream 

reaches, as perpendicular to flow as practicable, and to provide passage of fish 

and other aquatic life.

○ Design criteria d. Install stream crossings to sustain bankfull dimensions of 

width, depth, and slope and keep streambeds and banks resilient. Favor bridges, 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

bottomless arches or buried pipe-arches for those streams with identifiable flood 

plains and elevated road prisms, instead of pipe culverts. Favor armored fords 

for those streams where vehicle traffic is either seasonal or temporary, or the 

ford design maintains the channel pattern, profile and dimension.

Guideline 1205. When projects are implemented that can affect large, woody debris, 

retain natural and beneficial volumes of large, woody debris for fish habitat, stream 

energy dissipation, and sources of organic matter for the stream ecosystem.

Standard 1301. In the water influence zone next to perennial and intermittent streams, 

lakes, and wetlands, allow only those actions that maintain or improve long-term stream 

health and riparian ecosystem condition (WCP Handbook Management Measure 3).

○ Design criteria c. Keep heavy equipment out of streams, swales, and lakes, 

except to cross at designated points, build crossings, or do restoration work, or if 

protected by at least 1 foot of packed snow or 2 inches of frozen soil. Keep 

heavy equipment out of streams during fish spawning, incubation, and 

emergence periods.

Guideline 3212. Manage for high quality riparian communities; (a) Provide stable 

stream banks; (b) Retain woody vegetation along streams and lakes to provide shading 

for aquatic life and habitat for terrestrial species; (c) Provide large woody material for 

aquatic life.

Guideline 9107. Prohibit land vehicles from entering perennial streams where resource 

damage would occur except to cross at specified points.

Guideline 9108. Vehicular traffic, except for snowmobiles, will be restricted to roads 

and trails in riparian areas.

Guideline 9109. Walk-in fisheries are closed to motorized travel.

There is no additional management area direction specific to fisheries resources.

Methodology

The area of analysis includes perennial waterbodies (streams and lakes) that provide suitable fish 

habitat on the Forest. The following indicators were used to evaluate the effects on natural and 

cultural resources (Issue 1).

Indicators

The following indicators will be used to measure the effects to the fisheries resource:

Number of motorized road and trail crossings on perennial streams. This indicator 

evaluates the relative risk that road and trail-stream crossings create in regard to stream 

fragmentation (barriers to fish passage) and habitat degradation (sediment input, loss of 

riparian vegetation, bank instability and increased stream channel width at crossings).

Miles of motorized road and trail within 30 feet and 119 feet of perennial streams or 

lakes. Miles of road within 30 feet of a stream is a good initial indicator of where the 

road system might be affecting physical channel dynamics (USDA Forest Service 

2007a). A buffer width of 119 feet was used as a long term, worst-case buffer width for 

capturing 97 percent of the sediment from a road in an area of highly erosive soils 

(USDA Forest Service 2007a).

Assumptions

This analysis assumes that all road and trail crossings of perennial streams have the same impact 

on stream connectivity and aquatic habitat quality. This assumption is justified due to the lack of 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

a Forestwide inventory of stream crossings. Sediment input from road and trail dust is dependent 

on a variety of factors, such as vehicle numbers and speed, roadbed condition and type, wind 

direction, and road and trail distance from water. Due to the uncertainty of predicting these 

variables on a site-specific basis, it was assumed that the impacts of road and trail dust are 

considered within the context of the number of stream crossings and route proximity to streams.

It is also assumed that new stream crossings affect 10 feet of streambank.

Design Criteria

Design criteria developed to protect and conserve the fisheries resource can be found in 

Appendix B.

Field Surveys and Other Analysis Information

Site-specific field surveys were done on June 22, 2008, August 13, 25, 27 and 29, 2008 and 

September 18 and 19, 2008 to evaluate 121 perennial stream crossings identified as new 

nonsystem routes considered for designation on the motor vehicle use map. A random sample of 

closed roads that are proposed to be opened was also sampled on some of the above dates.

Perennial stream crossings were identified through a geographic information system (GIS) 

exercise that intersected the Forest stream layer with the travel management routes layer. 

Similarly, a GIS exercise was done to buffer the perennial streams layer and intersect this buffer 

with routes to determine the miles of routes in close proximity to water.

Affected Environment

The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment (USDA Forest Service 2006a) provides background 

information on fisheries. This information is incorporated by reference and summarized below. 

Additional information on watershed, riparian and aquatic resources can be found in the 

Wildlife, Plants and Botanical Resources or Hydrology sections of this document.

Historically, the diversity of fish species was limited in the Black Hills. Native species include 

suckers, chubs and dace. The finescale dace (Phoxinus neogaeus), lake chub (Couesius 

plumbeous) and mountain sucker (Catostomus platyrhynchus) are Region 2 sensitive fish 

species. These species are analyzed in detail in the biological evaluation (BE) for this project. 

The mountain sucker is also designated as a management indicator species (MIS). Of these three 

species, the mountain sucker is the most widely distributed on the Forest. There are no federally

listed threatened or endangered fish species on the Forest.

Today, the majority of fish species on the Forest are non-native species introduced primarily to 

provide for recreational fishing opportunities. The primary game species include brook, brown,

and rainbow trout. Other game species, such as bass, perch, pike and bullheads, are also present. 

Some species have been introduced illegally. Limited administrative access is currently needed 

to manage fisheries. The vast majority of waterbodies that are stocked, surveyed, or fished are 

motor vehicle accessible because other developed recreational facilities exist for camping, 

swimming, picnicking, or boating or access to the more heavily used recreational fishing streams 

occurs along paved or well-maintained roads.

Seven walk-in fisheries were designated in Travel Management Order 11, dated November 29, 

1989 (USDA Forest Service 1989). Some walk-in fisheries are closed to motorized vehicle travel 

off Forest system roads, while in others the possession or use of any motor vehicle is prohibited 

year long. Guideline 9109 closes walk-in fisheries to motorized travel.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Several aquatic nuisance species occur on the Forest (USDA Forest Service 2009e). The diatom 

(single-celled algae) Didymosphenia geminata (Didymo) was first documented in Rapid Creek 

downstream of Pactola Dam in 2002. This species forms dense mats of vegetation on the 

streambed. These mats affect habitat conditions and food production for fish. Didymo is able to 

survive and remain viable in cool, damp, dark conditions for at least 40 days (Spaulding and 

Elwell 2007).

Fish habitat on the Forest falls within two general categories: streams and creeks (flowing water 

or lotic habitat) and reservoirs, lakes, and ponds (standing water or lentic habitat). 

Approximately 950 miles of perennial streams exist within the Forest boundary. Slightly more 

than half of these miles flow through National Forest System lands; the remainder flows 

primarily through private lands. Aquatic habitat conditions are influenced by precipitation, 

geology, and other watershed characteristics. Stream connectivity is influenced by these natural 

conditions as well as other manmade structures (dams) or barriers at road-stream crossings, such 

as impassable culverts.

No natural lakes occur in the Black Hills (Stewart and Thilenius 1964) but a number of 

manmade impoundments provide fish habitat. These waterbodies range in size from 852 acres 

(Pactola Reservoir) to less than an acre (Strawberry Pond). Not all of these waterbodies are 

under the jurisdiction of the Forest Service. Many of these sites have additional recreational 

facilities for boating, camping, picnicking, or swimming and are accessible by motorized 

vehicles.

Environmental Effects Analysis

Alternative A - Direct and Indirect Effects

Direct effects (mortality or injury) to fish would only occur where motor vehicles drive through 

perennial streams or where in-water construction activities occur to install new structures 

(culverts, bridges, etc.) or to rehabilitate existing stream crossings. This impact relates primarily 

to fish eggs and fry that are immobile and more vulnerable to injury and more so to trout, which 

deposit their eggs in the stream substrate in concentrated areas (redds). Juvenile and adult fish 

are likely to swim away to avoid injury.

The magnitude of this impact is likely negligible. Habitat conditions at road and trail stream 

crossings are usually degraded. Therefore, these sites are less suitable for trout spawning, egg 

incubation, hatching, or the rearing of fry, so these life stages are less likely to be abundant at 

these sites. These crossing locations also make up a very small percentage of the available 

spawning habitat Forestwide. Direct effects to the most vulnerable life stages and fish species are 

further avoided and minimized through conservation measures for instream activities. These 

measures include Forest Plan guideline 9107, which prohibits land vehicles from entering 

perennial streams where resource damage may occur except to cross at specified points. Also, the 

Regional Watershed Conservation Practices Handbook provides direction to keep heavy 

equipment out of streams, swales, and lakes (except to cross at designated points, build 

crossings, or do restoration work), and to keep heavy equipment out of streams during fish 

spawning, incubation, and emergence periods. More specific seasonal in-water timing 

restrictions to protect fall-spawning brook and brown trout will also be implemented to further 

avoid adverse effects consistent with Clean Water Act Section 404 regional permit conditions 

and best management practices.

Potential indirect effects to fisheries include a reduction in stream connectivity, the loss or 

modification of riparian and aquatic habitat, and the degradation of water quality due primarily 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

to sediment input. Additional discussion of these effects to the physical and chemical aspects of 

water resources can be found in the Hydrology section.

Gucinski et al. (2001) provide a synthesis of scientific information on the effects of Forest roads. 

Roads may result in aquatic and riparian habitat loss due to floodplain encroachment or stream 

channel realignment. Unpaved road surfaces are a long-term source of sediment input. Roads 

may divert and concentrate surface flows, altering the normal runoff pattern transporting more 

sediment into streams, lakes, or wetlands. Poorly designed, installed, or maintained culverts may 

create barriers to fish passage, fragment aquatic habitat, and contribute sediment during their 

placement or removal or if fill material is washed-out due to debris blockage or overtopping of 

culverts during high-flow events.

Structures, particularly culverts, at road-stream crossings can block the movement of fish and 

fragment the stream network. Generally, this blockage is on upstream migration and is due to a 

change in water surface levels (a waterfall) at the culvert outlet, increased water velocities and/or 

inadequate water depth in the culvert. Fish passage needs are species-specific. For example, trout 

are generally stronger swimmers and better jumpers than suckers or minnows. A habitat 

condition often observed at perched culvert outfalls is the creation of a plunge pool. These pools 

provide fish habitat, especially in the fall and winter months when stream flows are at their 

lowest level, and likely improve the overwintering survival of fish.

The number of existing perennial stream crossings, and therefore the potential for adverse effects 

to stream connectivity and fish passage, are greatest under Alternative A. Additional stream 

crossings associated with the proliferation of user-created routes under this alternative typically 

do not impede fish passage because no instream barriers are constructed. On Forest system 

routes, new barriers to fish passage are avoided through the implementation of standard 1203, 

which requires that all stream crossings and instream structures be designed and constructed to 

allow free movement of aquatic organisms.

In aquatic ecosystems, adverse effects from roads often result from increased sediment input, 

streambank degradation, and riparian habitat loss. Increased amounts of sediment may reduce 

food availability, degrade high-quality fish spawning habitat or decrease the volume of pool 

habitats (Isaak et al. 2003). This may lead to reduced fish reproduction and survival. Alternative 

A has the greatest number of existing perennial stream crossings and the most miles of routes in 

close proximity to perennial streams and therefore the greatest potential for adverse effects to 

fish habitat. This alternative also has the greatest potential for adverse effects to fish habitat 

given the acres of motorized cross-country travel allowed and the potential proliferation of 

additional user-created routes and stream crossings; guidelines 9107 and 9108 attempt to reduce 

these adverse impacts. Guideline 9107 prohibits land vehicles from entering perennial streams 

where resource damage would occur except to cross at specified points. Guideline 9108 restricts 

vehicular traffic to roads and trails in riparian areas.

Alternative A has the greatest potential of all the alternatives to affect fisheries from motorized 

big game retrieval and motorized dispersed camping based on the acres where this activity is 

currently allowed. However, motorized big game retrieval in Alternative A is likely having a 

negligible effect on fisheries because this activity only occurs for a few months out of the year. 

The majority of motorized dispersed camping sites have already been established from historic 

use at the most favorable locations, so limited new adverse impacts to fisheries are anticipated. 

Alternative A should have negligible indirect effects to fisheries with the implementation of 

guidelines 5301, 9107 and 9108. Guideline 5301 discourages dispersed camping within 100 feet 

of lakes and streams unless exceptions are justified by terrain.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Motor vehicle access to recreational fishing sites would be maintained under this alternative 

consistent with Executive Orders 12962 and 13474. Administrative access to conduct fisheries 

management activities on roads not open to the public is allowed per guideline 9104.

Motor vehicle use has the potential to spread aquatic nuisance species through the direct transfer 

from one waterbody to another or by providing easier and quicker access than nonmotorized 

methods. The greatest threat of aquatic nuisance species introduction or spread likely occurs 

from people using developed recreation sites, such as Pactola or Sheridan reservoirs or at

Spearfish, Castle, and Rapid Creeks, where there is more boat or vehicle traffic entering the 

water and this traffic arrives from the largest geographic area. Currently, off-highway vehicle use 

is likely having a negligible effect related to the incidental transfer of aquatic nuisance species 

from one waterbody to another.

Alternative A maintains species viability for the three sensitive fish species (finescale dace, lake 

chub, and mountain sucker) that occur on the Forest. Due to the direct and indirect effects 

described above, the determination for Alternative A for these three species is ―may adversely 

impact individuals, but not likely to result in a loss of viability in the planning area, or 

cause a trend toward federal listing‖.

The Forestwide population and habitat trend for the mountain sucker was assessed given its 

status as a management indicator species. The Forestwide population trend for mountain sucker 

is one of decline when comparing past to present occurrence (USDA Forest Service 2009g). 

Alternative A would maintain stream connectivity because no additional instream structures are 

proposed that would impede mountain sucker passage, consistent with standard 1203. 

Implementation of Forest Plan standards and guidelines and Regional Watershed Conservation 

Practices are intended to maintain habitat quality through riparian and aquatic conservation. 

Subsequently, Alternative A meets the intent of objective 238d to maintain or enhance mountain 

sucker habitat quality and connectivity.

Direct and Indirect Effects Common to all Action Alternatives

The action alternatives share the same direct and indirect effects that result from stream 

crossings and roads and trails that are in close proximity to waterbodies as described for 

Alternative A. These similarities are represented by the same indicators summarized in Table 36

of the Hydrology section (page 146); in general, the larger the number, the greater the potential 

for adverse effects to fisheries.

New barriers to fish passage are avoided under all action alternatives through the implementation 

of standard 1203, which requires that all stream crossings and instream structures be designed 

and constructed to allow free movement of aquatic organisms. All of the nonsystem routes that 

are proposed to be designated on the motor vehicle use map have low-water crossings (fords) 

that are not barriers to fish passage. Existing stream crossings on routes that would not get 

designated on the motor vehicle use map may continue to fragment stream habitat if an instream 

structure, such as a perched culvert outfall, occurs at these crossings and blocks the passage of 

fish.

The potential effects on fisheries management and recreational fishing opportunities were 

evaluated. Access to developed recreational sites and more heavily used recreational stream 

fisheries would continue to be open to motorized vehicle use under Alternatives B, C, D, or E. 

Subsequently, all of the action alternatives provide recreational fishing access similar to 

Alternative A and are consistent with Executive Orders 12962 and 13474.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

The potential introduction or spread of aquatic nuisance species or other undesirable aquatic 

species was evaluated. Off-highway vehicle use is likely to have minimal adverse effects related 

to the incidental transfer of aquatic nuisance species from one waterbody to another. As 

previously stated, all Alternatives maintain the same level of motorized vehicle access to the 

primary recreational fishing sites on the Forest. Therefore, the risk of aquatic nuisance species 

introduction or spread is similar to Alternative A.

All action alternatives maintain the same level of motorized vehicle access to streams and lakes 

for fisheries management activities because administrative access (guideline 9104) would

continue to be provided on routes not open to the public. All action alternatives maintain the 

same level of access for recreational fishing opportunities consistent with Executive Orders 

12692 and 13474 because the primary recreational fisheries are located in association with 

developed recreation sites, such as campgrounds or boat ramps, or they are accessed by roads 

that are proposed to remain open.

The designation of new trailheads in Alternatives B, C and D is not likely to have any adverse 

effects on fisheries. All new trailheads would be consistent with standard 1301 and Region 2

Watershed Conservation Practices Handbook Management Measure 3, design criteria ―e‖, which 

directs the Forest to locate new concentrated-use sites outside the water influence zone (if 

practicable), and outside riparian areas and wetlands. Compliance with this direction would 

provide an adequate vegetative buffer to avoid adverse indirect effects to fish habitat.

The site-specific effects to the finescale dace, lake chub and mountain sucker are disclosed in the 

biological evaluation and summarized here. The effects determination for these three sensitive 

fish species for all action alternatives is ―may adversely impact individuals, but not likely to 

result in a loss of viability in the planning area, or cause a trend toward federal listing‖. 

Impacts to individuals are primarily associated with indirect effects resulting from potential 

stream fragmentation due to instream barriers at motorized road or trail crossings on perennial 

streams and/or aquatic and riparian habitat loss or degradation. Additional stream fragmentation 

is avoided given the lack of new instream structures, such as culverts, that may be barriers to fish 

passage. All the action alternatives provide less risk to these three sensitive fish species than 

Alternative A; therefore, species viability would continue to be maintained.

All action alternatives would have a positive effect on the Forestwide mountain sucker 

population and/or habitat trend by maintaining or improving stream quality and connectivity. No 

additional instream structures are proposed that would impede mountain sucker passage, 

consistent with standard 1203. Implementation of Forest Plan standards and guidelines and 

Regional Watershed Conservation Practices are intended to maintain habitat quality through 

riparian and aquatic conservation. Therefore, all action alternatives meet the intent of objective

238d to maintain or enhance mountain sucker habitat quality and connectivity.

Alternative B – Direct and Indirect Effects

Compared to the existing condition, this alternative would reduce the number of stream crossings 

by 69 percent and the miles of routes within 30 feet and 119 feet of perennial streams by 66 

percent and 56 percent, respectively. Six new perennial stream crossings are proposed. A total of 

about 60 feet of stream channel would likely be modified at these crossings. Water quality 

standards would be maintained and seasonal in-water work restrictions would be employed 

during the construction of these new crossings to avoid adverse effects to fish.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Motorized big game retrieval in Alternative B would likely have a negligible effect on fisheries 

for the same reasons mentioned for Alternative A. The potential for effects to fisheries is further 

reduced because it is allowed on the least area Forestwide and is only for the retrieval of elk.

Alternative B would reduce the potential for adverse effects to fisheries from motorized 

dispersed camping when compared to the current condition because the distance (100 feet) from 

routes and the area available for this activity would be greatly reduced. In principle, Alternative 

B should have negligible effects with the implementation of guideline 5301. This guideline 

discourages dispersed camping within 100 feet of lakes and streams unless exceptions are 

justified by terrain.

Alternative C – Direct and Indirect Effects

This alternative has effects very similar to Alternative B. It would reduce the number of stream 

crossings by 70 percent and the miles of routes within 30 feet and 119 feet of perennial streams 

by 66 percent and 56 percent, respectively. Five new perennial stream crossings are proposed. A 

total of about 50 feet of stream channel is likely to be modified at these crossings. Water quality 

standards would be maintained and seasonal in-water work restrictions would be employed 

during the construction of these new crossings to avoid adverse effects to fish.

Overall, motorized big game retrieval in Alternative C would likely have a negligible effect on 

fisheries for the same reasons mentioned for Alternative A. Motorized big game retrieval in 

Alternative C would have more potential to affect fisheries than Alternative B because it includes 

motorized retrieval of both deer and elk and it includes more area open to motorized retrieval.

Alternative C would reduce the potential for adverse effects to fisheries from motorized 

dispersed camping when compared to the current condition because the distance (300 feet) from 

routes and the area available for this activity is reduced. In principle, Alternative C should have 

negligible effects with the implementation of guideline 5301. This guideline discourages 

dispersed camping within 100 feet of lakes and streams unless exceptions are justified by terrain.

Alternative C is not consistent with guideline 9109 in relation to walk-in fisheries and motorized 

use. This alternative proposes designating a single-track trail (route CZ-4895) that crosses Rapid 

Creek below Pactola Dam within the Rapid Creek walk-in fishery. Designation of this route 

would result in some loss of the ―walk-in‖ fishing experience due to the motorized vehicle noise 

that would occur. The magnitude of this impact is difficult to predict, but would depend on the 

level of use and the overlap in time between anglers and motorized recreationists.

This same route (CZ-4895) crosses Rapid Creek where Didymo, an aquatic nuisance species, is 

present. If dirt bikes cross Rapid Creek, there is the potential to pick up and transfer Didymo to 

another waterbody, though this risk is low. Installation of a bridge on the abandoned railroad 

grade prior to this route segment being designated on the motor vehicle use map would eliminate 

the potential risk of Didymo transfer and would also reduce negative impacts to water quality 

and riparian vegetation.

Alternative D – Direct and Indirect Effects

Compared to the existing condition, this alternative would reduce the number of stream crossings 

by 74 percent and the miles of routes within 30 feet and 119 feet of perennial streams by 73 

percent and 65 percent, respectively. This alternative would have the greatest positive benefit to 

fisheries based on the indicators. Two new perennial stream crossings are proposed. A total of 

about 20 feet of stream channel would likely be modified at these crossings. Water quality 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

standards would be maintained and seasonal in-water work restrictions would be employed 

during the construction of these new crossings to avoid adverse effects to fish.

Both the motorized retrieval of big game and motorized dispersed camping are prohibited in this 

alternative. Therefore, no direct or indirect effects to fisheries are anticipated from those 

activities.

Alternative E – Direct and Indirect Effects

Compared to the existing condition, this alternative would reduce the number of stream crossings 

by 69 percent and the miles of routes within 30 feet and 119 feet of perennial streams by 71 

percent and 61 percent, respectively. Similar to Alternative D, both the motorized retrieval of big 

game and motorized dispersed camping are prohibited in this alternative. Therefore, no direct or 

indirect effects to fisheries are anticipated from those activities. No new stream crossings are 

proposed.

Cumulative Effects

Past, Present, and Reasonably Foreseeable Actions

Stream connectivity is affected by a number of factors. Both large and small dams occur 

Forestwide that fragment the stream system both on National Forest System lands and other land 

ownerships. These dams are likely to persist because they serve one or more purposes related to 

flood control, recreation, or water supply. Roads to private lands and other roads outside 

National Forest have impassable fish barriers at road-stream crossings that are likely to persist. 

The likelihood of additional instream barriers exists as development of private inholdings 

continues and additional motor vehicle access is needed.

Historic and ongoing mining, grazing, logging, water storage and diversion, and recreational and 

road-related activities have modified stream habitat conditions. Efforts to improve stream 

crossings and aquatic habitat conditions will continue through focused program efforts, such as 

the Wildlife, Fish, and Rare Plants Program, through timber sale area improvement activities and 

through special emphasis programs, such as the Legacy Roads and Trails Program. These 

activities are likely to continue at levels similar to the current condition. Administrative access 

on routes not designated on the motor vehicle use map may continue. This will result in the 

continued use of some stream crossings and routes in close proximity to streams that are 

otherwise closed to the public. This ongoing use may slow or impede the natural recovery of 

these sites dependant on the level of motorized traffic. Very little administrative access is 

currently needed or predicted to be needed to conduct fishery management activities.

The introduction and spread of aquatic nuisance species can have dramatic negative effects on 

aquatic ecosystems (Strayer 2010b). Activities, such as nonmotorized trail use, boating, fishing, 

water quality monitoring, fisheries surveys, or aquatic habitat restoration have the potential to 

introduce or spread aquatic nuisance species. Given the ever-expanding global spread of aquatic 

nuisance species, it is likely a matter of time before additional aquatic nuisance species occur on 

the Forest.

Cumulative Effects Analysis

The cumulative effects area for fisheries is bounded in space as the Forest boundary and in time 

as the next 5 to 15 years. This temporal scale is based on: (1) the time over which one can expect 

to predict reasonably foreseeable actions and (2) roughly the time until the next Forest Plan 

Revision. The Forest boundary was chosen because it encompasses similar ecosystem 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

components and species that occur on the Forest. A larger area would include the surrounding 

plains, which includes a vastly different suite of species and ecosystem components.

All action alternatives would have a positive incremental impact on stream connectivity and 

aquatic habitat quality because they would reduce the number of stream crossings and the miles 

of routes within 30 and 119 feet of perennial streams. The number of perennial stream crossings,

and therefore the potential for adverse effects, are greatest under Alternative A. Alternative D has 

the fewest crossings. Alternatives B, C and E have about the same number of crossings. 

Alternatives B, C and D would have 6, 5 and 2 new stream crossings, respectively, but stream 

connectivity and habitat quality would not be reduced with the implementation of standards and 

guidelines and regional watershed conservation practices. All other stream crossings already 

exist on system or nonsystem roads and trails in Alternatives B, C and D. There would be no new 

stream crossings in Alternative E.

The designation of existing user-created routes on the motor vehicle use map is not likely to have 

an additive incremental impact on stream connectivity because these routes are all low-water 

crossings that lack instream structures (culverts), thereby avoiding barriers to fish movement. 

Opening a closed road to motor vehicle use, changing the use from a road to a trail or closing a 

road is not likely to have an additive incremental impact on stream connectivity because these 

routes were engineered when they were constructed and the structures or improvements are in 

place at stream crossings.

Alternative D would have the greatest positive incremental impact on habitat quality because it 

results in the lowest number of stream crossings and lowest mileage of motorized roads and 

trails in close proximity to streams. Alternatives B, C and E are fairly similar in their number of 

streams crossings and route mileage in close proximity to perennial streams. Alternative A would 

have the largest adverse affect based on the indicators. All action alternatives have the positive 

incremental impact that no additional user-created or unclassified routes would be created, 

though additional new routes may be added in the future. Those routes not designated on the 

motor vehicle use map would rehabilitate naturally over time (except where administrative 

access may continue to occur) or quicker if site-specific remedial action is taken sooner.

Routes with new perennial stream crossings would result in the additive incremental impact of 

60, 50, and 20 feet of stream channel modification in Alternatives B, C, and D, respectively. This 

impact is minor in a Forestwide context, but could be reduced slightly if two new route 

segments/crossings (CZ-0631 and MY3) are not designated on the motor vehicle use map. These 

routes are redundant with other existing routes in the immediate vicinity. Non-designation of 

these two routes/crossings would reduce the incremental impact to 40 feet in Alternative B and 

40 and 10 feet, respectively, in Alternatives C and D.

The designation of nonsystem roads and trails on the motor vehicle use map may result in 

additional use on these routes in the future. This would likely have a negative additive 

incremental impact resulting in additional stream channel widening, decreased bank stability, 

loss of riparian vegetation, and increased sediment input at low-water stream crossings due to the 

more frequent and higher volume of use. This would likely be most apparent on some singletrack (dirt bike) routes that are currently hard to detect on the ground due to the limited use now. 

A design criterion to monitor and remediate these crossings has been identified to lessen this 

impact.

None of the action alternatives have an additive incremental impact on fisheries management 

activities requiring motor vehicle access because heavily used recreational fishing sites would 

still be accessible via motor vehicles and limited administrative access would be provided 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

(Travel Management Rule §212.51 and guideline 9104) when needed to access routes not open 

to the public. Subsequently, no cumulative effects would occur.

None of the action alternatives have an additive incremental impact on access to recreational 

fishing opportunities because the primary fisheries occur at developed recreation sites or along 

the larger perennial streams adjacent to level 3, 4, or 5 roads that remain open to public motor 

vehicle use. Alternative C is likely to have a negative cumulative effect on the Rapid Creek 

walk-in fishery experience because it proposes a new motorized route in this stream reach that 

would likely reduce the quality of the fishing experience for which this area was originally 

designated.

Generally, Alternatives B, D, and E are likely to have a similar or a slightly reduced level of 

additive incremental impact compared to Alternative A in regards to the potential introduction or 

spread of aquatic nuisance species. Alternative C with its one new proposed stream crossing in 

Rapid Creek within the current distribution of Didymo is not likely to have a detectable 

incremental impact because it affects a very small percentage of Rapid Creek that is currently 

infested with Didymo. All alternatives maintain the same level of motor vehicle access to 

streams and lakes that have developed recreation sites. These sites are likely to get the highest 

recreational visitor use from the broadest geographic area and therefore have the highest risk of 

aquatic nuisance species introduction.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Wildlife

Introduction

This section discusses the analysis of effects of the proposed action and alternatives on 

management indicator species (MIS), threatened and endangered species, sensitive species, 

species of local concern (SOLC), demand species, and migratory birds. Each of these categories 

of species is defined in their respective sections.

Applicable Laws, Regulations, Policy, and Forest Plan Direction

Endangered Species Act (ESA). This document analyzes and determines the likely effects of 

the alternatives on federally listed threatened and endangered species. Section 7(a) (1) of the 

ESA requires Federal agencies to use their authorities to further the conservation of listed 

species. Section 7(a) (2) requires that Federal agencies ensure any action they authorize, fund, or 

carry out is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of federally listed species, or destroy 

or adversely modify designated critical habitat.

National Forest Management Act (NFMA). Provide for a diversity of plant and animal 

communities based on the suitability and capability of the specific land area in order to meet 

overall multiple use objectives of a land management plan.

FSM 2620.44 (4). Evaluate the cumulative effects of proposed management on habitat capability 

for wildlife, including endangered, threatened, and sensitive animal species.

FSM 2620.01 (Black Hills Supplement). Provides direction to consider species of local concern 

during project design and evaluate the effects to the species from alternatives considered through 

the NEPA process.

FSM 2670. Provides direction to evaluate the effects on threatened, endangered, and sensitive 

species as part of the biological evaluation and NEPA process.

Forest Plan Objectives, Standards, and Guidelines. The following Forest Plan objectives, 

standards, and guidelines provide direction for management of wildlife species and their habitat 

on the Black Hills National Forest. Due to the extensive number of objectives, standards, and 

guidelines that are applicable to wildlife management, the details of each are not provided here. 

Please refer to the Wildlife specialist report or the Forest Plan for more information.

Objectives: 105, 110, 112, 113; 201, 202, 205, 239-LVD, 211, 213, 217, 218, 220, 221, 230, 

231, 237, 238 (a-d); 309; 5.4-207, and 5.43-205.

Standards: 1113, 1301, 1302, 1401 (a, b), 2301 (a, b), 2305, 3101 (a-d), 3102, 3103 (a-e), 3108 

(a, b), 3111, 3116, 3123, 3204, 3207, and 3215

Guidelines: 3202, 9107, and 9108

Methodology

A pre-field review was conducted of available information to assemble occurrence records and 

describe habitat needs and ecological requirements for each species. Sources of information 

included Forest Service records and files, NRIS FAUNA database, South Dakota Game, Fish, 

and Parks (SDGFP), Wyoming Game and Fish Department, and published research (citations).

This information served as the basis for determining the effects of the alternatives on wildlife 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

species. In addition, publications based on field work conducted by other parties in the Black 

Hills and elsewhere were also used as appropriate.

The analysis of effects on wildlife species was conducted using existing data and the habitat 

requirements for each species. The habitat requirements for each species were used to determine 

the effect of the alternatives on each wildlife species. The habitat impacts and risks to species on 

the Forest were estimated based on the best available science and data. The overall conclusions 

were derived from anticipated trends, probable risks, and degree of uncertainty under each 

alternative.

Determinations for each threatened, endangered, and sensitive species are made as a result of the 

existing information gathered during the pre-field review and evaluated in the effects analysis.

The basis for each determination is potential habitat, expected occurrence, distribution, effects 

from proposed activities, and proposed design features used to alleviate the potential effects 

resulting from management activities.

The analysis of effects for wildlife is based primarily on the direct impacts on wildlife 

(collisions, etc.) and the indirect impacts of habitat alteration and disturbance to wildlife. The 

effects of habitat alteration and disturbance to wildlife are based on the miles of motorized routes 

in a species habitat and the acres of habitat open to motorized cross-country travel. The loss of 

habitat to road or trail construction is unknown, but is often estimated at 5 acres per linear mile 

(Rowland at al. 2004). Geographic information systems data were used to query the miles of 

motorized routes and acres open to motorized cross-country travel in different habitat types used 

by each species.

The effects of disturbance to wildlife are based on the miles of motorized routes in a species 

habitat and the acres of habitat open to motorized cross-country travel. Geographic information 

systems data were used to query the miles of motorized routes and acres open to motorized 

cross-country travel in different habitat types used by each species.

The indirect and cumulative effects analysis is bounded in time as the next 5 to 15 years. This 

temporal scale is based on: (1) the time over which one can expect to predict reasonably 

foreseeable actions and (2) roughly the time until the next Forest Plan Revision.

For wildlife species, the spatial scale for cumulative effects analysis generally encompasses the 

area within the Forest boundary. This area was chosen because it encompasses similar ecosystem 

components and species that occur on the Forest. A larger area would include the surrounding 

plains, which includes a vastly different suite of species and ecosystem components.

Indicators

The wildlife effects analysis uses the following as indicators of effects for each alternative.

Miles of motorized routes Forestwide

Acres open to motorized cross-country use

Acres open to motorized game retrieval

Acres open to motorized dispersed camping

Miles of routes in general wildlife habitat components

○ Miles of motorized routes in ponderosa pine habitat

○ Miles of motorized routes in spruce habitat

○ Miles of motorized routes in hardwood habitat
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

○ Miles of routes within 400 feet of riparian areas

○ Miles of motorized routes in grass cover-types

○ Miles of routes in mountain mahogany (shrubland) habitat

Miles of routes in species-specific habitat or use areas.

Routes identified with a relative risk to dippers in the Forestwide Travel Analysis Report 

(USDA Forest Service 2007a).

Winter open route density in Management Areas 5.4 and 5.43.

Assumptions

The amount of direct wildlife mortality as a result of vehicle collisions is correlated with the 

miles of motorized routes in wildlife habitat and the acres of habitat open to motorized crosscountry travel. This makes sense generally at the Forest scale. Different types of roads likely 

pose different levels of risk, but most of the roads being considered in the alternatives for 

closure or addition to the system are of similar maintenance level (lower maintenance level, 

with slower speeds).

Disturbance impacts to a species from motorized users are correlated with the miles of road 

within the species‘ habitat and the acres of habitat open to motorized cross-country travel.

All motorized routes are equally disturbing to wildlife or a specific species. In reality, all 

routes are probably not equally disturbing. However, the different types of routes and the 

difference in effects from those routes can‘t be teased out at the Forestwide scale. Since one 

is unable to determine where and when these different disturbances would occur and whether 

an animal would be nearby, it is assumed for analysis purposes that all motorized routes are 

about equal relative to wildlife disturbance.

Design Criteria

Design criteria developed to protect and conserve wildlife species and their habitats can be found 

in Appendix B.

Field Surveys

No wildlife surveys were done specifically for this project. Field reconnaissance has continued to 

be gathered during work on other projects and Forestwide monitoring efforts. The information 

gathered from these surveys and stored in the NRIS FAUNA database provided information on 

distribution and habitat associations for species and helped to determine effects of the 

alternatives.

Routes and trailheads were visited if the pre-field review showed a potential conflict with Forest 

Plan standards. In most cases, the routes or trailheads were consistent with Forest Plan standards.

Routes and trailheads with field verified conflicts with Forest Plan standards were modified 

according to design criteria to be consistent with Forest Plan standards.

Affected Environment

General Wildlife and Habitat Components

Roads affect wildlife species through direct mortality, modification of behavior, habitat 

alteration, spread of exotics, disturbance through increased human use (Trombulak and Frissell 

2000), and pollution (Noss 1995). Ortega and Capen (2002) found that some forest birds had 

lower densities near unpaved roads. Direct mortality can occur from vehicle collisions or by 

being run over by vehicles (Trombulak and Frissell 2000). Collisions are less likely to occur on 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

primitive roads and trails where traffic is slower than on more well-developed roads and 

highways (Oxley et al. 1973). Some collisions likely occur on all route types, but there no data 

available documenting the current number of collisions on the Forest. In general, the more 

motorized routes and motorized use in wildlife habitat, the more potential there is for wildlife 

and vehicle collisions. Cross-country travel (off roads and trails) can also cause direct mortality.

The loss of habitat to road or trail construction is unknown, but is often estimated at 5 acres per 

linear mile (Rowland at al. 2004). Different types of roads and trails result in different levels of 

habitat loss. A single-track route that winds among the trees obviously results in less habitat loss 

than a Forest road. Cross-country motorized travel can also reduce habitat through repeated use 

by killing the vegetation.

Roads can also promote habitat fragmentation for some species. Roads can fragment habitat into 

smaller patches and increase the ratio of edge to forest interior areas. More road miles mean a 

reduction in the amount of available interior habitat for requisite interior species, such as marten 

and brown creepers (Reed et al. 1996).

Disturbance from motorized recreation may cause animals to abandon favored habitat or expend 

more energy. Noise might affect predator avoidance, food intake, social interactions, 

reproductive activities, or parenting (Bowles 1995). Animals can habituate to noise, but the 

process is slow (Bowles 1995). Animals are more likely to habituate to noises that occur on a 

regular basis; for example, constant traffic on a well-used road. If animals respond as soon as

they hear a noise, vehicles would affect them at greater ranges than humans. However, if the 

animals are habituated to vehicle noise, humans laughing and yelling can cause responses at 

greater ranges (Bowles 1995). Off-highway vehicles may represent a combination of irregular 

traffic patterns that prevent habituation and more frequent stops with resulting human activities 

(laughing and talking).

Non-native invasive plants can adversely affect native plant communities by aggressively 

competing for nutrients, water, and sunlight. As a result, wildlife forage quantity and quality can 

be affected.

Ponderosa Pine Habitat

Ponderosa pine is the dominant tree species on the Forest and occurs from low to high elevations 

on all soil types and aspects (USDA Forest Service 2005a). As a result, ponderosa pine serves as 

a habitat component for most wildlife species on the Forest. The ponderosa pine cover type is 

broken into nine structural stages based on tree size and canopy closure because some species 

use certain structural features on ponderosa pine. There are about 1,037,000 acres of ponderosa 

pine on the Forest (USDA Forest Service 2007b). Much of the ponderosa pine habitat is 

currently open to motorized cross-country travel. Existing motorized route information in 

ponderosa pine habitat is shown in Table 38.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Table 38. Existing motorized recreation information for ponderosa pine habitat

Structural stage Miles of motorized routes

1 333

2 104

3A 125

3B 145

3C 55

4A 969

4B 698

4C 226

5 6

Total 2,661

White Spruce Habitat

The Black Hills has one of the southern-most populations of white spruce in the United States.

White spruce is the most shade tolerant of the Black Hills tree species, enabling regeneration and 

growth under closed canopy conditions. The cool, moist environments of white spruce stands 

provide habitat diversity in a ponderosa pine-dominated landscape. Spruce provides habitat for 

many species including golden-crowned kinglets (MIS), brown creepers (MIS), northern flying 

squirrels, and land snails. Spruce habitat currently occupies about 25,700 acres on the Forest 

(USDA Forest Service 2009g). Much of the spruce habitat is currently open to cross-country 

travel and approximately 100 miles of motorized routes are in spruce habitat.

Hardwood Habitat

Quaking aspen and bur oak are the principle upland hardwoods (i.e., broad-leaved deciduous 

trees) on the Forest (USDA Forest Service 2005a). Other hardwood trees in the Black Hills 

include narrowleaf cottonwood, plains cottonwood, paper birch, American elm, green ash, and 

boxelder. Hardwood forests, with their associated understory shrub components are an important 

source of forage for all browsing ungulates, especially white-tailed deer. Hardwoods provide 

habitat for many wildlife species including elk, beaver, ruffed grouse, black-and-white warblers, 

butterflies, and snails. The current condition for hardwoods and associated motorized recreation 

is shown in Table 39.

Table 39. Miles of motorized routes in hardwood habitat on the Forest

Hardwood cover 

type

Current acres on the Forest (USDA 

Forest Service 2007b, 2009g)

Miles of currently open-motorized 

routes within habitat

Aspen 45,111 150

Bur oak 13,132 22

Paper birch 3,423 6

Other hardwoods 970 1

Total 62,636 179
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Snag Habitat

Snags are an important habitat component for cavity nesting birds and mammals. The majority of 

snags on the Forest are ponderosa pine. The Forest currently exceeds the Forest Plan objective of 

three snags per acre (USDA Forest Service 2009g).

Riparian Habitat

Riparian habitat is located along the edges of streams. It is the transition zone between the 

aquatic habitat and the upland terrestrial habitat. Riparian habitat is important to most terrestrial 

and aquatic species because of its association with water. There are about 76,900 acres of 

riparian habitat on the Forest (USDA Forest Service 2005a). Effects to riparian habitat and the 

species that use it are based on acres of habitat open to cross-country travel and miles of 

motorized routes within 400 feet of riparian areas. The 400-foot distance was based on Forest 

Plan guideline 9204 that states, if topography allows, roads should not be constructed with 400 

feet of a meadow. Riparian areas include meadows although not all riparian areas are classified 

as meadows. Much of the riparian habitat on the Forest is open to cross-country travel and 

approximately 2,050 miles of motorized routes are within 400 feet of riparian areas.

Grassland Habitat

Grasslands on the Black Hills provide habitat for many wildlife species including, deer, elk, 

northern harrier, ferruginous hawk, and grasshopper sparrow. The most recent estimate of 

grassland habitat on the Forest is approximately 104,000 acres (USDA Forest Service 2009g).

Much of the grassland habitat on the Forest is open to cross-country travel and approximately 

650 miles of motorized routes are within grassland habitat.

Shrubland Habitat

Mountain mahogany shrublands are the most extensive shrubland type on the Black Hills and are 

most common in the west-central portion (east of Newcastle, Wyoming) of the Black Hills on 

low-elevation limestone. These shrublands are patchy and have a relatively sparse herbaceous 

understory dominated by side-oats grama. Three-leaved sumac is usually present in mountain 

mahogany shrublands and Rocky Mountain juniper and ponderosa pine occur as scattered 

individuals (USDA Forest Service 2005a). Mountain mahogany is a habitat component for mule 

deer, some open-country raptors, and other migratory birds.

Table 40. Miles of motorized routes in mountain mahogany habitat

Current acres on the Forest

(USDA Forest Service 2009g)

Miles of currently open-motorized 

routes within habitat

Mountain mahogany 4,597 5

Management Indicator Species

The Forest Service Manual defines management indicator species as ―...plant and animal 

species, ... selected for emphasis in planning, and which are monitored during Forest Plan 

implementation in order to assess the effects of management activities on their populations and 

the populations of other species with similar habitat needs which they may represent‖ 

(FSM2620.5). Forestwide wildlife MIS are:

Black-backed woodpecker (Picoides arcticus)

Brown creeper (Certhia americana)

Golden-crowned kinglet (Regulus satrapa)
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum)

Ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus)

Song sparrow (Melospiza melodia)

Beaver (Castor canadensis)

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)

All Forest MIS are discussed in this document because this project covers the entire Forest. All 

Forest MIS occur and have habitat within the project area.

Black-Backed Woodpecker

The black-backed woodpecker was selected as a Forest MIS to address Forest condition and 

habitat diversity, specifically the occurrence and distribution of mature and late-successional 

forest, burned forest, insects, and snags on the landscape. The black-backed woodpecker is also a 

Region 2 sensitive species. The effects to this species are evaluated under the Sensitive Wildlife 

Species section and in the biological evaluation.

Brown Creeper

The brown creeper is selected as a Forestwide MIS to address forest condition and habitat 

diversity, particularly availability of spruce and late-successional and dense mature pine stands. 

The brown creeper occurs in low abundance in coniferous forest in the Black Hills and is largely 

tied to late-successional pine and white-spruce habitats (Panjabi 2003, 2004, Giroir et al. 2007) 

but also occurs in other ponderosa pine successional stages (Giroir et al. 2007). A small, wellcamouflaged tree climber, the brown creeper is often observed scaling the bark of trees gleaning 

spiders, beetles, moths, and other insects from crevices and behind pieces of loose bark (Wiggins 

2005).

The brown creeper is found most abundantly in mature, old-growth-coniferous and mixedconiferous-deciduous forests. The preferred nesting habitat for this species is mature, old growth 

forest that is undisturbed and contains a closed canopy (Wiggins 2005). Brown creepers tend to 

prefer dense, late-successional coniferous, deciduous, or mixed habitats (Wiggins 2005). Panjabi 

(2001, 2003, 2004, 2005) found that brown creepers are closely associated with dense mature 

and late-successional ponderosa pine stands (structural stages 4C and 5) and white spruce in the 

Black Hills. They are also found in lower densities in other structural stages of ponderosa pine 

(Panjabi 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, Giroir 2007). Evidence also suggests that this species is 

sensitive to the effects of forest fragmentation (Wiggins 2005).

Other important habitat requirements for the brown creeper are areas of large trees (greater than 

10 inches in diameter); loose bark, areas infested with bark beetles, and snags (Wiggins 2005).

Dead or decaying trees and snags provide substrate for nests and foraging. Habitat trend appears 

to be stable on the Black Hills. Acres of white spruce and ponderosa pine structural stages 4C 

and 5 are stable, acres of ponderosa with a tree size of very large are stable, and snag density is 

above the Forest Plan objective (USDA Forest Service 2009g).

Brown creeper populations appear stable on the Forest. Brown creepers have been monitored on 

the Black Hills since 2001 in cooperation with the Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory (Panjabi 

2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, Beason et al. 2006, Hutton et al. 2007, Giroir et al. 2007). Brown 

creepers are well distributed in low abundance throughout the Black Hills. The Migratory Bird 

Breeding Habitat (MBBH) program was designed to statistically detect population trends over a 

longer time period than the seven years that it has been implemented. Natural variability in the 

data and other factors preclude a short-term, meaningful analysis. However, a less rigorous 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

analysis of the data reveals varying densities across the years, with no obvious upward or 

downward Forestwide population trend (USDA Forest Service 2009g). Relative densities 

showed a significant drop in 2007 (Blakesley et al. 2008) but it is unclear if this is annual 

fluctuation or the beginning of a downward trend.

Golden-crowned Kinglet

Golden-crowned kinglets were selected as Forestwide MIS to address forest condition and 

habitat diversity, specifically abundance, distribution, and condition of spruce habitat. Goldencrowned kinglets that breed in the Black Hills are disjunct from their main breeding range across 

the boreal forests of Canada and in the Western United States. The golden-crowned kinglet is an 

uncommon permanent resident at higher elevations in the Black Hills, where they are found 

primarily in white-spruce forests (South Dakota Ornithologist‘s Union 1991; Panjabi 2003, 

Giroir et al. 2007). Golden-crowned kinglets are uncommon in winter in the Black Hills, but are 

common spring and fall migrants (South Dakota Ornithologist‘s Union 1991).

Golden-crowned kinglets are found primarily in white-spruce forests (South Dakota 

Ornithologist‘s Union 1991; Panjabi 2003, Giroir et al. 2007). Panjabi (2003) also found them in 

small numbers in mature ponderosa pine, aspen, and wet meadows, although these areas likely 

had a spruce component. Golden-crowned kinglets on the Black Hills are likely limited by the 

abundance, distribution, and condition of spruce habitat. Golden-crowned kinglet habitat (white 

spruce) appears relatively stable or slowly increasing on the Forest (USDA Forest Service 

2009g). Spruce habitat is naturally patchy and of low abundance on the Black Hills. White 

spruce occurs at high elevations on north aspects and in cool canyon bottoms of the Forest.

MBBH data suggests the golden-crowned kinglet is distributed primarily in the northern half of 

the Black Hills, although it is also found in more localized areas of the central Hills and Bear 

Lodge Mountains as well (USDA Forest Service 2007b).

Golden-crowned kinglets have been monitored on the Black Hills National Forest since 2001 in 

cooperation with the Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory (Panjabi 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, 

Beason et al. 2006, Hutton et al. 2007, Giroir et al. 2007). The MBBH program was designed to 

statistically detect population trends over a longer time period than the seven years that it has 

been implemented. However, a less rigorous population trend analysis suggests an increase 

through 2006 (USDA Forest Service 2007b). The relative density in 2008 was the lowest since 

monitoring began in 2001 (USDA Forest Service 2009g). Habitat trend for the golden-crowned 

kinglet has increased over the long term (USDA Forest Service 2009g).

Grasshopper Sparrow

Because of its association with intermediate and taller vegetation, the grasshopper sparrow 

habitat and/or population trends are likely a good indicator of prairie grassland habitat condition. 

The grasshopper sparrow was selected as an MIS on the Forest to address abundance, 

distribution, and condition of grassland habitat. The grasshopper sparrow is also a Region 2 

sensitive species. The effects to this species are evaluated under the Sensitive Wildlife Species 

section and in the biological evaluation.

Ruffed Grouse

The ruffed grouse was selected as an indicator of aspen quantity and vigor in pure and mixed 

stands. Ruffed grouse was selected as an MIS for the Forest to address forest condition and 

habitat diversity, specifically aspen distribution and condition. Ruffed grouse is a year-round 

resident in the Black Hills and occurs widely but in low abundance (Panjabi 2003). Ruffed 

grouse is classified by state wildlife agencies (South Dakota and Wyoming) as an upland game 

bird. There is an annual fall hunting season for these birds. Distribution on the Black Hills 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

roughly correlates to the distribution of Aspen. Aspen is more abundant in the northern and 

central Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains. Aspen becomes sparse in the southern Black 

Hills.

Ruffed grouse are strongly associated with aspen throughout much of their range (Wiggins 

2006). Ruffed grouse use a variety of aspen age classes for foraging, nesting, brood rearing and 

predator avoidance (ibid.). Ruffed grouse nest in forests or woodlands with some deciduous trees 

and is closely associated with hardwoods, particularly aspen (ibid.). On the Forest, this species is 

associated with aspen in a variety of structural stages. The species feeds on aspen buds and 

catkins in the winter and spring, respectively (ibid.). In South Dakota, ruffed grouse is typically 

found in young to medium-age aspen stands, other hardwood stands, and open pine forests 

(South Dakota Ornithologist‘s Union 1991). The Forestwide habitat trend of aspen over the past 

11 years is slightly downward (USDA Forest Service 2009g). Aspen stands have been replaced 

by pine and spruce in many areas of the Forest, and may have declined since pre-settlement 

times (Parrish et al. 1996), resulting in a net loss of ruffed grouse habitat.

Although quantitative data are lacking, grouse appear to be less common in the Black Hills than 

they were historically (Wiggins 2006). The Forest is currently working with the South Dakota 

Game, Fish, and Parks and the Forest Service‘s Rocky Mountain Research Station to develop a 

new monitoring protocol for ruffed grouse. Data was collected for the first time in 2007.

Preliminary data from 2007 show a probability of occupancy of 0.133 (Hansen et al. 2008). This 

data would serve as baseline data for future trend assessments.

Song Sparrow

The song sparrow was selected as an MIS for the Forest to address riparian condition. This 

species is expected to be a good supplemental indicator of riparian habitat condition in addition 

to Beaver. Song sparrows are found throughout much of the Black Hills, but are more common 

in the north part. Song sparrows occur mainly in streamside thickets, especially willows, and are 

dependent upon these habitats (Panjabi 2001). Panjabi (2001, 2003) found them in the highest 

density in riparian habitat. Song sparrows were also found in white spruce adjacent to riparian 

stringers.

The song sparrow breeds in a wide range of forest, shrub and riparian habitats, but in dry areas is 

normally limited to those close to fresh water (Arcese et al. 2002). Year-round residents are often 

found near breeding areas during winter (Arcese et al. 2002). The highest densities have been 

found in riparian habitat (Panjabi 2001, 2003; Hutton et al. 2007; Giroir et al. 2007). Riparian 

areas account for approximately 1 percent of public and private land in the Black Hills and are 

typically located adjacent to streams and around natural springs, seeps, fens, and reservoirs. Due 

to the presence of water, these areas frequently receive a disproportionate amount of use from 

wildlife, livestock, and humans.

Riparian habitats have decreased in quality since the pre-European settlement era, indicating a 

long-term declining habitat trend. More recent, shorter-term riparian trends are unclear. Small 

riparian protection projects have improved riparian conditions in some areas.

Song sparrows have been monitored on the Black Hills since 2001 in cooperation with the 

Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory (RMBO; Panjabi 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, Beason et al. 2006, 

Hutton et al. 2007, Giroir et al. 2007). The MBBH program was designed to statistically detect 

population trends over a longer time period than it has been implemented. However, a less 

rigorous analysis of the data suggests a stable Forestwide population trend since 2001 (USDA 

Forest Service 2009g).
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Beaver

Beaver was selected as an MIS for the Forest to address hardwood and riparian/aquatic habitat 

condition. This species was selected due to its relationship to riparian/aquatic habitat condition, 

status as a keystone species, available monitoring protocols, and dependence on riparian forest 

and shrub habitat. Beavers are found in suitable habitat throughout much of North America, 

ranging as far south as northern Mexico; they are widely distributed throughout South Dakota. 

The beaver is North America‘s largest rodent, with adults weighing 30 to 60 pounds (Higgins et 

al. 2000). Beavers are semi-aquatic and widely distributed in large rivers and lakes with constant 

water levels, marshes, small lakes, and streams with weak flows adequate for damming (ibid.).

Beavers are adversely affected by predation, loss of food base due to wildfire or habitat overuse, 

and drought. Direct impacts to beavers by humans typically are caused by trapping and hunting. 

Indirect impacts to beavers are any impacts that affect their specific habitat requirements for 

perennial water and deciduous riparian woody vegetation.

General habitat requirements of beavers include suitable riparian habitat dominated by stands of 

willow, aspen, or cottonwood (Olson and Hubert 1994). Beavers are not found in areas without 

permanent water and suitable woody vegetation; they build dams by cutting down trees and 

shrubs and packing mud between the branches. They also build lodges with feeding and sleeping 

chambers that are accessed through underwater entrances. The beaver is nocturnal and active 

year-round. It is vegetarian, preferring aspen, willow, cottonwood, and alder (Higgins et al. 

2000).

At one time, beavers were likely the most important biological influence on riparian systems of 

the Forest. Through dam construction, they can enhance and maintain aquatic and riparian 

communities by elevating water tables; reducing stream velocity and subsequent sedimentation 

and bank erosion; improving water quality; improving stream flow stability; and enhancing fish 

and wildlife habitat (Olson and Hubert 1994).

Riparian habitats have decreased in quality since European settlement, and the total amount of 

aspen has decreased over at least the past 30 years. Both of these indicate a long-term declining 

habitat trend for beaver. More recent, shorter-term riparian trends are unclear. Small riparian 

protection projects on the Forest have improved riparian conditions in some areas (USDA Forest 

Service 2007b).

Historically, beaver were heavily trapped in the Black Hills. By the late 1880s, populations were 

low and restricted to remote areas (Parrish et al. 1996). Beaver have increased since then and are 

now widely distributed in both South Dakota and Wyoming. Beaver can be legally harvested in 

both states, but hunting regulations moderate the effect on populations. Limits to persistence 

include degradation and/or loss of riparian shrubs and forests due to historical management 

activities, as well as the loss of hardwood components on adjacent uplands. Baseline beaver 

surveys were conducted on the Forest during September 2004 (USDA Forest Service 2009g).

Beaver and their habitats were most common in the Bear Lodge Mountains and in the central 

Black Hills, although they were present in other areas as well. A total of 74 active and 5 inactive 

beaver colonies were observed on National Forest System lands during aerial and ground-based 

surveys.

White-tailed Deer

White-tailed deer were selected as an MIS for the Forest to address forest condition and habitat 

diversity, including the occurrence of understory shrubs. White-tailed deer occur throughout 

most of the United States and southern Canada and occupy a wide range of habitats. In the Black 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Hills, they are associated with forested habitat (conifer and hardwood) in close proximity to 

water (SAIC 2003). White-tailed deer are mostly migratory in the Black Hills, using lower 

elevations in winter (Stefanich 1995). White-tailed deer move to low-elevation winter range 

from October to January, the timing of which depends on snow and forage conditions (Stefanich 

1995; Griffin et al. 1999). Wooded draws and pine stands with closed canopies provide thermal 

cover while agricultural areas and recently logged and open stands with abundant shrubs are 

important for forage. Bearberry juniper and snowberry provide important winter browse 

(DePerno et al. 2002).

White-tailed deer in the Black Hills require a diversity of habitat types. Juxtaposition between 

cover and forage for the white-trail deer is crucial year-round. Hardwood stands, which provide 

abundant forage combined with screening cover, were best predictors of white-tailed deer 

diurnal, summer use (Stefanich 1995). Peak use of dense aspen habitats with dense, tall shrub 

cover indicated importance as fawning habitat in the northern and central Black Hills (DePerno 

et al. 2002). Summer nocturnal habitat use is significantly different with use of open habitat 

types of meadows, riparian areas, and/or open pine relative to proximity of dense cover 

(Stefanich 1995). Wet meadows, riparian areas, and open stands of ponderosa pine also provide 

quality forage and water.

In winter, white-tailed deer in the central Black Hills selected forested habitat with shrubs 1.5 to 

4.7 times more frequently than shrub habitats occurred on the Forest (DePerno et al. 2002). 

Uresk and Severson (1998) found that open-canopy conditions are necessary to get to understory 

shrubs. Closed-canopy stands with minimal understory vegetation represent cover.

Another factor that can affect deer habitat is road construction and road density. High road 

densities (miles of road/square mile area) alter both human and animal behavior, which 

contribute to animal displacement and stress (SAIC 2003). Roads may cause a direct loss in 

habitat and increased vehicular volume may indirectly degrade habitat quality. In the 1990s, up 

to 1,400 deer per year were killed in vehicle collisions in the Black Hills (Parrish et al. 1996).

The Arc Habitat Suitability Index (ArcHSI) model was used to provide an index to Forestwide 

deer habitat conditions in 2005. The Forestwide summer habitat trend is increasing, and winter 

habitat trend is stable to slightly decreasing (USDA Forest Service 2006b). The South Dakota 

white-tailed deer population has increased since 2000. In 2005, there were an estimated 50,000 

white-tailed deer (USDA Forest Service 2009g). The Wyoming Game and Fish (WGF) 

Department models estimate that there are about 40,000 white-tailed deer in the Black Hills herd 

unit that includes both private and Forest lands (Sandrini 2007a). The population may be 

beginning to grow based on field personnel observations (Sandrini 2007a).

In 2008 in South Dakota, there were 4,444 white-tailed deer harvested in the Black Hills area 

(Huxoll 2009). In 2008 in Wyoming, 3,790 white-tailed deer were taken in Hunt Areas 2 and 4 

(Wyoming Game and Fish Department 2009). In both states, these hunting areas have significant 

amounts of private land so harvest levels on the Forest were likely less than these numbers.

Threatened and Endangered Species

The purpose of this section is to analyze and determine effects of the alternatives on species 

listed as endangered, threatened, or proposed under the Endangered Species Act. The blackfooted ferret is the only threatened, endangered, or proposed species located on the Forest, or 

located adjacent to project area that could potentially be affected. The species was identified 

through informal consultation with the South Dakota and Wyoming field offices of the U.S. Fish 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

and Wildlife Service (USDI Fish and Wildlife Service 2007a, 2007b). No designated critical 

habitat for the black-footed ferret is presently located on lands administered by the Forest.

Black-footed Ferret

Black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) are federally endangered throughout their former range.

In Wyoming, there are historic records of ferrets in the Black Hills area (Luce et al. 1999).

Ferrets have recently been released in Wind Cave National Park in the southern Black Hills. The 

black-footed ferret is a nocturnal, solitary carnivore with the narrowest range of ecological 

tolerance of any North American predatory mammal (USDA Forest Service 1996a Appendix H).

In the Black Hills, as elsewhere, the key habitat component for black-footed ferrets is the 

distribution and abundance of prairie dogs (Forrest et al. 1985), its primary food source (see 

discussion for Black-tailed prairie dog on p. 192). Vacated prairie dog burrows also provide 

shelter.

One prairie dog town is located near Wind Cave National Park. It is located in the small section 

of Norbeck Wildlife Preserve (Section 2) near the boundary between Wind Cave National Park 

and Custer State Park and is about 13 acres in size. Ferrets could move out of Wind Cave 

National Park and into this prairie dog town. Norbeck Wildlife Preserve is currently not open to 

public motorized travel.

Region 2 Sensitive Species

Region 2 sensitive species are those plant and animal species identified by the Regional Forester 

for which population viability is of concern, as evidenced by significant current or predicted 

downward trends in population numbers or density, or in habitat capability that would reduce a 

species‘ existing distribution (USDA Forest Service 2007c). Table 41 lists wildlife and fish 

species designated as sensitive species Region 2 of the United States Forest Service (USDA 

Forest Service 2007c) known or likely to occur on the Forest.

Cooper’s Rocky Mountain Snail

Anderson (2004) lists Cooper‘s Rocky Mountain snail (Oreohelix cooperi) as the only Oreohelix 

in the Black Hills. Anderson (2004) also notes the taxonomy of this species is confusing with the 

species often classified as Oreohelix strigosa cooperi. Anderson et al. (2006) and Weaver et al. 

(2006) found only one species in the Black Hills, and referred it as O. cooperi. For the purposes 

of this analysis, we consider the two species to be one and the same as suggested by Anderson et 

al (2006), but refer to it here as O. strigosa cooperi since that is the label used on Region 2 

sensitive species list. Anderson et al. (2006) consider this snail to be widely distributed in the 

Black Hills. Cooper‘s snail also occurs in the Judith Mountains in Montana and in the Bighorn 

Mountains in Wyoming (Anderson et al. 2006, Weaver et al. 2006).

Table 41. Forest Service Region 2 sensitive species analyzed

Scientific name Common name

Invertebrates

Oreohelix strigosa cooperi Cooper’s mountain snail 

Speyeria idalia regal fritillary

Reptiles

Storeria occipitomaculata pahasapae Black Hills redbelly snake

Amphibians

Rana pipiens Northern leopard frog

Birds
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Haliaeetus leucocephalus bald eagle

Circus cyaneus northern harrier

Accipiter gentilis northern goshawk

Buteo regalis Ferruginous hawk

Falco peregrinus peregrine falcon

Coccyzus americanus yellow-billed cuckoo

Athene cunicularia burrowing owl

Otus flammeolus flammulated owl

Melanerpes lewis Lewis’ woodpecker

Picoides dorsalis three-toed woodpecker

Picoides arcticus black-backed woodpecker

Lanius ludovicianus loggerhead shrike

Numenius americanus long-billed curlew

Ammodramus savannarum grasshopper sparrow

Charadrius montanus mountain plover

Mammals

Myotis thysanodes fringed myotis

Corynorhinus townsendii pallescens Townsend’s big-eared bat

Martes americana American marten

Ovis canadensis Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep

Cynomys ludovicianus black-tailed prairie dog

In 2002, the Forest received the final report for a contract to inventory and/or monitor 357 sites 

for land snails (Frest and Johannes 2002). Many of the sites had been surveyed in the early to 

mid-1990s, and some were revisited in 1999 to help assess population changes. More than 100 

new sites were inventoried for the first time. A total of 38 species were identified, including 12 

not documented previously in South Dakota. The surveys also provided information on Cooper‘s 

mountain snail. Cooper‘s snail was found at 109 sites. Locations are concentrated in the 

northern, central and western Black Hills (Anderson 2004, 2005).

The following discussion is based on information from the Black Hills (Frest and Johannes 

2002). Cooper‘s snail was found on calcareous soils; most localities were lowland wooded areas 

and talus slopes, generally but not always with northern or eastern exposures. Many of the 

colonies, including most of the largest, are found in ponderosa pine with a partially closed 

canopy, a secondary deciduous tree component, and diverse understories. At some sites, white 

spruce was common. Riparian woodland communities, often in areas with adjacent steep rocky 

slope bases, were also found to contain some substantial colonies. This species generally 

dominates the mollusk fauna in the area of occurrence, but it has been found to occur with two 

other species of land snail: the callused vertigo and striate disc.

Litter is an important component for snails as food and cover. In general, snails prefer a welldeveloped litter layer, but not thick or matted (Anderson 2005). In contrast to other land snails, 

Cooper‘s snail can thrive with little cover and thin litter (ibid.). Oreohelix have been observed in 

a variety of litter types in the Black Hills, including coniferous needles litter, deciduous litter,

and areas of thin litter (ibid.).

Road construction and maintenance can affect snails by eliminating habitat or killing snails. 

Roadside brushing or weed spraying can also damage snails and/or their habitat (ibid.). Several 

known locations of Cooper‘s snail are near roads.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Regal Fritillary Butterfly

The Black Hills are at the western margin of the regal fritillary‘s range, possibly due to increased 

aridity further west (USDA Forest Service 2000b). The regal fritillary requires open prairies 

(Royer and Marrone 1992). In South Dakota, the fritillary is most likely to be found in native 

tall-grass prairies composed of big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), western wheatgrass 

(Pascopyrum smithii), and green needlegrass (Stipa viridula) (ibid.). Continuous prairie greater 

than 1,000 acres may be required for stable populations (ibid.). In smaller habitat patches, 

individuals would move in and out depending on habitat condition and size (Royer and Marrone 

1992, USDA Forest Service 2000b). The Black Hills is primarily forested, and as such, contains 

only relatively small patches. The best habitats within the Black Hills occur in lower elevation 

prairies along the outer Forest boundary and in interior prairies, although tall-grass species are 

not predominant in the interior prairies.

Adult female regal fritillaries lay eggs near violets. During the following spring, the larvae feed 

exclusively on violet leaves. By late June or early July, juveniles transform to adults (Royer and 

Marrone 1992). Adults require a continuous source of nectar-producing flowers such as 

coneflowers, fleabanes, and thistles (ibid.).

The primary factor affecting long-term populations is thought to be conversion of native tallgrass prairie habitats to cropland and pasture, which primarily occurs on private lands. It is 

estimated that one-half to two-thirds of the regal fritillary‘s original range has been converted to 

cultivated cropland, making it a species that is considered rare rangewide (USDA Forest Service 

2000b). Another risk to this butterfly is exotic weed invasion into prairie habitat (Royer and 

Marrone 1992).

Northern Leopard Frog

Northern leopard frogs are considered common in suitable habitat in the Black Hills and are 

found at all elevations, though systematic surveys have not been done in the Black Hills to verify 

this (Smith 2003). The northern leopard frog appears to be more common in the northern Black 

Hills. In the Black Hills, it is believed this species has been reduced from its historical 

abundance due to the loss of wetlands, though population trend and size are speculative due to 

lack of information (ibid.).

The northern leopard frog occurs in a wide variety of habitats including creeks, lakes, ephemeral 

wetlands, and ponds. Emergent vegetation is important in providing protective cover in ponds 

and lakes that contain predatory fish. After maturing, sub-adult frogs migrate to suitable feeding 

sites that are usually adjacent uplands. These dispersal movements may be along riparian 

corridors or upslope areas. After breeding, adult frogs can be found feeding in upland habitats of 

grasslands, meadows, and pastures adjacent to breeding areas. Adult frogs are highly mobile.

They have been found up to two miles from water (Smith 2003).

Risk factors identified by Smith (2003) include inadequate regulatory protection of smaller (less 

than 12 acres) seasonal and semi-permanent ponds, introduced predatory fish, lack of protection 

at overwintering sites, water quality degradation due to chemicals, loss of migratory pathways, 

introduced diseases, and road-related mortality.

Roads can cause substantial direct mortality from road-kill events (Smith 2003, Smith and 

Keinath 2007). Roadways can also fragment habitat and alter frog dispersal patterns. Road 

construction also causes siltation, which can smother eggs. Runoff from roads can carry oil and 

other automotive pollutants into waterways, adversely affecting frog populations (Smith and 

Keinath 2007).
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Black Hills Redbelly Snake

The redbelly snake is a nocturnal and secretive snake found in moist sites from the western 

foothills, the limestone plateau, and the central core of the Black Hills (Smith and Stephens 

2003). Sites where the snake has been observed range in elevation from 4,700 to 6,400 feet 

(Peterson 1974). The Black Hills subspecies of the redbelly snake is an isolated population with 

the nearest population of redbelly snakes about 300 miles east near Aberdeen, South Dakota 

(USDA Forest Service 2000b). Biological expert interviews (USDA Forest Service 2000b) 

suggest that the redbelly snake is reasonably common in the Black Hills.

Although the redbelly snake does not appear to be in danger of extirpation, the population in the 

Black Hills is an isolated subspecies and endemic to the Black Hills (USDA Forest Service 

2000b). Little demographic and population trend data are available specific to the Black Hills 

population (Smith and Stephens 2003). This subspecies is considered one of the most poorly 

understood snakes of North America (Bartlett and Tennant 2000).

Several den sites have been found in the Black Hills with hibernacula located within rock 

fissures (USDA Forest Service 2000b). Observations are concentrated in the central and northern 

portions of the Black Hills. The southern portion of the Black Hills is drier, which may affect 

distribution.

Black Hills redbelly snakes are associated with mesic sites such as wetlands, riparian areas, and 

wet meadows (USDA Forest Service 2000b). The most serious risk to redbelly snakes 

populations may be the loss of mesic habitats (Smith and Stephens 2003). Suitable environments 

for redbelly snakes are thought to be abundant and broadly distributed across the Black Hills 

(USDA Forest Service 2000b). The northern Black Hills, being generally moister and more fireresistant than the rest of the Forest, likely provides more habitat than other districts of the Forest 

(USDA Forest Service 2000b). Stumps and down woody material are important in maintaining 

moist conditions; as roots of stumps decay, they provide cover (USDA Forest Service 2000b, 

Smith and Stephans 2003).

Road construction and off-highway vehicles can impact redbelly snakes. These activities involve 

the displacement and/or compaction of large amounts of soil, removal of ground litter and other 

debris, and potentially loss of mesic habitat (Smith and Stephans 2003). Direct mortality has 

been observed on existing roads and motorized routes.

American Three-Toed Woodpecker

The main range of the three-toed woodpecker extends through the Rocky Mountains and 

laterally across Canada to northern New England (Leonard 2001). The Black Hills population is 

isolated from the main range by nearly 200 miles. In South Dakota, this woodpecker is 

considered a rare yearlong resident limited to the higher elevations of the Black Hills (South 

Dakota Ornithologist‘s Union 1991). The three-toed woodpecker may also be found at lower 

elevations, especially in winter (ibid.). The three-toed woodpecker population trend has been 

relatively stable in both the northern Rocky Mountains and Badlands/Prairies physiographic 

regions. However, Breeding Bird Survey data suggests there may be isolated local declines 

(Sauer et al. 2001).

In a baseline study of three-toed woodpecker populations in the Black Hills, Mohren (2002) 

estimated that approximately 320 to 440 birds occurred here in 2000-2001, with an average 

Forestwide density of 1 bird per 3,088 acres (0.08 birds/km2). The estimate applies across all 

habitat types on the Forest, including forest types that the species does not typically inhabit (e.g., 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

pure ponderosa pine). According to Mohren (2002), the Forestwide density estimate was similar 

to what has been recorded in other unburned habitats across the species range.

Late successional spruce-fir forest represents the core breeding and feeding habitat for the 

species (Wiggins 2004). To date, monitoring results show areas in or adjacent to mature white 

spruce stands harbor the highest three-toed woodpecker densities in the Black Hills. Relative 

densities in spruce habitats range from 1 bird per square kilometer to 5.5 birds per square 

kilometer (USDA Forest Service 2009g). These figures are 23 to 45 times higher than Mohren‘s 

(2002) Forestwide average. Birds were also found in late-successional pine habitats and riparian 

habitats but in much lower densities than in white spruce. Also, spruce trees were usually present 

in those other habitat types where the woodpeckers occurred.

Spruce habitat is naturally patchy and of low abundance on the Black Hills. White spruce occurs 

at high elevations, on north aspects, and in cool canyon bottoms of the Forest. Fire suppression

during the last century has allowed spruce to increase in abundance and density in the Black 

Hills, generally at the expense of quaking aspen (Parrish et al. 1996). The white-spruce cover 

type now occurs on 25,000 acres of the Forest. Approximately 90 percent of the spruce on the 

Forest is in mature or late-successional condition (structural stages 4 and 5) and likely provides 

high-quality habitat for three-toed woodpeckers. Three-toed woodpeckers nest mainly in snags 

but would use live trees, especially those with heart rot. Species of nest trees vary and include 

hardwoods as well as conifers. Optimal habitat includes areas with 42 to 52 snags per 100 acres, 

occurring in clumps (Nicholoff 2003). The most important snags are 12 to 16 inches dbh, 20 to

40 feet tall, and have bark still present (Nicholoff 2003).

Bald Eagle

Bald eagles are present in the Black Hills during winter, usually arriving in early November 

(USDA Forest Service 1996a, Appendix H) and leaving by March or April. The bald eagle was 

formerly a rare breeder in the southeastern portion of South Dakota (South Dakota 

Ornithologist‘s Union 1991). An unsuccessful nesting attempt was reported adjacent to the 

Forest in the Southern Hills in spring 2004. In 2007, an unsuccessful nest attempt occurred at 

Deerfield Lake on the Forest. This was the first nest attempt on the Forest in recent times. The 

bald eagle nest is again active in April 2008. Most suitable nesting habitat occurs around the 

major reservoirs or along major creeks in the Black Hills.

Prior to 2006, there were no known traditional (repeated use) or communal roost sites in the 

Black Hills. In 2006, a night roosting area was discovered at Pactola Reservoir. Approximately 

18 to 22 eagles were observed at the roost on four separate occasions between late December 

2005 and late January 2006. The roost covers at least 100 acres of mature to late-successional 

ponderosa pine forest on very steep slopes. Large trees and snags are abundant. The site is 

adjacent to Pactola Reservoir, parts of which were not frozen during the time of the discovery. 

Further monitoring of this roost is needed to clarify the full extent of the roost and its importance 

to bald eagles (USDA Forest Service 2007b).

Key winter habitat components for the bald eagle on the Forest include perch sites, roost sites 

away from human disturbance, and an adequate food supply. The ponderosa pine landscape 

provides suitable roosting habitat. A small population of eagles does winter on the Black Hills.

This small population appears to rely mainly on a dependable supply of carrion, especially deer 

and small mammals killed by vehicle traffic. Bald eagles are frequently observed feeding on 

carcasses along roads.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Black-Backed Woodpecker

The main range of the black-backed woodpecker is in the northern Rocky Mountains and across 

Canada (Dixon and Saab 2000). In South Dakota, this woodpecker is known only in the Black 

Hills, where it is considered an uncommon yearlong resident (South Dakota Ornithologist‘s 

Union 1991). In Wyoming, the species occurs in the northeastern portion of the state as well as in 

the Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains. In the Black Hills, black-backed woodpecker 

distribution and abundance is closely associated with recent stand-replacing fires (Panjabi 2001, 

2003, 2004, 2005, Giroir et al. 2007) and insect outbreaks (Bonnot 2004, Rumble 2002). They 

also occur at much lower densities throughout the remainder of the Forest (Mohren 2002; 

Panjabi 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, Giroir et al. 2007).

In the Black Hills, black-backed woodpeckers are associated with ponderosa pine habitats that 

have high populations of their main prey: the larvae of wood-boring beetles, engraver beetles, 

and bark beetles (Anderson 2003). Recently burned pine forests and areas infested with 

mountain pine beetles are most preferred by black-backs. The species can also be found in 

forests that are relatively unaffected by beetles, but it is relatively rare in such places.

Unburned pine stands infested with mountain pine beetles (bark beetles) are also important to 

black-backed woodpeckers. Rumble (2002) found that the density of black-backed woodpeckers 

in the heavily infested Beaver Park area was approximately seven times greater than what 

Mohren (2002) found across all habitats in the Black Hills. The core of the infestation had 

densities that were 32 times higher than the Forestwide average; this is the highest density 

recorded on the Forest although it occurred over a fairly small localized area.

In unburned, uninfested pine habitat of the Black Hills, black-backed woodpeckers select mature 

or late-successional pine stands with high canopy cover, high tree densities, and high snag 

densities (Mohren 2002; Panjabi 2001; Panjabi 2003; and USDA Forest Service 2000b). These 

conditions are found primarily in structural stages 4C and 5. Black-backs also use sapling-pole 

stands with any amount of canopy cover (i.e., structural stages 3A, 3B, and 3C), but to a lesser 

degree than any of the other habitat structures mentioned thus far (Mohren 2002, USDA Forest 

Service 2000b). Mohren (2002) reported that black-backed woodpeckers avoid mature pine 

stands that do not have high canopy cover (i.e., structural stages 4A and 4B). Black-backed 

woodpeckers nest in hard snags or live trees with diameters of 9 to 18 inches (Anderson 2003). 

Ponderosa pine appears to be the most important nest tree in the Black Hills, as all recent studies 

report nests in only that species (Vierling 2004; Mohren 2002; Rumble 2002).

Burned habitat has declined because large fires that burned prior to 2002 have aged and become 

less valuable as black-backed habitat. Still, because of other fires since 2002, there is a relatively 

high amount of potential habitat available on the Forest. Habitat provided from mountain pine 

beetle is abundant when compared to 10 years ago and appears to be increasing.

Forestwide habitat conditions have been favorable for the black-backed woodpecker over the 

past few years due to numerous large fires and beetle outbreaks. Habitat is relatively abundant 

when compared to 10 to 25 years ago. In the past few years, the habitat trend appears to be stable 

as recently burned areas have declined (aged) and insect caused tree mortality continues to 

increase. The addition of recent wildfires and insect tree mortality results in above 3 snags per 

acre (Forest Plan objective 211) well dispersed across the Forest (USDA Forest Service 2009g).

In his baseline population study, Mohren (2002) estimated that approximately 1,200 blackbacked woodpeckers occurred in the Black Hills during 2000, with an average Forestwide 

density of one bird per 883 acres (0.28 birds/km2). The estimate applied across all habitat types 

on the Forest, excluding large recent burns, which did not exist at the time. According to Mohren 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

(2002), the Forestwide density estimate was similar to what has been recorded in other unburned 

habitats across the species range. Since Mohren‘s first estimate was derived, several large fires 

occurred in the Black Hills, which has undoubtedly increased the black-backed woodpecker 

population. Black-backed woodpeckers have been monitored on the Black Hills since 2001 in 

cooperation with the Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory (Panjabi 2001, 2003, 2004; Beason et al. 

2006, Hutton et al. 2007, Giroir et al. 2007). Monitoring was focused on burned habitat in the 

Jasper Fire, which burned in 2000.

It appears that black-backed woodpecker densities peaked in the 2000 Jasper Burn during the 

second post-fire year when one bird per 36 acres (or 6.9 birds/km2) were observed (Panjabi 

2003). This is nearly 25 times higher than what Mohren (2002) found as a Forestwide average. 

One year later, densities in the Jasper Burn had declined by nearly half (Panjabi 2004), but they 

were still much higher than what has been found in other habitats. Relative densities in burned 

habitat have continued to decline in the Jasper Burn as expected following a fire (USDA Forest 

Service 2009g).

Burrowing Owl

The western burrowing owl is a grassland specialist distributed throughout western North 

America, primarily in open areas with short vegetation and bare ground (Klute et al. 2003). The 

northern populations of owls are migratory and may winter in the southwestern U.S. and Mexico 

(Johnson and Anderson 2002). Numerous authors have identified elimination of burrowing 

rodents through control programs as the primary factor in the recent and historical decline of 

burrowing owl populations (Klute et al. 2003).

Burrowing owl nesting habitat typically consists of level, open landscapes with sparse grassland 

vegetation that either has low structure or is heavily grazed (Johnsgard 1988), either by cattle or 

prairie dogs (Klute et al. 2003). They are dependent on burrowing mammals whose vacant 

burrows are used for nesting and roosting; the burrows of prairie dogs, particularly black-tailed 

prairie dogs, are of central importance (Johnson and Anderson 2002, Klute et al. 2003).

While burrowing owls nest and roost in shortgrass habitats, they forage over a variety of habitats 

including tall grass, cropland, and fallow fields (Klute et al. 2003). A mosaic of grassland 

habitats is therefore important to provide suitable nesting and foraging habitat diversity. Habitat 

for burrowing owls on the Forest is limited; the availability of black-tailed prairie dog colonies 

may be the greatest limiting factor (Johnson and Anderson 2002; see p. 192 for discussion on 

prairie dog colonies).

A burrowing owl was observed in 2002 (Panjabi 2003), and another observation occurred on the 

Forest in June 2004 by the Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory during ongoing breeding bird 

monitoring. The 2004 observation was associated with a prairie dog town on the Hell Canyon 

Ranger District. Seven burrowing owls were observed on the Forest in 2006. Two adults and 

three chicks were observed at two nests. These are the first nesting burrowing owls documented 

on the Forest for quite some time (USDA Forest Service 2007b).

Ferruginous Hawk

The ferruginous hawk ranges through most of the western United States. Its breeding range 

extends from northern Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas north to southern Canada (Collins and 

Reynolds 2005). The bird winters primarily from the southwestern and south central United 

States south to central Mexico (Collins and Reynolds 2005). In South Dakota, it is considered an 

uncommon to fairly common summer resident in prairies, chiefly in the western but also 

northeastern part of the state (South Dakota Ornithologist‘s Union 1991). In Wyoming, 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

ferruginous hawks are a common resident, with breeding records across most of the state, but 

there is a noticeable drop in numbers in the winter (Luce et al. 1999).

Rangewide, ferruginous hawks occupy a variety of habitat types including open grasslands, 

shrub-steppe, croplands and desert (Collins and Reynolds 2005). Ferruginous hawks prefer open 

rolling or rugged terrain and avoid high elevations, forest interiors, narrow canyons, and cliffs 

(Collins and Reynolds 2005), which may account for their rarity in the Black Hills. The most 

recent estimate of grass cover-types on the Black Hills is approximately 104,000 acres (USDA 

Forest Service 2009g). Prairie grasslands refer to those grasslands that generally occur on the 

outer perimeter of the Black Hills as a transition between the true prairie ecosystems and the 

forested ecosystems of the foothills and mountains. Interior grasslands occur within the forested 

perimeter of the Black Hills and can include large areas dominated by plant species typically 

associated with prairie systems (e.g., Reynolds and Gillette Prairies).

Disturbance during the nesting period has been identified as a risk to the species. The increased 

use of recreational vehicles, such as all-terrain vehicles is a source of human disturbance that can 

have negative consequences for ferruginous hawks. Recreational vehicles can cause habitat 

alteration through the destruction or degradation of vegetation structure. Noise and other 

disturbances associated with motorized recreation can have equally important effects on 

individual ferruginous hawks physiologically, and may reduce productivity at nest sites (Collins 

and Reynolds 2005).

Flammulated Owl

The flammulated owl breeds in mountain ranges from Central America north through the 

western U.S. to southern British Columbia; it winters from Mexico into Central America 

(Johnsgard 1988; Sibley 2000). In the United States and Canada, it lives in montane forest 

habitats dominated by yellow pines (i.e., ponderosa and Jeffrey). Distribution of the owl is 

scattered as a consequence of habitat distribution and the bird‘s less-than-full occupation of 

yellow pine habitats (Hayward and Verner 1994). The species is conspicuously absent from 

various yellow pine forests in the western United States, including ponderosa-pine forests in 

Wyoming (e.g., Bighorn Mountains) and eastern Montana.

In their rangewide assessment of the owl, Hayward and Verner (1994) specifically noted that the 

species was not present in the Black Hills despite the availability of seemingly suitable 

ponderosa pine habitat. Other accounts support the absence by failing to mention species 

presence (e.g., South Dakota Ornithologist‘s Union 1991; Peterson 1995; Luce et al. 1999).

However, there have been two reports of flammulated owls in the past 10 years that could be 

valid sightings. These reports could represent periodic use by transient individuals, or the 

beginning of a range expansion. Establishment of flammulated owls in newly occupied habitat 

could take many years, because the species has a low reproductive potential (Hayward and 

Verner 1994). A concerted effort was made to verify flammulated owls, at the two recent 

observation areas and other seemingly suitable sites during 2003 but the species were not 

detected (Fauna West Wildlife Consultants 2003).

Flammulated owls are associated primarily with ponderosa pine and Jeffrey pine habitats. In the 

Black Hills, only ponderosa pine is present. Flammulated owls select older seral stages for 

breeding and nesting (Hayward and Verner 1994). They are often associated with old-growth 

forests. Interior and exterior forest edge seems to be a desirable if not necessary component of 

flammulated owl habitat (ibid.). Clumped tree distributions, multi-layered canopy, and a welldeveloped shrub component contribute to internal forest edge. Low-to-moderate canopy closure 

prevails in most sites used by the owl (ibid.). The ponderosa pine structural stages corresponding 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

most closely to potential flammulated owl nesting and foraging habitat on the Forest are 4A, 4B, 

and 5.

Flammulated owls appear to prefer denser vegetation for roosting (Hayward and Verner 1994).

Across the species range, they have been found roosting in mixed-conifer stands, thickets, and 

other conditions with high foliage density or multi-layered canopy that were in close proximity 

to nest sites (e.g., greater than 300 feet). In Oregon and Colorado, the species did not select pure 

stands of ponderosa pine for roosting but instead used mixed-conifer stands where pine was a 

component (Hayward and Verner 1994). Roosting habits are unknown in the Black Hills, but if 

rangewide patterns hold true here, the species may roost in spruce or in stands where pine and 

spruce both occur. In their summary of nest site characteristics across three studies in New 

Mexico and Oregon, Hayward and Verner (1994) found that the owls occurred in snags that 

averaged between 19 and 28 inches dbh.

Grasshopper Sparrow

In Wyoming, the grasshopper sparrow breeds mainly in the eastern portion of the state, and 

occurs almost statewide except in the south central portion (Luce et al. 1999). In South Dakota, 

there are breeding records throughout the state, including the Black Hills (Peterson 1995). It is 

considered an uncommon to common summer resident (South Dakota Ornithologist‘s Union

1991). It occurs widely in native mixed-grass prairies in the southern Black Hills, and locally 

further north in the central Black Hills (Panjabi 2005). Panjabi (2005) found them in the highest 

density in mixed-grass prairie habitat. They may also occur in other types of grasslands (Panjabi 

2003).

According to Slater (2004), the grasshopper sparrow is found in a variety of open grassland 

types, but appears to be area sensitive, preferring grasslands greater than 20 acres in size. They 

may select larger patches to avoid predation associated with edge habitats. In South Dakota, they 

are primarily found in mixed-grass prairies. Within these grassland patches, they prefer 

grasslands of intermediate height and avoid habitats where vegetation is less than 4 inches. They 

require some areas of bare ground for foraging and some taller vegetation (tall grasses, forbs, or 

scattered shrubs) for singing perches (Slater 2004).

Panjabi (2005) found that in the Black Hills, grasshopper sparrows can be locally abundant in 

some prairies, especially where there is a greater proportion of tall grass. They occur widely in 

native mixed-grass prairies in the southern Black Hills, and locally further north in the central 

Black Hills. Panjabi (ibid.) found them in the highest density in mixed-grass prairie habitat.

The Forest‘s vegetation database shows increased acres of Black Hills grassland cover-types 

since 1995. Projects across the Forest have been emphasizing meadow and grassland restoration 

through removal of pine encroachment. Some of this, particularly pine removal on the periphery 

of prairies, is likely contributing to an increased habitat trend for the grasshopper sparrow. 

However, changes in mapping and reporting methods might contribute to at least some of the 

difference (USDA Forest Service 2007b).

Grasshopper sparrows have been monitored on the Black Hills since 2002 in cooperation with 

the RMBO (Panjabi 2003, 2005). The monitoring program was designed to statistically detect 

population trends over a longer time period than it has been implemented. However, a less 

rigorous analysis of the data suggests an upward Forestwide population trend between 2002 and 

2008 (USDA Forest Service 2009g). However, this may not be a trend, but instead a short-term 

phenomenon. According to Panjabi (2003), it is possible that numbers would decrease in future 

years as habitat becomes more suitable again on the Great Plains (USDA Forest Service 2007b).
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Lewis's Woodpecker

The Black Hills is at the eastern edge of the Lewis‘s woodpecker‘s range (Sibley 2000). In South 

Dakota, Lewis‘s woodpecker is considered a locally uncommon summer resident in the Black 

Hills and a locally rare yearlong resident of adjacent stream bottoms (South Dakota 

Ornithologist‘s Union 1991). Breeding has been documented in the Black Hills by Peterson 

(1995) and Vierling (2004). It is an uncommon summer resident in Wyoming, with breeding 

records in the east, north, and western portion of the state (Luce et al. 1999).

The Lewis‘s woodpecker is an edge specialist that prefers open mature pine forests, mature 

cottonwood forests, and areas with large burned trees (Tobalske 1997). Burned stands are used 

most often after they have aged several years (Tobalske 1997). A well-developed shrub layer is 

usually present (Anderson 2003). In the Black Hills, this woodpecker is most often observed in 

burned pine forests, but it could also be found in mature to late-successional ponderosa-pine 

stands that have an open canopy (structural stages 4A and some 5). Lewis‘s woodpeckers 

typically excavate nest cavities in soft ponderosa pine or cottonwood snags, although they would 

also re-use cavities made by other woodpecker species. Soft snags are dead trees in advanced 

stages of decay, and they have typically been dead longer than hard snags. Hard snags usually 

become soft snags given enough time.

Recent bird monitoring on the Black Hills has detected an average of 6 birds each year since 

2001 (Giroir et al. 2007). Breeding Bird Survey data suggests that many populations of Lewis‘s 

woodpeckers may have declined since the 1960s (Sauer et al. 2001; Tobalske 1997). However, 

due to the sporadic distribution and cyclical abundance of this species, Breeding Bird Survey 

data may not adequately sample populations. Furthermore, many estimates lack statistical 

significance (Sauer et al. 2001).

Risks to Lewis‘s woodpeckers include activities that reduce open or old-growth ponderosa-pine 

forests and snags (e.g., fire suppression and clearcutting; Anderson 2003). Loss of cottonwood 

riparian habitat and human encroachment on breeding and wintering habitat are also negative 

factors (Tobalske 1997), although little cottonwood habitat exists on the Forest.

Loggerhead Shrike

The loggerhead shrike is a fairly common summer resident in Wyoming and South Dakota, with 

breeding records occurring over most of both states (Luce et al. 1999, Tallman et al. 2002, 

Peterson 1995). The bird is rare or casual (out of normal range) in the Black Hills (Tallman et al. 

2002, South Dakota Ornithologist‘s Union 1991). Breeding records occur near the periphery of

the Black Hills but not in the interior or at higher elevations (Peterson 1995). Breeding Bird 

Survey data between 1966 and 2000 indicate significant declines in loggerhead shrikes nearly 

rangewide (Sauer et al. 2001). In South Dakota, a nonstatistically significant decline has been 

shown (Sauer et al. 2001). In Wyoming, populations appear to have increased 3.7 percent per 

year between 1980 and 2000 (Sauer et al. 2001). Regional population declines have been linked 

to shrub conversion for increased livestock forage, wildfires in arid shrublands, insect 

(particularly grasshopper) control programs, and grazing pressure that concentrates in arid shrub 

communities (Beidleman 2000). Wiggins (2005a) lists agricultural conversion, degradation or 

loss of nesting trees and shrubs, and over-grazing as potential threats to the species.

The loggerhead shrike is associated with open habitats that include scattered or clustered shrubs 

or trees. This includes some types of grasslands, shrublands, and savannas. Wiggins (2005a) 

describes nesting habitat as having trees, shrubs or low bushes and elevated perches for hunting 

and courtship activities. Foraging habitat includes areas of open, short vegetation with some bare 

areas and thorny trees or barbed-wire fence for impaling prey (Wiggins 2005a). These habitats 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

are limited in the Black Hills but are provided mainly by mixed-grass prairies, mountain 

mahogany shrublands, and grassy or brushy areas with scattered juniper or ponderosa pine. The 

combination of habitat features described above is distributed primarily along the southern flank 

of the Black Hills, especially in the southwestern portion. Most of the interior Black Hills do not 

provide suitable habitat because tree density is too high.

Long Billed Curlew

Long-billed curlews are native prairie specialists, nesting primarily in shortgrass or mixed-grass 

prairie habitat with flat to rolling topography (Sedgwick 2006). They prefer short vegetation and 

generally avoid habitats with trees, abundant shrubs, and tall, dense grass (Sedgwick 2006).

Curlews may use taller, denser grass during brood rearing when shade and camouflage from 

predators are presumably more important for chicks (Sedgwick 2006). Long-billed curlews have 

been observed nesting in suitable habitat on the Black Hills, mostly the southern Black Hills, 

during annual bird monitoring efforts. A marginally significant decline has been observed in 

South Dakota (Sedgwick 2006).

Mountain Plover

Mountain plovers have specific breeding habitat requirements, preferring flat, open areas with 

very shortgrass and scattered cactus (Graul 1975). Vegetation on shortgrass prairie sites is less 

than 4 inches tall, and nest sites in the shrub-steppe are usually on active prairie dog towns.

Throughout their range, mountain plovers selectively nest on active prairie dog colonies, 

especially those of the black-tailed prairie dog (Dinsmore 2003).

Mountain plovers have been observed in the general vicinity of the Wyoming Black Hills, with 

nesting documented in the southern half and north central portion of Wyoming (Luce et al.

1999). Mountain plovers were formerly rare breeders in southwestern South Dakota, and they 

are currently classified as accidental in South Dakota (Tallman et al. 2002). There is one modern 

(1977) record of a mountain plover in Bennett County South Dakota (the south central portion of 

the state), and a few relatively recent, unconfirmed reports of the species (Tallman et al. 2002).

The current breeding distribution of mountain plovers does not include the Black Hills region 

(Dinsmore 2003). Disturbed and low-growing prairie grassland habitats suitable for mountain 

plover are currently rare within the Forest. There are only10 prairie dog colonies on 386 acres 

across the Black Hills National Forest (see p. 178), which limits their availability of nesting 

habitat.

Northern Goshawk

The northern goshawk is considered a common resident of coniferous forests in Wyoming (Luce 

et al. 1999). In South Dakota, this forest raptor is a rare to uncommon permanent resident, 

especially in the higher elevations of the Black Hills (South Dakota Ornithologist‘s Union 1991). 

Known nest densities are generally higher in the northern and central hills. Goshawks are 

difficult to monitor because of their secretive nature and use of alternate nests. Goshawk 

monitoring on the Forest consists of monitoring known nests for nesting activity. Goshawk nest 

activity has ranged from 20 to 40 percent of monitored nests being active in a given year (USDA 

Forest Service 2009g). Some territories monitored may have been active but were not confirmed, 

because goshawks are secretive and difficult to detect and often use alternate nests. Additional 

pairs likely occur on the Forest but have not been detected for the same reason. There is 

insufficient information to determine population trends in Region 2 or North America (Kennedy 

2003).
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Goshawks typically nest in relatively dense (dependent on forest type) forest areas and use a 

mosaic of structural stages for foraging within their home range (Kennedy 2003). Typical nest 

areas for goshawks in the northern Rocky Mountains are single storied, mature or latesuccessional coniferous forest, with high canopy closure, clear forest floors, on north-facing 

moderate slopes (Hayward and Escano 1989; Squires and Ruggiero 1996). Goshawks tend to 

select stands that have relatively large trees and relatively high canopy closure (Kennedy 2003). 

In the Black Hills, the goshawk nests in mature, dense, or moderately dense stands of largediameter pine. Reynolds et al. (1992) characterized the nest area as mature and old stands with 

canopy closure greater than 50 percent. Ponderosa pine structural stages 4C and 5 (dense mature 

forest and late-successional) at least 30 acres in size likely best meet these conditions in the 

Black Hills. Structural stage 4B (mature forest with 40 to 70 percent canopy closure) may also 

provide some additional nesting habitat.

According to Reynolds et al. (1992), the post-fledging family area (approximately 420 acres) and 

the foraging area (approximately 5,400 acres) typically include a diversity of forest types and 

conditions including stands of young, mid-aged, mature, and late-successional trees. At least 40 

percent of the home range is recommended to be comprised of mature or late-successional stands 

with greater than 40-to-50 percent canopy closure, which roughly equates to structural stages 4B, 

4C, and 5 on the Black Hills. Snags, down logs, and woody debris are an important component 

of the post-fledging family and foraging habitat. Downed logs and woody debris are also an 

important component of goshawk habitat.

Northern Harrier

The northern harrier is an uncommon migrant and summer resident in South Dakota (Tallman et 

al. 2002). Harriers are relatively absent from the Black Hills (Slater and Rock 2005), but the 

species is occasionally observed here.

Harriers are open-country hawks that are commonly found in prairies, wetlands, marshes, 

meadows, croplands, and shrublands (Slater and Rock 2005). Associated topography is generally 

flat. Most nest sites are in undisturbed wetlands or grasslands dominated by thick vegetation 

(Slater and Rock 2005).

Large open areas are limited on the Forest, which probably constitute the most limiting factor for 

harriers on the Forest. Currently, there are approximately 104,000 acres of grasslands on the 

Forest (USDA Forest Service 2009g), but much of this occurs in linear meadows or isolated 

patches that are likely too small to support birds for a full season or more. The most extensive 

grasslands occur in the southern Black Hills.

Harriers have not yet been documented in shrublands of the Black Hills, but presumably, they 

could use at least some of this cover type. Shrublands occur on over 5,300 acres of the Forest 

(USDA Forest Service 2007b), mostly along the Wyoming-South Dakota boundary east of 

Newcastle.

Peregrine Falcon

The peregrine falcon has a worldwide distribution, and breeds on every continent but Antarctica

(Terres 1991). In the United States, it occurs over much of the West and the eastern seaboard.

However, because peregrines have very large territories, population densities are low throughout 

its range (Johnsgard 1990).

The peregrine falcon inhabits a wide variety of open habitats if cliffs are present (Terres 1991).

Optimal cliffs are generally at least 200 to 300 feet high and dominate the surrounding landscape 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

(Sharps and O‘Brien 1985). Nest sites are typically on open ledges or shelves that are protected 

by cliff overhangs and tend to be on higher cliffs (Johnsgard 1990). Nest sites are generally 

considered the most limiting factor for the species and have a large influence on where the 

species occurs. Peregrines prefer to hunt in relatively open areas where they can maneuver to 

capture small and medium-sized birds (Terres 1991).

In the Black Hills, the peregrine falcon is an uncommon spring and rare fall migrant and a rare 

winter visitor (Tallman et al. 2002). Potential nest sites may occur in deep rocky canyons or 

other places with tall vertical cliffs (USDI Fish and Wildlife Service 1984). Historical records 

indicate nesting occurred in the Black Hills in the 1960s (ibid.). The peregrine has not been 

documented breeding in the Black Hills since that time despite efforts to reestablish it through 

cross-fostering and hacking during the late 1970s and late 1990s (USDA Forest Service 1979a, 

Sharps and O‘Brien 1985, Tallman et al. 2002). Evaluation of potential peregrine habitat by the 

Peregrine Fund concluded that most of the Black Hills does not provide adequate nesting sites.

The Monitoring Birds of the Black Hills program has not detected peregrines anywhere in the 

Black Hills since it began in 2001 (Giroir et al. 2007).

Open areas that could provide foraging habitat in the Black Hills include grasslands, shrublands, 

and structural stages with open canopies (1, 2, 3A, 4A). Currently, there are nearly 600,000 acres 

that meet these criteria on the Forest. The main factors that may limit occupation of the Black 

Hills by peregrines are the lack of tall, unbroken cliffs and isolation from established breeding 

populations.

Yellow-Billed Cuckoo

Yellow-billed cuckoos occur in riparian and other deciduous woodlands throughout the United 

States, except in the Northwest and northern Rocky Mountains (Wiggins 2005b). Although they 

are found throughout most of the West, cuckoos are not common there. In western South Dakota 

and eastern Wyoming, the species is a rare to uncommon breeder (ibid). The yellow-billed 

cuckoo is considered a riparian obligate species (Nicholoff 2003). Yellow-billed cuckoos prefer 

to nest in open woodlands with a dense understory and near water. They typically inhabit 

wooded river valleys in the Great Plains (Wiggins 2005b).

Breeding habitat in the Black Hills occurs mainly in low-elevation riparian areas. Habitat is very 

limited on the Forest and has most potential to occur where narrowleaf cottonwood or bur oak 

riparian corridors meet the Forest boundary at the edge of the Black Hills. Breeding has been 

documented in the Bear Lodge Mountains and likely occurs elsewhere at lower elevations 

(Panjabi 2003). The site was a mature, bur-oak woodland that had a well-defined understory and 

very large-diameter trees (Panjabi 2003). Yellow-billed cuckoos are extremely sensitive to 

habitat alterations (Nicholoff 2003, Wiggins 2005b). Major causes of degradation have included 

grazing, placer mining, cultivation, road development, dam construction, channel realignments, 

urbanization, and loss of riparian habitat (Wiggins 2005b).

American Marten

The American marten is distributed over much of the western United States where it occurs in 

moist boreal forests (Buskirk 2002). The South Dakota Game, Fish, and Parks reintroduced a 

total of 125 individuals into the Black Hills during the 1980s and 1990s (Buskirk 2002). Fecske 

et al. (2003) recently estimated that 124 resident martens occur in high-quality habitat, with 

additional animals occurring at lower density within lower quality habitat. Although considerable

mortality and reproduction have likely occurred here since reestablishment began, it appears the 

marten population trend is relatively stable in the Black Hills (USDA Forest Service 2004a).
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

According to a recent marten study (Fecske et al. 2003), the greatest marten concentrations 

appear to be in the northern part of the Forest southwest of Deadwood (northern subpopulation) 

and in and around the Norbeck Wildlife Preserve (Norbeck subpopulation) (Fecske et al. 2003).

These two dominant subpopulations are likely very important in maintaining species persistence 

in the Black Hills. The Black Hills supports an isolated population, with the nearest neighboring 

population in the Bighorn Mountains of Wyoming (Buskirk 2002).

Martens are primarily associated with mature white spruce in the Black Hills. Key habitat 

elements are relatively dense forests with complex physical structure near the ground, abundant 

coarse woody debris, and lengthy fire-return intervals (Buskirk 2002). Martens prefer moist 

coniferous forest types with tree species that have branches on their lower boles. White spruce is 

the tree species on the Forest that provides this condition. Approximately 25,000 acres of whitespruce stands currently occur on the Forest, mostly at high elevations, on north aspects, and in 

cool canyon bottoms. Fire suppression during the last century has allowed spruce to increase in 

abundance, density, and maturity in the Black Hills, usually at the expense of quaking aspen 

(Parrish et al. 1996).

American marten typically avoid dry ponderosa pine sites; however, due to the limited 

distribution of spruce in the Black Hills, most marten territories undoubtedly contain some 

portion of pine (Buskirk 2002). Mature and late-successional pine stands also help maintain 

connectivity between spruce stands. Martens are sensitive to habitat fragmentation and would 

not move through large, nonforested areas. Fecske et al. (2003) quantified high-quality marten 

habitat on the Forest based on a habitat relation model (Fecske et al. 2002). They estimated 

approximately 131,600 acres of high-quality marten habitat exist on the Forest. About 11 percent 

of this is in the spruce cover type. Approximately 91,000 acres of the high-quality marten habitat 

supports the two main subpopulation centers, of which about 14 percent is in spruce. Spruce 

makes up only about two percent of the forested acres Forestwide. This supports the literature 

that marten appear to use spruce disproportionately to its availability in the Black Hills.

Coarse woody debris is an important component of marten habitat. Large logs and other 

structures provide protection from predators, access to the subnivean (i.e., beneath the snow) 

space where most winter prey are captured, and protective thermal conditions, especially during 

winter (Buskirk and Powell 1994). A variety of structures is used for dens, with trees, snags, 

logs, and rocks accounting for 70 percent of reported den structures (Buskirk and Ruggiero 

1994).

Motorized recreation can cause increased deaths through vehicle collisions (Buskirk 2002).

Increased numbers of forest users associated with dispersed recreational use could cause a wide 

range of negative effects on martens, including shooting, killing by dogs accompanying 

recreationists, or providing access to toxins (Buskirk 2002). Off-road vehicles are potentially 

important as they facilitate dispersed recreation, impeded vegetative recovery on abandoned 

roads, and compact snow, facilitating movements by competitors of martens (Buskirk 2002). 

Road-related mortality has been observed along highways and at least one mortality was 

observed along a primitive road.

Black-Tailed Prairie Dog

Historically, black-tailed prairie dogs were one of the most conspicuous and characteristic 

residents of the shortgrass and mixed-grass prairies of the United States (USDI Fish and Wildlife 

Service 2000). At present, the black-tailed prairie dog is found in remnant populations 

throughout much of its former range, and significant range contractions have occurred in the 

eastern portion of the species range, including South Dakota (ibid.).
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Black-tailed prairie dogs are associated with shortgrass and mixed-grass prairies but require sites 

with soils conducive to burrowing. Suitable prairie dog habitat on the Black Hills National 

Forest is limited to nonrocky grassland soils on the Hell Canyon Ranger District. The Forest 

manages for 200 to 300 acres of prairie dog towns in at least three separate towns (Forest Plan 

objective 237). There are currently 10 known prairie dog colonies on the Forest, covering 

approximately 386 acres of National Forest System land (USDA Forest Service 2006b). All the 

towns are in South Dakota. There are no prairie dog towns on the Wyoming portion of the 

Forest. The three largest towns are about 170, 110 and 40 acres in size. All other towns are less 

than 20 acres. Additional acres occur on adjacent private land. The potential for prairie dog 

expansion on the Forest is limited because prairie dog towns on the Forest quickly reach private 

land or encounter rocky soils that make burrowing difficult. Large areas (greater than 1,000 

acres) of potentially suitable prairie dog habitat are not present on the Forest. The colonies are 

comparatively small and disjunct from adjacent known colonies. Prairie dog towns have 

remained stable or increased in size on the Forest regardless of recreational shooting and disease 

(USDA Forest Service 2006b).

Fringed Myotis

The Black Hills population of the fringed myotis is a disjunct population and recognized as 

belonging to a distinct subspecies, Myotis thysanodes pahasapensis. The South Dakota Natural 

Heritage Program gives the fringed myotis a state ranking of imperiled (S2) and the Wyoming 

Game and Fish Department considers it a species of special concern (Schmidt 2003a). In the 

Black Hills, this species is known in Custer, Fall River, Lawrence, and Pennington counties of 

South Dakota, and Crook and Weston Counties in Wyoming at an elevation between 3,800 and 

6,200 feet (ibid.). The fringed myotis is a year-round resident of the Black Hills. It can be found 

during the summer but is very difficult to locate during the winter (USDA Forest Service 2000b).

The fringed myotis occupies a variety of habitats including mid-elevation desert, grass, and 

woodland habitats and is found at higher elevations in spruce-fir and in mixed timber (Schmidt 

2003a). In the Black Hills of South Dakota, it is one of the more commonly captured bats during 

summer mist-netting studies and tends to occur along ecotones between ponderosa pine and 

oak/juniper forests (Schmidt 2003a). Little is known about hibernacula requirements for this 

species. The fringed myotis is known to hibernate in the ―Heavenly Room‖ of Jewel Cave. It 

tends to hibernate in small groups in the head-up position and to isolate itself from other species.

Snags, caves, mines, and buildings may be used as roosts (Schmidt 2003a). In the Black Hills, 

maternity roosts recorded for this species include rock crevices and ponderosa-pine snags (Cryan 

et al. 2001).

Riparian areas and water sources are important features of habitat. Open water is important 

because bats obtain water while flying. Riparian habitats are important for insect production and 

provide foraging opportunities (USDA Forest Service 2000b).

The fringed myotis is more closely associated with the forested environment than other bat 

species and may be fairly sensitive to forest management, particularly the availability of snags as 

roost sites (USDA Forest Service 2000b). The fringed myotis has been documented using 

ponderosa pine snags for roosts in the Black Hills (Cryan et al. 2001) and in other regions (Rabe 

et al. 1998).

Human disturbance in or near bat roost sites and hibernacula may cause site abandonment and 

local population losses. Off-highway vehicles that create substantial noise may disturb 

reproductive females during the critical pre-parturition period (Schmidt 2003a). Motorized 

routes may provide access to caves and rock climbing areas, which could lead to disturbance as 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

well. Activities that reduce the availability of suitable roost snags can negatively impact these 

bats. Activities in riparian zones that reduces available surface water or reduces mesic vegetation 

may impact site suitability and prey distribution or abundance for bats.

Townsend’s Big-Eared Bat

Townsend‘s big-eared bat is considered a species of concern through much of its range in the 

western United States. This species is a year-round resident in all South Dakota Black Hills 

counties and reported to be the most numerous bat species in Crook County, Wyoming (Schmidt 

2003b). In 1992, it was reported that there were 1,200 Townsend‘s big-eared bats hibernating in 

Jewel Cave, making it the largest known hibernating colony of this species in the western United 

States (Schmidt 2003b). There are four known maternity roosts of these bats in the Black Hills, 

two of which are on the Forest (USDA Forest Service 2000a).

Townsend‘s big-eared bats occupy a variety of habitats but are closely associated with caves and 

mines (Schmidt 2003b). They also use riparian areas for foraging, including wetlands and 

meadows (Pierson et al. 1999). Riparian areas account for approximately one percent of public 

and private land in the Black Hills and are typically located adjacent to streams and around 

natural springs, seeps, fens, and reservoirs. Townsend‘s big-eared bats feed primarily on moths, 

whose life cycles are dependent upon native forest plants (Schmidt 2003b).

Key habitat components include suitable maternity roost sites and hibernacula. These bats utilize 

both caves and mines for hibernacula (Schmidt 2003b). In the Black Hills, maternity roost sites 

are often in steep drainages with nearly vertical walls. These bats also utilize caves with 

relatively warm domes or large flat ceilings (Schmidt 2003b).

This species is very sensitive to activities such as recreational caving and mine closings, 

especially at hibernacula and maternity roosts (Schmidt 2003b). Townsend‘s big-eared bats are 

especially susceptible to human disturbance during the active time of year (summer), more so 

than other bat species (USDA Forest Service 2000b). These bats are extremely sensitive to 

disturbances in the vicinity of their roosts, including loud noises such as those produced by 

motorized off-road vehicles, discharging of firearms, and other such activities (Schmidt 2003b).

Rocky Mountain Bighorn Sheep

The range of Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep includes southern British Columbia and southwest 

Alberta south to southeast California, Arizona, and New Mexico (Whitaker 1980). Current 

estimate of the population in the Black Hills is approximately 350 sheep (Huxoll 2007).

There are two main populations of bighorn sheep in the Black Hills. The Custer State Park herd 

is located in Custer State Park and consists of three subherds. The Custer State Park herd 

experienced a recent die-off from disease. The Rapid City herd is located primarily on National 

Forest System land and consists of three subherds: the Sheridan Lake, Dark Canyon, and Spring 

Creek subherds. The Rapid City herd is located between Hill City, Pactola Reservoir, and Rapid 

City (Merwin 2000). There is also a herd in Elk Mountain area in the southern Black Hills.

Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep typically inhabit alpine meadows, foothills, cliffs, and rock 

outcrops (Luce et al. 1999; Clark and Stromberg 1987). Alpine habitat is absent in the Black 

Hills. Merwin (2000) noted that bighorn sheep often selected areas with good visibility (less than 

40 percent canopy closure) within suitable distance of water and escape terrain. Limits to 

persistence include limited availability of habitat on the Forest, vulnerability of habitat to 

residential development on adjacent private lands, and disturbance from recreation (Benzon and 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Halseth 1999). Disease is a major concern as diseases transferred from domestic sheep can cause 

major herd reductions.

Species of Local Concern

Species of local concern are plant, fish and wildlife species (including subspecies or varieties) 

that do not meet the criteria for sensitive status. These could include species with declining 

trends in only a portion of Region 2, or those that are important components of diversity in a 

local area. The local area is defined as National Forest System lands within the Forest (FSM 

2620.5 Black Hills Supplement 2600-2005-1). All species of local concern on the Forest are 

addressed in this section except bighorn sheep (Table 42). Bighorn sheep have been recently 

added to the Region 2 sensitive species list and are addressed under Sensitive Species and in the 

biological evaluation.

Demand Species

Species that are important local game animals but are not MIS, species of local concern or 

sensitive species are demand species. These species are of particular interest to the public 

because they are hunted. This analysis includes three demand species: elk, mule deer, and turkey.

Table 42. Black Hills species of local concern

Species Habitat

American dipper (Cinclus mexicanus)

Clear, fast-flowing streams. In the Black Hills, occurs in 

Spearfish Creek and several tributaries. Also has been found 

at Rapid Creek and some of the streams between Rapid Creek 

and Spearfish Creek. Spearfish Creek is considered to be the 

only creek left in the Black Hills capable of supporting a selfsustaining population of dippers

Black-and-white warbler (Mniotilta

varia)

Found in mature and second-growth deciduous and mixeddeciduous-coniferous forests. They are found mostly in bur 

oak woodlands and associated edges

Broad-winged hawk (Buteo

platypterus)

Forage in mature to old-growth forests, along forest streams, 

roads, and openings. In the Black Hills, nests primarily in 

ponderosa pine in mixed pine-and-deciduous habitats, 

occasionally with a white-spruce component.

Cooper’s hawk (Accipiter cooperii)

Considered a habitat generalist. Known to nest in riparian, 

ponderosa pine, and hardwood forests.

Northern saw-whet owl (Aegolius

acadicus)

Highest densities tend to be found in coniferous forests. Nests 

in snags in cavities excavated by flickers and other large 

woodpeckers.

Pygmy nuthatch (Sitta pygmaea)

A primary cavity nester that also uses secondary cavities. 

Prefer old or mature undisturbed forests, but are also known to 

use open, park-like stands of ponderosa pine. Likely needs 

heterogeneous forests with a mixture of well spaced old trees 

and trees of intermediate age

Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter

striatus)

Nest almost exclusively in conifers. Vegetation at nest sites is 

usually in the early successional stages and extremely dense.

White spruce could serve as important nesting habitat.

Bats

(Myotis evotis, Myotis volans, Myotis 

septentrionalis, Myotis ciliolabrum)

Found in the wooded riparian zone in badlands and prairies to 

higher elevation coniferous and deciduous woodlands. 

Hibernacula include caves and mines. Day roosts have been 

reported in buildings; under shingles; behind shutters of 

buildings; underneath exfoliating tree bark; inside cavities or 

crevices of trees; and in caves, mines, and quarries. Uses 

ponderosa pine snags as summer/maternity roosts.

Meadow jumping mouse (Zapus 

hudsonius campestris)

Strongly associated with riparian habitats along small streams 

in meadows and habitats beneath forests with an understory of 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

deciduous shrubs, grasses, forbs, and fallen logs and is 

presumed to disperse primarily along stream corridors.

Mountain goat (Oreamnos 

americanus)

Inhabits rugged terrain including cliffs, rock faces, ledges, and 

talus slopes. Primary range and habitat of the mountain goat in 

the Black Hills is centered around Harney Peak and The 

Needles. The mountain goat population occurs largely within

the Black Elk Wilderness and the Norbeck Wildlife Preserve.

Northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys 

sabrinus)

Habitat typically dominated by conifers or mixed 

coniferous/deciduous forests. Found in white-spruce forests in 

moist canyons of the northern Black Hills. Ponderosa pine is 

important foraging habitat in the Black Hills especially areas 

with larger trees and more canopy cover.

Butterflies

Atlantis fritillary (Speyeria atlantis 

pahasapa)

Tawny crescent (Phycoides batesii)

Atlantis fritillary found in wet meadows and moist canyons.

Tawny crescent is found in open meadows, stream bottoms, 

roads, trails, and riparian woodlands.

Snails

(Vertigo arthuri, Catinella gelida, 

Vertigo paradoxa, Discus shimekii)

Use a variety of habitats: white spruce, hardwoods, mountain 

mahogany, and ponderosa pine.

Rocky Mountain Elk

The elk population of the Black Hills is difficult to estimate in part because of interstate 

movements of the species. However, recent estimates placed the population level at 3,800 elk in 

the South Dakota Black Hills (Huxoll 2007). No population estimates are available for the 

Wyoming portion of the Black Hills (Sandrini 2007b). The elk herd in Wyoming appears to be 

growing, but at a slower rate than in the past (Sandrini 2007b). The Forest has committed 

(through objective 217) to managing habitat for 4,350 elk, which was the combined population 

objective establish by the two state game agencies in 1996.

About 900 elk were harvested (archery and rifle combined) in the South Dakota portion of the 

Black Hills in 2008 (Huxoll 2009). Harvest over the past ten years has ranged from about 600 to 

1,400 elk (Ibid.). About 200 elk were harvested in Wyoming Hunt Areas 1 and 116 in 2008 

(Wyoming Game and Fish Department 2009). Some of these elk in both States were likely 

harvested on private or other lands outside the National Forest System. In both States, there are 

significant amounts of private land within the harvest reporting areas. In Wyoming, Units 1 and 

116 covers the majority, but not all of the Bearlodge Ranger District. As a result, these numbers 

should not be viewed as the harvest on National Forest System lands, but do provide a picture of 

the harvest in and adjacent to the Forest.

Elk use a wide variety of vegetation types on the Forest but show a preference for forested 

riparian areas, forested stringers in meadows, and deciduous stands of birch or aspen (SAIC 

2003). Elk find cover (thermal or hiding or both) on the Forest in the denser stands of conifers 

(summer and winter) and hardwoods (summer only). For forage, however, they rely on more 

open stands and meadows and prairies, all of which may provide an abundance of grasses, forbs, 

and/or shrubs (SAIC 2003).

Roads have been known to negatively affect elk in various ways (Lyon 1979, Lyon 1983). The 

loss of habitat to road construction is unknown, but is often estimated at 5 acres per linear mile 

(Rowland et al. 2004). Roads may affect habitat by reducing the amount of patches of forest 

cover large enough to function effectively as elk habitat (Rowland et al. 2004). Roads may also 

affect elk habitat by facilitating the spread of invasive, exotic vegetation (Rowland et al. 2004).

Roads and motorized trails can also affect the animals directly. In addition to mortality from 

collisions with vehicles, elk avoid areas near open roads, are more vulnerable to hunter harvest, 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

and exhibit higher stress levels in areas or higher road density (Rowland et al. 2004). Several 

studies in the Black Hills have shown elk are adversely affected by roads (Millspaugh et al. 

2000, Millspaugh et al. 1995, Rumble et al. 2005). Rumble et al. (2005) found that elk 

movements increased with increased human activity during the hunting season. They suggested 

this response to hunters may reflect a pattern of elk responses to human disturbance during other 

times of the year.

An important management consideration for elk include the establishment of no more than one 

mile of open road per square mile of area and the promoting or maintaining of dense coniferous 

stands located more than 0.5 miles from open roads (SAIC 2003).

Mule Deer

Mule deer tend to inhabit more open, rugged habitat and are more abundant in the southern 

Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming, where open, rocky habitat is more prevalent (Seig 

and Severson 1996). Meadows and other grass cover types provide forage. Mountain mahogany 

habitat in the southern Black Hills may play an important role in providing mule deer habitat.

In 2008 in South Dakota, about 194 mule deer were harvested in the Black Hills Area (Huxoll 

2009). Over the past ten years, harvest in the South Dakota portion of the Black Hills has ranged 

from about 194 in 2008 to 889 in 2006 (Ibid.). In 2008 in Wyoming, 967 mule deer were 

harvested in Units 2 and 4 (Wyoming Game and Fish Department 2009). There are significant 

amounts of private land in the hunting units in both States so harvest on National Forest System 

lands is likely less than these numbers.

The working population estimate for the South Dakota portion of the Black Hills is 

approximately 10,000 animals (Huxoll 2009). The Wyoming estimate for Herd Unit 751 is 

approximately 32,000 animals and the population has increased since 2001 (Sandrini 2007c).

Motorized use on roads and trails may affect mule deer by direct mortality (collisions), though 

this is less likely on primitive roads and trails. Motorized use on roads and trails may also impact 

habitat effectiveness through disturbance and by facilitating the spread of invasive, exotic 

vegetation (Rowland et al. 2004).

Wild Turkey

Turkeys occur in a wide variety of vegetation types, including foothill and montane riparian 

associations, pine-juniper shrubland, mixed-grass prairie, and ponderosa pine, white spruce, and 

aspen forest stands (Panjabi 2003). Open areas are important for foraging during the summer, 

though meadows are seldom selected for (Rumble and Anderson 1996). Dense mature ponderosa 

pine serves as winter cover and a source of mast (Rumble and Anderson 1996). During the 

winter, turkeys also prefer south-facing slopes where the sun melts the snow (Rumble and 

Anderson 1996).

Migratory Birds

Many species of migratory birds are of international concern due to naturally small ranges, loss 

of habitat, observed population declines, and other factors. The Forest recognizes the ecological 

and economic importance of birds and approaches bird conservation at several levels by 

implementing Forest Plan objectives, standards, and guidelines; a Forestwide bird-monitoring 

program; and site-specific mitigation and effects analyses for identified species of concern.

Forest Plan objectives describe desired resource conditions. The most relevant objectives for bird 

conservation are those relating to vegetation diversity, landscape structural diversity, snags and 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

down woody material, riparian condition, habitat improvements, and disturbance processes. 

Standards and guidelines are designed to help achieve those objectives and are implemented at 

the project level. The most relevant standards and guidelines for migratory birds that occur on 

the Forest are presented in discussions of individual birds in the Species of Local Concern and 

Management Indicator Species sections of this document and the Threatened and Endangered 

Species and Region 2 Sensitive Species sections of the biological assessment and biological 

evaluation.

Bird monitoring is conducted at the Forest level to determine species distribution, abundance, 

and trends (Panjabi 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, Beason et al. 2006, Hutton et al. 2007, Giroir et al. 

2007). The RMBO designs and conducts the monitoring to provide statistically rigorous 

population trend data for at least 61 species that breed in the Black Hills. Trend data would assist 

the Forest in determining whether additional conservation measures are necessary. Species of 

concern applicable to project-level conservation are identified by many sources including the 

Endangered Species Act; the Region 2 sensitive species list; the Forest MIS list; the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service‘s Birds of Conservation Concern (BCC) publication (USDI Fish and 

Wildlife Service 2002); and the Wyoming Partners in Flight (PIF) Plan (Nicholoff 2003). All of 

these sources and their respective species of concern except the BCC and Wyoming PIF have 

been examined elsewhere in this document. The BCC 2002 publication partitions North America 

into 37 bird conservation regions (BCRs). The Black Hills is included in BCR 17 – Badlands and 

Prairies. The Wyoming PIF plan identifies three levels of priority birds, with the top level (Level 

1) representing species that need conservation action. Table 43 shows the disposition of 

migratory birds from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service BCR-17 list of Birds of Conservation 

Concern and the Level 1 species list of the Wyoming PIF Plan.

Environmental Effects Analysis

Direct Effects and Indirect Effects

General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components

Direct mortality from wildlife/vehicle collisions could occur in all alternatives. In all 

alternatives, direct mortality is expected to affect individuals and is not expected to put 

populations at risk because collisions are less likely to occur on primitive roads and trails such as 

those designated in this project (Oxley et al. 1973). In general, the more motorized routes and 

motorized use in wildlife habitat, the more potential there is for wildlife/vehicle collisions.

The most effects on wildlife from motorized recreation are likely to come in the form of 

disturbance as a result of route or area use. Habitat is also lost to road or trail surface. The miles 

of motorized routes and the amount of area open to motorized cross-country travel is used to 

evaluate the level of effects to wildlife and their habitat in general.

Alternative A

Alternative A is expected to have the most risk of direct mortality because it has the most area 

open to motorized cross-country travel. Alternative A is the only alternative that would allow 

unrestricted motorized cross-country travel. This could lead to more user-created routes that 

could further affect habitat through trampling and dust creation. Disturbance would continue 

occur in areas where motorized cross-country travel is allowed (about 865,000 acres of the 

Forest).

Under Alternative A, disturbance impacts would continue to accrue as motorized recreation use 

levels increase. User-created routes would continue to be created and would incrementally 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

impact wildlife and wildlife habitat in general. Also, under Alternative A, new unintended roads 

and trails would continue the spread of invasive weeds and potentially increase it, neither of 

which moves us closer to the goals and objectives of the Forest Plan. Alternative A allows game 

retrieval on the most acreage. Alternative A also allows for motorized retrieval of all game, 

which could result in impacts from more hunters. Alternative A has the most acreage open to 

motorized dispersed camping which would provide additional impacts to wildlife.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Table 43. Species of conservation concern and Wyoming PIF priority 1 species

Species List Disposition

American bittern WY PIF No habitat on Forest

Trumpeter swan WY PIF No habitat on Forest

Bald eagle WY PIF Region 2 sensitive species – Addressed in BE

Golden eagle BCR 17 Foraging habitat present. Evaluated below.

Northern goshawk WY PIF Region 2 sensitive species – Addressed in BE

Swainson’s hawk WY PIF Occasional on Forest, evaluated below

Ferruginous hawk BCR 17, WY PIF Region 2 sensitive species, - Addressed in BE 

(shrub-steppe/prairie)

Prairie falcon BCR 17 Nesting habitat present. Evaluated below.

Peregrine falcon BCR 17, WY PIF Region 2 sensitive species – Addressed in BE

Greater sage grouse WY PIF No occurrence on Forest, minimal sage brush 

(40 acres) on Forest in small patches.

Columbian sharp-tailed 

grouse

WY PIF No habitat on Forest

American

Golden-plover BCR 17 No habitat on Forest (prairie)

Mountain plover BCR 17, WY PIF Region 2 sensitive species – Addressed in BE 

(shortgrass prairie)

Upland sandpiper BCR 17, WY PIF Occurs on and adjacent to the Forest 

(grassland). Evaluated below.

Long-billed curlew BCR 17, WY PIF Known occurrences. Discussed in BE.

Marbled godwit BCR 17 No habitat on Forest (prairies and prairie 

wetlands)

Sanderling BCR 17 No habitat on Forest (prairie wetlands)

Wilson's phalarope BCR 17, WY PIF No habitat on Forest (prairie wetlands)

Black-billed cuckoo BCR 17 Species present on Forest (riparian hardwood 

habitat). Evaluated below

Burrowing owl BCR 17, WY PIF Region 2 sensitive species – Addressed in BE

Short-eared owl BCR 17, WY PIF No habitat on Forest (shortgrass prairie)

Red-naped sapsucker BCR 17 Nesting habitat present. Evaluated below

Lewis' woodpecker BCR 17 Region 2 sensitive species – Addressed in BE

Franklin’s gull WY PIF No habitat on Forest

Forster’s tern WY PIF No habitat on Forest

Black tern WY PIF No habitat on Forest

Dickcissel BCR 17 Species present on Forest (prairie habitat). 

Evaluated below.

Grasshopper sparrow BCR 17 Region 2 sensitive species – Addressed in BE

Sage sparrow WY PIF No Habitat on Forest

Sprague's pipit BCR 17 No habitat on Forest (prairie)

Brewer's sparrow BCR 17, WY PIF No habitat on Forest (shrub-steppe)

Baird's sparrow BCR 17, WY PIF No habitat on Forest (shortgrass prairie)

Le Conte's sparrow BCR 17 No habitat on Forest (prairie wetlands)

McCown's longspur BCR 17, WY PIF No habitat on Forest (shortgrass prairie)

Chestnut-collared longspur BCR 17 No habitat on Forest (prairie)
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

All the action alternatives are expected to have less chance of direct mortality than Alternative A 

because they have less area open to cross-country travel. Of the action alternatives, Alternative C 

is expected to have the most effects from direct mortality followed by Alternatives B, E and D, 

respectively, based on the miles of routes open to motorized travel.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced in all action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel. Little new construction is planned as part of this project. Most routes 

currently being considered for designation exist now on the ground. Habitat fragmentation is 

expected to be reduced for the same reasons. There would be a beneficial effect of reducing 

invasive weed spread and disturbance that creates seedbeds for invasive species.

Alternative C would have the most miles of motorized routes that could disturb wildlife, 

followed by Alternatives B, A, E, and D, respectively (Figure 11). The increase in routes in 

Alternatives B and C would likely offset some of the benefits of closing areas to motorized 

cross-country travel. Effects in areas with higher route densities (such as the loop trail areas) are 

expected to be higher than areas with lower route density. Still, the net result would be a benefit 

due to the amount of area closed to cross-country travel. The miles of routes in Alternative E 

would remain at the existing level. The lack of cross-country travel in Alternative E is expected 

to result in a net reduction in disturbance. Alternative D would have the least disturbance to 

wildlife in general because it has the least miles of motorized routes and the least area open to 

cross-country travel.

Road and trail use also causes 

dust, which can affect wildlife.

Effects from dust are expected 

to be correlated with the miles 

of routes as discussed above.

Motorized game retrieval can 

affect wildlife through 

disturbance. About 900 elk were 

harvested (archery and rifle 

combined) in the South Dakota 

portion of the Black Hills in 

2008 (Huxoll 2009). Harvest 

over the past 10 years has 

ranged from about 600 to 1,400 

elk (Ibid.). About 200 elk were 

harvested in Wyoming Hunt Areas 1 and 116 in 2008 (Wyoming Game and Fish Department 

2009). In 2008 in South Dakota 4,638 deer were harvested (Huxoll 2009). In South Dakota, total 

deer harvest in the Black Hills units range from 3,369 in 2002 to 5,405 in 2006 (Ibid.). In 2008 

in Wyoming 4,757 total deer were harvested in Hunt Units 2 and 4 (Wyoming game and Fish 

Department 2009). Actual numbers of elk and deer retrieved on National Forest System lands 

with motorized vehicles would be less because some of these animals in both States were likely 

harvested on private land or other ownerships and many hunters use nonmotorized retrieval 

methods.

Motorized game retrieval is expected to have little effect on wildlife because of the limited 

number of animals retrieved and the dispersed nature of the activity. Habitat effects are expected 

Figure 11. Miles of motorized routes Forestwide by alternative
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

to be minimal because rarely 

would more than one 

animal be shot in the 

same location, making 

repeated use of the 

same track unlikely.

Motorized game 

retrieval involves big 

game, which occurs in 

the fall outside the bird 

breeding season. Most 

big game animals are 

already being disturbed 

by hunters in the woods.

Still, there could be some 

impacts to less mobile species.

Of the action alternatives, Alterative C would allow motorized game retrieval on the most acres 

followed by Alternatives B, D, and E respectively (Figure 12). Alternative B would reduce 

impacts from existing conditions because it only allows game retrieval for elk, which has far 

fewer hunters that would need to retrieve game, and in a reduced area. Alternative C would 

reduce impacts from existing conditions because it has less acreage open to motorized game 

retrieval, but may have more impacts than Alternative B in the retrieval area because it allows 

retrieval of elk and deer. Alternatives D and E would have the least impacts from game retrieval 

because motorized game retrieval is not allowed.

Motorized dispersed camping can also disturb some wildlife. The effects of motorized dispersed 

camping are estimated using the acreage open to motorized-dispersed camping (Figure 13). Of 

the action alternatives, Alternative C has the most acreage open to motorized dispersed camping, 

followed by Alternatives B, D, and E, respectively.

Overall, the action alternatives would have a net benefit to wildlife due to the closing of areas to 

motorized cross-country travel. Alternative D would have the most benefit because it has the 

fewest motorized routes and the least area open to motorized cross-country travel, followed by 

Alternative E, B, and C, respectively.

Ponderosa Pine Habitat

Alternative A

Alternative A is the only 

alternative that would allow 

unrestricted motorized crosscountry travel. This could lead 

to more user-created routes that 

could further affect understory 

vegetation and habitat loss.

Disturbance would continue to 

occur in areas where motorized 

cross-country travel is allowed.

Disturbance impacts would 

continue to accrue as 

Figure 12. Acres open to motorized game retrieval by 

alternative on the Black Hills National Forest

Figure 13. Acres open to motorized dispersed camping by 

alternative on the Black Hills National Forest
Final Environmental Impact Statement

motorized recreation use levels increase. User-created routes would continue to be created and 

impact wildlife that use ponderosa pine habitat.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced for all action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel. Little new construction is planned as part of this project. Most routes 

currently being considered for designation exist now on the ground. Effects on habitat condition 

and trend are expected to be reduced.

The effects of disturbance to wildlife that use ponderosa pine is based on the miles of motorized

routes in ponderosa pine and the acres of ponderosa pine open to motorized cross-country travel

(Figure 14). None of the action alternatives would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country 

travel. This would have a reduced effect on wildlife using ponderosa pine habitat by reducing 

disturbance impacts.

Motorized use of roads and trails 

can also disturb wildlife.

Alternative C has the most 

motorized routes in ponderosa 

pine habitat, followed by 

Alternatives B, A, E and D, 

respectively. Still, the action 

alternatives would have a 

reduced net effect on wildlife 

using ponderosa pine habitat due 

to the amount of habitat closed 

to motorized cross-country 

travel.

The effects of motorized game 

retrieval and dispersed camping 

in ponderosa pine habitat are 

expected to be similar to those discussed above for the Forest in general.

White Spruce Habitat

Alternative A

Unrestricted motorized cross-country travel would continue in this alternative in much of the 

spruce habitat. This could lead to more user-created routes that could further reduce understory 

vegetation. The effects of disturbance to wildlife that use spruce habitat is based on the miles of 

motorized routes in spruce and the acres of spruce open to motorized cross-country travel.

Disturbance would continue to occur in areas where unrestricted motorized cross-country travel 

is allowed. Disturbance impacts would continue to accrue as motorized recreation levels 

increase. User-created routes would continue to be created and impact wildlife that use spruce 

habitat.

The effects of motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping on spruce habitat are expected to 

be similar to those discussed above for the Forest in general.

Figure 14. Miles of motorized routes in ponderosa pine 

habitat by alternative on the Black Hills National Forest
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced for all action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel. Little new construction is planned as part of this project. Most routes 

currently being considered for designation exist on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and 

trend are expected to be reduced.

The effects of disturbance to wildlife that use spruce habitat is based on the miles of motorized 

routes in spruce (Figure 15) and the acres of spruce open to motorized cross-country travel. None 

of the action alternatives would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel. This would 

have a reduced effect on wildlife using spruce habitat by reducing disturbance impacts.

Motorized use of roads and trails can also disturb wildlife. Alternatives A, B and E have the most 

motorized routes in spruce 

habitat, followed by Alternatives 

C and D, respectively. Still, the 

action alternatives would have a 

net reduced effect on wildlife 

using spruce habitat due to the 

amount of habitat closed to 

unrestricted motorized crosscountry travel.

The effects of motorized game 

retrieval and dispersed camping 

on spruce habitat are expected to 

be similar to those discussed 

above for the Forest in general.

Hardwood Habitat

Alternative A

Unrestricted motorized cross-country travel would continue in this alternative. This could lead to 

more user-created routes that could further affect understory vegetation. The effects of motorized 

game retrieval and dispersed camping on hardwood habitat are expected to be similar to those 

discussed above for the Forest in general.

The effects of disturbance to wildlife that use hardwood habitat is based on the miles of 

motorized routes in hardwoods and the acres of hardwoods open to motorized cross-country 

travel. Disturbance would continue to occur in areas where motorized cross-country travel is 

allowed. Disturbance impacts would continue to accrue as motorized recreation levels increase.

User-created routes would continue to be created and would impact wildlife that use hardwood 

habitat.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced for all action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial affect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel. Little new construction is planned as part of this project. Most routes 

currently being considered for designation exist now on the ground. Effects on habitat condition 

and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack of cross-country motorized travel.

Figure 15. Miles of motorized routes in spruce habitat by 

alternative on the Black Hills National Forest
Final Environmental Impact Statement

The effects of disturbance to wildlife that use hardwood habitat is based on the miles of 

motorized routes in hardwoods and the acres of hardwoods open to motorized cross-country 

travel. None of the action alternatives would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel.

This would have a reduced effect on wildlife using hardwood habitat by reducing disturbance 

impacts.

Motorized use of roads and 

trails can also disturb wildlife.

Alternative C has the most 

motorized routes in hardwood 

habitat, followed by 

Alternatives B, A, E, and D, 

respectively (Figure 16). Still, 

the action alternatives would 

have a net reduced effect on 

wildlife using hardwood 

habitat due to the amount of 

habitat closed to motorized 

cross-country travel.

Snag Habitat

Alternative A

Snag removal through firewood gathering or other means would remain consistent with current 

conditions. Some illegal snag cutting would likely occur. Alternative A is the only alternative that 

would allow unrestricted cross-country motorized travel, which could lead to more illegal snag 

cutting.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Impacts to snag habitat is expected to be minimal and consistent with the Forest Plan (standards 

2301, 2305) for all action alternatives. None of the action alternatives would authorize the 

cutting or removing of snags. Some illegal snag cutting may occur under all action alternatives.

Alternatives B, C, D, and E are expected to have less risk of illegal snag cutting due to less area 

open to unrestricted motorized cross-country travel.

Riparian Habitat

Alternative A

Unrestricted motorized cross-country travel would continue in this alternative. This could lead to 

more user-created routes that could further affect riparian vegetation. The effects of motorized 

game retrieval and dispersed camping on riparian habitat are expected to be similar to those 

discussed above for the Forest in general.

Disturbance would continue to occur in areas where motorized cross-country travel is allowed.

Disturbance impacts would continue to accrue as motorized recreation use levels increase. Usercreated routes would continue to be created and impact wildlife that use riparian habitat.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced for all action alternatives (Figure 17). 

These alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to 

Figure 16. Miles of motorized routes in hardwood habitat by 

alternative on the Black Hills National Forest
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

motorized cross-country travel. 

Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project.

Most routes currently being 

considered for designation exist 

now on the ground. Effects on 

habitat condition and trend are 

expected to be reduced due to 

the lack of cross-country 

motorized travel.

The effects of motorized game 

retrieval and dispersed camping 

on riparian habitat are expected 

to be similar to those discussed 

above for the Forest in general.

The effects of disturbance to wildlife that use riparian habitat is based on the miles of motorized 

routes in riparian habitat and the acres of riparian habitat open to motorized cross-country travel.

None of the action alternatives would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel. This 

would have a reduced effect on wildlife using riparian habitat by reducing disturbance impacts.

Motorized use of roads and trails can also disturb wildlife. Alternative C has the most motorized 

routes in riparian habitat, followed by Alternatives B, A, E, and D, respectively. Still, the action 

alternatives would have a net reduced effect on wildlife using riparian habitat due to the amount 

of habitat closed to motorized cross-country travel.

Effects to the riparian habitat and associated species are mitigated through a wide variety of 

standards and guidelines, watershed conservation practices, and State BMPs that protect riparian 

areas. Forestwide standards and guidelines protect riparian areas, water influence zones, and 

wetlands. Long-term riparian ecosystem health and ecological function are provided for by not 

allowing actions that would be detrimental to riparian-ecosystem condition (standards 1301, 

1302). Objective 105 strives to prohibit motorized vehicles in wetlands, wet meadows, and 

riparian areas. Standard 1113 provides direction pertaining to minimizing sediment discharge 

into streams, lakes, and wetlands during road construction and other site disturbances. Guideline 

9107 prohibits land vehicles from entering perennial steams where resource damage would 

occur. Guideline 9108 restricts vehicle traffic to roads and trails in riparian areas.

Grassland Habitat

Alternative A

Unrestricted motorized cross-country travel would continue in this alternative. This could lead to 

more user-created routes that could further affect understory vegetation. The effects of motorized 

game retrieval and dispersed camping on hardwood habitat are expected to be similar to those 

discussed above for the Forest in general.

The effects of disturbance to wildlife that use grassland habitat is based on the miles of 

motorized routes in grass cover-type and the acres of grass covertype open to motorized crosscountry travel. Alternative A would continue to allow 647 miles of routes in grassland covertype, 

which would continue to disturb grassland species. Disturbance would continue to occur in areas 

where motorized cross-country travel is allowed. Disturbance impacts would continue to accrue 

Figure 17. Miles of motorized routes within 400 feet of riparian 

habitat by alternative
Final Environmental Impact Statement

as motorized recreation use levels increase. User-created routes would continue to be created and 

would impact wildlife that use grassland habitat.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced for all action alternatives (Figure 18). 

These alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to 

motorized cross-country travel. Little new construction is planned as part of this project. Most 

routes currently being considered for designation exist now on the ground. Effects on habitat 

condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack of cross-country motorized travel.

The effects of motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping on grassland habitat are expected 

to be similar to those discussed above for the Forest in general. The effects of disturbance to 

wildlife that use grassland habitat is based on the miles of motorized routes in grass covertype 

and the acres of grass covertype 

open to motorized crosscountry travel. None of the 

action alternatives would allow 

unrestricted motorized crosscountry travel. This would 

reduce effects on wildlife using 

grassland habitat by reducing 

disturbance impacts.

Motorized use of roads and 

trails can also disturb wildlife.

Alternative C has the most 

motorized routes in grassland 

habitat, followed by 

Alternatives B, A, E, and D, 

respectively. Still, the action 

alternatives would reduce 

effects on wildlife using grassland habitat due to the amount of habitat closed to motorized crosscountry travel.

Shrubland (Mountain Mahogany) Habitat

Alternative A

Unrestricted motorized cross-country travel would continue in this alternative. This could lead to 

more user-created routes that could further affect vegetation in mountain mahogany habitat. The 

effects of motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping on mountain mahogany habitat are 

expected to be similar to those discussed above for the Forest in general.

The effects of disturbance to wildlife that use mountain mahogany habitat is based on the miles 

of motorized routes in mountain mahogany and the acres of mountain mahogany open to 

motorized cross-country travel. Alternative A would continue to allow 5 miles of routes in 

mountain mahogany habitat, which could disturb species using the habitat. Alternative A would 

also continue to allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel in much of the mountain 

mahogany habitat. Disturbance would continue to occur in areas where motorized cross-country 

travel is allowed. Disturbance impacts would continue to accrue as motorized recreation use 

levels increase. User-created routes would continue to be created and would impact wildlife that 

use mountain mahogany habitat.

Figure 18. Miles of motorized routes in grassland cover types 

by alternative
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced for all action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel. Little new construction is planned as part of this project. Most routes 

currently being considered for designation exist now on the ground. Effects on habitat condition 

and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack of cross-country motorized travel.

The effects of motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping on mountain mahogany habitat 

are expected to be similar to those discussed above for the Forest in general. The effects of 

disturbance to wildlife that use mountain mahogany habitat is based on the miles of motorized 

routes in mountain mahogany and the acres of mountain mahogany open to motorized crosscountry travel. None of the action alternatives would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country 

travel. This would reduce effects on wildlife using mountain mahogany habitat by reducing 

disturbance impacts.

Motorized use of roads and trails can also disturb wildlife. All alternatives have the roughly same 

amount of motorized routes in mountain mahogany habitat (about 5 miles). The action 

alternatives would reduce the net effect on wildlife using mountain mahogany habitat due to the 

amount of habitat closed to motorized cross-country travel.

Management Indicator Species

Black-backed Woodpecker

The black-backed woodpecker is also a Region 2 sensitive species. The effects to this species are 

discussed in detail in the biological evaluation. A summary of effects to all sensitive species 

analyzed is located below on page 218.

Brown Creeper

Alternative A

Habitat availability would remain the same as existing conditions in Alternative A. Effects on 

snags are expected to be minimal. The risk of illegal snag removal would be highest in 

Alternative A because it would allow the most area open to motorized cross-country travel. 

Brown creeper habitat condition and availability would be expected to remain stable on the 

Forest. Habitat fragmentation would remain at existing conditions because no new routes would 

be authorized.

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal. Due to the maneuverability of brown 

creepers, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect 

Forestwide populations.

Game retrieval would have minimal effects on brown creepers. Most game retrieval would occur 

outside the brown creeper nesting season. Spring and summer dispersed camping could disturb 

nesting brown creepers. Effects from dispersed camping are expected to be similar to general 

effects to wildlife discussed above.

The effects of disturbance are estimated using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. White spruce and ponderosa pine structural 

stages 4C and 5 offer the best habitat for brown creepers. Alternative A would also continue to 

allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel in much of this habitat. Disturbance would 

continue to occur in areas where motorized cross-country travel is allowed. Disturbance impacts 

would continue to accrue as motorized recreation use levels increase. User-created routes would 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

continue to be created and impact brown creepers through disturbance and habitat alteration.

Alternative A would continue to allow 332 miles of motorized routes in primary brown creeper 

habitat, which could disturb nesting brown creepers.

Alternative A is not expected to reduce the Forestwide population. Forestwide populations are 

expected to remain stable or increase.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of brown creepers, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, 

they are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced in all action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Brown creepers mostly forage in the forest canopy and would have few changes 

from routes on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due

to the lack of cross-country motorized travel.

Impacts to snag habitat is expected to be minimal for all action alternatives. None of the 

alternatives would authorize the cutting or removing of snags. Some illegal snag cutting may 

occur under all alternatives. Alternatives B, C, D, and E are expected to have less risk of illegal 

snag cutting due to less area open to unrestricted motorized cross-country travel.

Roads can cause habitat fragmentation for species that tend to use the interior parts of forest 

patches. More roads tend to reduce the patch size and increase the ratio of edge-to interior area.

This reduces the amount of habitat available to species that prefer these interior forest 

conditions, such as brown Creepers (Reed et al. 1996). Fragmentation of habitat is expected to be 

reduced in all action alternatives. These alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from 

closing much of the Forest to motorized cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to 

revegetate. Based on the above analysis, brown creeper habitat condition and availability is 

expected to remain stable on the Forest. All action alternatives contribute to conservation and 

maintenance of brown creeper habitat (Forest Plan objective 238).

Game retrieval would have minimal effects on brown creepers for all action alternatives. Most 

game retrieval would occur outside the brown creeper nesting season. Spring and summer 

dispersed camping could disturb nesting brown creepers. Effects from dispersed camping are 

expected to be similar to general effects to wildlife discussed above.

The effects of disturbance are estimated using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. White spruce and ponderosa pine structural 

stages 4C and 5 offer the best habitat for brown creepers. None of the action alternatives would 

allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel. This would reduce effects on brown creepers 

by reducing disturbance impacts.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Motorized use of roads and 

trails can also disturb wildlife.

Alternative C has the most 

motorized routes in primary 

habitat, followed by 

Alternatives B, A, E, and D, 

respectively (Figure 19). The 

action alternatives would 

reduce the net effect on brown 

creepers due to the amount of 

habitat closed to motorized 

cross-country travel.

Brown creepers are also found 

in lower densities in other 

habitats including other 

structural stages of ponderosa pine. Effects of disturbance to brown creepers in ponderosa pine 

would be similar to those discussed earlier for ponderosa pine habitat.

None of the action alternatives are expected to reduce the Forestwide population. Forestwide 

populations are expected to remain stable or increase in all action alternatives. The action 

alternatives may have a better chance of population increases because of reduced disturbance 

from motorized cross-country travel. The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined this 

species is likely to persist on the Forest. This project would not change any of the standards, 

guidelines, or objectives that provide for brown creeper habitat. Under all alternatives, brown 

creepers are likely to persist on the Forest.

Golden-Crowned Kinglet

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal. Due to the maneuverability of this 

species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect 

Forestwide populations.

Loss of habitat to road surface is expected to be proportional to route mileage. Kinglets mostly 

forage in the tree canopies and would see little effects from marrow routes on the ground.

Motorized cross-country travel may create more routes as demand increases, thereby reducing 

available habitat. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be proportional to route 

mileage.

Spruce on the Black Hills is naturally distributed as patches at low abundance and there are gaps 

where spruce habitat is absent or only present in low abundance. However, the kinglets are 

mobile and disjunct areas of spruce habitat are typically be large enough and close enough to 

permit dispersal and interaction among subpopulations across the Forest. Conditions similar to 

this are expected to be maintained under Alternative A. Therefore, fragmentation of spruce 

habitat is not expected to adversely affect the species.

Based on the above analysis, the amount and condition of habitat is expected to remain stable.

Alternative A contributes to conservation and maintenance of kinglet habitat (Forest Plan 

objective 238).

Figure 19. Miles of motorized routes in primary brown creeper 

habitat by alternative
Final Environmental Impact Statement

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Disturbance effects to kinglets are expected to be 

similar to effects previously described for spruce habitat.

Game retrieval would have minimal effects on kinglets for Alternative A. Most game retrieval 

would occur outside the kinglet nesting season. Spring and summer dispersed camping could 

disturb nesting kinglets. Effects from dispersed camping are expected to be similar to general 

effects to wildlife discussed previously.

Alternative A is not expected to reduce the Forestwide population. Forestwide populations are 

expected to remain stable or increase.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of this species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they 

are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced in all action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most designated existed previously but hadn‘t been formally 

designated. Kinglets mostly forage in the tree canopies and would have few effects from routes 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel.

Spruce on the Black Hills is naturally distributed as patches at low abundance and there are gaps 

where spruce habitat is absent or only present in low abundance. However, the kinglets are 

mobile and disjunct areas of spruce habitat are typically be large enough and close enough to 

permit dispersal and interaction among subpopulations across the Forest. Conditions similar to 

this are expected to be maintained under all action alternatives. Therefore, fragmentation of 

spruce habitat is not expected to adversely affect the species.

Based on the above analysis, the amount and condition of habitat is expected to remain stable or 

increase. All action alternatives contribute to conservation and maintenance of kinglet habitat 

(Forest Plan objective 238).

Game retrieval would have minimal effects on kinglets for all action alternatives. Most game 

retrieval would occur outside the kinglet nesting season. Spring and summer dispersed camping 

could disturb nesting kinglets. Effects from dispersed camping are expected to be similar to 

general effects to wildlife discussed previously.

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Disturbance effects to kinglets for all action 

alternatives are expected to be similar to effects previously described for spruce habitat.

Alternatives B and E have the most motorized routes in spruce habitat, followed by Alternatives 

C and D, respectively. Still, the action alternatives would reduce the net effects on kinglets due to 

the amount of habitat closed to motorized cross-country travel.

None of the action alternatives is expected to reduce the Forestwide population. Forestwide 

populations are expected to remain stable or increase in all action alternatives. The action 

alternatives may have a better chance of population increases because of reduced disturbance 

from motorized cross-country travel.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Under all alternatives, golden-crowned kinglets are likely to persist on the Forest. Spruce habitat 

would continue to be distributed as patches at low abundance and there may be gaps where 

spruce habitat is absent or only present in low abundance. However, the disjunct areas of spruce 

habitat would typically be large enough and close enough to permit dispersal and interaction 

among subpopulations across the Forest. The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined this 

species is likely to persist on the Forest. This project would not change any of the standards, 

guidelines, or objectives that provide for kinglet habitat.

Grasshopper Sparrow

The grasshopper sparrow is also a Region 2 sensitive species. The effects to this species are 

evaluated in detail in the biological evaluation. A summary of effects to all sensitive species 

analyzed is located below on page 218.

Ruffed Grouse

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal. Due to the maneuverability of this 

species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect 

Forestwide populations.

Alternative A is the only 

alternative that would allow 

unrestricted motorized crosscountry travel. This could lead 

to more user-created routes that 

could further affect vegetation 

in grouse habitat, which could 

deter from the conservation and 

maintenance of grouse habitat 

(Forest Plan objective 238).

The effects of disturbance are 

estimated by using the miles of 

routes in aspen habitat and the acreage of aspen open to cross-country travel. Alternative A 

would continue to allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel in much of this habitat. 

Disturbance would continue to occur in areas where motorized cross-country travel is allowed.

Disturbance impacts would continue to accrue as motorized recreation use levels increase. Usercreated routes would continue to be created and would impact ruffed grouse. Alternative A would 

continue to allow 150 miles of motorized routes in aspen habitat.

Game retrieval would have minimal effects on ruffed grouse. Most game retrieval would occur 

during big game seasons outside the grouse nesting season. Spring and summer dispersed 

camping could disturb nesting grouse. Effects from dispersed camping are expected to be similar 

to general effects to wildlife discussed previously.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of this species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they 

are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Effects on habitat 

quantity are expected to be 

reduced in the action 

alternatives. These alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the 

Forest to motorized cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new 

construction is planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for 

designation exist now on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be 

reduced due to the lack of cross-country motorized travel.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation and maintenance of grouse habitat (Forest Plan 

objective 238). The action alternatives would reduce the net effects by closing habitat to crosscountry travel. Alternative D would conserve habitat the most because it has the least amount of 

habitat with routes and cross-country travel.

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in aspen habitat and the 

acreage of aspen open to cross-country travel. None of the action alternative would allow 

motorized cross-country travel. This would reduce effects on grouse by reducing disturbance 

impacts.

Motorized use of roads and trails can also disturb wildlife. Alternative C has the most motorized 

routes in grouse habitat, followed by Alternatives B, A, E, and D, respectively (Figure 20). The 

action alternatives would reduce the net effects on grouse due to the amount of habitat closed to 

unrestricted motorized cross-country travel.

Game retrieval would have minimal effects on ruffed grouse for all action alternatives. Most 

game retrieval would occur during big game seasons outside the grouse nesting season. Spring 

and summer dispersed camping could disturb nesting grouse. Effects from dispersed camping are 

expected to be similar to general effects to wildlife discussed previously.

The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest.

This project would not change any of the standards, guidelines, or objectives that provide for 

ruffed grouse habitat. Under all alternatives, adequate habitat is expected to exist and ruffed 

grouse are likely to persist on the Forest.

Song Sparrow

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal. Due to the maneuverability of this 

species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect 

Forestwide populations.

Alternative A is the only alternative that would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country 

travel. This could lead to more user-created routes that could further affect vegetation in song 

sparrow habitat. This could reduce the Forest‘s ability contribute to conservation of song sparrow 

habitat (Forest Plan objective 238).

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Effects from disturbance are expected to mimic 

impacts to riparian habitat discussed earlier in the general wildlife effects section.

Game retrieval would have minimal effects on song sparrows in Alternative A. Most game 

retrieval would occur during big game seasons outside the nesting season. Spring and summer 

dispersed camping could disturb nesting song sparrows. Effects from dispersed camping are 

Figure 20. Miles of motorized routes in aspen habitat by 

alternative on the Black Hills National Forest
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

expected to be similar to those discussed earlier in the general wildlife effects section for riparian 

habitat.

The amount of riparian area is not expected to change substantially under Alternative A. 

Objectives, standards, and guidelines are designed to maintain or enhance riparian condition. 

Some individuals may be disturbed, but song sparrow populations are expected to remain stable 

in these riparian areas. This alternative would not change any of the standards, guidelines, or 

objectives that provide for song sparrow habitat. There would be adequate habitat for 

maintaining populations of song sparrows. Riparian habitats would be maintained through 

implementation of objectives, standards, and guidelines.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of this species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they 

are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced in the action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel. For general effects on riparian habitat, see the riparian 

discussion on page 204.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of song sparrow habitat (Forest Plan objective

238). Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute more to the conservation of habitat by closing 

areas to unrestricted cross-country travel. Alternative D would conserve habitat the most because 

it has the least amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel.

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Effects from disturbance are expected to mimic 

impacts to riparian habitat discussed earlier in the general wildlife effects section.

Game retrieval would have minimal effects on song sparrows for all alternatives. Most game 

retrieval would occur during big game seasons outside the nesting season. Spring and summer 

dispersed camping could disturb nesting song sparrows. Effects from dispersed camping are 

expected to be similar to those discussed earlier in the general wildlife effects section.

The amount of riparian area is not expected to change substantially in all action alternatives. 

Objectives, standards, and guidelines are designed to maintain or enhance riparian condition. 

Some individuals may be disturbed, but song sparrow populations are expected to remain stable 

in these riparian areas. The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined this species is likely to 

persist on the Forest. This project would not change any of the standards, guidelines or 

objectives that provide for song sparrow habitat. Under all action alternatives, there would be 

adequate habitat for maintaining populations of song sparrows. Riparian habitats would be 

maintained implementation of objectives, standards, and guidelines.

Beaver

Alternative A

Acres of riparian areas and miles of streams are not expected to change under Alternative A. The 

effects on beaver would likely be reflected in the quality of riparian habitat rather than the 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

quantity of riparian habitat. Effects to beavers would likely mirror effects to riparian and wetland 

areas. Effects on riparian areas are discussed earlier in the general wildlife section.

Alternative A is the only alternative that would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country 

travel. This could lead to more user-created routes that could further affect vegetation in beaver 

habitat. This could reduce the Forest‘s ability contribute to conservation of beaver habitat (Forest

Plan objective 238).

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to occur, though infrequently. If collisions do occur, 

they are not likely to affect Forestwide populations. Alternative A would continue to allow 

unrestricted motorized cross-country travel near most beaver colonies. Impacts would continue 

to accrue as motorized recreation use levels increase. User-created routes would continue to be 

created and could impact beavers.

The area open to motorized game retrieval and motorized dispersed camping would be the 

highest in Alternative A. These types of uses would affect beaver streams if they result in 

crossing streams to access game or campsites.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Acres of riparian areas and miles of streams are not expected to change under all action 

alternatives. The effects on beaver would likely be reflected in the quality of riparian habitat 

rather than the quantity of riparian habitat. Direct impacts to riparian and wetland ecosystems 

typically occur from direct disturbances such as the clearing of vegetation; roads or trails (e.g., 

stream crossings); and placement of fill material (e.g., development in a floodplain). Effects to 

beavers would likely mirror effects to riparian and wetland areas. Effects on riparian areas are 

discussed earlier in the general wildlife section.

All action alternatives would contribute to conservation and maintenance of beaver habitat 

(Forest Plan objective 238) by closing areas to unrestricted cross-country travel. Alternative D 

would conserve habitat the most because it has the least amount of habitat with routes and crosscountry travel.

The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest.

This project would not change any of the standards, guidelines, or objectives that provide for 

beaver habitat. Under all alternatives, there would be adequate habitat for maintaining 

populations for beaver. Beaver populations are likely to remain stable or increase on the Forest in 

the future because hardwood ecosystems are expected to remain stable or increase, and riparian 

and aquatic ecosystem conditions are expected to remain stable.

Alternative B

Alternative B would reopen a closed road near beaver colonies along Lytle Creek (Bear Lodge 

Mountains). More routes would be added than dropped, which could provide more impacts than 

Alternative A. Motorized game retrieval (elk) and dispersed camping would be allowed along 

some roads near beaver streams. Users would not be allowed to cross the nearby stream to access 

game or campsites, which would avoid impacts. Alternative B closes the Forest to unrestricted 

motorized cross-country travel, which would be a benefit to most beaver streams. Most usercreated routes near beaver streams would no longer be used. Alternative B would reduce net

effects on beavers.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Alternative C

Effects of Alternative C would be the same as Alternative B, since the same routes near beaver 

colonies would be added, and unrestricted motorized cross-country travel would not be allowed.

Motorized game retrieval is allowed in some areas of the Forest for deer and elk. Users would 

not be allowed to cross the nearby stream to access game or campsites, which would avoid 

impacts. Dispersed camping would be allowed along some routes near beaver streams. This 

could affect beavers if users cross beaver streams to access campsites. Still, the overall effects of 

Alternative C are expected to be reduced due to the closure of most of the Forest to unrestricted 

motorized cross-country travel.

Alternative D

Alternative D would have the least impact to beavers because it does not add new routes near 

beaver colonies, does not allow motorized game retrieval or dispersed camping off established 

routes, and closes the Forest to all motorized cross-country travel. Some existing routes near 

beaver colonies would remain open, so there would still be some level of effects. The overall

effects are expected to be reduced due to the closure of motorized cross-country travel, game 

retrieval, and dispersed camping.

Alternative E

Alternative E would keep the existing road system similar to Alternative A, but would close the 

Forest to all motorized cross-country travel and would not allow motorized game retrieval or 

dispersed camping off established routes. There would still be some effects from existing roads, 

but the net effect would be reduced due to the reduction in motorized cross-country travel, game 

retrieval, and dispersed camping.

White-tailed Deer

Different structural stages in ponderosa pine offer different levels of habitat requirements for 

deer. Open forest conditions (structural stages 1, 2, 3A, and 4A) offer the best forage, including 

the best potential for understory shrubs. Structural stages 3C, 4C, and 5 offer the best conditions 

for cover including thermal cover. Structural stages 3B and 4B intermediate forage and cover but 

not optimum conditions for both.

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to occur. Most collisions are likely to occur on paved 

highways and on existing gravel roads that allow higher vehicle speeds. Collisions are not likely 

to limit Forestwide populations.

Alternative A is the only alternative that would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country 

travel. This could lead to more user-created routes that could further affect vegetation in deer 

habitat. This could reduce the Forest‘s ability contribute to conservation of deer habitat (Forest 

Plan objective 238).

The effects of disturbance is estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. White-tailed deer are found in most habitat types 

on the Forest. The effects of disturbance from routes, game retrieval, and dispersed camping are 

expected to be similar to those displayed previously in the general effects to wildlife.

Executive Order 13443 (Facilitation of Hunting Heritage and Wildlife Conservation) directs the 

Department of Agriculture ―to facilitate the expansion and enhancement of hunting opportunities 

and the management of game species and their habitat.‖ Alternative A would have the most area 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

open to motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping. Access for hunting would remain 

unchanged in this alternative.

The Forest Plan contains wintertime road density objectives in Management Areas 5.4 and 5.43 

(objective 5.4-207 and 5.43-205). These objectives strive for a wintertime open road density of 

one mile per square mile or less in these management areas. The Forest is currently above the 

objective in Management Area 5.4 and is currently meeting this objective in Management Area

5.43. Alternative A does not move the Forest towards meeting this objective in Management 

Area 5.4.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to occur in all action alternatives. Most collisions are 

likely to occur on paved highways and on existing gravel roads that allow higher vehicle speeds.

Collisions of new routes are expected to be minimal because most are trails with slower traffic.

Collisions are not likely to limit Forestwide populations.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced in the action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel.

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. White-tailed deer are found in most habitat types 

on the Forest. The effects of disturbance from routes, game retrieval, and dispersed camping are 

expected to be similar to those displayed previously in the general effects to wildlife.

Motorized game retrieval and route density can influence how hunters disperse across the 

hunting units. Alternative C may concentrate hunting in those small portions of hunting units 

open to game retrieval and reduce harvest in areas outside retrieval areas. Alternatives B, D, and 

E could encourage road hunting and shift hunters to areas with higher route densities since 

motorized retrieval of deer would not be allowed off designated routes.

Motorized game retrieval may also affect hunter experience. Many hunters depend on their ATVs 

to retrieve harvested deer. Hunters that depend on motorized game retrieval would experience a 

reduced opportunity to do so under Alternative C, and a greater reduction in opportunity in 

Alternatives B, D, and E. Alternatives B, D, and E would provide more opportunities for hunters 

who desire a more primitive type of game retrieval (horse or foot).

None of the alternatives would violate Executive Order 13443 and limit access to hunting areas 

due to the abundance of existing roads on the Forest that would remain open. The action 

alternatives would shift off-road hunting opportunities from motorized to nonmotorized by 

closing areas currently open to unrestricted cross-country travel. Alternative D would shift deer 

opportunities the most from roaded hunting opportunities to more traditional nonmotorized 

hunting opportunities.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of white-tailed deer habitat (Forest Plan 

objective 238) by closing areas to unrestricted cross-country travel. Alternative D would 

conserve habitat the most because it has the least amount of habitat with routes and crosscountry travel.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

The Forest Plan contains wintertime road density objectives in MAs 5.4 and 5.43 (objective 5.4-

207 and 5.43-205). These objectives strive for a wintertime open road density of one mile per 

square mile or less in these management areas. The Forest is currently above the objective in 

Management Area 5.4 and is currently meeting this objective in Management Area 5.43. All 

action alternatives continue to meet the objective for Management Area 5.43 (Figure 21).

Alternatives B, C, and D reduce the density slightly from current conditions in Management 

Area 5.43. In the action alternatives, guidelines 5.4-9102 and 5.4-5101 were used in different 

amounts to contribute to objective 5.4-207, depending on the emphasis of each alternative. 

Alternatives B and C move the Forest away from the objective for Management Area 5.4 in an 

effort to provide more motorized recreation opportunities for the public. Alternative D moves the 

Forest towards the objective for Management Area 5.4 in an effort to limit the level and 

likelihood of effects on natural and cultural resources, including wildlife, through a smaller 

motorized travel system. Alternative E would have winter route densities similar to Alternative A 

(existing condition). (See also Chapter 2 for descriptions, intent and design of alternatives). This 

is based on miles of Forest jurisdiction routes on National Forest System land.

The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest.

This project would not change any of the standards, guidelines, or objectives that provide for 

white-tailed deer habitat. Under all alternatives, there would be adequate habitat for white-tailed 

deer on the Forest. Open forest conditions in ponderosa pine are expected to remain stable across 

the Forest, which would maintain available forage, including understory shrubs. None of the 

alternatives are expected to effect the Forestwide population of white-tailed deer. There may be 

fewer disturbances under Alternatives B, C, D, and E due to reduced cross-country travel, but the 

population should continue to be stable in the foreseeable future.

Threatened and Endangered Wildlife Species

Black-footed ferret

All alternatives are expected to have no effect on black-footed ferrets. The only prairie dog town 

that is likely to have ferrets is the town next to Wind cave National Park in Norbeck Wildlife 

Preserve. The Preserve is currently closed to public motorized travel and would continue to be 

closed under all action alternatives. No new roads are proposed near Wind Cave National Park in 

any alternative. Alternatives 

B, C, and D close some roads 

near Wind Cave National 

Park, but not where ferrets are 

likely to occur.

Sensitive Wildlife 

Species

Effects to Region 2 sensitive 

species are discussed in detail 

in a biological evaluation. The 

effects determinations for 

Region 2 sensitive wildlife 

and fish species are 

summarized below.

The following Region 2

sensitive animal species have a determination of ―no impact‖ for all alternatives

Ferruginous hawk (Buteo regalis)

Figure 21. Comparison of winter open route density 

(miles/square mile) in management areas 5.4 and 5.43 by 

alternative
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Mountain plover (Charadrius montanus)

Northern harrier (Circus cyaneus)

Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus)

The following Region 2 sensitive animal species have a determination of ―may adversely 

impact individuals, but are neither likely to result in a loss of viability in the planning area, 

nor cause a trend toward federal listing‖ for all alternatives:

Cooper‘s mountain snail (Oreohelix strigosa cooperi)

Regal fritillary (Speyeria idalia)

Northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens)

Black Hills redbelly snake (Storeria occipitomaculata pahasapa)

Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)

Black-backed woodpecker (Picoides arcticus)

Burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia)

Flammulated owl (Otus flammeolus)

Grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum)

Lewis' woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis)

Loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus)

Northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis)

Three-toed woodpecker (Picoides dorsalis)

Yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus)

Long-billed curlew (Numenius americanus)

Black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus)

Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis)

American marten (Martes americana)

Fringed myotis (Myotis thysanodes)

Townsend‘s big-eared bat (Corynorhinus townsendii pallescens)

Cooper’s Mountain Snail

Alternative A

Direct mortality from vehicles is possible for this alternative. Undiscovered colonies could be 

impacted if routes and cross-country travel run through them. The miles of motorized routes on 

the Forest and in suitable habitat and the amount of habitat open to cross-country travel is used 

here to estimate effects to undiscovered colonies. The effects of motorized routes, motorized 

cross-country travel, motorized game retrieval, and motorized dispersed camping on snails are 

expected to be similar to the general discussion on riparian, hardwood and forested habitat under 

General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

The Forest Plan provides direction on managing snail colonies (standard 3103). No new routes 

are proposed in known sensitive snail colonies. Game retrieval and dispersed camping could 

occur on known snail colonies.

Road maintenance would likely affect snail colonies in this alternative. Road right-of ways are 

often brushed, including along State highways. This activity would likely continue for public 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

safety reasons. The effects from these activities are not expected to change from current levels 

for this alternative.

Alternative A is the only alternative that would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country 

travel. This could lead to more user-created routes that could further affect vegetation in snail 

habitat and crush undiscovered snails. This could reduce the Forest‘s ability contribute to 

conservation of snail habitat (Forest Plan objective 221).

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from vehicles is possible for all action alternatives. None of the action 

alternatives propose new routes in known colonies. Undiscovered colonies could be impacted in 

all action alternatives. The miles of motorized routes on the Forest and in suitable habitat and the 

amount of habitat open to cross-country travel is used here to estimate effects to undiscovered 

colonies. The effects of motorized routes, motorized cross-country travel, motorized game 

retrieval, and motorized dispersed camping on snails are expected to be similar to the general 

discussion on riparian, hardwood and forested habitat under General Effects to Wildlife and 

Habitat Components.

The Forest Plan provides direction on managing snail colonies (standard 3103). No new routes 

are proposed in known sensitive snail colonies. All designed routes in the action alternatives are 

consistent with standard 3103. Game retrieval and dispersed camping could occur on known 

snail colonies. If conflicts arise, standard 3103 would be followed. Therefore, all action 

alternatives are consistent with the Forest Plan.

Downed woody material is an important habitat feature for snails. Downed wood removal is not 

authorized under any action alternative. Effects are expected to be minimal.

Road maintenance would likely affect snail colonies in all action alternatives. Road rights-of 

way are often brushed, including along State highways. This activity would likely continue for 

public safety reasons. The effects from these activities are not expected to change from current 

levels for all action alternatives.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of snail habitat (Forest Plan objective 221). The 

action alternatives are expected to have a net benefit to snails by closing areas to unrestricted 

cross-country travel. Alternative D would have the most net benefit because it has the least 

amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals, but are neither likely to result in a loss of 

viability in the planning area, nor cause a trend toward federal listing. Individuals may be 

directly impacted by vehicles running over them. The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment 

determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest. This project would not change any of 

the standards, guidelines, or objectives that provide for snail habitat. Riparian areas would be 

maintained. The snail-specific direction (standard 3103) for known snail colonies would be 

followed for all alternatives.

Regal Fritillary

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions could occur in this alternative. The risk of direct mortality would 

be consistent with existing conditions. However, Alternative A is the only alternative that would 

allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel. This could lead to more user-created routes 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

that could cause additional direct mortality and could further affect vegetation in fritillary 

habitat. This could reduce the Forest‘s ability contribute to conservation of fritillary habitat 

(Forest Plan objective 221).

The miles of motorized routes on the Forest and in suitable habitat and the amount of habitat 

open to cross-country travel is used here to estimate effects to undiscovered occurrences.

Impacts to fritillary habitat are expected to be similar to those displayed in the general discussion 

section for grassland habitat under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components. The 

effects of motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping are also expected to be similar to 

those discussed in the General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

Invasive weeds can affect butterflies through competition with larval host plants. Effects are 

expected to be similar to those displayed in the general discussion under General Effects to 

Wildlife and Habitat Components.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced for all action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel.

Direct mortality from vehicles is possible for all action alternatives. The miles of motorized 

routes on the Forest and in suitable habitat and the amount of habitat open to cross-country travel 

is used here to estimate effects to undiscovered colonies. Impacts to fritillary habitat are expected 

to be similar to those displayed in the general discussion section for grassland habitat under 

General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components. The effects of motorized game retrieval 

and dispersed camping on regal fritillary habitat are also expected to be similar to those 

discussed in the General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

Invasive weeds can also affect butterflies through competition with larval host plants. Effects are 

expected to be similar to those displayed in the general discussion under General Effects to 

Wildlife and Habitat Components.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of butterfly habitat (Forest Plan objective 221).

The action alternatives are expected to have a net benefit to habitat by closing areas to crosscountry travel. Alternative D would have the most net benefit because it has the least amount of 

habitat with routes and cross-country travel.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals, but are not likely to cause a trend to federal 

listing or loss of viability in the planning area. Based on the few observations ever recorded and 

the limited amount of suitable habitat, the Black Hills does not appear to have an established 

population of regal fritillaries. Periodic appearance and disappearance may be a naturally 

occurring pattern for the species in this region (USDA Forest Service 2000b), and therefore, 

management could occasionally have effects to a limited number of individuals. The Forest Plan 

Phase II Amendment determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest. This project would 

not change any of the standards, guidelines, or objectives that provide for regal fritillary habitat.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Northern Leopard Frog

Eggs, larval, and adult leopard frogs may be killed or injured by variety of activities such as onand off-road vehicle traffic associated with recreation or in the course of vegetation management 

treatments (timber harvest, prescribed burning, wildfire suppression, noxious weed treatment).

Implementation of standards and guidelines, watershed conservation practices, and State bestmanagement practices (BMPs) emphasize the protection of riparian and aquatic habitats.

Indirect effects occur to this species in a variety of ways. Motorized vehicle activities may 

displace or compact soils and remove or disturb ground litter. Compaction by any activity can 

reduce infiltration capacity. Stream crossings can damage channel stability and increase sediment 

input. Water quality may be affected by chemical applications or contaminated surface water 

runoff.

Alternative A

Direct mortality is possible under this alternative. Implementation of standards and guidelines, 

watershed conservation practices, and State best-management practices (BMPs) emphasize the 

protection of riparian and aquatic habitats but would not completely avoid the direct effects to 

this species. Some individual eggs, larval and adult frogs could be crushed by vehicles crossing 

streams on routes or going cross-country.

The miles of motorized routes on the Forest and in suitable habitat and the amount of habitat 

open to cross-country travel is used here to estimate effects to leopard frogs. Effects from 

motorized routes, cross-country travel, game retrieval, and dispersed camping are expected to be 

similar to those discussed under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components, especially 

those effects to riparian habitat.

Alternative A is the only alternative that would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country 

travel. This could further affect vegetation in leopard frog habitat. This could reduce the Forest‘s 

ability contribute to conservation of leopard frog habitat (Forest Plan objective 221).

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality is possible under all action alternatives. Implementation of standards and 

guidelines, watershed conservation practices, and State best-management practices (BMPs) 

emphasize the protection of riparian and aquatic habitats but would not completely avoid the 

direct effects to this species. Some individual eggs, larval and adult frogs could be crushed by 

vehicles crossing streams on routes or going cross-country.

Effects from motorized routes, cross-country travel, game retrieval and dispersed camping are 

expected to be similar to those discussed under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components, especially those effects to riparian habitat. Effects on habitat quantity are expected 

to be reduced for the action alternatives. These alternatives would have a net beneficial effect 

from closing much of the Forest to motorized cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes 

to revegetate.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of frog habitat (Forest Plan objective 221). All 

action alternatives are expected to have a net benefit to habitat by closing areas to cross-country 

travel. Alternative D is expected to have the most net benefit because it has the least amount of 

habitat with routes and cross-country travel.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals, but are neither likely to result in a loss of 

viability in the planning area, nor cause a trend toward federal listing. This species is common in 

suitable habitat on the Forest. Individuals may be impacted be vehicles crossing wet habitat.

Implementation of standards, guidelines, watershed conservation practices, and BMPs would 

maintain and protect aquatic, riparian and upslope areas in a condition and quantity that 

continues to support well-distributed, reproductive populations. The Forest Plan Phase II 

Amendment determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest. This project would not 

change any of the standards, guidelines, or objectives that provide for leopard frog habitat.

Black Hills Redbelly Snake

Alternative A

Direct mortality from vehicles could occur in this alternative. Individuals at undiscovered 

hibernacula could be affected access by user-created routes and motorized cross-country travel. 

The miles of motorized routes on the Forest and in suitable habitat and the amount of habitat 

open to cross-country travel are used here to estimate effects to redbelly snakes. The effects of 

motorized routes, cross-country travel, game retrieval, and dispersed camping are expected to be 

similar to those discussed under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components, 

particularly riparian and hardwood habitats.

Alternative A is the only alternative that would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country 

travel. This could further affect vegetation in redbelly snake habitat. This could reduce the 

Forest‘s ability contribute to conservation of redbelly snake habitat (Forest Plan objective 221).

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from vehicles could occur in all action alternatives. No new routes are proposed 

at known hibernacula (standard 3116), but undiscovered ones could be affected. The miles of 

motorized routes on the Forest and in suitable habitat and the amount of habitat open to crosscountry travel are used here to estimate effects to redbelly snakes. The effects of motorized 

routes, cross-country travel, game retrieval, and dispersed camping are expected to be similar to

those discussed under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components, particularly riparian 

and hardwood habitats.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced for all action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of redbelly snake habitat (Forest Plan objective

221). Alternatives B, C, D, and E are expected to contribute to the conservation of habitat by 

closing areas to cross-country travel. Alternative D is expected to conserve habitat the most 

because it has the least amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel.

The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest if 

Forest Plan standards are followed. This project would not change any of the standards, 

guidelines or objectives that provide for redbelly snake habitat. Black Hills redbelly snakes 

would likely continue to persist across the Forest under all alternatives.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals, but are neither likely to result in a loss of 

viability in the planning area, nor cause a trend toward federal listing. Individuals may be 

impacted by being run over by vehicles. The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined this 

species is likely to persist on the Forest. This project would not change any of the standards, 

guidelines, or objectives that provide for redbelly snake habitat. Implementation of Forestwide 

objectives, standards, and guidelines would conserve and enhance suitable Black Hills redbelly 

snake habitats and the habitats of important invertebrate prey species. Riparian and hardwood 

areas would be maintained, providing continued habitat for the species.

American Three-Toed Woodpecker

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions may occur but is expected to be minimal. Due to the 

maneuverability of woodpeckers, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they 

are not likely to affect Forestwide populations. Alternative A is the only alternative that would 

allow motorized cross-country travel. This could lead to more user-created routes that could 

further reduce habitat. Alternative A contributes to conservation of woodpecker habitat (Forest 

Plan objective 221) by maintaining current conditions.

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to motorized cross-country travel, game retrieval and dispersed camping.

Effects of motorized routes, cross-country travel, game retrieval, and dispersed camping are 

expected to be similar to those discussed under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components, particularly spruce and snag habitat. Alternative A allows the most motorized 

cross-country travel. This would have the most potential for disturbance to three-toed 

woodpeckers.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of woodpeckers, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they 

are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced for all action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel.

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to motorized cross-country travel, game retrieval and dispersed camping.

Effects of motorized routes, cross-country travel, game retrieval, and dispersed camping are 

expected to be similar to those discussed under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components, particularly spruce and snag habitat.

All action alternatives would contribute to conservation of woodpecker habitat (Forest Plan 

objective 221). Alternatives B, C, D and E are expected to contribute to the conservation of 

habitat by closing areas to cross-country travel. Alternative D is expected to conserve habitat the 

most because it has the least amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals, but are not likely to cause a trend to federal 

listing or loss of viability in the planning area. Individuals may be disturbed or killed by 

vehicles, but it is not expected to threaten populations. The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment 

determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest. This project would not change any of 

the standards, guidelines, or objectives that provide for woodpecker habitat. All alternatives 

would likely allow the three-toed woodpecker to persist on the Forest.

Bald Eagle

Potential impacts from Forest activities could include disturbance at roost or nest sites, changes 

in prey availability, and impacts to forested habitats used for roosting, nesting, and perching.

Alternative A

Vehicle-killed wildlife is a major food source for wintering bald eagles on the Forest. Direct 

mortality from collisions is possible in this alternative, given that deer carcasses can occur along 

highly used routes. Collisions are more likely to occur along highways and major gravel roads 

that allow higher vehicle speeds. Lower speed routes such as those on most of the Forest are 

much less likely to result in collisions. Due to the maneuverability of bald eagles, collisions are 

possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Alternative A is the only alternative that would allow motorized cross-country travel. This could 

lead to more user-created routes that could further reduce habitat.

The effects of disturbance to wintering eagles is estimated by using the miles of routes 

Forestwide and the acreage of Forest open to cross-country travel. Effects from disturbance are 

expected to be similar to general effects discussed under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components. This alternative has the most potential for disturbance from motorized travel 

because it has the most area open to motorized cross-country travel. This alternative contributes 

to conservation of eagle habitat (Forest Plan objective 221) by maintaining habitat similar to 

current conditions.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced for all action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel.

Effects to the known nest at Deerfield Lake are expected to be minimal. To be consistent with 

standard 3101, no new routes are proposed near the nest.

The effects of disturbance to wintering eagles is estimated by using the miles of routes 

Forestwide and the acreage of Forest open to cross-country travel. Effects from disturbance are 

expected to be similar to general effects discussed under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of eagle habitat (Forest Plan objective 221).

Alternatives B, C, D and E are expected to contribute to the conservation of habitat by closing 

areas to cross-country travel. Alternative D is expected to conserve habitat the most because it 

has the least amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals, but are not likely to cause a trend to federal 

listing or loss of viability in the planning area. Motorized activity may disturb some individuals 

or flush them from carrion along motorized routes. There is also a slight chance that an eagle 

could be struck by a vehicle as it is flushed from carrion along a route. The Forest Plan Phase II 

Amendment determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest. This project would not 

change any of the standards, guidelines, or objectives that protect bald eagles or provide for 

eagle habitat.

Black-Backed Woodpecker

Information on effects of motorized use on black-backed woodpeckers is limited. As with many 

wildlife species, black-backs may be affected by roads through direct mortality, habitat alteration 

and disturbance.

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is possible. Due to the maneuverability of woodpeckers, 

collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect 

Forestwide populations.

Motorized cross-country travel would continue to be allowed under this alternative, which could 

lead to more user-created routes. This could affect snag habitat through increased potential for 

illegal cutting of snags and could affect the Forest‘s ability conserve and maintain black-backed 

woodpecker habitat (Forest Plan objectives 221 and 238).

Habitat fragmentation is not expected to be limited under this alternative. Black-backs have 

adapted to take advantage of the sporadic occurrence of fire and insects. They are highly mobile 

and able to colonize habitat, especially burned areas.

Black-backed woodpecker populations on the Forest are doing well due to the recent fire and 

insect activity over the last 8 years. Black-backed woodpecker populations would likely decline 

from current levels under this alternative because the above average amount of recent insect 

activity and stand-replacing fires would not be sustained.

Ortega and Capen (2002) found that some forest birds had lower densities near unpaved roads. 

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Recently burned areas and ponderosa pine 

structural stages 4C and 5 offer the best habitat for black-backs. Alternative A would continue to 

allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel in much of this habitat. Disturbance would 

continue to occur in areas where motorized cross-country travel is allowed. Disturbance impacts

would continue to accrue as motorized recreation use levels increase. User-created routes are 

expected to continue to be created and would impact black-backs.

Motorized use of roads and trails can also disturb wildlife. Alternative A would continue to allow 

348 miles of motorized routes in burned habitat and 332 miles in pine structural stages 4C and 5.

Disturbance from these routes is expected to continue at the current level. Black-backs also use 

other pine structural stages. Effects in other pine structural stages are expected to be similar to 

those discussed under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components (ponderosa pine 

habitat).
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Effects Common to All 

Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions 

is possible in all action 

alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of 

woodpeckers, collisions are 

possible, but unlikely. If 

collisions do occur, they are not 

likely to affect Forestwide 

populations.

Effects on habitat quantity are 

expected to be reduced for the 

action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net 

beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized cross-country travel, allowing 

unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is planned as part of this project. Most 

routes currently being considered for designation exist now on the ground. Effects on habitat 

condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack of cross-country motorized travel.

Habitat fragmentation would not be limiting to black-backs. Black-backed woodpecker 

populations are often irruptive as they follow outbreaks of wood-boring beetles after fires (Dixon 

and Saab 2000; USDA Forest Service 2000a). Black-backs have adapted to take advantage of the 

sporadic occurrence of fire. They are highly mobile and able to colonize habitat, especially 

burned areas.

Impacts to snag habitat is expected to be minimal for all action alternatives. None of the 

alternatives would authorize the cutting or removing of snags. Some illegal snag cutting may 

occur under all action alternatives. Alternatives B, C, D, and E are expected to have less risk of 

illegal snag cutting than Alternative A due to less area being open to cross-country travel (Figure 

22).

Black-backed woodpecker populations on the Forest are doing well due to the recent fire and 

insect activity over the last 8 years. Black-backed woodpecker populations would likely decline 

from current levels under all action alternatives because the above average amount of insect 

activity and stand-replacing fires would not be sustained.

None of the action alternatives would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel. This is 

expected to reduce effects on black-backed woodpeckers by reducing disturbance impacts.

Motorized use of roads and trails can also disturb wildlife. Alternative C has the most motorized 

routes in primary habitat, followed by Alternatives B, E, and D, respectively (Figure 23). Still, 

the action alternatives are expected to reduce overall effects on black-backed woodpeckers due 

to the amount of habitat closed to motorized cross-country travel.

Black-backs also use other pine structural stages. Effects are expected to be similar to those 

discussed under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components (ponderosa pine habitat).

None of the action alternatives are expected to cause a reduction of black-backed woodpeckers 

on the Forest. Populations would be more dependent on availability of recently burned forest and 

insect epidemics.

Figure 22. Miles of motorized routes in burned habitat by 

alternative
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

All action alternatives contribute to conservation and maintenance of black-backed woodpecker 

habitat (Forest Plan objectives 221, 238). Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute to the 

conservation of habitat by closing areas to cross-country travel. Alternative D would conserve 

habitat the most because it has the least amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel.

The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest.

This project would not change any of the standards, guidelines, or objectives that provide for 

black-backed habitat. Under all alternatives, black-backed woodpeckers are likely to persist on 

the Forest. Populations may return to levels found by (Mohren 2002) prior to the recent spike in 

acres burned by fire or killed by insects.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals, but are not likely to cause a trend to federal 

listing or loss of viability in the planning area. Individuals would be affected by disturbance 

under all alternatives. The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined this species is likely to 

persist on the Forest. This project would not change any of the standards, guidelines, or 

objectives that provide for woodpecker habitat. All alternatives would likely allow the blackbacked woodpecker to persist on the Forest.

Burrowing Owl

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal. Due to the maneuverability of these 

owls, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect 

Forestwide populations.

Due to the strong association of nesting burrowing owls with prairie dog towns, management 

actions and direction affecting black-tailed prairie dogs are likely to affect the suitability of 

burrowing owl habitat on the Forest. This alternative proposes no new routes. Existing routes 

would continue to provide access to and through prairie dog towns. This alternative would 

continue to allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel on prairie dog towns, which could 

lead to additional user-created routes in prairie dog towns. Any additional user-created routes 

may lead to a reduction in habitat for burrowing owls.

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to 

cross-country travel. Effects 

from disturbance are expected 

to be similar to those shown for 

grassland habitat under General 

Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components. See also, the 

prairie dog discussion.

Effects Common to All 

Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions 

is expected to be minimal in all 

action alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of these owls, 

collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect 

Figure 23. Miles of motorized routes in ponderosa pine 

structural stages 4C and 5 by alternative
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Forestwide populations. No new routes are proposed near currently known burrowing owl nests 

consistent with Forest Plan standard 3204.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced for all action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel.

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Effects from disturbance are expected to be 

similar to those shown for grassland habitat under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components. See also, the prairie dog discussion.

All alternatives contribute to conservation of burrowing owl habitat (Forest Plan objective 221).

Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute to the conservation of habitat by closing areas to 

cross-country travel. Alternative D would conserve habitat the most because it has the least 

amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel. None of the alternatives propose new 

routes near nest locations, consistent with standard 3204.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals, but are neither likely to result in a loss of 

viability in the planning area, nor cause a trend toward federal listing. Individuals may be 

affected by vehicle collisions and disturbance. The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined 

this species is likely to persist on the Forest. This project would not change any of the standards, 

guidelines, or objectives that provide for prairie dog and burrowing owl habitat.

Ferruginous Hawk

Alternative A

Ferruginous hawks are not known to nest on the Forest; therefore, motorized recreation activities 

are unlikely to directly affect this species in all alternatives. Generally, ferruginous hawks may 

be affected by habitat loss due to conversion of grassland to agriculture and the availability of 

prey populations, including prairie dogs. Impacts to potential habitat are expected to be reflected 

in the impacts to grassland and prairie dog towns. For a discussion of general effects to grassland 

habitat, see General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components. A discussion of effects on 

prairie dogs is presented later in this section. Activities in these areas are unlikely to affect 

ferruginous hawks due to their low occurrence on the Forest. This alternative is unlikely to affect 

adjacent prairies outside the Forest boundary.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Effects are expected to be similar to Alternative A. Impacts to potential habitat are expected to be 

reflected in the impacts to grassland and prairie dog towns. For a discussion of general effects to 

grassland habitat, see General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components. A discussion of 

effects on prairie dogs is presented later in this section. Activities in these areas are unlikely to 

affect ferruginous hawks due to their low occurrence on the Forest. This alternative is unlikely to 

affect adjacent prairies outside the Forest boundary.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of ferruginous hawk potential habitat (Forest 

Plan objective 221). Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute to the conservation of 

potential habitat by closing areas to unrestricted motorized cross-country travel. Alternative D 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

would conserve potential habitat the most because it has the least amount of habitat with routes 

and cross-country travel.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives would have no impact. Ferruginous hawks have not been documented on the 

Forest, but might occur here during migration. Potential habitat is naturally limited in the Black 

Hills, but would continue to exist at current levels. Reducing cross-country travel in grasslands 

and prairie dog towns is not expected to improve habitat enough to affect ferruginous hawk 

populations.

Flammulated Owl

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal. Due to the maneuverability of these 

owls, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect 

Forestwide populations.

Motorized cross-country travel in Alternative A could lead to more user-created routes that could 

further reduce potential habitat. This alternative would continue current snag management. Some 

snags could be illegally cut for firewood. The amount of area open to unrestricted motorized 

cross-country travel in this alternative could lead to additional user-created routes, which could 

lead to a higher potential for illegal snag cutting. If illegal snag cutting increases, potential 

habitat would decrease.

The effects of disturbance are expected to be minimal due to the owl‘s limited occurrence on the 

Forest. Effects of motorized routes, cross-country travel, game retrieval, and dispersed camping 

on potential habitat (spruce, ponderosa pine and snags) are discussed under General Effects to 

Wildlife and Habitat Components.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of these owls, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they 

are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced for all action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel.

Impacts to snag habitat is expected to be minimal for all action alternatives. None of the 

alternatives would authorize the cutting or removing of snags. The action alternatives may have 

less potential for illegal snag removal than Alternative A because they have less area open to 

motorized cross-country travel.

The effects of disturbance are expected to be minimal for all action alternatives due to the owl‘s 

limited occurrence on the Forest. Effects of motorized routes, cross-country travel, game 

retrieval, and dispersed camping on potential habitat (spruce, ponderosa pine and snags) are 

discussed under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of potential flammulated owl habitat (Forest 

Plan objective 221). Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute to the conservation of 

potential habitat by closing areas to unrestricted cross-country travel. Alternative D would 

conserve potential habitat the most because it has the least amount of habitat with routes and 

cross-country travel.

The effects described could occur under all action alternatives. However, there would likely be 

little impact on the number, reproduction, or survival of flammulated owls. This is because a 

large amount of currently unoccupied but suitable habitat would still be available for owl 

colonization. Furthermore, the low reproductive output of flammulated owls would necessitate 

many years of breeding before the habitat became fully occupied. Therefore, no alternative 

would likely stifle the establishment of a flammulated owl population in the Black Hills.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals, but are neither likely to result in a loss of 

viability in the planning area, nor cause a trend toward federal listing. The flammulated owl 

occurs in the Black Hills region at the eastern end of its breeding distribution, and few 

occurrences of this species have been documented on the Forest. At present, there is no 

information suggesting that flammulated owls are established or breeding in the area.

This project would not change any of the standards, guidelines, or objectives that provide for 

flammulated owl habitat. Due to the low occurrence of this species on the Forest in relation to 

the amount of potentially suitable habitat, no alternative is likely to affect the colonization by or 

establishment of flammulated owls on the Forest.

Grasshopper Sparrow

As with many wildlife species, grasshopper sparrows may be affected by roads through direct 

mortality, habitat alteration, and disturbance. Motorized use can also increase the risk of invasive 

plants that can indirectly affect habitat.

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is possible. Due to the maneuverability of this species, collisions 

are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect Forestwide 

populations.

This alternative would not construct any new routes. Alternative A allows unrestricted motorized 

cross-country travel on much of the grassland habitat, which could lead to additional usercreated routes in the future. User-created routes could reduce habitat availability and affect the 

Forest‘s ability to conserve habitat (Forest Plan objectives 221, 238) in the future.

The effects of disturbance is estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Effects to grasshopper sparrows are expected to 

be similar to those shown for grassland habitat under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components.

Grasshopper sparrow population would be expected to remain stable on the Forest under this 

alternative.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of this species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they 

are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced in all action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel.

Grassland habitat is distributed as patches at low abundance, and there are gaps where grassland 

habitat is absent or only present in low abundance, especially in the northern and central Black 

Hills. However, grassland habitat in the southern Black Hills would typically be large enough 

and close enough to permit dispersal and interaction among subpopulations. These conditions 

would continue to exist for all action alternatives. Grasshopper sparrow habitat is likely to 

remain stable or increase in the future for all action alternatives. If standards and guidelines are 

followed, existing grasslands would likely be adequately conserved until grassland restoration 

objectives are achieved.

Since a slight increase is expected in the amount of habitat, future distribution would likely be 

similar to current conditions, with expansion around existing grasslands. Distribution of 

grasshopper sparrows would likely follow the same pattern as habitat described above.

The effects of disturbance is estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Effects to grasshopper sparrows are expected to 

be similar to those shown for grassland habitat under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation and maintenance of grasshopper sparrow 

habitat (Forest Plan objectives 221, 238). Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute to the 

conservation of habitat by closing areas to cross-country travel. Alternative D would conserve 

habitat the most because it has the least amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel.

Forestwide population trends are expected to remain stable under all action alternatives. The 

action alternatives have the greatest potential for population increases, but populations could be 

limited by other factors such as climate or predation.

The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest.

This project would not change any of the standards, guidelines, or objectives that provide for 

grasshopper sparrow habitat. Under all alternatives, there would be adequate habitat for 

maintaining populations of grasshopper sparrows.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals, but are neither likely to result in a loss of 

viability in the planning area, nor cause a trend toward federal listing. Some individuals may be 

affected under all alternatives through direct mortality or disturbance. However, all alternatives 

may maintain or improve habitat by maintaining or reducing areas open to cross-country travel. 

These measures may benefit individual grasshopper sparrows. The Forest Plan Phase II 

Amendment determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest. This project would not

change any of the standards, guidelines, or objectives that provide for grasshopper sparrow 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

habitat. Regional downward trends may persist due to continued grassland habitat loss and 

degradation off the Forest.

Lewis's Woodpecker

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is possible. Due to the maneuverability of this species, collisions 

are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect Forestwide 

populations.

Structural stage 4A and 5 most closely resemble the preferred nesting, foraging, and roosting 

habitat for the Lewis‘s woodpecker. Structural stage 4A contains mature stands with less than 40 

percent canopy cover. Structural stage 5 stands were subjectively determined to contain latesuccessional characteristics and could have any amount of canopy cover. Therefore, some but not 

all acres in structural stage 5 could provide suitable habitat for the Lewis‘s woodpecker.

Continued motorized cross-country travel could lead to more user-created routes on the Forest, 

but these routes would likely effect ground vegetation and have little effect on forest overstory. 

These routes could lead to more potential illegal snag removal, which would reduce habitat for 

Lewis‘s woodpeckers. This alternative is expected to conserve Lewis‘s woodpecker habitat, but 

to a lesser degree than the action alternatives.

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Burned areas and ponderosa pine structural 

stages 4A and 5 offer the best habitat for Lewis‘ woodpeckers. Alternative A would continue to 

allow motorized cross-country travel in much of this habitat. Disturbance would continue to 

occur in areas where motorized cross-country travel is allowed. Disturbance impacts would 

continue to accrue as motorized recreation use levels increase. User-created routes are expected 

to continue to be created and would impact Lewis‘ woodpeckers.

Motorized use of roads and trails can also disturb wildlife. Alternative A would continue to allow 

motorized travel on 348 miles of routes in burned habitat and 975 miles of routes in pine 

Structural Stages 4C and 5. Motorized activity on these routes could disturb Lewis‘s 

woodpeckers nesting near the routes.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of this species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they 

are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced in the action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel.

Snags are a very important component of Lewis‘s woodpecker habitat. Impacts to snag habitat is 

expected to be minimal for all action alternatives. None of the action alternatives would 

authorize the cutting or removing of snags. The reduction in motorized cross-country travel 

would likely reduce the potential for illegal removal of snags.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Burned areas (see Figure 22) and ponderosa pine 

structural stages 4A and 5 offer the best habitat for Lewis‘ woodpeckers. None of the action 

alternatives would allow motorized cross-country travel. This is expected to reduce effects on 

Lewis‘ woodpeckers by reducing disturbance impacts.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Motorized use of roads and 

trails can also disturb wildlife.

Alternative C has the most 

motorized routes in primary 

habitat, followed by 

Alternatives B, E, and D, 

respectively (Figure 24). Still, 

the action alternatives are 

expected to reduce overall 

effects on Lewis‘ woodpeckers 

due to the amount of habitat 

closed to motorized crosscountry travel. Effects of 

motorized game retrieval and 

dispersed camping are expected 

to be similar to those shown 

under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of woodpecker habitat (Forest Plan objective 

221). Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute to the conservation of habitat by closing areas 

to cross-country travel. Alternative D would conserve habitat the most because it has the least 

amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals, but are not likely to cause a trend to federal 

listing or loss of viability in the planning area. Some individuals may be impacted through 

collisions or disturbance from vehicles. The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined this 

species is likely to persist on the Forest. This project would not change any of the standards, 

guidelines, or objectives that provide for woodpecker habitat. All alternatives would provide 

habitat in mature, open-canopied condition.

Loggerhead Shrike

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal. Due to the maneuverability of this 

species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect 

Forestwide populations.

Alternative A would continue to allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel in grassland 

and shrubland habitat. Disturbance would continue to occur in areas where motorized crosscountry travel is allowed. Disturbance impacts would continue to accrue as motorized recreation 

use levels increase. User-created routes are expected to continue and would impact Lewis‘ 

woodpeckers and their habitat. Effects are expected to be similar to those shown for shrubland 

and grassland habitats under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components. Effects of 

motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping are also expected to be similar to those shown 

in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of this species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they 

are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Figure 24. Miles of motorized routes in ponderosa pine 

structural stages 4A and 5 by alternative
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced for the action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel.

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Effects are expected to be similar to those shown 

for shrubland and grassland habitats under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

Effects of motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping are also expected to be similar to 

those shown in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of shrike habitat (Forest Plan objective 221).

Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute to the conservation of habitat by closing areas to 

cross-country travel. Alternative D would conserve habitat the most because it has the least 

amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals, but are not likely to cause a trend to federal 

listing or loss of viability in the planning area. All alternatives may affect individuals through 

vehicle collisions or disturbance. The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined this species is 

likely to persist on the Forest. This project would not change any of the standards, guidelines, or 

objectives that provide for shrike habitat. All alternatives would maintain or improve grass and 

shrub communities, which would generally be beneficial to shrikes.

Long Billed Curlew

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal. Due to the maneuverability of this 

species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect 

Forestwide populations.

Alternative A would continue to allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel in grassland 

habitat. Disturbance would continue to occur in areas where motorized cross-country travel is 

allowed. Disturbance impacts would continue to accrue as motorized recreation use levels 

increase. User-created routes are expected to continue and would impact long-billed curlews and 

available habitat. Effects are expected to be similar to those shown for grassland habitats under 

General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of this species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they 

are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced in the action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

The effects of disturbance is estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Effects are expected to be similar to those shown 

for grassland habitat under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of curlew habitat (Forest Plan objective 221).

Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute to the conservation of habitat by closing areas to 

cross-country travel. Alternative D would conserve habitat the most because it has the least 

amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals, but are not likely to cause a trend to federal 

listing or loss of viability in the planning area. Individuals may be affected by vehicle collisions 

or disturbance in all alternatives. This project would not change any of the standards, guidelines,

or objectives that provide for curlew habitat. Alternative A would maintain grassland habitat and 

the other alternatives may improve grassland habitat by closing cross-country travel. Therefore, 

curlews are likely to persist on the Forest.

Mountain Plover

Effects Common to All Alternatives

None of the alternatives is expected to impact mountain plovers because none has been recorded 

on the Forest. Impacts to potential habitat are expected to be reflected in the impacts to grassland 

and prairie dog towns. For a discussion of effects to grassland habitat, see General Effects to 

Wildlife and Habitat Components. Effects on prairie dogs are discussed later in this document.

Activities in these areas are unlikely to affect mountain plovers due to their lack of occurrence 

on the Forest. The project is unlikely to affect adjacent prairies outside the Forest boundary.

All alternatives contribute to conservation of potential plover habitat (Forest Plan objective 221).

Alternative A would maintain current conditions. Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute 

more to the conservation of habitat by closing areas to unrestricted cross-country travel.

Alternative D would conserve habitat the most because it has the least amount of habitat with 

routes and cross-country travel.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives would have no impact. There is very little suitable mountain plover habitat on or 

near the Forest, and mountain plovers have not been documented in the vicinity. Although 

grassland habitats in general would be maintained across the Forest, the proportion of grasslands 

that provide suitable plover habitat (e.g., short, disturbed grasslands) would remain essentially 

unchanged for all alternatives.

Northern Goshawk

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal. Due to the maneuverability of this 

species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect 

Forestwide populations.

Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be minimal and consistent with standard

3108. Alternative A proposes no new roads so there would be no new disturbances near goshawk 

nests (standard 3111). Alternative A would continue to allow unrestricted motorized crosscountry travel on much of the Forest, which would continue current disturbance near goshawk 

nests.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

The effects of disturbance is estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Goshawks forage in most habitat types on the 

Forest on a variety of prey. Disturbance to foraging goshawks are expected to be similar to those 

shown for general habitat effects under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

Moderately dense mature forest habitat (structural stages 4B, 4C, and 5) constitutes the best 

nesting habitat. Disturbance can be expected to continue to occur in areas where motorized 

cross-country travel is allowed. Disturbance impacts are expected to continue to accrue as 

motorized recreation use levels increase. User-created routes are expected to continue to be 

created and would impact goshawks.

Motorized use of roads and trails can also disturb wildlife. Alternative A would continue to allow 

motorized use on 930 miles of routes in nesting habitat (structural stages 4B, 4C, and 5). Effects 

of motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping are also expected to be similar to those 

discussed in the general wildlife section (General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components).

Alternative A would continue to conserve goshawk habitat (Forest Plan objective 221) but may 

be more challenging than the action alternatives if additional user-created routes are created in 

areas where motorized cross-country travel is allowed.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of this species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they 

are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced in the action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced and consistent 

with standard 3108. Impacts to snag habitat is expected to be consistent with the Forest Plan for 

all action alternatives. None of the action alternatives would authorize the cutting or removing of 

snags.

All action alternatives are consistent with Forest Plan goshawk standards. No trees are proposed 

for removal in goshawk habitat so all action alternatives are consistent with standard 3108.

Alternative E proposes no new roads so there would be no new disturbances near goshawk nests 

(standard 3111). In Alternatives B, C, and D, newly designated routes within 0.5 mile of active 

goshawk nests are minimized and/or would be closed seasonally from April 1 through August 15 

to minimize disturbances at nests (standard 3111).

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Goshawks forage in most habitat types on the 

Forest on a variety of prey. Disturbance to foraging goshawks are expected to be similar to those 

shown for general habitat effects under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

Moderately dense mature forest habitat (structural stages 4B, 4C, and 5) constitutes the best 

nesting habitat. None of the action alternative would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country 

travel. This is expected to reduce effects on goshawks by reducing disturbance impacts.

Motorized use of roads and trails can also disturb wildlife. Alternative C has the most motorized 

routes in nesting habitat, followed by Alternatives B, E, and D, respectively (Figure 25). Still, the 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

action alternatives are expected to reduce overall effects on goshawks due to the amount of 

habitat closed to motorized cross-country travel. 

Effects of motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping are expected to be similar to those 

discussed in the general wildlife section (General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components).

All action alternatives would contribute to conservation of goshawk habitat (Forest Plan 

objective 221). Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute to the conservation of habitat by 

closing areas to cross-country travel. Alternative D would conserve habitat the most because it 

has the least amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals, but are neither likely to result in a loss of 

viability in the Planning Area, nor cause a trend toward federal listing. Individuals would be 

affected under all alternatives as discussed above. The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment 

determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest. This project would not change any of 

the standards, guidelines, or objectives that provide for goshawk habitat. Individual goshawks 

may be disturbed by motor vehicles but not to the level of affecting populations.

Northern Harrier

Effects Common to All 

Alternatives

None of the 

alternatives is 

expected to impact 

harriers due to their limited 

occurrence on the Forest.

Impacts to potential habitat 

are expected to be 

reflected in the 

impacts to grassland and 

shrublands. For a 

discussion of general 

effects to grassland and shrubland habitat, see General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components. Activities in these areas are unlikely to affect harriers due to their low occurrence 

on the Forest. The project is unlikely to affect adjacent prairies outside the Forest boundary.

All alternatives contribute to conservation of potential harrier habitat (Forest Plan objective 221).

Alternative A would maintain current conditions. Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute 

more to the conservation of habitat by closing areas to cross-country travel. Alternative D would 

conserve habitat the most because it has the least amount of habitat with routes and crosscountry travel.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives would have no impact. No actions would be taken under any alternative that 

would appreciably affect the survival or reproduction of the northern harrier. To date, northern 

harriers have never been known to breed or winter on the Forest. Sufficient quality and quantity 

of habitat would be available for migrating or transient harriers under all alternatives.

Figure 25. Miles of motorized routes in ponderosa pine 

structural stages 4B, 4C and 5 by alternative
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Peregrine Falcon

Effects Common to All Alternatives

The peregrine falcon does not currently breed in the Black Hills and is considered uncommon 

even during migration. Because of this, all alternatives would have no effects. Potential nest sites 

would be difficult to access with motorized vehicles due to the stability and inaccessibility of 

rock cliffs. Potential foraging habitat could be disturbed by motorized travel, but considering the 

current preponderance of unutilized habitat, it is unlikely such activities would affect future use 

by peregrines. In summary, none of the alternatives would affect foraging habitat to the extent 

that it would affect suitability to peregrines.

All alternatives contribute to conservation of potential peregrine habitat (Forest Plan objective 

221). Alternative A would maintain current conditions. Alternatives B, C, D, and E would 

contribute more to the conservation of habitat by closing areas to cross-country travel.

Alternative D would conserve habitat the most because it has the least amount of habitat with 

routes and cross-country travel.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives would have no impact. Peregrine falcons currently do not occur in the Black 

Hills, and few breeding birds were historically supported here. Nesting habitat is very limited but 

stable. Designated routes would not affect the amount of nesting habitat. Foraging habitat is 

widely available and does not appear to be the limiting factor.

Yellow-Billed Cuckoo

Alternative A

Very little low-elevation riparian woodlands occur on the Forest; therefore, most motorized use 

would have little or no effect on the yellow-billed cuckoo. However, activities within or near 

low-elevation riparian areas could have effects.

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal. Due to the maneuverability of this 

species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect 

Forestwide populations.

If new user-created routs are created in riparian areas open to motorized cross-country travel, 

habitat could be adversely affected. Alternative A would continue to conserve riparian habitat 

(Forest Plan objective 221) but may be more challenging than the action alternatives if additional 

user-created routes are created in riparian areas open to motorized cross-country travel.

The effects of disturbance is estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Effects on yellow-billed cuckoos would be 

similar to effects on riparian habitat. For disturbance effects in riparian habitat, see the general 

discussion of riparian habitat in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of this species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they 

are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced for the action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel.

The effects of disturbance is estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Effects on yellow-billed cuckoos would be 

similar to effects on riparian habitat. For disturbance effects in riparian habitat, see the general 

discussion of riparian habitat in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of cuckoo habitat (Forest Plan objective 221).

Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute to the conservation of habitat by closing areas to 

cross-country travel. Alternative D would conserve habitat the most because it has the least 

amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals but are not likely to cause a trend to federal 

listing or loss of viability in the planning area. A small amount of low-elevation riparian areas 

occurs on the Forest and could provide habitat for yellow-billed cuckoos. All alternatives provide 

measures to conserve or enhance riparian areas; however, Alternatives B, C, D, and E generally 

reduce cross-country travel that could benefit the cuckoo. Alternative D would likely be more 

beneficial than the other alternatives due to the smallest motorized system and reduced crosscountry travel. The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined this species is likely to persist 

on the Forest. This project would not change any of the standards, guidelines, or objectives that 

provide for cuckoo habitat.

American Marten

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is possible. Most collisions are likely to occur on paved 

highways and on existing gravel roads that allow higher vehicle speeds. There has been at least 

one report of a marten killed along a primitive road on the Forest. If collisions do occur, they are 

not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Alternative A is the only alternative that would allow motorized cross-country travel. This could 

lead to more user-created routes that could further reduce habitat. Effects on down woody 

material are expected to be minimal. This alternative does not authorize the removal of down 

logs.

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Disturbance in spruce habitat is expected to be 

similar to effects shown for spruce habitat in the general effects section (see General Effects to 

Wildlife and Habitat Components).

Fecske et al. (2003) identified high value marten habitat in the Black Hills. Alternative A would 

continue to allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel in much of the high value marten 

habitat. Disturbance can be expected to continue to occur in areas where motorized cross-country 

travel is allowed. Disturbance impacts are expected to continue to accrue as motorized recreation 

use levels increase. User-created routes are expected to continue to be created and would impact 

marten.

Alternative A would continue to allow motorized travel on 386 miles of routes in high value 

marten habitat. Some disturbance to marten would likely occur from these routes. Effects of 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping are expected to be similar to Forestwide effects 

shown in the general discussion in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

Alternative A would continue to contribute to the conservation of marten habitat (Forest Plan 

objective 221), it could be more challenging if motorized cross-country travel leads to more usercreated routes in marten habitat.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is possible in all action alternatives. Most collisions are likely to 

occur on paved highways and on existing gravel roads that allow higher vehicle speeds.

Collisions on new routes are expected to be minimal because most are trails with slower traffic.

There has been at least one report of a marten killed along a primitive road on the Forest. If 

collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced in the action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel. Effects on down woody material are expected to be minimal.

None of the action alternatives authorizes the removal of down logs.

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Disturbance in spruce habitat is expected to be 

similar to effects shown for spruce habitat in the general effects section (see General Effects to 

Wildlife and Habitat Components).
Final Environmental Impact Statement

None of the action alternative 

would allow unrestricted 

motorized cross-country travel.

This is expected to reduce 

effects on marten by reducing 

disturbance impacts. 

Alternative B has the most 

motorized routes in high value 

marten habitat, followed by 

Alternatives C, E, and D, 

respectively (Figure 26). Still, 

the action alternatives are 

expected to reduce overall 

effects on marten due to the 

amount of habitat closed to 

motorized cross-country travel.

Effects of motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping are expected to be similar to 

Forestwide effects shown in the general discussion in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components.

Roads can cause habitat fragmentation for species that tend to use the interior parts of forest 

patches. More roads tend to reduce the patch size and increase the ratio of edge-to interior area.

This reduces the amount of habitat available to species that prefer these interior forest 

conditions, such as marten (Reed et al. 1996). Forest Plan standard 3215 directs us to maintain 

canopy closure in marten connectivity corridors to reduce fragmentation effects. All action 

alternatives are consistent with standard 3215. There are no new routes proposed in Alternative 

E. Newly designated routes in Alternatives B, C, and D are primitive roads or trails that already 

exist on the ground. Designation of these routes would not reduce the canopy cover in the area.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of marten habitat (Forest Plan objective 221).

Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute to the conservation of habitat by closing areas to 

cross-country travel. Alternative D would conserve habitat the most because it has the least 

amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals but would not cause a trend to federal listing 

or a loss of species viability range wide. Direct mortality of individuals has occurred from 

vehicle collisions, and would likely occur in the future. The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment 

determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest. This project would not change any of 

the standards, guidelines, or objectives that provide for marten habitat. Alternatives B, C, D, and 

E may reduce impacts to marten by reducing areas open to cross-country travel.

Black-Tailed Prairie Dog

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions could occur in this alternative. Alternative A does not propose 

any new routes in prairie dog towns. Effects from collisions in this alternative are expected to be 

similar to existing conditions. Alternative A would continue to allow unrestricted motorized 

cross-country travel on most prairie dog towns. Motorized cross-country travel could lead to 

additional mortality.

Figure 26. Miles of motorized routes in high-value marten 

habitat by alternative
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Alternative A is the only alternative that would allow motorized cross-country travel. This could 

lead to more user-created routes that could further reduce habitat. Prairie dog towns are normally 

sparse in vegetation. Existing motorized game retrieval would continue in Alternative A. This is 

likely a minor effect since the occurrence of game retrieval on the 386 acres of prairie dog towns 

is likely low. Dispersed camping in prairie dog towns is expected to have a minor effect because 

the limited number prairie dog towns combined with their remoteness and sparse conditions do 

not normally promote frequent camping use.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions could occur in all action alternatives. Alternatives D and E do 

not propose any new routes in prairie dog towns. Effects from collisions in these alternatives are 

expected to be similar to existing conditions. Alternative B and C would add about 300 yards of 

user-created route in one prairie dog town. This is not likely to result in a substantial increase in 

road-related mortality. Collisions are not expected to limit prairie dog populations in all action 

alternatives. Alternatives B, C, D, and E would close areas to motorized cross-country travel, 

resulting in a decrease in potential vehicle-caused mortality.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced for the action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing prairie dog towns to motorized crosscountry travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. The 300 yards of new route 

designated in prairie dog towns in Alternative B and C already exist on the ground and would not 

result in new construction related habitat loss. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected 

to be reduced due to the lack of cross-country motorized travel.

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. Effects from disturbance are expected to be 

similar to those discussed for direct mortality above.

Existing motorized game retrieval would continue in Alternative B and C. This is likely a minor 

effect since the occurrence of game retrieval on the 386 acres of prairie dog towns is likely low.

Dispersed camping in prairie dog towns is expected to have a minor effect in all action 

alternatives. The limited number prairie dog towns combined with their remoteness and sparse 

conditions do not normally promote frequent camping use.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of prairie dog habitat (Forest Plan objective

221). Alternatives B, C, D, and E are expected to contribute to the conservation of habitat by 

closing areas to cross-country travel. Alternatives D and E are expected to conserve habitat the 

most because they have the least amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel. None of 

the action alternatives is expected to reduce the population below the (Forest Plan objective 237) 

of 200 to 300 acres of prairie dog towns.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals, but are neither likely to result in a loss of 

viability in the planning area, nor cause a trend toward federal listing. Individuals could be 

affected by roads in prairie dog towns. The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined this 

species is likely to persist on the Forest. This project would not change any of the standards, 

guidelines, or objectives that provide for prairie dog habitat.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Fringed Myotis

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of this species and their hours of activity (nighttime), collisions are possible, but 

unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Alternative A is the only alternative that would allow motorized cross-country travel. This could 

lead to more user-created routes that could further reduce habitat. New user-created routes could 

be created in areas where motorized cross-country travel is allowed and this could reduce

habitat.

The riparian ecosystem provides important foraging areas for this bat. For effects on riparian 

habitat, see the general riparian discussion in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components.

The effects of disturbance in all alternatives are related to the ease of access provided to caves 

and mines used as roosts and hibernacula. Disturbance is expected to be similar to effects shown 

for wildlife in general discussed in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

Alternatives with the most area open to cross-country travel (Alternative A) would have the most 

potential for disturbance.

The cave ecosystem in general would be managed according to objectives 109, 110, 112, and 

113, and standard 1401, as well as the Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988. Ground 

disturbance would be avoided within 100 feet of natural cave openings (standard 1401). Standard 

3102 provides direction to protect caves and their microclimate when designing management 

activities where caves are important bat nursery or hibernacula sites.

Standard 3207 provides direction to avoid vegetative changes within 500 feet of caves and mines 

that serve as nursery roosts or hibernacula. Vegetative changes are expected to be minimal. No 

new construction is planned as part of this alternative. This alternative is consistent with standard

3207.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of this species and their hours of activity (nighttime), collisions are possible, but 

unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced in the action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel. Impacts to snag habitat is expected to be minimal for all 

action alternatives because none of the action alternatives would authorize the cutting or 

removing of snags.

The effects of disturbance in all action alternatives are related to the ease of access provided to 

caves and mines used as roosts and hibernacula. Disturbance is expected to be similar to effects 

shown for wildlife in general discussed in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

Alternatives with the most area open to cross-country travel would have the most potential for 

disturbance. Alternative D is expected to have the least disturbance.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

For all action alternatives, the cave ecosystem in general would be managed according to 

objectives 109, 110, 112, and 113, and standard 1401, as well as the Federal Cave Resources 

Protection Act of 1988. Ground disturbance would be avoided within 100 feet of natural cave 

openings for all action alternatives (standard 1401). Standard 3102 provides direction to protect 

caves and their microclimate when designing management activities where caves are important 

bat nursery or hibernacula sites.

Standard 3207 provides direction to avoid vegetative changes within 500 feet of caves and mines 

that serve as nursery roosts or hibernacula. Vegetative changes are expected to be minimal for all 

alternatives. Little new construction is planned as part of this project. Most newly designated 

routes are less than 65 inches in width and currently exist on the ground. All action alternatives 

are consistent with standard 3207.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of bat habitat (Forest Plan objective 221).

Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute to the conservation of habitat by closing areas to 

cross-country travel. Alternative D would conserve habitat the most because it has the least 

amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals, but are neither likely to result in a loss of 

viability in the Planning Area, nor cause a trend toward federal listing. Individuals may be struck 

or disturbed by vehicles, though the potential is low. The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment 

determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest. This project would not change any of 

the standards, guidelines, or objectives that provide for bat habitat. Fringed bats are likely to 

persist on the Forest because caves and mines would be managed to avoid disturbance and 

maintain conditions and riparian areas would be maintained or enhanced in all alternatives.

Rocky Mountain Bighorn Sheep

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is possible. Most collisions are likely to occur on paved 

highways and on existing gravel roads that allow higher vehicle speeds. Collisions of new routes 

are expected to be minimal because most are trails with slower traffic. If new user-created routes 

are established in bighorn sheep use areas, it could impact vegetation and sheep habitat.

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in bighorn sheep use areas 

and the acreage of use areas open to cross-country travel. Alternative A would continue to allow 

unrestricted motorized cross-country travel on 337 miles of routes in bighorn sheep use areas. 

Disturbance would be expected to continue occur in areas where motorized cross-country travel 

is allowed. Disturbance impacts would be expected to continue to accrue as motorized recreation 

use levels increase. User created routes would be expected to continue to be created and would 

impact bighorn sheep.

Effects of motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping are expected to be similar to those 

shown for wildlife in general in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is possible in all action alternatives. Most collisions are likely to 

occur on paved highways and on existing gravel roads that allow higher vehicle speeds.

Collisions of new routes are expected to be minimal because most are trails with slower traffic.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced in the action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel.

The effects of disturbance are estimated by using the miles of routes in bighorn sheep use areas 

and the acreage of use areas open to cross-country travel. None of the action alternative would 

allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel. This is expected to reduce effects on bighorn 

sheep by reducing disturbance impacts.

Motorized use of roads and trails can also disturb wildlife. Alternative C has the most motorized 

routes in bighorn sheep use areas, followed by Alternatives B, E, and D, respectively (Figure 27).

Still, the action alternatives are expected to reduce overall effects on bighorn sheep due to the 

amount of habitat closed to motorized cross-country travel.

Effects of motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping are expected to be similar to those 

shown for wildlife in general in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of sheep habitat (Forest Plan objective 221).

Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute to the conservation of habitat by closing areas to 

cross-country travel. Alternative D would conserve habitat the most because it has the least 

amount of habitat with 

routes and crosscountry travel. Under all 

alternatives, there would 

be adequate habitat for 

maintaining bighorn sheep 

populations.

Determination and 

Rationale

All alternatives may 

adversely impact 

individuals, but are not 

likely to cause a trend 

to federal listing or loss of 

viability in the 

planning area. Individual sheep could be affected through vehicle collisions or disturbance. The 

Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest. This 

project would not change any of the standards, guidelines or objectives that provide for bighorn 

sheep habitat.

Townsend’s Big-Eared Bat

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal. Due to the maneuverability of this 

species and their hours of activity (nighttime), collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions 

do occur, they are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Figure 27. Miles of motorized routes within bighorn sheep use 

areas by alternative
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Alternative A is the only alternative that would allow motorized cross-country travel. This could 

lead to more user-created routes that could promote access to bat caves and reduce foraging 

habitat. New user-created routes could be created in areas where unrestricted motorized crosscountry travel is allowed and this could reduce habitat.

The riparian ecosystem provides important foraging areas for Townsend‘s big-eared bat. For 

effects on riparian habitat, see the general riparian discussion in General Effects to Wildlife and 

Habitat Components.

The effects of disturbance in all alternatives are related to the ease of access provided to caves 

and mines used as roosts and hibernacula. Disturbance is expected to be similar to effects shown 

for wildlife in general discussed in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

Alternatives with the most area open to cross-country travel (Alternative A) would have the most 

potential for disturbance.

The cave ecosystem in general would be managed according to objectives 109, 110, 112, and 

113, and standard 1401, as well as the Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988. Ground 

disturbance would be avoided within 100 feet of natural cave openings (standard 1401). Standard 

3102 provides direction to protect caves and their microclimate when designing management 

activities where caves are important bat nursery or hibernacula sites.

Standard 3207 provides direction to avoid vegetative changes within 500 feet of caves and mines 

that serve as nursery roosts or hibernacula. Vegetative changes are expected to be minimal. No 

new construction is planned as part of this alternative. This alternative is consistent with standard

3207.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of this species and their hours of activity (nighttime), collisions are possible, but 

unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced in the action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel.

The riparian ecosystem provides important foraging areas for Townsend‘s big-eared bat. For 

effects on riparian habitat, see the general riparian discussion in General Effects to Wildlife and 

Habitat Components.

The effects of disturbance in all action alternatives are related to the ease of access provided to 

caves and mines used as roosts and hibernacula. Disturbance is expected to be similar to effects 

shown for wildlife in general in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

Alternatives with the most area open to cross-country travel (Alternative A) would have the most 

potential for disturbance. Alternative D is expected to have the least disturbance.

The effects of motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping are expected to be similar to 

those shown for general wildlife habitat in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

For all action alternatives, the cave ecosystem in general would be managed according to 

objectives 109, 110, 112, and 113, and standard 1401, as well as the Federal Cave Resources 

Protection Act of 1988. Ground disturbance would be avoided within 100 feet of natural cave 

openings for all action alternatives (standard 1401). Standard 3102 provide guidance to protect 

caves and their microclimate when designing management activities where caves are important 

bat nursery or hibernacula sites.

Standard 3207 provide direction concerning avoiding vegetative changes within 500 feet of 

caves and mines that serve as nursery roosts or hibernacula. Vegetative changes are expected to 

be minimal for all action alternatives. Little new construction is planned as part of this project.

Most newly designated routes are less than 65 inches in width and currently exist on the ground.

All action alternatives are consistent with standard 3207.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of bat habitat (Forest Plan objective 221).

Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute to the conservation of habitat by closing areas to 

cross-country travel. Alternative D would conserve habitat the most because it has the least 

amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel.

Determination and Rationale

All alternatives may adversely impact individuals, but are neither likely to result in a loss of 

viability in the planning area, nor cause a trend toward federal listing. Individual bats could be 

affected by disturbance in all alternatives, though the potential is low. The Forest Plan Phase II 

Amendment determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest. This project would not 

change any of the standards, guidelines, or objectives that provide for bat habitat. Townsend‘s 

big-eared bats are likely to persist on the Forest because caves and mines would be managed to 

avoid disturbance and maintain conditions and riparian areas would be maintained or enhanced 

in all alternatives.

Species of Local Concern

Effects to most species of local concern are similar to effects shown in General Effects to 

Wildlife and Habitat Components discussed earlier in this document. Table 44 shows where 

effects to that species are discussed.

All alternatives are consistent with Forest Plan standards and guidelines pertaining to species of 

local concern. All alternatives contribute to the maintenance or improvement of habitat for 

species of local concern (Forest Plan objective 221).

American Dipper

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal. Due to the maneuverability of this 

species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect 

Forestwide populations.

Table 44. Black Hills species of local concern and disposition of effects analysis

Species Disposition

American dipper (Cinclus mexicanus) Evaluated below.

Black-and-white warbler (Mniotilta varia)

Effects reflected in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components, and Hardwood Habitat.

Broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus) Effects reflected in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Components, and Ponderosa Pine Habitat.

Cooper’s hawk (Accipiter cooperii)

Effects reflected in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components, Riparian Habitat, Ponderosa Pine Habitat, 

and Hardwood Habitat.

Northern saw-whet owl (Aegolius acadicus)

Effects reflected in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components, Ponderosa Pine Habitat and Snag Habitat.

Pygmy nuthatch (Sitta pygmaea)

Effects reflected in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components, Ponderosa Pine Habitat, and Snag Habitat.

Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus)

Effects reflected in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components, Spruce Habitat and Ponderosa Pine 

Habitat.

Bats (Myotis evotis, Myotis volans, Myotis 

septentrionalis, Myotis ciliolabrum)

Evaluated below.

Meadow jumping mouse 

(Zapus hudsonius campestris)

Effects reflected in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components, Riparian Habitat.

Mountain goat 

(Oreamnos americanus)

Evaluated below.

Northern flying squirrel 

(Glaucomys sabrinus)

Effects reflected in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components, Ponderosa Pine Habitat, Snag Habitat and 

Spruce Habitat.

Butterflies

Atlantis fritillary (Speyeria atlantis 

pahasapa); tawny crescent (Phycoides 

batesii)

Effects reflected in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components, Riparian Habitat, Hardwood Habitat and 

Grassland Habitat.

Snails (Vertigo arthuri, Catinella gelida, 

Vertigo paradoxa, Discus shimekii)

Effects reflected in General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components, Spruce Habitat, Ponderosa Pine Habitat, 

Hardwood Habitat, Riparian Habitat and Shrubland 

Habitat.

The Forestwide Travel Analysis Report (September 2007) identified relative risk to dippers for 

routes across the Forest. The routes identified with a high relative risk for dippers are used to 

evaluate effects (USDA Forest Service 2007a).

Alternative A (existing condition) included some roads with a relative high risk for dippers. 

These roads would continue to be used and would continue to present a risk to dipper nesting 

and foraging. Alternative A also allows unrestricted cross-country travel on much of the Forest. 

Cross-country travel would allow continued access on many user-created routes near dipper 

streams, potentially providing additional impacts. The area open to motorized game retrieval and 

motorized dispersed camping would be the highest in Alternative A. These types of uses would 

affect dipper streams if they result in crossing streams to access game or campsites. Game 

retrieval would not affect nesting dippers because it occurs outside the nesting season, but could 

affect winter feeding activities.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of this species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. If collisions do occur, they 

are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Loss of habitat to road surface is expected to be minimal for all action alternatives. Little new 

construction is planned as part of this project. Few designated routes are near dipper streams.

Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be minimal.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

The Forestwide Travel Analysis Report (September 2007) identified relative risk to dippers for 

routes across the Forest. The routes identified with a high relative risk for dippers are used to 

evaluate effects (USDA Forest Service 2007a).

Implementation of standards and guidelines, watershed conservation practices, and State BMPs 

mitigate these impacts at the project level. These features mitigate impacts to nesting sites, 

foraging habitat and winter habitat by conserving soil, aquatic and riparian systems. The WCP 

Handbook contains proven watershed conservation practices to protect soil, aquatic, and riparian 

systems. They are incorporated verbatim into the Forest Plan as standards. The State BMPs carry 

the same weight as guidelines. Proper implementation of the WCP Handbook practices meets or 

exceeds State BMPs.

All alternatives contribute to conservation of dipper habitat (Forest Plan objective 221).

Alternative A would maintain conditions similar to current conditions. Alternatives B, C, D, and 

E would contribute more to the conservation of habitat by closing areas to cross-country travel.

Alternative D would conserve habitat the most because it has the least amount of habitat with 

routes and cross-country travel.

The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined this species is likely to persist on the Forest.

The action alternatives would not change any of the standards, guidelines, or objectives that 

provide for dipper habitat. This species is likely to persist under all alternatives because aquatic 

habitat conditions are maintained or enhanced through specific management area protection in 

Spearfish Canyon and the implementation of standards and guidelines, watershed conservation 

practices, and State BMPs.

Alternative B

Alternative B would drop one route and add a couple of other routes (near Boulder Creek, Bear 

Butte Creek) with a relative high risk for dippers. More routes would be added than dropped, 

which could provide more impacts than Alternative A. Motorized game retrieval (elk) and 

dispersed camping would be allowed along some roads near dipper streams. Users would not be 

allowed to cross the nearby stream to access game or campsites, which would avoid impacts.

Alternative B closes the Forest to unrestricted motorized cross-country travel, which would be a 

benefit to most dipper streams. Most user-created routes near dipper streams would no longer be 

used. Alternative B is expected to reduce net effects on dippers.

Alternative C

Effects of Alternative C would be the same as Alternative B, since the same routes with relative 

high dipper risk would be added and dropped, and unrestricted motorized cross-country travel 

would not be allowed. Motorized game retrieval is allowed in some areas of the Forest for deer 

and elk. Users would not be allowed to cross the nearby stream to access game or campsites, 

which would avoid impacts. Dispersed camping would be allowed along some routes near dipper 

streams. This could affect dippers if users cross dipper streams to access campsites. Still, 

Alternative C is expected to reduce overall effects due to the closure of most of the Forest to 

motorized cross-country travel.

Alternative D

Alternative D would have the least impact to dippers because it closes the most roads with a 

relative high dipper risk, does not add new routes with a relative high dipper risk, does not allow 

motorized game retrieval or dispersed camping off established routes, and closes the Forest to 

motorized cross-country travel. Some existing routes with a relative high dipper risk would 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

remain open, so there would still be some level of effects. Overall effects would be reduced due 

to the closure of motorized cross-country travel, game retrieval and dispersed camping.

Alternative E

Alternative E would keep the existing road system similar to Alternative A, but would close the 

Forest to motorized cross-country travel and would not allow motorized game retrieval or 

dispersed camping off established routes. There would still be some effects from existing roads, 

but the overall effects are expected to be reduced due to the reduction in motorized cross-country 

travel, game retrieval and dispersed camping.

Bats

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal. Due to the maneuverability of this 

species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. Also, bats are mostly active at night when 

motorized traffic is minimal. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect Forestwide 

populations.

All of the bats that are species of local concern use caves as part of their habitat requirement. The 

cave ecosystem in general would be managed according to objectives 109, 110, 112, and 113,

and standard 1401, as well as the Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988. Ground 

disturbance would be avoided within 100 feet of natural cave openings for all alternatives 

(standard 1401). Standard 3102 provide guidance to protect caves and their microclimate when 

designing management activities where caves are important bat nursery or hibernacula sites.

Standard 3207 provide direction to avoid vegetative changes within 500 feet of caves and mines 

that serve as nursery roosts or hibernacula. Vegetative changes are expected to be minimal for 

this alternative. No new routes are proposed in this alternative. This alternative is consistent with 

standard 3207.

The Forest ecosystem is also important for bats, particularly the occurrence of snags. Effects on 

snags are expected to be minimal (see General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components, Snag 

Habitat).

The riparian ecosystem provides important foraging and watering areas for bats. For a discussion 

of effects on riparian habitat, see General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components, Riparian 

Habitat. Bats often forage in meadows and grassland areas. For a discussion of effects to 

grass/meadow habitat, see General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components, Grassland 

Habitat.

The effects of motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping are expected to be similar to 

those discussed under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components. The effects of 

disturbance are related to the ease of access provided to caves and mines used as roosts and 

hibernacula. Disturbance is expected to be similar to effects shown for wildlife in general.

Alternatives with the most area open to cross-country travel and the most motorized routes 

(Alternative A) would have the most potential for disturbance.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. Due to the 

maneuverability of this species, collisions are possible, but unlikely. Also, bats are mostly active 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

at night when motorized traffic is minimal. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect 

Forestwide populations.

All of the bats that are species of local concern use caves as part of their habitat requirement. For 

all action alternatives, the cave ecosystem in general would be managed according to objectives 

109, 110, 112, and 113, and standard 1401, as well as the Federal Cave Resources Protection Act 

of 1988. Ground disturbance would be avoided within 100 feet of natural cave openings for all 

action alternatives (standard 1401). Standard 3102 provide guidance to protect caves and their 

microclimate when designing management activities where caves are important bat nursery or 

hibernacula sites.

Standard 3207 provide direction to avoid vegetative changes within 500 feet of caves and mines 

that serve as nursery roosts or hibernacula. Vegetative changes are expected to be reduced for all 

action alternatives. These alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of 

the Forest to motorized cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little 

new construction is planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for 

designation exist now on the ground. All action alternatives are consistent with standard 3207.

The Forest ecosystem is also important for bats, particularly the occurrence of snags. Effects on 

snags are expected to be minimal for all action alternatives (see General Effects to Wildlife and 

Habitat Components, Snag Habitat).

The riparian ecosystem provides important foraging and watering areas for bats. For a discussion 

of effects on riparian habitat, see General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components, Riparian 

Habitat. Bats often forage in meadows and grassland areas. For a discussion of effects to 

grass/meadow habitat, see General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components, Grassland 

Habitat.

The effects of motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping are expected to be similar to 

those discussed under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components.

The effects of disturbance in all action alternatives are related to the ease of access provided to 

caves and mines used as roosts and hibernacula. Disturbance is expected to be similar to effects 

shown for wildlife in general. Alternatives with the most area open to cross-country travel and 

the most motorized routes would have the most potential for disturbance. None of the action 

alternatives would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel. Alternative D is expected 

to have the least potential for disturbance.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of bat habitat (Forest Plan objective 221).

Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute a net benefit to the conservation of habitat by 

closing areas to cross-country travel. Alternative D would conserve habitat the most because it 

has the least amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel.

The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined these species are likely to persist on the Forest.

This project would not change any of the standards, guidelines, or objectives that provide for 

these species‘ habitat. These species are likely to persist on the Forest because all alternatives 

provide for roosting sites; the amount and availability of foraging areas is maintained; and 

potential cave hibernacula sites are protected.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Mountain Goat

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal. The core habitat areas are within 

Black Elk Wilderness and Norbeck Wildlife Preserve where motorized travel is not allowed. 

Goats that wander outside these areas could be hit by vehicles. If collisions do occur, they are not 

likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Alternative A is the only alternative that would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country 

travel. This could lead to more user-created routes that could further affect vegetation in 

mountain goat habitat.

The effects of disturbance is estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to motorized cross-country travel. Alternative A would continue to allow 

unrestricted motorized cross-country travel mountain goat use areas. Disturbance would continue 

occur in areas where motorized cross-country travel is allowed. Disturbance impacts would 

continue to accrue as motorized recreation use levels increase. User created routes would 

continue to be created and would impact mountain goats. Motorized use of roads and trails can 

also disturb wildlife. Alternative A has the most motorized routes in mountain goat use areas (51 

miles).

The effects of motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping are expected to be minimal. Most 

of the goat‘s main range is in areas where motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping 

would not be allowed (Black Elk Wilderness and Norbeck Wildlife Preserve). Outside these 

areas, most game retrieval activities would occur during the big game season when goats are 

already being disturbed by deer and elk hunters on foot or on open routes.

Impacts to mountain goats are expected to be minimal for all alternatives due to their limited

distribution and preference for high elevation rocky habitat.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. The core 

habitat areas are within Black Elk Wilderness and Norbeck Wildlife Preserve where motorized 

travel is not allowed. Goats that wander outside these areas could be hit by vehicles. If collisions 

do occur, they are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced in the action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel.

The effects of disturbance is estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. None of the action alternative would allow 

unrestricted motorized cross-country travel. This is expected to reduce effects on mountain goats 

by reducing disturbance impacts.

Motorized use of roads and trails can also disturb wildlife. Alternative E has the most motorized 

routes in mountain goat use areas, followed by Alternatives B, C, and D, respectively (Figure 

28). The action alternatives are expected to reduce effects on mountain goats due to the amount 

of habitat closed to motorized cross-country travel.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

The effects of motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping are expected to be minimal for 

all action alternatives. Most of the goat‘s main range is in areas where motorized game retrieval 

and dispersed camping would not be allowed in any alternative (Black Elk Wilderness and 

Norbeck Wildlife Preserve). Outside these areas, most game retrieval activities would occur 

during the big game season when goats are already being disturbed by deer and elk hunters on 

foot or on open routes.

Impacts to mountain goats are expected to be minimal for all action alternatives due to their 

limited distribution and preference for high elevation rocky habitat.

All action alternatives contribute to conservation of goat habitat (Forest plan objective 221).

Alternatives B, C, D, and E would contribute to the conservation of habitat by closing areas to 

cross-country travel. Alternative D would conserve habitat the most because it has the least 

amount of habitat with routes and cross-country travel.

The Forest Plan Phase II 

Amendment determined this 

species is likely to persist on 

the Forest. This project would 

not change any of the 

standards, guidelines, or 

objectives that provide for 

mountain goat habitat. All 

action alternatives continue the 

current management of the 

Black Elk Wilderness and the 

Norbeck Wildlife Preserve.

Demand Species

Roads have been known to 

negatively affect elk in various 

ways (Lyon 1979, Lyon 1983). The loss of habitat to road construction is unknown, but is often 

estimated at 5 acres per linear mile (Rowland et al. 2004). Roads may affect habitat by reducing 

the amount of patches of forest cover large enough to function effectively as elk habitat 

(Rowland et al. 2004). Roads may also affect elk habitat by facilitating the spread of invasive, 

exotic vegetation (Rowland et al. 2004). Roads and motorized trails can also affect the animals 

directly. In addition to mortality from collisions with vehicles, elk avoid areas near open roads, 

are more vulnerable to hunter harvest, and exhibit higher stress levels in areas or higher road 

density (Rowland et al. 2004). Several studies in the Black Hills have shown elk are adversely 

affected by roads (Millspaugh et al. 2000, Millspaugh 1995, Rumble et al. 2005). Rumble et al. 

(2005) found that elk movements increased with increased human activity during the hunting 

season. They suggested this response to hunters may reflect a pattern of elk responses to human 

disturbance during other times of the year.

Alternative A

Direct mortality from collisions is expected. Collisions are most likely to occur along existing 

highways and gravel roads that allow higher vehicle speeds. Collisions are less likely to occur on 

slower speed roads designated.

Figure 28. Miles of motorized routes in mountain goat use areas 

by alternative
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Alternative A is the only alternative that would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country 

travel. This could lead to more user-created routes that could further affect vegetation in elk, 

mule deer, and turkey habitat.

The effects of disturbance is estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. These species are found in most habitat types on 

the Forest. The effects of disturbance from routes, game retrieval, and dispersed camping are 

expected to be similar to those displayed under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components.

Motorized game retrieval can influence how hunters disperse across the hunting units.

Alternative A would have the most acreage open to motorized game retrieval which would offer 

the most flexibility to hunters.

Executive Order 13443 (Facilitation of Hunting Heritage and Wildlife Conservation) directs the 

Department of Agriculture ―to facilitate the expansion and enhancement of hunting opportunities 

and the management of game species and their habitat.‖ Alternative A would result in little 

change to hunter access.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Direct mortality from collisions is expected to be minimal in all action alternatives. Collisions 

are most likely to occur along existing highways and gravel roads that allow higher vehicle 

speeds. Collisions are less likely to occur on slower speed roads designated as part of this 

project. If collisions do occur, they are not likely to affect Forestwide populations.

Effects on habitat quantity are expected to be reduced in the action alternatives. These 

alternatives would have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to motorized 

cross-country travel, allowing unauthorized routes to revegetate. Little new construction is 

planned as part of this project. Most routes currently being considered for designation exist now 

on the ground. Effects on habitat condition and trend are expected to be reduced due to the lack 

of cross-country motorized travel.

The effects of disturbance is estimated by using the miles of routes in suitable habitat and the 

acreage of habitat open to cross-country travel. These species are found in most habitat types on 

the Forest. The effects of disturbance from routes, game retrieval, and dispersed camping are 

expected to be similar to those displayed under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components. Higher localized adverse effects are expected in where routes are more dense (loop 

trail areas) in Alternatives B, C, and D. Elk can be expected to avoid these areas when motorized

use is high.

Motorized game retrieval and route mileage can influence how hunters disperse across the 

hunting units. Of the action alternatives, Alternative C would have the most acreage open to 

motorized game retrieval, followed by Alternative B. Alternative C may concentrate hunting in 

those small portions of hunting units open to motorized game retrieval and reduce harvest in 

areas outside retrieval areas. Alternatives B, D and E could lead to a focus on ―road hunting‖ in 

order to get an elk near a road.

Motorized game retrieval may also affect hunter experience. Many hunters depend on their ATVs 

to retrieve harvested elk and deer. Hunters that depend on motorized game retrieval would 

experience a reduced opportunity to do so under Alternatives B and C, and a greater reduction in 

opportunity in Alternatives D and E. Alternatives D and E would provide more opportunities for 

hunters who desire a more primitive type of game retrieval (horse or foot).
Final Environmental Impact Statement

None of the action alternatives would violate Executive Order 13443 and limit access to hunting 

areas due to the abundance of existing roads on the Forest that would remain open. The action 

alternatives would shift off-road hunting opportunities from motorized to nonmotorized by 

closing areas open to cross-country travel. Alternative D would shift elk and deer hunting 

opportunities the most from motorized hunting opportunities to more traditional nonmotorized

hunting opportunities.

Migratory Birds

Golden eagles can occur throughout the Forest. Miles of motorized routes on the Forest and 

acres open to cross-country travel are used to estimate effects. Direct, indirect, and cumulative 

effects are expected to be similar to those shown under General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat 

Components. Swainson‘s Hawks, prairie falcons, upland sandpipers, and dickcissels typically 

occur in open grass dominated landscapes. Effects are expected to be similar to those displayed 

for grassland habitat (see General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components, Grassland 

Habitat). Black-billed cuckoos typically found in hardwoods at lower elevations. Effects are 

expected to be similar to those displayed for hardwood habitat (see General Effects to Wildlife 

and Habitat Components, Hardwood Habitat). Red-naped sapsuckers are generally associated 

with aspen stands. Effects are expected to be similar to those for aspen and hardwood habitat 

(see General Effects to Wildlife and Habitat Components, Hardwood Habitat).

Cumulative Effects

Past, Present and Reasonably Foreseeable Actions

Activities such as vegetation management, fuels management livestock grazing, recreational 

activities and other management activities have and would continue on the Forest. These 

activities would likely occur on private lands as well. The following specific types of activities 

are relevant to this analysis:

Activities such as vegetation management, fuels management, livestock grazing, recreational 

area management, and other management activities have continued and can be expected to 

continue on the Forest. Motorized access to accomplish these activities can be expected.

These activities would likely occur on private lands as well.

Firewood cutting has occurred in the past and would likely continue on the Forest in the 

foreseeable future, consistent with Forest plan direction. Firewood cutting likely occurs and 

would likely continue on private lands in the Black Hills.

Private landowners may treat forests for lumber or to reduce fire hazards, which could alter 

wildlife habitat.

It is expected that urban development would continue on private lands.

Management of national and state parks adjacent to the Forest would continue. These 

activities could impact habitat components.

Prairie dog control efforts on private lands have occurred and can be expected to continue.

Within the Forest area, a sizeable portion of the riparian habitat is under private ownership. 

Urban development is expected to continue on private lands.

Road construction and maintenance and right-of-way brushing can be expected to continue 

on lands outside the National Forest System.

Non-native predatory fish have been identified as a risk factor to leopard frog persistence.

Road construction, reconstruction and decommissioning are expected to continue to move 

towards Forest Plan objective 309.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Two trailheads and 25 miles of routes expected to be designated under future projects.

Alternative A

Alternative A could have some incremental impacts to habitat quantity and quality because it 

would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel on much of the Forest. Motorized crosscountry travel could lead to more user-created routes as the popularity of off-road vehicles 

increases. More user-created routes could incrementally affect vegetation in addition to those 

activities mentioned above, which would affect wildlife and wildlife habitat in general.

There could be some incremental impacts to all the activities mentioned above from disturbance. 

In Alternative A, incremental disturbance impacts would continue to accrue as motorized 

recreation use levels increase. User created routes would continue to be created and would 

incrementally disturb wildlife. This would apply to all habitats discussed above under direct and 

indirect effects.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Administrative access to accomplish other management objectives on the Forest would 

incrementally add impacts from disturbance and habitat loss.

Firewood cutting has occurred in the past and would likely continue on the Forest in the 

foreseeable future, consistent with Forest plan direction. Firewood cutting likely occurs and 

would likely continue on private lands in the Black Hills. Since none of the action alternatives in 

this project authorize cutting of snags, no incremental impact on snags is expected from the 

action alternatives.

Future expected routes and trailheads would add 25 miles of routes and two trailheads in 

addition to those identified in the alternatives in this EIS. This would result in additional 

incremental reduction of about 125 acres of habitat (about 5 acres per mile of route) and would 

have some incremental increase in disturbance to wildlife.

Privately owned forestlands within the Forest boundary also provide wildlife habitat. Resource 

management by companies and private citizens depends on a number of factors (e.g., desired 

goals, market prices, development potential) making it difficult to predict future trends. 

Landowners may treat forests for lumber or to reduce fire hazards, which could alter wildlife 

habitat. Urban development is expected to continue on private lands, which could lead to more 

roads and additional disturbance to wildlife. These activities may reduce suitable habitat wildlife, 

which could lead to some reduction in wildlife numbers in the Black Hills. This would likely 

increase the importance of habitat located on National Forest System land. The action 

alternatives are expected to offset some of the disturbance to wildlife from these activities on 

private lands by reducing motorized cross-country travel. The effect would be a net cumulative 

benefit from all action alternatives.

Management of national and state parks adjacent to the Forest would have an unknown effect on 

wildlife. National parks and monuments tend to manage for natural conditions, using fire and 

other processes, which would likely provide conditions under which hardwoods and other 

habitats evolved. Management in national and state parks would likely contribute to the 

conservation of wildlife species. The incremental effects of the action alternatives would be 

additional benefits to wildlife and their habitat resulting from closing areas to motorized crosscountry travel.

Hiking and hunting within the Forest would also disturb wildlife to some extent. Humans 

laughing and yelling can cause disturbances at greater ranges than vehicles if animals become 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

habituated to vehicle noise (Bowles 1995). The motorized impacts in alternative A would 

incrementally add to these effects by allowing motorized cross-country travel. The action 

alternatives are expected to incrementally reduce the cumulative impacts of motorized and 

nonmotorized recreation by closing areas to motorized cross-country travel.

Prairie dog control efforts on private lands may negatively impact associated species. None of 

the action alternatives proposes new prairie dog control techniques. None of the action 

alternatives would increase recreational shooting of prairie dogs because all prairie dog towns 

are currently accessible by existing roads. The new route in Alternatives B and C would not 

increase the available areas for recreational shooting. Suitable habitats for prairie dogs and 

associated species would likely persist on the Forest; however, their occurrence would continue 

to be limited in distribution and abundance. There would be no incremental effects to prairie dog 

control.

Within the Forest area, a sizeable portion of the riparian habitat is under private ownership. 

Urban development is expected to continue on private lands. Thus, while the Forest would take 

actions under all action alternatives that would generally benefit species that use riparian habitat 

in the Black Hills (close areas to unrestricted motorized cross-country travel, close roads), 

actions by others may have an offsetting effect.

Road construction, maintenance and right-of-way brushing can be expected to continue on other 

ownership lands. Road maintenance may increase in Alternative B and C because route mileage 

would increase. Alternatives B and C could incremental adverse impacts on undiscovered snail 

colonies from route maintenance. Alternatives C and D maintain or reduce route mileage, which 

would have a net incremental benefit to undiscovered snail colonies from route maintenance.

Non-native predatory fish have been identified as a risk factor to leopard frog persistence.

Increased access could lead to an increase in unauthorized fish stocking. The action alternatives 

are expected to reduce net incremental impact because reducing the area open to motorized 

cross-country travel would reduce the opportunity for unauthorized fish stocking.

Alternatives B, C, D, and E would reduce the amount of area open to cross-country travel, 

thereby reducing some of the effects of past, present and reasonably foreseeable activities on 

National Forest System lands and offsetting some impacts from other ownership lands.

Incremental impacts from these alternatives are expected to be positive. Alternative D would 

reduce impacts the most by having the least amount of area open to cross-country travel and the 

least miles of motorized routes. This would be the case for all habitats discussed under direct and 

indirect effects.

Plants and Botanical Resources

Introduction

The Black Hills is recognized as a unique ecoregion among 64 terrestrial ecoregions in the 

continental United States (Hall et al. 2002), encompassing an area of 5,121 square miles 

(roughly 3 million acres). The varied topography, geology, and climate result in a corresponding 

variety in plant communities, which include diverse elements such as western ponderosa pine 

forests, grasslands of the Great Plains, and northern white spruce forests.

The Black Hills are also characterized by Midwest hardwood types, which are well represented 

by stands dominated by oak, ash, and elm. The Black Hills Community Inventory was the first 

systematic classification to describe the vegetation of the Black Hills by tiering to the 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

standardized National Vegetation Classification (Marriott et al. 1999, Marriott and FaberLangendoen 2000). Although further refinement of the Black Hills Community Inventory is 

needed, approximately 70 native plant communities have been described in the Black Hills 

ecoregion.

The Black Hills has floristic influences from four of the North American biomes: Cordilleran 

Forest, Grassland, Eastern Deciduous Forest, and Northern Coniferous Forest. While 

approximately 30 percent of the plant taxa in the Black Hills have their primary ranges to the 

west; midwestern, eastern, and northern taxa are also represented in the Black Hills flora 

(McIntosh 1931). The Forest designated eight Management Area 3.1 Botanical Areas in 1997 to 

help guide Forest management in conserving areas of high botanical diversity, primarily at the 

plant community level.

The majority of the plant species of concern (including Region 2 sensitive species and plant 

species of local concern) in the Black Hills are best described as boreal disjuncts (species that 

were isolated in the cooler, moister forests and riparian areas of the Black Hills as glaciers 

retreated and the Great Plains environment became established). The closest populations of these 

species to occurrences in the Black Hills are generally found in Canada and the northeastern 

United States.

Applicable Laws, Regulations, Policy, and Forest Plan Direction

Forest Plan Objectives, Standards, and Guidelines. The following Forest Plan objectives, 

standards, and guidelines provide direction for management of botanical resources, plant species 

and their habitat on the Black Hills National Forest. Due to the extensive number of objectives, 

standards and guidelines that are applicable to management of botanical resources, the details of 

each are not provided here. Please refer to the Wildlife specialist report or the Forest Plan for 

more information.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Objectives:

105: Prohibit motorized vehicle use in wetlands, wet meadows and riparian areas, except 

at specified locations and time of the year.

204: Conserve and manage birch/hazelnut, lodgepole pine, limber pine, and Douglas-fir.

221: Conserve or enhance habitat for Region 2 sensitive species and species of local 

concern (SOLC). Monitoring will be conducted at a Forestwide level, not at the project 

level, and will be done for habitats or populations.

213: Maintain or enhance existing riparian area biodiversity, physical structure and size.

216: Manage to conserve or enhance the integrity of the following important botanical 

areas: a) Upper Sand Creek, b) Dugout Gulch, c) Bear/Beaver Gulches, d) Higgins 

Gulch, e) Englewood Springs, f) Black Fox Valley, g) North Fork Castle Creek, h) 

McIntosh Fen, and i) Spearfish Canyon.

Standards: 1301, 3106 (a-d), 3115, 3.1-2502, 3.1-2101, 3.1-9102, and 3.1-9104

Guidelines: 4102a and 9108

The Forest Plan tiers to the Forest Service Handbook 2509.25 - Watershed Conservation 

Practices Handbook. The following Management Measures are applicable to this analysis:

Management Measure (3)

Management Measure (6)

Management Measure (9)

Management Measure (10)

Management Measure (11)

Methodology

The analysis of the effects of the proposed action and alternatives on plant species of concern 

(this includes threatened and endangered species, Region 2 sensitive species, and Black Hills 

National Forest plant species of local concern), special emphasis areas including M.A. 3.1 

Botanical Areas, and wetland/fen areas was based on the best available science and data. Sources 

of information include attributes contained in GIS concerning relationships between roads and 

areas of concern (i.e., known plant occurrences, MA 3.1 Botanical Areas and known wetland/fen 

locations); botanical survey data collected over the years; and personal knowledge by resource 

specialists.

Indicators

Based on the issues identified in Chapter 1, the following indicators were used to measure the 

difference between the alternatives:

Miles of routes through suitable plant habitat types

Miles of motorized routes

Acres open to motorized cross-country travel

Routes that intersect known occurrences of Region 2 sensitive plant species, Black Hills 

National Forest plant species of local concern, Management Area 3.1 Botanical Areas, 

and/or wetland/fen areas

Miles of new proposed roads and trails

Number of proposed trailheads
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Assumptions

The effects analysis was based on the following assumptions. Under any of the action 

alternatives:

The public would observe and comply with the proposed transportation system.

Specifically, motorized users would use only motorized routes designated and would 

refrain from using routes not designated.

More areas open for motorized game retrieval would generally be expected to generate 

more use of these areas.

Concentrating vehicle use to reduce effects on routes and areas not designated would 

increase use and possibly effects on routes and areas that are designated.

Design criteria would be implemented and adequate funding would be provided for 

implementation, monitoring, and enforcement.

Under the action alternatives, use would continue at current levels or increase over time 

on the designated system with the prohibition of cross-country motorized travel.

Monitoring of plant occurrences would occur and any discovered impacts would be 

mitigated.

Design Criteria

As indicated in Table 45 (next page), 13 proposed routes intersect known occurrences of Region 

2 sensitive plant species, plant species of local concern, M.A. 3.1 Botanical Areas, and/or fen 

areas.

Field Surveys

All botanical survey data on Forest were considered for this project. Forestwide survey 

specifically for Region 2 sensitive species has occurred since 2001, although the list of Region 2 

sensitive species was revised in 2003, 2005, and 2007 (USDA Forest Service 2007c). The 

information gathered from these surveys provided information on distribution and habitat 

associations for species. A great deal of effort has also been put into botanical survey since 2000 

to support design of management activities and projects that are protective of plant species of 

concern (including Region 2 sensitive plant species and Forest plant species of local concern).

The focus of these surveys was on identifying and mapping community types and determining 

the probability of an area to support target plant species in addition to locating and recording 

individual target plant species. These surveys required that 100 percent of highly probable 

sensitive plant habitat be surveyed along with at least 10 percent of the areas considered to be of 

lower probable habitat using varying degrees of survey intensities. Areas to survey were 

stratified using a combination of the Hillshade14 model, aerial photographs, topographic maps, 

local knowledge, and professional judgment during field reconnaissance. All botanical survey 

data is stored in the Forest Database and GIS (USDA Forest Service 2009h).

 

14 Over the past several years, the Hillshade model has been field verified and has proven to be very 

helpful in predicting high probability target plant habitat in some parts of the Black Hills. Hillshade uses 

the length of time and intensity of the sun in relation to topography to predict shade and therefore moisture 

content across the landscape. It has been observed in some parts of the Black Hills that moisture is one 

factor driving the presence of high probability target plant habitat for many target plant species.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Table 45. Routes requiring design criteria, removal or rerouting to avoid impacts to special status 

plant species or areas

Species Occurrence Route

number Alt. B Alt. C Alt. D

Routes to be designed, removed, or rerouted to avoid impacts to Region 2 sensitive species

Bearlodge Ranger Dist.

Botrychium campestre BOCA5-8 872.3 X

Botrychium lineare BOLI7-1

864.1 (outside Dugout 

Gulch Botanical Area) X X

Carex alopecoidea CAAL8-12 U71002 X

CAAL8-31 841.1L X X

Cypripedium parviflorum CYPA19-10 863.2C X X

Viburnum opulus var. 

americanum

VIOPA2-2, 

VIOPA2-16

864.1

(in Dugout Gulch 

Botanical Area)

X X

03DUG3A, 

94S460B U650017 X X

Northern Hills Ranger Dist.

Carex alopecoidea CAAL8-22 U710024 X

Cypripedium parviflorum 950070B U080045 X X X

Platanthera orbiculata 01G040 CZ0418 U010076 X X

PLOR4-18 U010071 X X

Sanguinaria canadensis SACA13-2 567.1F X X X

SACA13-2 172.1A X X X

Viburnum opulus var. 

americanum VIOPA2-4 U080156 X X

980010 CZ4846 X X

Mystic Ranger Dist.

Cypripedium parviflorum CYPA19-2 CZ1790 X X X

Routes requiring design criteria to avoid impacts to Black Hills NF plant SOLC

Mystic Ranger Dist.

Gentiana affinis 07M008A CZ4927 X

Hell Canyon Ranger Dist.

Gentiana affinis GEAF-4 HC9 X X

07B040A CZ3526 X X

07B042 HC1 X X

Routes requiring design criteria to avoid impacts to M.A. 3.1 Botanical Areas

Bearlodge Ranger Dist.

Dugout Gulch Botanical Area 864.1C X X

864.1 X X

864.1A X

Routes requiring design criteria to avoid impacts to fens

Mystic Ranger Dist.

South Fork Castle Creek fen 385.1A X X X

Newton Fork fen 304.1L X X X

SOLC = species of local concern
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Affected Environment

Most of the Forest roads have been surveyed for botanical resources; however, there are areas 

that have not had surveys completed within the last 10 years. These areas are relatively small 

(most less than a quarter of a mile long), and spread across the Forest with the highest 

concentration in the drier habitats of the Hell Canyon Ranger District. The roads in question 

already exist on the landscape and moving the roads to avoid areas not surveyed would cause 

more impact to the resource than leaving existing roads where they were. It was agreed that any 

new construction would require a qualified botanist to review the route prior to construction to 

ensure protection of any plants previously undocumented.

At this time, approximately 2 percent of the proposed roads in any alternative are not fully 

surveyed for botanical resources. Per Forest Service Manual direction (USDA Forest Service 

2007c), presence of species of concern is assumed in areas where inventory methods are not 

feasible (due to time and seasonal constraints in this case) and the expected effects analyzed is 

based on that assumption. The evaluation of effects presented is based on survey of 79 to 83 

percent of the proposed routes and 57 to 63 percent of the proposed trailheads.

Riparian, Wetland, and Fen Habitat

Wetlands (including riparian areas, wet meadows, fens, lakes, seeps, springs, etc.) provide 

nutrients and water to vegetation creating a unique habitat for several species of plants and 

animals.

Riparian habitat is defined as being located along the edges of streams. It is the transition zone 

between aquatic habitat and upland terrestrial habitat. There are about 76,900 acres of riparian 

habitat on the Forest (USDA Forest Service 2005a). Riparian areas include meadows, although 

not all riparian areas are classified as meadows. Much of the riparian habitat on the Forest is 

open to cross-country travel and approximately 2,050 miles of motorized routes are within 400 

feet of riparian areas.

Wetlands (including riparian areas, fens, seeps, and springs) are habitat for many plant species of 

concern in the Black Hills (including Region 2 sensitive plant species and Forest plant species of 

local concern). In the arid western U.S., wetland areas make up a small proportion of the 

landscape but are critical to maintaining ecosystems on a large scale. An accurate estimate of 

location, quantity, and quality of wetlands at the Forest level is not currently available.

Fens are a rare kind of wetland that is dependent on an unfailing groundwater supply. The 

organic layer (peat) takes thousands of years to form and is considered an irreplaceable resource 

because the formation process is so slow (Cooper 1990). The Forest is currently inventorying fen 

resources in collaboration with experts from Colorado State University.

White Spruce Habitat

The Black Hills has one of the southern-most populations of white spruce (Picea glauca) in the 

United States. White spruce is the most shade-tolerant of the Black Hills tree species, enabling 

regeneration and growth under closed canopy conditions. The cool, moist environments of white 

spruce stands provide habitat diversity in a ponderosa pine-dominated landscape. Several Region 

2 sensitive and Forest plant species of local concern are found in spruce communities. Spruce 

habitat currently occupies about 26,500 acres on the Forest (USDA Forest Service 2009g). Much 

of the spruce habitat is currently open to cross-country travel and approximately 100 miles of 

motorized routes are in spruce habitat.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Hardwood Habitat

Paper birch/hazel forest (Betula papyrifera/Corylus cornuta forest) occurs in drainage bottoms 

with and without streams and on northerly slopes. In the northern Black Hills where precipitation 

is higher and temperatures are cooler, paper birch/hazel forest extends to lower elevations. 

Stands are found in mesic (moist) habitat such as shaded, narrow gulches and north-facing 

slopes. Paper birch/hazel forest often transitions into bur oak/ironwood forest in Black Hills 

drainages at lower elevations. A number of boreal disjunct plant species, including some Region 

2 sensitive and Forest plant species of local concern occur in stands of cool, moist paper birch/ 

hazel forest and bur oak/ironwood forest. The current condition for hardwoods and associated 

motorized recreation is shown in Table 46.

Table 46. Current conditions for hardwoods and associated motorized recreation

Hardwood cover type Current acres on the Forest*

Miles of Currently open 

motorized routes within habitat

Aspen 45,560 150

Bur oak 12,879 22

Paper birch 3,212 6

Other hardwoods 970 1

Total 62,621 179

*(USDA Forest Service 2009g)

Threatened and Endangered Species

No federally endangered, threatened, proposed or candidate species plant species are known to 

occur on the Forest (USDI Fish and Wildlife Service 2007a and USDA Forest Service 2009g)

Region 2 Sensitive Plant Species

Region 2 sensitive species are those plant and animal species identified by the Regional Forester 

for which population viability is currently of concern, as evidenced by significant current or 

predicted downward trends in population numbers or density, or by significant current or 

predicted downward trends in habitat capability that would reduce a species‘ existing distribution 

(USDA Forest Service 2007c). The following is a list of plant species designated as sensitive 

species in Region 2 of the United States Forest Service (USDA Forest Service 2007c) that are 

known or likely to occur on the Black Hills National Forest.

Prairie Moonwort (Botrychium campestre) - Botrychium campestre ranges from the Great 

Lakes, across Iowa and Nebraska to eastern Colorado and northward to Alberta and 

Saskatchewan. Seven occurrences have been confirmed on Forest. Additional sites exist on 

private land and at Wind Cave National Park. Rangewide, Botrychium campestre occurs 

primarily on well-drained soils in nonforested habitats, occasionally under shrubs in or at the 

margins of these habitats. It is considered a grassland species associated with sandy grassland 

habitats in prairies, dunes, railroad sidings, and fields over limestone. Botrychium campestre is 

extremely inconspicuous and is visible, at most, a few weeks during the year. Black Hills sites 

occur on substrates with at least some component of limestone and are primarily in open 

grassland habitats, usually with high forb diversity and sometimes with a high percentage of bare 

and rocky soils. Little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) and western snowberry 

(Symphoricarpos occidentalis) occur at the majority of sites. Black Hills occurrences range in 

elevation from 3,870 to 5,640 feet.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Slender Moonwort (Botrychium lineare) - Botrychium lineare is historically known from 

California and Utah and currently from Colorado northward to Washington, Montana, Alaska 

and the Yukon Territory. Five occurrences have been confirmed on Forest. Western populations 

of Botrychium lineare occur primarily on limestone substrates in a variety of habitats including 

heavily forested sites and grassy meadows, fen-like seeps and gravelly roadsides. All sites occur 

in open conditions on limestone substrate. Two sites are located on old (estimated 15 to 25 years) 

native surface roadbeds. A third site is located adjacent to a gravel roadbed in open grassland.

The fourth site, located on a large, open, north-facing, little bluestem dominated hillside, is not 

associated with any road development. The fifth site, also not associated with any road 

development, is located in an open, forb-dominated area on the bank of a small perennial stream.

Elsewhere in its range, this species has often been documented in areas of road disturbances and 

other human and natural disturbances. Black Hills occurrences range in elevation from 4,200 feet 

(in Wind Cave National Park) to 6,160 feet.

Foxtail Sedge (Carex alopecoidea) - Carex alopecoidea is widely distributed from eastern to 

central Canada, the northeastern United States, the Great Lakes region south to Tennessee, and 

west to North Dakota and the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming. Rangewide, habitat 

includes seasonally saturated meadows and openings in alluvial woods and stream banks, usually 

over calcareous substrates. In the Black Hills, Carex alopecoidea is currently known from two 

general areas: The Cement Ridge area along the South Dakota–Wyoming border, and in the Bear 

Lodge Mountains in Wyoming. There are approximately 30 occurrences on Forest. Carex 

alopecoidea is primarily found along open, perennial streams, often with old beaver dams or 

ponds. Occurrences have also been found in spruce-dominated riparian areas and in drainages 

with dense shrub cover. Plants are primarily documented in the transitional areas between 

saturated soils and the more mesic upland areas. Black Hills occurrences range in elevation from 

3,840 to 5,900 feet.

Lesser Yellow Lady’s Slipper (Cypripedium parviflorum) is primarily circumboreal in 

distribution and rangewide is generally found in shady deciduous and mixed woodlands near 

streams, shrublands, swamps, bogs, and wet forests. There are approximately 50 occurrences on 

Forest. Habitat in the Black Hills includes streambanks under both spruce and deciduous 

overstories, moist cliffs (usually north facing), and moist areas/seeps under white spruce or 

mixed conifer forest. Occasionally, Cypripedium parviflorum is found on upper mesic forest 

slopes. Black Hills occurrences range in elevation from 3,500 to 6,500 feet.

Stream Orchid (Epipactis gigantean) occurs in western North America from British Colombia 

south to California, and east to Texas. In the colder northern portions of its range, E. gigantea

may be confined to warm springs habitats (Hornbeck et al. 2003). In South Dakota, it is only 

known from one occurrence on private and Forest land along Cascade Creek in Fall River 

County, South Dakota. Rangewide, Epipactis gigantea is known from wet meadows, seepage 

slopes, and the base of cliffs along streams and rivers. In South Dakota and in the Black Hills, it 

is known only along Cascade Creek at 3,400 feet. It is likely dependent upon the constant 

moisture and warmth provided by the springs. No other warm springs are known on Forest.

Trailing Clubmoss (Lycopodium complanatum) is circumboreal and common across northern 

latitudes but disjunct or sparse at the southern limits of the species‘ distribution, such as in the 

Black Hills. Rangewide, L. complanatum is restricted to moist (not saturated) microhabitats 

within boreal plant communities in ravines, steep drainages, and on moist streamside benches. 

These occurrences are located in the northern Black Hills on shaded, north-facing, White spruce 

dominated slopes often with paper birch or quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides). Black Hills 

occurrences range in elevation from 4,960 to 6,340 feet.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Lesser Roundleaved Orchid (Platanthera orbiculata) is endemic to the boreal regions of 

northern North America, with a more southern distribution in the eastern United States. There are 

approximately 30 occurrences known in the Forest. Black Hills occurrences are found primarily 

on shady, north-facing slopes in paper birch/hazel or white spruce forests on moist, rich, humus 

soil. Occurrences in the Black Hills range in elevation from 4,350 to 6,150 feet.

Sage Willow (Salix candida) occurs from eastern Canada to Alaska and across the northern 

United States. There is one known occurrence in the Black Hills in McIntosh Fen Botanical 

Area. There is also a historical collection for the general area ―from Loring Siding to 

Minnekahta‖ (unknown if the historical collection is from private or Forest Service land). 

Rangewide, S. candida is an obligate wetland species. The one verified extant occurrence on the 

Black Hills is at 6,000 feet. Habitat includes cold seep or spring-fed saturated substrates 

produced by unusual hydrologic conditions where sedimentary layers of the Limestone Plateau 

intersect impermeable schist or shale of the crystalline Central Core. The plant community type 

associated with the occurrence is wet meadow and fen.

Autumn Willow (Salix serissima) occurs primarily in northern boreal bogs and fens throughout 

its range and is a disjunct relic in the Black Hills. There are four known occurrences on Forest. 

Rangewide, S. serissima occurs in fens and wet meadows often dominated by Carex species and 

other Salix species. In the Black Hills, S. serissima occurs in the same unique hydrologic 

conditions as Salix candida: wet meadows and fens on cold seep or spring-fed saturated 

substrates produced by unusual hydrologic conditions where sedimentary layers of the 

Limestone Plateau intersect impermeable schist or shale of the crystalline Central Core. Black 

Hills occurrences range in elevation from 5,620 to 6,000 feet.

Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis) occurs in moist forests from Nova Scotia south to Florida 

and west to Manitoba and Kansas. The currently known range in the Black Hills is limited to the 

northeast portion of the Black Hills, from the east side of Spearfish Canyon to west of Tilford. 

There are approximately 20 occurrences in the Black Hills. Rangewide, S. canadensis occurs in 

moist forests. In the Black Hills, it occupies floodplains, forested terraces, drainage bottoms, and 

north-facing footslopes in open, rich hardwood areas usually comprised of paper birch/hazel 

forest or bur oak/ironwood forest (Quercus macrocarpa/Ostrya virginiana forest). Black Hills 

occurrences range in elevation from 3,940 to 5,000 feet.

Highbush Cranberry (Viburnum opulus var. americanum) is widely distributed across north 

central North America. There are approximately 30 occurrences in the Black Hills. V. opulus var. 

americanum occurs in the Black Hills at mid-elevations in wet, shaded habitats along streams, 

springs and canyon bottoms. Most of the documented occurrences are in drainage bottoms or 

low slopes with moist soil conditions with partial shading. Currently known sites are primarily 

associated with paper birch and ironwood communities, with or without white spruce or quaking 

aspen. A few sites are found in ponderosa pine/bur oak Forest (Pinus ponderosa/Quercus

macrocarpa Forest). Paper birch is present at almost all currently known sites. Black Hills 

occurrences range in elevation from 3,800 to 5,700 feet.

Selkirk’s Violet (Viola selkirkii) is a circumboreal herbaceous species and rangewide it is 

locally abundant in specialized microsites in coniferous and deciduous forests. There are thirteen 

known occurrences on Forest with additional occurrences documented from Custer State Park 

and Mt. Rushmore National Monument. All currently known occurrences on National Forest 

System lands are located within the Black Elk Wilderness and/or the Norbeck Wildlife Preserve. 

Black Hills occurrences are restricted to a concentrated area (about 36 square miles) of the 

central core on igneous or metamorphic bedrock. Microhabitats are often moist, cold air 

drainages, in shaded to open areas, and often in the vicinity of granitic rock outcrops. White 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

spruce is usually the dominant overstory with a variable understory. Black Hills occurrences 

range in elevation from 5,240 to 7,000 feet.

Plant Species of Local Concern

Species of local concern are plant, fish, and wildlife species (including subspecies or varieties) 

that do not meet the criteria for sensitive status. These could include species with declining 

trends in only a portion of Region 2, or those that are important components of diversity in a 

local area. The local area is defined as National Forest System lands within the Forest (FSM 

2620.5 Black Hills Supplement 2600-2005-1). All Forest plant species of local concern were

considered in this analysis. The following is a list of plant species of local concern on the Black 

Hills National Forest.

Southern Maidenhair Fern (Adiantum capillus-veneris) occurs primarily in tropical and warm 

temperate regions of the world. In North America, it is mainly distributed across the southern 

third of the U.S. with disjunct northern occurrences (such as the Black Hills) restricted to moist, 

calcareous substrates closely associated with warm or hot springs. The single documented Black 

Hills occurrence is associated with warm springs at Cascade Creek (elevation 3,150-3,450 feet) 

in the southwestern Black Hills (Fall River County, South Dakota). Plants at Cascade Creek are 

found in moist to saturated areas on the streambank and in depressions and old channels on the 

adjacent floodplain. No other warm springs are known on Forest Service-administered land in 

the Black Hills.

Leathery Grapefern (Botrychium multifidum) is found across Canada and along the coast of 

Alaska, and in Greenland, Europe, and northwest Asia. It is found across the northern tier of 

states in the U.S.; south to California, Nevada, and Utah in the west; and south to Virginia in the 

east. Rangewide, B. multifidum grows in moist, open or shaded areas, including old pastures, 

meadows, woodland margins, riverbanks and bottom lands. Eight known occurrences on Forest 

lands. Most of the know locations are in mossy, mesic sites dominated by white spruce or mixed 

spruce-pine along small, perennial streams. Plants occur in open to shady areas, often in or near 

old stream channels where water is no longer flowing on a permanent basis. Seven of the eight 

occurrences are located in a concentrated area (ca. 16 square miles) of the central core on 

igneous or metamorphic bedrock, within the Black Elk Wilderness and/or Norbeck Wildlife 

Preserve. One exception is a single site in the Bear Lodge Mountains (WY) in a steep narrow 

drainage with paper birch/hazelnut community on sandstone. Plants at the Bear Lodge site are 

found on moss-covered sandstone boulders and streambank berms near occasional pools of 

water. Plants have also been found in duff under spruce, in grassy margins along streams, on 

sand/gravel bars along streams, and in mesic soils near hiking trails. Black Hills occurrences 

range in elevation from 4,620 to 6,450 feet.

Southwestern Showy Sedge (Carex bella) has its primary range in the southwest U.S. and 

Mexico. Rangewide this species typically inhabits streambanks, meadows and moist woods or 

open slopes, frequently above timberline. Black Hills occurrences (8 reported; 3 on Forest lands 

and 5 in Custer State Park) are known from high elevations of the central granitic core in cool, 

moist, shaded white spruce forests often with paper birch and usually associated with large 

granite rock outcrops. The three occurrences on Forest are in a one square mile area within the 

Black Elk Wilderness. Black Hills occurrences range in elevation from 6,600 to 7,100 feet.

Beaked Spikerush (Eleocharis rostellata) occurs in coastal salt marshes and in inland saline, 

alkaline, or strongly calcareous wetland habitats (e.g., around hot springs). The single 

documented Black Hills occurrence is on calcareous substrates in the year-round flows of warm 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

spring water of Cascade Creek in the southwestern Black Hills, at an elevation of 3,150 to 3,450 

feet.

Pleated Gentian (Gentiana affinis) is known from western North America, primarily in moist 

meadows in mountainous or hilly areas. Approximately 30 occurrences are known on Forest, 

primarily from botanical surveys in 2006 and 2007. Forest occurrences are reported primarily 

from the central to western Black Hills in a wide range of habitats. Black Hills occurrences have 

been documented in moist areas near stream margins, springs and fens, montane grasslands, 

vegetated drainages with cobbles and conifer dominated slopes. Elevation of occurrences range 

from 4,960 to 6,620 feet. Occurrences are known in McIntosh Fen and Black Fox Botanical 

Areas.

Broadlipped Twayblade (Listera convallarioides) occurs on rich humus in open woods and 

boggy meadows and prefers cool soil. It is considered a facultative wetland species in South 

Dakota and eastern Wyoming and has a high tolerance for anaerobic conditions. There are four 

known occurrences on Forest lands, all of which are restricted to a 20 square mile area in the 

northern Black Hills. Elevations range from 5,120 to 6,080 feet. Individuals are growing in 

saturated soil conditions adjacent to creeks and springs, in white spruce dominated forests. One 

occurrence is in Englewood Springs Botanical Area.

Stiff Clubmoss (Lycopodium annotinum) is widely distributed in boreal habitats of North 

America. Elsewhere in its range, it occurs in swampy or moist coniferous forests, mountain 

forests, and exposed grassy or rocky sites. There are 10 known occurrences on Forest. Sites 

occur primarily in the northern Black Hills and are associated with moist microhabitats within 

remnant boreal white spruce and paper birch/hazelnut communities. Three occurrences are colocated with Lycopodium complanatum (Region 2 sensitive species) and two are in the Upper 

Sand Creek Botanical Area. Black Hills occurrences range in elevation from 5,100 to 6,300 feet.

Alpine Mountainsorrel (Oxyria digyna) is widely distributed in arctic and alpine regions of 

North America and across the western U.S. Associated habitats include rocky areas in mountains, 

especially near streams, and moist ground in alpine or subalpine areas. The three known 

occurrences on Forest lands are restricted to the central granitic core of the Black Hills, in a 

concise area (ca. two square miles) within the Black Elk Wilderness. One additional occurrence 

is reported from Custer State Park. Plants occur on coarse-textured soils near steep, granite rock 

outcrops often in rocky gullies. Plants co-occur with Carex bella (species of local concern) 

and/or Viola selkirkii (Region 2 sensitive species) at some sites. Black Hills occurrences range in 

elevation from 6,000 to 7,240 feet.

Arrowleaf Sweet Coltsfoot (Petasites sagittatus) is known from Labrador to Alaska, south to 

Wisconsin, Minnesota, South Dakota (Black Hills), Colorado, Idaho, and Washington. There are 

15 fairly recent reports (1999-2007) of occurrences on Forest. Rangewide, P. sagittatus is 

associated with cold, wet, marshy conditions and is a facultative wetland species. Black Hills 

occurrences are reported from moist to saturated wetland areas along drainages and seeps in 

conditions ranging from full sun to deep shade under spruce (often with birch or aspen). One 

occurrence is in Black Fox Botanical Area. Black Hills occurrences range in elevation from 

5,120 to 6,600 feet.

Northern Hollyfern (Polystichum lonchitis) is a circumboreal, subalpine forest fern that occurs 

in rock crevices and at the base of boulders, mostly in boreal and subalpine coniferous forests or 

alpine regions. Twenty known occurrences are reported from Forest lands in the northern Black 

Hills and Bear Lodge Mountain. P. lonchitis is disjunct in the Black Hills from western 

Wyoming. Black Hills occurrences are associated with moist, often mossy, shaded to partially 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

shaded, northerly-facing slopes, ravines and gulches on primarily limestone substrates.

Dominant overstory is birch/hazelnut, sometimes with spruce, ironwood or aspen and often with 

diverse shrub and forb components. Black Hills occurrences range in elevation from 4,280 to 

6,040 feet.

Shining Willow (Salix lucida ssp. caudate) is widely distributed in the western and northern 

U.S. and Canada. It is at the eastern limit of its range in South Dakota. Rangewide, S. lucida ssp. 

caudata is commonly associated with streambanks, shores, wet meadows, and seeps. The taxon 

is considered a facultative wetland plant in South Dakota and eastern Wyoming. Two Forest 

occurrences were confirmed in 2006—one along a small creek in the Bear Lodge Mountains at 

4,800 feet (1 original plant and 5 planted from cuttings), and the other is in the northern Black 

Hills at 5,000 feet (2 plants). A third location documented by confirmed voucher, has not yet 

been relocated, and a fourth location was planted from cuttings in 2007 (19 plants).

Management Area 3.1 Botanical Areas

The Forest designated eight areas as Management Area 3.1 Botanical Areas in the 1997 Forest 

Plan: Black Fox, Bear/Beaver Gulches, Dugout Gulch, Englewood Springs, Higgins Gulch, 

McIntosh Fen, North Fork Castle Creek, and Upper Sand Creek. These areas are comprised of 

plant communities, associations, and individual plant species of particular quality and interest. 

M.A. 3.1 Botanical Areas comprise about 1 percent of the Forest and the focus of management is 

to maintain their botanical features and support public use for educational purposes. M.A. 3.1 

Botanical Areas provide habitat for Region 2 sensitive species, Forest plant species of local 

concern, and other elements of biological diversity. They also provide scenic and other public 

property values.

Environmental Effects Analysis

Direct and Indirect Effects Common to All Region 2 Sensitive and Forest Plant 

Species of Local Concern

Impacts and risks to species on the Forest were estimated based on the best available science and 

data. Species persistence for Region 2 sensitive plant species and Forest plant species of local 

concern was evaluated in the Phase II Forest Plan Amendment. Each alternative in this project 

was evaluated as to whether it is consistent with Forest Plan standards and guidelines applicable 

to each species.

The construction, use, and maintenance of roads and trails generally disturb plant communities, 

including Region 2 sensitive species and Forest plant species of local concern. The direct 

impacts of roads and trails (including trailheads) are possible loss of plant individuals, plant 

occurrences, and plant communities. Indirect impacts to plant species and plant communities 

include:

Indirect impacts to plant species and plant communities include:

(1) increased introduction of invasive species leading to increased competition for resources 

and increased potential for impact from invasive species control (i.e. spray from 

herbicide application)

(2) alteration of hydrology patterns and degraded water quality

(3) alteration of habitat conditions (such as decrease in canopy cover or change in 

successional stage, increased soil compaction, accelerated erosion, altered soil 

microbial/mycorrhizal activity, and nutrient availability)
Final Environmental Impact Statement

(4) increased access for disturbance vectors (including humans and animals) which lead to 

increased disturbances such as trampling, cropping, and collecting

(5) disruption of pollinators

(6) increased dust (causes increased sediment, also plugs stomata (gas exchange structures) 

on plant leaves)

(7) an increase in plant numbers (in some cases) adjacent to roads and trails from a nearby 

occurrence, mainly due to increased water availability from concentrated runoff

(8) habitat fragmentation for some species from roads, which can fragment habitat into 

smaller patches and increase the ratio of edge to forest interior areas.

Alternative C would have the most miles of motorized routes that could disturb native plant 

species and plant communities (including Region 2 sensitive plant species and Forest plant 

species of local concern), followed by Alternatives B, A, E and D, respectively. The impact of 

the increased number of routes in Alternatives B and C would likely offset the impact of 

decreasing disturbance to native plant communities by closing areas to motorized cross-country 

travel. Still, the net impact is expected to be small because of the large area closed to crosscountry travel. The miles of routes in Alternative E would remain at the existing level.

Management protective of suitable habitat (such as wetlands, paper birch, and spruce 

communities) and natural processes within them will also provide protection for native plant 

species and communities. Target plants are not always observed when present, and many times 

may simply not be present due to the seasonality of the surveys. Some reasons are that plants 

may not be in prime growth stage for identification, they may be in dormancy, or they may be 

difficult to see in surrounding vegetation.

The action alternatives would not allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel. These 

alternatives are expected to have a net beneficial effect from closing much of the Forest to 

motorized cross-country travel. Disturbances from cross-country travel are expected to be 

reduced and there would be a beneficial effect in reducing invasive weed spread and disturbancecreated seedbeds.

All of the action alternatives are expected to have less chance of direct and indirect effects to 

native plant species and communities (including sensitive plants) than Alternative A because they 

have less area open to cross-country travel. Of the action alternatives, Alternative C is expected 

to have the most effects on native plant species and communities (including Region 2 sensitive 

plant species and Forest plant species of local concern) followed by Alternatives B, E and D, 

respectively, based on the miles of routes open to motorized travel (see Figure 11).

Motorized game retrieval can affect native plant species and communities through disturbance. 

The effects of motorized game retrieval are expected to be minor. Most motorized game retrieval 

involves big game in the fall, which is outside the majority of plant species‘ reproductive 

seasons. Of the action alternatives, Alternative C would allow motorized game retrieval on the 

most acres followed by Alternative B, D, and E respectively (see Figure 12). Alternative B would 

reduce impacts from existing conditions because it only allows game retrieval for elk (which has 

far fewer hunters than would need to retrieve game than for elk and deer) and in a reduced area.

Alternative C would reduce impacts from existing conditions because it has less acreage open to 

motorized game retrieval, but may have more impacts than Alternative B in the retrieval area 

because it allows retrieval of elk and deer. Alternatives D and E are expected to have no impacts 

from game retrieval because motorized game retrieval is not allowed.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Motorized dispersed camping can also disturb native plant species and communities. The 

comparative levels of effects of motorized dispersed camping are estimated using the acreage 

open to motorized dispersed camping. Of the action alternatives, Alternative C has the most 

acreage open to motorized dispersed camping, followed by Alternatives B, D and E (see Figure 

13).

Motorized trailheads concentrate use in specific areas increasing the impact to plant communities 

along the edges of these areas. The comparative levels of effects of motorized trailheads are 

estimated using the number of trailheads. Of the action alternatives, Alternative C poses the most 

impact to plant communities from motorized trailheads with 34, followed by Alternative B (31), 

D (23), and E (7) (see Table 7).

Overall, the action alternatives are expected to have less of a net impact on native plant species 

and communities (including Region 2 sensitive plant species and Forest plant species of local 

concern) than Alternative A because of the continuation of Forestwide cross-country motorized 

travel proposed in Alternative A. Alternative D is expected to have the least impact on native 

plant species and communities because it has the fewest motorized routes and the least area open 

to motorized cross-country travel, followed by Alternatives E, B, and C.

Direct and Indirect Effects Common to Region 2 Sensitive and Forest Plant 

Species of Local Concern with a Habitat Preference of Wetlands, Riparian 

Areas, Fens and Seeps

Plant species in wetlands, riparian areas, and seeps are likely to be impacted by changes in 

hydrology and water quality. Roads and trails in the water influence zone in wetlands can cause 

increased erosion, which can modify streambank geometry and cause an increase in overland 

flow. Increases in overland flow will have the net effect of maximizing runoff and minimizing 

infiltration. While the increased runoff results in overall greater water yield, the storm water is 

delivered relatively quickly through surface processes rather than through sustained subsurface 

flows, which are often critical to wetland hydrology (Moore et al. 2006).

Changing normal wetland hydrology (e.g., decreasing site moisture in areas) could impact plants 

by reducing water available for necessary biological functions. Degradation of water quality in 

infiltrating surface and groundwater may also affect wetland plant species by altering normal 

available nutrients. There may also be local changes in the natural soil balance (chemical makeup, nutrients, microbes, etc.) which can impact plants in the area. Roads and trails can lead to 

soil compaction, especially in areas with moist to saturated soils. Soil compaction can impact 

plant occurrences by changing the regular water infiltration through the soil and decreasing 

oxygen available to plant roots and other essential soil organisms.

More than half the plant species of concern in the Black Hills (Region 2 sensitive and Forest 

plant species of local concern) are associated with wetland and riparian areas. Consequently, 

management protective of general riparian and wetland habitat and processes will also provide 

protection for native plant species and communities (including Region 2 sensitive plant species 

and Forest plant species of local concern).

Effects to the riparian habitat and associated species are mitigated through a wide variety of 

standards and guidelines, watershed conservation practices, and state best management practices 

that protect riparian areas. Forestwide standards and guidelines protect riparian areas, water 

influence zones, and wetlands. Standard 3106 states that riparian areas or wetlands where 

populations of Region 2 sensitive species and plant species of local concern are located are to be 

avoided during ground-disturbing activities. Long-term riparian ecosystem health and ecological 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

function are provided for by not allowing actions that would be detrimental to riparianecosystem condition (standards 1301, 1302). Objective 105 strives to prohibit motorized vehicles 

in wetlands, wet meadows, and riparian areas. Standard 1113 minimizes sediment discharge into 

streams, lakes, and wetlands during road construction and other site disturbances. Guideline 

9107 prohibits land vehicles from entering perennial steams where resource damage would 

occur. Guideline 9108 restricts vehicle traffic to roads and trails in riparian areas.

Alternative A is the only alternative that would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country 

travel. This could lead to more user-created routes that could further affect riparian vegetation. 

The effects of motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping on riparian habitat are expected 

to be similar to those discussed above for the Forest in general. The effects of disturbance to 

riparian habitat is based on the miles of motorized routes in riparian habitat and the acres of 

riparian habitat open to motorized cross-country travel (see Figure 17). Disturbance impacts are 

expected to continue to accrue as motorized recreation use levels increase. User-created routes 

are expected to continue to be created and impact riparian habitat.

In Alternatives B, C and D, Route 385.1A is proposed to be changed from a closed road to an 

open road. This route intersects South Fork Castle Creek Fen. If this road is opened as proposed, 

irreversible impacts could occur to the identified fen. This would be in conflict with Forest 

Service Handbook 2509.25, 12.4 Management Measure (6), Design Criteria 1e, which states 

―Avoid any loss of rare wetlands such as fens and springs. NOTE: These wetlands cannot be 

replaced in-kind‖.

Two segments of Route 304.1L are proposed to be changed from a road to a trail in the Bengal

fen and riparian area. The effects to the fen and riparian area are expected to be similar to what is 

currently occurring on the existing road. There may be an incremental increase in impacts if the 

use increases in the area.

None of the action alternatives would allow motorized cross-country travel, except as noted for 

Alternatives B and C for motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping. This is expected to 

reduce impacts on riparian habitat by controlling the number and location of disturbances.

Alternative C has the most motorized routes in riparian habitat, followed by Alternatives B, A, E, 

and D, respectively; therefore the amount of riparian habitat impacted is the greatest in 

Alternative C, followed by Alternatives B, A, E, and D respectively.

Direct and Indirect Effects Common to Region 2 Sensitive and Forest Plant 

Species of Local Concern with a Habitat Preference of White Spruce Plant 

Communities

Under Alternative A, motorized cross-country travel would be expected to continue in much of 

the spruce habitat. Disturbance would continue to occur in areas where motorized cross-country 

travel occurs. Disturbance impacts are expected to continue to accrue as motorized recreation use 

levels increase. User-created routes are expected to continue to be created and impact native 

plant species in spruce communities.

None of the action alternatives would allow motorized cross-country travel, except as noted for 

Alternatives B and C for motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping. This is expected to 

reduce impacts on white spruce communities by controlling the number and location of 

disturbances.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Alternatives A, B, and E have the most motorized routes in spruce habitat, followed by 

Alternatives C and D, respectively; therefore the number of white spruce communities impacted 

is the greatest in Alternatives A, B, and E followed by Alternatives C and D respectively.

Direct and Indirect Effects Common to Region 2 Sensitive and Forest Plant 

Species of Local Concern with a Habitat Preference of Hardwood Plant 

Communities

Under Alternative A, motorized cross-country travel would be expected to continue in much of 

the paper birch/hazel forest and bur oak/ironwood forest. Disturbance would continue to occur in 

areas where motorized cross-country travel occurs. Disturbance impacts are expected to continue 

to accrue as motorized recreation use levels increase. User-created routes are expected to 

continue being created and to impact native plant species in spruce communities.

None of the action alternatives would allow motorized cross-country travel, except as noted for 

Alternatives B and C for motorized game retrieval and dispersed camping. This is expected to 

reduce impacts on paper birch/hazel forest and bur oak/ironwood forest communities by 

controlling the number and location of disturbances.

Alternative C has the most motorized routes in hardwood plant communities, followed by 

Alternatives B, A, E and D, respectively (see Figure 16); therefore the amount of paper 

birch/hazel forest and bur oak/ironwood forest impacted is the greatest in Alternative C followed 

by Alternatives B, A, E, and D respectively.

Direct and Indirect Effects to Region 2 Sensitive Plant Species

Effects to Region 2 sensitive plant species are discussed in detail in the accompanying Biological 

Evaluation. The following is a summary of the analysis of effects for each species.

Epipactis gigantea (stream orchid) occurs in one location on Black Hills National Forest land, 

along Cascade Creek. A determination of ―no impact‖ was made for Epipactis gigantea in the 

biological evaluation for this project because 1) no routes are proposed on Forest land along 

Cascade Creek, 2) undiscovered occurrences are highly unlikely because of habitat requirements, 

and 3) no effects from motorized cross-country travel, motorized game retrieval, or motorized 

dispersed camping are proposed

Lycopodium complanatum (trailing clubmoss), Salix candida (sage willow) Salix 

serissima (autumn willow) and Viola selkirkii (Selkirk’s violet)

All known occurrences of these four Region 2 sensitive species are avoided by the proposed 

routes. The direct and indirect effects for these four species are discussed here simultaneously.

Direct mortality from vehicles is possible for all alternatives because undiscovered occurrences 

could be impacted in all alternatives. The miles of motorized routes on the Forest and in suitable 

habitat and the amount of habitat open to cross-country travel is used here to estimate effects to 

undiscovered occurrences. The effects of motorized routes, motorized cross-country travel, 

motorized game retrieval, and motorized dispersed camping on these four species are expected to 

be similar to the general discussions on riparian/wetland, white spruce and paper birch/hazel 

forest previously.

Site-specific Analysis - No proposed routes intersect known occurrences or surveyed suitable 

habitat for these four species in any of the alternatives.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

All Alternatives - Botanical surveys are not 100 percent accurate, so it is possible any 

alternative may impact individuals not observed during survey. However, the number would be 

small and likely to neither result in a loss of viability across the Forest nor cause a trend toward 

federal listing.

The effects analysis assumes that monitoring of occurrences will occur and that any discovered 

impacts will be mitigated.

The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined these species are likely to persist on the Forest 

(USDA Forest Service 2005a). This project will not change any of the standards, guidelines or 

objectives that provide for these four species or the riparian/wetland, white spruce and paper 

birch/hazel forest. Riparian/wetland communities, white spruce communities, and paper 

birch/hazel forest would be maintained in all alternatives.

These four species, Lycopodium complanatum, Salix candida, Salix serissima and Viola selkirkii, 

have a determination of ―may adversely impact individuals, but not likely to result in a loss 

of viability in the planning area, nor cause a trend toward federal listing‖ for all alternatives.

This determination is based on the following assumptions:

Known occurrences would not be impacted by this project.

There is a possibility unknown occurrences may occur in areas not surveyed; routes in 

these areas would be mitigated as occurrences are found to avoid impacts.

Alternative A would maintain current conditions. Alternatives B, C, D, and E are expected to 

have less of a net impact on Lycopodium complanatum, Salix candida, Salix serissima and Viola 

selkirkii by closing areas to cross-country travel.

Botrychium campestre (prairie moonwort), Botrychium lineare (slender moonwort), 

Carex alopecoidea (foxtail sedge), Cypripedium parviflorum (lesser yellow lady’s 

slipper), Platanthera orbiculata (lesser roundleaved orchid), Sanguinaria canadensis 

(bloodroot), and Viburnum opulus var. americanum (highbush cranberry)

Known occurrences of these seven Region 2 sensitive species are intersected by the proposed 

routes. The direct and indirect effects for these seven species will be discussed here 

simultaneously.

Direct mortality from vehicles is possible for all alternatives because undiscovered occurrences 

could be impacted in all alternatives. The miles of motorized routes on the Forest and in suitable 

habitat and the amount of habitat open to cross-country travel is used here to estimate effects to 

undiscovered occurrences. The effects of motorized routes, motorized cross-country travel, 

motorized game retrieval, and motorized dispersed camping on these seven species are expected 

to be similar to the general discussions on riparian/wetland, white spruce and paper birch/hazel 

forest above.

Site-specific Analysis:

Alternative A

With Alternative A, occurrences of Region 2 sensitive species and species of local concern 

located outside of designated closure areas have the potential to be impacted by motorized 

vehicles because cross-country use of motorized vehicles would continue.

Alternative B

Route 841.1L intersects a known occurrence of Carex alopecoidea
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Route 864.1 intersects a known occurrence of Botrychium lineare and 2 known 

occurrences of Viburnum opulus var. americanum

Route U71002 intersects a known occurrence of Carex alopecoidea

Routes 863.2C, U080045, and CZ17901 intersect 3 known occurrences of Cypripedium 

parviflorum

Routes U650017, U0801056 and CZ4846 intersect 4 known occurrences of Viburnum 

opulus var. americanum

Routes CZ0418, U010076, and U010071 intersect 2 known occurrences of Platanthera 

orbiculata

Routes 567.1F and 172.1A intersect a known occurrence of Sanguinaria canadensis

Alternative C

Routes 841.1L and U710024 intersect 2 known occurrence of Carex alopecoidea

Route 872.3 intersects a known occurrence of Botrychium campestre

Route 864.1 intersects a known occurrence of Botrychium lineare and 2 known 

occurrences of Viburnum opulus var. americanum

Routes U650017, U0801056 and CZ4846 intersect 4 known occurrences of Viburnum 

opulus var. americanum

Routes 863.2C, U080045, and CZ17901 intersect 3 known occurrences of Cypripedium 

parviflorum

Routes CZ0418, U010076, and U010071 intersect 2 known occurrences of Platanthera

orbiculata

Routes 567.1F and 172.1A intersect a known occurrence of Sanguinaria canadensis

Alternative D

Routes U080045, and CZ17901 intersect 3 known occurrences of Cypripedium 

parviflorum

Routes 567.1F and 172.1A intersect a known occurrence of Sanguinaria canadensis

All Alternatives - Botanical surveys are not 100 percent accurate, so any alternative may impact 

individuals not observed during survey. However, the number would be small and likely to 

neither result in a loss of viability across the Forest nor cause a trend toward federal listing if 

known occurrences are not impacted. The effects analysis assumes that monitoring of 

occurrences will occur and that any discovered impacts will be mitigated.

The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined these species are likely to persist on the Forest, 

if known occurrences persist (USDA Forest Service 2005a). If the prescribed design criteria are

applied to the routes identified, this project will be consistent with the Forest Plan.

Based on the above analysis (detailed in the accompanying Biological Evaluation) a 

determination of ―may adversely impact individuals, but not likely to result in a loss of 

viability in the planning area, nor cause a trend toward federal listing‖ is made for these 

seven species for all alternatives. This determination is based on the following assumptions:

Table 47. Species potentially impacted and routes that would be designed, rerouted, or removed to 

avoid or mitigate impacts to known occurrences in the identified alternatives

Species Occurrence Route number Alt. B Alt. C Alt. D

Botrychium BOCA5-8 872.3 X
Final Environmental Impact Statement

campestre

Botrychium 

lineare BOLI7-1 864.1 X X

Carex 

alopecoidea

CAAL8-12 U71002 X

CAAL8-31 841.1L X X

CAAL8-22 U710024 X

Cypripedium 

parviflorum

CYPA19-2 CZ1790 X X X

CYPA19-10 863.2C X X

950070B U080045 X X X

Platanthera 

orbiculata

01G040 CZ0418 X X

01G040 U010076 X X

PLOR4-18 U010071 X X

Sanguinaria 

canadensis

SACA13-2 567.1F X X X

SACA13-2 172.1A X X X

Viburnum 

opulus var. 

americanum

VIOPA2-4 U080156 X X

980010 CZ4846 X X

VIOPA2-2 864.1 X X

VIOPA2-16 864.1 X X

03DUG3A U650017 X X

94S460B U650017 X X

Unknown populations of Region 2 sensitive plant species and Black Hills plant species of local 

concern may occur on the Forest. If new populations of Region 2 sensitive species or Black Hills 

plant species of local concern are discovered in the vicinity of a proposed route prior to 

implementation or construction of new routes, design criteria would be applied to mitigate or 

avoid impacts. Routes constructed outside of those considered in this document would require 

further survey and analysis. The effects analysis assumes that monitoring of occurrences would 

occur and that any discovered impacts would be mitigated.

Alternative A would maintain current conditions. Alternatives B, C, D, and E are expected to 

have less of a net impact on Botrychium campestre, Botrychium lineare, Carex alopecoidea

Cypripedium parviflorum, Platanthera orbiculata, Sanguinaria canadensis, Viburnum opulus

var. americanum, by closing areas to cross-country travel.

Direct and Indirect Effects to Black Hills Plant Species of Local Concern

Effects to Forest plant species of local concern are discussed in detail in the Botanical Resources 

Report. The following is a summary of the analysis of effects for each species.

Adiantum capillus-veneris (southern maidenhair fern) and Eleocharis rostellata (beaked 

spikerush) occur in one location on Black Hills National Forest land, along Cascade Creek.

These species would not be impacted by this project because 1) no routes are proposed on Forest 

land along Cascade Creek, 2) undiscovered occurrences are highly unlikely because of habitat 

requirements, and 3) no effects from motorized cross-country travel, motorized game retrieval, 

or motorized dispersed camping are proposed.

Botrychium multifidum (leathery grapefern), Carex bella (southwestern showy sedge), 

Listera convallarioides (broadlipped twayblade orchid), Lycopodium annotinum (stiff 

clubmoss), Oxyria digyna (alpine mountainsorrel), Petasites sagittatus (arrowleaf sweet 

coltsfoot), Polystichum lonchitis (northern hollyfern), Salix lucida ssp. caudata (shining 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

willow) are avoided by the proposed routes. The direct and indirect effects for these eight species 

will be discussed here simultaneously.

Direct mortality from vehicles is possible for all alternatives because undiscovered occurrences 

could be impacted in all alternatives. The miles of motorized routes on the Forest and in suitable 

habitat (riparian, white spruce, or paper birch/hazel communities) and the amount of habitat open 

to cross-country travel is used here to estimate effects to undiscovered occurrences. The effects 

of motorized routes, motorized cross-country travel, motorized game retrieval, and motorized

dispersed camping on these eight species are expected to be similar to the general discussions on 

riparian, white spruce, and paper birch/hazel forest above.

Site-specific Analysis - In areas with botanical survey, there are no proposed routes that intersect 

known occurrences or surveyed suitable habitat for these eight species in any alternatives.

All Alternatives - Botanical surveys are not 100 percent accurate, so it is possible that any 

alternative may impact individuals not observed during survey. However, the number would be 

small and not likely to impact persistence on the Forest, if known occurrences on the Forest are 

not impacted.

The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined these species are likely to persist on the Forest 

(USDA Forest Service 2005a). This project is consistent with the Forest Plan for these species 

and/or their riparian/wetland, white spruce, and paper birch/hazel forest habitat.

Riparian/wetland areas, white spruce communities, and paper birch/hazel forest would be 

maintained in all alternatives.

Gentiana affinis (pleated gentian) populations intersect with three routes proposed in 

Alternatives B and C.

Direct mortality from vehicles is possible for all alternatives because undiscovered occurrences 

could be impacted in all alternatives. The miles of motorized routes on the Forest and in suitable 

habitat (riparian/wet meadow communities) and the amount of habitat open to cross-country 

travel is used here to estimate effects to undiscovered occurrences. The effects of motorized 

routes, motorized cross-country travel, motorized game retrieval, and motorized dispersed 

camping on Gentiana affinis are expected to be similar to the general discussion on 

riparian/wetland areas above.

Site-specific Analysis - In areas with botanical survey, there are 3 proposed routes that intersect 

3 known occurrences of Gentiana affinis in Alternatives B and C, and one additional route that 

intersects a known occurrence of G. affinis in Alternative C.

Design Criteria - Three proposed routes intersect three known occurrences of Gentiana affinis 

in Alternatives B and C and one additional route intersects a known occurrence in Alternative C.

In order to be consistent with the Forest Plan and therefore ensure the persistence of this species 

on the Forest, the following should be done in Alternatives B and C:

Design route HC9 (new route) to avoid impacts to occurrences GEAF-4

Design route CZ3526 (new route) to avoid impacts to occurrence GEAF 07B040A

Design route HC1 (new route) to avoid impacts to occurrence GEAF 07B042

In addition, Alternative C has one additional proposed route that should be designed to avoid 

impacts:
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Design route CZ4927 (new route) to avoid impacts to GEAF 07M008A and riparian 

impacts

All Alternatives - Botanical surveys are not 100 percent accurate, so any alternative may impact 

individuals not observed during survey. However, the number would be small and not likely to 

impact persistence of the species on the Forest. The Forest Plan Phase II Amendment determined 

this species is likely to persist on the Forest (USDA Forest Service 2005a), if known occurrences 

are not impacted. This project will be consistent with Forest Plan standards that provide for 

Gentiana affinis and its habitat if the design criterion described above is applied.

Direct and Indirect Effects to Management Area 3.1 Botanical Areas

The Forest designated eight areas as Management Area 3.1 Botanical Areas in the 1997 Forest 

Plan. Various disturbances of these areas can cause changes to their environment and damage 

that may take a long time to restore or may never be restored.

Roads can provide easy access to M.A. 3.1 Botanical Areas by OHVs, even though there are 

currently road closures in effect for all M.A. 3.1 Botanical Areas. If a road passes through or near 

a botanical area it may contribute to the introduction of invasive species (including noxious 

weeds), alteration of hydrology patterns, alteration of habitat condition (such as decrease in 

canopy cover or change in successional stage), increased access for disturbance vectors 

(including humans and livestock). The introduction of invasive species, alteration of hydrology 

patterns, alteration of habitat condition, and increased access for disturbance vectors may lead to 

increased disturbances. Increased disturbances may include vegetation trampling, cropping, and 

collecting, disruption of pollinators, increased dust, and sedimentation.

Site-specific Analysis - There are two botanical areas affected by proposed routes in Alternatives 

B and C. Routes 864.1, 864.1A and 864.1C are currently closed routes that are proposed to be 

opened. Forest Plan guideline 3.1-5103 states the Dugout Gulch Botanical Area has a Recreation 

Opportunity Spectrum of Semi-primitive Nonmotorized. Opening this route to motorized 

vehicles would be in conflict with that guideline.

Route 228.1A is proposed to be changed from a road to a trail in the Englewood Springs 

Botanical Area. The effects to the botanical area are expected to be similar to what is currently 

occurring on the existing road. There may be an incremental increase in impacts if the use 

increases in the area as other areas become closed to ATVs.

Direct and Indirect Effects to Montane Grasslands

Black Hills montane grassland is a plant community type endemic to the Black Hills (that is, it 

does not occur anywhere outside the Black Hills). This plant community type was described 

through the Black Hills Community Inventory, which resulted in a community classification for 

the Black Hills tiered to the National Vegetation Classification (Marriott et al. 1999). Stands of 

Black Hills montane grasslands are found at higher elevation on the limestone plateau and 

adjacent central core of the Black Hills. They are dominated by grasses and other graminoids but 

are typically forb-rich and known locally for spectacular seasonal wildflower displays. Surveys 

were undertaken in 1998 and 1999 to identify locations of stands and evaluate condition. 

Twenty-six sites surveyed in depth were ranked moderate to good quality (Marriott et al.1999). 

Disturbances from roads and trails to stands of Black Hills montane grasslands can cause direct 

impacts by destroying plants and thus altering the extent or species composition of stands. 

Indirect impacts from roads and trails include degradation by introduction of invasive species 

(including noxious weeds); alteration of hydrology patterns; alteration of habitat condition (such 

as decrease in canopy coverage or change in successional stage); increased access for 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

disturbance vectors including humans and livestock leading to increased disturbances to 

vegetation such as trampling, cropping, and collecting; disruption of pollinators; and increased 

dust/sedimentation.

Site-specific analysis: Seven stands of Black Hills montane grasslands would be affected by 

proposed routes in Alternatives B, C, and D: Gillette Canyon Headwaters (294.1, CZ3485, 

CZ3432, 291.4D, CZ3487, 291.4E, CZ3490), Moskee (820.1), Redbird Draw (HC9, CZ3526), 

South Fork Castle Creek (294.2M, U160072, 294.2J, CZ4295), Upper Gillette Canyon 

(U220077, CZ0753, CZ0755), Upper Sand Creek/Cement Ridge (850.2), Warren Peaks (830.1, 

830.1B).

Cumulative Effects

The cumulative effects analysis is bounded in time as the next 5 to 15 years. This temporal scale 

is based on: (1) the time over which one can expect to predict reasonably foreseeable actions and 

(2) roughly the time until the next Forest Plan Revision. The spatial scale for cumulative effects 

analysis generally encompasses the area within the Forest boundary. This area was chosen 

because it encompasses ecosystem components and species that occur on the Forest. A larger 

area would include the surrounding plains, which includes a vastly different suite of species and 

ecosystem components.

Activities such as vegetation management, fuels management, livestock grazing, recreational 

activities and other management activities have occurred and would continue to occur on the 

Forest. These activities would likely occur on private lands as well. All may affect plant species 

of concern (Region 2 sensitive plant species and Forest plant species of local concern) and 

botanical resources through direct mortality, habitat alteration, or spread of invasive species. On 

the Forest, these potential effects are lessened or negated for known occurrences by avoiding the 

locations during project design.

Management of national and state parks adjacent to the Forest would have an unknown effect on 

plant species/communities and other botanical resources. Wind Cave National Park and Jewel 

Cave National Monument likely contain little spruce habitat because they are located in the 

southern Black Hills where spruce is sparse or absent. Spruce occurs in Custer State Park, mostly 

at the north end near recreation sites. These parks emphasize recreational opportunities and will 

likely manage hardwoods as desired species where possible. National parks and monuments tend 

to manage to preserve natural conditions, using fire and other processes, which would likely 

provide conditions under which hardwoods and other habitats evolved. Management in national 

and state parks will likely contribute to the conservation of plant species/communities and 

botanical resources.

Privately owned lands within the Black Hills Ecoregion may also provide suitable habitat, but 

resource management by companies and private citizens depends on a number of factors (e.g., 

desired goals, market prices, development potential) making it difficult to predict future trends in 

private habitat diversity and quality. Potential habitat for species, communities, and locations 

may occur on private lands across the Black Hills. Continued urban development in the Black 

Hills will likely continue to affect species, communities, and locations, thereby increasing the 

importance of these botanical resources on National Forest System lands.

For all alternatives, administrative access would be allowed for official Forest business including 

contractors, permit holders, and emergency vehicles. This means that closed roads could receive 

use; however, with the exception of emergency vehicles, use of these roads would be addressed 

in environmental documents associated with specific management activities. Emergency vehicle 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

use would most likely occur on historic road prisms, that is, historically disturbed areas.

Botrychium spp. would be the most likely species affected by this use because they occur in 

areas of historical disturbance. Potential impacts could include crushing of individuals, 

disturbance of the subsurface mycorrhizal community, and alteration of local hydrology. The 

duration of these impacts could last an indefinite length of time. There could be some 

incremental impacts to individual plant species, communities, and botanical resources. In 

Alternative A, incremental impacts would continue to accrue as motorized recreation use levels 

increase. User-created routes are expected to continue to be created and could incrementally 

impact plant species, communities, and botanical resources.

Alternatives B, C, D, and E would reduce the amount of area open to cross-country travel to 

varying degrees, thereby reducing the area and number of Region 2 and species of local concern

populations impacted by vehicle use and offsetting some impacts occurring on lands of other 

ownerships. Alternative D would reduce impacts the most by having the smallest area open to 

cross-country travel, and the least miles of motorized routes.

Scenery

Introduction

Scenery is defined as the general appearance of a place and the features of its views or 

landscapes: the arrangement of predominantly natural features of the landscapes we see. The 

adjective ―scenic‖ has to do with natural scenery, which affords beautiful views.

―Research has shown that high-quality scenery, especially that related to natural-appearing 

forests, enhances people‘s lives and benefits society...Research findings support the logic that 

scenic quality and naturalness of the landscape directly enhance human well-being, both 

physically and psychologically, and contribute to other important human benefits. Specifically 

these benefits include people‘s improved physiological well being as an important by-product of 

viewing interesting and pleasant natural appearing landscapes with high scenic diversity.‖

(USDA Forest Service 1995, p. 17)

In 2003, a National Visitor Use Monitoring project was conducted on the Black Hills National 

Forest. Recreation use on the National Forest for the fiscal year was calculated at 1,252,175 

visits. As part of that project, visitors were interviewed to determine their satisfaction with the 

Forest. They also identified areas they had visited (Table 14 of NVUM report) - in order of 

highest use: (1) picnic areas, (2) scenic byways, (3) forest roads, (4) forest trails, and (5) 

developed campgrounds. The top four activities visitors participated in were: (1) Viewing 

Wildlife - 62 percent (of respondents), (2) Relaxing - 57 percent, and (3) Viewing Natural 

Features - 51 percent, Driving for Pleasure – 39 percent (Table 13 of NVUM report).

With regard to the satisfaction of the visitors experience in Wilderness, Developed Day Use 

Areas, Developed Overnight (Campground) Areas, and General Forest Areas (Tables 11, 17, 18, 

19 of NVUM report); the highest importance and satisfaction rating was given for the Scenery 

and Condition of Environment in each category (Kocis 2004, pp. 6, 11, 13, 14, 18-20).

The natural beauty that makes up the scenery of the Forest is one of the most important elements 

or resources that draws our recreation visitors. Forest management practices directly affect 

people‘s perceptions of scenic beauty.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Applicable Laws, Regulations, Policy, and Forest Plan Direction

Federal Laws. Federal laws that require all Federal management to consider scenery and 

aesthetic resources in land management planning (relevant to this Planning Area; USDA Forest 

Service 1995, p. B-1) include:

National Trails System Act of 1968

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969

Environmental Quality Act of 1970

Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974

National Forest Management Act of 1976

Public Rangelands Improvements Act of 1978

Forest Service Manual Direction. On March 10, 1997, the Washington Office of the Forest 

Service provided implementation direction to use the Scenery Management System during forest 

plan revisions and project level planning. In addition, there was a ―white paper‖ attached that 

provided guidance in this implementation. On May 2, 2003, the Forest Service manual direction 

for landscape management (FSM 2380) was amended to provide further clarification to utilize 

the Scenery Management System in Forest and project planning and implementation, which 

included the following section:

FSM 2380. Provides direction to evaluate the effects on scenery as part of the Forest Plan and 

project level NEPA process.

FSM 2380.43 (4) Conduct and document a scenery assessment for all activities that may affect 

scenic resources and that require analysis under the National Environmental Policy Act.

FSM 2382.4(8). Applications to Project Management - 8. Determine how scenery 

management techniques and principles can be used to mitigate any land altering activity or 

introduced elements on the land, to achieve and maintain desired scenic integrity objectives 

and landscape character goals.

Forest Plan Direction. The 1997 Revised Land and Resource Management Plan for the Forest, 

As Amended by the Phase II Amendment (LRMP) included the Scenery Management System as 

the basis for analyzing the scenic resource (USDA Forest Service 2006a, pp. II-59 - 61). The 

following Forest Plan objectives, standards, and guidelines provide direction for management to 

maintain high scenic quality within the landscape seen road and trail corridors, developed 

recreation sites, administrative sites, and the towns and cities within the Forest:

Forestwide Goal 4 - Provide for scenic quality, a range of recreational opportunities, and 

protection of cultural resources in response to the needs of the Forest visitors and local 

communities.

The objectives and guidelines are listed below. Details of each objective and guideline are in 

the Scenery specialist report in the project record.

Goal 4, Objectives: 401, 402, and 420

Guidelines: 5601, 5602, 5603, 5604, 5608, and 5609
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Methodology

Scenery is evaluated by an indicator, scenic integrity, which identifies and measures the distinct 

aspects of scenic quality. Scenic integrity measures the amount of natural or socially valued 

appearance in a landscape along with the amount of visual disturbance that contrasts with and 

detracts from that appearance (the valued scenic character) existing at the time of measurement.

It provides information regarding the presence, intensity and dominance of human-caused visual 

disturbances in the landscape, such as timber harvesting, road construction, mining, utility 

corridors, recreation facilities, ski areas or other special uses.

Scenic integrity also applies to extreme scenery disturbances caused by natural events whenever 

these events are outside the historic range of variability (HRV) for the landscape. Large-scale or 

high intensity events such as catastrophic wildfires, insect/disease outbreaks, or wind/ice storms 

that exceed the HRV can be highly visible disturbances that can affect people‘s perception of the 

valued scenic character. While those highly visible disturbances that are within the HRV are 

accepted as a part of the natural processes.

Scenic integrity measures these disturbance effects in degrees of consistency, harmony, 

dominance, and contrast with the valued scenic character being viewed at the time of 

measurement. It indicates the presence and magnitude of visual disturbance (contrast in form, 

line, color, texture, pattern, size or scale) to that valued scenic character. It uses a graduated scale 

of six levels from ―very high integrity‖ to ―no integrity‖. The highest scenic integrity ratings 

apply to scenery that appears natural and unaltered, with little or no contrast to or disturbance of 

the valued scenery attributes. Scenic integrity levels define the minimum degree of natural or 

socially valued appearance and disturbance that either exists now (existing scenic integrity), or is 

a standard or guideline defining minimally acceptable levels (scenic integrity objectives) that 

would be permitted on future management projects. Scenic integrity levels (USDA Forest 

Service 2006a, Glossary – p. 61) are defined as:

Very High Integrity - the valued scenery ―appears natural or unaltered.‖ Only minute visual 

disturbances to the valued scenery, if any, are present. When used as a standard or guideline, 

this level should be achieved immediately upon project completion.

High Integrity - the valued scenery ―appears natural or unaltered,‖ yet visual disturbances 

are present; however, they remain unnoticed because they repeat the form, line, color, 

texture, pattern and scale of the valued scenery. When used as a guideline, this level should 

be achieved as soon after project completion as possible or within 3 years maximum.

Moderate Integrity – the valued scenery "appears slightly altered.‖ Noticeable disturbances 

are minor and visually subordinate to the valued scenery because they repeat its form, line, 

color, texture, pattern and scale. When used as a standard or guideline, this level should be 

achieved as soon after project completion as possible or within 3 years maximum.

Low Integrity - the valued scenery "appears moderately altered." Visual disturbances are codominant with the valued scenery, and may create a focal point of moderate contrast.

Disturbances may reflect, introduce or ―borrow‖ valued scenery attributes from outside the 

landscape being viewed (such as the size, shape, edge effect and pattern of natural openings; 

vegetative type changes or socially valued architectural styles). Scenery attributes borrowed 

from outside the viewed landscape appear compatible with or complimentary to those 

within. When used as a standard or guideline, this level should be achieved as soon after 

project completion as possible or within 3 years maximum.

Very Low Integrity - the valued scenery "appears heavily altered." Disturbances dominate 

the valued scenery being viewed; and they may only slightly borrow from, or reflect, valued 

scenery attributes within or beyond the viewed landscape (due to their size, shape, edge 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

effect and pattern). However, disturbances must be shaped and blended with the natural 

terrain (primary landforms) so they do not dominate the overall composition when viewed as 

background (beyond 3 to 4 miles). Such disturbances might include unnatural appearing 

openings, roads, landform modifications or structures. If used as a standard or guideline, this 

level applies immediately upon project completion. However, its use as a management 

objective or standard/guideline is strongly discouraged; its primary use should be to 

inventory existing scenic integrity.

Scenic integrity objectives are given in the Forest Plan for each management area (USDA Forest 

Service 2006a, Chapter 2, pp. 59 – 60)

Figure 29. Landscape distance zones (USDA Forest Service 1995, Chapter 4, p. 5)

Landscape visibility is the portion of landscapes visible from travelways and use areas and that 

are important to constituents for their scenic quality, aesthetic values, and landscape merits.

Travelways and use areas are identified and classified during the Forestwide planning process in 

order to determine which observer locations, and their importance, to use in the landscape 

visibility analysis. Sensitivity Level 1 travelways that lead to important scenic features, 

residential areas, resorts, recreation areas, unique natural phenomena, wilderness trailheads, 

national parks, and State and county parks, attract a higher percentage of users having high 

concern for scenic quality, thus increasing the importance of those travelways (USDA Forest 

Service 1995, Chapter 4, p. 7).

Sensitivity Level 1 travelways that constituents have a high level of concern for scenery around 

the Forest include: WY State Hwy. 24, I-90, Spearfish Canyon Scenic Byway (U.S. Hwy. 14A), 

U.S. Hwy. 85, Mickelson Trail No. 104, U.S. Hwy. 385, Centennial Trail No. 89, county road 

234 (Nemo Road), SD Hwy. 44, county road 228 (Sheridan Lake Road), Peter Norbeck National 

Scenic Byway (SD State Hwy. 244, U.S. Hwy. 16/385, U.S. Hwy. 16A, SD State Hwy. 87, SD 

State Hwy. 89) U.S. Hwy. 16, U.S. Hwy. 16A, SD State Hwy. 40, SD State Hwy. 87, SD State 

Hwy. 89, Deerfield Trail No. 40, Deerfield Loop Trail No. 40L, U.S. Hwy. 18, and other summer 

and winter recreation trails nonmotorized trails.

Sensitivity Level 2 travelways that constituents have a moderate level of concern for scenery in 

the Forest include county roads and main Forest collector roads, and winter snowmobile trails.

Travelways with a low level of constituent concern for scenery in the Forest are Forest 

development roads.

Use areas are spots that receive concentrated public-viewing use. They include national forest 

visitor centers, vista points, trailheads, campgrounds, picnic grounds, swim beaches, marinas, 

resorts, ski areas, and other recreation sites. Use areas also include(s) urban and suburban areas, 

towns and villages, subdivisions, parks and golf courses on private land, or other public lands 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

within or adjacent to national forests (USDA Forest Service 1995, Chapter 4, p. 7). Use areas 

with a high level of constituent concern for scenery in and around the Forest include: Deerfield 

Lake Recreation Area, Pactola Lake Recreation Area, Sheridan Lake Recreation Area, area 

communities (Custer, Deadwood, Hill City, Hot Springs, Johnson Siding, Keystone, Lead, Rapid 

City, Rochford, Sundance, Spearfish), Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Jewell Cave 

National Monument, Wind Cave National Park, Custer State Park, lakes, campgrounds, and 

trailheads.

Portions of landscapes seldom seen from travelways and use areas are also important to 

constituents for their aesthetic and scenic values. They may be of even greater importance as 

special recreation settings and as opportunities for people seeking solitude (USDA Forest Service 

1995, Chapter 4, p. 7). Seldom seen use areas with a very high level of constituent concern for 

scenery in and around the Forest include Management Area 1.1A Black Elk Wilderness. Seldom 

seen use areas with a high level of constituent concern for scenery where  ̳users expect to 

experience some isolation from the sights and sounds of people‘ in natural appearing landscapes:

3.1 Botanical Areas, 3.2A Inyan Kara Mountain, 3.31 Backcountry Motorized Recreation 

Emphasis, 3.32 Backcountry Nonmotorized Recreation Emphasis, and 3.7 Late-successional 

Forest Landscapes Norbeck Wildlife Area (USDA Forest Service 2006a, Chapter 3, p. 3).

Assumptions

Existing roads and trails are most visible in the immediate foreground distance zone when 

viewed from travelways, due to vegetation and terrain.

When located on steep slopes at higher elevation, or when the viewer is at a vista (such as 

Harney Peak) looking down on the landscape, roads and trails can be visible in all the 

distance zones.

The duration of view, such as a person standing at a vista point, slowly traveling down a path 

(walking or riding), or traveling at high speed in a vehicle, determine how visible objects, 

forms, lines, colors, etc., are in the landscape.

Changes in route density may increase, or decrease, the visibility of roads and trails within

the foreground and middleground views of U.S., State and county highways. The public may 

lose, or gain, motorized access to points with panoramic vistas, or areas of unique features.

The analysis of the effects on scenery was based upon:

Review literature for new research of effect of roads and trails on scenery

Forest GIS layers for the Scenic Resource and topographic maps

Validation of assumptions and GIS analysis, thru field reviews of existing roads, existing 

citizen trails, and identified locations of new trail construction

Training and experience analyzing the effect of management activities on scenery

Indicators

Effects on scenery, specifically changes from the existing condition - by scenic integrity 

objective (SIO) - are the key concerns.

Indicators:

Miles of open trails by SIO

Miles of open roads by SIO

Acres open to game retrieval by SIO

Acres open to dispersed camping by SIO
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Affected Environment

The Black Hills National Forest provides a strikingly different environment and a cool oasis 

during the summer months, for those living in the surrounding great plains. As a result, the 

Forest is a recreation destination that also provides the backdrop for the surrounding private 

land, and national and state parks. Concern for scenery is high. In the 2004 National Use Visitor 

Monitoring, three of the top five visitor-use activities directly related to scenery (driving for

pleasure, view natural features, viewing wildlife). With regard to the satisfaction of the visitor‘s 

experience when visiting the Forest, the highest importance and satisfaction rating was given for 

the scenery and condition of environment in each category (Kocis 2004, pp. 6, 11, 13, 14, 18-20)

To verify the existing scenic integrity condition, site visits were made to four areas that are 

representative of existing OHV routes, to compare Forest Plan scenic integrity objectives (SIOs) 

with actual effects from OHV use. Representative sites that were visited included:

U.S. Hwy. 14A and Camp 5 (SD): Steep terrain, drainage, trails located in both areas –

viewed in the immediate foreground perspective of a hiker and foreground and 

middleground from a vehicle. Findings were OHV routes on steep slopes were not 

evident due to a combination of viewer location (approx. 30 to 90 degrees off 

centerline), vegetation (trees, shrubs and grasses), and narrow width of trail (approx. 60 

inches). The existing scenic integrity in this area was high.

Thompson Gulch and NFS roads 863 and 864 (WY): Steep terrain, drainages, trail 

located up bottom of steep drainage – viewed in the immediate foreground perspective 

of a hiker. OHV trail up drainage has had limited use and is very narrow – it appears no 

different than a game or stock trail. Trails on top of the buttes (near NFS road 864) have 

had more use, but are not apparent unless you are within 50 feet due to the relatively flat 

rocky terrain and grass vegetation. The existing scenic integrity in this area was 

moderate to high.

Community of Nemo (Nemo Road) and U.S. Highway 385 from Strawberry 

Campground to Sheridan Lake South Entrance (SD): A variety of terrain, vegetation, 

and trails crossings, or paralleling, the highway – viewed in the immediate foreground, 

foreground and middleground from a vehicle. Findings included: trails were not evident 

when viewed in the middleground; trails that crossed the highway in the immediate 

foreground, at a 60- to 90-degree angle to the Highway, and were evident for such a 

short period (when the vehicle was traveling at 45 to 55 mph) that they did not readily 

standout in the landscape. The existing scenic integrity in this area was moderate to high. 

When trails parallel the Hwy. 385 (such as from junction of Nemo Road to Custer Peak 

Quarry), the OHV trail is readily evident – the obvious human-caused wheel tracks have 

eliminated vegetation causing color contrasts and creating lines in the landscape where 

natural features are expected (in the immediate foreground). As the trail parallels the 

highway, the view is not fleeting for a short period, but rather the negative visual effects 

are repeated again and again. The existing scenic integrity in this area was low to 

moderate.

Sheridan Lake (SL) Road (SD). A variety of terrain and vegetation, trails take off at 

generally a 90-degree angle from the SL road – viewed in the immediate foreground 

from a vehicle. Due to the slower speed limit (35 to 45 mph), the observer is able to 

view trail locations for a greater duration, so they tend to be more evident – primarily 

due to the soil / vegetation color contrast. The existing scenic integrity in this area was 

moderate to high.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

General locations around the Forest. In areas were vegetation is sparse, roads were

more visible. This was particularly true where the viewer was at a higher elevation 

looking down, or when the viewer was looking at roads that climbed steep terrain 

parallel to the direction of view.

Generally, existing OHV use is on existing roads that serve other purposes, such as logging, 

recreation, and permitee access. This access is on developed roads that were constructed for full 

size vehicles. Constructed road widths are 12 to 16 feet. These roads can be highly visible in the 

landscape as a  ̳line‘ that traverses a hillside; in other cases, where there is a large amount of cut 

and fill, there can be a strong color contrast between the exposed soil and the surrounding 

vegetation and can stand out a  ̳form‘ in the landscape – an example of this can be seen across 

from a Mickelson Trail Trailhead, between Custer and Pringle along U.S. Hwy. 385. As these 

roads are used for multiple purposes, whether by OHVs or highway vehicles, there is little to no 

effect on the existing condition by the current use of OHVs on these routes.

Where OHV riders are creating their own trails, these routes are not designed with resource 

protection in mind. The width of these routes tends to be that of the vehicle riding on them.

When these roads are located on steep slopes and go straight up the hill, color contrasts from 

soil, vegetation and vertical lines straight up the slope create negative visual effects from these 

trails. In locations where OHVs go through wet areas, ―braided‖ or multiple parallel trails are 

often evident. In situations where OHVs are moving at a higher rate of speed and turn, or have 

momentum pushing down (such as when coming down a hill) and then turning, more soil was 

displaced (ruts were created) and wider trails were evident (5 to 10 feet). These effects are 

predominantly evident in the immediate foreground, but can also be visible in other distance 

zones. As one travels cross-country through the Forest on foot, bike, or horseback and crosses 

one of these trails, they will dominate the immediate foreground similar to crossing a road.

However, the disturbed area of these trails reviewed at representative sites was generally less 

than the width of a standard roadway in the Forest, which is 12 feet or more.

Environmental Effects Analysis

Direct and Indirect Effects

Alternative A

Direct Effects - The existing visual condition with regard to motorized use on existing roads 

would not change and there would be no effect. Cross-country motorized use would continue in 

an unregulated manor. Visual impacts are generally not evident in the foreground, middleground, 

and background distance zones. Negative visual impacts are evident in the form of vegetation 

loss, color contrasts, and unnatural appearing lines in the immediate foreground. These impacts 

are most evident from braided (parallel) trails, hill climbs (steep topography), and mud bogging

(rutting moist areas / meadows creating color contrasts) and damaging plant communities that 

are specifically enjoyed for their scenic beauty. The type of visual impacts would likely 

incrementally increase as the amount of motorized use also increases. The existing level of 

scenic integrity would be reduced over time. Over time more effects will be evident in the 

foreground of U.S., State, and county highways, particularly where use is funneled by 

topography vegetation, or surrounding private land.

Areas being managed for nonmotorized recreation (where people specifically go to view scenery 

on a macro-scale) whether unique vegetation or interesting landforms, will be affected. The 

smaller the nonmotorized use area, the larger the effect of cross-country unregulated motorized 

use will have on it.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Effects of Game retrieval and dispersed camping on scenery is expect to stay at the same level 

(as an increase in big game hunting tags, which this activity is generally linked to, is not 

expected to increase).

Indirect Effects – Negative effects on scenery of unregulated cross-country travel may be more 

visible from private land both inside and outside the national forest boundary. Invasive (nonnative) plants could be introduced and spread along new trails and areas that have had limited 

motorized use in the past – thus degrading the natural beauty of an area. The increasing variety, 

quantity, and spread of invasive species are becoming more evident in the Forest. Visually they 

often stand out in the immediate foreground due to their size, shape, and color. Many observers 

recognize their impact on the environment and the competition they have with native plants and 

view them as a negative visual (and ecological) element in the landscape.

Table 48. Indicators by for Alternative A (existing condition)

Indicators

Scenic integrity objective

High Moderate Low Very Low

Miles of open trail 9 12 15 0

Miles of open road 325 1,848 1,906 29

Unauthorized routes 583 1,864 2,047 14

Note: This table does not include roads and trails on other ownerships or managed by other jurisdictions.

Effects Common to all Action Alternatives

Direct Effects – The elimination of unrestricted motorized cross-country travel should halt 

further visual impacts from this activity. Areas that currently display the effects of this activity 

should become less evident over time.

Concentrated use areas, 3 to 5 acres in size, would be located in existing rock pits or quarries. No 

additional impacts from this new use should change the existing condition. New trailheads would 

be designed and constructed to meet the assigned SIO as directed in the Forest plan for 

recreation facilities.

Effects Common to all Action Alternatives B, C, D

Direct Effects - The route construction process creates a cleared path across the landscape by 

excavating and filling material to create a level running surface vehicles can operate on, known 

as the ―template‖. This surface, devoid of vegetation, generally is quite visible as a line across 

the landscape. The wider the route surface, and the steeper the side slope of the landform it is on, 

the greater the potential for the road to be visible and the less natural it will appear. Conversely, 

the narrower the route and the flatter the side slope, the less visible the route will be. However, 

when an observer is above looking down on a route, it can still be highly evident due to the color 

contrast with the surrounding vegetation.

Trails less than 65 inches in width generally would have less visual impact due to their narrow 

width than a road. However, with the concentration of use on these trails, use will increase, and 

there would likely be limited vegetation in the center of the trail that would help the trail blend 

in. In addition, as vehicles meet and pass one another, the vegetation along the sides of the trails 

would be impacted and may result in the trails being more visually evident in the landscape.

Single-track trails may be the least evident in the landscape; however, they can be highly evident 

and create visual impacts if routes traverse steep slopes or have sharp turns 90 degrees or greater.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Any trail that is in an open area and has numerous paths side by side (i.e., a  ̳braided‘ pattern) 

can be highly evident and have a negative visual impact. Negative visual impacts take the form 

of color contrast and vertical (unnatural appearing) lines in the foreground distance zone.

Trails open to all (trails used by rock crawlers) could increase use and spectators resulting in 

additional visual impacts in the immediate foreground (due to vegetation loss). These trails are 

generally in isolated locations with difficult access. Although in places they are on steep terrain, 

surrounding vegetation generally reduces their visibility in the landscape.

Roads that are closed to motorized use, are generally not obliterated by eliminating the road 

template and returning the hillside to the natural contours. As a result, roads are generally still 

evident as an unnatural form and line in the landscape.

Proposed Motorized Routes That Could Have Negative Visual Impacts in Designated 

Nonmotorized Areas (Management Areas 4.1)

Route No. 875.2A - Opening closed road, HIGH to MODERATE scenic integrity objective

Route No. 875.2B - Opening closed road, HIGH to MODERATE scenic integrity objective

Route No. 875.2D - Opening closed road, MODERATE to LOW scenic integrity objective

Route No. 875.2E - Opening closed road, MODERATE scenic integrity objective

Route No. 875.2F - Opening closed road, MODERATE scenic integrity objective

Route No. 875.2G - Opening closed road, MODERATE scenic integrity objective

Proposed Motorized Routes That Could Have Negative Visual Impacts

Route No. U260027 – New single-track route that takes off from private land, up a steep 

slope, in the immediate foreground of Sheridan Lake Road, HIGH scenic integrity objective

Indirect Effects – Any new routes near private land have the potential to be highly visible from 

any given individual parcel of private land. As a result, individual landowners adjacent to 

National Forest lands may be individually adversely impacted.

Alternative B

Direct Effects - The quantity of visual impacts from motorized use would be reduced, due to the 

closing of unauthorized routes and the elimination of unrestricted cross-country motorized use; 

however the concentration and increased level of use on these designated routes may result in 

greater visual impacts along them.

Many hunters retrieve game by using motorized vehicles such as pickup trucks and fourwheelers. This endeavor usually involves traveling slowly to minimize vehicle damage and 

potential for personal injury. A highway vehicle normally makes only one round-trip to retrieve a 

harvested game animal. When vehicle speed is limited to less than 5 miles per hour, visual 

impacts are usually limited to bent grass and crushed decaying small logs and branches. Hunters 

retrieving game with off-highway vehicles (ATV, UTV, etc.) may have to make multiple trips, 

depending on the size of the animal and the ATV manufacturer‘s loading recommendations. Due 

to repeated driving over the same ground, the potential for more visual impact in the form of 

displaced soil and covering vegetation is greater than a highway vehicle, but should no longer be 

evident the following year. Visual impacts from game retrieval would be concentrated to the 

areas it is allowed – approximately one-fourth the existing level – assuming the same levels of 

animal hunting tags issued by State fish and game departments in each area.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Repeated vehicle trips over the same ground to access a dispersed campsite can affect soil and 

vegetation at various levels (see Soils – Affected Environment section). Visual effects from 

dispersed camping are primarily rutted and/or exposed wheel tracks and areas devoid of 

vegetation; both creating color contrast in the immediate foreground that draws the eye. These 

effects may heal in a year; however, repeated use would compact soil, retard revegetation, and 

take more than a year to heal itself. With the ban on open fires outside of developed camping 

areas, dispersed camping use in South Dakota would be expected to increase only modestly. The 

level of visual impacts from dispersed camping should stay the same or increase, due to the 

proximity and concentration of camps next to the roads.

Trailheads are generally considered an important cultural element, as they provide access to 

recreation and scenery viewing opportunities. Although they create an open area, they are 

normally located on relatively flat ground and the surrounding vegetation limits their visibility in 

the landscape. In addition, they provide an access point to the surrounding natural landscapes 

and recreation activities. New trailheads would require careful location and site design to limit 

their visibility and maximize their utility.

Indirect Effects – No indirect effects were identified.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Table 49. Indicators for Alternative B

Indicators

Scenic integrity objective

High Moderate Low Very Low

Miles of open trail 66 266 324 1

Miles of open road 311 1,224 1,758 28

Game retrieval (acres) 21,230 73,595 82,698 1,507

Dispersed camping (acres) 7,286 25,351 30,307 555

Note: This table does not include roads and trails on other ownerships or managed by other jurisdictions.

Alternative C

Direct Effects - Of the action alternatives, Alternative C, with the combination of open roads 

and trails, would provide the greatest potential for visual impacts from motorized use, in all 

distance zones, and all alternatives, as it has the greatest number of miles of authorized 

motorized routes.

This alternative should have fewer impacts from game retrieval and dispersed camping than 

Alternative B, as it disperses the use over a wider area. Visual impacts from game retrieval 

would likely be less than half the existing level. With dispersed camping distance from the road 

increased to 300 feet, the overall visual impacts should be less evident than Alternative B, due to 

the greater distance. However, the visual impacts from access and egress to the camps may be 

similar to Alternative B.

Indirect Effects – No indirect effects were identified.

Table 50. Indicators for Alternative C

Indicators

Scenic integrity objective

High Moderate Low Very Low

Miles of open trail 86 311 293 1

Miles of open road 307 1,292 1,806 28

Game retrieval (acres) 32,461 185,976 163,737 3,326

Dispersed camping (acres) 21,029 76,552 84,756 1,507

Note: This table does not include roads and trails on other ownerships or managed by other jurisdictions.

Alternative D

Direct Effects - Alternative D would provide the greatest overall reduction in miles of open 

routes. This alternative has the greatest potential to reduce the existing visual impacts from 

motorized use in the landscape; however, like Alternatives B, C, and E, this alternative would 

concentrate use, and corresponding impacts, along roads and trails. No motorized game retrieval 

and dispersed camping would occur, so visual impacts should be limited to the immediate 

foreground of roads across the Forest. With the fewest miles of motorized use, this alternative 

has the least potential to create negative visual effects from motorized use across the Forest.

Indirect Effects – No indirect effects were identified.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Table 51. Indicators for Alternative D

Indicators

Scenic integrity objective

High Moderate Low Very Low

Miles of open trail 25 128 164 1

Miles of open road 240 1,041 1,438 21

Game retrieval (acres) closed closed closed closed

Dispersed camping (acres) closed closed closed closed

Note: This table does not include roads and trails on other ownerships or managed by other jurisdictions.

Alternative E

Direct Effects - Effects on the visual resource would be similar to Alternative A, with the 

exception that no cross-country travel (and the resulting impacts) would occur.

Indirect Effects – No indirect effects were identified.

Table 52. Indicators for Alternative E

Indicators

Scenic integrity objective

High Moderate Low Very Low

Miles of open trail 9 10 15 0

Miles of open road 325 1,317 1,906 21

Game retrieval (acres) closed closed closed closed

Dispersed camping (acres) closed closed closed closed

Note: This table does not include roads and trails on other ownerships or managed by other jurisdictions.

Summary

Alternative A would continue the current level of impacts, as well as future incremental impacts 

to scenic quality because it would allow the highest level of motorized cross-country travel.

Unauthorized routes would continue to be created and would incrementally impact scenery in 

general.

Alternatives B and C would reduce the amount of area open to cross-country travel, and 

Alternatives D and E would eliminate such use. This would reduce some of the effects of past 

activities and offset some impacts from private lands. Incremental impacts with regard to crosscountry travel should cease. Past impacts should be less evident in the future.

Alternatives B and C would increase the miles of authorized routes, resulting in a concentration 

of motorized use along them, particularly in areas with a high number of routes. Incremental 

impacts from such use may increase.

Alternative D would decrease the miles of authorized routes, also resulting in a concentration of 

motorized use along them, particularly in areas with a high number of routes. Incremental 

impacts from such use may decrease.

Alternative E would maintain the current miles of authorized routes and corresponding level of 

impacts. Use would also be concentrated along these routes, similar to Alternatives B, C, and D.

Impacts from this use are expected to stay at the same level, or increase incrementally.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Cumulative Effects

The geographic scope of the cumulative effects analysis selected is the entire Forest. Some 

general similarities are common to the scenery resource on lands administered by other agencies 

including Custer State Park and units of the National Park Service. A temporal scale of 10 years 

is based on (1) the time over which one can expect to predict reasonably foreseeable actions, and 

(2) the time over which one can expect to predict effects of ongoing and proposed activities.

The cumulative effects analysis for the scenery resource generally considers impacts of the 

alternatives when combined with past, present, and foreseeable future actions and events 

including: (1) designated Forest transportation facility maintenance; (2) closure or rehabilitation 

efforts on routes not open for public use or not maintained for administrative use; (3) vegetation 

treatments to meet timber and fuels reduction objectives; (4) urban interface growth and 

increased Forest use; and (5) future road or trail realignment, reconstruction, or 

decommissioning. Management actions can influence or contribute to changes in user 

concentrations, creation of unauthorized routes, maintenance needs and levels, the effectiveness 

of closures, and rehabilitation or some level of recovery of closed routes. Cumulatively, these 

actions can influence overall maintenance of, or return toward, a natural appearing condition.

The designation of a transportation system does not limit the ability of the Forest to use Closure 

Orders to close an area or trail if unacceptable resource damage is identified. This management 

tool can limit the duration and extent of undesirable resource impacts that are beginning to occur.

Effects to the scenery resource, such as loss of vegetation – creating visual lines across the 

landscape, and soil erosion – which create color contrasts that dominate the landscape, may be 

reason to issue closure orders if corrective actions are not successful.

The urban interface along the northeastern portion of the Forest, from Spearfish to Hill City, is 

one of the rapidly growing areas in the State of South Dakota. The rapid growth has likely 

contributed to the popularity of off-highway vehicles. The demand for motorized recreation will 

likely continue to increase (see Chapter 1). Therefore, it can generally be anticipated that 

demand would continue to concentrate or increase use levels on open routes (see Chapter 1) 

within this general area. With the reduction in miles of routes open to these vehicles, use and 

visual impacts will be concentrated along these routes. However, it is assumed that by reducing 

the number and miles of routes, inspections and maintenance of routes would address identified 

areas of concern in a timely way and impacts to the scenic resources would be kept to a 

minimum.

Implementing this travel management decision, which could potentially concentrate use, would 

cause a need for ongoing maintenance, and there may be a need for rerouting the location of 

some facilities and/or rehabilitating some routes. Rehabilitation activities, beyond normal 

maintenance, usually require additional environmental analysis (specific to the location), and 

those decisions could result in disturbance activities that may be highly evident (such as 

obliterating a road and returning the landscape to the natural topographic contours). However, 

the long-term effects of rehabilitation actions would generally be expected to reduce impacts to 

scenic resources, and help to reduce evidence of human-built routes across the landscape.

Activities such as vegetation management, fuels management, livestock grazing, recreational 

activities, and other management activities have occurred and would continue to occur on the 

Forest. These activities would likely occur on adjacent private lands as well. Other routes that are 

open only for administrative use (maintenance level 1) would have limited use. When closed 

roads are open for logging activity, any vegetation that has grown up on them would be removed, 

and these roads would be more evident during that period of use. All may affect scenery by 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

changing the natural and human-built environment. Road construction, reconstruction, and 

decommissioning conducted as part of managing the Forest-designated transportation system are 

expected to continue. These activities would generally be expected to have various levels of 

effects to scenery, as has been identified in the Forest Plan EIS (USDA Forest Service 1996) and 

in the Phase II Amendment EIS (USDA Forest Service 2005).

As indicated in the Direct and Indirect Effects section above, implementation of any of the action 

Alternatives (B, C, D, and E) would be expected to reduce the amount of area open to crosscountry travel as compared to Alternative A. Rehabilitation of existing unauthorized routes or 

other disturbed areas associated with current OHV use is not a part of the proposed action or 

alternatives. Rehabilitation efforts at disturbed locations may occur through the implementation 

of future Forest projects. Over time, various disturbed areas could generally be expected to 

establish some level of vegetation and reduce visible effects and evidence of past OHV use.

Some locations with no remaining surface soil layers, or which are compacted from vehicle use, 

may no longer be able to readily support vegetation establishment. In addition, the road template 

of constructed routes would continue to be evident, unless obliterated through rehabilitation 

efforts, for decades to come (in some areas the road template has been evident for some 100 

years, before natural processes can finally act to reclaim it).

Management of national and state parks adjacent to the Forest (Wind Cave National Park, Jewel 

Cave National Monument, Custer State Park) emphasizes recreational opportunities in scenic 

landscape settings. National parks and monuments tend to be managed to preserve natural 

conditions, using fire and other processes. This would likely provide conditions under which 

hardwoods and other habitats evolved. Management in national and state parks would likely 

contribute to the conservation of wildlife species. All of this would provide for variety in, and 

enjoyment of, the scenery.

On lands managed by the Black Hills National Forest, most of the riparian areas (where many of 

the hardwood, aspen, and meadows are most evident) are under private ownership. Development 

is expected to continue on private lands. While the Forest would take actions under all 

alternatives that would generally improve scenery in riparian areas, some actions on privately 

held lands could have an offsetting effect.

Table 53. Motorized use in total miles by all scenic integrity objectives

Open trails

Miles by alternative

A B C D E

Very high SIO 0 0 0 0 0

High SIO 9 66 86 25 9

Moderate SIO 12 266 311 128 10

Low SIO 15 324 293 164 15

Very low SIO 0 1 1 1 0

Unauthorized routes on NFS lands 4,375 0 0 0 0

Open roads

Very high SIO 0 0 0 0 0

High SIO 325 311 307 239 325

Moderate SIO 1,848 1,224 1,292 1,041 1,317

Low SIO 1,906 1,758 1,806 1,438 1,906

Very low SIO 29 28 28 21 29

Note: This table does not include roads and trails on other ownerships or managed by other jurisdictions.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Cultural Resources

Introduction

Cultural resources provide information about past human behavior and activities. They are found 

in a variety of physical forms that include, but are not limited to, material objects, archaeological 

sites, historic architecture, traditional cultural properties, and cultural landscapes. Cultural 

resources are nonrenewable assets that frequently consist of ephemeral materials susceptible to 

destruction or deterioration. The principal authorities that govern how the Federal Government is 

to manage and protect cultural resources are summarized in the following pages.

In 1966, Congress declared through the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA; 16 U.S.C. 

§470-1(3)) that the Federal Government ―administer federally owned, administered, or 

controlled prehistoric and historic resources in a spirit of stewardship for the inspiration and 

benefit of present and future generations‖. This need was made more explicit when the NHPA 

was amended in 1980 and Section 110 was added to expand and underscore Federal agency 

responsibility for identifying, protecting, and avoiding unnecessary damage to historic 

properties. Many historic properties are fragile and once damaged or destroyed, they cannot be 

repaired or replaced.

Section 106 of the NHPA compels Federal agencies to take into account the effect of its 

undertakings on any district, site, building, structure, or object that is included in or eligible for 

inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places (36 CFR §60). The Travel Management 

Rule (Appendix A) requires that the effects on cultural resources be considered, with the 

objective of minimizing damage, when designating roads, trails, and areas for motor vehicle use 

on National Forest lands (36 CFR §212.55(a), §212.55(b)(1)).

Prehistoric Context

The Black Hills are part of the greater culture area of the Northwestern Plains (Sundstrom 1989).

Human occupation of this area has been divided into six broad cultural periods (Frison 1991):

Paleo-Indian 11,500 B.P. to 7,000 B.P.

Early Archaic 7,000 B.P. to 5,000 B.P.

Middle Archaic 5,000 B.P. to 3,000 B.P.

Late Archaic 3,000 B.P. to 1,500 B.P.

Late Prehistoric 1,500 B.P. to 500 B.P.

A variety of prehistoric site types has been identified within the Black Hills. Among the more 

common types are artifact scatters, lithic reduction sites (workshops), lithic procurement areas 

(quarries), hearths, stone circles, and rock features (cairns). Sites consisting of rock shelters, 

petroglyphs, and pictographs are fewer in number but particularly noteworthy. Sundstrom 

(USDA Forest Service 1996b:3d-1) calculated that 113 such site types had been identified within 

the Black Hills by 1996. Isolated finds that do not constitute archaeological sites are not 

uncommon.

The Black Hills National Forest Cultural Resources Overview identifies cultural sites that 

represent all of the above prehistoric phases of occupation in the Black Hills (USDA Forest 

Service 1996b). Identifiable tribal groups living within the Black Hills area during the 

Protohistoric period include the Arapaho, Cheyenne, Crow, Kiowa, and Sioux.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Historic Context

Historical chronological stages appropriate for the entire Black Hills are as follows:

Protohistoric A.D.1600-1851

Military Exploration 1851-1874

Euro-American Settlement 1874-1920

Depression/New Deal 1920-1941

World War II 1941-1945

Modern 1946 to present

Sporadic use of the Black Hills by Euro-Americans began in the early 1800s and consisted 

mainly of fur trappers and traders (Sundstrom 1989). The western half of South Dakota, 

including the Black Hills, portions of southern North Dakota, and nearly the entire area of the 

Powder River Basin in Wyoming and Montana, were recognized as unceded Indian Territory by 

the 1868 treaty between the United States and the Sioux and Arapaho. More intense EuroAmerican occupation in the Black Hills began shortly after gold was discovered in the Black 

Hills in 1874. It was this discovery that brought a full-scale influx of Euro-American prospectors 

and miners to the Black Hills.

In addition to gold, several other minerals began to be extracted from the Black Hills in the late 

19th and early 20th centuries. These minerals were largely contained in the pegmatite dikes 

exposed throughout the Black Hills. These pegmatite dikes frequently form resistant ridges and 

were mined from the surface. Typically, the rock was blasted from the pegmatite dikes using 

dynamite placed in either hand or machine drilled holes. The blasted rock was then sorted by 

hand and transferred to other locations for processing. After mining was complete, the extraction 

of rock typically left small open pits or cuts where the pegmatite dikes were once present.

Historic settlement in the Black Hills by Euro-Americans is generally auxiliary to this history of 

the mining industry. Homestead patents are common from the late 1800s through the 1920s.

Industries such as the ranching and logging industry became common in the early 1900s; 

however, much of the land was not patented and remained public land.

Historic sites are very common in the project area. A significant percentage of the proposed 

travel routes surveyed for this analysis are located in the Central Hills, or Mystic Ranger District, 

where mining sites and associated materials and features are common. Historic sites in the area 

of potential effects may also include railroad grades (mostly abandoned), recreation residences, 

Forest Service administrative sites, Civilian Conservation Corps materials and structures, 

homesteading and other early historic settlements, sites associated with logging activities, and 

more rarely, cemeteries.

Applicable Laws, Regulations, Policy, and Forest Plan Direction

National Historic Preservation Act

The Forest Service is directed to identify, evaluate, treat, protect, and manage historic properties 

by several laws; however, the NHPA provides comprehensive direction to Federal agencies about 

their historic preservation responsibilities. The NHPA extends the policy in the Historic Sites Act 

of 1935 (49 Stat. 666; 16 U.S.C. §§461-467) to include resources that are of State and local 

significance, it expands the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), and it establishes the 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP) and State Historic Preservation Offices

(SHPO). NHPA Section 106 directs all Federal agencies to take into account effects of their 

undertakings (actions, financial support, and authorizations) on properties included in or eligible 

for the National Register. The ACHP‘s regulations (36 CFR §800) implement Section 106 of the 

NHPA. Section 110 of the NHPA sets inventory, nomination, protection, and preservation 

responsibilities for federally owned and administered historic properties.

USDA Forest Service Policy Regarding Travel Management NHPA Compliance

In 2005, the Forest Service issued the ―USDA Forest Service Policy for Section 106 of the 

NHPA Compliance in Travel Management: Designated Routes for Motor Vehicle Use‖ (USDA 

Forest Service 2005e). This policy was developed in consultation with the ACHP. It outlines 

minimal requirements for considering possible effects to historic properties that may be 

associated with designating routes and areas as part of a national forest‘s transportation system.

Executive Order 11593

Executive Order 11593, entitled ―Protection and Enhancement of the Cultural Environment”, 

also includes direction about the identification and consideration of historic properties in Federal 

land management decisions. The Order, issued May 13, 1971, directs Federal agencies to 

inventory cultural resources under their jurisdiction, to nominate to the National Register of 

Historic Places all federally owned properties that meet the criteria, to use due caution until the 

inventory and nomination processes are completed, and to assure that Federal plans and 

programs contribute to preservation and enhancement of non-federally owned properties.

The Black Hills National Forest’s Land and Resource Management Plan

The Forest Plan (USDA Forest Service 2006a) specifically lists the standards and guidelines that 

would be employed Forestwide in order to ensure protection and enhancement of cultural 

resources. The following Forest Plan standards and guidelines are directly applicable with the 

Travel Management analysis:

Guideline 6101 considers long-term forest management needs in determining 

appropriate use of effects mitigation or avoidance of heritage resources during project 

planning.

Guideline 6104 utilizes heritage resources for a variety of public uses and enjoyment.

Guideline 6106 advises the Forest to incorporate information, data, and ideas in the 

Black Hills Heritage Resources Overview (USDA Forest Service 1996b) and the 

Forest‘s Heritage Resources Database during all planning and implementation activities.

Standard 7101 requires sensitive information about American Indian religious sites and 

sacred areas to be kept confidential.

Standard 7103 recognizes American Indian traditions of gathering herbs, medicinal and 

edible plants, and other materials for religious purposes, and it makes provisions for 

those who wish to gather such plants and materials.

Methodology

Assumptions

Unauthorized routes and areas may have already affected historic properties within 

route/area prisms.

Under the action alternatives, use will continue at current levels or increase over time on 

the designated system with the prohibition of cross-country motorized travel.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Given identical environmental variables there is no measurable difference in potential 

impact that might be caused to cultural resources from different vehicle classes (i.e., fullsize four-wheel drive vehicles, off-road vehicles, and motorcycles).

All cultural resources identified within the area of potential effect for all alternatives 

adding travel opportunities to the Forest‘s transportation system are considered historic 

properties for the purposes of this undertaking, unless they already have been 

determined not eligible in consultation with the SHPO or through other agreed on 

procedures (36 CFR §60.4; 36 CFR §800).

This undertaking includes no ground-disturbing components associated with the closure 

and rehabilitation of existing roads and trails that are not included in the Forest‘s 

transportation system. All rehabilitation measures will be conducted at a later date under 

separate NEPA and NHPA analyses.

Literature Inventory

A literature search, often referred to in the vernacular as a ―Level I inventory‖, of the Black Hills 

Travel Management area of potential effect (defined below) was performed for this project by 

multiple Forest Service personnel prior to 2008. A variety of sources was referenced to compile a 

thorough background summary of past surveys conducted within the area of potential effect. The 

Forest‘s GIS database contains spatial data, which were utilized to determine which properties 

were within the area of potential effect. The same geodatabase provided the information needed 

to determine which areas within the area of potential effect had previously been surveyed for 

cultural resources. I-Web, the Forest Service‘s formal database for tracking cultural resources, 

was also used to obtain site and survey information. Once all potential sites within the area of 

potential effect had been identified, site records and project reports were referenced from the 

Forest‘s extensive paper files. Finally, Forest Service personnel accessed the Archaeological 

Resources Management System database, managed by the Archaeological Research Center, 

Rapid City, SD, and the Wyoming Cultural Resources Office database. The data archived in 

those repositories were then compared with the Forest‘s data and any necessary updates or edits 

were accomplished.

Field Survey

A Level III field survey was conducted for this project15. Visual inspections were conducted 

using pedestrian transects spaced no more than 30 meters. Intensive field survey was conducted 

for this project during the 2008 and 2009 field seasons. Field personnel varied in number 

between two and six people. The project area was surveyed with a series of parallel, pedestrian

transects. More intensive coverage was frequently used when attempting to relocate existing 

sites, areas with a suspected high potential for archaeological materials, and areas where ground 

visibility was low and a more intensive inspection was warranted. Field crews tracked the areas 

surveyed with handheld GPS units.

Indicators

Number of historic properties within unauthorized routes at risk from ongoing use.

Degree to which the integrity of historic property values are diminished.

The existing condition of cultural resources identified in the area of potential effect provides 

baseline information with which to assess potential effects of adding routes to the National 

 

15 The term ―Level III‖ is defined here as an intensive pedestrian survey that covers 100% of the linear 

area of potential effect.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Forest transportation system. The first-order indicator of existing conditions is the total number 

of historic properties located within the project area—regardless of effects. Currently, 308 

cultural resource sites have been identified within the project area Forestwide. That number

includes all properties where any segment of an unauthorized route bisects the boundary of a 

historic property, regardless of scale or impact.

A second, more important indicator of existing conditions is the number of at-risk historic 

properties currently identified within the project area. This group is a subset of the 308 total 

properties cited in the last paragraph. An ―at-risk historic property‖ is defined here as:

A property that the Forest Heritage Resources Manager identifies as susceptible 

to being adversely affected as a result of designating a motor vehicle off-highway 

vehicle route or specifically defined area (e.g., trailhead or game retrieval area), 

or using or maintaining the designated motorized recreation transportation 

system. An at-risk historic property is identified based on property and condition 

characteristics and proximity to designated travel routes or specifically defined 

areas.

The number of historic properties determined to be ―at risk‖ is based on their condition and 

proximity to the project area. The ―at risk‖ category used in subsequent analyses consists of 

cultural resource sites with identified or potential direct, indirect, or cumulative effects. The 

nature of any identified or potential effects to at-risk properties is analyzed and tabulated below.

The integrity measures listed in the adverse effect criteria at 36 CFR §800.5(a) were used to 

characterize the severity of any identified effects:

Criteria of adverse effect: An adverse effect is found when an undertaking may 

alter, directly or indirectly, any of the characteristics of a historic property that 

qualify the property for inclusion in the National Register in a manner that would 

diminish the integrity of the property's location, design, setting, materials, 

workmanship, feeling, or association. Consideration shall be given to all 

qualifying characteristics of a historic property, including those that may have 

been identified subsequent to the original evaluation of the property's eligibility 

for the National Register. Adverse effects may include reasonably foreseeable 

effects caused by the undertaking that may occur later in time, be farther removed 

in distance or be cumulative. (36 CFR §800.5(a)(1))

The data reported below differentiate between direct and indirect effects. The NEPA regulations 

state that ―effects‖ and ―impacts‖ as used in the 40 CFR §1500 regulations are synonymous (40 

CFR §1508.8).

Different disturbance agents can combine in a variety of ways to create a potential threat to 

historic properties. The results of field surveys and the literature searches demonstrated a number 

of identified and potential adverse effects to cultural resources should certain routes be added to 

the National Forest transportation system. The present analysis assesses the potential for both 

direct and indirect effects. The more common threats identified in the area of potential effect are 

summarized in Table 54. The list is not exhaustive. Other disturbances have been noted, but 

those threats specified in the table below constitute the most common disturbances documented.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Table 54. Examples of potential site disturbances as a result of motorized vehicle travel

Direct effects Indirect effects

Routes bisect and disturb primary 

locus of cultural resource sites.

Routes cross and disturb features at 

cultural resource sites.

Driving off-established routes on cultural sites

Ground-disturbing activities associated with motorized 

vehicle camping within boundaries of cultural resource 

sites that contain significant cultural features.

Graffiti painted on historic structures accessed by 

motorized vehicles.

Vandalism to historic mine sites accessed by motorized 

vehicle (e.g., bullet holes, theft, and structural damage).

Evidence of vandalism or illicit digging activity within 

prehistoric cultural resource sites accessed by motorized 

vehicles.

A simple calculation of the number of at-risk historic properties provides only general 

information about potential effects. It does not sufficiently disclose the scale and severity of 

potential effects on any given property, or address the type of mitigation measures that may be 

necessary to eliminate or lessen all direct and indirect effects. The magnitude of effect to a 

historic property‘s integrity determines the severity of any direct, indirect, or cumulative effects.

The following effects analyses identify the scale and severity of identified or potential effects.

Severity of effect is determined based on a professional assessment of the data available to date.

A four-category system is used: no or negligible effects, minor effects, moderate effects, and 

major effects. These categories represent a progressive scale that provides a qualitative 

assessment of the severity of any direct, indirect, or cumulative effects to the integrity of a 

cultural resource site.

Working definitions for the four severity categories are provided in Table 55. The column on the 

right provides additional insight as to what activities would be necessary to mitigate potential 

effects. The four categories represent relative (as opposed to absolute) units based on 

professional assessments.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Table 55. Severity of effects to cultural resources

Severity of 

effects Working definition Explanatory notes

Negligible Route bisects some 

portion of the 

cultural resource site 

but the effect on 

NRHP values is 

insignificant.

If the effect on integrity measures is determined to be negligible,

there is essentially no measurable effect on the cultural resource; 

therefore, no mitigation measures would be prescribed.

No distinction is made between no disturbance and negligible 

disturbance. The majority of sites determined to be within the area 

of potential effect have been bisected in varying degrees by some 

length of motorized vehicle route; therefore, it is more appropriate 

to describe the most innocuous effects as negligible as opposed to 

none. In either case, no mitigation measures are necessary, so 

the outcome is identical.

Minor Effects on cultural 

resources are 

assessed as 

relatively minor.

Integrity of the 

NRHP values may 

diminish if measures 

are not taken to 

alleviate the 

potential effect.

If the severity of effect is determined to be minor, some 

relatively minor disturbance has been noted within the boundaries 

of cultural resource site and some type of mitigation measure may 

be required. In nearly all cases, the preferred method of protection 

would be to include the site in a well-defined monitoring plan 

designed to ensure that the minor degree of disturbance (or 

potential for disturbance) initially noted does not exhibit a 

tendency to increase in severity over time.

It is assumed for minor effects that an adaptive management 

strategy may be used. An adaptive management strategy means 

that progressively more complex and potentially costly protective 

measures would be employed to eliminate a sustained potential 

for adverse effects. Signs, for example, may be erected as a first 

measure. If signs do not curtail potential adverse actions, more 

aggressive measures would be taken. Barriers may be prescribed 

when it appears as though the action responsible for the 

disturbance is well entrenched and not likely to be curtailed by the 

simple installation of a sign. The threshold between a minor and 

moderate threat is therefore more subjective than others.

Moderate Materials associated 

with NRHP values 

exhibit some degree 

of damage or 

alteration, but NRHP 

integrity can be 

retained or improved 

if the detrimental 

activity is curtailed.

If the severity of effect is determined to be moderate, more 

extensive site disturbance has been noted and some type of 

protective measure is necessary to eliminate the potential for 

adverse effects and comply with NHPA mandates. In most cases 

the preferred method would be to cap the site with a geotextile 

material and cover the fabric with a protective barrier most 

frequently composed of crushed rock, thereby eliminating the 

potential for effects to cultural resources.

An adaptive management strategy may be used where 

progressively more complex and potentially costly protective 

measures would be employed to eliminate a sustained potential 

for adverse effects.

Major Effects on cultural 

resources are 

severe. If that 

particular route is 

added to the system 

without mitigation 

measures, the action 

would result in 

adverse effects to 

the NRHP values.

An effect severity rating of major indicates that the integrity of 

cultural resource site values would be affected in a significant way 

unless appropriate mitigation measures are implemented. A major 

value is reserved for those cases where a cultural resource site 

exhibits evidence of an adverse effect associated with past 

activities either directly or indirectly associated with the motorized 

use of an unauthorized route and these adverse effects would

continue or increase if the route or area is added to the National 

Forest transportation system. Mitigation measures associated with

direct or indirect effects of major severity require a substantial 

investment of time and resources to implement. In most cases, the 

only viable option may be rerouting the road or trail around the 

resource. Other mitigation measures may necessitate scientific 

data recovery which can be expensive and requires additional 

consultation under 36 CFR §800.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Affected Environment

The objective of this section is to define the nature and scope of the cultural resource inventory 

identified and analyzed within the project area of potential effect. The parameters established in 

this section guide the effects assessment reported in the subsequent Environmental Effects 

Analysis section.

Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act requires Federal land-managing agencies 

to take into account the effects of their undertakings on historic properties. The regulation 

defines a historic property as:

... any prehistoric or historic district, site, building, structure, or object included in, 

or eligible for inclusion in, the National Register of Historic Places maintained by 

the Secretary of the Interior. This term includes artifacts, records, and remains that 

are related to and located within such properties. The term includes properties of 

traditional religious and cultural importance to an Indian tribe or Native Hawaiian 

organization and that meet the National Register criteria. (36 CFR §800.16(l)(1))

Based on the definition provided, the term ―historic properties‖ has a more specific meaning than 

do the terms ―cultural resources‖ and/or ―cultural resource sites‖. The former refers specifically 

to cultural properties that have been formally determined eligible for the NRHP using NRHP 

criteria (36 CFR §60.4). In the context of this document and pursuant to 36 CFR §800.16(l)(2), 

the term, it also includes all potentially eligible cultural resource sites within the area of potential 

effect. Exceptions are those resources that have been formally determined not eligible for the 

NRHP in consultation with the State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO) through regulatory 

procedures (36 CFR §60.4; 36 CFR §800). The terms ―cultural resources‖ and/or ―cultural 

resource sites‖ are used here in a more general sense to denote all archaeological and historical 

sites, regardless of their NRHP significance.

For the Forest to determine the potential effects of the proposed action on historic properties, it is 

first necessary to identify the area of potential effect. The 36 CFR §800 regulations define an 

area of potential effect as:

... the geographic area or areas within which an undertaking may directly or 

indirectly cause alterations in the character or use of historic properties, if any 

such properties exist. The area of potential effects is influenced by the scale and 

nature of an undertaking and may be different for different kinds of effects 

caused by the undertaking. (36 CFR §800.16(d))

As described previously on page 296, the Forest Service, in consultation with the ACHP,

developed a policy statement outlining how the agency would satisfy NHPA requirements as it 

proceeds with its analyses designating a revised system of motorized routes (USDA Forest 

Service 2005e). The policy stated that only certain elements of the 2005 Travel Management 

Rule are to be considered undertakings with the potential to affect historic properties, triggering 

evaluation under Section 106 of NHPA and 36 CFR §800. These categories are as follows:

Construction of a new road or trail;

authorization of motor vehicle use on a route currently closed to vehicles; and

formal recognition of a user-developed (unauthorized) route as a designated route open 

to motor vehicles.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

The Policy Statement also clearly excludes certain aspects of the project from analysis:

Existing, formally established system (classified) roads and trails, already open to motor vehicle 

travel, generally need not be re-evaluated for purposes of this rule. Their designation on a motor 

vehicle use map will not generally be considered an undertaking for the purposes of NHPA and 

not subject to Section 106 review.

The same document also defines, in part, what components of the project will be included in the 

area of potential effect:

The area of potential effect (APE) for the road, trail, or area shall include corridors or zones 

adjacent to the road, trail, or area that the Forest determines to be subject to direct or indirect 

effects due to local environmental factors or the proximity of particularly sensitive resources.

This will include the road, trail, or area surfaces, passing or parking areas, and campsites or other 

features established as part of the road or trail. It shall also include additional affected areas or 

properties if the designation would facilitate increased access to those historic properties.

The Forest Service is proposing to add a number of user-created and other nonsystem routes for 

designation. All routes the Forest is considering adding to the transportation system that are not 

currently designated system routes are included in the area of potential effect of this project and 

their effects on historic properties have been analyzed. Intensive survey has been completed for 

all nonsystem routes under analysis and the results of those surveys are reported in documents 

sent to the South Dakota and Wyoming State Historic Preservation Offices (USDA Forest 

Service 2009e, 2009f). The data and analyses reported in those documents are summarized in the 

following section.

For purposes of this undertaking, the area of potential effect is defined as a 200-foot-wide 

corridor centered on linear, nonsystem motor vehicle features (i.e., roads, trails, corridors, 

routes). The area of potential effect for this project includes 920 miles of routes within the extant 

APE (South Dakota and Wyoming). At present, a total of 34 trailheads have been proposed 

across the Forest. Seven of these currently have existing developments, the rest do not. These 

locations are each considered to be in the APE and have been inventoried and analyzed 

accordingly.

Alternatives B and C of the EIS make provisions for dispersed camping and limited, motorized 

cross-country retrieval of legally harvested game. Refer to the alternative descriptions in Chapter 

2 for details. The effects of these proposals are also analyzed in this document.

For purposes of this analysis, no distinction is made between roads (greater than 65 inches wide) 

and trails (less than 65 inches wide) regarding their potential to adversely affect historic 

properties. Assumptions are listed earlier in this section concerning potential impacts that might 

be caused by different vehicle classes. No attempt is made to identify or analyze cultural 

resources on lands other than National Forest System lands as this undertaking would not 

encompass other lands.

Environmental Effects Analysis

In this section, data are presented to demonstrate the effects analysis for each of the five 

alternatives. The disclosure of sensitive data related to the specific location and/or character of a 

historic property is regulated pursuant to stipulations in 36 CFR §800.11(c) and Section 304 of 

the National Historic Preservation Act, in addition to 43 CFR §7.18 and Section 9 of the 

Archaeological Resources Protection Act. Accordingly, cultural resource sites are analyzed and 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

reported collectively on a Forestwide scale. Route-specific cultural resource data are included in 

two comprehensive reports submitted to the South Dakota and Wyoming SHPOs (USDA Forest 

Service 2009e, 2009f).

The current status of the cultural resource field survey in relation to the area of potential effect is 

tabulated in Table 56. A total 765 of 920 miles of routes (i.e., roads and trails) had been 

previously surveyed using methods comparable with contemporary professional standards. The 

remaining 155 miles were surveyed during the 2008–2009 — a total of 15,460 acres for this 

project. The result was that 100 percent of the routes within the linear area of potential effect

have received field survey.

Table 56. Cultural resources survey in area of potential effect

Miles of previously surveyed routes 765

Miles of routes surveyed for current project 155

Miles of routes in area of potential effect (total) 920

Direct and Indirect Effects

Alternative A

The following discussion provides a summary of existing conditions within the area of potential 

effect. About 864,000 acres of the Forest currently open to motorized cross-country use would 

remain open under Alternative A. Motorized cross-country travel is presently undertaken for a 

variety of purposes including retrieval of big game harvested by hunters, dispersed camping, and 

general OHV recreational traffic.

The area of potential effect as defined in the previous section does not adequately assess the 

effects of Alternative A. The alternative includes no prohibition on cross-country travel and 

therefore does not limit potential effects to a well-defined area. Consequently, the baseline data 

presented for Alternative A should be considered the minimal effects to cultural resources that 

can be expected under the no action alternative. An estimate of the potential long-term effects on 

historic properties under Alternative A is provided in the Cumulative Effects section below.

The first-order indicator of existing conditions is the total number of cultural sites located within 

the area of potential effect—regardless of effects. A total 308 sites and 28 isolated finds have 

been identified in the linear area of potential effect (excluding areas of proposed game retrieval 

and dispersed camping). That number includes 14 previously unknown sites and 8 new isolated 

finds identified as a result of the 2008–2009 field survey. By definition, isolated finds are not 

eligible for the NRHP. For that reason, the isolated find subset is disregarded throughout the 

remainder of this analysis.

About half of the cultural resources within the area of potential effect of this project have been 

evaluated for eligibility to the NRHP. The current NRHP status of each of the 308 sites is 

reported in Table 57. In cases where the Forest could not locate a SHPO concurrence letter and 

demonstrate beyond reasonable doubt NRHP eligibility, the Forest chose to err on the side of 

caution and considered the site ―unevaluated‖ and, therefore, potentially eligible until the formal 

NRHP status can be determined.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Table 57. NRHP status of cultural resource sites in area of potential effect

Eligible

(confirmed by SHPO letter)

Unevaluated

(or SHPO letter not available)

Not eligible

(confirmed by SHPO letter) Total*

47 160 101 308

The 101 cultural resource sites in the area of potential effect formally determined not eligible for 

the NRHP according to 36 CFR §63 criteria do not meet the definition of a historic property and 

are therefore considered ―not at risk‖ in the following risk assessment. Available data were 

reviewed for each of the remaining 207 historic properties or potential historic properties to 

determine whether the proposed addition of any route to the transportation system would 

diminish the integrity of the property's NRHP values( i.e., location, design, setting, materials, 

workmanship, feeling, or association). Table 58 summarizes the risk assessment for all cultural 

resources identified within the area of potential effect. Of the extant cultural resource sites 

currently identified, 41 could potentially be directly and/or indirectly affected by adding a 

corresponding route to the transportation system. Current patterns suggest that roughly 15 

percent of the cultural resource sites identified within the area of potential effect are potentially 

susceptible to direct or indirect effects.

Table 58. Risk assessment of cultural resources identified in area of potential effect

Total properties identified within area of potential effect determined not at risk 267

Total properties identified within area of potential effect determined potentially at risk 41

Total properties identified within area of potential effect 308

Table 59 provides a summary of the severity of effects as they have been assessed for the 308

sites in the area of potential effect. The data categorize anticipated severity of effects if no action 

is taken to avoid adverse effects. Sites not eligible for the NRHP are all tallied in the ―negligible‖ 

category.

Table 59. Summary of effects severity

Negligible Minor Moderate Major Total

267 35 5 1 308

Forty-one of 308 cultural resource sites identified within the area of potential effect may 

potentially be affected (i.e., at risk) if no action is taken to manage motor vehicle use. Table 60

provides a breakdown according to the type of effect (i.e., direct and indirect) for the 41 

potentially at-risk sites.

Table 60. At-risk sites within area of potential effect tabulated according to direct and indirect

effects

Direct Indirect Total

29 12 41
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

It is important to stress that the calculations reported reflect a minimum number of potentially atrisk sites. The analysis reflects only those sites that have been identified within a 200-foot

corridor of the unauthorized route. More accurately, the effects of taking no action to manage 

motorized vehicle use on the Forest would be expected to result in significantly higher numbers 

of at-risk sites.

Alternative A would have the most impacts to cultural resources because it is the only alternative 

that would allow unrestricted motorized cross-country travel to occur without any form of 

protection measures prescribed to reduce or eliminate threats to the integrity of historic 

properties. The effects of soil compaction, rutting, erosion, structural damage, illegal artifact 

collecting, and vandalism is expected to continue—and likely increase—under the current 

management plan. The no action alternative would result in continued degradation of known 

historic properties.

Alternative B

Alternative B would designate 4,129 miles of system routes open to motor vehicle use. Existing 

system roads compose 3,510 of these miles and are not considered undertakings requiring 

Section 106 review pursuant to USDA Forest Service/ACHP policy (USDA Forest Service 

2005e). Proposed actions in this alternative that are considered undertakings subject to Section 

106 review include:

Reopen a closed route 223 miles

Designate a new route from an existing unauthorized route 396 miles

Alternative B would add 619 miles of unauthorized routes to the transportation system. A total of 

225 cultural resource sites have been identified within the linear area of potential effect of 

Alternative B. Of the 225 properties identified, 190 currently exhibit little or no evidence for 

potential effects as a result of motorized travel. Potential direct and/or indirect effects requiring 

the implementation of protection measures have been identified for 35 historic properties.

Table 61 provides a more detailed assessment of the 35 historic properties susceptible to direct 

and/or indirect effects under Alternative B. The table quantifies the type of effect, severity of 

effect, and the protection measures prescribed to eliminate or minimize any potential for adverse 

effects.

Table 61. Effects analysis for historic properties associated with Alternative B

Type of effects Severity of effects Minimum required protection 

measures

Direct 25 Minor 30 Monitor 30

Indirect 10 Moderate 4 Site capping 4

Major 1 Reroute 1

Total 35 Total 35 Total 35

Direct effects are the most common type associated with Alternative B. These consist of 

potential impacts due to activities directly associated with motorized vehicle use. The potential 

for direct effects to site integrity have been identified for 25 cultural resource sites. Severity of 

effects has been assessed as minor in Alternative B for 30 (86 percent) of the 35 at-risk 

properties. In these cases, the nature or degree of effects is problematic, ambiguous, or 

indeterminate (e.g., past effects vs. ongoing effects). Monitoring is prescribed for this subset to 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

better assess the potential for long-term adverse effects. At the end of a two-year period 

following publication of the motor vehicle use map, where monitoring indicates that adverse 

effects are ongoing or likely to develop, the Forest will consult with the appropriate SHPO and 

Tribal governments to determine what protection or treatment measures would adequately 

minimize or eliminate the potential for adverse effects.

Five historic properties have been identified within the Alternative B area of potential effect as 

requiring well-defined protection measures if the corresponding travel routes are formally 

selected for designation in the record of decision. All five routes have the potential to directly 

affect the integrity of historic properties in an adverse manner. The severity of effects for four of 

the five historic properties is considered moderate. Should the corresponding routes be 

designated on the motor vehicle use map, the Forest would, at minimum, cap the threatened 

portions of the sites with a geotextile cloth topped with a protective layer of gravel or rock.

Capping the sites would meet minimum requirements although other more extensive measures 

may be selected. Severity is assessed as major for the fifth site. In that case, the Forest would 

reroute the road/trail around the site in order to circumvent the property all together. All 

protection measures prescribed for moderate and major at-risk sites would be implemented 

before the associated routes bisecting the sites were added to the MVUM. Prior to the successful 

installation of prescribed protection measures, the associated road/trail(s) would remain closed to 

all types of motorized use

Alternative B would limit dispersed camping to a distance of 100 feet from the centerline of the 

closest system route—the same distance as the linear area of potential effect as defined above.

Currently, a total 864,000 acres of Forest are open to cross-country motorized travel and 

dispersed camping (Table 7). Confining these motorized activities to 100-foot corridors would

result in a measureable reduction in the potential for adverse effects to cultural resources. Under 

Alternative B, dispersed camping (motorized) would be limited to 63,500 acres, resulting in a 93

percent reduction in the quantity of acres on which dispersed camping would be permitted. In 

this case, the undertaking would implement a restriction on areas where no such restriction has 

previously existed. Reducing the acreage available for dispersed camping as proposed in 

Alternative B would reduce the potential for adverse effects to historic properties.

Cross-country travel is currently permitted on roughly 864,000 acres of the Forest for purposes 

of retrieving harvested game via motorized vehicle. Alternative B would result in a measureable 

reduction in the potential for adverse effects to historic properties by reducing the number of 

acres available for motorized game retrieval to roughly 179,000. In this case, the undertaking 

would implement a restriction on areas where game may be retrieved by motorized vehicles 

where no such restriction has previously existed. Motorized retrieval of harvested elk as 

proposed in Alternative B would be considered casual use and have little potential to generate 

adverse effects to historic properties pursuant to 36 CFR §800.3(a)(1).

Alternative C

Alternative C would designate 4,353 miles of system routes open to motor vehicle use. Existing 

system roads compose 3,499 of these miles and are not considered undertakings requiring 

Section 106 review pursuant to USDA Forest Service/ACHP policy (USDA Forest Service 

2005e). Proposed actions in this alternative that are considered undertakings subject to Section 

106 review include:

Reopen a closed route 330 miles

Designate a new route from an existing unauthorized route 524 miles
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Alternate C would add 854 miles of unauthorized routes to the transportation system. A total 260 

cultural resource sites have been identified within the linear area of potential effect of Alternative 

C. Of the 260 properties identified, 227 currently exhibit little or no evidence for potential effects 

as a result of motorized travel. Potential direct and/or indirect effects requiring the 

implementation of protection measures have been identified for 33 historic properties.

Table 62 provides a more detailed assessment of the 33 historic properties susceptible to direct 

and/or indirect effects under Alternative C. The table quantifies the type of effect, severity of 

effect, and the protection measures prescribed to eliminate or minimize any potential for adverse 

effects.

Table 62. Effects analysis for historic properties associated with Alternative C

Type of effects Severity of effects Minimum required protection 

measures

Direct 23 Minor 29 Monitor 29

Indirect 10 Moderate 4 Site Capping 4

Major 0 Reroute 0

Total 33 Total 33 Total 33

Direct effects are the most common type associated with Alternative C. These consist of 

potential impacts due to activities directly associated with motorized vehicle use. The potential 

for direct effects to site integrity have been identified for 23 cultural resource sites. Severity of 

effects has been assessed as minor in Alternative C for 29 (88 percent) of the 33 at-risk 

properties. In these cases, the nature or degree of effects is problematic, ambiguous, or 

indeterminate (e.g., past effects vs. ongoing effects). Monitoring is prescribed for this subset to 

better assess the potential for more long-term adverse effects. At the end of a two-year period 

following publication of the motor vehicle use map, where monitoring indicates that adverse 

effects are ongoing or likely to develop, the Forest will consult with the appropriate SHPO and 

Tribal governments to determine what protection or treatment measures would adequately 

minimize or eliminate the potential for adverse effects.

Four historic properties have been identified within the Alternative C area of potential effect as 

requiring well-defined protection measures if the corresponding travel routes are formally 

selected for designation in the record of decision. All four routes have the potential to directly 

affect the integrity of historic properties in an adverse manner. The severity of effects for each of 

the four historic properties is assessed as moderate. Should the corresponding routes be 

designated on the motor vehicle use map, the Forest would, at minimum, cap the threatened 

portions of the sites with a geotextile cloth topped with a protective layer of gravel or rock.

Capping the sites would meet minimum requirements although other more extensive measures 

may be selected. All protection measures prescribed for moderate and major at-risk sites would 

be implemented before the associated routes bisecting the sites were added to the motor vehicle 

use map. Prior to the successful installation of prescribed protection measures, the associated 

road/trail(s) would remain closed to all types of motorized use.

Alternative C would limit dispersed camping to a distance of 300 feet from the centerline of the 

closest system route. Currently, a total 864,000 acres of Forest are open to cross-country 

motorized travel and dispersed camping (Table 7). Confining these motorized activities to 300-

foot corridors would result in a measurable reduction in the potential for adverse effects to 

cultural resources. Under Alternative C, dispersed camping (motorized) would be limited to 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

184,000 acres, resulting in a 79 percent reduction in the quantity of acres on which dispersed 

camping would be permitted. In this case, the undertaking would implement a restriction on 

areas where no such restriction has previously existed. Reducing the acreage available for 

dispersed camping as proposed in Alternative C would reduce the potential for adverse effects to 

historic properties.

Cross-country travel is currently permitted on roughly 864,000 acres of the Forest for purposes 

of retrieving harvested game via motorized vehicle (Table 7). Alternative C would reduce the 

number of acres available for motorized game retrieval to roughly 385,500. Although Alternative 

C would implement a restriction on areas where game may be retrieved by motorized vehicles 

where no such restriction has previously existed, the number of vehicles that could legally drive 

cross country—and potentially threaten the integrity of historic properties—remains significant.

To ensure that historic properties are not affected as a result of the action, the Forest has 

consulted with the Wyoming and South Dakota SHPOs in an effort to develop a management 

plan designed to minimize the potential for historic properties to be adversely affected by 

motorized game retrieval.

According to statistics compiled by the South Dakota Game, Fish and Parks Department16, 919 

elk and 7,575 deer were harvested in the Black Hills Hunting Unit in 2008 (includes archery and 

firearms). That number includes all elk and deer harvested across an area much larger than the 

Black Hills National Forest proper. There are roughly 435,000 acres of National Forest System

lands within the State of South Dakota‘s Black Hills Hunting Unit.

Data provided by the State of South Dakota suggest that 82 percent of elk hunters responding to 

a survey had hunted on public lands—but the data do not distinguish between State and Federal 

lands. No corresponding data were reported for the deer harvest; therefore, it is difficult to assess 

the total number of elk and deer harvested on Forest lands.

The number of elk and deer harvested on Forest lands located in the State of Wyoming are more 

difficult to calculate because the designated hunt areas are nearly eight and 20 times respectively 

the size of the Forest lands17. Employing the numbers provided by the State of Wyoming of 59 

elk and nearly 4,000 deer harvested from those hunting units, assuming an equal spatial 

distribution (no other data are available), roughly 8 elk and 200 deer would have been harvested 

on Forest lands in the State of Wyoming.

Eighty-two percent (318,000 acres) of the proposed 385,500 acres of game retrieval areas has 

been surveyed for cultural resources. The Forest‘s GIS records show that 1,464 cultural sites 

have been identified within the same area. Of that number, 189 sites (13 percent) have been 

determined eligible for the NRHP, 180 sites (12 percent) remain unevaluated, and the remaining 

1,095 sites (75 percent) are not eligible for the NRHP.

The Forest has developed a monitoring plan in an effort to accurately assess the potential for 

random adverse effects to historic properties as a result of motorized game retrieval in the areas 

identified. A percentage of the historic properties located within the proposed retrieval areas 

would be monitored each of the first two years if—and after—motorized game retrieval is 

approved. The Forest would submit a monitoring report to the appropriate SHPO and Tribal 

governments after the close of the second season. In the event that monitoring reveals damage to 

historic properties, the Forest would consult with the SHPO and Tribal staffs regarding an 

appropriate mitigation measure. After the second year of monitoring has been completed, the 

 

16 http://www.sdgfp.info/Wildlife/hunting/Harvest/Projections.htm

17 http://gf.state.wy.us/wildlife/hunting/stats/harvest/2008/index.asp
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Forest would initiate consultation to discuss the merits of additional monitoring based on the 

results of the first 2 years.

Alternative D

Alternative D would designate 3,197 miles of system routes open to motor vehicle use. Existing 

system roads compose 2,939 of these miles and are not considered undertakings requiring 

Section 106 review pursuant to USDA Forest Service/ACHP policy (USDA Forest Service 

2005e). Proposed actions that are considered undertakings subject to Section 106 review include:

Reopen a closed route 90 miles

Designate a new route from an existing unauthorized route 168 miles

Alternate D would add 258 miles of unauthorized routes to the transportation system. Eightyeight cultural resource sites have been identified within the linear area of potential effect of 

Alternative D. Of the 88 properties identified, 74 currently exhibit little or no evidence for 

potential effects as a result of motorized travel. Potential direct and/or indirect effects requiring 

the implementation of protection measures have been identified for 14 historic properties.

Table 63 provides a more detailed assessment of the 14 historic properties susceptible to direct 

and/or indirect effects under Alternative D. The table quantifies the type of effect, severity of 

effect, and the protection measures prescribed to eliminate or minimize any potential for adverse 

effects.

Table 63. Effects analysis for historic properties associated with Alternative D

Type of effects Severity of effects Minimum required protection 

measures

Direct 11 Minor 13 Monitor 13

Indirect 3 Moderate 1 Site capping 1

Major 0 Reroute 0

Total 14 Total 14 Total 14

Direct effects are the most common type associated with Alternative D. These consist of 

potential impacts due to activities directly associated with motorized vehicle use. The potential 

for direct effects to site integrity have been identified for 11 cultural resource sites. Severity of 

effects has been assessed as minor in Alternative D for 13 (93 percent) of the 14 at-risk 

properties. In these cases, the nature or degree of effects is problematic, ambiguous, or 

indeterminate (e.g., past effects vs. ongoing effects). Monitoring is prescribed for this subset to 

better assess the potential for more long-term adverse effects. At the end of a two-year period 

following publication of the motor vehicle use map, where monitoring indicates that adverse 

effects are ongoing or likely to develop, the Forest will consult with the appropriate SHPO and 

Tribal governments to determine what protection or treatment measures would adequately 

minimize or eliminate the potential for adverse effects.

A single historic property has been identified within the Alternative D area of potential effect as 

requiring well-defined protection measures if the corresponding travel route is formally selected 

for designation in the record of decision. The associated route has the potential to directly affect 

the integrity of the property in an adverse manner. The severity of effects for the property is 

considered moderate. Should the corresponding route be designated on the MVUM, the Forest 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

would, at a minimum, cap the threatened portions of the site with a geotextile cloth topped with a 

protective layer of gravel or rock. Capping the site would meet minimum requirements although 

other more extensive measures may be selected. All protection measures prescribed for moderate 

and major at-risk sites would be implemented before the associated route bisecting the site was 

added to the MVUM. Prior to the successful installation of prescribed protection measures, the 

associated road/trail(s) would remain closed to all types of motorized use.

Alternative E

Alternative E would retain the current 3,776 miles of existing system routes. No additional 

routes or areas would be added to the NFTS and cross-country travel would be prohibited. Under 

this alternative, both motorized dispersed camping and motorized game retrieval would be

illegal.

The USDA Forest Service policy, in consultation with the ACHP, states that, ―existing, formally 

established system (classified) roads and trails, already open to motor vehicle travel, generally 

need not be re-evaluated for purposes of this rule. Their designation on a motor vehicle use map 

will not generally be considered an undertaking for the purposes of NHPA and not subject to 

Section 106 review.”

Alternative E would result in a measurable reduction in the potential for adverse effects to 

cultural resources by minimizing the potential for adverse effects produced by motorized 

vehicles.

Effects Common to All Action Alternatives

Alternatives B, C, and D have the potential to adversely affect at-risk historic properties due to 

the presence of eligible and unevaluated sites near, or bisected by, travel routes. It is likely that a 

long-term result of reducing or eliminating cross-country travel under the action alternatives 

would result in increased use of the designated system. This could be of concern for cultural 

resource sites not yet discovered due to factors such as dense vegetation or subsurface 

concealment. On the other hand, Alternatives B, C, and D would each reduce or prohibit 

unauthorized motor vehicle cross-country travel, thereby reducing the potential for adverse 

effects to historic properties. Each of the action alternatives would result in an overall reduction 

in the potential for adverse effects to cultural resources.

Forest Plan standards and guidelines as summarized in the legal authorities section above would 

be maintained under each of the three action alternatives provided the stipulations outlined are 

effectively implemented. Under all of the action alternatives, consultation with the appropriate 

SHPOs and American Indian governments has been conducted and will continue in accordance 

with Federal law and USDA Forest Service policy. The Forest will develop and implement 

appropriate management plans and strategies as required by the LRMP. Sensitive information 

regarding archaeological sites as well as American Indian religious and sacred sites has been 

kept confidential as mandated by law and Standard 7101 of the Forest Plan. Alternative A, the no 

action alternative, is the only alternative that would deviate from Forest Plan direction and 

applicable cultural resource statutes. Compliance with all relevant laws, regulations, and policies 

could be maintained in Alternatives B, C, D, and E, although resource investments and the 

complexity of mitigation measures associated with each alternative vary significantly.

The action alternatives proposed in the Travel Management Plan could result in both beneficial 

and adverse effects on Native American interests. Beneficial effects may be produced by an 

increased potential for solitude and enhanced resources associated with traditional-use areas.

Conversely, road closures may limit access to those same areas. The American Indian Religious 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Freedom Act reinforces the policy of providing access and use of Forest lands to American 

Indians for traditional rites and ceremonies. Regardless of the alternative selected, the Forest 

would continue to consult with American Indian individuals and groups to identify and resolve 

potential access and traditional-use issues.

The Forest has proposed designating 34 trailheads on the motor vehicle use map. All 34 

locations were surveyed for the presence of cultural resources. Eight of the proposed trailhead 

locations were located on or very near cultural resources sites. One consisted of an isolated find,

which by definition is not eligible for the NRHP. Four additional sites had been determined not 

eligible for the NRHP with SHPO concurrence. Two sites are eligible for the NRHP with SHPO 

concurrence. The NRHP significance of the eighth site has not yet been determined. To 

minimize any potential for adverse effects, it would be necessary to eliminate, relocate, or 

mitigate three trailheads. If the Forest determines that relocation or mitigation is necessary for 

any of the three trailheads, the appropriate consulting parties would need to be informed to 

ensure that 36 CFR §800 mandates are met.

Cumulative Effects

Past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future activities within the analysis area include timber 

harvest, recreation, road construction and maintenance, range improvement projects, mining 

activities, and a host of other projects, each of which may use the Forest‘s transportation system.

These activities have occurred in the past, are ongoing, and in all likelihood will continue to 

occur in the foreseeable future. The NHPA and 36 CFR §800 regulations outline the procedural 

mandates for protecting historic properties from impacts caused by Federal actions such as those 

cited. Adverse effects can be avoided or minimized through the implementation of appropriate 

site-specific mitigation measures through consultation with the ACHP, the appropriate SHPOs 

and Tribal governments, and the public.

The geographic scope of the cumulative effects analysis is limited to the Forest‘s administrative 

boundary because impacts to cultural resources accumulate at their specific locations, 

irrespective of actions in surrounding areas. The cumulative effects analysis excludes designated 

wilderness, and research natural areas where motorized uses are currently prohibited.

Cumulative effects are not anticipated under the action alternatives because the National Forest 

transportation system would be well defined and all identified and potential effects (both direct 

and indirect) would be mitigated. This assertion presupposes the assumptions listed in the 

Methodology section above as well as the General Assumptions disclosed at the beginning of 

Chapter 3.

The data reported in Table 59 demonstrate that the no action alternative would have unmitigated, 

long-term adverse effects on cultural resources. A minimum of 41 historic properties would be 

adversely affected if no mitigation action was taken. Another 267 sites identified within the 

linear area of potential effect could potentially be affected in the absence of any long-term 

management actions or oversight.

Cross-country travel is more likely to occur under Alternative A than the action alternatives. As a 

result, cumulative effects would likely occur under Alternative A. Although potential cumulative 

effects for the no action alternative are difficult to accurately assess and quantify, one can 

calculate the average number of historic properties per acre that would be susceptible to crosscountry motorized travel. This exercise has previously been attempted in Section 3-10.1 of the 

Forest‘s Phase II Amendment to the 1997 Revised LRMP (USDA Forest Service 2005a). More 

than 6,000 cultural resource sites had been identified on the Forest as of 2005. Additional 

cultural resources not yet identified unquestionably exist. The same reference estimates that 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

11,000 cultural sites (archaeological and historic) may exist on the Forest, producing a 

theoretical site density of one site for every 110 acres. If present trends are maintained, roughly 

15 to 25 percent of the sites identified on the Forest may be eligible for the NRHP. Based on 

these data, an estimated 2,750 historic properties may potentially be affected if no attempt is 

made to manage cross-country motorized travel. Any further attempts to quantify cumulative 

effects would be highly speculative.

Consultation

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation

The Forest consulted with the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP) for this project 

in the context of developing a programmatic agreement with the Wyoming SHPO. Pursuant to 36 

CFR §800.14(b), a programmatic agreement is used for historic properties located in the State of 

Wyoming as an alternative means of compliance with the National Historic Preservation Act‘s 

implementing regulations. That agreement outlines the Forest Service‘s intent to complete NRHP 

evaluations prior to project implementation for all cultural sites located in the Wyoming area of 

potential effect whose NRHP significance remains undetermined (USDA Forest Service 2010a).

The ACHP responded in the negative to the Forest‘s invitation to participate in the development 

of the programmatic agreement.

State Historic Preservation Officers

The NRHP implementing regulations identify the SHPO as one of several primary consulting 

parties when federally authorized or federally funded undertakings have the potential to affect 

cultural resources (36 CFR §800.2(c)). Similarly, Section 2361.21 of the USDA Forest Service 

Manual (USDA Forest Service 2008e) states that the agency official shall consult with the SHPO

when:

1. Seeking review and comments for forest and grassland projects and programs in 

accordance with NHPA Section 106.

2. Seeking a consensus determination of National Register eligibility for cultural 

resources in accordance with NHPA Section 106.

The cultural resources analysis completed for this project involves lands located in two states: 

South Dakota and Wyoming. Consequently, two State Historic Preservation Offices were 

consulted under the Section 106 process. Two separate Section 106 reports were written, each of 

which reported the identification, evaluation, and assessment of effects for cultural resources 

located within their respective state boundaries (USDA Forest Service 2009e, 2009f). The Forest 

consulted on NRHP evaluations for 14 new cultural resource sites identified in South Dakota. No 

new cultural resources were identified in the State of Wyoming.

The Forest developed a programmatic agreement with the Wyoming SHPO in which the Forest 

agreed to complete NRHP evaluations prior to project implementation for all unevaluated 

cultural sites located in the Wyoming area of potential effect (USDA Forest Service 2010a).

Consultation was also completed with the South Dakota and Wyoming SHPOs regarding the 

Forest‘s proposed monitoring plans for the linear routes under analysis in the action alternatives.

In addition, the South Dakota SHPO was consulted on a proposed monitoring plan to ensure that 

motorized game retrieval that has been proposed for large, well-defined areas in Alternative C 

would result in no adverse effect to cultural resources.

The Forest received concurrence from the South Dakota SHPO regarding the Forest Service‘s 

recommendation that, if the stipulations delineated in the report for this travel management 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

project are effectively followed and/or implemented prior to project implementation, the 

undertaking would result in no adverse effects to historic properties. The effects analysis for 

lands located in the State of Wyoming will be submitted to the Wyoming SHPO, pursuant to the 

programmatic agreement developed between the Forest Service and the Wyoming SHPO, once 

the NRHP evaluations have been completed, but prior to project implementation.

Tribal Consultation

The NRHP implementing regulations identify American Indian tribes as a as one of several 

primary consulting parties when federally authorized or federally funded undertakings have the 

potential to affect cultural resources (36 CFR §800.2(c)). Similarly, Section 2361.22 of the 

Forest Service Manual states that the agency official shall consult with Indian tribes in 

recognition of their government-to-government relationship.

Section 101(d)(2) of the NHPA establishes criteria for designating Tribal Historic Preservation 

Officers to assume the functions of a State Historic Preservation Officer on Tribal lands.

Executive Order 13007, Indian Sacred Sites, issued May 24, 1996, directs Federal land 

management agencies, to the extent permitted by law, and not clearly inconsistent with essential 

agency functions, to accommodate access to and use of Indian sacred sites, to avoid affecting the 

physical integrity of such sites wherever possible, and, where appropriate, to maintain the 

confidentiality of sacred sites. Federal agencies are required to establish a process to assure that 

affected Indian tribes are provided reasonable notice of proposed Federal actions or policies that 

may affect Indian sacred sites.

Executive Order 13175, Consultation and Coordination with Indian Tribal Governments, issued 

November 6, 2000, directs Federal agencies to establish regular and meaningful consultation and 

collaboration with tribal officials in the development of Federal policies that have tribal 

implications, to strengthen the United States government-to-government relationships with 

Indian tribes, and to reduce the imposition of unfunded mandates upon Indian tribes. Public Law 

(P.L.) 108-199 and 108-477 added language that directed the Office of Management and Budget 

and all Federal agencies to consult with Alaska Natives and Alaska Native Corporations on the 

same basis as Indian tribes under Executive Order 13175.

The Black Hills National Forest regularly consults with tribal governments regarding projects 

authorized under the NHPA and the NEPA. Sixteen different tribes from five states have 

expressed traditional cultural, spiritual, or geographical interests in the Black Hills. Each tribe 

was sent a copy of the Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan DEIS (USDA Forest 

Service 2009e) on March 12, 2009, with an invitation to comment and a Forest Service contact.

Invitations were subsequently extended to each of the 16 tribes to attend a formal governmentto-government consultation meeting that the Forest hosted near Custer, SD, on April 21. The 

primary purpose of that meeting was to discuss any questions or issues that tribal representatives 

may have had pertaining to the Travel Management Project. One tribe sent a representative to the 

meeting. A separate tribe submitted a formal comment on the project and that comment is 

addressed in the Response to Comments (Appendix I). No other tribal government 

representatives submitted comments on the undertaking.

The Forest conducted additional consultation with all 16 tribes in which input was requested 

regarding the Forest‘s intent to develop a programmatic agreement with the Wyoming SHPO.

That agreement (USDA Forest Service 2010a) outlines the Forest‘s intent to complete NRHP 

evaluations prior to project implementation for all cultural sites located in the Wyoming area of 

potential effect whose NRHP significance remains undetermined. The Forest received a 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

statement from one tribe that expressed no objection to the proposed agreement. No other tribes 

submitted a response.

Public Consultation

The Forest consulted with the public via a variety of media outlets in the context of developing a 

programmatic agreement with the Wyoming SHPO. Pursuant to 36 CFR §800.14(b), a 

programmatic agreement is being used for historic properties located in the State of Wyoming as 

an alternative means of compliance with the National Historic Preservation Act‘s implementing 

regulations. That agreement outlines the Forest‘s intent to complete NRHP evaluations prior to 

project implementation for all cultural sites located in the Wyoming area of potential effect

whose NRHP significance remains undetermined (USDA Forest Service 2010a). The Forest 

received one telephone inquiry on the topic, but no comments of any nature were formally or 

informally submitted in response to the invitation to comment.

Rangeland Management (Grazing)

Introduction

This project is Forestwide in scope and affects the range program on all four ranger districts. The 

Black Hills is a highly productive area from the standpoint of forage resources with an average 

of approximately 466 million pounds of forage produced across the Forest each year. At an 

average proper-use level of 50 percent, up to 233 million pounds of forage is available for 

harvest each year by livestock and wildlife (USDA Forest Service 1996a).

Applicable Forest Plan Direction

Several goals, objectives, standards, and guidelines, both Forestwide and specific to selected 

management areas for rangelands and range management are in the current forest plan. Though 

they all pertain to our planning effort, we will deal with those that address travel management 

most directly.

Forestwide objective 301 says, ―Produce on a sustained basis and make available up to 233 

million pounds of forage for livestock and wildlife use each year (weather permitting).

a. Livestock use will be up to 127 million pounds of forage per year or approximately 128,000 

AUMs.

b. Wildlife use will be up to 106 million pounds of forage per year or approximate population 

levels of 70,000 deer and 4,500 elk or other combinations that use the same amount of 

forage.‖

Forestwide objective 302 says maintain rangelands in satisfactory range condition.

Methodology

The focus of this analysis is on the potential effects to livestock grazing operations (see 

following assumption on access by grazing permittees) and rangeland resources. Operations on 

allotments can be affected by travel management in a variety of ways including impacts to 

livestock use, health, and distribution patterns, allotment improvements, and rangeland health. 

Two indicator measures were developed to analyze and compare the degree to which the 

alternatives may result in effects. These are total miles of motorized routes (all classes) and acres 

of the Forest with unrestricted access.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Indicators

Miles of motorized routes

○ Total miles of motorized routes relates to the route density across the Forest and 

within grazing allotments and is an indicator of multiple effects that result from 

motorized vehicle routes. Associated with increased route density there is an 

increase in public access and a corresponding increase in a wide range of 

associated human activities outside developed use areas. Route density increases 

access to areas for recreation such as dispersed camping, picnicking, hunting, 

OHV riding, and related activities.

○ Increased route density reduces areas for livestock to avoid vehicle and human 

interactions. Vehicle access and associated human uses sometimes leads to 

effects on livestock such as inadvertent spooking and livestock running from 

perceived danger as well as some intentional chasing by motorized vehicle 

users. These conditions sometimes lead to altered grazing use patterns, livestock 

stress, weight loss and related health problems.

○ Dispersed camping and other associated uses such as game retrieval, OHV 

riding and trail heads are sometimes concentrated in watering and high forage 

locations which may lead to changed livestock use patterns and avoidance of 

some forage areas. Trailheads tend to concentrate use and we are likely to see at 

least a short-term increase in disturbance and use patterns of livestock.

○ Routes open for public motor vehicle use reduce forage availability on 

allotments because vegetation is not available on route beds that remain open. 

Associated uses such as dispersed camping off routes and game retrieval may 

also impact vegetation and reduce available forage (USDA Forest Service

2008a).

Acres accessible

○ Unrestricted access (open cross-country travel) allows access to management 

gates (those not on roads and trails) furthering the opportunity for unauthorized 

livestock movement into areas outside the prescribed pastures. The access 

increases the likelihood of gates left open or damaged, allowing livestock to 

move off the allotment or to enter pastures ahead of schedule or return to those 

already grazed, areas too wet for grazing, or road corridors. This can lead to 

vegetation, soil, or water quality concerns and vehicle collisions.

○ Unrestricted access through meadows within grazing allotments can affect the 

amount and condition of forage and livestock use patterns. Forage availability 

can be reduced because vegetation is not available in areas where unrestricted 

access has affected the forage. The impact to grazing is intensified when routes 

affect meadows, which are primary forage areas. Livestock sometimes reduce 

use in areas in response to human presence, which may cause change in 

utilization of primary forage.

○ Unrestricted access through meadows have the potential to affect the ecological 

condition which could result in a loss of productivity of primary forage areas 

and water sources and reductions in forage available for by both livestock and 

wildlife utilization (USDA Forest Service 2008).

Assumptions

For this analysis, the following assumptions were applied:
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Public education and enforcement of regulations would generally limit public travel to 

designated routes.

Administrative access would be allowed for official Forest Service business including 

contractors and permit holders. This would include a grazing permit holder exercising 

the legitimate obligations and requirements of their grazing permit or those acting for 

them in this pursuit.

The effects analysis assumes that the design criteria would be implemented for the

chosen alternative.

No special field surveys were conducted for this specific project. Knowledge of the field 

resources comes from many years in the field implementing and reviewing projects on this 

Forest. A GIS mapping exercise was used to overlay the resource with the alternatives, examine 

the benefits and locate possible conflicts.

Affected Environment

Of the 233 million pounds of forage available for harvest on the Black Hills, 127 million pounds 

found in designated allotments is allocated to permitted livestock under Forest Plan direction. 

The remaining 106 million pounds is retained for use by various wildlife species. The 

nonharvested production (233 million pounds) is for long-term ecosystem health and 

sustainability, visual quality, flash fuel for planned fire use, and so forth (USDA Forest Service 

2005a). There are approximately 128,000 animal unit months (AUMs) in the designated 135 

allotments (USDA Forest Service 1996a) allocated for livestock under term grazing or other 

permits.

Environmental Effects Analysis

Direct and Indirect Effects

Alternative A

This alternative would continue the current effects of traffic of all kinds on the Forest to the 

resource. This truly is a no change alternative, except without the overall restriction on travel 

new unauthorized routes and trails would continue to be pioneered. This would mat down and 

take out vegetation and add to the harassment of livestock, neither of which moves us closer to 

the goals and objectives of the Forest Plan. This alternative contains the highest concentration of 

motorized routes when unauthorized routes are considered, and allows unrestricted access to the 

highest number of acres.

Alternatives B, C, D, and E

In the following order, Alternatives C, B, E, and D would result in progressively lower densities 

of motorized routes on National Forest System lands and unrestricted access to fewer acres, with 

C having the most and D the least. Trailheads differ slightly with Alternative C, B, and D in 

decreasing order of the number of trailheads and effect to the resource, and Alternative E having 

the current number of trailheads. All alternatives reduce total miles of motorized routes from 

Alternative A when the unintended routes are considered (Table 64). These reductions would 

have a beneficial effect on livestock management, range resources and grazing management in 

the following ways:

The alternatives that have additional trailheads, concentrations of motorized routes, new 

routes or the opening of closed routes could affect allotment administration and livestock 

management in a localized area, but is unlikely to have major long-term negative impacts.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Cattle guards or self-closing gates may be needed (see Appendix B for Design Criteria) to 

assist in keeping livestock in an assigned pasture.

The dispersed camping corridor on each side of the motorized routes where it exists is 

considered in this analysis in the acres of the unrestricted access and considered in each 

alternative.

Game retrieval in some alternatives and administrative access although allowing off-road 

access would reduce the extent and timing of that access. The extent would be minimal and 

timing much more controlled as compared to the current and expected future unrestricted 

use.

The miles of routes are a direct tie to weed spread thus reducing quality and quantity of 

forage due to the competition between invasives and other vegetation (see the Invasive 

Plants discussion for additional information).

Alternative B: In Table 64 the indicators shows that Alternative B has fewer total miles of 

motorized routes, trailheads and less acres of unrestricted access than Alternative C, but 

more of each than D or E. This puts B in the middle of the pack being an improvement over 

Alternative A.

Alternative C: As stated, all action alternatives are an improvement over the existing 

situation. Alternative C has the least positive effects as you look at the indicators due to the 

total miles of motorized routes, trailheads and the accessible acres through dispersed 

camping and game retrieval (see Table 64).

Alternatives D and E: The indicators in Table 64 show that the effects of Alternatives D 

and E would be very similar. Alternative D has the most positive effect with fewer motorized 

route miles and Alternative E is second. Both of these alternatives have fewer miles of 

motorized routes than the other alternatives, but the real benefit is the lack of acres available 

for unrestricted access as shown by the second indicator. There are more trailheads in 

Alternative D than in E but Alternative D would likely still have the most positive effect.

Table 64. Comparison of indicator measures and alternatives for range

Indicators Alt. A Alt. B Alt. C Alt. D Alt. E

Total miles of open NFS motorized 

routes 3,776 4,129 4,353 3,197 3,776

Unauthorized route miles 4,109 0 0 0 0

Total miles of motorized routes 8,151 4,131 4,353 3,197 3,776

Acres open to dispersed camping

(motorized) 864,000 63,500 184,000 0 0

Acres accessible game retrieval

(motorized) 864,000 179,000 385,500 0 0

Number of motorized-use trailheads 7 31 34 23 7

Cumulative Effects

Cumulative effects as discussed here are effects on the resource that result from incremental 

impacts of actions when added to the past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future actions. 

This analysis is bounded to include the Forest and the adjacent lands because the effects of other 

actions on and /or near the Forest boundary affect the Forest resources. Each travel management 

action alternative would result in beneficial effects to varying degrees; however, the nature, 

extent, duration, and intensity of these effects vary across alternatives. The potential effects on 

range management and access to developments were evaluated. Guideline 9104 states motorized 

vehicles may be used on restricted areas and roads to accomplish administrative purposes. 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Therefore, motorized vehicle access to range developments or to administer allotments and 

manage livestock would be the same for the action alternatives (B, C, D, or E) as it is for current 

management (Alternative A) and contribute to the cumulative effects. Harvest and fuels 

management projects are expected to provide beneficial effects to allotments. In some instances, 

such as where conifer canopy is opened up or removed entirely, there may be an increase in 

herbaceous vegetative productivity and complexity, thereby benefiting both the plant community 

and potentially providing increased forage productivity for wildlife and livestock. There may 

also, be some short-term adverse effects to livestock management during project implementation 

such as impacts to fencing or gates and changes in livestock distribution patterns. The forage 

available on the Forest has likely increased in the recent years from fires that have affected the 

Forest land base and the canopy cover that has been reduced by mountain pine beetle. These 

cumulative disturbances could be expected to benefit the amount of forage that is available to 

livestock use on the Forest currently and for several years out.

Grazing allotment management plans for allotments are proposed to be revised to incorporate 

current standards. These proposed actions are expected to move allotments towards desired 

conditions. Present and future treatments of noxious weeds are beneficial to rangeland health 

with a long-term beneficial effect to forage availability. Firewood gathering is expected to 

continue as it in the past and is presently occurring and the effects are going to be similar. 

Foreseeable future recreation projects are expected to have minor negative effects to grazing.

Changes in the amount of motorized routes and the possible change in the motorized vehicle use 

map are expected to affect allotment management and grazing in the same ways as discussed 

earlier in this section. Other projects such as meadow restoration are expected to have beneficial 

effects.

Activities off the Forest such as continued urban development will continue and will have 

negative effects on the grazing program with increases in traffic and the loss of open space.

Treatment of weeds on private lands would positively affect range resources.

Invasive Species (Noxious Weeds)

Introduction

This project is Forestwide in scope concerning motorized travel and affects the invasives 

program on all four ranger districts. Noxious weeds are typically non-native plants that adversely 

affect native plant communities by aggressively competing for nutrients, water, and sunlight. As 

a result, sensitive plants, forage quantity and quality, and soil stability are negatively impacted

(USDA Forest Service 2005a). Background information regarding the status of noxious weeds 

on the Forest is presented in the 1996 Final EIS (USDA Forest Service 1996) and the Final 

Environmental Impact Statement for the Phase II Amendment (USDA Forest Service 2005a).

Invasive species have been considered one of the four threats because of the alarming rates of 

spread and they are adversely affecting people and the ecosystem. In the U.S., there are 2,000 

non-native plants, of which about 400 are invasives. Invasive plants now cover about 133 million 

acres in all ownerships nationwide and are marching at the rate of about 1.7 million acres per 

year. About 3.5 million acres of National Forest System land are infested. They have invaded 

grasslands, which can lose their livestock carrying capacity; in addition, wildlife habitats can be 

destroyed (USDA Forest Service 2004b). Other invasive species can invade aquatic habitats.

Please refer to the Fisheries section in this chapter for a discussion on aquatic nuisance species.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Applicable Forest Plan Direction

Several goals, objectives, standards, and guidelines, both Forestwide and specific to selected 

management areas for invasives are in the current forest plan. Though they all pertain to our 

planning effort, we will deal with those that address travel management directly.

Forestwide objective 231 is intended to prevent new infestations and reduce established 

noxious-weed infestations. Treat at least 8,000 acres per year during the next 10 years to 

limit noxious weed infestations.

Forestwide standard 4301 requires managers to determine noxious weed introduction or 

spread risk and implement appropriate mitigation measures for all proposed projects or 

activities.

Methodology

In this analysis framework, the focus is on motorized travel and access, while the analysis is on 

the potential for invasive weed spread and disturbance effects, by the different alternatives. Two 

indicator measures are used to analyze and compare the degree to which the alternatives may 

result in effects: less miles of routes or less area of unrestricted access the less spread of weeds.

These are miles of motorized routes (all classes) and acres of unrestricted access.

Indicators

Miles of roads

○ Road shoulders are particularly susceptible to weed invasion. Road construction 

and maintenance activities mix soil layers, increasing soil microbial activity. 

Weeds exploit these newly available nutrients efficiently (Best et al. 1980, 

Belcher and Wilson 1989). This may be one reason that the density of weedy 

plants increases as the intensity of site disturbance increases (Jensen 1995). 

Parendes and Jones (2000) found that the presence of exotic plant species was 

highly correlated with sunlit sites and frequent, severe disturbances, like those 

resulting from motorized traffic and road maintenance activities such as grading.

○ Motorized route corridors are prolific sources of weed seeds that may be carried 

to other locations (Tyser and Worley 1992) or that may colonize adjacent 

vulnerable habitats. Vehicle undercarriages can trap and transport weed seed 

(Sheley and Petroff 1999). A study in Kakadu National Park in Australia found 

that weed seed was transported into the park on tourist vehicles and was more 

likely to be transported by four-wheel-drive vehicles that had been driven offroad (Lonsdale and Lane 1994). A review of literature shows that native plant 

cover and species diversity increase with distance from routes, while the 

presence of exotic species declines with increased distance from road (Gelbard 

and Harrison 2003; Tyser and Worley 1992; Frenkell 1970; Johnson et al. 1975).

Thus, plant communities adjacent to more improved motorized routes (e.g.,

paved, gravel) that receive high vehicle traffic might be expected to be more 

invaded than those adjacent to infrequently used primitive motorized routes 

(e.g., four-wheel-drive tracks; Parendes and Jones 2000).

○ A number of mechanisms have been proposed as explanations for these patterns. 

Vehicles and road-fill operations transport exotic plant seeds into un-infested 

areas, and road construction and maintenance operations provide safe sites for 

seed germination and seedling establishment (Schmidt 1989; Lonsdale and Lane 

1994; Greenberg et al. 1997; Trombulak and Frissell 2000). Clearing of 

vegetation and soils during construction, addition of road fill, and grading of 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

native surface roads create areas of bare and deeper soil that allow exotic seeds 

to become established (Frenkell 1970; Trombulak and Frissell 2000).

Acres Accessible

○ In many respects, the effects of unrestricted access are similar to that of the 

motorized route corridors discussed above. Though you do not have the 

construction and maintenance there is still disturbance. With cross-country 

travel, there is movement of seed similar to that of motorized route corridors. 

Compaction is still a factor and can affect the native, less aggressive, plants.

○ Dispersed camping, game retrieval, and trailheads would allow movement of 

seed similar to that of motorized route corridors. Compaction particularly in the 

area of trailheads is still a factor and can affect the native, less aggressive, 

plants.

Assumptions

For this analysis, the following assumptions were applied:

Public education and enforcement of regulations will generally limit public travel to 

designated routes.

Administrative access is allowed for official Forest Service business including 

contractors and permit holders. This would include weed treatment by Forest Service

crews, county weed crews under agreement, and contractors acting under their valid 

contract.

No special field surveys were conducted for this specific project. Knowledge of the field 

resources comes from many years in the field implementing and reviewing projects on this 

Forest. A mapping exercise was used to overlay the resource with the alternatives, to locate 

possible conflicts and review the benefits.

Affected Environment

The Forest has implemented a Noxious Weed Management Plan (USDA Forest Service 2003) to 

increase the scope of noxious-weed management. The weed management plan directs the Forest 

to implement prevention, education, administration, planning, and integrated control in the 

Forest weed management effort. The Noxious Weed Environmental Assessment (USDA Forest 

Service 2003) was prepared to describe direct, indirect, and cumulative impacts concerning the 

weed-management plan. This section summarizes information from that document.

Forest personnel have identified approximately 170,000 acres of existing noxious weed 

infestations. Road construction and maintenance activities are expected to increase weed spread 

as can other management practices. Motorized-vehicle use is a vector for spread, as well as 

logging, domestic livestock and wildlife. These factors and others not listed are expected to 

affect approximately 7,700 acres of spread (USDA Forest Service 2003) all disturbances can 

contribute to weed spread.

Environmental Effects Analysis

Direct and Indirect Effects

Alternative A

This alternative would continue the current effects of motorized traffic of all kinds on the Forest 

to the resource. This is a no change alternative, except without the overall restriction of travel 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

new unauthorized routes and trails would continue to be pioneered. This would continue the 

spread of weeds through seed dispersal and the current rate of disturbance and in fact increase it 

neither of which moves us closer to the goals and objectives of the Forest Plan. This alternative 

contains the highest concentration of motorized routes and allows unrestricted access to the 

highest number of acres.

Alternatives B, C, D, and E

In the following order, Alternatives C, B, E, and D would result in progressively lower densities 

of motorized routes on National Forest System lands and unrestricted access to fewer acres with 

C having the most and D being the least miles and acres (Table 64, above). All alternatives 

reduce motorized routes from the amount in Alternative A when considering the unauthorized 

routes (Table 64). Trailheads differ slightly with Alternative C, B, and D in decreasing order of 

the number of trailheads and effect to the resource, with Alternative E having no change from the 

current number of trailheads and no change from the current effect. These reductions would have 

a beneficial effect on invasive weed spread and disturbance to create seedbeds:

The potential effects on weed management and access for treatment were evaluated. 

Guideline 9104 is common to all alternatives and states motorized vehicles may be used 

on restricted areas and roads to accomplish administrative purposes. Therefore, 

motorized vehicle access to treat and monitor noxious weeds will be the same for the 

action alternatives (B, C, D, or E) as it is for current management (Alternative A).

The alternatives that have additional trailheads, concentrations of motorized routes, new 

routes or the opening of closed routes could affect invasive weed spread and disturbance 

creating seedbeds but as long as the design criteria are followed for seeding, the longterm effects should be minimal.

The dispersed camping corridor on each side of the motorized routes where it exists is 

considered in this analysis in the acres of the unrestricted access and considered in each 

alternative.

Game retrieval in some alternatives and administrative access although allowing 

virtually unrestricted access will reduce the extent and timing of that access. The extent 

would be minimal and timing much more controlled as compared to the current and 

expected future unrestricted use.

Alternative B: In Table 64, the indicators shows that Alternative B has less miles of 

motorized routes, trailheads and less acres of unrestricted access than Alternative C, but 

more of each than D or E. This puts B in the middle of the pack being an improvement 

over Alternative A.

Alternative C: As stated, all action alternatives are an improvement over the existing 

situation. Alternative C has the least positive effects as you look at the indicators, due to 

the miles of motorized routes, number of trailheads and the unrestricted acres that are 

accessible through dispersed camping and game retrieval (see Table 64).

Alternative D and E: The indicators in Table 64 show that the effects of Alternatives D 

and E would be very similar. Alternative D has the most positive effect with fewer 

motorized route miles and Alternative E is second. Both of these alternatives have less 

miles of motorized routes than the other alternatives, but the real benefit is the lack of 

acres available for unrestricted access as shown by the second indicator. There are more 

trailheads in Alternative D than in E but Alternative D would likely still have the most 

positive effect Table 64.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Cumulative Effects

The incremental effect of the travel management alternatives when added to the impacts from all 

past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future projects comprise cumulative effects. This 

includes the Forest and the adjacent private and public lands because noxious weeds know no 

boundaries. Each travel management action alternative would result in beneficial effects to 

varying degrees; however, the nature, extent, duration, and intensity of these effects would likely 

vary across alternatives. Future changes in the amount of motorized routes and the possible 

change in the motor vehicle use map are expected to affect weeds and weed spread in the same 

manners as discussed earlier in this section. The incremental effects of natural disturbances and 

resource-management practices including timber and rangeland management on private and 

public lands on noxious weeds are also expected to continue and increase the amount and spread 

on weeds. Historic resource management activities have influenced the vegetation composition 

and structure of the Forest, and as such are encompassed in the existing conditions against which 

projected changes are measured for each alternative. Many other sources spread weeds such as 

timber management, fuels treatments, transport by animal (both domestic and wildlife), and 

other types of recreation, to name a few. These increase the number of weeds by spreading seed 

or creating seedbeds. Current public and private noxious weed management programs exist are 

expected to continue and likely increase in the foreseeable future within the cumulative-effects 

study area for travel management. The additional treatment acres from the amended Forest Plan 

are not anticipated to exceed acceptable thresholds to the environment or to result in long-term 

adverse impacts (USDA Forest Service 2005a).

Climate Change

Introduction

Greenhouse gases are becoming a concern because they can trap heat in the atmosphere, thus 

warming the climate. A major concern is the amount of carbon that is being released into the 

atmosphere in several of these gases, particularly through human activities. The U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classifies the following as greenhouse gases: water

vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and ozone (O3). These gases 

occur naturally in the atmosphere, but human activities have changed their atmospheric 

concentrations. Several other gases do not have a direct global warming effect but indirectly 

affect solar radiation absorption by influencing the formation or destruction of greenhouse gases.

These include carbon monoxide (CO), and oxides of nitrogen (NOx; U.S. EPA 2009). This 

discussion will focus primarily on motor vehicle emissions containing CO2, N2O, CO and NOx, 

and will generally refer to all as greenhouse gases.

Climate change and warming caused by an increase in greenhouse gases can be relevant to 

Forest Service land management in two ways. These include assessing and reducing greenhouse 

gas emissions (mitigation) and coping with the effects of climate change (adaptation). Mitigation 

reduces greenhouse gas emissions either directly onsite or by offsetting emissions generated 

elsewhere. Mitigation can include such activities as reducing the potential for deforestation or 

catastrophic loss, reforesting denuded lands, managing forests to increase carbon uptake by trees, 

and utilizing biomass and wood products where carbon is sequestered.

Adaptation assesses ongoing or potential impacts to natural resources from changes in climate, 

and takes actions to help plant and animal communities adapt to these changes. Proactive forest 

management anticipates certain long-term effects will result from changing climate based on 

research. It is important to recognize that there is a high degree of uncertainty in some current 
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

predictions. There are several possible approaches to adaptation, including promoting resilience 

in forest and rangeland plant communities, and responding with changed management strategies.

The Forest Service has recently adopted a Strategic Framework for Climate Change (USDA 

Forest Service 2008f). This framework includes seven goals, including advancing the 

understanding of climate change, enhancing the capacity of forests and grasslands to adapt,

managing forests and grasslands to reduce greenhouse gases, and reducing the environmental 

footprint of the agency.

The mission of the Forest Service is to sustain the health, diversity, and productivity of the 

Nation's forests and grasslands to meet the needs of present and future generations. The agency 

recognizes climate change is one of the greatest challenges to human wellbeing and sustainable 

management of forests and grasslands because the rates of change will likely exceed many 

ecosystems‘ ability to adapt. To continue to fulfill its mission, the Forest Service must fully 

integrate the consideration of climate change into its planning and actions.

Applicable Laws, Regulations, Policy, and Forest Plan Direction

There are currently very few requirements in law or regulation limiting greenhouse gas 

emissions that could pertain to this project. Executive Order 13514 of October 5, 2009 and 

Forest Service policy regarding environmental management systems (EMS) set goals to reduce 

certain greenhouse gas emissions, and to reduce petroleum-based fuel use and improve fuel 

efficiency of the agency vehicle fleet, respectively. There are currently no requirements in law or 

regulation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from public use of motorized vehicles on

National Forest System lands.

Affected Environment

The U.S. releases about 1.5 gigatons of carbon annually into the atmosphere. The 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) developed the Global Warming Potential 

(GWP) concept to compare the relative ability of various greenhouse gases to trap heat in the 

atmosphere. The reference gas used is carbon dioxide. We are aware of no data quantifying 

greenhouse gas emissions from the Black Hills National Forest or the larger Black Hills area in 

general.

Environmental Effects Analysis

Direct, Indirect, and Cumulative Effects

It is difficult to estimate the numbers of passenger and recreational vehicles that might use the 

motorized transportation system under any of the alternatives in this EIS. It is worth noting that 

current EPA emissions limits for off-highway motorcycles and ATVs are much higher than those 

for standard passenger vehicles, for emissions components including nitrogen oxides and carbon 

monoxide. These emissions, plus carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide emissions 

generated by public motorized vehicle travel on National Forest System lands are expected to 

contribute to the global concentration of greenhouse gases that affect climate change. Projected 

climate change impacts include air temperature increases, sea level rise, changes in the timing, 

location, and quantity of precipitation, and increased frequency of extreme weather events such 

as heat waves, droughts, and floods. The intensity and severity of these effects are expected to 

vary regionally and even locally, making any discussion of potential site-specific effects of this 

project on forest resources speculative.
Final Environmental Impact Statement

Because greenhouse gases from vehicle emissions mix readily into the global pool of greenhouse 

gases, it is currently neither possible to distinguish the effects of this project from the effects of 

all other greenhouse gas sources worldwide, nor expected that attempting to do so would provide 

a practical or meaningful analysis of project effects. Emissions associated with this project are 

expected to be extremely small in the global atmospheric CO2 context, making it impossible to 

measure the incremental cumulative impact on global climate from emissions associated with 

this project. Potential regional and local variability in climate change effects add to the 

uncertainty regarding the actual intensity of this project‘s incremental effects on global climate 

change. In summary, the incremental contribution of any of the alternatives is considered 

negligible because none of the alternatives would result in measurable direct and indirect effects 

on total greenhouse gas quantities or global climatic patterns.

Short-term Uses and Long-term Productivity

NEPA requires consideration of ―the relationship between short-term uses of man‘s environment 

and the maintenance and enhancement of long-term productivity‖ (40 CFR 1502.16). Effects 

from implementation of each of the alternatives on specific resources are disclosed elsewhere in 

this chapter. Any of the alternatives would be implemented with design criteria to protect basic 

soil productivity. Decreases in long-term soil productivity from implementation of any of the 

alternatives are not anticipated.

The Forest Plan provides minimum management requirements for resource protection to ensure 

that long-term productivity is not impaired by short-term uses. Any alternative would be 

implemented consistent with these requirements. Project and Forest Plan monitoring would 

verify that protective measures are being implemented, and would continually gauge their 

effectiveness.

Unavoidable Adverse Effects

Some adverse effects are unavoidable with the implementation of any action alternative 

described in this analysis. Applying the design criteria described in Appendix B would reduce 

these effects to the extent possible. Effects of the alternatives to individual resources are 

described in detail elsewhere in this chapter. Please refer to each analysis section for details on 

unavoidable adverse effects.

Irreversible and Irretrievable Commitments of Resources

Irreversible commitments of resources are those that cannot be regained, such as the extinction 

of a species or the removal of mined ore. Irretrievable commitments are those that are lost for a 

period of time such as the temporary loss of timber productivity in forested areas that are kept 

clear for use as a power line rights-of-way or road. Effects of implementing the alternatives are 

described in detail elsewhere in this chapter, but are summarized here as appropriate.

There would be no irreversible commitments of resources from implementation of any of the 

alternatives.

Irretrievable commitments of resources could include the following:

Soil productivity and timber productivity would be lost where trail construction would 

occur.
Black Hills National Forest Travel Management Plan

Wildlife habitat could be lost or modified for certain species under any of the action 

alternatives. Habitat values would recover in these areas as motorized recreation traffic 

is rerouted for other purposes by other decisions.

Noxious weeds and invasive species could become established and persist under the 

action alternatives, if not addressed proactively or treated aggressively. The alternatives 

include design criteria to minimize the introduction of new occurrences of these species.

Scenic values would be modified to some degree under each alternative.

Recreation experiences would vary under each alternative. Motorized and nonmotorized

recreationists alike would see changes to their experiences in different parts of the Forest 

in the form of opportunities offered and conflicts with other users.

Other Required Disclosures

NEPA at 40 CFR 1502.25(a) directs, ―to the fullest extent possible, agencies shall prepare 

environmental impact statements concurrently with and integrated with ...other environmental 

review laws and executive orders.‖ The alternatives and analysis described herein comply with 

the following laws, regulations, and executive orders, as is disclosed in this document or in 

supporting documentation.

Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act of 1960

National Historic Preservation Act of 1969

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969

Clean Air Act of 1970

Clean Water Act of 1970

Endangered Species Act of 1973

National Forest Management Act of 1976

Executive Order 11593-Property of Historic, Archeological, or Architectural Significance

Executive Order 11644-ORV Management

Executive Order 11988; 10 CFR 1022-Floodplains

Executive Order 11989-ORV Management

Executive Order 11990-Protection of Wetlands

Executive Order 12898-Environmental Justice

Executive Order 12962-Recreational Fisheries

Executive Order 13007-Native Americans‘ concerns

This project does not involve impounding or diverting water, or adverse impacts to Federally 

listed threatened or endangered species; therefore, formal consultation with the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service is not required.

No ground-disturbing actions would occur in known eligible historic places. The Forest Service 

has complied with requirements of Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act.

A specific consideration of equity and fairness in resource decision-making is encompassed in 

the issue of environmental justice. Executive Order 12898 provides that, ―each Federal agency 

shall make achieving environmental justice part of its mission by identifying and addressing, as 

appropriate, disproportionately high and adverse human health or environmental effects of its 

programs, policies, and activities on minority populations and low-income populations.‖ No 
Final Environmental Impact Statement

adverse effects from the proposed action or alternatives have been identified on minority or lowincome populations.

Environmental Justice

Executive Order 12898 directs Federal agencies to focus attention on human health and 

environmental conditions in minority and low-income communities. The purpose of the 

executive order is to identify and address, as appropriate, disproportionately high and adverse 

environmental effects on human health or on minority populations and low-income populations. 

In the Phase II FEIS, Tables 3-59 and 3-60 highlight the demographic statistics for identifying 

potential communities of concern. None of the counties in the study area contain low-income or 

minority populations as defined by Executive Order 12898. No additional outreach or analysis 

has been performed, as there will be no disproportionate negative effect on such communities 

under any of the alternatives.

Additional evaluations of minority and low-income population data indicate that there is no 

evidence to suggest that the proposed action will have a disproportionate adverse effect on lowincome populations. Evaluations also show that minority populations for the counties in the 

study area are unlikely to meet the Environmental Justice criterion for a minority population and 

unlikely to experience disproportionate adverse effects as result of the proposed action.

Civil Rights Impact Assessment

The Civil Rights Policy for the USDA, Departmental Regulation 4300-4 dated May 30, 2003, 

states that the following are among the civil rights strategic goals; (1) managers, supervisors, and 

other employees are held accountable for ensuring that USDA customers are treated fairly and 

equitably, with dignity and respect; and (2) equal access is assured and equal treatment is 

provided in the delivery of USDA programs and services for all customers. This is the standard 

for service to all customers regardless of race, sex, national origin, age, or disabilities. The travel 

management planning process is designed to prevent disparate treatment and minimize 

discrimination against minorities, women and persons with disabilities and to ensure compliance 

with all civil rights statutes, Federal regulations, and USDA policies and procedures.

The travel management plan is not discriminatory towards persons with disabilities, because the 

decision will apply equally to all groups. Under section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, no 

person with a disability can be denied participation in a Federal program that is available to all 

other people solely because of his or her disability. However, there is no legal requirement to 

allow people with disabilities use of motor vehicles on roads, trails, or other areas that are closed 

to motor vehicles for people of all abilities. Restrictions on motor vehicle use that are applied 

consistently to everyone are not discriminatory. The effects of actions outlined under this plan 

will be distributed evenly amongst the population since access on routes designated as route 

closure do not prohibit or inhibit use on the basis of race, color, sex, national origin, religion, 

age, disability or marital or familial status. See the Social and Economics section of this EIS for 

further discussion about the distribution of visitors by age, disability, and minority status; 

existing information indicates that visitor demographics are similar to that of the State and 

regional populations in general.