Summary of Projects Funded by the

Federal Highway Administration for the 

National Surface Transportation Safety

Center for Excellence from July 2006 to

June 2014

PUBLICATION NO. FHWA-HRT-16-014 APRIL 2016

Research, Development, and Technology

Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center

6300 Georgetown Pike

McLean, VA 22101-2296
FOREWORD

The Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users

authorization established the National Surface Transportation Safety Center for Excellence 

(NSTSCE) at the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute (VTTI). The core objectives of NSTSCE 

were to conduct research and develop safety devices and techniques that enhance driver 

performance; examine advanced roadway delineation and lighting systems; improve

understanding of the impact of driver fatigue on crashes; develop and evaluate means to reduce 

the frequency of fatigue-related crashes; develop techniques to address age-related driver issues;

and transmit project results to practitioners. 

NSTSCE’s efforts were structured around a diverse stakeholders group: the Federal Government 

(the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and the Federal Motor Carrier Safety 

Administration), State Government (the Virginia Department of Transportation), academia 

(VTTI), and the private sector (General Motors® and Travelers® Insurance). The stakeholders 

group collectively reviewed individual project proposals from VTTI, selected proposals to be 

addressed by VTTI’s researchers, and allocated resources to the selected projects. NSTSCE 

represented a great opportunity for important safety research to be conducted in support of safety 

goals broader than those of any individual stakeholder. A total of 58 of the projects conducted by 

NSTSCE involved the direct funding participation by FHWA to develop advanced safety 

methods. 

Monique R. Evans, P.E.

Director, FHWA Office of Safety 

Research and Development

Notice

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Transportation 

in the interest of information exchange. The U.S. Government assumes no liability for the use of 

the information contained in this document. This report does not constitute a standard, 

specification, or regulation.

The U.S. Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trademarks or 

manufacturers’ names appear in this report only because they are considered essential to the 

objective of the document.

Quality Assurance Statement

The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) provides high-quality information to serve 

Government, industry, and the public in a manner that promotes public understanding. Standards 

and policies are used to ensure and maximize the quality, objectivity, utility, and integrity of its 

information. FHWA periodically reviews quality issues and adjusts its programs and processes to 

ensure continuous quality improvement.
TECHNICAL REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE

1. Report No.

FHWA-HRT-16-014

2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient’s Catalog No.

4. Title and Subtitle

Summary of Projects Funded by the Federal Highway 

Administration for the National Surface Transportation 

Safety Center for Excellence from July 2006 to June 2014

5. Report Date

April 2016

6. Performing Organization Code: 

7. Author(s)

Jonathan M. Hankey, Michael G. Buckley, and 

Sarah T. Pursley

8. Performing Organization Report No. 

9. Performing Organization Name and Address

Virginia Tech Transportation Institute

3500 Transportation Research Plaza (0536)

Blacksburg, VA 24061

10. Work Unit No.

11. Contract or Grant No.

DTFH61-06-H-00027

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address

Office of Safety Research and Development

Federal Highway Administration

6300 Georgetown Pike

McLean, VA 22101-2296

13. Type of Report and Period Covered

July 2006 to June 2014

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. Supplementary Notes

16. Abstract

This report summarizes the research projects undertaken at the National Surface Transportation Safety Center for 

Excellence (NSTSCE) under funding provided by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). FHWA was an 

important founding member of NSTSCE in 2006 and chaired the original stakeholders committee for several 

years. They maintained membership in NSTSCE until June 2014. With their guidance and financial contribution, 

58 projects were conducted that support NSTSCE’s mission of developing and disseminating advanced 

transportation safety techniques and innovations in both rural and urban communities. The report is organized 

according to NSTSCE’s five research focus areas: enhancing driver performance, examining roadway lighting 

and delineation, addressing age-related issues, addressing issues of fatigue, and providing outreach. Each project 

contains a brief, general description about its methods and findings and identifies any deliverables. 

17. Key Words

Fatigue, lighting, delineation, safety, older drivers, 

younger drivers 

18. Distribution Statement

No restrictions. This document is available through the 

National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 

22161.

http://www.ntis.gov

19. Security Classif. (of this report)

Unclassified

20. Security Classif. (of this page)

Unclassified

21. No. of Pages

78

22. Price

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed pages authorized.
ii

SI* (MODERN METRIC) CONVERSION FACTORS 

APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS TO SI UNITS

Symbol When You Know Multiply By To Find Symbol 

LENGTH

in inches 25.4 millimeters mm 

ft feet 0.305 meters m 

yd yards 0.914 meters m 

mi miles 1.61 kilometers km 

AREA 

in2 square inches 645.2 square millimeters mm2

ft2 square feet 0.093 square meters m2

yd2 square yard 0.836 square meters m2

ac acres 0.405 hectares ha

mi2 square miles 2.59 square kilometers km2

VOLUME 

fl oz fluid ounces 29.57 milliliters mL 

gal gallons 3.785 liters L 

ft3 cubic feet 0.028 cubic meters m3 

yd3 cubic yards 0.765 cubic meters m3 

NOTE: volumes greater than 1000 L shall be shown in m3

MASS oz ounces 28.35 grams g

lb pounds 0.454 kilograms kg

T short tons (2000 lb) 0.907 megagrams (or "metric ton") Mg (or "t") 

TEMPERATURE (exact degrees) o

F Fahrenheit 5 (F-32)/9 Celsius o

C 

or (F-32)/1.8 

ILLUMINATION 

fc foot-candles 10.76 lux lx

fl foot-Lamberts 3.426 candela/m2 cd/m2

FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS 

lbf poundforce 4.45 newtons N 

lbf/in2 poundforce per square inch 6.89 kilopascals kPa 

APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS FROM SI UNITS 

Symbol When You Know Multiply By To Find Symbol 

LENGTH mm millimeters 0.039 inches in 

m meters 3.28 feet ft 

m meters 1.09 yards yd 

km kilometers 0.621 miles mi 

AREA mm2 square millimeters 0.0016 square inches in2 

m2 square meters 10.764 square feet ft2 

m2 square meters 1.195 square yards yd2 

ha hectares 2.47 acres ac

km2 square kilometers 0.386 square miles mi2 

VOLUME 

mL milliliters 0.034 fluid ounces fl oz 

L liters 0.264 gallons gal 

m3 cubic meters 35.314 cubic feet ft3 

m3 cubic meters 1.307 cubic yards yd3 

MASS 

g grams 0.035 ounces oz

kg kilograms 2.202 pounds lb

Mg (or "t") megagrams (or "metric ton") 1.103 short tons (2000 lb) T 

TEMPERATURE (exact degrees) o

C Celsius 1.8C+32 Fahrenheit o

F 

ILLUMINATION 

lx lux 0.0929 foot-candles fc 

cd/m2 candela/m2 0.2919 foot-Lamberts fl

FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS 

N newtons 0.225 poundforce lbf 

kPa kilopascals 0.145 poundforce per square inch lbf/in2

*SI is the symbol for the International System of Units. Appropriate rounding should be made to comply with Section 4 of ASTM E380. 

(Revised March 2003)
iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................ 1

BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................................... 1

RESEARCH FOCUS AREAS ................................................................................................. 1

FHWA FUNDED PROJECTS ................................................................................................ 2

CHAPTER 2. DEVELOP SAFETY DEVICES AND TECHNIQUES THAT 

ENHANCE DRIVER PERFORMANCE ............................................................................. 5

CHAPTER 3. EXAMINE ADVANCED ROADWAY DELINEATION AND 

LIGHTING SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................ 23

CHAPTER 4. DEVELOP TECHNIQUES TO ADDRESS AGE-RELATED 

DRIVER ISSUES.................................................................................................................. 37

CHAPTER 5. DEVELOP TECHNIQUES TO ADDRESS DRIVER FATIGUE 

ISSUES................................................................................................................................... 49

CHAPTER 6. OUTREACH....................................................................................................... 61

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.......................................................................................................... 65

REFERENCES............................................................................................................................ 67
iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Template for project information...................................................................................... 3

Table 2. Method for Extracting Rural Driving Data from Naturalistic Driving Data .................... 5

Table 3. Crash/Near Crash Algorithm for Use on Naturalistic Driving Data................................. 6

Table 4. Driver Behavior in Crash Hot Spots and Rural Areas...................................................... 6

Table 5. Distraction Index Framework ........................................................................................... 7

Table 6. Modeling 100-Car Safety Events: A Case-Based Approach for Analyzing 

Naturalistic Driving Data.......................................................................................................... 8

Table 7. Data Mining of the Independence by Franklin Intersection ............................................. 9

Table 8. Post-Processing to Determine Orientation of DAS Units............................................... 10

Table 9. Public Access to VTTI Data ........................................................................................... 11

Table 10. Bayesian Method for Naturalistic Driving Study ......................................................... 11

Table 11. Data Center ................................................................................................................... 12

Table 12. Texting.......................................................................................................................... 13

Table 13. Attention and Drowsy Driver Assist............................................................................. 14

Table 14. Design and Implementation of OLAP Cube for Older Driver Dataset......................... 15

Table 15. Data Sharing Across Borders/Naturalistic Driving Studies – International 

Cooperation............................................................................................................................. 16

Table 16. Driving Scenario Classification.................................................................................... 17

Table 17. The Impacts of Safety-Critical Events on Driver Behaviors........................................ 18

Table 18. Secure Feedback for Onboard Monitoring System Training........................................ 19

Table 19. Generic Motorcycle Bracketry and Housings............................................................... 20

Table 20. Integrating Roadway Data with Our Naturalistic Dataset ............................................ 21

Table 21. Development of the Luminance Camera System ......................................................... 24

Table 22. Luminance Metrics for Roadway Lighting................................................................... 25

Table 23. Color Measurement System.......................................................................................... 26

Table 24. Performance of New Roadway Lighting in Foggy Conditions/Performance of 

New Roadway Lighting in Rain Conditions........................................................................... 27

Table 25. Assessment of Active Delineation Systems.................................................................. 27

Table 26. Roadside Evaluation of a Buried Cable Animal Detection System.............................. 28

Table 27. Exploration of the Integration of the SHRP2 Naturalistic Driving Data with the 

VTTI Lighting Database ......................................................................................................... 29

Table 28. Measurement of Visibility Conditions with Traffic Cameras ...................................... 30

Table 29. Discomfort-Disability Glare ......................................................................................... 31

Table 30. Metric for Roadway Lighting Design........................................................................... 31

Table 31. Visual Information and Driver Performance ................................................................ 32

Table 32. Roadway Lighting Mobile Measurement System (RLMMS) ...................................... 33

Table 33. Rural Intersection Lighting Safety Analysis................................................................. 34

Table 34. Exploratory Color Contrast Experiment....................................................................... 35

Table 35. Visual Behavior in Roundabouts.................................................................................. 36

Table 36. Older Driver Biomechanics.......................................................................................... 38

Table 37. Teen Driving Initiative.................................................................................................. 39

Table 38. Creating Capability for Automated Mask Post-Processing of Face Video in 

Naturalistic Databases............................................................................................................. 40
v

Table 39. Comparing the Driving Safety Benefits of Brain Fitness Training Programs for 

Older Drivers .......................................................................................................................... 41

Table 40. Older Driver Head Rotations at Intersections: An International Meta-Analysis 

of U.S. and Australian ND Databases..................................................................................... 42

Table 41. Fitness to Drive II ......................................................................................................... 43

Table 42. Senior Mobility Symposium......................................................................................... 44

Table 43. Validation of the Driver Coach Trigger Algorithms Using the 40-Teen 

Naturalistic Driving Study Dataset ......................................................................................... 45

Table 44. Inclusion of a Driver Distraction Trigger for Driver Coach Project............................. 46

Table 45. A Survey of U.S. Light-Vehicle Driver Education Programs ...................................... 47

Table 46. Commercial Motor Vehicle Driver Health and Fatigue Study..................................... 50

Table 47. Assessment of Fatigue from the Drowsy Driver Warning System Field Operation 

Test (DDWS FOT).................................................................................................................. 51

Table 48. Sneak Preview: A Proof of Concept of an Early SCE Detection Algorithm................ 52

Table 49. Development and Evaluation of a Naturalistic Observer Rating of Drowsiness 

Protocol................................................................................................................................... 53

Table 50. Impact of Treating Sleep Apnea in Commercial Motor Vehicle Drivers: 

A Case Study........................................................................................................................... 54

Table 51. Identifying High-Risk Commercial Truck Drivers Using a Naturalistic Approach..... 55

Table 52. Case Study on a Worksite Health and Wellness Program............................................ 56

Table 53. Prescription and Over-the-Counter Drug Use and Their Relationship to 

Involvement in a Safety-Critical Event................................................................................... 57

Table 54. Evaluation of Light-Vehicle Driver Education Programs Targeting Sharing 

the Road with Heavy Vehicles: Case Study Analysis ............................................................ 58

Table 55. Tips for Sharing the Road with Commercial Motor Vehicles: A Web-Based 

Approach................................................................................................................................. 59

Table 56. Distraction and Fatigue in Occupational Light-Vehicle Drivers.................................. 60

Table 57. Driver Health Tips Web Site ........................................................................................ 61

Table 58. YouTube® Video Library............................................................................................. 62

Table 59. Heavy Vehicle Safety Outreach.................................................................................... 63
vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ALD Adaptive Lighting Database

AVC Animal-vehicle collisions 

BMI Body mass index

CI Confidence interval

CIE Commission Internationale d’ Eclairage

CMV Commercial motor vehicle

CNC Crash and near-crash

CSRC Collaborative Safety Research Center (Toyota®)

DAS Data acquisition system

DDWS Drowsy driver warning system

FHWA Federal Highway Administration

FMCSA Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration

FOT Field operational test

GPS Global Positioning System

H&W Health and wellness

IFSTTAR French Institute of Science and Technology for Transport, Spatial 

Planning, Development and Networks

IMU Inertial measurement unit

HGF High g-force

LED Light-emitting diode

NC Near-crash

ND Naturalistic driving

NDS Naturalistic driving study

NSTSCE National Surface Transportation Safety Center of Excellence

NTDS Naturalistic Truck Driving Study

OLAP On-Line Analytical Processing

ORD Observer rating of drowsiness

OSA Obstructive sleep apnea

OTC Over-the-counter

PI Principal investigator

R&R Repeatability and reproducibility

RID Roadway Information Database

RLMMS Roadway Lighting Mobile Measurement System

Rx Prescription

SCE Safety-critical event 

SCI Safety-critical incident

SHRP2 Strategic Highway Research Program 2

SME Subject-matter expert

VDOT Virginia Department of Transportation

VTTI Virginia Tech Transportation Institute
1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

Section 5309 of Public Law 109-59 (Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity 

Act: A Legacy for Users) directed the Secretary of Transportation to “Establish the Center for 

Excellence in Surface Transportation Safety at the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute 

(VTTI)” and provide the sum of $750,000 per year for the establishment of the Center.(1)

Furthermore, Public Law 109-59 offered the authority to award a cooperative agreement for this 

effort. VTTI worked with the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) to develop this 

agreement and formed the National Surface Transportation Safety Center of Excellence 

(NSTSCE) in 2006. Its objective was to develop and disseminate advanced transportation safety 

techniques and innovations in both rural areas and urban communities. A multiyear strategic plan 

was developed, focusing on the following four surface transportation safety research areas: 

• Safety devices and techniques that enhance driver performance.

• Advanced pavement delineation and lighting systems.

• Techniques to address age-related driver issues.

• Techniques to address fatigued driver issues. 

RESEARCH FOCUS AREAS

Research areas were assigned a subject-matter expert (SME) who then developed projects that 

supported the strategic plan within each of the four focuses. To further facilitate this research, a 

stakeholder committee formed and was composed of organizations interested in improving 

surface transportation safety. FHWA chaired the original stakeholder committee, which included 

representatives from General Motors®, the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT), and 

VTTI. Each stakeholder provided $200,000 of funding annually for use on NSTSCE projects. In 

subsequent years, the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) and Travelers®

Insurance joined as stakeholders. 

Each SME developed a list of possible projects, a scope of work to be accomplished within each 

project, and a budget. The individual projects were described in a document with the following 

headings and information:

• Project title: The formal title.

• Lead researchers: The project’s principal investigator (PI) and often other key 

researchers.

• Opportunity: A brief description of the project’s benefits.

• Approach: A brief description of how the project would be conducted.

• Period of performance: An estimate of the timeline, occasionally with specific dates 

when necessary (e.g., to leverage another project effort).
2

• Probability of achieving results: An estimate of the likelihood of project success. The 

stakeholders wanted a mixture of projects that were low risk that could be easily achieved

and projects that were high risk but had the potential of high reward.

• Deliverables: Something produced from the project’s efforts, such as a presentation 

highlighting the study and results, a new tool, a conference presentation, a final report, a 

Web site, etc.

• Budget: A rough cost estimate.

• Strategic benefit: A brief description of the importance to the NSTSCE program and 

transportation safety.

• References: A list of any relevant references that should be considered.

A compiled document of these two-page proposals was distributed to stakeholders prior to their 

annual fall meeting, where the SMEs or their designees presented each proposal and answered 

questions. The stakeholders concluded each meeting with a closed session, which included 

voting on the proposals and developing feedback for the SMEs, which resulted in that year’s 

research portfolio implemented by the SMEs. The annual spring stakeholders meeting, designed 

to be interactive with questions and feedback, focused mostly on project status and progress. 

Occasionally, new projects were recommended to the stakeholders at the spring meeting, 

although these recommendation were fewer.

The reporting requirements mandated that FHWA funding be accounted for separately from the 

other funding sources. As a result, funding sources were tracked for FHWA projects. Initially,

these projects were often created using a single source of funds. However, when changes were

recommended for a project that required additional funding, other funds were used in some 

cases. Also, in some cases, the funds coming from multiple sources were allocated at the 

beginning of the project for logistical reasons. In all cases, the amount provided by FHWA to 

each project was tracked.

FHWA FUNDED PROJECTS

FHWA remained a member of the NSTSCE stakeholders committee until June 2014; during the 

span of its membership, FHWA funds contributed to 58 projects. The remaining four 

stakeholders continue to support NSTSCE.

An early requirement for the program was an outreach and marketing project for NSTSCE 

lasting from July 2006 to April 2010. The given budget of $245,405 was used specifically to 

provide outreach and marketing for NSTSCE that was approved by the stakeholders, including 

attempts to recruit other stakeholders who were supportive of the NSTSCE mission. From that 

point forward, specific outreach activities were proposed as projects along with those in the other 

four research areas. In 2012, NSTSCE added another SME who focused entirely on outreach. 

This report details 58 projects, ranging from developing tools that could be used to support data 

collection to specific naturalistic data analysis activities designed to answer particular research 
3

questions. Some of the projects were intermediate steps, while others were full projects with final 

reports. Final reports can be found at http://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/handle/10919/5529 and will 

remain accessible to FHWA.

The projects presented in this report are grouped in chapters corresponding to their research area. 

The information for each project is organized as in table 1. Note that the funding shown is only 

the FHWA funding that was devoted to the project; in some cases, this was the only funding 

provided, and in other cases, funding from additional sources was required. 

Table 1. Template for project information.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code Sub-fund charge number

Short Project Title Project’s common name

VTTI PI Lead researcher

Begin Sub-fund created

End Sub-fund closed

FHWA Funding Budget*

Long Project Title Project’s formal name

Project Description General description

Deliverable What was produced by the project

*VTTI received special permission from Virginia Tech to waive overhead 

on the FHWA NSTSCE funding to maximize its focus on research 

activities.

5

CHAPTER 2. DEVELOP SAFETY DEVICES AND TECHNIQUES THAT ENHANCE 

DRIVER PERFORMANCE

The first research area centered on investigating and developing safety devices and techniques 

that enhanced driver performance. Its broad span considered any aspect that could have a 

positive influence on driving performance not covered by the other three areas, such as 

evaluating specific in-vehicle devices or a Web site designed to help parents coach their 

teenagers on safe driving. Ultimately, the stakeholders expressed a great deal of interest in 

naturalistic driving; thus, improving its application became one of the research area’s primary 

objectives. Key projects funded by FHWA in this area include the following:

• Developing data acquisition system (DAS) instrumentation bracketry for motorcycles.

• Creating a Web site for naturalistic driving data sharing. 

• Creating a best practices document for international data sharing. 

• Producing algorithms to better mine the naturalistic data for events of interest.

• Testing different statistical methods to apply to naturalistic data.

In 2010, the NSTSCE stakeholders reviewed each of the four research focus areas. Although the 

scope of other areas expanded because of the review, this area remained the same, with a 

continued focus on naturalistic driving. Table 2 through table 20 describe the 19 projects that are 

related to this research focus area. 

Table 2. Method for Extracting Rural Driving Data from Naturalistic Driving Data.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425767

Short Project Title Method for Extracting Rural Driving

VTTI PI Shane McLaughlin

Begin December 2008

End January 2008

FHWA Funding $60,000.00

Long Project Title Method for Extracting Rural Driving from Naturalistic Driving Data

Project Description

A methodology was developed for batch processing large quantities 

of naturalistic data to identify epochs of interest as they relate to

geospatial information. Using this methodology, driving behavior 

and performance data can be related to specific locations or roadway 

networks to improve roadway safety and overall transportation 

system performance. The method permits more focused analyses in 

support of agency questions. For example, travel time and fuel 

efficiency can be studied and improved through investigation of 

driving behavior along specific corridors. Trip taking and routing 

selection behavior can be quantified and related to surrounding 

traffic to identify methods for reducing congestion.

Deliverable Method for Identifying Rural, Urban, and Interstate Driving in 

Naturalistic Driving Data(2)
6

Table 3. Crash/Near Crash Algorithm for Use on Naturalistic Driving Data.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425768

Short Project Title Crash/Near Crash Algorithm

VTTI PI Jeremy Sudweeks

Begin July 2006

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $90,046.47

Long Project Title Crash/Near Crash Algorithm for Use on Naturalistic Driving Data

Project Description

Identifying SCEs of interest from large naturalistic datasets in a 

cost-effective manner continues to be a problem. Kinematic 

thresholds are often used to identify potential SCEs. Trained video 

analysts then manually verify whether any of the kinematic triggers 

have successfully identified SCEs of interest. This project 

developed a crash/near crash algorithm using a functional yaw rate 

classifier that significantly reduced the number of false positives

while maintaining the majority of SCEs. 

Deliverable Using Functional Classification to Enhance Naturalistic Driving 

Data Crash/Near Crash Algorithms(3)

SCE = safety-critical event.

Table 4. Driver Behavior in Crash Hot Spots and Rural Areas.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425813

Short Project Title Rural Driving Assessment

VTTI PI Brad Cannon

Begin October 2007

End October 2009

FHWA Funding $99,999.73

Long Project Title Driver Behavior in Crash Hot Spots and Rural Areas

Project Description

The project used the method for extracting rural 

driving developed in an earlier NSTSCE project to address crash

hot spots. Specifically, naturalistic driving data through

intersections and rural road hotspots were compared to

naturalistic driving data through similar intersections and rural

road locations with low crash counts. Unfortunately, though the 

method had promise, the results showed few significant 

differences. 

Deliverable Geospatial Analysis of High-Crash Intersections and Rural Roads 

Using Naturalistic Driving Data(4)
7

Table 5. Distraction Index Framework.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425814

Short Project Title Distraction Index

VTTI PI Miguel Perez

Begin June 2008

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $50,008.74

Long Project Title Distraction Index Framework

Project Description

The use of a radio while driving has long been considered socially 

acceptable. However, there is recent concern about radio usage, in 

its ever-changing context, remaining a relatively low-risk activity to 

perform while driving. This investigation examined how often 

drivers with access to an advanced and novel infotainment system 

for about 4 weeks were involved in CNC situations. Results suggest 

that the use of infotainment systems in NC events was slightly 

overrepresented. Furthermore, the use of infotainment systems had 

measurable demands on the driver’s visual resources and tended to 

result in a reduced propensity of response to unexpected events on 

the forward roadway. However, the use had limited or no 

measurable effect on the control of the vehicle.

Deliverable Distraction Index Framework(5)

CNC = Crash and near-crash.

NC = Near-crash.
8

Table 6. Modeling 100-Car Safety Events: A Case-Based Approach for Analyzing 

Naturalistic Driving Data.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425815

Short Project Title Modeling Crash Data—100-Car

VTTI PI Feng Guo

Begin November 2007

End May 2008

FHWA Funding $30,000.00

Long Project Title Modeling 100-Car Safety Events: A Case-Based Approach for 

Analyzing Naturalistic Driving Data

Project Description

This project focused on methodological issues for evaluating risks 

using the safety outcomes of a naturalistic study. Specifically, it 

looked at different modeling approaches for CNCs in NDSs. The 

100-car naturalistic study was used as the test dataset. A new 

baseline was selected based on driving time, simple contingency 

table analysis, the generalized estimating equation model, and the 

mixed-effect logistic regression model. This resulted in an integrated 

framework for modeling the safety outcomes of NDSs that addresses 

several critical methodological issues. The results indicate a certain 

level of discrepancy between the model-based approaches and the 

crude odds ratios.

Deliverable Modeling 100-Car Safety Events: A Case-Based Approach for 

Analyzing Naturalistic Driving Data(6)

NDS = Naturalistic driving study.
9

Table 7. Data Mining of the Independence by Franklin Intersection.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425820

Short Project Title Franklin Intersection

VTTI PI Zac Doerzaph

Begin September 2008

End October 2009

FHWA Funding $74,993.15

Long Project Title Data Mining of the Independence by Franklin Intersection

Project Description

This study analyzed previously collected data to investigate factors 

related to the prevalence of red-light violations at three signalized 

intersections with Franklin Street in Christiansburg, VA. Three 

four-way signalized intersections ranging in speed from 25 to 

45 mi/h were used. Fixed instrumentation at the intersection was 

used to collect the data. The instrumentation included a GPS, 

weather station, traffic signal phase detector, a video camera off the 

traffic signal arm, and high-performance radar designed specifically 

for use at intersections. A sample of 3,000 violators out of the 

16,998 potential violations was compared to a matched set of 

compliant vehicle approaches using a logistic regression model. 

The focus was on identifying and exploring causal factors with the 

aim of assisting efforts to discover potential strategies for 

mitigation.

Deliverable Identification of Factors Related to Violation Propensity: Mining the 

Data of the Franklin Intersections(7)

GPS = Global Positioning System.
10

Table 8. Post-Processing to Determine Orientation of DAS Units.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425821/451053

Short Project Title IMU Calibration II/IMU Utility Tool

VTTI PI Shane McLaughlin

Begin February 2009/October 2010

End June 2014/July 2011

FHWA Funding $45,019.38/$35,000.00

Long Project Title Post-Processing to Determine Orientation of DAS Units

Project Description

In NDSs, various mounting locations of the DAS instrumentation are 

often required. These different locations can prove challenging for a 

researcher attempting to use the kinematic data, particularly so in the 

case of naturalistic motorcycle driving research. Physical abuse, 

intentional manipulation, or simple vehicle vibration can cause 

instrumentation to become misaligned. Therefore, a method for 

monitoring changes to the mounting orientation would ensure its 

validity throughout the course of the study. Motorcycles are the most 

challenging vehicle for which to accurately interpret the IMU values. 

This is exacerbated by continued changes in alignment. Therefore, 

this study developed a method to determine the orientation of the 

DAS on a motorcycle as well as a method to monitor potential future 

misalignments of the DAS. A static alignment method was 

incorporated into the software that assisted motorcycle installerware 

so the initial mounting orientation could be determined. A kinematic 

alignment method was also developed for use with motorcycles. It is 

compatible with the Nextgen, MiniDAS, and Remote IMU systems. 

The kinematic alignment algorithm is currently being adapted to work 

with IMUs mounted on car and truck platforms.

Deliverable Post Processing to Determine Orientation of Inertial Measurement 

Units(8)

IMU = Inertial measurement unit.
11

Table 9. Public Access to VTTI Data.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425877

Short Project Title Public Access

VTTI PI Jeremy Sudweeks

Begin September 2008

End June 2012

FHWA Funding $105,447.89

Long Project Title Public Access to VTTI Data

Project Description

The purpose of this project was to develop and support a Web site to 

initially house the 100-car naturalistic crash, NC, and baseline 

datasets. This allowed multiple researchers to publish papers using 

this dataset. The Web site was later expanded to house some truck 

naturalistic datasets.

Deliverable VTTI Data Warehouse(9)

Table 10. Bayesian Method for Naturalistic Driving Study.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425895/425958

Short Project Title Bayesian Model Project

VTTI PI Feng Guo

Begin October 2008/January 2010

End August 2009/June 2014

FHWA Funding $44,753.77/$14,793.40

Long Project Title Bayesian Method for Naturalistic Driving Study

Project Description

This project developed Bayesian models for evaluating distraction 

risk using NDS data and looked at alternative models, including a 

hierarchical model, a random exposure model, and semiparametric 

Bayesian model. Methodology development for all three parts has 

been completed. The random exposure and semiparametric Bayesian 

models were applied to the 100-car data. For the hierarchical model, 

the evaluated models showed that the results are highly constrained 

by the number of strata and that the 100-car sample size is perhaps 

too small for its application. 

Deliverable A Bayesian Random Exposure Poisson Regression Model to 

Evaluate the Risk of Visual-Manual Cellphone Tasks(10)
12

Table 11. Data Center.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425916

Short Project Title Data Center

VTTI PI Clark Gaylord

Begin March 2009

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $115,072.09

Long Project Title Data Center

Project Description

Facilitated by this project, VTTI completed needed upgrades to its 

computational and data management resources as well as 

improvements to data center operations and data analysis support 

software used in NDSs. The following upgrades were made:

• Established a server virtualization test environment.

• Improved operational monitoring of service uptime.

• Upgraded to general purpose database servers supporting 

NDS instrumentation.

• Researched project management Web servers.

• Upgraded compute cluster dispatch node.

• Acquired software licenses to support data analysis.

Deliverable This project was intended to develop capability for other projects.

No report was prepared.
13

Table 12. Texting.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425956

Short Project Title Texting

VTTI PI Justin Owens

Begin November 2009

End March 2010

FHWA Funding $15,000.00

Long Project Title Texting

Project Description

This study presented an evaluation of driver performance while 

sending a text message via handheld mobile phones and an invehicle texting system. Participants sent and received text messages 

using their personal mobile phones and the vehicle’s system while 

driving with an experimenter on a closed-road course. The test 

vehicle was an instrumented 2010 Mercury® Mariner equipped 

with an original equipment manufacturer in-vehicle system that 

supports text messaging and voice control of mobile devices via 

Bluetooth®, which was modified to allow text messaging during 

driving. A total of 20 participants were tested, 11 from the ages of 

19 to 34 and 9 from the ages of 39 to 51. All participants were 

regular users of the in-vehicle system, although none had 

experience with the texting functions. 

Results indicated that handheld text message sending and receiving 

resulted in higher mental demand, more frequent and longer glances 

away from the roadway, and degraded steering measures compared 

to the baseline. Using the in-vehicle system to send messages 

showed less performance degradation but still had more task-related 

interior glance time and higher mental demand than the baseline. 

Using the system’s text-to-speech functionality for incoming 

messages showed no differences from the baseline. These findings 

suggest that using handheld phones to send and receive text 

messages may interfere with drivers’ visual and steering behaviors; 

the in-vehicle system showed improvement, but performance was 

not at baseline levels during message sending.

Deliverable “Driver Performance While Text Messaging Using Handheld and InVehicle Systems”(11)
14

Table 13. Attention and Drowsy Driver Assist.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425957

Short Project Title J24

VTTI PI Shane McLaughlin

Begin February 2011

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $83,466.82

Long Project Title Attention and Drowsy Driver Assist

Project Description

Several preliminary efforts were shared with the stakeholders on 

this project. With the stakeholders’ guidance, this project’s

objective was shifted toward developing a probabilistic model of 

eye gaze as a function of driver performance variables collected 

from a vehicle. In this way, vehicle-based measures might be used 

to determine when the eyes are likely away from the road and 

adjust driver support systems accordingly, such as generating alerts 

to draw the driver’s eyes back to the road. Eye-glance data from the 

100-car study were used. In previous efforts, these data were coded 

as to the locations in front of, beside, and inside the vehicle. The 

present work collapsed these codes into four zones during analysis. 

Driving data from curves were investigated with the expectation 

that eyes not looking forward when entering and negotiating turns 

would create more salient effects in the vehicle data and, thus,

provide a good starting point for analysis. Lateral accelerations and 

yaw-related measures were developed and tested. A relationship 

between eyes-off-road and lateral accelerations was observed. The 

false positive rates observed would make it difficult to use the 

approach in real-time applications, but the approach may provide 

value in postprocessing applications such as data mining. 

Deliverable Identifying Distraction: Kinematic Detection of Off-Road Eye 

Glances(12)
15

Table 14. Design and Implementation of OLAP Cube for Older Driver Dataset.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425960

Short Project Title Cube

VTTI PI Jeremy Sudweeks

Begin May 2010

End May 2013

FHWA Funding $39,998.98

Long Project Title Design and Implementation of OLAP Cube for Older Driver Dataset

Project Description

The purpose of this project was to develop an OLAP cube, which 

allows fast data analysis by categorizing numeric facts by 

dimensions for the older driver naturalistic dataset. It was hoped that 

this process would provide a way for researchers to answer research 

questions with aggregated non-personally identifying information. 

During the project, SHRP2 began discussing development of an 

OLAP cube for the SHRP2 data. With this knowledge, the 

stakeholders decided to reallocate the project’s remaining funds to 

the Public Access to VTTI Data project described in table 9. 

Deliverable

This project had no deliverable; the funds were reallocated during a 

stakeholder review to further maintain the Web site for the Public 

Access to VTTI Data project (see table 9). 

OLAP = On-Line Analytical Processing.

SHRP2 = Strategic Highway Research Program 2.
16

Table 15. Data Sharing Across Borders/Naturalistic Driving Studies – International 

Cooperation.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451048/451102

Short Project Title Data Sharing Across Borders/NDS International

VTTI PI Suzie Lee

Begin November 2010/December 2013

End July 2011/August 2013

FHWA Funding $20,004.84/$5,014.37

Long Project Title Data Sharing Across Borders/Naturalistic Driving Studies –

International Cooperation

Project Description

The purpose of this project was to investigate data sharing as it 

pertains to naturalistic driving across different countries. VTTI

worked with other countries to collect and share naturalistic driving 

data.

As part of this project, the data sharing international policies and 

guidelines of the following countries were reviewed: the United 

States, Canada, Australia, Sweden, China, Germany, Japan, the 

United Kingdom, France, New Zealand, and Israel. 

Deliverable Data Sharing Across Borders Current Status(13)
17

Table 16. Driving Scenario Classification.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451049

Short Project Title Driving Scenario Classification

VTTI PI Shane McLaughlin

Begin November 2010

End September 2012

FHWA Funding $34,999.86

Long Project Title Driving Scenario Classification

Project Description

Driving scenarios (e.g., driving relatively straight, negotiating a 

cloverleaf, turning at an intersection, or decelerating for a light) 

affect the driving-related measures collected for vehicles. During 

this project, automated methods were explored to review 

naturalistic driving data and to classify the epochs of the data 

according to different driving scenarios. In this way, the variance in 

the data created by common driving scenarios could be parsed out 

earlier during the data-mining process. 

To explore the potential for scenario classification of this type, 

researchers developed operational definitions for the different 

scenarios, trained a data reductionist, and conducted video 

reduction on 60 drivers, which determined when drivers were 

involved in the scenarios. In the review, approximately 

1,465 epochs of drivers involved in 26 different scenarios were 

identified. Scenarios such as left and right turns were frequently 

found (more than 300 cases), whereas scenarios such as interchange 

merges to the left or right were found in only a single trip. These 

cases were divided into subsets where possible and used to guide 

code development testing. While the code was intended to explore a 

proof-of-concept for scenario classification using kinematic and 

other variables, an unrelated effort was found to have considerable 

power to classify roadway scenarios. That effort matched GPS 

records to digital map data. Attributes in the digital maps clearly 

defined the roadway scenario. The GPS road-matching approach 

has distinct advantages in that it provides access to numerous 

roadway attributes available in digital maps (e.g., functional class, 

number of lanes, speed limit), and it leaves the kinematic variables 

largely not confounded for subsequent analysis. The kinematic 

scenario classification method that was being pursued was 

surpassed by this breakthrough in associating driving with the 

roadway segment. Based on this, the NSTSCE stakeholders decided 

to conclude activities on this project. 

Deliverable This project was closed to pursue research into GPS road matching.
18

Table 17. The Impacts of Safety-Critical Events on Driver Behaviors.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451143

Short Project Title Impacts

VTTI PI Feng Guo

Begin December 2011

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $24,835.39

Long Project Title The Impacts of Safety-Critical Events on Driver Behaviors

Project Description

This study evaluated the impacts of crashes on driver behavior and 

driving risk using the 100-car data. Two metrics were used to 

measure driver behavior and risk: the proportion of baselines where 

the drivers were engaged in complex and moderate secondary tasks, 

and the intensity of NCs and SCIs. Results indicated that the 

percentage of baselines where drivers engaged in complex 

secondary tasks dropped after crashes. Researchers developed 

four alternative recurrent event models to evaluate the impact of 

crashes on NC and SCI risk. Results show reduction in SCI 

intensity after the first and second crash for male drivers. Females 

were observed with decreased SCI intensity after the second crash. 

This study indicated that crashes do have positive effects on 

driver’s behavior in both distraction and aggressive driving 

behavior.

Deliverable Evaluating the Influence of Crashes on Driving Behavior using 

Naturalistic Driving Study Data(14)

SCI = Safety-critical incident.
19

Table 18. Secure Feedback for Onboard Monitoring System Training.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451161

Short Project Title Secure OBMS

VTTI PI Charlie Klauer

Begin July 2012

End October 2013

FHWA Funding $75,005.13

Long Project Title Secure Feedback for Onboard Monitoring System Training

Project Description

This project developed the necessary infrastructure for an associated 

project, the driver coach study. Driver coach was an experimental 

study testing whether teenage drivers benefit from receiving both 

real-time and post hoc feedback on their driving performance. 

Specifically, the post hoc feedback required potential safety-related 

events to be automatically uploaded to VTTI servers so a 

reductionist could review, record, and annotate critical information. 

Parents and teens then received Web links to the video and aggregate 

data for both the individual teenager as well as the performance of 

the teenager in relation to all the drivers in the study. This project 

established the necessary computing infrastructure, software, and 

hardware for providing this feedback. 

Deliverable The deliverable for this project was the necessary infrastructure and 

Web portal for the driver coach study.
20

Table 19. Generic Motorcycle Bracketry and Housings.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451162

Short Project Title Cycle Bracket

VTTI PI Shane McLaughlin

Begin May 2012

End October 2013

FHWA Funding $35,000.04

Long Project Title Generic Motorcycle Bracketry and Housings

Project Description

This project built on the lessons learned regarding instrumentation 

during the first naturalistic motorcycle study. The first study, 

conducted for the Motorcycle Safety Foundation, involved the 

instrumentation of 100 motorcycles. In the planning phase of that 

study, seven motorcycle models were selected for inclusion, and 

instrumentation was developed to fit those specific motorcycles. 

While the instrumentation performed well, locating willing riders of 

those specific models severely limited the project’s approach and 

recruitment. To remedy this, the cycle bracket intended to support the 

design of bracketry and housings that would be feasible to use on a 

range of motorcycle models.

The most common motorcycle models were identified using records 

of models from State transportation department registration lists. 

These models were ordered from most to least common; then,

bracketry solutions were developed that could accommodate the 

largest number of motorcycles possible. Off-the-shelf bracketry 

solutions were identified for many of the most common models of 

motorcycles; thus, generic components were engineered that 

complemented the off-the-shelf products. These generic components 

permit rapid placement of cameras and radars on different makes and 

models of bikes in a number of locations. The components also 

permit the installer to adjust angles of the equipment according to the 

geometry of the bike. 

The solutions were developed in prototype form, tested for fit and 

installation feasibility, and produced in quantity. The brackets were 

used in the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 

160-Motorcycle study.

Deliverable The study yielded the design of bracketry that can be used in 

motorcycle research.
21

Table 20. Integrating Roadway Data with Our Naturalistic Dataset.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451258

Short Project Title Roadway Linking

VTTI PI Shane McLaughlin

Begin September 2013

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $64,606.45

Long Project Title Integrating Roadway Data with Our Naturalistic Dataset

Project Description

The goal of this project was to organize databases and materials that 

would facilitate use of the naturalistic data housed at VTTI by 

individuals more familiar with the roadway and infrastructure 

domains (e.g., civil engineers) than the driver and vehicle domains. 

Within this project, a range of datasets were pursued that would be 

of particular interest to individuals working on infrastructure

design-related research. Methods were developed to associate 

roadway attributes with naturalistic data from the 100-car study. A 

proof of concept was also done with 6,000 SHRP2 files. The 

database contained tables with data from five State transportation 

departments, digital mapping software, the SHRP2 Roadway 

Information Database, and the FHWA Office of Highway 

Performance Monitoring. The tables contained information 

describing roadway segments, such as the number of lanes, average 

annual daily traffic counts for heavy trucks and light vehicles, 

International Roughness Index Scores, vehicle miles traveled, and 

functional class. Tables also identified features such as transition 

zones, frontage roads, bridges, tunnels, etc. These attributes were 

coded and organized to identify epochs of time within the 

naturalistic datasets in which the different roadway related 

descriptors apply. For example, the roughness index table identified

files and timestamps within files in which participants were driving 

on pavement identified with a particular roughness index. 

Deliverable Roadway Epochs Documentation and User Manual(15)

23

CHAPTER 3. EXAMINE ADVANCED ROADWAY DELINEATION AND LIGHTING 

SYSTEMS

The second research area focused on advanced roadway delineation and lighting systems. 

Projects within this subject-matter area originally considered the effectiveness of lighting and 

delineation systems for enhancing the safety of drivers; roadway lighting has been found to be an 

effective crash deterrent in specific cases, while roadway delineation is the primary method for 

defining the roadway environment. Delineation typically consists of pavement markings and 

signs that outline the path of the roadway. The initial project submissions focused primarily on 

the roadway lighting application, which included the development of a roadway lighting 

measurement system and new roadway design metrics as well as the consideration of glare in the 

roadway. New technologies that aid in the analysis of lighted environments in much greater 

detail were developed and incorporated into the research efforts, such as charge-coupled device 

photometry, eye tracking, and video capture. These innovations gained insight into the 

parameters that lead to driver safety.

During the 2010 stakeholders committee review, this area expanded to cover the built roadway 

environment and infrastructure-based safety systems, thereby moving away from roadway 

lighting towards more infrastructure-based themes such as eye-glance behavior in roundabouts. 

Table 21 through table 35 describe the 15 projects that are under this research focus area.
24

Table 21. Development of the Luminance Camera System.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425770

Short Project Title Luminance Camera Development

VTTI PI Ron Gibbons

Begin July 2006

End June 2008

FHWA Funding $125,000.00

Long Project Title Development of the Luminance Camera System

Project Description

An effort was undertaken to develop a system of image capture to 

analyze luminance data gathered in naturalistic driving research. 

Currently, still photometers exist to capture luminance data in an 

image as well as handheld luminance meters to capture luminance 

data in the environment. However, still photometers are unable to 

capture rapidly changing luminance data, while handheld luminance 

meters are time consuming to operate for multiple areas of interest 

within a scene and lack the ability to capture the scene’s image. 

The primary method used in this research was the calibration of 

smaller, more mobile luminance cameras through the use of an 

imaging photometer. Prediction results were compared to actual 

luminance recorded values, and an additional evaluation of data 

collection R&R was conducted. R&R evaluation results indicate the 

luminance camera is highly repeatable and capable of reproducing 

consistent data through multiple trials.

The calibration of a luminance camera for recording luminance data 

was found to be successful with a relatively high level of accuracy 

based on comparisons to known luminance values.

Deliverable Development and Validation of a Luminance Camera(16)

R&R = Repeatability and reproducibility.
25

Table 22. Luminance Metrics for Roadway Lighting.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425771

Short Project Title Metric For Roadway Lighting Designers

VTTI PI Ron Gibbons

Begin July 2006

End July 2008

FHWA Funding $50,000.00

Long Project Title Luminance Metrics for Roadway Lighting

Project Description

In nighttime driving, the visibility of a pedestrian or any object depends

on its physical characteristics such as the luminance of the object and 

the contrast. The luminance, or light being reflected back to the 

observer, is a metric with little room for interpretation as to how it is 

derived. However, the concept of the contrast of an object has not been 

quite as clearly understood. The concept of contrast has been the focus 

of much investigation in past and current research. 

This study compared multiple contrast metrics and implemented those 

determined to be most applicable as realistic measures. Specifically,

researchers focused on the root sum of squares and power spectrum 

signature methods of determining contrast. These metrics were also 

used in conjunction with well-established metrics such as the Doyle 

and Michelson contrast metrics in order to make comparisons and 

inferences. These contrast metrics were also used in making 

comparisons to previously collected data of detection distances. 

Deliverable Luminance Metrics for Roadway Lighting(17)
26

Table 23. Color Measurement System.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451000

Short Project Title Color Camera

VTTI PI Ron Gibbons

Begin March 2010

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $40,003.05

Long Project Title Color Measurement System

Project Description

This project was an effort to develop a color camera system that 

could collect naturalistic video data with accurate color rendering. 

Photometric devices can accurately measure color but cannot record 

the video data necessary for understanding visibility in dynamic 

environments such as nighttime driving. Video recorders can take 

video data yet are inaccurate in measuring color. To measure color 

and its effects on visibility in naturalistic settings, a color camera 

system was developed that could record video data with color 

rendering similar to what humans perceive. This system included a 

calibrated color camera and image analysis software. 

The camera system was selected and calibrated in different lighting 

scenarios using a standard color chart. Calibration files were 

compared for color-rendering accuracy, and the best file, based on 

calibration in daylight, was selected for further analysis. 

A new image-analysis method was developed. Along with its 

accompanying custom MATLAB programs, researchers were able 

to select portions of an image and analyze their three-dimensional 

color space coordinates. That capability would be useful in future 

work comparing photometric equipment and in analyzing 

naturalistic video data.

Deliverable Color Camera: Development of a Video Imaging System that Can 

Accurately Record Chromaticity and Luminance(18)
27

Table 24. Performance of New Roadway Lighting in Foggy Conditions/Performance of 

New Roadway Lighting in Rain Conditions.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451171

Short Project Title Foggy Lights/Rainy Nights

VTTI PI Ron Gibbons

Begin July 2013

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $18,907.16

Long Project Title

Performance of New Roadway Lighting in Foggy 

Conditions/Performance of New Roadway Lighting in Rain

Conditions

Project Description

This project examined the effectiveness of different types of 

roadway lighting in foggy and rainy conditions. Specifically, the 

visibility distance of pedestrians and small targets is being measured 

in fog and rain under four lighting conditions: 3,500-K LED, 6,000-

K LED, traditional high-pressure sodium, and no lighting. 

Deliverable The Impact of Spectrum on the Performance of Roadway Lighting 

Systems in Rain and Fog Conditions(19)

LED = Light-emitting diode.

Table 25. Assessment of Active Delineation Systems.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451158

Short Project Title Delineation

VTTI PI Ron Gibbons

Begin April 2012

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $59,281.96

Long Project Title Assessment of Active Delineation Systems

Project Description

This project examined the impact of active delineation systems on 

drivers’ speed and lane-keeping behavior in foggy conditions. Both 

objective and subjective measures were gathered to assess drivers’ 

perceptions of the systems. Using two custom-made LaneLightTM 

delineation systems, the project considered three patterns, two 

brightness levels, and two unit spacings in fog using the Smart 

Road’s all-weather system. (The Smart Road is a limited-access road 

in Virginia used to test new transportation technologies.) Results 

provided information for safely guiding drivers through fog using 

active delineation systems.

Deliverable The Performance of Active Delineation Systems in Rain and Fog 

Conditions(20)
28

Table 26. Roadside Evaluation of a Buried Cable Animal Detection System.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451159

Short Project Title Roadside AVC

VTTI PI Andy Alden

Begin November 2013

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $23,035.22

Long Project Title Roadside Evaluation of a Buried Cable Animal Detection System

Project Description

AVCs account for more than 5 percent of all reported motor vehicle 

collisions, and the problem continues to grow as both vehicle-miles

traveled and wildlife numbers increase. Approximately 4 to 

10 percent of AVCs involving large animals result in human injury. 

Costs for related property damage, medical care, crash management, 

and animal carcass management exceed $8 billion per year. 

To mitigate this problem, an innovative roadside buried cable animal 

detection system was developed for testing at a particular site on the 

Smart Road where large wild animals are often observed. 

Researchers used surveillance systems to monitor animal movement 

and gauge system detections. Collected data were analyzed to 

determine the overall performance of the system and its suitability 

for implementation in problem areas on Virginia’s public roads. This 

project was a partnership with VDOT.

Deliverable

This phase of the project included the development of the system 

specifications and the system installation. The second phase of the 

project funded by VDOT will produce a final report describing the 

system installation, data collection, analysis methods, results, and 

implementation prospects.

(21)
29

Table 27. Exploration of the Integration of the SHRP2 Naturalistic Driving Data with the 

VTTI Lighting Database.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451269

Short Project Title Lighting Database

VTTI PI Ron Gibbons

Begin December 2013

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $15,176.34

Long Project Title Exploration of the Integration of the SHRP2 Naturalistic Driving 

Data with the VTTI Lighting Database

Project Description

The primary objective of this project was to investigate the 

feasibility of integrating the ALD with the SHRP2 NDS data. 

During this project, the research team developed two spatial data 

integration approaches, with each one targeting different needs and 

requirements. The first approach involved data integration directly 

between the ALD and NDS time series data, illustrating a process 

to link NDS data directly onto custom roadway data (e.g., the ALD 

roadway network and lighting data). This link provides users with a 

flexible means to cater to unique data integration needs, especially 

when they require roadway-related data elements not included in 

the SHRP2 RID data. The second approach involved data 

integration based on the NDS RID that utilized the roadway 

matching results completed by SHRP2, therefore decreasing the

necessary computing resources and processing time. These data 

integration approaches generated an integrated dataset with rich 

driving, roadway, and in situ lighting performance information, 

enabling a large variety of analyses that may yield results of great 

significance to safety researchers, transportation agencies, and the 

traveling public. 

Deliverable Integrating the Adaptive Lighting Database with SHRP2 

Naturalistic Driving Study Data(22)

ALD = Adaptive Lighting Database.

RID = Roadway Information Database.
30

Table 28. Measurement of Visibility Conditions with Traffic Cameras.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451268

Short Project Title Weather Camera

VTTI PI Matthew Palmer

Begin December 2013

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $20,067.22

Long Project Title Measurement of Visibility Conditions with Traffic Cameras

Project Description

Roadway images can detect and quantify adverse weather. Traffic 

cameras prevalent on highways and some secondary roads offer an 

opportunity to develop a system that detects adverse weather 

conditions automatically from the camera feeds and warn drivers 

using existing systems.

During the first phase of this project, the specifications for VDOT’s 

latest digital cameras were identified; camera cost was determined 

with a consideration towards alternative, lower-cost cameras. 

Researchers also used an existing camera on the back of a VTTI 

building, similar to the current VDOT traffic cameras, capturing

some photographs of the Smart Road at maximum zoom. These 

photographs were used to become familiar with the IFSTTAR 

modules and to create a Lambertian map of the scene. The 

IFSTTAR modules required specific image format and folder 

structures, so the team developed a method to convert the 

photographs and folders captured by the existing camera into data 

usable with the modules. 

During the next phase, a brand-name camera identical to VDOT’s 

current model will be installed on the Smart Road to collect data 

and develop prototype software using the IFSTTAR modules to 

measure fog visibility and rainfall rate. Also, a method of 

normalizing the data will be developed to eliminate the need for 

additional sensors for in situ calibration.

Deliverable Using Traffic Cameras to Assess Visibility Conditions(23)

IFSTTAR = French Institute of Science and Technology for Transport, Spatial Planning, Development and Networks.
31

Table 29. Discomfort-Disability Glare.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425816

Short Project Title Glare Metrics

VTTI PI Ron Gibbons

Begin May 2008

End June 2009

FHWA Funding $100,000.00

Long Project Title Discomfort-Disability Glare

Project Description

This project considered disability and discomfort glare in roadway 

lighting installations. Researchers conducted an experimental phase 

where the metrics for discomfort were measured in a live road 

arrangement with differing luminaires on the Smart Road. A target 

detection task was also used to determine the impact of the 

luminaire on target detection. The experiments resulted in a 

modeling phase of the project that allowed for the assessment of 

glare in a calculated environment. These results have been provided 

to the CIE for the development of the CIE document on roadway 

glare through CIE committee TC 4-33.

Deliverable A New Approach to Glare Modeling: Discomfort and Disability(24)

CIE = Commission Internationale d’Eclairage.

Table 30. Metric for Roadway Lighting Design.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund 

Code

425823

Short Project 

Title Roadway Lighting Safety

VTTI PI Ron Gibbons

Begin June 2008

End Feb 2011

FHWA Funding $149,886.00

Long Project 

Title Metric for Roadway Lighting Design

Project 

Description

This project developed an approach for determining the impact of 

roadway lighting on crash safety. Researchers measured lighting, 

calculated the crash impact, and developed the statistics linking these 

two aspects of roadway design. Other factors such as geometrical design 

and Bayesian analyses were also considered. The methodology developed 

in this project was extensively used in the FHWA supported project 

Strategic Initiative for Reduced Lighting on Roadways.

Deliverable This method has been documented in the project Strategic Initiative for 

Reduced Lighting on Roadways.

(25,26)
32

Table 31. Visual Information and Driver Performance.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425870

Short Project Title Visual Information

VTTI PI Ron Gibbons

Begin September 2008

End January 2012

FHWA Funding $149,311.39

Long Project Title Visual Information and Driver Performance

Project Description

This project followed the FHWA supported Exploratory Advanced 

Research Project on Visibility Modeling. The eye-glance and 

performance characteristics of a driver were measured in both 

controlled closed-track and live-traffic situations. The results linked 

the luminance of the objects, the eye-glance locations, and the 

performance metrics together. The final aspect of the project was 

the development of statistical odds ratios for detection in addition to

a model for cumulative detection probability. These results are 

being implemented in a new approach to measure the effectiveness 

of roadway lighting.

Deliverable

The results of this effort were included in the FHWA project on 

visibility modeling and have been published in several locations 

such as the Transportation Research Board and the Illuminating 

Engineering Society proceedings.

(27–29)
33

Table 32. Roadway Lighting Mobile Measurement System (RLMMS).

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425896

Short Project Title RLMMS

VTTI PI Ron Gibbons

Begin October 2008

End September 2009

FHWA Funding $49,988.26

Long Project Title Roadway Lighting Mobile Measurement System

Project Description

This project created a system to measure roadway lighting 

characteristics from a moving vehicle. Referred to as RLMMS, this

system consists of a grid of illuminance meters located on the top of 

a vehicle to measure illuminance, sensors inside the vehicle to 

measure glare, luminance and color cameras, spectroradiometers, 

user inputs, links to the vehicle network, and links to an eyetracking system. These inputs are then linked to a GPS receiver that 

stores the resulting measurements. This portable system, already 

used extensively in other projects, can be shipped and installed on 

any vehicle. Since the completion of this project, three additional 

systems have been constructed. At present, it is estimated that over 

5,000 mi of roadway lighting have been measured using the 

RLMMS.

Deliverable Development of a Mobile Measurement System for Roadway 

Lighting(30)
34

Table 33. Rural Intersection Lighting Safety Analysis.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425902

Short Project Title Rural Intersection Lighting

VTTI PI Ron Gibbons

Begin December 2008

End January 2011

FHWA Funding $74,993.02

Long Project Title Rural Intersection Lighting Safety Analysis

Project Description

Most of the existing research on intersection lighting indicates the 

number of night crashes and the ratio of night-to-day crashes are 

lower at lighted intersections when compared with unlighted 

intersections. This research also suggests a safety benefit in the 

presence of lighting at rural intersections. Yet in all of these 

analyses, the presence of lighting is used as a binary variable: 

lighting is either present or absent. Consequently, the studies did 

not account for the lighting level, including the amount of light 

incident on the roadway surface (illuminance) or reflected from the 

roadway surface (luminance) from the roadway lighting system, or 

light from surrounding business establishments (e.g., parking lots, 

gas stations, malls, etc.). In addition, stray light from structures and 

establishments greatly affects the lighting level at both unlighted 

and lighted intersections. To better understand the importance of 

lighting at rural intersections, the relationship between lighting 

levels and night crashes at these locations needed to be studied.

Researchers conducted a comparative statistical analysis on lighting 

and crash data in order to understand the effect of lighting level and 

quality on the number of night crashes at rural intersections. This 

study analyzed rural intersections in the state of Virginia for the 

lighting level and crash information using the RLMMS. Adding this 

data to the crash data enhanced the quality and understanding of 

rural intersection lighting.

Deliverable Rural Intersection Lighting Safety Analysis(31)
35

Table 34. Exploratory Color Contrast Experiment.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425999

Short Project Title Object Color

VTTI PI Ron Gibbons

Begin March 2010

End April 2011

FHWA Funding $60,000.00

Long Project Title Exploratory Color Contrast Experiment

Project Description

This project was an experiment to determine the impact of color in 

the roadway environment. Traditional roadway lighting does not 

consider color in any manner; typical roadway light sources are 

either monochromatic or a dark amber color. With the development 

of white LEDs, the Smart Road was used to conduct target 

detection tasks performed under 3,000-K LED, 6,000-K LED, and 

4,200-K fluorescent. The results indicated color was a significant 

aspect of vision and color benefits. However, the benefits were 

unpredictable as the energy in the light source by wavelength and 

the colors of the objects seen in the roadway interacted. As a result, 

although color had an effect, a complete metric was not developed.

Deliverable Assessment of the Impact of Color Contrast in the Detection and 

Recognition of Objects in a Road Environment(32)
36

Table 35. Visual Behavior in Roundabouts.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451157

Short Project Title Roundabouts

VTTI PI Ron Gibbons

Begin April 2012

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $40,014.81

Long Project Title Visual Behavior in Roundabouts

Project Description

This project considered eye-glance and lighting issues in 

roundabouts because many State transportation departments are 

considering the implementation of roundabouts into their roadways. 

Pedestrian visibility at crosswalks, particularly on the roundabout 

exit, remains an issue. Investigating driver behavior and eye glances 

in the roundabout could provide insight into the optimization of 

lighting and crosswalk placement.

The study examined the performance of a driver in an active

roundabout environment with double and single lanes. Participants 

were asked to drive through the roundabout with an eye-tracking 

device and a variety of signaling types. Eye-glance behavior was 

measured and linked to the lighting and signaling characteristics.

The results showed a variation in driver behavior at several aspects 

of the roundabout and are currently being used in the FHWA

sponsored project Accelerating the Implementation of Roundabouts.

Deliverable Pedestrian Visibility in Roundabouts: Naturalistic Study of Driver 

Eye Glance Behavior(33)
37

CHAPTER 4. DEVELOP TECHNIQUES TO ADDRESS AGE-RELATED DRIVER 

ISSUES

The third research area included investigations into and development of techniques to address 

age-related driver issues. This research area was quite timely, with many in the transportation

research community seeking ways to reduce crashes among newly licensed teenagers and aging 

drivers. Car crashes are a leading cause of loss of life for teenagers; this age group is also 

involved in a disproportionately high number of crashes and has high instances of fault in 

multivehicle crashes. Drivers at this age must develop good defensive driving skills and apply 

good judgment while driving. Graduated licenses and behavioral modification techniques have 

already been applied to address this need. 

On the other end of the spectrum are aging drivers. The lengthening lifespan of baby boomers

has increased the proportion of older drivers on the roadways, a trend expected to continue for 

several decades. Some of those drivers within this group may suffer from age-related decrements 

along a range of functional impairments, which individually or together may affect driving skills 

and risk. There are some indications that older drivers are aware of these decrements and selfregulate by avoiding riskier situations and times of the day. However, they are still involved in a 

disproportionate number of crashes and fatalities, although the latter is mostly due to the fragility 

of older drivers. 

With guidance from the NSTSCE stakeholders in 2010, this area was expanded to include a 

wider array of individuals who are also more vulnerable to crashes or injuries simply because of 

who they are or their mode of travel. In addition to the young and aging drivers previously 

studied, researchers began to consider bicycle riders, pedestrians (especially the young and old), 

and wheelchair users. Table 36 through table 45 describe the 10 projects that are under this 

research focus area.
38

Table 36. Older Driver Biomechanics.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425817

Short Project Title Older Driver Biomechanics

VTTI PI Jon Antin

Begin March 2008

End November 2008

FHWA Funding $50,000.00

Long Project Title Older Driver Biomechanics

Project Description

Fragility is estimated to be responsible for a major portion (60 to 

95 percent) of the fatalities of older drivers and passengers.

(34) Prior 

to this study, VTTI’s DAS collected acceleration and gyro data at a 

temporal resolution of 10 Hz. While this was sufficient for the 

development of CNC detection algorithms and other related 

applications, it was not enough to model the biomechanical stress 

and injuries experienced during a vehicular crash.

Therefore, VTTI’s Older Driver NDS would enhance the capabilities 

of the DAS to collect acceleration and gyro data with sufficient 

range, temporal resolution, and accuracy to facilitate subsequent 

biomechanics-injury analysis and modeling. That initial study 

produced no serious crashes to evaluate from a biomechanics 

perspective. However, the approach pioneered in that study has been 

applied to all of VTTI’s subsequent NDSs, including SHRP2, the 

largest NDS of its kind ever conducted. Additionally, non-injurious 

exposure can be modeled to provide a set of data on tolerable events. 

This approach may benefit older drivers and likely many others as 

well, perhaps leading to countermeasures related to safety belt 

design, air bag design and deployment factors, seat factors, and 

cabin structures design.

Deliverable The deliverable was enhanced data acquisition capability.
39

Table 37. Teen Driving Initiative.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425883

Short Project Title Driver Coach

VTTI PI Charlie Klauer

Begin September 2008

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $149,999.78

Long Project Title Teen Driving Initiative

Project Description

Teenage drivers are four times more likely to be involved in a crash 

than any other age group. The reasons for these crash rates are 

largely unknown, but it is believed that if risky driving behaviors 

are reduced through providing feedback to the driver, crash rates 

will also fall.

The driver coach project evaluated the effectiveness of providing 

driving-related feedback to teens with the goal of reducing unsafe 

behaviors that lead to injury and fatal crashes. FHWA partially 

contributed funds, while VDOT, the National Institutes of Health, 

and the Toyota® Collaborative Safety Research Center contributed 

the additional funding. A total of 90 vehicles were instrumented 

with devices to record the driving performance and audio data of 

individuals who had received their learner’s permit within the past 

2 weeks. Driving performance feedback began a few weeks prior to 

licensure and continued for a period of 6 mo post licensure. During

the seventh month, feedback was halted while researchers 

monitored the novice’s driving performance to see if it remained

constant or the driver reverted to unsafe behavior.

Deliverable Driver Coach Study: Using Real-time and Post Hoc Feedback to 

Improve Teen Driving Performance(35).

CSRC = Collaborative Safety Research Center.
40

Table 38. Creating Capability for Automated Mask Post-Processing of Face Video in 

Naturalistic Databases.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425959

Short Project Title Maskpost

VTTI PI Jon Antin

Begin November 2009

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $39,999.01

Long Project Title Creating Capability for Automated Mask Post-processing of Face 

Video in Naturalistic Databases

Project Description

VTTI technicians developed a machine vision-based tool called the 

Mask that uses facial landmarks observed in naturalistic driving face 

video to determine the position of the driver’s face and head as well 

as degree of rotation in space. While this tool cannot yet determine 

exact gaze location, some valuable information can be gleaned from 

its output in terms of breadth of head movement at intersections,

gross metrics, or implications of eyes-off-road time.

This project developed the capability for use of the Mask in 

postprocessing of a naturalistic dataset. The Mask was effectively

applied to the Older Driver and 40-Teen NDS databases and 

generated the expected head position and rotation data. Antin, 

Wotring, and Foley used this new approach to successfully evaluate 

data about breadth of head rotations at intersections from VTTI’s 

Older Driver NDS.

(36)

Deliverable The deliverable for this project is a tool that can be applied post hoc 

to datasets. 
41

Table 39. Comparing the Driving Safety Benefits of Brain Fitness Training Programs for 

Older Drivers.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451165

Short Project Title Caboose

VTTI PI Jon Antin

Begin May 2012

End January 2014

FHWA Funding $74,995.50

Long Project Title Comparing the Driving Safety Benefits of Brain Fitness Training 

Programs for Older Drivers

Project Description

The goal of this project was to evaluate two different training-based 

approaches to enhance senior driver safety. A total of 74 male and 

female licensed drivers aged 70–85 were recruited from the New 

River Valley area of Virginia to participate in an evaluation of a 

prototype in-vehicle implicit learning system designed by Toyota®

engineers and a commercially available computer-based application 

from Posit Science®. A no-contact control group received no 

training. 

Both training approaches emphasize expanding senior drivers’ 

useful field of vision and otherwise strengthening other visualcognitive functional abilities, such as speed of information 

processing and ability to visually track moving objects. Dependent 

measures include laboratory metrics (useful field of view, trailmaking of parts A and B, and visualization of missing information), 

roadside object recognition distance, peripheral detection tasks, and 

public road driving performance. Data collection and analyses have 

been completed.

Deliverable Comparing the Driving Safety Benefits of Brain Fitness Training 

Programs for Elderly Drivers(37)
42

Table 40. Older Driver Head Rotations at Intersections: An International Meta-Analysis of 

U.S. and Australian ND Databases.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451188

Short Project Title Oz Sequel

VTTI PI Jon Antin

Begin October 2012

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $12,270.02

Long Project Title Older Driver Head Rotations at Intersections: An International MetaAnalysis of U.S. and Australian ND Databases

Project Description

In a joint effort, VTTI researchers and their colleagues at the 

Monash University Accident Research Center in Melbourne, 

Australia, collected naturalistic driving data on older drivers. This 

project compared key aspects of the seniors’ driving behavior 

across the two continents, specifically secondary task engagement. 

This type of engagement is associated with complexity of situation 

(i.e., less likely when vehicle is moving). Both the U.S. and 

Australian researchers noted differences in frequency of 

engagement with specific types of secondary activities such as cell 

phone use and adjustment of control panels, which could be 

attributed to differences in law enforcement priority. Yet general 

patterns were consistent across the continents and the findings

supported previous research efforts.

Unfortunately, the study had several limitations, including a 

relatively small sample size and differences in vehicle familiarity;

Australian drivers used an unfamiliar vehicle, whereas those in the 

United States used their personal vehicles. Although difficulties 

arose when aligning the two analyses post hoc, the results suggested

a propensity for older drivers to self-regulate by reducing 

potentially distracting tasks at intersections when cognitive demand 

is high.

Deliverable The results of this project have been included in the final report for 

An Exploration of Driver Behavior During Turns at Intersections.

(38)

ND = Naturalistic driving.
43

Table 41. Fitness to Drive II.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451195

Short Project Title Fitness to Drive II

VTTI PI Jon Antin

Begin October 2012

End May 2014

FHWA Funding $15,478.80

Long Project Title Fitness to Drive II

Project Description

In this study, researchers evaluated the relationship between an

older driver’s fitness assessment profiles and their driving risk, 

represented primarily by CNC rate and secondarily by HGF event 

rate, all recorded during a naturalistic study of senior drivers. Due 

to the relatively small sample size of only 20 primary drivers in this 

pilot investigation, principal component analysis was used for 

dimension reduction and classification of the 60 total fitness profile 

metrics. Negative binomial regression models were employed to 

model the CNC and HGF events.

The results indicated that contrast sensitivity measures were 

significantly associated with CNC rate: the greater the sensitivity, 

the lower the CNC rate. In the HGF event analysis, the CNC rate 

was positively related to the HGF rate. The fitness metric contrast 

sensitivity was also related to the HGF event rate. In addition, two 

metrics related to metacognition (a measurement of one’s 

perception of one’s own cognitive status) were associated with 

HGF event rate. Higher HGF rates were associated with greater 

self-rating of cognitive status as well as greater disparities between 

that same self-rating and an objective metric of cognitive status.

The results of this study provided crucial information on the metrics 

and protocols, which could be applied by motor vehicle 

departments, physicians, occupational therapists, certified driving 

rehabilitation specialists, and others for whom determining seniors’ 

fitness to drive is an important component of their work. 

Furthermore, these results can be further investigated and validated 

using the much larger database of senior driver data collected in the 

SHRP2 NDS.

Deliverable Evaluation of Older Driver Fitness-to-Drive Metrics and Driving 

Risk Using Naturalistic Driving Study Data(39)

HGF = High g-force.
44

Table 42. Senior Mobility Symposium.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451200

Short Project Title Senior Mobility II

VTTI PI Jon Antin

Begin October 2012

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $19,053.39

Long Project Title Senior Mobility Symposium

Project Description

These funds enabled VTTI to host a symposium designed to increase 

awareness of mobility issues faced by seniors and offer state-of-theart solutions to the challenges faced by aging drivers on a daily basis

(e.g., driving at night in complex or high-traffic situations or at 

highway speeds, walking and handling packages once the 

destination is reached, etc.). Additionally, as drivers begin to selfregulate to avoid such situations or cease driving altogether, a new

challenge arises of finding accessible and affordable living and 

personal mobility options that permit them to perform all the 

necessary and leisure activities important to maintaining healthy and 

satisfying lives.

Deliverable Senior Mobility Awareness Symposium Brief(40)
45

Table 43. Validation of the Driver Coach Trigger Algorithms Using the 40-Teen 

Naturalistic Driving Study Dataset.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451265

Short Project Title Teen Trigger Dent

VTTI PI Charlie Klauer

Begin November 2013

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $30,027.76

Long Project Title Validation of the Driver Coach Trigger Algorithms Using the 

40-Teen Naturalistic Driving Study Dataset

Project Description

The purpose of this project was to identify and develop the best 

procedures to evaluate driver coach trigger algorithms on the first 2

to 3 mo of driving in the 40-Teen Naturalistic Dataset. The 40-Teen 

study data provided the most accurate estimates because these 

drivers were within 2 weeks of receiving their provisional licenses

and drove in the general geographic area as the driver coach 

participants. No other dataset, including the SHRP2 dataset, 

provided as precise estimates as the 40-Teen dataset. 

Primary benefits of this venture included analysis and validation of 

driver coach triggers over an existing, complete dataset; increased 

ability to accurately estimate current and future project expenses 

(i.e., telemetry and labor); and establishment of a development 

framework to aid future algorithm recoding efforts.

Researchers gained information regarding the number of expected 

triggers, especially for the high-risk, moderate-risk, and low-risk 

teenage drivers. Results suggested that the mere presence of the 

MiniDAS coupled with emails to parents had a positive effect on 

novice driving performance because the number of triggered events 

was less than what was obtained during the NTDS.

Deliverable Driver Coach Trigger Validation Using the Naturalistic Teenage 

Driving Study Data(41)

NTDS = Naturalistic Truck Driving Study.
46

Table 44. Inclusion of a Driver Distraction Trigger for Driver Coach Project.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451284

Short Project Title Distraction Warning II

VTTI PI Charlie Klauer

Begin September 2013

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $10,044.34

Long Project Title Inclusion of a Driver Distraction Trigger for Driver Coach Project

Project Description

Two methods of determining driver head pose positioning, both 

developed at VTTI prior to this contract, were compared to evaluate 

the feasibility of a real-time driver distraction trigger. The first 

method, colloquially referred to as “Driver Watchdog,” used a 

support vector machine approach. The second approach drew from

prior work completed on the Mask 2.0 gesture-sensing algorithm. 

The initial provision for both approaches required 80 percent or 

greater accuracy in detecting scenarios where the driver’s face is 

outside of a ±15-degree cone of vision from the forward roadway. 

Both approaches were tested on a captured video feed to ensure they 

would be capable of running effectively within the constraints of the 

MiniDAS digital signal processor’s power. 

The Driver Watchdog algorithm requires a separate model for each 

individual driver to be created and stored on the MiniDAS platform. 

Therefore, the creation of these driver-specific models would require 

significant costs, in both human data reduction (labor) and database 

storage, and DAS package assignment capabilities. However, the 

Driver Watchdog algorithm shows promise as a means for 

identifying consented drivers in real-time, with identification and 

driver trip assignments taking place on the DAS. Therefore, future 

development will be directed toward this goal instead of driver 

distraction. 

Upon review of the both approaches, it was determined that the 

MASK 2.0 algorithm was a more appropriate choice due to lower 

implementation costs. Further testing and refinement of the 

MASK 2.0 algorithm did not provide acceptable results for field 

deployment in the field for real-time monitoring and feedback. The 

algorithm did not achieve the necessary 80-percent accuracy mark 

for a ±15 degree cone of vision from the forward roadway.

Deliverable The deliverable was testing a potential tool for detecting driver 

distraction in real time.
47

Table 45. A Survey of U.S. Light-Vehicle Driver Education Programs.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451050

Short Project Title Light Vehicle Ed Survey

VTTI PI Andy Schaudt

Begin October 2010

End October 2011

FHWA Funding $19,999.58

Long Project Title A Survey of U.S. Light-Vehicle Driver Education Programs

Project Description

Light-vehicle driver education programs containing content about 

heavy-vehicle operation may be helpful in reducing light-vehicle and 

heavy-vehicle interactions. However, the extent of current state 

curricula requirements, content, and perceived effectiveness of both 

public and private programs regarding heavy-vehicle operation and 

associated recommended procedures for light-vehicle driving is 

unclear. This project resulted in an online survey targeting

instructors and administrators of State driver education programs to 

identify current curricula addressing heavy vehicles (or lack thereof) 

and perceived effectiveness. 

At least two surveys were completed from each State and the District 

of Columbia. Survey results showed that while a large proportion of 

light-vehicle driver education programs include a component on how 

to safely share the road with heavy vehicles (91 percent), there is

room for improvement in the content of these programs (82 percent

perceived effectiveness). Qualitative analysis performed using the 

open-ended survey questions revealed areas of improvement.

Deliverable

A Survey of Light-Vehicle Driver Education Programs to Determine 

the Prevalence of Curriculum on Sharing the Road with Heavy 

Vehicles(42)

49

CHAPTER 5. DEVELOP TECHNIQUES TO ADDRESS DRIVER FATIGUE ISSUES

The driver fatigue focus area within the NSTSCE program centered on the role fatigue plays in 

both light- and heavy-vehicle crashes and developing and evaluating countermeasures to reduce 

fatigue-related crashes (a noteworthy mission because driver fatigue is a major issue in 

transportation safety). Naturalistic driving research conducted by VTTI in both light- and heavyvehicle domains identified driver fatigue as a contributing factor in approximately 20 percent of 

all SCEs. 

While assessing the impact of driver fatigue on safety is an important topic area, the subjectmatter area broadened the definition in 2010 to include driver impairment. Acknowledging that 

driver fatigue is a type of impairment, the focus area now includes research directed at other 

types of impairment, such as driver distraction and alcohol/drugged driving. Furthermore, 

research topics that are either directly or tangentially related to these key types of impairment are 

also considered. For example, health and wellness (H&W) issues that can affect driver fatigue

levels (e.g., obstructive sleep apnea (OSA)), environmental and regulatory factors that can affect

driver safety (e.g., hours-of-service regulations), and the impact of technology on impairment 

(e.g., technology as a distracting agent or as a countermeasure to address impairment) are 

growing areas of interest in the driver impairment field. Table 46 through table 56 describe the 

11 projects that are under this research focus area.
50

Table 46. Commercial Motor Vehicle Driver Health and Fatigue Study.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425818

Short Project Title Truck Driver Health-Fatigue

VTTI PI Doug Wiegand

Begin December 2007

End November 2008

FHWA Funding $39,999.77

Long Project Title Commercial Motor Vehicle Driver Health and Fatigue Study

Project Description

This project looked at driver BMI and its relation to fatigued 

driving. A literature review provided support for the notion that 

obesity is linked to sleep problems (e.g., OSA) and fatigue-relevant 

outcomes (e.g., excessive daytime sleepiness); in addition, analyses 

of naturalistic driving data supported the notion that obesity is a risk 

factor for driving while fatigued. A focus group of commercial 

drivers investigated perceived barriers to living a healthy lifestyle 

while on the road. Finally, several existing H&W programs were 

described. 

The findings of this report indicated that obesity is a major problem 

in CMV operations. Of the 103 analyzed drivers, a majority 

(81.6 percent) were classified as either overweight or obese based 

on their BMI scores. Naturalistic driving data analysis found that 

being overweight or obese is a risk factor for driving while fatigued; 

obese drivers were between 1.89 [CI = 1.33, 2.70] and 8.31 [CI = 

5.38, 12.84] times at greater risk than normal weight individuals for 

driving while fatigued, depending on the fatigue measure used. The 

data analysis also showed that individuals with a higher BMI are at 

greater risk for experiencing an SCE when compared to those with a 

lower BMI.

Deliverable Commercial Motor Vehicle Health and Fatigue Study(43)

BMI = Body mass index.

CI = Confidence interval.

CMV = Commercial motor vehicle.
51

Table 47. Assessment of Fatigue from the Drowsy Driver Warning System Field Operation 

Test (DDWS FOT).

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425769

Short Project Title Fatigue FOT

VTTI PI Doug Wiegand

Begin June 2006

End September 2007

FHWA Funding $100,000.00

Long Project Title Assessment of Fatigue from the Drowsy Driver Warning System 

Field Operation Test (DDWS FOT)

Project Description

The objective of this study was to use naturalistic driving data to 

investigate issues in the trucking industry such as driver sleep/rest 

cycles and crash countermeasures. Continuous driving performance 

data were collected for 100 CMV drivers during 4 mo of their 

normal driving routine, collecting approximately 14,600 h of driving 

data. During this period, over 2,800 SCEs were identified: 

13 crashes, 58 NCs, 1,595 crash-relevant conflicts, and 

1,213 unintentional lane deviations. 

In addition to video and performance data, each participant wore an 

actigraph watch (a sleep monitor) and filled out a daily activity log. 

The data provided information about the drivers’ daily sleep patterns 

and amount of sleep, as well as a reference for measuring the 

amount of time since the last sleep period in reference to a critical 

incident. One or more crash countermeasures were also identified for 

each critical incident. The results of this study provided information 

about the driver’s daily work/sleep schedule and development of 

countermeasures for SCEs.

Deliverable Fatigue Analyses: From 16 Months of Naturalistic Commercial 

Motor Vehicle Driving Data(44)
52

Table 48. Sneak Preview: A Proof of Concept of an Early SCE Detection Algorithm.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451164

Short Project Title Sneak Peek

VTTI PI Myra Blanco

Begin May 2012

End May 2014

FHWA Funding $30,075.42

Long Project Title Sneak Preview: A Proof of Concept of an Early SCE Detection 

Algorithm

Project Description

The Sneak Peek project developed a data evaluation and analysis 

tool (Sneak Peek) for projects with specific limitations inconsistent 

with typical naturalistic data collections. Use cases identified for 

such a tool included projects lacking the budget for full data 

storage, insufficient funding for complete data reduction, and pilottesting large-scale naturalistic data studies. The results of this effort 

demonstrated that the data evaluation and analysis tool is feasible; 

however, its limited features preclude it from more complex 

analysis needs. The Sneak Peek tool was also found to decrease the 

amount of storage capacity required by reducing the amount of data 

needed within the data warehouse.

Deliverable The deliverable of this project is an assessment of a proof of concept 

tool. The stakeholders did not fund the next phase of this project. 
53

Table 49. Development and Evaluation of a Naturalistic Observer Rating of Drowsiness 

Protocol.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425819

Short Project Title ORD

VTTI PI Doug Wiegand

Begin December 2007

End October 2008

FHWA Funding $44,999.57

Long Project Title Development and Evaluation of a Naturalistic Observer Rating of 

Drowsiness Protocol

Project Description

Video examples from both the DDWS FOT and 100-car studies 

were identified for each relative indicator of drowsiness. A behavior 

and mannerism checklist was also developed for the protocol as a 

tool for individuals to use while performing ORD ratings. In addition 

to the relative indicators of drowsiness, individual driver data were 

reviewed to select six drivers who exhibited a range of drowsiness 

during the DDWS FOT and 100-car studies. Video examples were 

selected from those drivers and identified as driving while alert, 

slightly drowsy, moderately drowsy, very drowsy, and extremely 

drowsy. Each clip was reviewed, evaluated, and edited in the same 

manner as the relative indicators of drowsiness videos, and the 

research team developed a written description of how each one was 

classified. The final training protocol included the following: 

• Defining ORD and its purpose.

• Describing the five levels of drowsiness.

• Describing driver appearance.

• Giving instructions for determining and recording 

ORD ratings.

Once developed, a peer-review meeting solicited feedback from 

senior research faculty at VTTI regarding the protocol, video 

examples, and study design for evaluating the training protocol. All 

feedback was incorporated into the finalized protocol document. 

Evaluation of the training protocol to assess intrarater reliability and 

interrater reliability was also conducted.

Deliverable Development and Evaluation of a Naturalistic Observer Rating of 

Drowsiness Protocol(45)

ORD = Observer rating of drowsiness.
54

Table 50. Impact of Treating Sleep Apnea in Commercial Motor Vehicle Drivers: A Case 

Study.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425998

Short Project Title OSA Case Study

VTTI PI Erin Mabry

Begin March 2009

End December 2013

FHWA Funding $43,270.05

Long Project Title Impact of Treating Sleep Apnea in Commercial Motor Vehicle 

Drivers: A Case Study

Project Description

Two leading U.S. transportation companies partnered with two 

commercial sleep apnea treatment providers and a sleep 

management provider to implement OSA programs that screen, 

diagnose, treat, and manage their OSA-positive CMV drivers. This 

NSTSCE project included focus groups and phone interviews with 

drivers and staff involved in each OSA program to assess drivers’ 

and staff perceptions and opinions of their respective programs. The 

majority of drivers expressed satisfaction with participating in their 

company’s OSA program. Drivers reported the following benefits: 

improved sleep quality, increased energy and feeling well rested,

improved health, and decreased concerns about falling asleep while 

driving.

Overall, OSA program personnel believed their programs were 

successful and were eager to continue refining and improving the 

material. Staff also reported challenges they faced while 

implementing and maintaining the OSA programs, such as gaining 

driver acceptance of the program and significant time delays 

between screening and testing drivers for OSA due to the high 

volume of drivers at risk for OSA. 

Deliverable Case Study on the Impact of Treating Sleep Apnea in Commercial 

Motor Vehicle Drivers(46)
55

Table 51. Identifying High-Risk Commercial Truck Drivers Using a Naturalistic Approach.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451051

Short Project Title High Risk CMV Drivers

VTTI PI Jeff Hickman

Begin October 2010

End March 2011

FHWA Funding $24,999.86

Long Project Title Identifying High-Risk Commercial Truck Drivers Using a 

Naturalistic Approach

Project Description

Several research reports suggest that individual differences in 

personality and performance may predispose some people to a 

greater risk of being involved in a crash. This project assessed the 

concept of high-risk CMV drivers and their characteristics. The

study used naturalistic data collected during the FMCSA-funded 

DDWS FOT and NTDS projects. Three distinct clusters of CMV 

drivers (safe, average, and risky) emerged in the cluster analysis. A 

small percentage of CMV drivers was responsible for a 

disproportionately large amount of SCEs, whereas the vast majority 

of CMV drivers consistently operated their vehicles safely. It 

appears that interventions targeting the risky group of drivers would 

yield the largest impact on crash reduction. 

Deliverable Identifying High-Risk Commercial Truck Drivers Using a 

Naturalistic Approach(47)
56

Table 52. Case Study on a Worksite Health and Wellness Program.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451052

Short Project Title Worksite Health and Wellness

VTTI PI Erin Mabry

Begin October 2010

End December 2013

FHWA Funding $25,001.52

Long Project Title Case Study on a Worksite Health and Wellness Program

Project Description

The typical lifestyle of a CMV driver involves irregular work and 

sleep hours, physical inactivity, poor eating habits and nutrition, 

and mental and physical stress. Up to 90 percent of CMV drivers 

are overweight or obese. To combat the rise in obesity and its 

associated risks, a leading transportation company initiated an

H&W program. This study detailed the company’s H&W program 

and evaluated the opinions, perceptions, and program satisfaction of 

participating drivers and program staff. Phone interviews were 

conducted with key program personnel to detail the H&W program. 

The interview discussed recruitment methods, tests and assessments 

administered to drivers, H&W education, health coaching, health 

achievements, motivational strategies, and long-term follow-up. 

Questionnaires administered to the company’s drivers and program

staff collected demographic information and inquired about their 

opinions, perceptions, and satisfaction with the H&W program. 

Recommendations were developed to aid carriers wishing to 

implement an H&W program for their fleets. 

Deliverable Case Study on Worksite Health and Wellness Program for 

Commercial Motor Vehicle Drivers(48)
57

Table 53. Prescription and Over-the-Counter Drug Use and Their Relationship to 

Involvement in a Safety-Critical Event.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451141

Short Project Title Prescription Drug

VTTI PI Jeff Hickman

Begin December 2013

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $50,091.79

Long Project Title Prescription and Over-the-Counter Drug Use and Their Relationship 

to Involvement in a Safety-Critical Event

Project Description

This project served as a pilot study that illustrated the feasibility of 

using naturalistic driving data to assess the risk of an SCE 

associated with Rx and OTC drug use while driving. The research 

found that nearly 97 percent of CMV drivers used an OTC drug at 

least once (mostly caffeine pills), and 25 percent used at least 

one Rx drug. Results also showed that Rx and OTC (non-caffeine) 

drug use was not associated with an increased or decreased risk of 

involvement in an SCE. In addition, drugs that had potential 

adverse effects related to driving were not found to increase the risk 

of involvement in an SCE. The use of caffeine was found to be 

associated with a decreased risk of SCE involvement in all seven 

half-lives (odds ratios ranging from 0.44 to 0.66). Recording OTC 

and Rx use via an activity register (or something similar) should be 

considered in all future naturalistic studies because collecting this 

data likely involves minimal cost and effort.

Deliverable Prescription and Over-the-Counter Drug Use and Its Relationship to 

Involvement in Safety-Critical Events(49)

OTC = Over-the-counter.

Rx = Prescription.
58

Table 54. Evaluation of Light-Vehicle Driver Education Programs Targeting Sharing the 

Road with Heavy Vehicles: Case Study Analysis.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451144

Short Project Title Drivers Ed Case Study

VTTI PI Andy Schaudt

Begin July 2012

End December 2013

FHWA Funding $49,988.48

Long Project Title Evaluation of Light-Vehicle Driver Education Programs Targeting 

Sharing the Road with Heavy Vehicles: Case Study Analysis

Project Description

This case study had a twofold purpose: first, researchers investigated 

current light-vehicle driver education programs that contained 

components on sharing the road with heavy vehicles and developed 

a supplemental practices document on key sharing-the-road

information that teachers could cover with students. Second, a case 

study was performed with a light-vehicle driver education program 

in a single state that only included a basic textbook-based 

component on sharing the road with heavy vehicles. 

Researchers evaluated two components introduced in different driver 

education classrooms and compared them with the basic textbookbased component. The first component was updated digital video 

disc material by the Commercial Vehicle Safety Alliance titled 

Teens and Trucks. The second component was a hands-on truck 

experience program developed by researchers. Each classroom of 

students that received one of the components was invited to take part 

in a survey 2 mo later and knowledge retention of key learning 

points (e.g., heavy-vehicle no-zones (blind spots)) was measured. 

Focus groups were also conducted in which participants discussed

how to share the road with heavy vehicles. 

Deliverable Evaluation of Light-Vehicle Driver Education Programs Targeting

Sharing the Road with Heavy Vehicles(50)
59

Table 55. Tips for Sharing the Road with Commercial Motor Vehicles: A Web-Based 

Approach.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451219

Short Project Title Road Share

VTTI PI Naomi Dunn

Begin January 2013

End May 2013

FHWA Funding $3,617.58

Long Project Title Tips for Sharing the Road with Commercial Motor Vehicles: A 

Web-Based Approach

Project Description

This project sought to create a Web-based tool utilizing naturalistic 

videos to provide tips for sharing the road with CMVs, offering a 

supplemental driving tips training program that would be accessible 

to the public and based on naturalistic driving data. The Web site

would be dedicated to providing video examples of real-world 

scenarios involving light- and heavy-vehicle interactions, as well as 

proper sharing-the-road driving behavior. If sharing-the-road 

scenarios exist that have not been previously captured by naturalistic 

studies (or participant consent for using the videos cannot be 

obtained), the Smart Road or VTTI’s Commercial Training and

Prototyping Simulator will be used to re-create or simulate and 

record these scenarios as examples for the Web site. 

Deliverable

Report: Tips for Sharing the Road with Commercial Motor Vehicles: 

A Web-based Approach(51)

Web site: Tips for Sharing the Road with Commercial Motor 

Vehicles(52)
60

Table 56. Distraction and Fatigue in Occupational Light-Vehicle Drivers.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451266

Short Project Title Occupational Distraction

VTTI PI Jeff Hickman

Begin December 2013

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $26,375.79

Long Project Title Distraction and Fatigue in Occupational Light-Vehicle Drivers

Project Description

This research included an analysis of naturalistic data collected by a 

contractor across a 3-mo period. Supervisors in utilities and service 

organizations were the targeted vehicle operators in these analyses 

because those employees frequently drove to sites or locations in 

their territories on a daily basis. These data provided descriptive 

information about the adverse consequences of fatigue and tertiary 

tasks while driving. 

In addition, the contractor completed a secondary review of all cell 

phone SCEs and spurious baselines within the last 90 days to 

determine the frequency of the following cell phone variables: dial 

cell phone, reach for cell phone, reach for 

Bluetooth®/headset/earpiece, talk/listen on hands-free cell phone, 

talk/listen on handheld cell phone, and text/email/surf Web on cell 

phone. The results of these analyses provided information about the 

scope of cell phone use (as well as other distractions) and fatigue 

during safety-related events and spurious baselines. The data 

reduction and reliability protocols were finalized and approved by 

LytxTM. With the data sharing agreement in place, the research team 

hopes to begin data reduction and reliability analysis soon. 

Deliverable Distraction and Fatigue in Occupational Light Vehicle Drivers(53)
61

CHAPTER 6. OUTREACH

Until 2012, NSTSCE did not have a dedicated resource for outreach, so the stakeholders decided 

to add another SME to handle this area in particular. It was hoped that the addition of the SME

would increase the transmission of results of NSTSCE projects to the individuals who would 

benefit most from them. This SME also took responsibility for NSTSCE branding and marketing 

to potential stakeholders and sponsors, ultimately coordinating the biannual International 

Naturalistic Driving Symposium. Table 57 through table 59 describe the three projects that are 

under this research focus area.

Table 57. Driver Health Tips Web Site.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 425961

Short Project Title Driver Health Tips Web Site

VTTI PI Justin Morgan

Begin October 2009

End May 2011

FHWA Funding $100,000.00

Long Project Title Driver Health Tips Web Site

Project Description

Many CMV drivers struggle to maintain a healthy lifestyle given 

the demands of their job, yet previous CMV health programs have 

failed to adequately address the needs of CMV drivers, adapt 

programs suited to their unique lifestyle challenges, and widely 

implement those programs. In addition, reaching this highly 

fragmented and mobile population proved difficult. This project 

called for the creation of an integrated social networking-based 

health outreach effort directed at CMV drivers called Driving 

Healthy. This resource provides health information and best 

practices for CMV drivers and empowers them to make healthier 

lifestyle choices while on the road. It was anticipated that this effort 

would result in greater H&W information acceptance among target 

audiences and more effective use of H&W information, as well as 

foster mutual support within the target audience.

Deliverable The deliverables included a Web site, Facebook® page, Twitter®

page, and report. (See references 54 through 57.)
62

Table 58. YouTube® Video Library.

VTTI Project

Number/Fund Code 451280

Short Project Title YouTube® Outreach

VTTI PI Myra Blanco

Begin August 2013

End June 2014

FHWA Funding $14,193.25

Long Project Title YouTube® Video Library

Project Description

In order to help NSTSCE increase the exposure of surface 

transportation safety research to the general public, a YouTube®

channel was created that highlights completed NSTSCE projects. 

SMEs helped select the featured projects. Most videos are 

approximately 5 min long and provide highlights of the key 

findings as well as links to the full report. The first set of videos 

included an NSTSCE overview along with two projects. The second 

set of videos, which is currently in production, includes an 

additional five projects. In addition to the videos, the YouTube®

channel also features links to the stakeholder YouTube® channels 

as well as other NSTSCE outreach Web sites (e.g., Driver Health 

Tips and HV Driving Safety).

Deliverable YouTube® channel(58)
63

Table 59. Heavy Vehicle Safety Outreach.

VTTI Project 

Number/Fund Code 451163

Short Project Title HV Safety Outreach

VTTI PI Rebecca Hammond

Begin May 2012

End April 2014

FHWA Funding $85,005.07

Long Project Title Heavy Vehicle Safety Outreach

Project Description

The objective of the Heavy-Vehicle Safety Outreach project was to 

develop and implement a pragmatic curriculum to support the needs 

of safety managers. Safety managers for motor carrier fleets are 

primarily responsible for heavy-vehicle safety. These individuals 

have a unique understanding of the safety challenges within their 

fleets. However, many of them operate without access to the latest 

research in heavy-vehicle safety. Providing a workshop that 

immersed fleet safety managers in the latest safety information could 

positively affect their approach to fleet safety. To be as effective as 

possible, this workshop included both science- and practice-based 

presentations. 

This project used the analysis, design, development, implementation, 

and evaluation method, which has become one of the most 

frequently used training models in recent years. Specifically, it 

encourages the trainer to use an iterative process by obtaining 

feedback at each step and using it to improve the next step.

Deliverable Heavy-Vehicle Safety Outreach(59)

65

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank the stakeholders committee, who have helped shape the 

NSTSCE program into the thriving, innovative research center it is today. This includes both the 

organizations and the people who represent them: Carl Andersen and Lincoln Cobb from 

FHWA, Richard Deering and John Capp from General Motors®, Gary Allen and Cathy McGhee 

from VCTIR, Martin Walker and Terri Hallquist from FMCSA, Chris Hayes and Daniel Brown 

from Travelers® Insurance, and Tom Dingus from VTTI.

67

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