LIBRARY CATALOGUE SLIPS.

United States. Department of the interior. (U, S. geological survey.) 

Department of the interior | | Bulletin | of the | United 

States | geological survey | no. 82 j [Seal of the department] | 

Washington | government printing office | 1891

Second title: United States geological survey | J. W. Powell, 

director | | Correlation paipers | Cretaceous | hy | Charles A. 

. White | [Vignette] |

Washington | government printing office | 1891 

8°. 273pp. 3 pi.

White (diaries A.). .-.^

United States geological survey | J. W. Powell, director | | 

Correlation papers | Cretaceous | by | Charles A. White | [Vignette] | 

Washington | government printing office j 1891

8°. 273 pp. 3 pi.

[UxiTED STATES. Department of the interior. (U. S. geological survey). 

Bulletin s2.J

United States geological survey | J. W. Powell, director | | 

Correlation papers | Cretaceous | by | Charles A. White | [Vignette] |

Washington | government printing office | 1891

8o. 273 pp. 3 pi.

[TJNiTKD STATES. Department of the interior. (U. S. geological survey). 

Bulletin 82.]

G.
ADVERTISEMENT.

[Bulletin No. 82.1

The publications of the United States Geological Survey are issued in accordance with the statute 

approved March 3, 1879, which declares that 

"The publications of the Geological Survey shall consist of the annual report of operations, geological 

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Survey should be addressed

To THE DIRECTOR OF THE

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

WASHINGTON, D. C. 

WASHINGTON, D. C., Augittt; 1891.
DEPARTMENT OP THE INTERIOR

BULLETIN

OF THE

UNITED STATES

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

No. 82

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1891

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

J. W. POWELL, DIRECTOR

CORRELATION PAPERS

CRETACEOUS

BY

CHARLES A. WHITE

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1891

CONTENTS.

Page.

Letter of transmittal......................................................... 9

Outline of this paper................ .......................................... 11

Preface......_......__.._.._........................................ 13

Introduction...... _....................................................... 15

Scope .................................................................. 15

Taxonomy and the criteria of correlation ................................ 17

The literature of the North American Cretaceous......................... 25

List of publications consulted....................................... 26

Historical sketch ........................................................ 61

Discussion of the formation hy regions................ .................... 72

Explanation of terms and methods ...................................... 72

Atlantic, border region ............... ................................ 74

New Jersey ......................................................... 78

The Non-marine division ...................................i..... 80

The Marine division .................:.......................... 82

1 Staten Island and Long Island ....................................... 84

Martha's Vineyard.................................................. 86

Pennsylvania and Delaware.....................!.......-......-....- 87

Maryland and District of Columbia ................................. 88

Virginia............................................................ 90

North Carolina .._.___......................................... 91

South Carolina.. ........................ ........................ 92

Concluding remarks on the Atlantic border region ... ........ . 92

Gulf border region ...... .... ................. ... ......... 100

Texan region .... . . . ............... .. ...... 114

North Mexican region............................... ................. 130

Great Interior area ......__................. ....................... 140

South Interior region ...........................".................... 154

North Interior region . ...................... .............. 164

The Lower Cretaceous ....._ _................................... 168

The Upper Cretaceous .............................................. 170

Pacific border region............._ __ ..........._.................., 181

The Lower Cretaceous .............................................. 183

The Upper Cretaceous ..............__ ............................ 192

Extra-regional districts................................................. 201

Correlation and taxonomy, illustrated by tables.......................... . 207

Horizons of the North American Cretaceous.................................. 248

Potomac horizon..........._..............._.........-..-..-.--......- 251

Comanche horizon .. _.................................................. 253

Kootanie horizon .... _................................................ 254

Shasta horizon ..............................._....................... 255

Dakota horizon ............................_.......................... 257

5
Page, 

Horizons of the North American Cretaceous Continued.

Maritime and interior horizon. ....................../................ 258

Colorado subhorizon .......................:..... ................. 261'

Montana subhorizon ................................................ 261

Laramie horizon ..................................................._.-. 262

Chico-Tejon horizon ..................................................... 264

Great displacements of, and volcanic material in, the North American Cretaceous 265 

Explanation of map............................................ ......... 267

Index ...........................................'............. ........... 269
ILLUSTRATIONS.

Pag* 

PLA.TE I. Map showing the outlines of the regions...................... . 72

II. Summary of the published Cretaceous sections for each region...... 246

III. Map showing the distribution of the Cretaceous deposits of North

America........................................................ 268

FIG. 1. Vertical section of the New Jersey Cretaceous series................ 79

2. Section from Philadelphia to Atlantic City ........................ 80

3. Section from Metuchen to Cape May, New Jersey .................. 82

4. Section from Hay wood to New Berne, North Carolina.............. 92

5. General section of the Cretaceous rocks of Alabama................ 108

6. Section from Parker County to Navarro County, Texas............. 118

7. The Sierra San Carlos section ... ..... ........ . .... 134

7

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, 

DIVISION OF GEOLOGIC CORRELATION,

Washington, J). (7., April 1, 1891.

SIR : I have the honor to transmit herewith a memoir by Dr. Charles 

A. White on the Cretaceous of North America, prepared for publication as a bulletin.

The Division of Geologic Correlation was created for the purpose of 

summarizing existing knowledge with reference to the geologic formations of North America, and especially of the.United States; of discussing the correlation of formations found in different parts of the 

country with one another and with formations in other continents; and 

of discussing the principles of geologic correlation in the light of 

American phenomena. The formations of each geologic period were 

assigned to some student already well acquainted with them, and it 

was arranged that he should expand his knowledge by study of the 

literature and by field examination of classic localities, and embody his 

results in an essay. The general plan of the work has been set forth 

on page 1C of the Ninth Annual Eeport of the Survey, and on pages 

108 to 113 of the Tenth Annual Eeport, as well as in a letter of transmittal of Bulletin No. 80.

Two of the essays resulting from this work have already been presented. The first, by Prof. H. S. Williams, pertains to the formations 

of the Carboniferous and Devonian, and constitutes Bulletin No. 

80. The second, by Mr. Charles D. Walcott, pertains to the formations 

of the Cambrian, and constitutes Bulletin No. 81. The present essay is 

the third of the series, and others will follow.

Dr. White discusses the American Cretaceous formations by districts so chosen and arranged as to constitute a series, and through 

r this discussion divides the formations into two series, which he calls 

Upper Cretaceous and Lower Cretaceous. These names as used by 

him have a purely American application and are not believed to coincide with the upper and lower divisions of the European Cretaceous.

9
10 THE CRETACEOUS.

The American Cretaceous as a whole corresponds in general to the 

European as a whole, but it is impossible to recognize in America the 

precise equivalents of the upper and lower limits of the European 

Cretaceous.

Very respectfully, your obedient servant,

G. K. GILBERT,

Geologist in Charge. 

Hon. J. W. POWELL,

Director U. 8. Geological Survey.
OUTLINE OFTHIS PAPER.

The primary object of this bulletin is the presentation of a summary of our present 

knowledge of the North American Cretaceous and a discussion of the system as it is 

developed on this continent, discussion of or direct reference to the details of the 

system as it is developed in other parts of the world being omitted.

Among the subjects treated of are the areal distribution of Cretaceous deposits, the

recognition and correlation of the various formations which have by any author been 

published as belonging to this system, the partial rectification of the scale of Cretaceous formations as hitherto recognized, the characterization and delimitation of 

the now recognized formations and of the larger subdivisions of the system, and a 

discussion of its delimitation as a whole with reference to the formations which 

represent the next preceding and succeeding systems.

Preliminary to the principal discussions the bulletin contains a general statement 

of its object and plan, a historical sketch of the work that has been done with reference to the North American Cretaceous, an annotated list of the principal published 

 works relating to the general subject in hand, and a discussion of the principles of 

correlation and taxonomy.

In the latter discussions the position is taken that while the European geological 

systems, as such, are more or less distinctly recognizable in different parts of the 

world, it has not yet been practicable satisfactorily to recognize their subdivisions 

beyond comparatively restricted geographical limits. It is therefore assumed that 

any attempt to correlate the subdivisions of the North American Cretaceous with 

those of the system as developed in Europe ought to follow, not precede, a thorough 

investigation of the former and perhaps also a partial revision of the general scale 

now in use.

It is shown that large portions of the continent are occupied by formations older 

than the Cretaceous and that therefore no strata referable to that system occur there. 

Those portions of the continent within which Cretaceous formations have been systematically studied are divided into seven regions, the outlines of which are shown 

on a small two-page map, and under the head of each of which regions its formations 

are severally discussed. The Cretaceous deposits which occur in other parts of the 

continent, and concerning which less is known, are briefly discussed under the head 

of Extra-regional districts.

These discussions include not only those deposits which all writers agree in referring to the Cretaceous system, but also those occurring at its base and top, respectively , which may be regarded as transitional in character, or concerning the Cretaceous 

age of which geological writers have differed.

Two great .divisions of the Cretaceous system are recognized for North America, 

which are called Upper and Lower Cretaceous, respectively. The separatene'ss of 

these divisions from each other is recognized by means of evidence inherent in each, 

and without regard to their close agreement or disagreement with the Upper and 

Lower Cretaceous of Europe.

At the close of the discussions under the head of each region a table of its Cretaceous 

formations is given and compared with similar tables of the formations of adjacent 

regions. Following these discussions a series of nineteen tables is presented for the

11
12 THE CEETACEOUS. LBULL.82.

purpose of synoptically representing the correlation of the Cretaceous formations of 

the continent. Each table represents one of the principal sections which occur in 

different parts of the continent, and which have been published by different authors. 

At the side of each table is a uniform graduated scale which theoretically represents 

the full range of Cretaceous time. Opposite this scale are placed those spaces of 

the table which represent the respective formations of the section, the position of 

each space thus expressing the author's opinion as to the taxonomic position of the 

formation which it represents. By comparing these tables with one another the 

author's idea of the identity or of the equivalency of certain of the formations to one 

another is also seen.

Following the discussions and the tabular presentation of the subject of correlation of the North American Cretaceous formations the subject of the recognition of 

broad horizons among those formations is discussed. The term "horizon" is here used 

in an unusual and extended sense. It is applied to a formation or to a series of more 

or less distinctly recognizable formations within the vertical and geographical limits 

of which the original vertical and geographical range of fossil species was never 

everywhere or at any time wholly broken. Such horizons have both a physical and 

biological entity. That is, they are physically expressed in series of sedimentary 

deposits and paleontologically characterized by their contained faunal and floral 

remains.

The necessity for recognizing such horizons in the future paleontological investigation of the North American Cretaceous is pointed out. For example, it is shown 

that fossils which are found to characterize a formation in any given district ought 

to be studied as members of a fauna which originally had, or that may be assumed to 

have had, a much wider geographical distribution and, at least in part, a greater 

range in time than that which is represented by a single formation as developed 

within a limited district. That is, it is unsafe to assume that any fossil that may be 

discovered in any given assemblage of strata, in any given district within the geographical limits of any one of these horizons, will not be found in at least any adjoining district or in any immediately overlying or underlying assemblage of strata. It 

is shown that paleontological investigation with reference to the horizons thus indicated will have a broader philosophical basis than has hitherto prevailed as relates 

to both biology and structural geology.

A map is inserted at the end of the bulletin upon which are approximately shown 

all the areas which aro known to be occupied by the formations which are herein

discussed.
PREFACE.

The preparation of this work was undertaken at the request of the 

Director of the Survey as part of a general plan for the review of American formations. As the work progressed that which was proposed to

be merely an essay has grown to be a memoir, embracing a large range 

of subjects cognate with the discussion of Cretaceous formations.

It has been my purpose to use all available information that might 

aid me in correlating and identifying all the formations which have by 

any author been regarded as of Cretaceous age, even though some of 

them have been by certain authors referred to other geological systems. 

For paleontological evidence of correlation and identity I have relied 

mainly upon invertebrate remains because I believe them to be far more 

valuable for that purpose than any other fossils. Due weight, however, 

has been given to the evidence which plant and vertebrate remains afford, 

and I have used that evidence whenever it has been found available.

Those authors who have published invertebrate fossils from the formations which are discussed in this memoir have generally been so explicit 

as to the localities and to the strata from which their material has been 

obtained that 1 have been able to use the evidence thus furnished without hesitation or serious doubt, and a similar remark may be made concerning many of the published works containing descriptions of fossil 

plants. I have, however, frequently been unable to obtain information 

from publications containing descriptions of vertebrate fossils that would 

enable me to identify with certainty the strata from which they were 

obtained as portions of the respective formations which working geologists have long known by means of their characteristic invertebrate 

fossil faunas. For this reason I have felt obliged to omit reference to 

or consideration of such works in correlating and identifying the formations which I have discussed, notwithstanding that such omission impairs the value which such a work as this ought to possess.

Many of the questions which I have found it necessary to discuss in 

this memoir are yet unsettled, and the views I have expressed concerning them are intended to be only tentative. Furthermore, so great is 

the activity among investigators of North American Cretaceous geology 

that a considerable number of important facts have been published for 

the first time while this manuscript was in course of preparation, and

13
14 THE CRETACEOUS. lnuLL.82.

it is therefore likely that some of the statements herein made will need 

modification soon after its publication.

In the labor of reviewing the literature of North American Cretaceous 

geology and of collating the long array of facts which are therein recorded, 

and a large part of which it has been found desirable to notice in this 

memoir, I have received important assistance from many geologists, 

especially from Dr. G. M. Dawson, assistant director of the Canadian 

Geological Survey.

WASHINGTON, February 23,1891.
A REVIEW OF THE CRETACEOUS FORMATIONS OF 

NORTH AMERICA.

BY CHARLES A. WHITE.

INTRODUCTION. 

SCOPE.

In planning and preparing this memoir my aim has been to produce 

a work for general reference which shall contain a concise summary of 

knowledge concerning the Forth American formations of Cretaceous 

age, together with bibliographical references to the principal published 

works upon the various branches of the subject, and such deductions 

as have been suggested to my mind by the various series of facts herein 

recorded. The special incentive to its preparation is the pressing need 

among geologists of such a grouping of the leading known facts concerning the different geological formations of North America as will 

aid them in determining their relation to one another and in establishing a rational scheme of their classification for special use upon this 

continent, and also serve as a basis for future discussions of their correlation with those of other parts of the world.

It is primarily intended that this memoir shall be devoted to a consideration of the Cretaceous formations alone; but it is found desirable 

to include, besides the undisputed Cretaceous, certain formations of 

doubtful age or of transitional character which occur respectively at 

the base and top of that system. The recognition of the Forth American Cretaceous system as such has been made by means of its general 

paleontological agreement with that of Europe; but in the case of the 

former it has not been found practicable so clearly to define its upper 

and lower limits as seems to have been done in Europe. This fact will 

plainly appear on following pages in connection with discussions of the 

formations referred to.

The question of close correlation of the various subdivisions of the 

Cretaceous system on this continent and in Europe will not now be 

discussed, because I believe that, beyond the recognition of the larger 

or more general subdivisions of the systems which have a place in the 

great geological scheme now in use, any attempt at ascertaining in

15
16 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

detail their correlation with formations upon other continents ought to 

follow, not precede, a comparatively complete investigation of all the 

formations of this continent, a work that will require yet many years 

of study by a large number of investigators. If this view is correct 

it is evident that we ought to expect to find features in the structural 

geology of this continent that would have greatly modified the scheme 

of classification in general use if geology had been first studied here. 

I have, therefore, felt no hesitancy in adopting such modifications as I 

have indicated when observed facts have seemed to warrant such a 

course.

In accordance with these views, and because of the conditions which I 

have found to exist among the North American Cretaceous formations, I 

have recognized only two general divisions of the system, an upper and 

a lower, instead of thf upper, middle, and lower divisions which are recognized in some parts of Europe. These two divisions I have called 

Upper and Lower Cretaceous, respectively, but without any present intention of defining their relation to the Upper and Lower Cretaceous of 

Europe.1 They are simply the upper and lower divisions of the North 

American Cretaceous, and the terms used to designate them are believed 

to be natural in their application, and less objectionable than Earlier and 

Later, because the latter terms have been variously applied by geologists.2

So far as practicable the nomenclature of the North American formations now in general use is employed in the text. The synonymy of 

this nomenclature, which has arisen from the independent studies of 

many geologists, is shown in a series of tables on following pages, 

which represent nineteen of the principal published sections of the 

North American Cretaceous. Each of these tables contains the names 

of the formations embraced in the section which it represents, and in 

each case the nomenclature used by the author of the section is given. 

The primary object of those tables, however, is to show, in accordance 

with my present judgment, the correlation of the formations which they 

represent.

A work so brief as this upon so comprehensive a subject as that 

which is treated in this memoir must be confined to its leading features. 

Its usefulness will therefore be limited to those who are seeking general rather than special information, although the bibliographical list 

on following pages will serve as a guide to the latter. It is based

1 Up to a few years ago I was in doubt whether any North American Cretaceous formation ought 

to be regarded as of greater geological ago than the Middle Cretaceous of Europe. It is, however, to 

bo expected that the lower division now recoguized will prove to be homotaxially equivalent to certain 

parts of the European Lower Cretaceous, as has long been claimed by Marcou and others.

2Meek and Hayden on some occasions applied the terms Earlier and Later Cretaceous to the upper 

and lower portions, respectively, of their Upper Missouri Eiver section, which includes no formation 

older than the Dakota, and all the members of which section are included in the Upper Cretaceous as it 

is defined in this memoir. See, for example, Dana's Manual of Geology, 1874, pp. 456,457. Dr. George 

M. Dawson has applied the term Earlier Cretaceous to certain of tnose formations which in this memoir 

are designated as Lower Cretaceous, all of which are older than any of the Earlier Cretaceous of Meek 

and Hayden. (See Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 38, 1889, p. 120. See, also, a different use of the term Earlier 

Cretaceous, by Dr. Dawson in Proc. and Trans. Koy. Soc. Canada, vol. 1, sec. 4, p. 40.)
win .] TAXONOMY. 17

mainly upon the published results of the labors of many geologists, and 

it is therefore, as regards the facts herein stated, essentially a compilation j but the discussions and the manner of presenting the subject-matter of such a work will necessarily reflect the personal views of the 

writer. In the present case his views are based not only upon a review 

of the published works of other geologists but upon his own personal 

studies of the North American Cretaceous, which have extended over 

a large part of the continent.

TAXONOMY AND THE CRITERIA OF CORRELATION.

For the purpose of indicating the basis of the views which are expressed or implied in the discussions recorded on following pages it is 

desirable to present some remarks upon the general subject of the taxonomy and correlation of geological formations, and upon the character 

and value of the criteria which have been held to demonstrate the latter. 

These remarks, however, are intended to apply almost exclusively to 

formations which are plainly of clastic origin, and generally to those 

which are more or less fossiliferous.

Geological taxonomy relates to the establishment of a general scheme 

of classification of the formations, and correlation to the assignment of 

those formations which occur in different parts of the world to their respective places in that scheme. As between formations occurring in 

distant parts of the world correlation is necessarily of a general character 

only, but it may approach to actual identification within limited regions. 

The taxonomy of formations embraces not only their systematic arrangement in chronological order, but also their characterization and delimitation.

The scheme of classification referred to is necessarily a chronological 

one, or one that among working geologists indicates the order in which 

its respective subdivisions were produced. The basis of this scheme of 

classification is life, and beyond the actual observation of the superposition of formations upon one another and occasionally their subsequent 

lithological identification within limited districts, I do not know of any 

method of determining tbeir chronological relations except that which 

biological studies afford.

Formations are characterizable physically and biologically. Their 

physical characterization includes their litbogical composition and their 

stratigraphy. Their biological characterization includes a consideration of uheir fossil contents both as regards specific identification and 

the evolutional development of the organic forms which they represent.

The delimitation of formations is also both physical and biological. 

Their physical delimitation is marked by a more or less complete lithological and stratigraphical difference between them and those which respectively underlie and overlie them ; and their biological delimitation 

is by the upper and lower limit of the vertical range of their contained 

fossil faunas and floras. 

Bull. 82 2
18 THE CRETACEOUS. [RULL.82.

It is usually the case, especially with true marine formations, that 

the vertical range of the aqueous fossil forms which characterize them 

coincides with their upper and lower physical limits, because the physical changes which delimited formations usually arrested the progress 

of aqueous life and extinguished the living forms whose remains are now 

found to characterize them. It is, however, sometimes the case, especially with iiomnarine formations, that while the remains of waterbreathing animals are found to range entirely through the vertical 

thickness of an unbroken series of strata, and no more, remains of 

other classes range through only a part of that thickness and are succeeded by others of the same class but of different species, and even of 

different types. Furthermore, some members of these latter classes 

may be found to range both above and beneath the extreme vertical 

limits of the aqueous forms. That is, the vertical range of fossil floras 

and of land air-breathing faunas may sometimes be independent of the 

well defined upper and lower physical limits of a given series of strata 

and of the vertical range of the invertebrate aqueous fauna which characterizes it. In such cases it is plain that the changes of physical or of 

other conditions which affected the floras and land faunas referred to 

did not materially affect the invertebrate aqueous fauna, and that 

those changes which introduced and destroyed the latter did not 

similarly affect the former.

In accordance with the foregoing statements it will be seen that for 

the delimitation and characterization of formations for taxonomic purposes, the cla^a derived from their aqueous faunas in connection with 

their physical characteristics are regarded as more trustworthy than 

any other.

It is apparent to every student of geology that the various authors 

who have written upon or with reference to the subject of the correlation 

of geological formations differ much in their views as to the proper criteria to be used in such cases, or as to the relative value of those which 

different geological writers have recognized. It is also apparent that 

at least a part of the criteria which have been employed are illegitimate and not to be relied upon. Some of these have fallen into disuse, 

but there are others, some of which are of great value in certain cases, 

of which illegitimate use may be and often has been made.

It is, however, gratifying to observe that so few of the criteria which 

have been proposed, even of those adopted in the infancy of geological 

science, have proved to be wholly valueless; and this makes it all the 

more evident that the differences of opinion that appear in the publications of different geologists have been largely due to the frequent 

use of legitimate criteria in ex parte or illegitimate ways.

The criteria which properly may be used in arriving at conclusions 

as to the correlation of formations in different regions and in different 

parts of the world naturally fall into two categories, the one embracing 

biological and the other physical phenomena. Because the biological
WHITE.] CRITERIA OF CORRELATION. 19

phenomena to be referred to in this discussion all relate to fossil forms, 

the criteria based upon them may properly be classed under the head 

of paleontological, arid because the physical phenomena relate to geological subjects, those coming under this head may be designated as 

geological criteria. Those designated as paleontological may be divided into evolutional and special, the first relating to the progressive 

secular development of living forms upon the earth during geological, 

time and the second to the recognition of identical or of similar fossil 

forms in the rocks of different regions, or of different parts of the 

world.

The geological criteria may, for our present purpose, be classed as 

structural, stratigraphical, and lithological. The general character of 

the lithological criteria is readily understood. In relative practical 

value they are perhaps next to the paleontological, but they vary in 

value as well as in kind and in the conditions of their application. The 

two geological criteria first mentioned are based upon paleontological 

data, becoming properly geological only in their application. This fact 

naturally leads to the remark that all the criteria which are to be considered are so interrelated that any classification of them is difficult, 

and that the one which is here adopted is only a matter of present convenience.

Of all the criteria that may legitimately be used in determining the 

correlation of formations it can not successfully be denied that while 

those which are based upon physical phenomena are of great value, and 

often the only ones directly available, the paleontological are much the 

most important. Indeed without the latter criteria a universal chronological scheme of classification of formations could never be successfully attempted, and local classification would be deprived of its most 

essential standard. It is, however, plain to everyone who takes a comprehensive view of the subject that even these are not to be relied upon 

to the exclusion of others, nor with that entire confidence that has been 

expressed by some prominent writers, and implied by many others.

The term correlation as here used is meant to imply that a given 

formation or series of formations, as the case may be, in one district or 

part of the world, being similar in its characteristics and associations 

to that of another, is referable to the same relative place in a recognized 

scheme of classification. As employed in this memoir it takes the place 

of other terms that have been used by various writers, such as equivalency and contemporaneity, these terms being discarded except with 

reference to limited areas, as implying more than ascertainable facts 

will warrant.

It will therefore be understood that the term " correlation," in the 

more general use which is herein made of it, is intended to imply that the 

ascertaiuable relation to one another of the formations which are geographically widely separated is at best only homotaxial, and that even 

the cases of actual contemporaneity of widely separated formations
20 THE CKETACEOUS, [BULL. 82.

which must necessarily have existed can not be demonstrated for want 

of inherent or any other satisfactory proof. Within limited regions, 

however, correlation may be more definitely determined, and within 

certain districts of even considerable extent its determination may be 

essentially exact, in which cases terms implying equivalency and even 

contemporaneity may properly be used. That is, we may determine not 

only the homotaxial correlation of formations, but in some cases at 

least correlation of essential identity, or even of approximate contemporaneity, may satisfactorily be ascertained.1 It is the criteria of homotaxial correlation, especially those classed as evolutional, that I shall 

first consider, both as regards their legitimate and illegitimate use.

If the rate of progress of the secular evolution of organic forms had 

been uniform for all classes of those forms in all parts of the world, 

through the whole course of geological time, and if sufficient evidence 

of the same were discovered or discoverable, it would be a simple matter to determine not only the relative but the actual geological age of 

any and all formations containing fossils of any kind. In such a case 

their correlation would be not only homotaxial, but actual equivalency 

and contemporaneity could be accurately determined.

The practice of a large proportion of paleontological writers is evidently based upon the affirmative side of the question here implied. 

They have assumed to decide, without reference to any related facts, 

the taxonomic position of strata in any and all parts of the world from 

which fossils submitted to them may have been obtained, using the 

European scheme of classification as if it were an infallible standard of 

universal applicability, even in its minor details. Paleontological literature abounds in cases of this kind and they embrace all branches of 

paleontology, vertebrate, invertebrate, and phytological. Even students of special divisions of these branches have assumed to decide 

such questions by the results of their own labors alone.

The reasons why paleontological data alone do not constitute an adequate basis for deciding all questions of correlation are various, among 

which are those implied in the following propositions, relating mainly 

to the subject of biological evolution.

(1) General biological evolution, while it has been progressive, has 

not progressed at a uniform rate throughout geological time and in all 

parts of the world. This is shown in many ways; for example, by the 

survival of a greater or less number of ancient types of life in association with more advanced and later types, by the presence of such advanced types among certain ancient faunas, and by the general differ1 For a statement of views implying the dominant idea of contemporaneity of formations see Pictet, 

F.J., Traite do Paleontologie, vol. 1, 2° ed., Paris, 1853, p. 100. Also Schimper, W.Ph.,Trait6 de 

Pal6ontologie V6g6talo, yol 1,1869, p. 100, Paris.

For a presentation of the idea implied in the term "homotaxy," and for the first use of that term, see 

Huxley, T. H., Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lend., vol. 18,1864, pp. 41,42. Literally, the term " homotaxy " implies that any given system is divisible into formations of similar number, character, and relativo 

value in different parts of the world. As this is never actually the case, it is plain that even this term 

must be used in a restricted sense.
WHITE.] PROPOSITIONS CONCERNING BIOLOGIC EVOLUTION. 21

ences of grade of exiRting faunas and floras in different parts of the 

world, which maybe figuratively regarded as respectively the summits 

of evolutional columns of unequal height, and which indicate that similar differences prevailed during geological time. It is also shown by 

the evidence we have that in all ages certain trunk lines of descent 

successively became extinct, while contemporaneous lines continued 

their existence until they in turn were extinguished. 1

(2) The rate of general progress in the evolution of vertebrates, invertebrates, and plants has not been the same for each at all times and 

in all parts of the world. Thus, for example, a given grade of floral 

development, which was contemporaneous with a certain grade of invertebrate, or of vertebrate, life in one part of the world has been found 

to have been contemporaneous with a higher or a lower grade, as the 

case may be, in another part. Again, a given grade of invertebrate

development has remained comparatively unchanged during several 

periods in which great differentiation and evolutional advancement took 

place in certain floras and in other faunas.

(3) The progress of evolution, such as it has been, was frequently 

modified by physical causes. For example, the great physical changes 

which have frequently taken place in the earth's crust and upon its surface, while they were never universally catastrophic as regards biological evolution as a whole, have often been largely destructive of life 

over great areas. Such physical changes of course extinguished many 

of the then existing forms of life, and to that extent arrested faunal and 

floral evolution in the disturbed areas, while in undisturbed areas forms 

similar to those that were extinguished continued to exist until adequate changes occurring there caused their extinction also.2

(4) Physical or other forces operating within a given region have at 

times caused the extinction or great modification of certain faunas and 

floras, while they have not affected other faunas to the extent of a 

change in specific characters. This proposition is, for example, supported by the conditions observed in the great series of strata which 

has received the name of the Laranfie group. This formation contains 

remains of vertebrates which paleontologists generally regard as characteristic of the Cretaceous system, while at least the upper strata of 

the series contain a flora which paleobotanists have declared to be Tertiary ; and yet a fresh-water brauchiferous inolluscau fauna ranges from 

base to top of the whole series without change in the specific character 

of its members. The survival of these branchiferous mollusca implies a 

continuity of congenial aqueous habitat from the earliest to the latest 

portion of the epoch which that series of strata represents and which

1 For remarks on tho extinction of trunk lines'of descent see Ward, Lester I\, Presidential Address, 

Biological Society, Washington, 1890.

2 It is not to be denied that certain faunal types, especially of marine invertebrates, wore almost 

world wide in their distribution, especially in the older geological periods, and that in such cases, respectively, their remains seem to occur within a very narrow vertical range. But this fact does not 

invalidate the foregoing propositions.
22 THE CRETACEOUSo (BULL. 82.

was not affected by the causes that changed the flora. The whole series 

of strata, including those which bear plants of Tertiary characteristics, 

also presents the appearance of having been produced by uninterrupted 

sedimentation.

(5) Because of the facts stated in proposition 2, the remains of land 

animals and plants possess no inherent trustworthy evidence of the 

actual contemporaneity they may have had in life with aqueous forms. 

Therefore contemporaneity can not be proved in these cases except by 

the commingling of remains of the different kinds in one and the same 

deposit. Again, contemporaneity of fresh-water and marine faunas can 

not be proved by any inherent characteristics of either, because the 

differentiation of fresh-water forms as compared with that of marine 

forms, especially in the case of the mollusca, has been so slight and so 

slowly accomplished during geological time. Furthermore, because 

fresh-water and marine deposits were always separately formed, physical proof of contemporaneity is never conclusive, and usually it is 

wholly wanting. For these and for the other reasons just mentioned it 

is always difficult, and often impossible, to determine the true taxonomic 

relation of fresh-water to marine deposits.

The foregoing propositions relate mainly to evolutional criteria, and 

are largely of world-wide applicability; but some of them relate to the 

class which I have designated as special. The former are based upon 

the recognizability of a number of world-wide stages of biological development, each of which is indicated by characteristic organic types. 

Their use is legitimate when they are considered in connection with 

other criteria and confined to a recognition of those general stages, and 

illegitimate when the recognition of definite upper and lower limits of 

those stages or of the identity of their smaller subdivisions is thus 

attempted. Such attempts are especially deplorable when no reference 

is made to other criteria.

The class of paleontological criteria which I have designated as 

special are of more restricted applicability than those designated as 

evolutional because they are based upon the recognition of identical or 

of similar fossil forms in different formations. Within limited areas 

these criteria are of direct applicability. For example, the recognition 

of specific identity of fossils in formations of marine or of lacustrine 

origin which occur in regions of moderate extent may properly be 

accepted as proof of approximate contemporaneity, or at least as sufficiently indicating a close correlation of the formations bearing such 

fossils. But specific identity of fossils discovered in formations of 

widely separated parts of the world, even if the assumed identity is 

real, does not prove contemporaneity of those formations, because 

geographical distribution of species implies lapse of time which, in 

many cases, may have amounted to long geological periods. Furthermore, there are many forms, especially among the Ostreidae, Aviculidte, 

etc., which have differed so little from period to period of geological
WHITE.) DISCUSSIONS OF CORKELATION. 23

time as to present no observable change in their specific characters. 

Such apparent specific identity is plainly of no value in the correlation of separate formations, although they may have some general value 

in the case of groups of formations.

In studying the correlation of widely separated formations by means 

of those paleontological criteria which I have designated as special, 

their use is necessarily of a more general character than that which is 

made of the evolutional criteria, with which, indeed, they are in this 

way closely connected. For example, if a given series of formations in 

one part of the world is found to contain the remains of faunas and 

floras which are respectively homologous to those of a series in another 

part, and if such series are respectively overlain and underlain by others 

which correspond in a similar mannejr, it ought to be accepted, when 

fortified by Other evidence, as proof of at least general correlation. 

That is, it is the general correspondence of the respective faunas and 

floras that is to be relied upon in these cases, rather than upon specific 

or other classificatory identification of fossils.

The upper and lower limits of a series of formations thus correlated 

with another series in a distant part of the world would, however, rarely 

coincide, and there would also necessarily be more or less faunal and 

floral differences between them, due to causes which have been referred 

to, and also to dissimilar physical conditions which prevailed in the different regions. These facts again plainly indicate the necessity of considering all available concurrent evidence before reaching a conclusion 

in such cases as have been mentioned.

It was intimated at the outset that all the criteria of correlation are 

closely interrelated. Turning now to those which are classed as geo- 

' logical we find that for this reason it is difficult to discuss them separately from one another, as we have already found it difficult to discuss 

those classed as paleontological separately from these.

This interrelationship of geological with paleontological criteria is 

especially close in the case of those which I have designated as structural, or those which relate to the taxonomic position in a great general 

scheme of classification of formations or groups of formations which are 

geographically widely separated. Indeed, these criteria are properly 

paleontological, but become structural in their application. So also the 

paleontological, criteria which are designated as special become stratigraphical in their application, and auxiliary to lithological criteria in 

the identification of formations and the recognition of the order of their 

superposition within limited regions.

Again, a given assemblage of strata may possess certain paleontological characteristics which suggest that they are referable to a separate 

period from that of those beneath it, while other paleontological data, 

together with stratigraphical conformity, tend to connect the whole 

together as a single series. If then we find the whole assemblage to be 

involved in displacements which occurred immediately upon the com-
24 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

pletion of its deposition this is an additional reason for regarding all 

those strata as constituting a single formation and representing a single epoch, notwithstanding the partial paleontological discrepancy 

referred to. Such a condition of things exists with relation to the 

great series of strata known as the Larainie formation,,

Compared with the paleontological, the lithological criteria are, at 

best, of limited application and available only in either direct or indirect relation to the former. Their use in that relation is direct when 

they are applied to fossiliferous and indirect when they are applied to 

unfossiliferous formations. In the former cases they are simply accessory to associated paleontological criteria, but in the latter they constitute the principal evidence of correlation. 'Their application in the 

latter cases, however, can be made only with reference to some already 

known paleontological horizon.

It is hardly necessary in this connection to refer particularly to the 

former class of cases, but the extensive studies that have been made in 

the pre-Cambrian stratified rocks furnish cases of the latter class that 

are worthy of special consideration. 1 It has been shown that by use of 

lithological criteria a very satisfactory classification of these unfossiliferous formations can be made and that their correlation with one another may be determined; but the fact that they are of pre-Cambrian 

age could be determined only by paleontological evidence. That is, 

their taxouomic position in the general scheme of classification could 

be determined only by means of paleontological criteria.

Paleontology, when it is available, affords beyond question the most 

trustworthy means for the identification of formations that occur within 

the regions that ordinarily constitute fields of geological study; but in 

the absence of fossils the geologist often reaches conclusions by methods 

of reasoning that it would be difficult even for himself to formulate, 

which conclusions are valuable in proportion to his experience and to 

the range of his acquirements and observation.

Among these less clearly definable methods is that which takes cognizance of hornogeny; that is, of a method in connection with which 

certain inherent general characteristics which are presented by a series 

of strata in a given part of a region under investigation are accepted 

as evidence that it had a common origin with certain series in other 

parts of the same region presenting similar characteristics. This conclusion necessarily implies that originally there was physical continuity 

of similar strata between such localities whether near to or remote from 

one another, but these strata may have been either destroyed or obscured.

This method of identifying formations is of great value in the hands 

of an experienced and broad-minded investigator, but some of the most 

grievous mistakes that geologists have made have occurred in consequence of relying upon it to the exclusion of paleontology.

1 See, for example,Irving, K. D.: Classification of the Early Cambrian and pre-Cambrian formations. 

Seventh Ann. Kep. U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 371-399.
WHITE.] LITERATURE OF THE CRETACEOUS. 25

Accepting the foregoing statements as <o the character and relative 

value of the criteria that may properly be employed in. determining the 

correlation of geological formations, especially those which are geographically widely separated, it is evident that no one criterion nor any 

one class of criteria is sufficient definitely to decide any question of 

that kind. It is also evident that the correlation of widely separated 

formations is at best more a matter of opinion than of demonstrable 

f;;ct, and that a final judgment in such cases must be the result of a consensus of opinion of investigators in all branches of geological science.

THE LITERATURE OF THE NORTH AMERICAN CRETACEOUS.

While those who may consult this memoir are likely to find that 

much has been omitted which they desire to know, the accompanying 

briefly annotated bibliographical list will be found to contain the titles 

of the principal published writings upon the North American Cretaceous, and to serve either directly or indirectly as a guide to nearly all 

of the literature of the subject. The great mass of that literature has 

been passed in review by the writer in the preparation of this memoir; 

and those works whose titles the list coutains may be regarded as having been especially consulted.

The necessarily limited scope of this work makes it impracticable to 

give an exhaustive bibliography of the whole subject, and therefore the 

question what to reject and what to include in this list has not been an 

easy one satisfactorily to decide. But the list has been abbreviated so 

far as could consistently be done, and titles of papers and smaller 

works are given only when they contain matter having an important 

bearing on the subject in hand.

Again, a number of important works have been omitted from the list 

because the substance of them, together with other matter, is included 

in later and more comprehensive publications by the same authors 

which are included in the list. Therefore the number of titles by any 

one author which the list contains does not necessarily bear any relation to the importance of Ms contribution to the literature of the subject. »
AN ANNOTATED LIST OF PUBLICATIONS CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS

MEMOIR.

BANNISTER, if. M. Report of a Geological Reconnaissance along the Union Pacific Railroad. <U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr, for 1872, Sixth Annual Report, pp. 519-541. 

1873.

The author discusses marine Cretaceous and Laramie strata, and gives sections at Carbon, Black Buttes, along Bitter Creek, and at Aliny Coal Mines, all in Wyoming.

BANNISTER, H. M. Note on the age of the Laramie group, or Rocky Mountain Lignitic formation. <\Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., 1879, vol. 17, pp. 243-245.

The author states that Clarence King was in error in asserting that the Laramie is always 

unconformable with overlying formations.

BARCENA, MARTANO. Noticia cientificadeuna parte del estado de Hidalgo. <Anales 

del Ministerio de Fomento de la Republica Mexicana, vol. 1, 1877, pp. 331-351.

BARCENA, MARTANO. Materialea para la Jbrmacion de una Obera de Paleontologia 

Mexicana. <Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico, torao 1, pp. 85-87; 195-202; 

283-286. 1877.

BARRETT, L. On some Cretaceous rocks in the southeastern portion of Jamaica. 

<Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 16, 1860, pp. 324-326.

The Cretaceous rocks referred to in this article are apparently equivalent to those which 

were afterward described by Duncan & Wall in the district of Clarendon.

BECKER, GEORGE P. Notes on the stratigraphy of California. <Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 19. 1885.

The author discusses the relation to one another of the different Cretaceous formations of 

California, and gives his reasons for referring a large part of the metaphoric rocks of the 

coast ranges to the Cretaceous system.

BECKER, GEORGE F. [Administrative Report.] <Sixth Annual Report U. S. Geol.

Survey, pp. 67-70. 1885.

The author discusses the age and time of uplift of the Coast Range formations and the 

equivalency of different Aucel la-bearing beds.

BECKER, GEORGE F. Cretaceous metamorphic rocks of California. <^Am. Jour. Sci., 

3d ser., vol. 31, 1886, pp. 348-357.

The author repeats his opinion that a large part of the metamorphic rocks of the coast 

ranges of California are of Cretaceous age.

BECKER, GEORGE F. The Qucksilver Deposits of the Pacific Slope. <Monog. U. S. 

Geol. Surv., Vol. 13. 1889.

Dr. Becker discusses in this volume the question of the Cretaceous age of a large part of 

the metamorphic rocks of the coast ranges and of certain Aucella-bearing rocks.

BELL, ROBERT. Report on part of the basin of the Athabasca River, Northwest Territory. <Geol. Surv. Can. Report of progress for 1882-'83-'84. Montreal, 1885, 8°. 

pp. 786. Maps, plates, sections, and illustrations. 1885.

Cretaceous rocks are reported to exist at several localities, atone of which they are found 

resting uncouformably upon the Devonian limestone.

BILLINGS, E. On the Mesozoic Fossils from British Columbia. -\Geol. Nat. Hist.

Survey Canada. Report of progress for 1872-'73. Appendix rr, pp. 71-75. 1873.

This article contains notes on the Mesozoic fossils collected by Mr. James Richardson in

British Columbia in 1872. The author also gives a table comparing the Mesozoic rocks of

British Columbia with those of California, Nebraska, and England.

26
WUITE.J ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST. 2?

BLAKE, WILLIAM P. Eeport on the geology of the route near the thirty-second parallel. <Pacific Railroad Surveys, vol. 2. 4°. Washington, 1855. pp. 1-40 and 

maps. 1856.

The occurrence of fossils on the Llano Estacado, now known to characterize the Comanche beds of the Texas section, is announced.

BLAKE, W. P. Locality of secondary fossils in Oregon. <Ain. Jour. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 

44, 1867, pp. 118, 119.

The fossils referred to are from the valley of John Day River, are of tbeage of the Chico 

group of California, and were subsequently described by Meek.

BLAKE, WILLIAM P. Geographical Notes upon Russian America and the Btickeen 

River, being a report addressed to the Hon. W. K. Seward, Secretary of State. 

Washington, 1868.

The author suggests that the coal-bearing formations of Sitka and other adjacent islands 

arc equivalent in age with those of Vancouver and Queen Charlotte Islands.

BLAKE, W. P.; C. H. HITCHCOCK and. (See Hitchcock, C. H., and W. P. Blake.)

BOOTH, JAMES C. Memoir of the Geological Survey of the State of Delaware; including the application of the geological observations to agriculture. 8°. pp. t-xi 

and 9-188. 1841.

The author divides the "Upper Secondary " of the State into the "Red Clay " and the 

' Qrcensand " formations, which seeui lo correspond to the 1'otouiac formation mid the 

New Jersey marls, respectively.

BHADLKV, F. H. Geological Chart of the United States East of the Rocky Mountains,

and of Canada. Published by the author. 1875.

BROADIIHAD, G. C. The chalk beds of Wakeeney, Kansas. ^Kansas City Review, 

vol. 5, 1882, p. 616.

These beds furnish commercial " whiting" and belong to the Niobrara group of the Cretaceous section of Meek & Hayden.

CASTTLLO, ANTONIO DHL. Bosquejo de una Carta Geologicade la Republica Mexicana, 

fonnado por disposicion del Secretario de Fomento, Gen'1 Carlos Pacheco por uua 

comision especial bajo la direccion del Prof. Antonio del Castillo, Director de laEscuela Nacional de Ingenieros. Grabado por Erhard Hermanos, 35 calle DeufestRochereau, Paris. 1889.

CLARK, WILLIAM B. Discovery of fossil-bearing Cretaceous strata in Anne Arundel 

and Prince George Counties, Md. < Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 69, 

pp. 20, 21. 1888.

Considerable areas formerly supposed to be occupied by Tertiary deposits are, by the 

author, shown to be occupied by the upper division of the Cretaceous.

CLARK, W. B. On the Tertiary deposits of the Cape Fear River region. <Bull. Geol. 

Soc. Araer.,vol. 1,1890, pp. 537-540.

The author mentions the commingling of Cretaceous and Tertiary fossils in one and the 

waine stratum, and is inclined to regard it as mechanical, and not faunal.

CONRAD, TIMOTHY A. Fossil shells from the Tertiary deposits on the Columbia River 

near Astoria. <Am. Jour. Sci. 2d ser., vol 5, 1848, pp. 432, 433, including 14 

wood-cuts.

Some of these species seem to be identical with some found in the Tejon group of the 

California State Survey. See Bull.U.S. Geol. Survey No.51.

CONRAD, TIMOTHY A. Observations on certain Eocene fossils, described as Cretaceous 

by Mr. W. M. Gabb in his report published in the "Paleontology of California." 

<Am. Jour. Conchology, vol. 1,1865, pp. 362-365

The fossils discussed by the author and declared to be Tertiary are from both the Chico 

and Tejon groups of the California State Survey.
28 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

CONRAD, TIMOTHY A. Note on the Tertiary of North and South Carolina. < Am. Jour. 

Sci.,2dser.,vol. 43, 1867, p. 2(50.

Reference is made in this note to the occurrence of Cretaceous forms in Eocene strata of 

South Carolina; and Mr. Conrad states that the evidence is conclusive that the commingling took place by a breaking up in Eocene time of previously deposited Cretaceous strata.

CONEAD, TIMOTHY A. Reply to Mr. Gabb on the Cretaceous rocks of California. < Am. 

Jour. Sci. 2d ser., vol. 44, 1867, pp. 376,377.

The author again states his opinion that the fossils of the Tejon [group indicate their 

Eocene age.

CONRAD, T. A. On some points connected with the Cretaceous and Tertiary of North 

Carolina. <Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 1, 1871, pp. 468, 459.

The author denies the correctness of the opinion then current that Miocene and Cretaceous 

fossils are faunally commingled in one and the same stratum on Tar .River, N. C., but claims 

that the commingling is mechanical.

CONRAD, TIMOTHY A. Descriptions of new genera and species of fossil shells of North 

Carolina, in the State cabinet at Raleigh. <[Kerr's Report on the Geol. Surv. of 

North Carolina, vol. 1, Appendix A, pp. 1-28, plates 1-4. 1875.

The author states that the Cretaceous fossils described in this paper represent the Ripley 

group.

COOK, GEORGE H. The annual report of Prof. Geo. H. Cook, State geologist, to his excellency, Joel Parker, president of the board of managers of the Geological Survey 

of New Jersey, 8° pamphlet, pp. 24 and map and section. 1865.

The extension of the Cretaceous into Pennsylvania and Delaware is shown on the map. 

It also shows the presence of Cretaceous deposits upon Staten Island and a part of the extreme western end of Long Island.

COOK, GEORGE H. Geology of New Jersey, pp. 900, imp. 8° and 7 plates. Also 13 

maps in portfolio. 1868.

The Cretaceous formations of New Jersey are elaborately described. 

COOK, GEORGE H. Geological map of New Jersey. 1882.

This map exhibits by colors the areal distribution of the geological formations of the 

StatiAnd contains vertical and horizontal sections of them.

COOK, GEORGE H. Geological Survey of New Jersey. Annual Report of the State 

Geologist for the year 1883, p. 188.

This report contains a section of the Cretaceous formations of New Jersey, with descriptions of the formations as found in artesian borings at Asbury Park and Ocean Grove.

COOK, GEORGE H. Geological Survey of New Jersey. Annual Report of the State 

Geologist for the year 1884.

This report contains a section of the Cretaceous formations of New Jersey, somewhat 

modified from those published in the earlier reports, the modification being due to Information obtained by artesian borings.

COOK, GEORGE H. Sketch of the geology of the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations 

of New Jersey. <Brachiopoda and Lamellibranchiata of the Raritan clays and 

Greensaud marls of New Jersey. Monographs of the U. 3. Geological Survey, vol. 

9, pp. i-xx. 1885.

In this article Prof. Cook gives sections of the Cretaceous formations of New Jersey, corrected by late information obtained from artesian borings at the seacoast.

COOK, GEORGE H. Geological Survey of New Jersey. Annual Report of the State 

Geologist for the year 1886, pp. 254. 1887.

This report is mostly devoted to economic geology; but with the description of "Greensand marls " sections of the New Jersey Cretaceous are given.

COPE, E. D. The fossil reptiles of New Jersey. <Am. Naturalist, 1868, vol. 1, pp. 

23-30, and vol. 3, pp. 84-91.

These are popular articles, the second containing figures illustrating restoration of several species.

COPE, E. D. On some Cretaceous reptilia. <Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., vol. 22, 

1868, pp. 233-242.
WHITE.] ANNOTATED BIBLIOGKAPHICAL LIST. 29

COPE, E. I). On the fresh-water origin of certain sands and clays in New Jersey. 

<Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., vol. 20,1886, pp. 157,158.

The author regards the Haritan clays as of the age of the Dakota group (No. 1) of the 

uppur Missouri River section.

COPE, E. D. On some species of Pythonoruorpha from the Cretaceous beds of Kansaa 

and New Mexico. <Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., vol. 9,1870, pp. 574-584.

COPE, E. D. On the fossil reptiles and fishes of the Cretaceous rocks of Kansas. <C, Ann. 

Rep. U. S. Geol. Survey Terr, for 1870, pp. 385-424. 1871.

COPE, E. D. Synopsis of the extinct batrachia, reptilia, and aves of North America. 

<Trans. Am. Philos. Soc., vol. 14,1871, pp. 1-252. Pis. 1-14.

This work contains descriptions of many Cretaceous forms, and references to those previously published are given.

COPE, E. D. On the geology and paleontology of the Cretaceous strata of Kansas. 

<Anu. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr, for 187], pp. 318-348. 1872.

COPE, E. D. On the existence of dinosanria iu the transition beds of Wyoming. <Proc. 

Am. Philos. Soc., vol. 12,1872, pp. 481-483.

The discovery of Agathaumus in the Laramie strata at Black But tea, Wyoming, is announced, and the strata there assigned to the Cretaceous. This appears to be the first published reference ol Laramie strata to the Cretaceous.

COPE, E. D. [On the Cretaceous age of the lignites of the West.] <Proc. Acad. Nat. 

Sci. Philad., vol. 26, 1874, pp. 12, 13.

The author asserts the Cretaceous age of "the lignitic and other corresponding formations .of the West; " these strata constitute what is now known as the Laramie group.

COPE, EDWARD D. Review of the vertebrata of the Cretaceous period fouud west of the 

Mississippi River. <U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey of the Territories, Bull., vol. 

1 (first series), No. 2, pp. 5-48. 1874.

The author concludes that in the Laramie period a Tertiary flora was contemporaneous 

with a Cretaceous fauna, and that in the Rocky Mountain region there was "no real physical break in the deposition of sediments between the well marked Cretaceous and Tertiary 

groups."

COPE, E. D. Report on the vertebrate paleontology of Colorado. The Cretaceous 

period. <Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr, for 1873, pp. 431-454. 1874.

In this report the author discusses the mutual relations of the Cretaceous and Tertiary 

formations of the West.

COPE. E. D. Synopsis of the vertebrata whose remains have been preserved in the formations of North Carolina. Appendix K, report of the Geol. Surv. N. Carolina, vol. 

1, by W. C. Kerr, pp. 29-52 and Pis. 5-8.

Both Cretaceous and Tertiary vertebrates arc described in this paper.

COPE, E. D. On the transition beds in the Saskatchewan district. <VProc. Acad. Nat. 

Sci. Phila., vol. 27,1875, pp. 9, 10.

The author shows that certain vertebrate remains from beds now known as Laramie 

indicate relationship with both the Tertiary and Cretaceous.

COPE, E. D. The vertebrata of the Cretaceous formations of the West. < U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories, vol. 2. 4°. pp. 302, Pis. I-LVII. 1875.

The author, besides describing and illustrating a great number of vertebrates, gives a chapter "On the classification and distribution of the Cretaceous deposits." He includes all the 

strata now known as Laramie in the Cretaceous and concludes that during that period a 

Tertiary flora and a Cretaceous fauna were contemporaneous.

COPE, E. D. Report on the geology of the region of the Judith River, Montana, and 

on vertebrate fossils obtained on or near the Missouri River. <^Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. 

Terr. No. 3, pp. 565-598, Pis. 30-34. 1877.

The author refers the Judith River formation of Meek and Hayden.which is now included 

in the Laramie group, to the Cretaceous.
30 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

COPE, E. D. Fossils of the Mesozoic periods; with a sketch of the geology of the Mesozoic and Tertiary beds of northern New Mexico. <^Geog. and Geol. Expl. and 

Surv. West of the 100th Meridian, vol. 4, part 2, chapter xr. 1877.

In the geological sketch the author recognizes all the members of the upper Missouri 

Cretaceous section of Meek and Hayden.

COPE, E. D. On the vertebrata of the Dakota epoch of Colorado. < Proc. Am. Philos. 

Soc., vol. 17, pp. 233-247 and 9 plates. 1877. (See note accompanying text entry.)

COPE, E. D. On the saurians recently discovered in the Dakota beds of Colorado. <[ Am. 

Nat., vol.12, 1878, pp. 71-85.

These are the first remains of that kind the discovery of which in strata of the Dakota 

group was announced on the authority of Dr. Hayden. The author of this article now 

believes that the remains in question came from Jurassic and not Dakota strata.

COPE, E. D. The formations of the Belly River of Canada. -\Am. Naturalist, vol. 21, 

1887, pp. 171,172.

The author states that at least a large part of the vertebates of the Belly River group, of 

which numerous species are know n, are identical with Larauiie species.

COPE, EDWARD D. The Mesozoic and Cenozoic realms of the interior of North 

America. <Am. Naturalist, vol. 21, f887, pp.~445-462.

The author gives his view of the paleontological characteristics of the Cretaceous and 

its divisions, but it is based upon vertebrate faunas only.

COPE, E. D. Synopsis of the vertebrate fauna of the Puerco series. <\Trans. Am. 

Philos. Soc., vol. 16, 1888, pp. 298-361, Pis. 4 and 5.

On page 300 the author gives a list of his previous publications concerning the Puerco 

strata.

COTTEATJ. Note sur quelques Echinides du terrain Cr6tace du Mexique. \Bull. Soc. 

g6ol. de France, vol. 18, 3« s6rie, pp. 292-299, pi. 1 and 2.

The author reports a part of the specimens as coming from the same, or nearly the same, 

locality in Sonorafrom which Remond obtained his Comariche specimens. He thinks these 

indicate their Aptien age.

COZZENS, ISSACHAR, Jr. A geological hiB tory of Manhattan, or New York Island, 

and a suite of sections, tables, and columns, pp. Ill, aud 9 plates. 8°. New 

York. 1843.

The author says of the "Greensand or New Jersey marl" that " it is more than probable 

that this member of the Cretaceous group underlies Long Island." He refers to the discovery of Exogyracoslata near Brooklyn, which seems to be the case mentioned by Merrill, 

Redfleld and others.

CREDNER, HERMANN. Die Kreide von New Jersey. <[Zeitschrift der deutscheu 

geol. Gesell., Jahr. 1870, pp. 191-251, and map.

Forty-two species from the New Jersey Cretaceous are specifically identified with those 

of Senonian strata of north Germany.

CROSS, WHITMAN. The Denver formation. <Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 37, 1889, 

pp. 261-282.

The characteristics and relations of the formation are described.

DANA, JAMES D. [Review of] Geological map of the United States, compiled for the 

Ninth [U. S.] Census by C. H. Hitchcock aud W. P. BlaTce. <Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 

6, 1873, pp. 64-66.

The reviewer claims that no known facts warrant the mapping of the north side of Long 

Island as being occupied by Cretaceous deposits.

DANA, JAMES D. Manual of Geology; Treating of the Principles of the Science with 

Especial Reference to American Geological History, pp. xivand 798. 8°, and map. 

New York, 1880. Third edition.

DA vis, W. M. Relation of the coal of Montana to the older rocks. <Tenth .Census 

U. S., vol. 15, Report on the Mining Industries of the United States, pp. 697-737. 

1886.

The author shows that coal and lignite beds are frequent in all or nearly all the Cretaceous formations from the Dakota to the Laramie, inclusive,
WHITE.] ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST. 31

DAWSON, G. M. Note on the occurrence of Forarainifera, Coccolitha, etc., in the Cretaceous rocks of Manitoba. < Canadian Naturalist, new series, vol. 8,1874, pp. 252- 

257.

These Protozoans are from the chalky layers of the equivalent of the Niobrara group of 

the Upper Missouri section.

DAWSON, G. M, Keport on the Tertiary lignite formation in the vicinity of the fortyninth parallel. <[ British North American Boundary Commission, Geological Report of Progress for the year 1873. 8°. Montreal, 1874. pp. 31, Pis. I and n. 

The formation reported on is now known as the Laramie.

DAWSON, G. M. Report on the Geology and Resources of the Region in the Vicinity 

of the Forty-ninth Parallel, from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains; 

with lists of plants and animals collected, and notes on the fossils, pp. 379, with 

18 plates and 3 maps. Montreal, 1875.

The author recognizes iu this work all the members of the Upper Missouri Cretaceous 

section of Meek and Hayclen, from No. 1 to No. 5, inclusive. The immediatelyoverlyingformation now known as the Laramie is culled the Western Lignite formation, and he concludes that the general bearing of all the evidence is in favor of its Eocene Tertiary age.,

DAWSON, GBORGE M. The lignitic formations of the "West. < Canadian Nat., vol. 7, 

1875, new series, pp. 241-252.

The author advances the opinion that production of lignites began before the marine 

Cretaceous waters had leftthc Rocky Mountain area and continued through the period now 

called Laramie. The latter is regarded as "lowest Tertiary."

DAWSON, GEORGE M. Report on explorations in British Columbia. <Geol. Survey 

of Canada, Report of Progress for 1875-1876, pp. 233-265. 1877.

Kefers the Cretaceous rocks near Tatlayoco Lake to the horizon of the Shasta group of 

California. Beds of the "Lignite group" come above these, which are "undoubtedly Tertiary." It includes the Quesnel insect beds.

DAWSON, G. M. General note on the mines and minerals of economic value of British 

Columbia. <Geol. Surv. Canada, Report of Progress for 1876-'77, pp. 103-149. 

1878.

Fuel-bearing rocks of British Columbia are: "1. Cretaceous, or Cretaco-Jurassic rocks 

of Queen Charlotte Islands, etc., holding anthracite; 2. Cretaceous rocks of Vancouver 

Islands, etc., with bituminous coal; 3. Tertiary rocks with bituminouH coal and lignite."

DAWSON, G. M. Report on explorations in British Columbia, chiefly in the basins of 

the Blackwater, Salmon, and Nechacco Rivers, and on Francois Lake. <Geol. 

Surv. Canada, Report of Progress for 1876-'77, pp. 17-94. 1878.

The author mentions the discovery of fossiliferon? strata on the IHasyouco River, the 

place of which is immediately beneath the Jackass Mountain group, which strata " bridge 

to some extent the gap ordinarily found between the Cretaceous and Jurassic."

Extensive outflows of volcanic rocks in the western part of both North and South America during Cretaceous time referred to in discussing the subject of this report.

DAWKON, G. M. Preliminary report on the physical and geological features of the 

southern portion of the interior of British Columbia. <xGeol. Survey, Canada, Report of Progress for 1877-'78, pp. 1-173B. 1879.

The occurrence of Lower Cretaceous rocks on the Skagit River is mentioned and a table 

is given which shows the author's views as to the relation of the formations of British Columbia to those of other parts of North America.

DAWSON, GEORGE M. Sketch of the geology of British Columbia. <Report SOthmeeting British Ass'n Adv. Sci., pp. 588, 589. Also, Canadian Naturalist, vol. 9, n. s., 

1880, pp. 445-447.

The age of the Cretaceous rocks of British Columbia is stated to be from that of the Upper 

and Lower Chalk to the Upper Neocomian. " Beds equivalent to the Chico group yield the 

bituminous coals of Nanairno, while anthracite occurs in the somewhat older beds of the 

Queen Charlotte Islands." The Cretaceous rocks are of great thicknessjand include extensive contemporaneous volcanic beds.
'32 THE CEETACEOUS. [BULL. 82. '

DAWSON, GEORGE. M. Report on the Queen Charlotte Islands. <[<?-eol. Survey of Canada, Report of Progress for 1878-'79, pp. 1-101; 3 maps. 1880.

Five formations of Cretaceous rocks are recognized, instead of three, as was done by 

Richardson, all of which are apparently conformable, and one of which bears anthracite 

coal. This series Is unconformably overlain by Tertiary deposits, and it rests unconformably upon Triassic rocks. The fossils are reported on by Mr. Whiteaves (entry on page .)

DAWSON, G. M. Note on the geology of the Peace Eiver region. <Am. Jour. Sci., 

vol. 21, 1881, pp. 391-394.

The Dunvegan sandstone, which has since been regarded as equivalent to the Belly 

River group, is also regarded by the author as equivalent to the Nioborar.a group of Meek 

and Hayden's Upper Missouri River section. It is spoken of as " a widely extended series 

of beds of Cretaceous age, persistently holding fresh-water and estuarine types of mollusks < 

and land plants," all of which fossils "closely resemble those of the Laramie group."

DAWSON, GEORGE M. On the Lignite Tertiary formation from the Souris River to the 

one hundred and eighth meridian. <Geol. Survey of Canada, Report of Progress 

for 1879-1880, pp. ISA. -49A. , 

A considerable number of sections are given in this article which show the prevalence of ' 

strata of the "lignite Tertiary," which are now known as belonging to the Laramie group.

DAWSON, GEORGE M. Eeport on an exploration from Port Simpson, on the Pacific 

coast, to Edmonton, on the Saskatchewan, embracing a portion of the northern part 

of British Columbia and the Peace Eiver country. <Geol. Survey of Canada, Report of Progress for 1879-1880, pp. 1B-157B. 1881.

This report contains descriptions of the Cretaceous rocks, including the Laramie, of the 

region traversed ; and also a "comparative table of Cretaceous rocks," in which the formations of different parts of British America are compared with one another and with European formations.

DAWSON, G. M. Geology of British Columbia. <Geol. Magazine, December 2, vol. 

8, 1881, pp. 156-162 and 214-227.

This article contains general descriptions of the Cretaceous formations of British Columbia, and also a small geological map which includes Vancouver Island and extends north 

to the parallel of 55°.

DAWSON, G. M. Descriptive note on a general section from the Laurentian axis to the 

Rocky Mountains. <Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, vol. 1, 1883, sec. 4, pp. 39-44.

The article contains a plate of sections. The Cretaceous formations from the Benton to 

the Laramie, inclusive, are discussed. The latter name is now used instead of the name [ 

" Lignite Tertiary," as formerly.

DAWBON, GEOBGE M. Notes on the more important coal seams of Bow and Belly 

River districts. <Canadian Nat., vol 10, 1883, p. 423.

The author shows that the coal beds of the districts named occupy various horizons, 

ranging from the base of the Pierre to the Laramie formation, inclusive.

DAWSON, G. M. Note on the geology of the Peace River region. < Canadian Naturalist, vol. 10, new series, 1883, pp. 20-22.

This article contains statements of views and facts similar to those expressed in an article under the same title in the American Journal of Science. (See second entry on this 

page.)

DAWSON, GEORGE M. Preliminary report on the geology of the Bow and Belly River 

region, Northwest Territory, with special reference to the coal deposits. <Geol. 

Survey of Canada, Report of Progress for 1880, '81, '82, pp. 1B-23B, map, 2 plates. 

1883.

A table of the formations of the region is given, showing the position of the Belly River 

bods beneath the Fox Hills and Pierre strata. The existence of numerous beds of coal is 

shown in the marine Cretaceous formations, as well as in the Laramie and Belly River 

formations.

DAWSON, G. M. Eeport on the region in the vicinity of the Bow and Belly Eivers, 

Northwest Territory. <Geol. Surv. Canada, Report of Progress for 1882, '83, '84, 

pp. 1-169C, and maps. 1884.

Three division? of the Laramie are recognized, having an aggregate thickness of 5,750 

feet. The equivalents of the Port Pierre and Fox Hills groups together are called "Pierre," 

and are shown to underlie the Larauiie and to overlie the Belly River series, although the
IVIIITB.] ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST. 33 

DAWSON, G. M. Continued.

hitter was formerly regarded as Laramie. The Belly River series is of brackish-water origin beneath and of fresh-water origin above. The total thickness is 910 feet. It rests on the 

"lower dark shales," which seem to be equivalent to the Fort Bcnton group. Coals and 

lignites are abundant from the base of the Belly River series to the top of the Larauiie, inclusive.

DAWSON, GEORGE M. Chapter on Canada in Macfarlane's Geol. Eailway Guide (published separately). 1885.

Contains tables of the Cretaceous formations of Manitoba and the Northwest Territory, 

and of British Columbia.

DAWSON, G. M. Preliminary report on the physical and geological features of that 

portion of the Rocky Mountains between latitudes 49° and 51° 30'. <Geol. Surv. 

Canada, Ann. Rep. for 1885. Montreal 1886. pp. 1-169B, and maps. 1886.

Sir William Dawson's name, Kootanie, is used for a formation found in the eastern folds 

of the Rocky Mountain range, beneath the equivalent of the Dakota formation, and resting 

upon Carboniferous and Devonian rocks, and is referred to the lowestlCretaceous. Coal is 

found in its upper portion. An intercalation of volcanic rocks with the Dakota strata is 

believed to exist in this district. The rocks in question form a prominent feature. One of 

the Kootanie species of plants has been found 580 miles northwest from the northern limits 

of the Kootanie district. A table of the Cretaceous rocks of the district is given in this 

report.

DAWSON, G. M. On the Canadian Kocky Mountains, with especial reference to that 

part of the rango between the forty-ninth parallel and the headwaters of the Red 

Deer River. <Cauadian Record of Science, vol. 2, 1887, pp. 285-300.

The flora of the Kootanie group is spoken of as of " Cretaceousor Cretaceo-Jurassic " age.

DAWSON, G. M. Notes to accompany a geological map of the northern portion of the 

Dominion of Canada east of the Rocky Mountains. <Aun. Rep. Geol. Surv. Canada 

for 1886, pp. 1-62 3. aud map. 1887.

Dr. Duwson adds to these notes an important list of the publications he has consulted in 

the preparation of his map.

DAWSON, G. M. Ou the earlier Cretaceous rocks of the northwestern portion of the 

Dominion of Canada. <Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 38, 1889, pp. 120-127.

The author shows the existence of Lower Cretaceous rocks at numerous places from the 

northern boundary of the United States to within the Arctic Circle. A table is also given 

in which the author expresses his views as to the correlation of the Cretaceous formations 

of British Columbia with those of other portions of the continent.

DAWSON, G. M. Report on the exploration in the Yukon district, Northwest Territory, 

aud adjacent northern portion of British Columbia. <\Geol. Surv. Canada, Ann. 

Report of Progress for 1887-'88, pp. 5-178 B, aud map. 1889.

Dr. Dawson reports the discovery of Lower Cretaceous deposits at numerous places from 

Northern British Columbia to within the Arctic Circle. He also found strata in the valley 

of Lewes Rivor bearing Laramie species of pla-its.

DAWSON, G. M. On the later physiographical geology of the Rocky Mountain region 

in Canada, with reference to changes in elevation and the history of the Glacial 

period. <Trans. Roy. Soc., Canada, 1890, vol. 8, sec. 4, pp. 3-74, and 3 plates.

This memoir is devoted in part to the Cretaceous deposits of the regipn discussed, and conUvins sketch maps illustrating the author's views as to the respective areas originally occupied by the Lower Cretaceous, Upper Cretaceous, and Laramie.

DAWSON, G. M. British Columbia. List of formations. <American Railway Guide 

(Macfarlaue), 3d edition, pp. 79-81. 1890.

The author, in addition to a list of the formations of British Columbia, gives some valuable notes on the geology of the province, and correlates the formations which occur there 

.with those of the interior region of British America.

DAWSON, G. M. Manitoba and Northwest Territory. List of geological formations. 

<American Railway Guide (Macfarlane), 2d edition, pp. 74-78. 1890. 

Besides a list of the formations the author gives numerous geological notes.

DAWSON, G. M.; A. R. C. SKWYN a,ud. (See Selwyn, A. R. C., and, G, M- 

' Bull, $3 3 '
34 THE CRETACEOUS. tuuLL.82.

DAWSON, SIB J. W. On the Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of British Columbia and the 

Northwest Territory. Koyal Soc. Canada, Proc. and Trans., vol. 1, Trans. Section 

4, pp. 15-34, plates 1-8. 1883.

The author describes and figures plants from the "Middle and Upper Cretaceous," and 

from the " Laramie and Tertiary; " and discusses the relation of the Laratnie to the Cretaceous. A table of correlation of Cretaceous formation in various parts of western North 

America and in England is given on page 19.

DAWSON, SIB J. W. On some relations of geological work in Canada a"nd the Old 

World. <Trans. Koy. 8oc. Canada, 1884, vol. 2, sec. 4, pp. 1-5.

The "insensible gradation upward of the Cretaceous into the Tertiary " is mentioned on 

page 3, where it is also stated that "our lowest Cretaceous holds a strictly Mesozoic Horn, so 

far as known."

DAWSON, SIB J. W. On the Mesozoic floras of the Kocky Mountain region of Canada. 

<^.Koy. Soc. Canada, Proc. and Trans., 1885, vol. 3, sec. 4, pp. 1-22, Pis. i-iv.

The nameKootanie is proposed for a lower Cretaceous formation, and forty-seven species 

of plants are described from it. The author regards it as corresponding to the Rome of 

Greenland, and with the oldest European and Asiatic Cretaceous floras, lie thinks it is not 

newer than the Shasta group of California nor than the lower sandstones of Queen Charlotte Islands. Twelve species of plants are also described from the Belly River and Laramie formations.

DAWSON, SIB J. W. Cretaceous floras of the Northwest. < Canadian Eecord of Science, 

vol. 2, 1886, pp. 1-9.

The author gives a table of floras from the Kootanie formation to I he Upper Laramie inclusive. The Kootanie is regarded " as a representative of the Urgonian or Neoconiian, 

or, at the very least, as not newer than the Shasta group of the United States geologists 

and the lower sandstones and shales of the Queen Charlotte Islands."

DAWSON, SIB J. W. On the fossil plants of the Laramie formation of Canada. <Koy. 

Soc. Canada Trans., vol. 4, sec. 4, 1887, pp. 19-34, Pls.-l, 2.

The author discusses the extent and stratigraphical relations of the Laramie formation, 

and enumerates many species of plants, most of which were previously published. He 

refers to the fact that a part of the species of plants from the Beily River group are identical 

with Lower Laramie species.

DAWSON, SIB J. W. Notes on fossil woods from the western territories of Canada. 

<Canadian Kecord of Science, vol. 2, 1887, pp. 499-502.

The author expresses the view that "the break which in western Europe separates the 

flora of the Cretaceous from that of the Eocene does not exist in America."

DAWSON, SIB J. W. Cretaceous florasof the northwest territories of Canad'a. <Aui. 

Naturalist, vol. 2, Nov., 1888, pp. 953-959.

Although numerous species of plants as now identified are common to the Belly River 

and Laramie formations, the author thinks that in these cases certain specific differences 

really existed.

DAWSON, SIB J. W. On fossil plants collected by Mr. K. A. McConnell on Mackenzie 

Kiver, and by Mr. T. C. Westoj on Bow Eiver. <Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, vol. 

7, sec. 4, 1889, pp. 69-74.

The author refers to his former similar work (see next preceding entry), gives notes on the 

geographical distribution of the species collected, and points out the strong resemblance of 

the flora from Mackenzie River to that of the Laramie. He also expresses the opinion that 

a line separating the Cretaceous from the Tertiary will pass between the Upper and Lower 

Laramie.

DE KAY, J. E. On the remains of extinct reptiles of the genera Mososaurus and 

Geosaurus found in the secondary formation of New Jersey; and on the occurrence 

of the substance recently named coprolite, by Dr. Bucklaud, in the same locality. 

1830. <Annals N. Y. Lyceum Nat. Hist., vol. 3, pp. 134-141, and PI. 3.

DILLEB, J. S. Coal in the Chico group of California. <Science, vol. 5, 1885, p. 43.

This announcement shows that the Chico, like its equivalent, the Nanaimo group, is a 

coal-bearing formation.
WHITE.) ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST. 35

DILLKR, J. S. Notes on the geology of northern California. <Bulletiu U. S. Geol. 

Survey No. 33, 1886, p. 23.

The author discusses the condition and distribution of the Cretaceous rocks in northern 

California.

DILLER, J. S. Note on the Cretaceous rocks of northern California. <[Aui. Jour. Sci., 

vol. 40, 1890, pp. 476-478.

This article contains a section in which is given a thickness of 3,897 feet for the Upper 

Cretaceous and 26,081 feet for the Lower, making a total of 29,978 feet.

DUCATKL, J. T. Annual report of the geologist of Maryland, pp. 30, 8°, and 2 maps. 

Annapolis, 1837.

The presence of Cretaceous deposits along Sassafras River is noticed.

DUNCAN, P. MAKTIN, and G. P. WALL. A notice of the geology of Jamaica, especially with reference to the district of Clarendon, with descriptions of the Cretaceaus, Eocene, and Miocene corals of the islands. <Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lond., 

vol. 21, 1884, pp. 1-15.

A small area in the parish of Upper Clarendon is shown to be occupied by Cretaceous 

rocks. The existence of Cretaceous rocks upon the islands of St. Thomas, St. Domingo, 

and Trinidad is mentioned or suggested.

BUTTON, C. E. Report on the geology of the high plateaus of Utah. <U. S.Geog. and 

Geol. Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, pp. 307, 4°, with atlas. 1880.

The Lararnie group is designated as a Cretaceous formation, and its intimate stratigraphical relation to the marine Cretaceous formations is noticed. The full equivalent of 

the upper Missouri River section of Meek and Hayden exists in that district, but only the 

Dakota group of that section is separately recognized.

EICHWALD, EDWARD VON. Die Miocan und Kreideformation von Alaska nud den 

Aleutischen Inseln. <Geognost. Palaeont. Bemerkungen ii. d. Halbinsel Mangischlak u. d. Aleutischen Inseln, pp. 88-200; platea. St. Petersburg, 1871.

The author describes many Mesozoic fossils, among which are varieties of Aucella concentrica, which he refers to the Neocomian.

ELDBIDGE, GEORGE H. Montana coal fields. <Eeports of the Tenth Census U. S., vol. 

15, pp. 739-757; 19 plates of sections and 6 maps. 1886.

The author states that coal and lignite beds are numerous in the Cretaceous formations 

of Montana, including the Laramie formation.

EMMONS, S. F., ARNOLD HAGUE and. (See Hague, Arnold, andS. F. Emmons.) 

ENDLICH, F. M. Post-Cretaceous beds of Trinidad region. <Ninth Ann. Rep. U. S. 

Geol. Surv. Terr., pp. 192-215. 1877.

The author states that the formation now known as the Laramie is, in the Trinidad district, 

sometimes found resting directly upon strata as low in the series as those of the Colorado 

formation, implying a time hiatus and probable unconformity there.

ENDLICH, F. M. Report on the geology of the White River district. <U. S. Geol. 

and Geogr. Survey of the Territories, Tenth Annual Report for 1876, embracing 

Colorado and parts of adjacent Territories, pp. 61-131. 1878.

Descriptions and sections of the Cretaceous formations from the Dakota to the Laramie, 

inclusive, are given in this report.

ENDLICH, F. M. Report on the geology of the Sweetwater district. <U. S. Geol. and 

Geogr. Survey of the Territories, Eleventh Annual Report for 1877, pp. 5-158. 

1879.

This report contains illustrations and descriptions of tho Cretaceous formations from the 

Dakota Group to tho Laramie, inclusive.

EVANS, JOHN, and B. F. SHUMARD. Descriptions of new fossil species from the Cretaceous formation of Sage Creek, Nebraska, collected by the North Pacific Railroad 

Expedition, under Gov. J. J. Stevens. <Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., vol. 7, 1854, 

pp. 163, 164.

FELIX, J. and H. LKNK. Beitriige zur Geologie nud Palaeontologie der Republic Mexico. <Palaeontographica, vol. 37, 1891, pp. 117-194, plates 22-30.

This work embraces a discussion of the geology of Cretaceous deposits in the state of 

Fuebla, and descriptions of Cretaceous fossils from the states of Puebla and Oaxaca.
36 THE CKETACEOUS. IBUIL-KS.

FINCH, JOHN. Geological essay on the Tertiary formations of America. <Arn. Jour. 

Sci., vol. 7, 1824, pp. 31-43.

On page 32 this author refers certain deposits in the Atlantic and Gulf coast region to the 

"newer Secondary," which seems to be the earliest recognition of any North American 

deposits as representing the Cretaceous of the Old World.

FISCHEU, P. Sur quelques Fossiles de PAlaska. <Voyages a la Cote nord-ouest de

1'Amerique, par Alph. L. Pinart, pp. 33-36, pi. A. Paris, 1875. 

FONTAINE, WILLIAM MORBIS. The Potomac, or younger Mesozoic flora. Mouog. U. 

S. Geol. Survey, vol. 15,1889. Text, pp. 377. Plates (boundseparately), 180. 1889. 

This work is primarily devoted to descriptions and figures of the plants of the Potomac 

formation, but the lirst 62 pages embrace important discussions concerning its structural 

geology.

GABB, WILLIAM M. Notes on some fossils from the gold-bearing slates of Mariposa, 

with descriptions of some new species. <Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. 3, 1864, 

pp. 172,173.

Among the fossils described is the Lima erringlonii of Gabb. They were referred by him 

to the Jurassic, but those strata are in this memoir regarded as of Cretaceous age.

GABB, WILLIAM M. Geological Survey of California. Paleontology, vol. 1, section iv, 

1864. Description of the Cretaceous fossils. Pp. 55-236, and plates 9-32.

The author treats all the fossils of the Tejon group, as well as those of the Chico group, 

as of Cretaceous age.

GABB, WILLIAM M. Eeply to Conrad's criticism on Gabb's Report on the Paleontology 

of California. <Am. Jour. Conch., vol. 2, 1866, pp. 87-92.

Mr. Gabb contends for the Cretaceous age of the fossils of the Tejon group, which Mr. 

Conrad had asserted to be of Tertiary age.

GABB, AVILLIAM M. On the subdivisions of the Cretaceous rocks of California. <Am. 

Jour. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 44, 1867, pp. 226-229.

The paleontological characteristics of the strata now known as the Chico-Tejon series are 

discussed and their Cretaceous age confidently asserted. The substance of this article also 

appears in the California Academy of Science Proceedings, volume 3, pp. 301-306.

GABB, WILLIAM M. Geological Survey of California. Palaeontology, vol. 2, section 

2, 1869, Cretaceous Fossils, pp. 125-276, and plates 19-36.

The fossils described are from the Chico-Tejon series and the Shasta group. Included in 

this work on the California Cretaceous fossils the author gives "Notes on some Mexican 

Cretaceous Fossils, with descriptions of new species." The Mexican fossils are from 

"near Arivechi, Sonora." See first entry ou p. 51.

GABB, WILLIAM M. Notice of a collection of Cretaceous fossils from Chihuahua, Mexico. <Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 3d ser., vol. 2,1872, pp. 263-265, 2 plates.

These fossils seem to indicate the presence, "at a place called Nugal," of equivalents of 

both the Comanche and overlying formations of the Texas section. They probably were 

found at the same place as those obtained by James P. Kimball. Sec seventh entry on 

page 41.

GABB, WILLIAM M. On the topography and geology of Santo Domingo. <Trans. Am. 

Philos. Soc., Phila. vol. 15,1873, pp. 49-259, and two maps.

Rocks supposed to be of Cretaceous age are mentioned in this work. 

GALEOTTI, H. Notice sur le Calcaire Cr6tac6 des environs de Jalapa au Mexique.

<Bull. Soc. ge~ol. de France, vol. 10,1839, pp. 32-39. 

GALEOTTI, H. See NYST, H., and.

GABDNEB, J. STAEKIE. On the age of the Laramie formation as indicated by its vegetable remains. <Am. Nat., vol. 14,1880, pp. 565-569.

Mr. Gardner says of the flora of the ''Great Lignite," that is, the .T^aramie group, " I entertain no doubt whatever that it is of the age of our Middle Eocene, and perhaps partly of 

our Lower Eocene."

CrAEDNEB, J. SxABKiK. On the relative ages of the American and English Cretaceous 

and Eocene series. -^Report of the 54th meeting of the P>ritish Assoc. Adv. Sci., 

London. 1885.

The author advances the opinion that at the time the Dakota group was deposited an 

Eocene iiora and a Cretaceous fauna coexisted. He is inclined to accept the evidence of 

the plaafcs as of greates value fcU&n, any other, and to segasd the Dakota as of Eocene age,
WHITE.] . ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST. 37

GEIKIE, ARCHIHALD. Text book of Geology, pp. 971, 8°. New York. .1882.

GIBBEH, ROBERT W. Memoir on Mososanras and three allied new genera. <\Smithsouiau Contributious to Knowledge, vol. 2, article 5, pp. 14, plates 1-3. 1851.

The fossils discussed In this memoir arc from the Upper Cretaceous of both the Atlantic 

and Gulf border regions.

GILBERT, G. K., A. R. MARVINE, E. E. HOWELL, JULES MARCOU, and O. LOE\V. 

Geological atlas projected to illustrate geographical explorations and surveys west 

of the 100th meridian of longitude. 1873.

The reports upon which this atlas is based are contained in the annual and final reports 

of the surveys above indicated.

GREWINGIC, C. Die an der Westkiiste Nordamerika.3 und auf den Aleutischen Inseln 

bisher gefundenen fossileu Thier- uud P flan zen-Res te. <Verhand. der Russisch. 

kaiserlichen mineral. Gesells., 1848, 1849. St. Petersburg. 1850.

HAGUE, ARNOLD, and S. F. EMMONS. Descriptive Geology. U. S. Geol. Expl. Fortieth 

Parallel, vol. 2, pp. 890, and 26 plates. 1877.

This volume contains descriptions of the Cretaceous formations of the region bordering 

the fortieth parallel from the Rocky Mountains to California. The classification of those 

formations is the same as that used by King In vol. 1.

HALL, CHARLES E. The geology of Philadelphia County and the southern part of 

Montgomery and Bucks. ^Second Geol. Surv. Penn., vol. C6, pp. XX and 145, 

1881.

A small exposure of clays in Bucks County, Pa, now referred to the Potomac formation, is 

doubtfully referred to the Wcalden.

HALL, JAMES. Geology and paleontology of the boundary. <United States and Mexican Boundary Survey, vol. 1, 1857, pp. 101-140, and geological map.

The author discusses the then known Cretaceous rocks of North America and indicates 

the correlation of some of those of the great interior area with those of the Atlantic and 

Gull border regions. His map shows the distribution of the then known Cretaceous rocks 

of the continent, those of Vancouver Island only being at that time known to exist upon 

the Pacific coast. He notes the presence of Cretaceous deposits in northwestern Iowa and 

at various localities in Minnesota, and shows that they once extended as far north as the 

sources of the Mississippi.

HALL, JAMES. Observations upon the Cretaceous strata of the United States with reference to the relative position of the fossils collected by the [Mexican] Boundary 

Commission. <\Am. Jour. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 24, 1857, pp. 72-86.

The Cretaceous deposits of the Atlantic coast, Gulf coast, Texas, and interior regions are 

discussed and their correlation Indicated.

HALL, JAMES. Notes upon the geology of some portions of Minnesota, from St. Paul to 

the western part of the State. <^Traus. Am. Philos. Soc., n.s., vol. 13, 1867, pp. 

329-339.

The author announces the existence of Cretaceous deposits at several localities in the 

valley of Minnesota Kiver and in the adjacent districts.

HALL, JAMES, and F. B. MEEK. Descriptions of new species of fossils from the Cretaceous formations in Nebraska, with observations on Baculitcs onatus and B. compressus, and the progressive development of the septa in Baculitcs ammonites and 

Scaphites. -\Mern. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. 5, new ser., 1856, pp. 379-411, 8 

plates.

A section of the Cretaceous formations aloi\g the Missouri River is given, but the article 

is mainly paleontological. The region called "Nebraska" is now a part of both South and 

North Dakota.

HARLAN, RICHARD. On an extinct species of crocodile not before described. <^Jour. 

Acad Nat. Sci., Philad, vol. 4, 1824, pp. 15-24, plate 1.

The remains described are from the Greensand of New Jersey.
38 THE CRETACEOUS. . [BULL. 82.

HARLAN, RICHARD, Notice of the discovery of the remains of the ichthyosaurus in 

Missouri, N. A. <Trans. Am. Philos. Soc. Philad., vol. 4, 1834, pp. 405-409, pi. 

XXX.

Prof. Cope refers this form to Mosasaurus, and thinks it came from No. 4 of the Cretaceous section of Meek and Hayden.

HARPER, L. Preliminary report on the geology and agriculture of the State of Mississippi, pp. 1-350, maps. 8°. Jackson, 1857.

The author divides the Cretaceous of Mississippi into two groups, the upper called the 

" calcareous," and the lower the "glauconitic" group. The Eutaw group ofHilgardhe 

believes is either "Permian or Triassic."

HAY, 0. P. The northern limit of the Mesozoic rocks in Arkansas. <Ann. Eep.Geol. 

Survey of Arkansas for 1888, vol. 2, 1888, pp. 261-290.

The limit of the formations referred to by the author is shown on the map accompanying 

the above-named report, and is described in the text.

HAY, ROBERT. A geological reconnaissance in Southwestern Kansas. Bull. U. S. Geol. 

Survey No. 57, pp. 49, and one geological map. 1890.

The author briefly discusses the Cretaceous deposits of southwestern Kansas, recognizing 

the Dakota, Fort Benton. and Niobrara groups of the upper Missouri River section.

HAYDEN, F. V. Notes explanatory of a map and section illustrating the geological 

' structure of the country bordering the Missouri Eiver from the mouth of the Platte 

Eiver to Fort Benton, in latitude47° 30' N., longitude 110° 30' W. <Proc. Acad. 

Nat. Sci. Philad., vol. 9, 1858, pp. 109-116, and map.

The region described was then known as Nebraska Territory and contained the present 

States of Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota, and part of Montana. The formations formerly published by Meek and Hayden are described, and the strata now known 

as Laramie are referred to the Tertiary.

HAYDEN, F. V. Geological sketch of the estuary and fresh-water deposit forming the 

Bad Lands of Judith Eiver. <Trans. Am. Philos. Soc., vol. 11, 1859, pp. 121-138.

The deposits described by the author are now regarded as a part of the Laramie formation.

HAYDEN, F. V. On the geology and natural history of the upper Missouri, with geological map. <Trans. Am. Philos. Soc., vol. 12, 1862, pp. 1-218.

Dr. Hayden gives a general section of the Cretaceous formations, and a table showing the 

vertical range of their fossils.

HAYDEN, F. V. [On an extensive chalk deposit on the Missouri River. ] <Proc. Acad. 

Nat. Sci. Philad., vol. 18, 1866, p. 314.

The author mentions the presence of chalk in the Niobrara group of the upper Missouri 

section.

HAYDEN, F. V. Eemarks on the Cretaceous rocks of the west known as No. 1, or the 

Dakota group. <Am. Jour. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 43, 1867, pp. 171-179.

This article is devoted mainly to a demonstration of the Cretaceous age of the strata in 

question.

HAYDEN, F. V. Notes on the lignite deposits of the West. <Am. Jour. Sci., 2d sen, 

vol. 45, pp. 198-208. U. S. Geol. Survey of the Territories, first annual report, embracing Nebraska. 1867.

The lignite-bearing beds, which are now known as belonging to the Laramie formation, 

are regarded by the author as certainly of Tertiary age.

HAYDEN, F. V. Sections of strata belonging to the Bear Eiver group, near Bear Eiver 

City, Wyoming. <Am. Phil. Soc. Proc., vol. 11, 1871, pp. 420-425.

These sections include strata which are exposed in the valley of Sulphur creek, just above 

its confluence with Dear River, near the site of a temporary village called Bear River City, 

of which not a house now remains. They embrace marine Cretaceous strata as well as 

those which have since received the name of Bear River Laramie.

HAYDEN, F. V. Geology of the Missouri Valley. ^Preliminary report of the U. S. 

Geol. Survey of Wyoming and portions of contiguous Territories, pp. 83-188. 1872. 

The section previously published jointly by the author and Mr. Meek is here repeated, 

and an attempt is made to correlate the formations with those of Europe.
WHITE.] ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST. 39

HAYDEN, F. V. [Remarks on the age of tbe liguiticgroup.] <U. S. Geol. andGeog. 

Survey of the Territories, Bull., vol. 1, first series, No. 2, pp. 1 and 2. 1875.

The author states that up to this time he had "regarded the entire Lignitic group of the 

west as of Tertiary age." He now announces that at several localities coal has been found 

among the marine Cretaceous strata.

HAYDEN, F. V. Remarks on lignitic formation of the West. <U. S. Geol. Survey of 

the Territories, vol. 7, 1878, pp.m-ix, Contributions to the Fossil Flora of the 

Westdtn Territories, part 2, the Tertiary Flora. 1878.

The author adheres to his opinion that the " lignitic group " (Lararnie) is of Tertiary age.

HAYDEN, F. V.; F. B. MEEK and. (See Meek, F. B., and F. V. Hayden,)

HECTOK, JAMES. On the geology of the country between Lake Superior and the Pacific Ocean (between the forty-eighth and fifty-fourth parallels of latitude), visited 

by the Government exploring expedition under the command of Capt. J. Palliser. 

<Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lond., vol. 17, 1861, pp,"388-445, and map.

This article contains a "section of the Cretaceous system as developed in British North 

America, 17 together with other North American sections for comparison. The author also 

shows the Cretaceous age of the coal-bearing strata at Nanaimo, Vancouver Island, which 

seems to be the first published statement of that fact.

HEILPBIN, ANGELO. On the age of the Tej'on rocks of California, and the occurrence of 

Animomtic remains in Tertiary deposits. <Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., vol. 34, 

1883, pp. 196-214.

The author reaches the conclusion that the T6jon group of the California geologists is of 

Eocene age.

HEILPBIN, ANGELO. The geology and paleontology of the Cretaceous deposits of Mexico. 

<Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1890, pp. 445-469, and 3 plates.

The author states that "Cretaceous deposits cover or are scattered over the greater part 

of Mexico from the Atlantic plains to the Pacific, and from the Rio Grando to or through 

the States of Colim*, Michoacan, Guerrero, and Oaxaca. These deposits are continuous with 

the Cretaceous area of the intr :ior basin of the United States, and nre largely the equivalents in age of the deposits wl .ch are represented in Texas and in the other Gulf States."

HERB, OSWALD. [In a letter from Leo Lesquereux to J. D. Dana. ] On fossil plants collected by Dr. John Evans at Vancouver Island and at Bellingham Bay, Washington Territory. <Am. Jour. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 28, 1859, pp. 85-89.

The opinion is advanced by Prof. Herrthat the plants from the coal-bearing strata of Vancouver Island, now known to be Cretaceous, are of Miocene age. lie also states his opinion that the plants collected from the Dakota formation are of Tertiary and not of Cretaceous age.

HEBB, OSWALD. Reply to Dr. Newberry on the age of the Nebraska leaves. <Am. 

Jour. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 31, 1861, pp. 435-440.

The leaves referred to are from the Dakota formation, and the author defends his previously expressed opinion that they are of Tertiary and not of Cretaceous age.

HICKS, L. E. The Dakota group south of the Platte River in Nebraska. <Troc. Amer. 

Assoc'n Adv. Sci., vol. 34, 1886, pp. 217-219.

The Dakota formation is announced as occupying 5,000 square miles in Nebraska. The 

discovery of marine fossils in Jefferson County is also announced, but upon subsequent examination they are found to be brackish-water forms commingled with Uniones and other 

fresh-water mollusca.

HILGARD, EUGENE W. Report on the Geology and the Agriculture of the State of 

Mississippi, pp. 389, 8° and plates and maps. 1860.

The author divides the Cretaceous of Mississippi into four divisions; the lowest he calls 

the Eutaw group, and the others, respectively, Tombigbee sand, Rotten limestone, and 

Eipley groups.

HILOABD, EUGENE W. On the Geological History of the Gulf of Mexico; -with a map. 

<Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 2, 1871, pp. 391-404.

The author here republishes his Cretaceous section of Mississippi. Ho thinks the Cretaceous of Arkansas is mostly confined to the equivalent of the Rotten limestone.
40 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

HILL, ROBERT T. The Texas section of the American Cretaceous. <Am. Jour. Sci., 

3d ser., vol. 34, 1887, pp. 287-309.

The Cretaceous formations of Texas are described, and their relations with those of other 

parts of North America and of Europe are discussed.

HILL, ROBERT T. The Topography and Geology of the Cross-Timbers and surrounding regions in Northern Texas. <Am. Jour, Sci., 3d ser., vol. 33, 1887, pp. 

291-303, plate 6.

A section of the Cretaceous formations of Texas is given, showing their taxonomic position with relation to one another.

HILL, ROBERT T. The Neozoic Geology of Southwestern Arkansas. <Anu. Rep. 

Geol. Survey Arkansas for 1888, vol. 2, 1888, pp. 1-260.

The Tertiary formations are described in the text, and the ascertained Cretaceous areas 

are shown on a map accompanying the volume.

HILL, ROBERT T. Geol. Survey of Texas, Bulletin No. 4. A Preliminary Annotated 

Check List of the Cretaceous Invertebrate Fossils of Texas, pp. i-xxxi and 1-57. 

8°. Austin, 1890.

This bulletin contains, besides lists of fossils, the author's classification of the Cretaceous 

formations of Texas.

HILL, R. T. A brief description of the Cretaceous rocks of Texas, and their economic 

value. <First Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Texas for 1889, 1890, pp. 103-141. 

The Cretaceous section of Texas is given in tabular form on pages 132 and 133.

HIND, HENRY YOULE. The Northwest Territory. Reports of Progress, together with 

Preliminary and General Report on the Assiuniboiue and Saskatchewan Exploring 

Expedition. 4°. Toronto. 1859. Another edition of this report was published in 

London in 1860.

The large region drained in part by theSaskatchawan,now known to be occupied mainly 

by the Laramie formation, is reported as being occupied by the Cretaceous. Marine Cretaceous formations are also recognized in the same region, fossils from which are described 

by Mr. Meek. See third entry on page 45.

HITCHCOCK, C. H. Note on the Cretaceous strata of Long Island. <Proc. Am. 

Assoc'u Adv. Sci., vol. 22, 1873, pt. 2, p. 130.

The author explains his reason for coloring a large part of Long Island upon the geographical map which he had previously published as being- occupied by Cretaceous deposits.

HITCHCOCK, C. H. Geological map of the United States and part of Canada. Compiled for the American Institute of Alining Engineers. 1886.

This map is largely based upon the one compiled by W J McGee and published in the 

Fifth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey. 1884.

HITCHCOCK, C. H., and W. P. BLAKE. Geological map of the United States, compiled for the Ninth Census. 1872.

HITCHCOCK, EDWARD. Report on the geology of Massachusetts. <\Arn. Jour. Sci., 

vol. 22, 1833, pp. 1-70.

Existence of Cretaceous deposits on the island of Martha's Vineyard suggested.

HITCHCOCK, EDWARD. Final report on the geology of Massachusetts; vol. 1, pp. 299, 

4°, map and 14 plates; vol. 2, 1841, pp. 831, and 55 plates.

Prof. Hitchcock, speaking of the strata exposed at Gay Head, Martha's Vineyard, suggests that some of them contain material which consists of " ruins of * * * the green 

sand and clay of the Cretaceous formation." See vol. 2, p. 423.

HODGE, James T. Observations on the Secondary and Tertiary formations of the Southern Atlantic States. <Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 41, 1841, pp. 332-343.

The author mentions the existence of Cretaceous deposits at Wilmington and along Cape 

Fear River in North Carolina.

HOLMES, W. H. Report on the northwestern portion of the Elk Range. <U. S. Geol. 

and Geogr. Survey of the Territories, Eighth Annual Report for 1874, embracing Colorado and adjacent Territories, pp. 59-71. 1876.

Sections of the Cretaceous formations from the Dakota to the Laramie, inclusive, are 

given in this report.
WIIITH.] ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST. 41

HOLMES, WILLIAM II. Eeport as geologist of the San Juan division. <U. S. Geol. 

and Geogi1 . Survey'of the Territories, Ninth Annual Report for 1675, embracing Col- 

' orado and parts of adjacent Territories, pp. 237-276. 1877.

Several sections of the strata of the region of San Juan River are given, showing the Cretaceous formations from the Dakota to the Laramie formation, inclusive.

HOWELL, EDWIN E. Report on the geology of the portions of Utah, Nevada, Arizona 

and New Mexico, examined in 1872 and 1873. -\Report Geogr. and Geol. Expl. 

and Surveys west of the one-hundredth meridian, by G. M. Wheeler, vol. 3, Geology, pp. 227-264. 1875.

Only a brief account of the Cretaceous formation is given in this report.

HOWELL, EDWIN E. See entry third on page 37.

JAMES, THOMAS P. Handbook of the State of Georgia, accompanied by a geological 

map of the State. 1876.

The map shows that a comparatively small area bordering the Chattahooche River, and 

extending eastward less than 50miles, is occupied by Cretaceous deposits.

JOHNSON, LAWRENCE C., EUGENE A. SMITH and. (See Smith, Eugene A., and 

Lawrence C. Johnson.)

KERB, W. C. Report of the Geological Survey of North Carolina, vol. 1, pp. 325, 8° and

map with sections. Also 4 appendices with 7 plates, the first by T. A. Conrad, the

second by E. D. Cope, the third by F. A. Genth, and the fourth by C. D. Smith. 1875.

The map shows the few small areas known to be occupied by the Cretaceous, and the

section shows its relations to otner deposits.

KIMBALL, JAMES P. Notes on the geology of Western Texas and of Chihuahua, Mexico. <Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 48, 1869, pp. 378-388.

The author notices strata containing Texan Cretaceous fossils which lie found at the base 

of the Sierra Nogal, 20 miles from Presidio del Norte, on the Chihuahua road. They apparently come from the same locality as those noticed by Qabb. See ninth entry on page30.

KING, CLARENCE. Geological aud Topographical Atlas accompanying the report of 

the Geological Exploration of the fortieth parallel. 1876.

The geological .sheets of this atlas contain results of the work of Arnold Hague and 8 

F. Emmons, besides those of Mr. King's work. The east half of map 3, which was Issued, 

separately in 1875, contains the first announcement of King's classification of the Cretaceous formations, and the first use of the name "Laramie Group." See nextentry.

KING. CLARENCE. U. S. Geological Exploration. Fortieth Parallel, vol. 1, Systematic 

Geology, pp. 803 aud plates. 1878.

The equivalents of Nos. 2, 3, and 4, of the Upper Missouri Cretaceous section of Meek & 

Hayden are joined together under the name of Colorado group; and the strata now known 

as Laramic is assigned to the Cretaceous, as was done by this author in vol. 3.

KLOOS, J. H. A Cretaceous basin in the Sank Valley, Minnesota. <Am. Jour. Sci., 

3d ser., vol. 3, 1872, pp. 17-26.

A deposit more than 70 feet in thickness is described, which apparently represents the 

Benton division of the Upper Missouri River section.

KNOWLTON, F. H. Fossil Wood and Lignite of the Potomac formation. <Bull. U. S. 

Geol. Survey No. 56, pp. 72 and 7 plates. 1889.

Professor Knowlton describes and figures six species based on the microscopic character 

of the fossilized wood, and briefly discusses the formation geologically.

LECONTE, JOSEPH. Elements of Geology. A text-book for colleges and for the general reader. 1882.

LEIDY, JOSEPH. Extinct vertebrata from the Judith River and great lignite formations of Nebraska. <^Trans. Am. Philos. Soc., vol. 11, 1859, pp. 139-154. map 

and 3 plates.

These vertebrate fossils are from the Judith River strata described by Dr. Hayden. All 

these strata are now included in the Larauiie group.
42 ' THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

LEIDY, JOSEPH. Cretaceous reptiles of the United States. <Sinithsouiau Contributions to Knowledge, vol. 14, 1805, pp. 135, plates :i-xx.

The fossils described in this memoir are mainly from New Jersey, but some are from the 

Gulf coast and the interior regions.

LEIDY, JOSEPH. Description of remains of reptiles and fishes from the Cretaceous formations of the interior of the United States. ^Contributions to the Extinct Vertebrate Fauna of the Western Territories. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., vol. 1, pp. 266- 

310. 1873.

A few of the forms noticed or described in this work are from the Atlantic and Gulf 

Border regions.

LENK, H. See Felix J. and H. Lenk.

LESQUEREUX, LEO,, On some fossil plants of recent formations. <Am. Jour. Sci., 2d 

set., vol. 27, 1859, pp. 359-366.

The author refers the fossil plants collected by Dr. John Evans from the coal-bearing 

strata at Nanaimo, Vancouver Island, to the Miocene. They are apparently the same, at 

least in part, as those which are now known to be of Cretaceous age.

LESQUEREUX, LEO. On the discordance in the characters of the European and American flora at the Tertiary and Cretaceous epochs. < Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr, 

for 1870, 1871, pp. 377-385.

The author states that the development of botanical types progressed at a more rapid rate 

in North America than elsewhere.

LESQUEREUX, LEO. Fossil flora. < Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr, for 1871, pp. 283- 

318. 1872.

Both Cretaceous and Tertiary species are described. Some Laramie species are included 

in the latter. He states that the Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of North America are intimately related.

LESQUEREUX, LEO. Lignitic formation and fossil flora. <U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Survey of the Territories, embracing portions of Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, and Utah. 

Sixth Annual Report for 1872, pp. 317-427. 1873.

The author regards the formation now known as the Laramie as of Eocene age. 

LESQUEREUX, LEO. Contributions to the fossil flora of the Western Territories, part 1, 

the Cretaceous Flora. <Report of the U. S. Geol. Surv, Terr., vol. 6, pp. 136, plates 

i-xxx. 1874.

The author discusses at length the relation of the fossil plants of the Dakota to those of 

other Cretaceous formations.

LESQUEREUX, LEO. A review of the Cretaceous flora of North America. <Ann. Rep. 

U.S. Geol. Surv. Terr., 1876, pp. 316-365, and plates 1-8.

The author, contrary to his earlier views, fully admits the Cretaceous age of the Dakota 

formation, but he points out the fact that its flora is more nearly like Tertiary than any 

then known Cretaceous flora.

LESQUEREUX, LEO. The lignitic formations of North America. ^Contributions to 

the fossil flora of the Western Territories, U. S. Geol. Survey of the Territories, 

part 2, the Tertiary flora, 1878, pp. 3-31.

The author adheres to his opinion previously expressed that, the "lignitic formations " 

(Laramie) are of Tertiary age. A large number of species of plants are described and figured.

LESQUEREUX, LEO,, Contributions to the fossil flora of the Western Territories, part 

II, the Tertiary flora. <U. S. Geol. Survey of the Territories, vol. 7, pp. 366, 

and 65 plates, 4°. 1878.

The author, after full discu ssion of the subject, refers all the lignite-bearing formations 

of the West to the Tertiary.

LINDGREN, W. Notes on the geology of Baja California, Mexico. <Proc. Cal. Acad. 

Sci., 2d series, vol. 1, 1888, pp. 173-196, and 5 plates.

The author describes and maps the small area occupied by the Cretaceous deposits at 

Todos Santos Bay that White has referred to the Walalla group.
WHITE.] ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST. 43

LOUGHBIDG E, R. II. Report on the geological and economic features of the Jackson 

Purchase region, embracing the counties of Ballard, Galloway, Fulton, Graves, 

Hickinan, McCracken, and Marshall. ^Geological Survey of Kentucky, pp. 357, 

and 3 maps. 1888.

Tho Cretaceous of Kentucky hns not been found to be fossiliferous, and although Dr. 

Loughridge regardsit all as representing: the Ripley group, it resembles the Eutaw in lithological characteristics.

LOUGIIKIDGE, R. H. Report on the Jackson Purchase region. < Geological survey of 

Kentucky, pp. 32-36., and geol. map. 1888.

Dr. Loughridge shows that a narrow belt of Cretaceous deposits extend across the western 

extremity of Kentucky.

LYELL, CHARLES. Notes on the Cretaceous strata of New Jersey and other parts of 

the United States bordering the Atlantic. <|Geol. Soc. Quart. Jour., vol. 1,1843, 

pp. 55-60.

The author refers "all the [Cretaceous] fossiliferous formations of New Jersey to that 

part of the European series which ranges from the Maestricht beds to the Gault, inclusive."

LYELL, CHARLES. Notes on the Cretaceous strata of New Jersey, and parts of the 

United States bordering the Atlantic. <Ain. Jour. Sci., vol. 47,1844, pp. 213,214.

Mr. Lyell regards the Cretaceous of the Atlantic border region as agreeing with the European Gault, to the Maestricht beds inclusive. He states that the limestone of Wilmington,N.C.,and of Santee River, S.C., which other geologists had called Upper Cretaceous, 

are of Eocene age.

MACFABLANE, JAMES. General note of the Geology of Mexico. <American Geological Railway Guide, second edition, 1890, pp. 415-420.

MARCOU, JULES. Notes on the Cretaceous and Carboniferous rocks of Texas. -^Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc., vol. 8,1862, pp. 86-98.

In this article Professsor Marcou gives his views as to the order of superposition of the 

Cretaceous formations of Texas, which are essentially the same as those subsequently published by Hill and "\Vhite, respectively. He repeats his formerly expressed opinion that the 

lower portion of the Comanche series is referable to the Aptien and Neocomian of Europe.

MAKCOU, JULES. Untersuchungen in Californien. <^Verhandl. d. K. K. Geolog. 

Reichsanstalt, 1875, pp. 215, 216.

The strata designated as the T6jon group by the California geologists are referred to as 

characteristically Eocene. '

MARCOU, JULES. Report on the geology of a portion of southern California. < Annual 

Report upon the Geogr. Surveys west of the 100th meridian by Wheeler. Annual 

Report of the Chief of Engineers for 1876, Appendix J J, pp. 158-172. 1876.

Professor Marcou recognizesthe unbroken characterof the greatseries of strata which in 

this memoir is designated as Chico-Tejon; but ho refers the whole series to the Tertiary.

MARCOU, JULES. Note sur la geologic de la Californie. <Soc. g6ol. France, Bull. 3° 

scr., vol. 11, 1883, pp. 407-435.

M. Marcou still regards the whole of the Chico and Tejon groups of the California geologists as of Tertiaryage.

MARSH, O. C. Notice of some new Mososauroid reptiles from the Greensand of New 

Jersey. <Am. Jour. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 48, 1869, pp. 392-400.

MARSH, O. C. Notice of some fosnl birds from the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations

the United States. <Am. Jour. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 49, 1870, pp. 205-217.

These remains of Cretaceous birds are from the Upper Cretaceous of New Jersey.

MARSH, O. C. On the Geology of the Eastern Uinta Mountains. <Am. Jour. Sci., 

3d ser., vol. 1, 1871, pp. 191-198.

Prof. Marsh mentions the discovery of a crinoid, afterward described as Uinlacrinus «ocfalia by Grinnell, in strata which appear to be referable to the Colorado group.
44 THE CRETACEOUS. iBuu,.82.

MARSH, O. C. Notice of some new fossil reptiles from the Cretaceous and Tertiary 

formations. <Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 1, 187], pp. 322-329.

MAKSII, O. C. Discovery of additional remains of Pterosauria with descriptions of two

new species. < Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 3, 1872, pp. 241-248. 

MARSH, O. C. On the structure of the skull and limbs in Mososauroid reptiles with 

descriptions of new genera and species. <Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 3,1872, pp. 

448-404; plates 10-13.

MARSH, O. C. Birds with teeth. <Third Ann. Eep. U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 45-48. 

1883.

The author states that these remarkable remains were obtained from the equivalent of 

No. 3 of Meek & Hayden's section of the Upper Missouri Cretaceous.

MARSH, O. C. Notice of a new germs of Sauropoda and other new Dinosaurs from the 

Potomac formation. <[Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 35, 1888, pp. 89-94. 

The author refers the Potomac formation to the Jurassic.

MARVINB, ARCHIBALD R. Report of Middle Park division. <U. S. Geol. and Geog. 

Survey of the Territories, Seventh Annual Report for 1873, embracing Colorado, pp. 

83-192. 1874.

This report gives sections and descriptions of formations at the eastern base of the Rocky 

Mountains, as well as in Middle Park. These show the different Cretaceous formations 

from the Dakota formation to the " Lignitic " (Laramie) inclusive, the names applied to the 

formations being the same as those of the Upper Missouri River section. He reports a limited unconformity between tho Laramie and Pox Hills strata in Middle Park.

MARVINE, A. R., A. C. PEALE, F. M. ENDLICH, C. A. WHITE and W. H. HOLMES. U.

S. (jleol. and Geog. Survey of the Territories. Geological and Geographical Atlas

of Colorado, and portions of adjacent Territory. Second edition, corrected. 1881.

The reports upon which this atlas Is based are contained in the Annual Reports of the

Survey.

MATHER, WILLIAM W. Report of W. W. Mather, geologist of the first geological district of the State of New York. <State of New York in Assembly, February 20, 

1838. Communication from the governor relative to the geological survey of the 

State, pp. 121-184. 8°. 1838.

On page 138 the author suggests that certain deposits in Suffolk and Richmond Counties 

are equivalent to certain of the New Jersey Cretaceous deposits.

MATHER, WILLIAM W. Geology of New York, part I, comprising the geology of the 

first geological district, pp. 653. 4° and plates and maps. 1843.

On page 272 the author definitely refers the deposits on Staten and Long Island, mentioned in the last entry, to the non-rnarine division of the Cretaceous of New Jersey.

McCoNNKLL, R. G. On the Cypress Hills, Wood Mountain, and adjacent country, 

with map. <Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Can., Ann. Rep. for 1885. Montreal, 1886. 

pp. 1-78 C. 1 map and 3 plates.

The author describes Cretaceous formations from the Belly River to the Laramie formation, inclusive. The position of the former beneath the Fox Hills and Pierre, anditsseparatencsa from the Laramie fully stated.

McCoNNELL, R. G. On the geological structure of a portion of the Rocky Mountains. 

<Geol. Surv. Canada, Ann. Report for 1886, pp. 7-40 D. 1887.

Cretaceous rocks from the Kootanie to the Ben ton are discussed. The former rest upon 

Carboniferous rooks. Near Devil's Lake several species of marine molluscan fossils were 

found at the base of the Kootanie, which Mr. Whiteavcs identifies with species found in 

the lower portion of the Queen Charlotte Island Cretaceous section.

McGEE, W J. Map of the United States, exhibiting the present status of knowledge 

relating to the areal distribution of geologic groups. -\Fifth Annual Report of the 

U. S. Geological Survey. 1884.

McGEE, W J. The geology of the head of Chesapeake Bay. <Seventh Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, pp. 545-646. 1888.

The Potomac formation is defined, and the statement made that the " Sassafras River 

Greensand" rests unconformably upon it in the vicinity of Sassafras River, in Maryland.
WHITE.] ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST. 45

McGEK, W J. Three formations of the Middle Atlantic Slope. <Ain. Jour. Sci., 3d 

set., vol. 35, 1888, pp. 120-143.

The Potomac formation is described in this article. It was first so named by Mr. McGco 

in the report of the health officer of the District of Columbia for the year ending June 30, 

1885.

MEEK, F. B. Description of new organic remains from the Cretaceous rocks of Van 

couver's Island. <Trans. Albany Inst., 1857, vol. 4, pp. 37-49.

The fossils described are from the strata since known as the Nanaimo group. This article is important as containing the first publication of Cretaceous fossils from thu Pacific 

coast.

MEEK, F. B. Remarks on the Cretaceous fossils collected by Prof. Henry Y. Hind, on 

the Assinniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition, with descriptions of some 

new species. <Reports on the Northwest Territory, by Henry Youle Hind, M. 

A., Toronto, 1859, pp. 182-185 and 2 plates.

MEEK, F. B. Remarks on the Carboniferous and Cretaceous rocks of Eastern Kansas 

and Nebraska, and their relations to those of the adjacent States and other localities further eastward, iu connection "with a review of a paper recently published on 

this subject by Jules Marcou, in Bulletin Societ6 g6ologiyue do France. <|Am. 

Jour. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 39, 1865, pp. 157-174.

The Cretaceous age of the Dakota formation is asserted, notwithstanding the modern 

character of Its plant remains. It is referred to the base of the Upper Missouri Iliver Cretaceous section, but is not regarded as of Lower Cretaceous age.

MEEK, F. B. Description of fossils from the auriferous slates of California. <Geological Survey of California; Geology, vol.1, 1865, pp. 477-482, and 1 plate.

The author refers all these fossils, tho greater part of which belong to the genus Aucella, 

to the Jurassic, They are, however, referred to the Lower Cretaceous in this memoir.

MEEK, F. B. Preliminary list of the fossils collected by Dr. Hay den's Exploring Expedition of 1871 in Utah and Wyoming Territories, with descriptions of a few new 

species. 1872.

A few Laramie fossils are catalogued with tho Cretaceous, but tho collections froiu tho 

so-called Bear Kiver Laramie are referred to tho Tertiary.

MEEK, F. B. Paleontologicai report. <^sixth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological 

Survey of the Territories by F. V. Haydeu, pp. 429-518. 1873.

This report is largely geological. It contains an important section of the Cretaceous 

rocks near Coalville, Utah, among which are an estuary deposit and several beds of coal. 

It also contains another section of similar formations in the valley of Sulphur Creek, western Wyoming, together with discussions of the formations and descriptions of new species. 

The latter section embraces the so-called Bear Kiver Laramle, which he refers to the Tertiary.

MEEK, F. B. Notes on some fossils from near the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, 

 west of Greeley and Evans, Colorado, and others from about 200 miles farther 

eastward, with descriptions of a few new species. <^Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geog. 

Surv. Terr. No. 1, 2 ser., 1875, pp. 41-47.

The author discusses certain geological questions, and shows that the Laramie strata 

have been pierced by an artesian boring from 45 to 400 feet beneath the surface of tho 

plains at a point 200 miles east of Greeley, Colorado.

MtEK, F. B. Descriptions and illustrations of fossils from Vancouver's and Sucia Islands and other northwestern localities. <U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Survey of the 

Territories, Bull., vol. 2, pp. 351-376, and plates i-vi. 1876.

This article contains, among other matter, a republication with figures of Cretaceous fossils from- Vancouver Island, which were originally published without figures in vol. 4 

Trans. Albany Inst., 1857.

MEEK, F. B. Report on the Cretaceous fossils contained in the collections brought 

from New Mexico by the exploring expedition under the command of Capt. J. N, 

Macornb, of the U. S, Topographical Engineers. <[Report of the exploring expedition from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to the junction of the Grand and Green Rivers
46 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

MEEK, F. B. Continued.

of the Great Colorado of the West, in 1859, under the command of Capt. J. N. 

Macomb, Corps of Topographical Engineers, with geological report by Prof. J. S. 

Newberry. 1876.

Besides the descriptions of fossils, this report contains the descriptive Cretaceous section of Dr. Newberry, and in connection with each division of the section he gives the 

names of the fossils which characterize it.

MEEK, F. B. Eeport on the paleontological collections of the expedition. < Report 

of explorations across the Great Basin of the Territory of Utah for a direct wagon 

route from Camp Floyd to Genoa, in Carson Valley, in 1859, by Capt. J. H. Simpson, Corpsof Topographical Engineers U. S. Army, pp. 337-373, and plates l-v, 1876.

The author is inclined to regard the Bear River Laramie beds as of Upper Cretaceous age 

although he had formerly assigned them to the Lower Eocene.

MEEK, F. B. A Keport on the Invertebrate Cretaceous and Tertiary Fossils of the 

Upper Missouri Country. U. S. Geol. Sur. Terr., vol. 9, pp. I-LXIV and 1-629; 

45 plates, 4°. 1876.

This great work contains a summary of many articles formerly published by the author 

alone or in coauthorship with Dr. Hayden, most of which articles are therefore not included in this list. Pages I-L.XIV are devoted to geological discussion, and they contain 

discussions of the Cretaceous sections of different parts of North America. These are compared with one another and in part with the European Cretaceous.

MEEK, F. B. United States Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel, Clarence 

King, geologist in charge. Part I, Paleontology, by F. B. Meek, pp. 1-197 and 

plates i-xvn. 1877.

This work is wholly paleontological. It contains descriptions and figures of many Cretaceous fossils, and also some from the so-called Bear River Laramie.

MEEK, F. B., JAMES HALL and. (See Hall, James, and F. B. Meek.) 

MEEK, F. B., and F. V. HAYDEN. Descriptions of new fossil species of Mollusca, collected by Dr. F. V. Hayden in Nebraska Territory, together with a complete catalogue of all the remains of invertebrata hitherto described and identified from the 

Cretaceous and Tertiary formations of that region. <Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 

vol. 8, 1856, pp. 265-286.

This article contains the first publication of the section of the Upper Missouri Cretaceous, 

which has since become so well known.

MEEK, F. B., and F. V. HAYDEN. Descriptions of new species of Acephala and Gasteropoda, from the Tertiary formations of Nebraska Territory, with some general 

remarks on the geology of the country about the sources of the Missouri Kiver. 

<Proc. Acad. Nat, Sci. Phila., vol, 8, 1.856, pp. 111-126.

The formation now known as the Laramie is in this article referred to the Tertiary.

MEEK, F. B., and F. V. HAYDEN. Descriptions of new species and genera of fossils, 

collected by Dr. F. V. Hayden in Nebraska Territory, under the direction of Lieut. 

G. K. Warren, U. S. Topographical Engineers, with some remarks on the Tertiary 

and Cretaceous formations of the Northwest, and the parallelism of the latter with 

those of other portions of the United States and Territories. <Proc.- Acad. Nat 

Sci. Phila., vol. 9, 1857, pp. 117-148.

This article contains discussions of the Cretaceous formations constituting the Upper Missouri River Cretaceous section published by these authors in the previous year.

MEEK, F. B., and F. V. HAYDEN. Eeroarks on the Lower Cretaceous beds of Kansas 

and Nebraska, together with descriptions of Carboniferous fossils from the valley of 

Kansas River. <Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 2d8er., vol. 2,1858, pp. 256-264.

The discussions refer to the opinion of Prof. Heer that the plants of the Dakota formation 

are of Tertiary age, and the authors show that that formation is overlain by at least 800 feet 

of Cretaceous strata.

MEEK, F. B., and F. V. HAYDEN. Remarks on the Lower Cretaceous beds of Kansas 

and Nebraska. <Am. Jour. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 27, ]859,pp. 219-227.

The authors reviewed the controversy that then prevailed concerning the true age of the 

Dakota formation, and show that it lies beneath welh.knowu Cretaceous formations.
WHITE.I ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST. 47

MEEK, F. B.,aud F. V. HAYDEN. Systematic catalogue, with synouyma. etc., of 

Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary fossils collected in Nebraska by the exploring expedition under the command of Lieut. G. K. Warren, of U. S. Topographical Engineers. <Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 2d ser., vol. 4, I860, pp. 417-432.

t The fossils from the strata now known to belong to the Laramic are included with the 

Tertiary fossils in this catalogue.

MEEK, F. B., and F. V. HAYDEN. Descriptions of new Lower Silurian (Primordial), 

Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary fossils collected in Nebraska by the exploring expedition under the command of Capt. Wm. F. llaynolds, U. S. Topographical Engineers, with some remarks on the rocks from which they were obtained. <^Proc. 

Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 2d ser., vol. 5, 1861, pp. 415-447.

This article is largely geological, containing a "General Section of the Cretaceous rocks 

of Nebraska" and discussions of the formations. The authors compare the Nebraska 

Cretaceous section with that of New Jersey, and in part with the Cretaceous of the Old 

World.

MERTULL, F. J. H. On the geology of Long Island. <^ Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 3,1886, pp. 341-364, and plates 27, 28.

Certain deposits at Glen Cove and other localities in the northwest part of Longlsland are 

regarded as equivalent to at least a portion of the non-marine division of the New Jersey 

Cretaceous.

MORTON, SAMUEL GEORGE. Geological observations on the Secondary, Tertiary, and 

alluvial formations of the Atlantic coast of the United States of America, arranged 

from the notes of Lardner Vanuxem. <Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol.6, 1828, 

pp. 59-71.

The authorship of this article, except the descriptions of fossils which accompany it, is 

wholly due to Prof. Vanuxeni. See fourth entry on page 55. The Cretaceous strata of the 

Atlantic coast region are discussed. Prof. Vanuxem correlates them with the Cretaceous 

of Europe in a general way, but Dr. Morton, in additional notes by himself, refers them to 

the Lower Cretaceous.

MOUTON, SAMUEL GEORGE. Synopsis of the organic remains of the Cretaceous group 

of the United States. Philadelphia, 1834.

This work is a summary, with revision and additions, of his previous papers in the Amorioan Journal of Science, vols. 17,18,22,23, and 21, and in the Journal Academy Natural Science, 

Philadelphia, vol. 6. It is mainly paleontological, but contains a brief general account of the 

Cretaceous deposits then known, which were mainly confined to the Atlantic border region. 

Vanuxem had previously referred these deposits to the "Chalk" of Europe, but Morton 

here continues to refer them to the Lower Cretaceous.

MORTON, SAMUEL GEORGE. Notice of the fossil teeth of fishes of the United States. 

The discovery of Gault in Alabama, and a proposed division of the American Cretaceous group. <Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 28, 1835, pp. 276-278.

The author proposes three divisions for the Cretaceous of the United States, the lower one 

of which ho refers to the Gault. The upper one embraced strata that are now regarded as 

Eocene.

MORTON, SAMUEL GEORGE. Description of several new species of fossil shells from the 

Cretaceous deposits of the United States. <Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol.1,

1841. pp. 100-110.

The fossils are from New Jersey and the Upper Missouri River region. Not figured.

MOKTON, SAMUEL GEORGE. Description of some new species of organic remains of the 

Cretaceous group of the United States, with a tabular view of the fossils hitherto 

discovered in this formation. <Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1st ser., vol. 8,

1842. pp. 207-227, and 2 plates.

The author still adheres to his three divisions of the Cretaceous mentioned in a preceding 

entry.

MUDGE, B. F: Notes on the Tertiary and Cretaceous periods of Kansas. <\U. S. Geol. 

and Geog. Survey of the Territories, Bull., vol. 2, 1876, pp. 211-221.

The author obtained marine fossils (described by Meek and White respectively) from 

Saline County, Kansas. He states that the Dakota formation in that State rests upon the 

Permian.
48 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

N^COLLET, I. N. On the Cretaceous formation of the Missouri Eiver. <Am. Jour. 

Sci., vol. 45, 1843, .pp. 153-156.

The author describes ce'rtaia of the Cretaceous deposits along the Missouri River, which 

afterward became well known through the publications of Meek and Hayden.

NICOLLET, I. N. Keport intended to illustrate a map of the hydrographical basin of 

the Upper Mississippi River. 8°. 1843, pp. 1-170.

Mr. Nicollet briefly describes the Cretaceous formations of the upper Missouri, which 

seeuis to be the first definite published announcement of their existence.

NEWBERRY, J. S. Report upon the geology of the route. ^Explorations and surveys 

for a railroad route from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, vol. G, part II, 

pp. 9-68. Routes in California and Oregon. Thirty-third Congress, second session, H. R. Ex. Doc. No. 91. 1855.

The author discusses the age of the formation afterward named the Chico group by the 

California geologists, lie admits the Tertiary character of a part of the fossils, but is inclined to refer the formation to the Cretaceous because of the presence in it of Ammonites 

and liaculites.

NEWBEBRY, J:S. [Explorations in New Mexico. ] <\Am. Jour. Sci., 2d ser., vol.28, 

1859, pp. 298, 299.

The author states that the so-culled Jurassic of Marcoii in New Mexico is Cretaceous, the 

horizon corresponding to that of Nos. 2 and 3 of the Upper Missouri Cretaceous section 

of Meek and Hayden.

NEWBERBY, J. S. Notes on the ancient vegetation of North America. <Am. Jour. 

Sci., 2dser., vol. 29, 1860, pp. 208-218.

The author reasserts his formerly expressed opinion as to the Cretaceous age of certain 

fossil plants from different parts of North America which other authors had contended 

were of Tertiary age.

NEVVBEBEY, J. S. Geological report. <^ Report upon the Colorado River of the West, 

explored in 1857 and 1858. Joseph C. Ives. Part in, pp. 1-154, 2 maps and 6 

plates. Washington, 1861.

The author divides the Cretaceous series of New Mexico and Arizona into upper and 

lower divisions, corresponding to the Earlier and Later Cretaceous of Meek and Hayden, but 

he does not intend this as a correlation with the Upper and Lower Cretaceous of Europe.

NEWBEERY, J. S. Description of the fossil plants collected by George Gibbs, geologist 

to the United States Northwest Boundary Coramissiou, under A. Campbell. <^ Jour.

Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 7, 1863, pp. 506-525.

The author shows that the plants from the coal-bearing strata of Vancouver and Orcas 

Islands are of Cretaceous age, and not Miocene, as claimed by Ileer.

NEWBERRY, J. S. Notes on the later extinct floras of North America, with descriptions 

of some new species of fossil plants from Cretaceous and Tertiary strata. <Annals 

N. Y. Lyceum Nat. Hist., vol. 9, 1868, pp. 1-76.

Dr. Newberry claims that the plants of the Dakota formation are of Cretaceous and not 

Tertiary types. He describes many species of Cretaceous plants, and also many from the 

Fort Union Laramie beds, which he then referred to the Miocene. The substance of this 

article is contained in his report published a year afterward. See next entry.

NEWBERBY, J. S. Report on the Cretaceous and Tertiary plants. <Geol. Report Expl. 

Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers in 1859-'60, by Dr. F. V. Haydeu, assistant, under the direction of Capt. W. F. Raynolds, pp. 145-174. 1869.

The author reasserts the Cretaceous age of the plants of the Dakota formation, and also of 

those of Vancouver Island, except apart of those obtained at Birch Bay, north of Bellingham Bay, which he refers to the Miocene. He refers plants from the Fort Union strata, 

near the mouth of the Yellowstone, to the Tertiary.

NEWBERRY, J. S. [Cretaceous rocks on Long Island. ] <^Proc. New York Lyceum 

Nat. Hist., vol. 2, 1874, p. 127.

Angiosperinous leaves found at Lloyd's Neck are " similar tQ those of KariUu) anc} of (4)6 

Lgwer Qrefcaceous. jn th.e. far >Yestr "
WHITE.] ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST. 49

NEWBERRY, J. S. On the lignites and plant beds of Western America. <Am. Jour, 

ot Sci., 3d ser., vol. 7, 1874, pp. 399-404.

The author states that all the lignite-bearing strata of New Mexico, as well as those of 

many other North American regions, which have been referred by certain authors to the 

Tertiary, are of Cretaceous age. Ho also mentions the identity of certain species of plants 

found in New Mexico, in strata equivalent to the Dakota formation, with certain forms 

found in the Raritan clays of New Jersey.

N.UWBERRY, J. S. Geological report. < Report of the exploring expedition from Santa 

Fc, New Mexico, to the junction of the Grand and Green Rivers of the Great Colorado of the West, in 1859, under the command of Capt. J. N. Macomb. 1876.

In this report Prof. Newbcrry divides the Cretaceous section of New Mexico into three 

divisions, which appear to correspond to the Dakota, Colorado, and Montana divisions, 

respectively, as they are recognized in this memoir.

NEVVBKRRY, J. S. The Cretaceous flora of North America. <Traus. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 

vol. 5, 1886, pp. 133-137.

A table accompanying the discussions shows the author's views as to the correlation of 

the various Cretaceous plant-bearing horizons of North America with those of Europe.

NEWBERRY, J. S. The flora of the Arnboy clays. '<Bull. Torrey Botanical Club, vol. 

13, 1,886, pp. 33-37.

Prof. Newberry gives a preliminary account of the fossil flora of the Amboy and .Raritan 

clays, which he is preparing for publication. He points out its close aflinity with the Dakota flora, and shows that many of its species arc identical with Upper Cretaceous species 

of Aachen and of Greenland.

NEWBERRY, J. S. The Great Falls coal-field, Montana. <School of Mines Quarterly, 

vol. 8, 1887, pp. 327-330.

The author announces that the coal-bearing strata in tho vicinity of the Great Falls of the 

Missouri are equivalent to the Kootanie formation which was first discovered at the eastern 

base of the Rocky Mountains in British America. He shows that several species of fossil 

plants of the Kootanie occur in the Montana strata.

NEWBERRY, J. S. The flora of the Great Falls coal-field, Montana. <Am. Jour. Sci., 

vol. 41, 1891, pp. 191-200.

The author shows that at least ten of the species of plants found in the Montana strata 

are identical with species of the flora of the Potomac formation.

NEWTON, HENRY. Geology of the Black Hills of Dakota. <Report on the Geology 

and Resources of the Black Hills of Dakota, with atlas, pp. 1-222. 1880.

The five divisions of Meek & Hayden's Cretaceous section of the Upper Missouri River 

region "surround the Black Hills in an annular rim of irregular width." The Laramie 

is found in that vicinity resting upon the marine Cretaceous, and is referred to the Tertiary. The area occupied by these respective formations is shown upon the accompanying 

maps.

NIKITIN, S. Einiges iiber den Jura in Mexico und Centralasien. <Neues Jahrbuch 

fiir Min. Geol. u, Palaeout. Jahrgang 1890, n Band, Drittes Heft, pp. 273-274. 

The author mentions the discovery of fossil shells near San Luis Potosi, which appear to 

be identical with those designated as Ancella concentrica in this memoir.

NYST, H., and H. GALEOTTI. [Sur quelques fossiles du calcaire jurassique de Tehuacan, au Mexique. -\Bull. Acad. Roy. des Sciences et Bell. Lett., vol. 7, 2d part, 

1840, pp. 212-221, and 2 plates.

The fossils described in this article are probably not of Jurassic, but of Cretaceous age.

OWEN, DAVID DALE. Report of a Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota, and incidentally of a portion of Nebraska Territory, pp. 623, and plates and 

maps. 1852.

The existence of Cretaceous strata along the Missouri River west of Iowa is noticed, and 

some fossils from, them described and figured. The existence of such deposits in northwestern .Iowa is suggested.

OWKN, [RICHARD.] Notes on remains of fossil reptiles discovered by Prof. Henry 

Rogers, of Pennsylvania, United States, in Greensand formations of New Jersey. 

<Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lond., vol. 5, 1849, pp. 380-383, plates 10, 11, 

Bull. 82 4 y
50 THE CRETACEOUS. (BULL. 82.

PARRY, C. C. Geological features of the Eio Grande Valley from El Paso to the mouth 

of Pecos Eiver. < Report on the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey, 

vol. 1, part 2, 1857, pp. 49-61.

The author mentions a great thickness of Cretaceous strata as forming the walls of the 

Canon San Carlos, which seem to belong to the Comauche series.

PEALE, A. C. Eeporfc of A. C. Peale, M. D., geologist of the South Park division. <^U. 

S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr., Seventh Ann. Eeportfor 1873, pp. 193-273. 1874.

This report contains descriptions and sections of the Cretaceous formations from the Dakota to the Niobrara group, inclusive. The names of the formations adopted are those 

of the Upper Missouri River section.

PEALE, A. C. Eeporb of A. C. Peale, M. D., geologist of Middle division. <U. S. 

Geol. and Geog. Survey of the Territories, Eighth Annual Eeport for 1874, embracing Colorado and adjacent territory, pp. 73-180. 1876.

The Cretaceous formations from the Dakota to the Laramie formation, inclusive, are described and illustrated. The latter formation is assigned to the Tertiary.

PKALE, A. C. Eeporfc of A. C. Peale, M. D., geologist of the Grand Eiver division, 

1875. <U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr., Ninth Ann. Eep. for 1875, pp. 31-101. 

1877.

A plate of sections across the Uncompahgre Plateau shows the Dakota formation to be 

well defined in that far southern district. The author also recognizes there the eqvivalents 

of the other members of the Upper Missouri River section.

PEALE, A. C. Geological report on the Grand Eiver district. <U. S. Geol. and Geog. 

Survey of the Territories, Tenth Annual Eeport for 1876, embracing Colorado and 

parts of adjacent Territories, pp. 161-185. 1878.

This report contains sections and descriptions of the Cretaceous formations from the Dakota to the Laramie, inclusive, the classification of the marine Cretaceous formations' being 

that of the Upper Missouri River section.

PEALE, A. C. The Laramie group of western Wyoming and adjacent regions. <Bull. 

U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 153-200. 1879.

The formation described is the so-called Bear River Laramie, which, according to the 

author, extends from the southwest corner of Wyoming up into southeastern Idaho.

POWELL, J. W. Eeporfc on the geology of the eastern portion of the Uinta Mountains 

and a region of country adjacent thereto, pp. 218, 4° atlas. U. S. Geol. and Geog. 

Survey Terr. 1876.

The formations which in this memoir are referred to the Upper Cretaceous are recognized,

but classified under new names. His Point of Rocka group is identical with the Laramie 

except that' he included a portion of the latter in his Bitter Creek group, which is recognized as of Eocene age. The areas occupied by the several formations are shown on the 

accompanying atlas.

PUMPELLY. EAPHAEL. Bituminous coals and lignites of the Northwest. <Tenth 

Census U. S., vol. 15, Eeport on the mining industries of the United States, pp. 689- 

695, with 5 geological maps. 1886.

It is stated that the area occupied by bituminous coal is limited, but that of lignites is very 

great. Coal, or lignite, is found in the Dakota, Colorado, and Laramie formations. The 

author refers the coal of Judith Basin, Belt Creek, Sand Coulee, and Deep Creek to the 

Dakota formation. At least a part of this is referred to the Kootanie formation by Dr. Newberry.

RAMIREZ, SANTIAGO. Informe que como resultado de su Exploration, en la Sierra Mojada. <Anales del Ministerio de Fomento de la Eepublica Mexicana, vol. 3, pp.

627-687. 1877. 

EAMIREZ, SANTIAGO. Informe sobre el Mineral de Guadalcdzar en el estado de San

Luis Potosi. <Anales del Ministerio de Fomento de la Eepublica Mexicana, vol. 3,

pp. 339-404. 1877. 

EEDFIELD, W. C. [Cretaceous fossil in a deep well in Brooklyn, New York.] <Am.

Jour. Sci., vol. 45, 1843, p. 156.

The author refers to the findmg of a specimen of Exogyra costata in digging a well in 

Brooklyn, New York, the specimen being the property of Dr. John C. Gay.
WHITE.] ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST. 51

 >

REMOND, A. Notice of geological explorations in northern Mexico. ^California'Acad. 

Sci. Proc., vol. 3, 1867, pp. 244-257.

The author mentions the presence of Cretaceous deposits "at tlie foot of the Sierra Madre, 

at Ariveehi, in Sonora," resting upon "porphyries and the Carboniferous limestone."

KICHABDSON, JAMES. Keport on the coal fields of Vancouver Island. <Geol. Surv. 

of Canada, Report of Progress for 1871-1872, pp. 73-94. 1872.

] The author gives a section and descriptions of the strata embracing the coal of the Nanaimo district, for which Dr. G. M. Dawson subsequently proposed the name of Nanaimu 

group.

KICHABDSON, JAMES. Report on the coal fields of Vancouver and Queen Charlotte 

Islands, with a map of the distribution of the former. <Geol. Survey of Canada, 

Report of Progress for 1872-1873, pp: 32-65. 1873.

This report is mainly devoted to economic geology, but it contains important sections of 

Cretaceous rocks, which were afterward more fully reported upon by Dr. G. M. 'Dawson.

RICHABDSON, JAMES. Report on the coal fields of Nanaimo, Comox, Cowichau, Burrard Inlet, and Sooke, British Columbia. <Geol. Survey of Canada, Report of 

Progress for 1876-1877, pp. 160-192, map. 1878.

The article treats mainly of economic geology, but numerous sections of the Cretaceous 

coal-bearing strata are given.

1 ROEMEB, FEBDINAND. A sketch of the geology of Texas. < Am. Jour. Sci. 2d ser., 

vol.2, 1846, pp. 358-365.

The character of theTexan Cretaceous is discussed, and its paleontological relation to 

that of southern Europe pointed out.

? ROEMEK, FEBDINAND. Contributions to the geology of Texas. < Am, Jour. Sci. 2d 

ser., vol. 6, 1848, pp. 21-28.

The author defines the seaward border of the Cretaceous area In Texas, and discusses 

the paleontological relation of the Texan Cretaceous to other strata of that system in the 

United States and to those of southern Europe.

ROEMEB, FEBDINAND. Texas, pp. 464, map 8°. Bonn, 1849.

This work is mainly devoted to a popular account of Texas, but it contains preliminary 

descriptions of the fossils afterward described in the author's Kreidebildungcn von Texas.

, ROEMEB, FEBDINAND. Die Kreidebildungen von Texas und ihre organischen Einsch- 

> liisse, pp. 100, plates 11, 4°. Bonn, 1852.

A large number of fossils are described and figured, and the character and distribution of 

the Cretaceous formations of Texas are discussed.

' ROEMEB, FEBDINAND. Ueber eine durch die Hscufigkeit Hippuriten artiger Chamiden 

ausgezeichnete Fauna der Oberturouen Kreide von Texas. <Palaeontologische Abhandlingen herausgegeben von W. Dames und E. Kayser, Vierter Band., Heft 4, 

pp. 281-296, plates 31-33.

The fossils described by Prof. Koemet in this article and referred to the Upper Turonian 

are from the upper part of the Couianche scries of Texas.

ROGEBS, HENBY.D. Report on the Geological Survey of the State of New Jersey, pp. 

174. 1836.

This report contains a descriptive section of the'New Jersey Cretaceous, in* which the deposits are defined essentially as they are now known.

ROGEBS, HENBY D. Description of the Geology of the State of New Jersey, being a 

final report. 8°, pp. 301, with map and plate of sections. 1840.

This report contains descriptions of the " Upper Secondary " formations of New Jersey, 

and the plate of sections shows their position with relation to the other formations of the 

State.

ROGEBS, HENBY DABWIN. The Geology of Pennsylvania, vol. 2. pp. 1045, 7 plates 

of sections, 1 map, 23 plates of fossils, 2 plates of views, 2 separate maps. 4°. Edinburgh and New York, 1868.

Prof. If.D.Rogers,in. vol.T, p.59, says that "Tertiary and Cretaceous strata border the 

State upon the southeast in New Jersey, but they do not cross the Delaware River into 

Pennsylvania." It is now known that the Potomac formation, which is provisionally referred to the Cretaceous, occurs upon the Pennsylvania side of the Susquehanna lliver.
52 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

ROGERS, WJLLIAM BARTON. A repriufc of annual reports and other papers on the Geology of the Virginias, 8°, pp. 832, and map and sections. 1884.

The deposits now known as the Potomac formation are recognized by Prof. Rogers, who 

speaks of them as "Jurassic, passing upward into the base of the Cretaceous." He recognized Cretaceous deposits in an artesian boring at Fort Monroc, Virginia.

SAFFORD, JAMES M. On the Cretaceous and superior formations of west Tennessee. 

<Am. Jour. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 37, 1864, pp. 360-372.

The author states that the Cretaceous outcrop is continued northward from Mississippi 

into Tennessee, and that at least the Ripley portion of the Mississippi section is continued 

northward into Kentucky.

S AFFORD, JAMES M. Geology of Tennessee. 8°, pp. 550, plates and map. Nashville, 

1869.

The author recognizes three divisions of the Cretaceous in Tennessee, namely, the Ripley, 

Greensand, and Coffeesand. The last he regards as equivalent to the Tombigbee sand of 

Hilgard, and the first to the Ripley group of that author. The latter alone extends northward to the Kentucky line.

SAWKINS, JAMES G. Keports on the geology of Jamaica, or Part n of the West Indian Survey. 8°, pp. 339, 1 map and 7 plates of sections. London, 1869.

SAY, THOMAS. Observations on some species of zoophytes, shells, etc., principally 

fossil. <Arn. Jour. Sci., vol. 1, 1819, pp. 381-387, and vol. 2, pp. 34-45.

The genus Exogyra is described. Mr. Say's studies of fossils appear to have been biological only, and without reference to structural geology.

SCHOOLCKAFT, H. R. Discovery of a coal basin on the western borders of the Lake of 

the Woods. <Arn. Jour. Sci., vol. 19, 1855, pp. 232-234.

The proof that coal exists at the point indicated is not conclusive; but if it does exist there 

it probably pertains to an outlier of the Cretaceous.

SELWYN, A. R. C. Observations in the Northwest Territory from Fort Gary to the 

Rocky Mountain House. <Geol. Surv. Canada, Report of Progress 1873-'74, pp. 

17-62. 1874.

The author notices the occurrence of coal in the Saskatchewan region in strata that have 

since beenldetermined as of the age of the Belly River to the Laramie formations, inclusive.

SELWYN, A. R. C. Age of the lignitic coal formation of Vancouver Island. <^Am. 

Jour.Sci., vol.9, 1875, p. 318.

Dr. Selwyn shows that the coal of Nanaimo, Vancouver Island, is of Cretaceous age, and 

thatLesquereux was in error in referring it to the Lower Eocene.

SELWYN, A. R. C., and G. M. DAWSON. Descriptive sketch of the physical geography 

and geology of the Dominion of Canada, pp. 55, map, 8°. Montreal, 1884.

Dr. Dawson gives a table comparing the Upper Missouri River Cretaceous section of 

Meek & Hayden with that of the Peace River, and of the Bow and Belly River districts. 

He speaks of the Laramie as> Cretaceo-Tertiary.

SHALER, N. S. Report on the geology of Marthas Vineyard. ^Seventh Ann. Rep. 

U. S. Geol. Survey. 1888.

The occurrence of Cretaceous rocks, but not in situ, is noticed on pp. 325,326.

SHUMARD, B. F. Description of new Cretaceous fossils from Texas. <.Trans. St. Louis 

Acad. Sci., vol. 1, 1860, pp. 590-610.

This article contains descriptions of many species of invertebrate fossils from the Crelaceous formations of Texas, some of which have never yet been figured.

SHUMARD, B. F. Observations upon the Cretnceous strata of Texas. <Trans. St. Louis 

Acad. Sci. vol. 1,1860, pp. 582-590.

The author gives a section of the Texaii Cretaceous showing his view of their order of 

superposition, which .subsequent investigation has shown to be erroneous.

SHUMARD, B. F. See Evans, John, and B. F. Shumard.
WHITE.] ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST. 53

SMITH, EUGENE A., and LA WHENCE C. JOHNSON. Tertiary and Cretaceous strata of 

the Tuscaloosa, Tombigbee, and Alabama Rivers. <Bull. U. 8. Geol. Surv. No. 43, 

pp. 189, and plates; plate xi being a small geological map of Alabama.

The map shows the areal distribution of the Cretaceous formations in Alabama. The 

authors recognize the Tuscaloosa formation as distinct from the Eutaw, and regard it as of 

doubtful age. The Kutaw, Rotten limestone, and Riplcy groups are referred to the Cretaceous.

STEVENSON, J. J. Geology of a portion of Colorado, explored and surveyed in 1873. 

<U. S. Geog. and Geol. Expl. and Surv. west of the 100th Merid. (Wheeler), vol. 3, 

chap. 13, pp. 361-410. 1875.

The author divides the Cretaceous into Upper, Middle, and Lower, apparently in the 

same manner as it was divided by Newberry. He seems to include the equivalent of the 

Dakota formation in the Lower, that of the Colorado formation in the Middle, and that of 

both the Montana and Laramie formations in the Upper.

STEVENSON, J. J. On the geological relation of the Lignitic groups. <Troc. Am. 

Philos. Soc., 1875, vol. 14, pp. 447-475.

The author states that the whole series of formations which in this memoir are referred 

to the Upper Cretaceous, including the Laramie, are lignite-bearing. He regards the Laramie as of Cretaceous age, and includes with that formation the equivalent of at least a part 

of the Fox Hills group of Meek & Hayden.

STEVENSON, J. J. Preliminary report of a special geological party operating in*Colorado and New Mexico, from Spanish Peaks, south, field season of 1878. <^ Annual 

Report upon the Geographical Surveys of the territory of the United States west 

of the 100th Meridian, pp. 271-281. 1876.

Prof. Stevenson notes the blending of the Dakota with the overlying Colorado formation in New Mexico. He follows Kingin making the latter format! on eonsistof theecjuivalentsof the Fort Benton, Niobrara, and Fort Pierre groups of Meek & Hayden'sUpper Missouri River section.

STEVENSON, J. J. Report upon geological examinations in southern Colorado and northern New Mexico during the years 1878 and 1879. <U. S. Geog. Surv. west of the 

100th Merid. (Wheeler), vol. 3. Supplement Geology, pp. 420 and 3 maps. 1881. 

The author follows King in making the Colorado formation equal to the Benton, Niobrara, 

and Fort Pierre groups of Meek & Hayden, but he combines the equivalent of their Fox 

Hills group with the Laramie under the latter name. Therefore he represents the Laramie 

as resting upon the Colorado formation.

STEVENSON, J. J. Note on the Laramie group of southern New Mexico. ^Am. Jour. 

Sci., 3d sen, vol. 22, 1881, pp. 370-372.

The intimate stratigraphical relation of the Laramie to the underlying marine Cretaceous 

formation is noted, both formations being coal-bearing.

STIMPSON, WILLIAM. Cretaceous strata at Gay Head, Massachusetts. <Am. Jour. 

Sci., 2d ser., vol. 29,1860, p. 145.

He regards the strata at Gay Head as Cretaceous rather than Eocene; and reports the discovery of "Cretaceous bones, vertebra}, and teeth of sharks, some brachyurous Crustacea, 

12speciesof bivalve mollusca, one univalve, leaves, fragments, and seeds of dicotyledonous 

plants, etc." He mentions no identification of specie*, and gives no specific or generic 

names.

ST. JOHN, ORESTES. Notes on the geology of northeastern New Mexico. -\U. S. 

Geol. and Geog. Surv. of the Territories, Bull., vol.2, pp. 279-308, plates 42-49. 

1876.

The Cretaceous formations of the upper basin of the Canadian River are described and 

discussed.

TOULA, FRANZ. Beschreibnng Mesozoischer Versteinerungen von der Knhn Insel. 

<Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt, ri Band, pp. 497-507, 2 plates. Leipzig, 

1874.

A few fossils from Kuhn Island, off the east coast of Greenland, are described, among 

which are varieties of Aucella.
54 THE CRETACEOUS. [HUM,82.

TRASK, JOHN B. Description of a new species of Ammonite and Bacilli be from the 

Tertiary rocksof Chico Creek. <Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci., Isted., vol. 1,1856, pp. 

85,86, figures on plate u.

The strata from which these fossils came were afterward included in the Chico group by 

the California geologists, which is now regarded as of Cretaceous age.

TROOST, GERARD. Fifth Geological Eeport to the Twenty-third General Assembly of 

Tennessee, pp. 75 and 3 maps. 1840.

The existence of a Cretaceous deposit in Tennessee is recognized and sonic of its fossils 

are mentioned by name.

TUOMEY, M. [Letter to Dr. S. G. Morton.] Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. I, pp. 

32,33. 1848.

Prof. Tu< mey states that six species of Cretaceous fossils are ibund at Wilmington, North 

Carolina, and Santee, South Carolina, commingled with an Eocene molluscan fauna.

TUOMEY, M. Eeport of the Geology of South Carolina, pp. i-iv, and 1-293 and i, Ivi. 

Two maps. 4°. 1848.

The author shows the existence of Cretaceous deposits along the Great Peedee River and 

its tributaries. He also mentions the commingling of Cretaceous and Tertiary fossils, claiming that no less than six species of Cretaceous mollusks pass up into the Eocene of North 

Carolina and South Carolina.

TUOMEY, M. First Biennial Eeport on the Geology of Alabama, pp. 176 and map, 8°. 

Tuscaloosa, 1850.

An upper and lower division of the Alabama Cretaceous is recognized; the lower apparently corresponding nearly to the Tuscaloosa group of Smith, and the upper to the Rotten limestone and Ripley groups together.

TUOMEY, M. Description of some fossil shells from the Tertiary of the Southern States. 

<Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., vol. 6, 1852, pp. 192-194.

The fossils described are from Wilmington, North Carolina. Prof. Tuomey states that 

among the characteristic Eocene fossils several equally characteristic Cretaceous forms are 

found, but he regards the commingling as having occurred while all the forms in question 

were living.

TYRRELL, J. B. Report on a part of Northern Alberta and portions of adjacent districts 

of Assiniboia and Saskatchewan. <\Geol. Surv. Canada, Ann. Rep. for 1886, pp. 

1-152E, with appendix by Mr. Whiteaves on Cretaceous and Laramie fossils, pp. 

153-166E. 1887.

The Belly River, Ifox Hill-Pierre, and Laramie formations are reported on.

TYRRELL, J. B. The Cretaceous of Manitoba. <CAm. Jour. Sci., 1890, 3d ser., vol. 

40, pp. 227-232.

Mr. Tyrrell shows that both the Colorado and Montana formations are represented in 

western Manitoba, but his section shows that no Belly River strata occur there.

TYSON, PHILIP T. First Report of Philip T. Tyson, State Agricultural Chemist, to the 

House of Delegates of Maryland, pp. 145, and Appendix, pp. 20, and geological 

map. 8C. 1860.

The Cretaceous is recognized as occupying a belt of country passing from northeast to 

southwest through the State.

TYSON, PHILIP T. Second Eeport of Philip T. Tyson, State Agricultural Chemist, to 

the House of Delegates of Maryland, p. 92. 8°. 1862.

This report contains a table of the formations of the State, including the Cretaceous.

UHLER, P. E. Observations on the Eocene Tertiary and its Cretaceous associates in the 

State of Maryland. <Trans. Maryland Acad. Sci.,vol. 1, 1888, pp. 11-32.

The author states that the Cretaceous deposits extend across Maryland in the same general direction which their outcrop has in New Jersey and Delaware, and shows that the 

area occupied by the marine division is larger than it was before known to be.

UHLER, P. R. The Albirupean formation and its nearest relatives in Maryland. <Proc. 

Am. Philos. Soc.,vol. 25, 1888, pp. 42-53.

The name Albirupean is proposed for certain beds which unconformably overlie the Potomac formation in certain parts of Maryland.
WHITE.] ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST. 55

UrnAM, WARREN. Artesian wells in North and South Dakota. < American Geologist, vol. 6, 1890, pp. 211-221.

The author gives a list of 30 wells in which water flows from the Dakota sandstone.

UPHAM, WARREN, N. H. WINCHELL and. (See Winchell, N. H., and Warren Upham.)

URQUIZA, MANUEL. Exploracion del distrito de Coalcoman, estado de Michoacan. 

<Anales del Ministerio de Fomento de Eepiiblica Mexicans, vol. 7, pp. 195-2G1. 

1882.

VANUXEM, LARDNER. [Notes furnished to Dr. S. G. Morton for] Geological observations on the Secondary, Tertiary, and Alluvial formations of the Atlantic coast of 

the United States of America, arranged from the notes of Lardner Vanuxern. <Jour. 

Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1828, vol. 6, pp. 59-71. (See fourth entry on page 47.)

VANUXEM, LARDNER. Eemarks on the characters and classification of certain American rock formations. <Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 16, 1829, pp. 254-256.

The author reasserts the Cretaceous age of certain deposits of the Atlantic Coast region, 

and refers to his paper published by Dr. Morton, (See preceding entry.)

VOGDES, A. W. Cretaceous and Tertiaiy of Charleston, South Carolina. < Am. Jour.

Sci., 3d ser., vol. 16, 1878, pp. 69,70.

The author mentions the occurrence of Cretaceous strata at Charleston discovered in an 

artesian boring at a depth of 950 feet.

WALL, G. P. See Duncan, P. Martin, and G. P. Wall.

WARD, LESTER F. Synopsis of the flora of the Laramie group. <Sixth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, pp. 405-557 and plates 31-65. 1885.

The author discusses the Laramie group historically, and its flora with reference to that 

of the Senoninn and Eocene.

WARD, LESTER F. Evidence of the fossil plants as to the age of the Potomac formation. 

<Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 36, 1888, pp. 119-131.

Prof. Ward expresses the opinion that the Potomac formation is not of later origin than 

the Wealden or the Neocomian.

WHITE, DAVID. On Cretaceous plants from Martha's Vineyard. <Am. Jour. Sci., 3d 

ser., vol. 39, 1890, pp. 93-101, and plate 2.

Mr. White shows that a considerable number of species of plants which characterize the 

New Jersey Cretaceous clays occur on the island of Martha's Vineyard.

WHITE, C. A. Report on the Geological Survey of the State of Iowa, vols. 1 and 2. 

1870.

The existence of Cretaceous deposits in various parts of western Iowa is shown and evidence given that a large part of the State was once covered by them.

WHITE, C. A. On the eastern limit of Cretaceous deposits in Iowa. <^Proc. Am. Assoc. 

Adv. Sci., 1872, vol. 21, pp. 187-192. 1873.

Localities.are mentioned at which limited or partially disturbed Cretaceous deposits have 

been discovered in Iowa, showing that those deposits once extended]very much farther 

eastward than their present unbroken eastern border.

WHITE, C. A. Report upon the invertebrate fossils collected in portions of Nevada, 

Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona by parties of the expeditions of 1871, 

1872, 1873, and 1874. <Geog. and Geol. Expl. and Surv. west of the 100th Meridian, vol. 4, part I, pp. 1-219, pis. l-xxi. 1875.

The Cretaceous fossils described and noticed in this report are all from horizons above 

the Comanche scries. A few of them belong to species which pass up from the Laramie 

into the base of the Wasatch formation. Two species from southern Utah are apparently 

identical with forms which prevail in the so-called Bear River Laramie.

WHITE, C. A. Invertebrate paleontology of the Plateau Province, together with notice 

of a few species from localities beyond its limits in Colorado. <Powell's Report 

on the Geology of the Eastern End of the Uinta Mountains, pp. 74-135. 1876.

The species described are from, the marine Cretaceous formations, from the so-called Bear 

Itiver Laramie, and from the Laramie formation proper. Powcll's classification of the 

Cretaceous formations is adopted in this article, which includes the upper portion of the 

Point of Rocks group (the Laramie) in the basal portion of the Bitter Creek group (the 

Wasatch), the former being then treated as of Cretaceous age.
56 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

WHITE, C. A. Paleontological Papers, No. 5: Eemarks on the paleontological characteristics of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic groups as developed in the Green River region. 

<Bulletiu U. S. Geol.and Geog. Surv. of the Terr., vol. 3, pp. 625-629. 1877. 

The gradual transition from the Cretaceous to the Tertiary noticed.

WHITE, C. A. Paleontological Papers, No. 4: Comparison of the North American Mesozoic and Cenozoic Unionidse and associated raollusks with living species. <Bull. 

U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr., vol. 3, pp. 615-624. 1877.

The genetic descent of living Uniones from those of the Laramie period is suggested, and 

the untrustworthiness of fresh-water moliuscan fossils as indicating geological age is 

pointed out.

WHITE, C. A. Paleontological Papers, No. 7: On the distribution of moliuscan species 

in the Laramie group. <Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., vol. 4, pp. 721-724. 1878. 

The unity of the Judith River, Fort Union, Lignitic, and Point of Rocks (Bitter Creek 

series) groups is stated, and all are assigned to the Laramie formation.

WHITE, C. A. Report on the geology of northwestern Colorado. <Tenth Ann. Rep. 

U. S. Geol. and Geog. Sur. Terr., pp. 1-60; 1 map and 1 plate. 1878.

This report contains discussions of Cretaceous and other formations, showing their great 

displacement in the Uinta range and in two upthrust mountains. The strict conformity 

of the Laramie upon the marine Cretaceous formations, and the apparent conformity of 

the Wasatch upon the Laramie are noticed. A table of correlated sections by the writer 

and other authors is given and the proposition made to divide the marine Cretaceous deposits into only two formations, the equivalents of Nos.2 and 3 of Meek and Hayden's section forming one, and those of Nos. 4 and 5 of that section the other.

WHITE, C. A. Paleontological Papers, No. 8. Remarks upon the Laramie group. 

<JBull. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., vol. 4, pp. 865-876. 1878.

The characteristics of the Laramie formation are discussed and the opinion expressed 

that it was deposited in a great inland sea. It is believed to represent both the close of 

Cretaceous time and the beginning of Tertiary time.

WHITE, C. A. Contributions to Invertebrate Paleontology, No. 1: Cretaceous fossils of 

the Western States and Territories. ^Eleventh Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. and Geog. 

Surv. Terr, (for the year 1877), pp. 273-319, Pis. l-X. 1879.

Fifty-six species are figured, all of which are from the Upper Cretaceous. 

WHITE, C. A. Report on the paleontological field work for the season of 1877. <\U. 

S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr., Eleventh Ann. Rep. (for 1877), pp. 161-319. 1879. 

Notes and tables in this report show the distribution of Cretaceous species, including 

the Laramie, in Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah. The equivalents of Nos. 2 and 3 and of 4 

and 5, respectively, of Meek and Hayden's Upper Missouri .Cretaceous section are recognized as constituting each a single formation, making only two in all instead of four. The 

opinion is expressed that certain members of the Eocene moliuscan fauna existed before 

the close of the Laramie epoch.

WHITE, C. A. Descriptions of new Cretaceous invertebrate fossils from Kansas and 

Texas. <Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 2, 1880, pp. 292-298, Pis. i-v.

The Kansas fossils are marine species from the Dakota formation. They come from the 

most northerly known point at which marine fossils occur in that formation or its equivalents. Other species from the same deposit were previously published by Meek.

WHITE, C. A. Description of a very large fossil gasteropod from the State of Puebla, 

Mexico. <Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 3, 1881, pp. 140-142, and 1 plate.

The species described is Tylostoma princeps, and this announcement constitutes one of 

the few published indications of the presence of Cretaceous rocks in the southern part of 

the Mexican Republic.

WHITE, C. A. Descripcion de un gran fossil Gasteropodo del estaclo de Puebla (Me"xico). <La Naturaleza, tomo 6, 1882, pp. 219-22.1.

This description is also printed in Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 3, pp. 140-142, and plate. (See 

next preceding entry.)

WHITE, C. A. On certain Cretaceous fossils from Arkansas and Colorado. <Proc. U. 

S. Nat. Mus., vol. 4, 1882, pp. 136-139, PI. i.

The Arkansas species, among which is Enclimatoceras ulricM, are now understood to be 

of Eocene and not Cretaceous age, as was then supposed.
WHITE.] ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST. 57

WHITE, C. A. A review of the non-marine fossil niollusca of North America. <Third 

Ann. Rep. U. 8. (ieol. Surv., pp. 403-550, and Pis. I-XXXIT. 1883.

All the hitherto known species, from Devonian to late Tertiary time, inclusive, ivre noticed and figured, 227 in number. The derivation of the brackish-water Laramio inollusca 

from Cretaceous estuaries thought probable, and that of certain living fresh-water mollusca 

and fishes from the Laramie sea, by the persistence of rivers, is suggested. The so-called 

Bear River Laramie molluscan fauna is shown to be entirely different from that of the 

Laramie proper, as well as from living faunas. The latter difference is thought to have 

been due to a nonperpetuation of the drainage of the waters in which the Bear River fauna 

lived.

WHITE, C. A. Late observations concerning the inolluscan fauna and geographical extent of the Laramie group. <Ara. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 25, 1883, pp. 207-209. 

The discovery of Laramie fossils in the State of Nuevo Leon, Mexico, is announced.

WHITE, C. A. Contributions to Invertebrate Paleontology, No. 2: Cretaceous fossils 

from the Western States and Territories. ^Twelfth Annual Report U. S. Geol. and 

Geog. Surv. Terr, (for the year 1878), pp. 1-38, Pis. xi-xvm. 1883.

Among the species figured are ten that were originally described by Dr.Shumard, mostly

from Texas.

WHITE, C. A. Contributions to Invertebrate Paleontology, No. 4: Fossils of the Laramie group. <^Twelfth Annual Rep. U. S. Geo1.. and Geog. Surv. Terr, (for the year 

1878), pp. 49-103, Pis. xx-xxx. 1883.

This article contains a list of all the then known inolluscan species of the Laramie formation as it is now comprehensively understood.

WHITE, C. A. On the commingling of ancient faunal and modern floral types in the 

Laramie group. <Ara. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 2G, 1883, pp. 120-123.

It is shown that within the vertical range of characteristic Laramie niollusks Dinosaurian remains have been found associated with plant remains which have bc^n referred to 

the Eocene and Miocene, among which also are two species that are identified with living 

species.

WHITE, C. A. On the Nautiloid genus Enclimatoceras Hyatt, and a description of the 

type species. <Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 4, on Mesozoic fossils, pp. 16 (104)-17 

(105), Pis. vil-x. 1884.

This species is now regarded as of Eocene, and not Cretaceous age, as formerly supposed.

WHITE, C. A. Description of certain aberrant forms of the Charnidse from the Cretaceous rocks of Texas. <Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 4, on Mesozoic fossils, pp. 5 

(93)-9 (94), P'ls. i-v. 1884.

These forms are from the Comanche scries.

WHITE, C. A. On a small collection of Mesozoic fossils obtained in Alaska by Mr. W. 

H. Dall, of the U. S. Coast Survey. <Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 4, on Mesozoic fossils, pp. 10 (98)-15 (103), PI. vi. 1884.

The most abundant of these fossils is Aucella concentrica, which is now regarded by the 

author as of Cretaceous age.

WHITE, C. A. Notes on the Mesozoic and Cenozoic paleontology of California. Bull. 

U. S. Geological Survey, vol. 3, No. 15, pp. 1-33. 1885.

The Chico and Tejon groups of the California geologists are shown to form an unbroken 

faunaland stratigraphical series from the Cretaceous to the Tertiary'. The Aucella-bearing 

strata are of Cretaceous age, and a part of them are included in the " auriferous slates." 

All the Cretaceous faunas of the Pacific coast region are shown to be different from any in 

the interior and more eastern regions, even thote which presumably were contemporaneous in their origin.

WHITE, C. A. On new Cretaceous fossils from California. <Bull. U.S. Geol.Surv., 

No. 22, pp. 1 (349)-15 (3G1), Pis. i-v. 1885.

The fossils described and discussed are from Mendocino County, California, and from 

Todos Santos Bay, Lower California. The name Wallala group is proposed for the strata 

from which they come, which are supposed to be older than the Chico and newer than the 

Shasta formation.
58 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

WHITE, C. A. On marine Eocene, fresh-watar Miocene, and other fossil mollusca of 

western North America. <^Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 18, pp. 1-39, Pis. i-m. 

1885.

The Eocene fossils are from the Willamette Valley, Oregon. The strata from which they 

come represent) the upper part of the Tejon group, which, although doubtless of Eocene 

age, is discussed with the Cretaceous formations in this memoir.

WHITE, C. A. On the relation of the Laramie molluscan fauna to that of the succeeding 

fresh-water Eocene and other groups. <^Bull. U.S. Geol.Survey, vol. 5, No. 34, 

pp. 391-442, 5 plates. 1886.

It is shown that a part of the Laramie molluscan fauna ranged up into the Wasatch formation, and that sedimentation was continuous from the marine Cretaceous through the 

Laramie to the Wasatch. The so-called Bear River Laramie is believed to be a separate 

formation from the Laramie proper, but the author did not then know whether the former 

was earlier or later than or contemporaneous with the latter.

WHITE, C. A. On the interrelation of contemporaneous fossil faunas and floras. <\Am. 

Jour.Sci., 3d ser., vol. 33, 1887, pp. 364-374.

The view is advanced that sedimentation was continuous from the Colorado Cretaceous to 

the base of the Eocene Wasatch, inclusive. Molluscan species are shown to range from the 

Laramie into the Wasatch. The impracticability of definitely correlating inland with marine coast deposits is shown.

WHITE, C. A. On the Cretaceous formations of Texas and their relation to those of 

other periods of North America. <Troc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1887, part 1, pp. 

39-47.

This article contains a descriptive section of the Texan Cretaceous and a table of correlation of the formations above the Comanche with those of other parts of the continent. A 

marine formation, the Timber Creek group, is recognized as equivalent to the Dakota formation.

WHITE, C. A. On the age of the coal found in the region traversed by the Rio Grande. 

<Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 33, 1887, pp. 18-20.

The coal in question is shown to occur in the Laramie formation, and also in the Eagle 

Pass beds and their equivalents.

WHITE, C. A. On the Puget group of Washington Territory. <Am. Jour. Sci., 3d 

ser., vol. 36, 1888, pp. 443-450.

A great estuary formation in Puget Sound basin and upon the western flank of the Cascade Mountains is described. It was probably formed contemporaneously with the Laramie 

formation, and perhaps in part also with the Tejon.

WHITE, C. A. On the relation of the Laramie group to earlier and later formations. 

<Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 35, 1888, pp. 432-438.

In this article it is shown that the Laramie formation passes beneath Eocene strata in the 

valley of the lower Rio Grande, and the author gives reasons for discussing the Laramie 

among the Cretaceous formations, although the upper part is still held to have been contemporaneous with undisputed Lower Eocene strata.

WHITE, C. A. On the geology and physiography of a portion of northwestern Colorado 

and adjacent parts of Utah and Wyoming. <Ninth Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv., 

pp. 677-712, and map. 1890.

The Laramie formation is provisionally referred to the Cretaceous, and is shown to have 

been equally involved with the marine Cretaceous formations in the great displacements 

which are described.

WHITE, GEORGE. Statistics of the State of Georgia, pp. 1-624, and map. 8°. Savannah, 1849.

This report contains brief mention of Cretaceous deposits on pages 14 and 21.

WHITEAVES, J. F. On some invertebrates from the coal-bearing rocks of the Queen 

Charlotte Islands, collected by Mr. James Richardson in 1872. <Geol. Surv. Canada, Mesozoic Fossils, vol 1, part i, pp. 1-92, pi. 1-10, and 1 map, 1876.

The author thinks the fossils ''exhibit a blending of the life of the Cretaceous period with 

that of the Jurassic," and shows the relation of some of them to those of the Shasta formation in California, and that of others to European species.
WHITE.] ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST. 59

WHITEAVES, J. F. On the fossils of the Cretaceous rocks of Vancouver and adjacent 

islands in the Strait of Georgia. <X!eol. Surv. Canada, Mesozoic Fossils, vol. 1, 

part II, Montreal, 1870, pp. 93-190, pi. 11-20. 1879.

The fossils were collected by Mr. James Richardson in 1871-75. They show the equivalency of the Vancouver strata to the lower part of the Chico-Tejon series of California. 

Several species are regarded as Identical with those of other North Americartformations, and 

some with species found in Africa, India, Australia, Ireland, England, Denmark, France, 

Germany, and Switzerland.

WHITEAVNS, J. F. On the Lower Cretaceous rocks of British Columbia. <£Eoy. Soc. 

Canada, Proc. and Trans., vol. 1, sec. 4, pp. 81-86. 1882.

The fossils described are from the region of Tatlayoco Lake, the headwaters of Skagit 

River, the lower valley of Frazer River, and from the northwest coast of Vancouver Island. The author thinks they probably represent the Upper Greensand and Gault, together 

with the upper division of the Lower Cretaceous. He proposes the name Queen Charlotte 

Islands group for the whole of Dr. Dawson's section of the Cretaceous rocks of those 

islands.

WHITEAVES, J. F. On the fossils of the coal-bearing deposits of the Queen Charlotte

Islands, collected by Dr. G. M. Dawson in 1878, <Geol. Surv. Canada, Mesozoic

Fossils, vol. 1, part 3, pp. 192-262, pi. 21-32. 1884.

The author regards these fossils as representing the Gault of Europe. He identified a 

part of them with species of the Shasta group of California, and also regards a part of them 

ns identical with Chico species. He thinks the Shasta group represents two distinct formations. He also expresses the opinion that the reputed Jurassic strata of the Interior 

and Pacific Border regions of the United States are "more nearly the equivalents of the 

earliest or oldest subdivision of the Middle Cretaceous."

WHITEAVES, J. F. Contributions to Canadian paleontology, vol. 1, part I, Report on 

the invertebrata of the Laratnie and Cretaceous rocks of the vicinity of the Bow 

and Belly Rivers and adjacent localities in the Northwest Territory, pp. 1-89, pi. 

I-XI. <CGeol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. of Canada. Montreal, 1885.

This work is mainly based on collections made by Dr. G. M. Dawson and Messrs. McConnell, Tyrrell, and Weston. It contains a revision of all the species before published in Dr. 

Dawson's reports from the formations mentioned in the title.

WHITEAVES, J. F. Note on some Mesozoic fossils from British Columbia. <Geol. and 

Nat. Hist. Surv. Canada (new series),appendix 1 to Dr. G. M. Dawson's Report B in 

Annual Rep., vol.2, for 1888, pp. 108-114.

Seven species of Cretaceous mollusks are described, among which ia Aucella piochii Gabb. 

WHITEAVES, J. F. On some Cretaceous fossils from British Columbia, the Northwest 

Territory, and Manitoba. -^Contributions to Canadian Paleontology: Geol. and 

Nat. Hist. Surv. of Canada, pp. 151-184. 1889.

Mr. Wliiteaves regards the Aucella-bearing strata of the Pacific coast,including " Division 

0" of the Queen Charlotte Island Cretaceous, as the homotaxial equivalent of the Gault of 

England.

WHITPIELD, R. P. Paleontology of the Black Hills of Dakota. <Report on the Geology and Resources of the Black Hills of Dakota, with atlas, pp. 325-468, and pi. 

1-14. 1880.

Many Cretaceous invertebrates are described and figured in this work, a considerable 

part of which were not before known.

WHITFIELD, R. P. Brachiopoda and lamellibranchiata of the Raritan Clays and 

Greensand Marls of New Jersey. Monograph U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 9, pp. 269, 

and 35 plates.

Prof. Whitfield's work is wholly paleontological, but this is preceded by a geological 

sketch by Prof. Cook.

WHITFIELD, R. P. New Jersey Cretaceous. <American Naturalist, vol. 21,1887, pp. 

66-68.

The author presents a table of the fossils that have been obtained from each of the beds 

of the New Jersey Cretaceous.
60 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

WHIT FIELD, E. P. Note on the faunal resemblance between the Cretaceous formations 

of New Jersey and those of the Gulf States. <Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 

2, Art. vnr, 1889, pp. 113-116.

This article contains a table showing the species which are common to the Cretaceous 

of New Jersey, Alabama, Mississippi, Texas, and Dakota.

WrrrTNEY, J. D. Geological Survey of California. Paleontology, Preface to vol. 2, 

pp. vn-xiv. 1869.

On pases xn-xiv Prof. Whitney names and briefly describes the Cretaceous formations 

that had then been recognized in California.

WTLLIS, BAILEY. The Lignites of the Great Sioux Reservation; a report on the Grand 

and Moreau Rivers, Dakota. <Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 3, No. 21, pp. 335- 

348, and 5 plates, two of which are maps. 1885.

The author notes the gradual transition from the Fox Hills strata to those of the Laramie. He also mentions the presence of numerous beds of lignite in the Laramie, but he 

found no true coal in that formation on the reservation.

WILLIS, BAILEY. Report on the toal fields of Washington Territory. <Tenth Census 

U. S., vol. 15, Report on the Mining Industries of the United States, pp. 759-771, 

maps, and plates. 1886.

Mr. Willis mentions a probable case of volcanic outflow among Cretaceous strata and 

reports the presence of important coal beds in the formation in Puget Sound basin that was 

afterward described by White as the Puget group, (See sixth entry on page 58.)

WINCHELL, ALEXANDER. Notes on the geology of middle and southern Alabama. 

<Troc. Am. Asso. Adv. Sci., vol. 10, part II, pp. 82-93, with section. 1857.

The strata which by other geologists were afterward designated as the Butaw group and 

Tuscaloosa group, Prof. Winchell refers to the Lower Cretaceous. Those now known as 

the Rotten limestone and Ripley group be refers to the Upper Cretaceous, his classification being essentially the same as that adopted in this memoir.

WINCHELL, N. H. The geology of the Minnesota Valley. <Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. 

of Minn., 2d annual report for 1873, pp. 127-212.

The existence of Cretaceousdeposits at several localities in the Minnesota Valley is noticed. 

WINCHELL, N. H. Note on lignite in the Cretaceous of Minnesota. <^Am. Jour. Sci. 

3d ser., vol. 10, 1875, p. 307.

The author mentions lignite in the Cretaceous deposits of different parts of Minnesota, 

and thinks that the Cretaceous extended over the entire State prior to the drift period. He 

also thinks that Cretaceous deposits were formed in both Wisconsin and Michigan.

WINCHELL, N. H. The Cretaceous in Minnessta. <Bull. Minn, Acad. Sci., vol.1,

1878, pp. 347-349.

The author gives a brief summary of the known localities at which Cretaceous deposits 

have been observed.

WINCHELL, N. H. Section of a deep well at Emmetsburg, Iowa. <Bull. Minn. Acad. 

Sci., vol.1, 1880, pp.387, 388.

Itseems probable from the reportof this boring that there are about 200 feet of Cretaceous 

deposits beneath the drift at Emmetsburg.

WINCHELL, N. H. The Cretaceous in Minnesota. <BuIl. Minn. Acad. Sci., vol. 1, 

1880, pp. 347-350.

The presence of Cretaceous deposits is mentioned in the following counties: Steele, Freeborn, Fillmore, Mower, and other counties. The author thinks there is evidence that these 

.deposits once covered nearly the whole State of Minnesota.

WINCHELL, N. H., and WARREN UPHAM. The Geological and Natural History Survey 

of Minnesota. The Geology of Minnesota, vol. 2 of the finalreport, pp. 695, 4°, with 

maps and plates. 1888.

Prof. Winchell and Mr. TJpham show in this report that there are Cretaceous deposits 

in the counties of Wabasha. Goodhue, Dakota, Carver, Scott, Sibley, Nicollet, Renville, 

Wrifsht.Hennepin,Stearns, Douglas, Pope, Grant, Stevens,Wilkin,Traverse, Otter Tail, Crow 

Wing, Morrison, Becker, and Clay. The first three of these counties border on the Mississippi. Previous reports show tho existence of Cretaceous deposits in different counties of 

southwestern Minnesota.
WHITE.J HISTORICAL SKETCH. 61

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

The publications of the foregoing list which appear under the name of 

each author represent to a great extent the growth of his views upon 

the general subject; and if the whole were arranged in chronological 

order it would serve in some measure as a historical guide to the gradual development of our knowledge of the North American Cretaceous. 

It would be interesting to pursue this subject in detail, but the following brief sketch extending from the third to the eighth decade of the 

 present century, inclusive, is thought to be sufficient for this occasion.

Some of the North American formations which are now recognized as 

of Cretaceous age, especially those along the Atlantic border, were partially studied, and observations upon them were published as early as the 

secoiid decade of the present century, but their true taxonomic position 

was not then recognized. Also descriptions of a few characteristic fossils 

of those formations were published by different authors in these earlier 

years of geological inquiry, but they were then treated merely as zoological specimens, no distinct reference having been made to their geological age.1

The first published recognition of any of the deposits of this continent as representing the Cretaceous of the Old World, appears to be 

due to Mr. John Finch, an English gentleman who visited the United 

States in 1824. In that year he published an article in the American 

Journal of Science, with special reference to the Tertiary formations of 

the Atlantic coast, which contains the following incidental allusion to 

the Cretaceous strata there under the name of "newer Secondary." "I 

wish to suggest that what is termed the Alluvial formation in the geological maps of Messrs. Maclure and Cleveland is identical and contemporaneous with the newer Secondary and Tertiary formations of France, 

England, Spain, Germany, Italy, Hungary, Poland, Iceland, Egypt, 

and Hindostan." 2

In 1828 a more complete and definite recognition of the Cretaceous 

age of these formations was made by Prof. Lardner Vanuxem; but 

being at that time pressed with other matters he placed the results of 

his observations in the hands of his friend, Dr. S. G. Morton, for publication. Dr. Morton published these observations in an article which 

bears his name, 3 but he distinctly ascribes their authorship to Prof. 

Vanuxem, who ought to be credited with first demonstrating the Cretaceous age of any North American strata.

In the next year Prof. Vanuxem restated his views as to the true 

age of the Cretaceous deposits of the Atlantic and Gulf-Border regions, 

referring to his notes, as published by Dr. Morton, in such a way as to 

leave no doubt that he regarded himself as their author. 4

1 Soe, for example, Thomas Say, observations on Home species of Zoophytes, shells, etc., principally 

foSHil. Am. Jour. Sci., 1819, vol. 1, pp. 381-387 ; and vol. 2, pp. 34-45.

2 Am. Jour. Sci., 1824, vol.7, pp. 31-43.

8 Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., Fhila., 1828, vol. C, pp. 59-71.

4 Am. Jour. Sci., 1829, vol. 1C, pp. 254-256.
62 THE CRETACEOUS. |nuLL.82.

From time to time after the publication of Prof. Vanuxem's article. 

Dr. Mortoii published descriptions of Cretaceous fossils, all of which 

were in 1834 embodied in his then very important work, Synopsis of 

the Organic Remains of the Cretaceous Group of the United States.1 

About this time also, travelers began to bring to active geologists 

small collections of fossils, which demonstrated the existence of Cretaceous deposits in the great interior portion of the continent. Descriptions of, and reference to, these fossils are contained in the works of Dr. 

Morton, which were published subsequently to his synopsis, and which 

are cited in the foregoing list.

In 1836 Prof. Henry D. Rogers published a report on the Geological 

Survey of New Jersey 2, in which, besides much other important matter, he gave a descriptive section of the Cretaceous formations of that 

State. This appears to be the first published section of North American Cretaceous strata, and it is in essentially the same form as that 

which is now recognized by the geologists of that State. This report 

of Prof. Rogers is noteworthy as containing the first published results 

of systematic field studies of the Cretaceous formations which have 

since been so elaborately investigated by other geologists.

In 1837 J. F. Ducatel published a report as geologist of Maryland,3 

in which he announced the existence of Cretaceous deposits along Sassafras River, in that Statej and in the next year Prof. W. W. Mather 4 

suggested that certain deposits found in Suffolk and Richmond Counties, New York, the former comprising a part of Long Island, and the 

latter the whole of Staten Island, are equivalent to some of the New 

Jersey Cretaceous strata.

The existence of Cretaceous deposits in the valley of the Lower Mississippi now began to be definitely known. In 1840 Dr. Gerald Troost,5

of Tennessee, announced their existence in that State, and gave a list 

of the fossils which he found to characterize them. In the same year 

Prof. Henry D. Rogers published his final report on-the geology of New 

Jersey,6 which contains descriptions and sections of the Cretaceous 

formations, in addition to those published in his previous report.

There was considerable activity in the study of the North American 

Cretaceous in 1841, inquiry having been directed to the interior of the 

continent, as well as to the Atlantic and Gulf Border regions. James 

C. Booth published a report as geologist of Delaware,7 in which he discussed the Cretaceous formations of that State; James T. Hodge wrote 

of deposits of Cretaceous age in the southern Atlantic States j 8 Prof.

*Published by the author in Philadelphia 1834,8vo., pp. 88, and 19 lithographed plates. 

2 Report on the Geological Survey of the State of New Jersey, Phila., 1836,8 vo,, pp. 174.

* Annual Report of the Geologist of Maryland, Annapolis, 1837,8vo., pp. 39, and 2 maps. 

4 Report of W. W. Mather, geologist of the First Geological District of New York, 1838, pp. 121-184. 

6 Fifth Annual Report to the General Assembly of Tennessee, Nashville, 1840, pp. 75, and 3 maps. 

Description of the Geology of the State of New Jersey, being a Final Report, Phila., 1840, pp. 301, 

8vo., with map and plate of sections.

* Memoir of the Geological Survey of the State of Delaware, Dover, 1841,8vo., pp. i-xi and 9-188. 

^ Am. Jour. Sci., 1841, vol. 41, pp. 332-343.
WHITE.] HISTOKICAL SKETCH. 63

Edward Hitchcock suggested the existence of Cretaceous strata on the 

Island of Martha's Vineyard,1 and Dr. Morton published descriptions of 

New Cretaceous fossils, some of which were obtained from the then little 

known region traversed by the Upper Missouri Eiver.

Dr. Morton also described new species of Cretaceous fossils in 1S42,2 

some of which were obtained from the Upper Missouri Eiver region, in 

connection with which descriptions he tabulated all the North American Cretaceous species that were then known. Comparatively little of 

any of his published works pertained to structural geology, but in the 

article just referred to he proposed three groups or divisions for the 

Cretaceous system of the United States, the uppermost of which, however, is doubtless of Tertiary age.

In 1843 Prof. W. W. Mather announced the presence upon both Staten

and Long Islands of strata which in this memoir are treated as the equivalent of the lower division of the New Jersey Cretaceous, thus confirming his suggestion published 5 years before.3 In this year Issachar 

Cozzeus suggested the presence at the western end of Long Island of 

strata equivalent to those of a part of the upper division of the New 

Jersey Cretaceous.4

In this year also I. N. Nicollet published a brief account of the Cretaceous formations of the Upper Missouri Eiver region, which served 

to increase the then prevalent interest of geologists in that direction.5

The presence of Charles Lyell in the United States in 1843 and 1844, 

gave a still further impetus to geological investigation, and he made a 

considerable personal study of the Cretaceous rocks of the Atlantic and 

Gulf border regions. In his published articles6 he placed those rocks in 

correlation with the European Cretaceous from the Grault to the Maestricht beds inclusive. He also claimed that the uppermost of the three 

Cretaceous divisions which were proposed by Morton, as it is found in 

North and South Carolina, ought to be referred to the Eoceney as has 

already been intimated. 7

In 1846, and again in 1848, Prof. Ferdinand Eoemer published some 

of the results of his geological studies in Texas,8 the completion of which 

afterward appeared in his Kreidebildungen vou Texas. In those early 

publications, as well as in the latter one, he pointed out the interesting 

paleontological relationship which exists between the Texan Cretaceous 

and that of Southern Europe. In 1846 also appeared Prof. M. Tuomey's 

final report on the geology of South Carolina, in which the existence of

'Final Report on the Geology of Massachusetts, vol. 2,1841, p. 423.

2 Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1842, vol. 8, pp. 207-227, and two plates.

3 Geology of Now York, Part 1, Geology of the First District, p. 272.

4 Geological History of Manhattan, or New York Island, 1843, pp. Ill, and 9 plates 8vo. New York. 

Published by the author.

6 Rep. Hydrog. Basin of U. Mississippi River, 1843, pp. 1-170. Am. Jour. Sci., 1843, vol. 45, pp. 153-156. 

c Quart. Jour.Geol. Soc. London, vol. 1, 1843, pp. 55-60. Am. Jour. Sci. 1844, vol. 47, pp. 213, 214.

7 See also remarks on a following pago relative to the commingling of Cretaceous and Tertiary 

forms in one and tho same stratum. 

8 Am. Jour. Sci., 1848, vol. C, pp. 21-28.
64 THE CRETACEOUS. l«uLL.82.

Cretaceous deposits along the rivers of the eastern part of that State is 

shown.

During the years 1848 and 1849 Prof. Tuoiney, having moved to Alabama, was engaged upon the geological work of that State, and his 

first official report was published in 1850. l This report contained a 

good account of the Cretaceous formations of Alabama, his classification of which has been but little modified by subsequent observers.

An increasing number of publications relating to the North American Cretaceous appeared in the sixth decade of this century, and a 

rapidly increasing activity prevailed in the study of those formations, 

especially of those of the interior of the continent. The latter work 

was largely accomplished in connection with Government expeditions, 

but much was also done by private enterprise and by scientific societies.

Prof. Boomer's final work on Texas,2 which appeared in 1852, was 

the best executed and in many respects the most important work upon 

the American Cretaceous that up to that time had been published. It 

not only added much to previous knowledge of the southwestern 

equivalents of the formations which were already known in the Atlantic and Gulf border regions, but the author therein demonstrated 

the existence in Texas of a formation which was entirely unknown before his investigations began, and which in this memoir is assigned to 

the Lower Cretaceous of North America under the name of the Comauche series. In the same year also appeared the final report of the 

work which David Dale Owen and a corps of assistants accomplished 

in connection with the Government expedition under his direction.3 In 

this report the existence of Cretaceous formations along the Missouri 

River west of Iowa, was announced, and the presence of similar deposits in northwestern Iowa was suggested.

In 1853 Congress authorized explorations along several lines across 

the western half of the continent, for the purpose of selecting a route 

for a transcontinental railroad. Each expedition was accompanied by 

a geologist, the results of whose observations were embodied in the 

official reports, commonly known as the Pacific Eailroad reports. By 

this means knowledge of the Cretaceous formations of the West was increased, but owing to the hasty travel which the observers were generally obliged to make, it was not so complete as it otherwise would have 

been. Still, important results were recorded in the reports of these 

expeditions, among the more noteworthy of which were those recorded 

by Dr. John S. Newberry, who seized upon the most important and 

salient facts, and discussed questions relating to them which have since 

been investigated by himself and others with increasing interest.4

1 First Biennial Report on the Geology of Alabama. Tuscaloosa, 1850, 8vo., pp. 176, and map.

2 Kreidebildungen vou Texas untl ihre organischen Eiuscbliisse, pp. 100 and 11 plates, 4to Bonn, 1852.

3 Eeport on a Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota, and incidentnlly of a portion of 

Nebraska Territory, 4to, pp. 693, plates and maps. Washington, 1852.

4 See Explorations and Surveys for a K. K. Kouto from the Mississippi Kiver to the Pacific Ocean, 

vol. 6, Part 2, pp. 9-68.
WHITE.) . 1IISTO141CAL SKtiTCll. 65

Among those who pushed out into the new western fields was Prof. 

James Hall, who had long been engaged upon the geological work of 

the State of New York. In 1855, his official duties requiring his presence in New York, he employed Mr. F. B. Meek and Dr. F. V; Haydeu 

to explore a part of the Upper Missouri River region with reference to 

its Cretaceous deposits. The results of this work were mainly paleoutological; those pertaining to the invertebrate fossils were published 

jointly by Prof. Hall and Mr. Meek in 1856. 1

In 1856 Dr. John B. Trask made his well known afiftounceinent of 

the discovery in California of Ammonites and Baculites in Tertiary 

strata.2 These strata are the same that the geologists -of the California State Survey afterward named the Chico group, referring them to 

the Cretaceous. They are also in part the same strata that Prof. Jules 

Marcou3 and other geologists have agreed with Dr. Trask in referring 

to the Tertiary.

The work already mentioned, which Mr. Meek and Dr. Haydeu did 

on the Cretaceous formations of the Upper Missouri River region in 

connection with Prof. Hall, was the beginning of a long-continued 

series of labors by the two first-named authors, both jointly and separately, the results of which are still among the most important contributions to the literature of the North American Cretaceous. In 1856, 

the year in which the results of their first explorations appeared, they 

published an article which contained the section of the Cretaceous 

formations of the Upper Missouri River region, which has become so 

widely known as the Meek and Hayden section. 4 They made two general divisions of the series of formations which their section embraced, 

designating them respectively the Upper and Lower series, but they 

afterward applied the terms Earlier and Later Cretaceous. 5 The whole 

section, however, is in this memoir referred to the Upper Cretaceous of 

North America.

The report of the United States and Mexican Boundary Commission, 

vol. 1, which was published in 1857, contains a geological map, and also 

important discussions of the Cretaceous formations of the United States 

by Prof. James Hall. In those discussions Prof. Hall pointed out the 

true relation of the then known Cretaceous formations of the interior 

portion of the continent with those of the Atlantic and Gulf Border 

regions; and upon the map referred to he indicated the areas which 

were then known to be occupied by them. These statements of the 

correlation of those formations were the most com plete that up to that 

time had been proposed, and they are adopted with little modification 

in this memoir. At this early date he also showed that deposits of Cretaceous age once extended over a large part of Iowa and a still larger

1 Mem. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. 5, now sor., 1856, pp. 376-411, and 8 plates. 

2 Proc. Cal. Acad. ScL.vol. 1,1st ed.,pp. 85,86, plate 2. 

3 Bull., Soo. g6ol. France, 3" s6r., vol. 11, pp. 407-435. 

"Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1856, vol. 8, pp. 265-28<£ 

B Sbo UanaV Manual of Geology, 1874, pp. 456,457.

Bull. 82 5
66 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82

part of Minnesota. In the same year Prof; Alexander Winchell made 

some important observations upon the Cretaceous formations of Alabama, 1 separating them into two general divisions, which are identical 

with those proposed in this memoir for the Gulf Border region.

Messrs. Meek and Hayden continued their work upon the Cretaceous 

of the Upper Missouri Eiver region during 1857 and 1858, the results 

of which were published in I860.2 The. field work was done by Dr. 

Hayden, in connection with an expedition in charge of Lieut. G. K. 

Warren, IL S. Army, and the paleontology by Mr. Meek.

During the year 1859 several important publications appeared relating to the Cretaceous formations of the interior of the continent and 

of the Pacific Border region, among which were a part of the results of 

Prof. Newberry's work in New Mexico. At this time, also, began important controversies as to the true geological age of a part of the formations in question. These controversies referred mainly to the Dakota 

formation in the great interior area, and to the coal-bearing strata 

upon and in the vicinity of Vancouver Island; the character of the 

fossil floras of those formations being principally concerned in them. It 

was claimed by Heer, Lesquereux, and other paleobotanists, that neither 

of those formations could be of greater age than the Eocene, and that 

a large part of the plant remains obtained from them indicated their 

Miocene age. On the other hand, Messrs. Meek and Hayden and Prof. 

Newberry showed that whatever the character of the plant remains 

might be, all the strata containing them are overlain by others which 

contain an abundance of characteristic marine Cretaceous fossils.

In 1859, also. Prof, Henry Toule Hind announced the existence of 

Cretaceous formations in a large part of the great interior portion of 

British America,3 In his report Prof. Hind referred to the Cretaceous 

system, not only those strata concerning the Cretaceous age of which 

no controversy has ever arisen, but also all those which are now known 

as the Laramie and Belly River formations. 3

On the other hand, Dr. Hayden, who in the same year published 

results of his observations upon the strata which are now known to be 

referable to the Laramie formation, and which are exposed along the 

Upper Missouri River, referring them to the Tertiary. 4 This may be 

regarded as the first of a series of publications which led to the controversy concerning the true geological age of the strata now known 

as the Laramie formation, the second of the great controversies which 

have arisen concerning the true age of formations that are discussed 

in this memoir.

 Notes onjthe Geology of Middle and Southern Alabama. Proc. Am, Assoe. Adv. Soi.,1857, vol. 

10, part 2, pp. 82-93. 

2 Proc. Acatl. Nut. Sci., Phila., I860, vol.4, pp.417-432.

3 The Northwest Territory, Reports of Progress: together with Preliminary and General Report 

on the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition, 4to, pp. 201, 2 places and 4_ maps. Toronto. 1859. Another edition of this report was published in London in I860.,

4 Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc-, vol. 11, pp. 1§1-13§,
wiiiTK.1 HISTORICAL SKETCH. 67

In 1860, Dr. B. F. Shumard, who during tlie previous year Lad been 

studying the Cretaceous formations of Texas, published descriptions of 

them and of a considerable number of their invertebrate fossils. 1 In 

connection with those descriptions he published a section showing the 

order of superposition of the Texan Cretaceous formations as he understood it from his restricted opportunities for study, but subsequent 

observations have shown the inaccuracy of his section in that respect.

Dr. Philip T. Tyson published his first annual report upon the 

geology of Maryland in this year wherein he discussed the Cretaceous 

formations of that state.2

In 18GO, also, Prof. B. W. Hilgard published his report on the geology . 

of Mississippi, in which he gave a descriptive section of the Cretaceous 

formations of that State, a summary of which is given in this memoir, 

Hud of which little or no modification has been proposed by subsequent 

authors.

In thisyear Meek and Hayden published acatalogueof all the Jurassic, 

Cretaceous, and Tertiary fossils which were collected upon the expeditions in charge of Lient. G. K. Warren. In this publication those 

authors continued to refer to the Tertiary all the strata which are now 

known as Laramie.3

An important article was published in 3861 by Meek and Hayden,4 

which embraced results of field observations made by Dr. Eaydeu in 

connection with the expeditions in command of Capt. Baynolds. In 

this article those authors pointed out the correlation of some of the 

western Cretaceous formations and those of New Jersey, and also expressed their views concerning the relation of the latter to some of the 

Old World Cretaceous.

The most important report that had up to this time been published 

concerning the Cretaceous formations of the great interior area was 

one by Dr. J. S. Newberry recording his observations in connection 

with the United States expedition in command of Lieut. J. C. Ives.5 The 

region he reported upon is now mostly embraced in the Territories of 

New Mexico and Arizona.

In Canada, as well as in the United States, the importance of obtaining definite knowledge of the geology of the western regions caused 

that government to send out exploring expeditions. D,r. James Hector," 

who was appointed geologist to the one which was placed in command 

of Capt J. Palliser, published a report of his observations in 18C1, describing the Cretaceous formations of the region which he traversed, 

showing their correlation with those of the Upper Missouri section of

1 Trana. St. Louis Acad. Sci., vol. 1, pp. 582-610.

2 First Report of Philip T. Tyson, State Agricultural Chemist to the bouse of delegates, of Maryland. Annapolis. 1800.

sProc. Acad. Nat, Sci., Phila., I860, vol. 4, pp. 417-432.

« Ibid., 1801, vol. 5, pp. 415-447.

6 Eeportupon thu Colorado Kiverof the West, explored in 1857 and 1858. Joseph C. Ives, Part 3, 

pp. 1-154,2 maps and 6 plates. Washington, 1861.

G Quart. Jour. Guol. fc&c., IvOudoiJ, 18G1, vol. 17, pp. 388-445, and map.
68 THE CRETACEOUS, [BULL.82.

Meek and Hayden anrl with other formations. He recognized the Cretaceous age of the coal-bearing formation at Nauaimo, on Vancouver 

Island, the true age of which, as already mentioned, was in dispute. 

The controversy upon this question was continued in this year by those 

who had previously engaged in it.

In 18G2 Prof. Jules Marcou published an important article entitled 

Notes on the Cretaceous and Carboniferous Rocks of Texas,1 in which 

he gave his views as to the true order of superposition of the Cretaceous 

formations of that State and of their relation to the Cretaceous of 

Europe. This section is essentially correct, and is nearly the same 

as the one afterward published by myself 2 and by Mr. B. T. Hill.3 

In the same year Dr. Hayden published a general summary of his 

observations in the Upper Missouri country, and Dr. Tyson published his second report on the geology of Maryland in which he tabulated the Cretaceous formations of that State.

Comparatively few important publications concerning the North 

American Cretaceous appeared in 1863. Prof. Newberry, however, in 

this year published descriptions of the fossil plants which were collected 

upon Vancouver and Orcas Islands by Mr. George Gibbs, geologist of 

the Northwest Boundary Survey,4 when he took the ground that these 

plants are of Cretaceous and not of Miocene types, as they had been 

regarded by Heer and Lesquereux.

In the first volume of the Paleontology of California, which appeared 

in 1864, Mr. "W. M. Gabb published a large number of species of fossil 

invertebrates which were collected from strata that we^e afterward referred to the Shasta, Chico, and Tejon groups, respectively, all of which 

he regarded as of Cretaceous age. Mr. Conrad and others, howe\7 er, 

refused to admit that those fossils which were obtained from the Tejon 

group are of Cretaceous age, but insisted upon assigning them to the 

Eocene. This was the beginning of another controversy as to the true 

geological age of formations discussed in this memoir, which has resulted in the recognition of the fact that the Chico-Tejon series constitutes an unbroken transition from the Cretaceous to the Tertiary.

In the same year Mr. Gabb published descriptions of some invertebrate fossils from the gold-bearing slates of the Mariposa estate,5 one 

species of which, his Lima erringtonii, is now regarded as identical 

with his Aucella piochii, and as at best only a variety of A. conccntrica 

Keyserling. Mr. Gabb and others regarded the strata bearing his 

L. erringtonii as of Jurassic age, but there seems now to be no reason to 

question its Cretaceous age, as is explained on subsequent pages. In 

1864 also, Prof. J. M. Safford published an article in which he showed 

that the Cretaceous outcrop of the Gulf States is continued as a narrow belt from northern Mississippi across the State of Tennessee to the 

Kentucky boundary.

1 Proc. Bost Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 8, pp. 86-98.

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Plrila., 1887, Part I, pp. 39-47. 

8 Am; Jour. Sci., 1887, vol. 33, pp. 201-303.

* Jour. Bost. Soc, Nat. Hint., 1863, vol. 7, pp. 606-628. 

e, Gal, Aewl, Kat. go. 160*, vol. 3, p#. i?g, 17&
WHITE] HISTORICAL SKETCH. 69

Several important publications upon the Cretaceous appeared in 

1805. Prof. Geo. H. Cook, State geologist of New Jersey, in his annual 

report for this year published a map and sections showing the area 

occupied by, and the character of, the formations constituting the New 

Jersey Cretaceous, and noted the extension of the lower formation into 

Pennsylvania and Staten Island. In this year also Prof. Joseph Leidy 

published descriptions of an important collection of vertebrate fossils 

from the New Jersey Cretaceous. 1

It was in 18G5 that the geological survey of California published volume 1, Geology, in which Mr. Meek described several species of fossils 

from the auriferous slates of that State, among which was the Aucella 

that Mr. Gabb had described under the name of Lima crringtonii.2 

These fossils have since assumed much importance because of their bearing upon the geological age of the strata containing them and because 

that form of Aucella has been found to characterize an extensive Cretaceous horizon in the Pacific border region. Those fossils from the 

auriferous slates were then referred to the Jurassic by Mr. Meek, as 

they had previously been by Mr. Gabb, but they are in this memoir 

treated as of Cretaceous age.3

The controversy concerning the geological age of the gold-bearing 

slates in which these fossils were discovered, although perhaps never so 

prominent as have been some of the other controversies of which mention is made in previous paragraphs, has within the last few years assumed some additional importance because of its bearing upon discussions concerning the age of certain orogenic movements which have occurred in California, especially those published by Dr. G. F. Becker.4

M.r. Conrad having criticised Mr. Gabb's reference of the fossils of 

the Tejou group of California to the Cretaceous, which the former regarded as Tertiary,Mr. Gabb, in 1SG6. vigorously replied, defending his 

opinion that they are of the Cretaceous age, as he had also done on former occasions.5

In 1867, Dr. Hayden again discussed the Dakota formation, defending 

his views as to its Cretaceous age and opposing the views of those 

who claimed that its plants prove its Tertiary age.6

Mr. A. Be*moud announced the discovery of the Cretaceous deposits 

in the State of Sonora, Mexico,7 of which Mr. Gabb afterward published 

descriptions and figures.8 Prof. James Hall continued his observations

1 Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 1865, vol. 14, pp. 135 and 20 plates.

2 Proc. Cal. A cad. Nat. Sci., 1804, vol. 3, pp. 172,173.

3 1 have discussed this subject at some length in Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 15, and in Monograph 

13, U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 226-232. While I am not prepared to deny the statement of certain authors 

that in Europe Aucella, ranges from the Jurassic into tho Lower Crotaceoue, I find no reason for believing that shells of that genus occur in any other than Lower Crotacaons strata in California.

4 Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 19, Monograph U. S.Geol.Survey, vol. 13,and Dull. Geol.Soc. America, 

vol. 2, pp. 201-206.

s Am. Jour. Conch., 1866, vol. 2, pp. 87-92.

6 Am. Jour. Sci., 1867, vol. 43, pp. 171-179.

'Proc. Cal., Acad. Nat. Sci., 1867, pp. 2-14-257.

'Paleontology of California, vol.2, pp. 257-276.
70 THK CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

upon the Cretaceous of Minnesota;1 and Mr. Conrad disputed the then 

somewhat prevalent belief that certain strata in the Atlantic border 

region contain a faunal and not a mechanical commingling' of Cretaceous 

and Tertiary fossils.2

Prof. Geo. H. Cook in 1868 published his principal volume of official 

reports on the geology of New Jersey, which contains more elaborate 

descriptions and illustrations of the Cretaceous formations of that State 

than before had been published. The section of the New Jersey formations thus constructed from the labors of several investigators has 

become the standard for all Cretaceous deposits of the Atlantic border 

region, and it is now known to hold an important relation to the Upper 

Cretaceous of the remainder of the continent.

In 18G8 also, Prof. Newberry published an article 3 preliminary to a 

report which he published the following year 4 containing descriptions of 

many Cretaceous plants, together with some from the Fort Union beds, 

near the mouth of Yeltowstone River, the latter being then referred to 

the Miocene. In these publications Prof. Newberry repeats his former 

statement that the Dakota formation and the coal-bearing strata of 

Belliugham Bay are of Cretaceous, and not of Tertiary age, as has been 

claimed by others, his opinion being based upon the character of the 

plant remains, without reference to the character of the associated 

fauna. -

In this year Dr. Hayden published an article entitled Notes on the 

Lignitic deposits of the West,5 in which he assumed that all the lignites 

of the great interior area belong to one and the same formation, and 

that they are all of Tertiary age. It is, however, now known that a 

large part of them occur in marine Upper Cretaceous formations, a part 

of them in the Lanimie, and only a small part of them in strata that 

all geologists agree in referring to the Tertiary.

In 1869 appeared volume 2, Paleontology of California, in which 

Prof. J. D. Whitney gave a concise statement of the recognized Cretaceous formations of that State, and Mr. Gabb described and figured a. 

large number of invertebrate fossils. In this work Mr. Gabb continued 

to refer to the Cretaceous system the fossils of all the strata that are 

comprised in what is now known as the Chic®-Tejon series.

The eighth decade of this century witnessed greater activity in geological investigation in North America than had ever before existed; 

and knowledge of the Cretaceous formations of the West correspondingly increased. The latter was mainly due to opportunities for study 

which were extended to geologists in connection with explorations that 

were undertaken by government authority, both in Canada and the 

United States, but much was also done by individual enterprise.

'Trans. Ainer. Philos. Soc., 1867, vol. 13, pp. 329-339.

2 Am. Jour. Sci., 1867, vol. 43, p. 200. This subject is discussed on followingpages of this memoir.

3 Annals N. T. Lyceum Nat. Hist, 1868, vol. 9, pp. 1-70.

*Geol. "Rep. Expl. Yellowstono and Missouri rivors in 1859 and 1800, by Dr. F1 . V. Hayden, assistant 

under the direction of Capt. W. F. Baynolds, pp. 145-174, Washington, 1869. 

6 Am. Jour. Sci., J868, vol. 45, pp. 198-208.
HISTORICAL SKETCH. 71

In 1870, Dr. Hermann Credner published some results of his observations upon the Now Jersey Cretaceous l in which he pointed out its 

close relationship to the Upper Cretaceous of Europe. So intimate 

did he regard this relationship that iu the article referred to he mentions upward of forty species of the New Jersey Cretaceous fossils as 

being specifically identical with those of the Senoniau of northern 

Europe.

Peter Doroschin, a Enssian engineer, having made considerable collections of fossils in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, Prof. E. Eichwald published descriptions and figures of them in St. Petersburg in 

1871.2 Among these fossils were numerous examples of several varieties of Aucella concentrica, which Prof. Eichwald confidently asserted to 

be characteristic of the Lower Cretaceous, in opposition to the views of 

other paleontologists, who had regarded Aucella as exclusively a Jurassic genus. This publication of Prof. Eichwald's contained the first distinct recognition of Cretaceous deposits in that far northwestern region, 

and our knowledge of the Cretaceous there has since been increased 

only by the discovery at a few other localities of a small number of 

fossil forms in strata which apparently belong to the same or nearly the 

same horizon.

The parties connected with the Second German North Pole expedition obtained a small collection of fossils upon Kuhn Island, off the 

east coast of Greenland, descriptions and figures of which were published in 1874 by Prof. F. Toula, who referred them to the Jurassic.3 

This collection contained varieties of Aucella concentrica which show 

the presence there of strata which correspond to the Aucella-bearing 

strata of Alaska, British Columbia, and California j all of which, in 

this memoir, are referred to the Lower Cretaceous.

From and after the early part of the eighth decade of this century 

the number of investigators greatly increased, and publications concerning the North American Cretaceous became correspondingly numerous and comprehensive. Therefore the history of this subject was 

proportionally less marked by conspicuous events than formerly, although the labors concerning it so greatly increased in general importance. The events also which followed those that have been mentioned 

in the preceding paragraphs are so little removed from the present 

time that further historical details are hardly necessary on the present 

occasion.

During the eighth and ninth decades the greater part of the publications concerning the North American Cretaceous were made in connection with reports of government explorations and surveys, both of 

the United States and Canada. In the United States this official work 

was prosecuted under three organizations, in charge of Dr. "F. V. Hay1 Zeitschrifc tier Deutsclien geol. Gosoll., Jahr. 1870, pp. 191-25? and maps.

2 GeognoBt. Palaeout. Beruerkuiig iiber die Halbiusel Maugiscbliik und der Aloutischou Insoln, pp. 

88-200, St. Petoi-sburR, 1871. 

3Die sweite rteutsche Nordpolarfabrt, 2 Baud, pp. 497-507, and two plates.
72 Tfltt CftETACEOUS. (BULL.82.

den, Maj. J. W. Powell, and Lient George M. Wheeler respectively, 

until the year 1879, when they were all discontinued and the present 

Geological Survey was established by Congress.

The Canadian Survey had been in progress many years before the 

present United States Survey was organized, but the former was mainly 

engaged upon the older formations of the eastern part of British 

America, until after the reports of the Northwestern Boundary Commission and of the other expeditions already mentioned had been published. Then the Canadian Geological Survey began systematic investigation in the interior and western portions of British America, among 

the results of which are some of the most important additions to our 

knowledge of the North American Cretaceous that have yet been made.

DISCUSSION OF THE FORMATIONS BY REGIONS. 

EXPLANATION OF TEEMS AND METHODSo

While no rocks of Cretaceous age are known to exist in much the 

greater part of North America, in some portions of the continent they 

constitute prominent geological and topographical features; and they 

are exposed at the surface over several large as well as numerous 

small areas. For convenience of description and discussion, those portions of the continent in which Cretaceous rocks occur must be divided 

geographically, although such divisions must, to a great extent, be 

arbitrarily designated as to their boundaries. For the present purpose 

the ordinary term region will be restricted in its use to indicate the proposed geographical divisions, while in the descriptions which are to follow the terms area and district will be used with the.usual allowable 

latitude.

The regions which are thus recognized are in part widely separated 

from one another, but in most cases each region is in some degree connected with one or more others by a continuity of Cretaceous strata. 

Still, some of the Cretaceous format ions which prevail in each of the 

designated regions are found to possess certain distinguishing geological or paleontological characteristics, so that this proposed geographical division of the American Cretaceous is not wholly artificial, nor 

merely a matter of convenience. The following are the names which 

are applied to the respective regions that have been recognized.

Atlantic Border region. >

Gulf Border region.

Texan region.

North Mexican region.

South Interior region » The Great ^^ ^

North Interior region )

Pacific Border region.

The respective boundaries of each region are defined upon appropriate pages, and they are also shown upon the map opposite (PI. i).
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY1 BULLETIN NO. 82 PL. I

16^ . 160° . . :5,153° 143° 140 13S° 130° 123° 120° 115° H0° 10Bi \J5 90 85 80 7S 70 63 60 ss . s<> 43 __ 40_____ 3S

MAP SHOWING THE OUTLINES

 _ - ' or THE ', 

KNOWN CRETACEOUS TffidONS

OF

NORTH AMERICA

1891

1 ATLANTIC BORDER REGION

2 GULF BORDER REGION

3 TCXAN REGION

4 NORTH MEX/CAN REGION
WHITE.] EXPLANATION OF TERMS AND METHODS. 73

It will be seen that in each cnse the boundaries include not merely 

the space which is actually occupied by Cretaceous strata at the surface, but sufficient additional space is included to show the relation of 

the Cretaceous with other formations, as well as the relation of the respective regions to other portions of the continent. These boundaries 

of course refer to the present known limits of areas in which Cretaceous 

formations occur at the surface, and not to the limits of areas upon which 

they were originally deposited. It also will be seen that all, except the 

greater part of one, of the designated regions are included within the 

limits of the United States together with the southern portion of British 

America, in which parts of the continent only have the Cretaceous rocks 

been systematically studied.'

A large part of the continent is too little known to ,°llow any satisfactory discussion of or reference to its geological formations; but it 

can not be doubted that, with the exception of central and southern 

Mexico and of Central America, the regions designated in this memoir 

embrace all the important areas which are occupied by Cretaceous rocks. 

Rocks of this system have been reported to exist in some of the comparatively little known districts referred to, which reports have been 

based upon a few difficult explorations and the discovery of comparatively few characteristic Cretaceous fossils. Therefore the information 

which has hitherto been obtained concerning them is so meager that 

they can not be satisfactorily discussed in connection with the formations of the respective regions, but they will be noticed under the head 

of Extra-Regional Districts.

The boundaries of the regions, as they are defined on following pages, 

while they are largely natural are to some extent arbitrary. In some 

cases they do not coincide with the natural limits of the fossil faunas 

which characterize the Cretaceous strata of each region respectively, 

tor in such cases the fauna of one^ region is largely represented in another; that is, the regions here designated are geographical subdivisions, and not fauual provinces. Again, the boundaries of these regions 

do not necessarily coincide with any interruption of geographical 

continuity of, or with any marked lithological change in, the character of the strata, for in several cases the formations of one region may 

be traced into an adjacent one without a geographical break, and without material change. In other cases the formations are presumably 

continuous in a similar manner from one region to another beneath 

superincumbent strata of later age. It is therefore apparent that, in 

the general discussion which will follow the presentation of the facts 

pertaining to the respective regions, the existence of some of these 

designated boundaries must largely be ignored.

All the stratigraphical divisions that have been proposed by various 

authors will be more or less distinctly recognized, but in some cases 

two or more of such proposed groups of strata will be regarded as one. 

Following the general presentation of the subject of the formations an
74 THE CRETACEOUS.

attempt will be made to trace out the great paleontological horizons of 

the continent which the formations represent that are embraced within 

the scope of this memoir.

As has been mentioned on a preceding page, the general Cretaceous 

section of the continent will, in this memoir, be divided into Upper and 

Lower Cretaceous, but without any intention of indicating that those 

two great divisions respectively are really equivalent to the Upper and 

Lower Cretaceous of Europe. All the formations which have by any 

geologist been referred to the North American Cretaceous will be recognized for discussion, and the names which have been applied to them 

will in most cases be retained in the tables of sections which are given 

on following pages, but in some cases two or more of the formations 

which some authors have recognized will be united into one.

A few words of explanation of some of the terms which are to be used 

in the following pages with reference to the classification of strata is 

thought to be necessary because they have been so variously, and often . 

loosely, used by geological writers. This seems to have been mainly 

due to the fact that no one assemblage of strata ever has more than 

approximately the same classificatory value as another, and to the consequent impracticability of cle trly defining the terms used to designate 

such assemblages. This difficulty is doubtless not wholly avoidable, 

but I shall, in accordance with the rule of the Survey, use the term 

formation for those assemblages of strata to which the term group has 

generally been applied. The latter term, however, will be retained in 

citations of and quotations from the works of tho^e geologists who have 

used it instead of the term formation. The term epoch will be used as 

a time correlative of the structural term formation. The term series 

will be used as a collective designation for several more or less closely 

related formations or for a large formation that really or presumably 

may be capable of subdivision into smaller ones, at lenst locally. The 

Comauche series is an example of the latter kind. As to the use of other 

terms than those which have been mentioned, it is thought tliat the 

manner of their use will make explanation unnecessary.

THE ATLANTIC BORDER REGION.

This region, as its name implies, lies adjacent to the coast of the 

Atlantic Ocean. Its outlines are shown upon the map (PI. I) opposite 

page 72, which also shows its position with relation to the adjacent 

parts of the continent. It essentially consists of the broad belt of low 

country which has been appropriately designated as the coastal plain, 

together with the adjacent peninsulas and islands. Its average elevation above the sea is less than that of any of the other regions, and its 

strata have suffered comparatively little disturbance since their deposition. It includes portions of the States of South Carolina, Virginia, 

Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York, apart
WHITE.] ATLANTIC BORDER REGION. 75

of the District of Columbia, and also certain of the islands which lie 

off the southern coast of New England.

The eastern boundary of the region is the Atlantic Ocean and its 

western boundary is the dividing line between itself and the Piedmont 

region, which is wholly occupied by rocks that are older than the Cretaceous. Its northern limit includes the islands jnst mentioned and, 

for present convenience, "the Savannah River is chosen as the southern 

boundary. This southern boundary is chosen only for present convenience, because the Atlantic and Gulf Border regions are so intimately related to each other as regards their geological formations and 

general surface characteristics, that they can only be separated arbitrarily. The other boundaries of the Atlantic Border region are natural and capable of clearer definition.

The Piedmont region, which lies upon the western side of the Atlantic Border region, is very extensive, but, as it is not necessary for 

our present purpose to fully define its boundaries, it may merely be 

designated as extending continuously from New England to the Gulf 

States. The topographical and geological contrast between that region 

and the Atlantic Border region makes the dividing line between them 

quite distinct. On the one hand the moderately elevated and diversified 

surface of the Piedmont region is occupied by a great series of contorted crystalline Archean rocks, upon which here and there, within 

limited districts, rest more or less displaced Cambrian and Triassic 

strata. The presence of trap dikes in many places adds to the disturbed condition of those rocks. On the other hand the comparatively 

low and flat surface of the Atlantic Border region stretches away to 

the ocean; the low hills which occur within its borders being only 

those of circumdenudatiou.

The boundary line between the Piedmont region and the Atlantic 

Border region is even more distinct than might be inferred from the 

contrast between the geological and topographical features of each irrespectively. It is the line along which the western border of the Cretaceous outcrops rest unconformably upon the abrupt eastern border of the 

older rocks. It is indeed identical with the last named border, although 

in some places the later, rocks lap further westward upon the earlier 

than in others. This border is so distinct a natural feature that the 

people of the country recognize it and often refer to it in the ordinary 

affairs of life. They call -it the " fall line " because all the streams which 

rise in and flow eastward frpm the Piedmont region, upon reaching its 

seaward border, fall more or less abruptly over the suddenly terminating 

older and harder formations of that region upon the lower and softer 

ones of the Atlantic Border region. To aid the eye in tracing this boundary upon an ordinary map it may be mentioned that the following 

cities lie approximately upon it: New York, Trenton, Philadelphia, 

Baltimore, Washington, Richmond, Raleigh, Columbia, and Augusta.
70 . THE CRETACEOUS. fnULL.82.

The elevation of the whole surface of the Atlantic Border region 

above the level of the sea is so slight that, aside from the coast and 

drainage lines, few topographical features are developed which are 

capable of being represented upon an ordinary map. Tide water, in 

numerous bays and rivers, reaches far within its borders, and in some 

cases entirely across it, when the tide-flow is checked by the rock 

obstructions at the fall line which, as before shown, corresponds to 

the western border of the region. In other cases the slope of the rivers 

from the fall line to tide water i s very gentle and the current sluggish, 

although in some of the rivers it is strong because of the great volume 

of water which flows in them. '

The geological structure of this region is also very simple, and its 

formations are, with comparatively few exceptions, composed of uncompacted rocks, all of which have been only slightly disturbed since their 

deposition. The formations which are exposed within its borders are 

referred to the Cretaceous, Tertiary, and post Tertiary respectively; 

but along its western border both Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits are 

found to rest unconformably upon the Triassic, Cambrian, and Archean rocks. All the formations which are later than the Trias have the 

appearance of lying conformably with one another, and have a gentle 

dip toward the ocean; but the overlapping of the Tertiary upon the 

Cretaceous shows that the apparent conformity is not real and that the 

dip, though slight, is variable. The orogenic movements which resulted 

in the production of the Appalachian ranges, and those subsequent movements which displaced the Triassic strata of the Piedmont region, all 

occurred before the deposition of the oldest of the strata which are 

exposed in the Atlantic Border region. Consequently none of the latter have shared in those great displacements, the movements which 

have occurred within the region since the deposition of the strata to be

observed there having resulted in little more than their present inland 

elevation, the overlapping just mentioned, and their gentle oceauward 

dip. 1 In some parts of the region even this dip seems to be little if 

any greater than the probable natural slope of the sea bottom upon 

which the strata were deposited; but in other parts the dip is plainly 

somewhat greater than the original slope of deposition.

Because the formations of this region have in onty a few cases become compacted to any considerable degree since their deposition, 

escarpment exposures are rare, and even river bank exposures are not 

common. The Cretaceous formations are composed mainly of arkose, 

gravels, clays, sands, and marls, and those of Tertiary and later age 

are largely composed of sands.

While it may be assumed that these Cretaceous deposits underlie the 

whole of the Atlantic Border region, they reach the surface in only a

1 In the northern part of the region, northeastward from New Jersey, considerable displacements 

of strata seem to have taken place after the close of the Cretaceous period ; but this does not affect 

tbe statement as to the generally undisturbed condition of the Cretaceous strata in the remainder of 

this region.
ATLANTIC BORDER REGION. 77

comparatively small portion of its area. Even within this limited space 

natural exposures of undisturbed strata are few, because wherever they 

have been bared by erosion they were soon again covered by the d6bris 

of their own soft material, or by the washings of the overlying soil.

The aggregate thickness of all the strata occurring in this region, 

which will be discussed as peTtaining to the Cretaceous system, probably does not much exceed 1,000 feet; and it is not known that even 

this aggregate is reached in any one locality.

Not only for convenience of description, but because of material differences, two principal divisions of this series of deposits are recognized. 

An important difference between them is that the upper division is of 

marine and the lower of non-marine origin. I shall therefore designate 

them as the marine and non-marine divisions, respectively. The marine 

division is certainly referable to the Upper Cretaceous, and there is 

apparently no room for doubt that the upper part of the non-marine 

division ought also to be so referred. The lower portion of the latter 

division is, in this memoir, treated as accupyiug the base of the Cretaceous system, upon the coufi ues of the Jurassic.

The non-marine division is in part of littoral, and in part of estuarine 

origin, and the layers of which it is composed are usually irregularly 

bedded. This character is particularly observable in that portion of the 

division which constitutes the Potomac formation. It consists mainly of. 

sandstone, arkose, gravels, sands, and clays, associated with which is 

often much carbonized wood and occasional layers of lignite. Plant 

remains are abundant in certain localities in both the lower and upper 

portions of the divisions; vertebrate remains have been found in the 

lower, or Potoinac portion, but invertebrate remains are in all parts exceedingly rare. A few mollusks have been found in the upper portion, 

but the only invertebrates that are known to have been found in the 

Potomac portion are some imperfect specimens of a bivalve crustacean. 

(Unpublished.)

Considerable difference of opinion has arisen among geologists as to 

the true age and interrelation of the deposits which are here assigned 

to the non-marine division because of the apparently conflicting evidence afforded by the fossils which have been found in different parts 

of the region, but by clearly separating the New Jersey plastic clays 

from the Potomac formation proper, the apparent discrepancy of paleoutological evidence will probably disappear.

The marine division of the series consists mainly of sands and marls . 

and the whole of it is plainly of marine origin as is indicated by the 

character of its fossils. Although it consists of a number of distinct 

beds, the whole division seems certainly to have been produced by continuous sedimentation from base to top. Its characteristics will appear 

in connection with following discussions.

As already stated, all the formations exposed within the limits of 

this region appear to lie conformably with one another, or at least
78 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

where unconformity exists it is difficult or impracticable to detect it by 

the eye. The plan of this memoir does not include a full discussion of 

formations later than the Cretaceous, but it is proper to say in this connection that although the eye cannot detect unconformity between the 

Cretaceous and Eocene strata, wherever the latter have been found 

resting upon the former in this region there is really an important 

time hiatus between them, evidence of which will be given on following pages.

The geology of this region, as well as that of some of the other 

regions, has been worked out mainly under the auspices of the States 

which respectively constitute portions of its area. The most important of these State works, considered in this connection, being that of 

New Jersey, and the Cretaceous strata of the region being more fully 

exposed there than in any other part of it, the details of the Cretaceous formations of that State will be first considered. The New Jersey 

section will also be used as the standard of comparison for the other 

parts of this region.

NEW JERSEY.

The Cretaceous section of New Jersey comprises both the non-marine 

and marine divisions into which the series for the whole region has betMi 

divided as just explained. These strata are found at the surface 

within a belt of country from 18 to 20 miles wide, which extends across 

the State in a northeasterly and southwesterly direction. This trend is 

parallel with that portion of the western boundary of the Atlantic border region which lies within the State of New Jersey, the western boundary of the belt and of the region being there identical. Prof. Cook defines this boundary as " a line drawn from Staten Island Sound on the 

eastern border of the State to the Delaware Kiver, at the mouth of Assaupink Creek, in Trenton, on the western side." The somewhat irregu- 

. lar eastern boundary of the belt is formed by the western border of the 

overlying Tertiary formation.

Only the non-marine division of the New Jersey Cretaceous has been 

satisfactorily recognized beyond the northeast boundary of that State. 

Southwestwardly, the Cretaceous belt is continued into the adjoining 

States of Pennsylvania and Delaware, and beyond. The dip of the 

strata being southeastward, only those of the non-marine division appear 

along the northwestern side of the belt, and the outcrops of the different beds of the marine division liein successive parallel lines within it.

The accompanying vertical section of the Cretaceous series of New 

Jersey, Fig. 1, is copied with modifications from one published by Prof. 

Geo. H. Cook. 1 The horizontal section, Fig. 2, is constructed mainly 

from the figure of a section from Philadelphia to Atlantic City, accompanying the geological map of New Jersey by the same author.2

The horizontal section, Fig. 3, is copied, with modifications, from

'See Monog. TJ. S, Geol. Survey, vol. 9, p. x, ?See geological map of New Jersey, 1883,
WHITE.] NEW JERSEY. 79

the figure of another section by the 

same author, from Metuchen to 

Cape May. 1

The vertical section, Fig. 1, is intended to serve merely as a summary of the Cretaceous formations 

that have been recognized in New 

Jersey. The horizontal section, 

Fig. 2, shows the general uniformity of thickness of each member of 

the section, which was formerly 

thought to be the case with all of 

them. Tho other horizontal section, 

however, that which is represented 

by Fig. 3, shows that the Upper 

Marl bed thickens materially beneath the surface, toward the east, 

while all the other members of the 

series preserve their thickness as 

well as their distinguishing characteristics, with remarkable uniformity. This remark, however, is perhaps not entirely applicable to the 

non-marine division because little 

is known of the character of its 

contact with the underlying rocks,

and because the latest of those ( * 

rocks being of Triassic age there is

everywhere unconformity between 

them and the non-marine Cretaceous division.

Prof. Cook2 says in one of his 

later reports:

The several borings for artesian wells 

which have been made to the southeast of 

tho marl bolt confirm the conclusions 

which, had before been reached as to the 

dip of the Cretaceous strata of southern 

New Jersey. And borings on the borders 

of the ocean, and even out on the sand 

beaches, which are some miles from the 

upland, show that the strata outcropping 

at the high ground in the marl region are 

continued without chauge or disturbance 

of their regularity as far out as these borings have been made.

Eocene. UpperMarlBed.

MtcLcLleMarL 

BecU.

\BeOs.

Clay Marl.

.P&w&c 

£2cw/6\

:\Fb£omacGr> nip

FIG. 1. Vertical section of the New Jersey Cretaceous series.

 See plate facing p. 21, Geol. Surv. N. Jersey, Ann. Eop. State Geologist for theyoar 1884. 

2 Geol. Survey of New Jersey, Ana, Kep. State Geologist for the year 1884, p. 21.
FIG. 2. Section from Philadelphia to Atlantic City. 1, Triassic; 2, Potomac group; 3, Plastic c

6, Middle Marl bed; 7, Upper Marl bed; 8, Tertiary 
wiiiTB.1 NEW JEKSEY. 81

probably do not exceed 200 feet in New Jersey. The entire thickness 

of this division in New Jersey is therefore estimated at about 550 feet. 

The characteristic strata of the Potomac formation, however, reach a 

much greater thickness in Maryland and Virginia than has been indicated for New Jersey.

Few fossils besides plant remains, which consist of both leaf imprints 

and lignite,have been found in the non-marine division in New Jersey, 

and these have been obtained only or niaiuly from the Raritaii and 

Am boy clays. Invertebrate fossils especially are very rare. In these 

respects, as well as lithologically, this division strongly contrasts with 

the marine division. The few invertebrate fossils which have been 

found in the non-marine division indicate that they are of brackish or 

of fresh water origin, or both. The prevalence of plant remains indicates the proximity of land at the time the strata were deposited. No 

vertebrate fossils are known to have been found in this division in New 

Jersey which throw any light upon its geological age. Layers of lignite occur in some of its beds, and carbonized branches and trunks of 

trees are frequently met with, but these also have little paleontological 

value.

Largo collections of leaf impressions have been obtained from the 

Karitau and Amboy clays, concerning which Prof. J. S. Newberry has 

published an article preliminary to a more exhaustive work on the same 

subject, upon which he is now engaged.1

Prof. K. P. Whitfield is inclined to regard the Karitan clays as of 

Jurassic age, because he has discovered in them a new molluscan genus 

similar to one which occurs in European Jurassic strata,2 but no other 

known facts seem to be in any degree suggestive of the Jurassic age 

of these deposits.

Twelve species belonging to the Unionidte have been published by 

Dr. Isaac Lea3 and by Prof. Whitfield4 from the Camden clays, which I 

formerly regarded as of Post Tertiary age.5 This opinion concerning 

1 hem vas then hold because of the close resemblance of those species 

to living forms; but in deference to the opinion of Prof. George H. Cook, 

who has carefully studied the stratigraphical relations of the Camden 

clays, they are here included with other beds which are referred to the 

non-marine division of the New Jersey Cretaceous. This is done with 

less hesitation than would formerly have been felt, because since that 

opinion was published I have obtained several species of Unio of equally 

modern types from Jurassic strata in Colorado and Wyoming. Up to 

the present time the only invertebrates that have been found in the 

non-marine division in New Jersey are these twelve fresh-water molluscau forms, and the five brackish-water forms which have been published

1 Bull. Torry Bot. Club, vol. 13, pp. 33-37. See also further remarks on a following page.

2 Monog. TJ. S. Gool. Survey, vol. 0, p. 23. 

a Loa, Isaac, Proc. Acail. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1868, pp. 1G2-164. 

4 WLitfiold, R. P., Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 9, pp. 243-252. 

6 Keview non-marine fossil mollusca of N, America, p. 72.

Bull. 82 6
82 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

by Prof. Whitfiekl, none of which come from 

beds that are referable to characteristic 

strata of the Potomac formation'.

The Marine Division. This division in 

New Jersey has the appearance of restiug 

with strict conformity upon the series of beds 

of the non-marine division which includes 

the Karitan and Amboy clays. It is not 

improbable that this apparent conformity is 

real, and that there is no material timehiatus between them as there doubtless is 

between those clays arid the deposits which 

constitute the Potomac formation as defined 

by Mr. McGee.

The marine division, as shown in the foregoing sections, is especially characterized by 

its marl beds and by a somewhat abundant 

marine molluscan fauna. Besides its marl, a 

considerable proportion of which is glauconitic, the division consists of clays and sands 

together with other strata in which these 

materials are commingled. The stratification 

is everywhere quite uniform; all the beds 

are strictly comformable with one another, 

and, unlike the beds of the non-marine division, they are characterized by an abundant 

marine molluscau fauna. The aggregate 

maximum thickness of these marine beds, as 

stated in Prof. Cook's reports, is nearly or 

quite 500 feet. Its basal portion consists of 

a thick bed which he designates as Clay-marl, 

above which come the three marl beds proper, separated from one another by beds of 

sand.

The three marl beds are usually designated 

as the lower, middle, and upper, respectively, 

each being composed of three or four layers 

which differ from one another in character 

and composition. Each bed possesses certain lithological characteristics by which the 

New Jersey geologists have distinguished 

them from one another; but in their characterization of the upper bed they so far ignored paleontological conditions as to include

at the top certain layers that are properly referable to the Tertiary.

That is, while the lower and. middle beds and the lower part of the

s
WHITE.] NEW JEKSEY. #3

upper bed contain numerous species of fossils of Cretaceous types, the 

upper part of the upper bed contains none of those types, and only 

those which may properly be referred to the Tertiary.

The New Jersey geologists have recognized three members of the 

upper marl bed, which they designate as the green marl, ash marl, and 

blue marl, respectively. The place of the first is at the base, that of 

the second in the middle, and that of the last, which is referable to the 

Tertiary, at the top. Only a few traces of fossils have been found iu 

the middle member, and these give no indication as to its age. We 

therefore can not say with certainty whether the middle or ash marl 

member belongs to the Cretaceous or the Tertiary and can only say 

that the delimiting boundary between them occurs between the top of 

the lower member and the base of the upper. Prof. Cook has shown 

that there is slight, but nevertheless real, unconformity between these 

Tertiary strata and the Cretaceous strata upon which they rest,1 and the 

paleontological contrast between them is strongly suggestive of a considerable time hiatus also between them. On following pages reasons 

will be given for assuming that such a hiatus exists throughout the 

Atlantic and Gulf border regions between the equivalent of the green 

and that of the blue marl members, that is, between the uppermost 

Cretaceous stratum and the lowermost one which is referable to the 

Tertiary.

At the outcrops of the upper marl bed its middle or ash marl member, 

because of its strict conformity with the other members and of its slight 

thickness there, has the appearance of being a subordinate member of 

the bed; but Prof. Cook shows in his annual report for 1884 that artesian borings have demonstrated that this member thickens materially 

iu its eastward extension beneath the surface, while the upper and 

lower members retain approximately the same thickness which they 

have at the outcrop. This thicken ing of the middle member is represented in the section, Fig. 3, on page 82.

Ithas been mentioned in preceding paragraphs that the few invertebrate fossils found in the non-marine division of the New Jersey Cretaceous offer little or no suggestion as to the geological age of the strata 

from which they were obtained, but those of the marine division are 

abundant in many palces, and a large part of them are of characteristic 

Upper Cretaceous types.

Prof. Whitfield, who has published much concerning the invertebrate 

paleontology of the upper division of the New Jersey Cretaceous2, has 

given a concise summary of them, in which he shows that 354 species 

have been discovered, 291 of which were obtained from the lower marl 

bed. He has also shown that a large proportion of these species are 

common to the Upper Cretaceous of the Gulf border region, which important fact will be further referred to when those formations are dis1 Geol. Survey of Now Jersey, Ann. Rep. State Geologist for 1883, p. 13. 

'Bull. Am, WUB. Nat. Hist., vol. 8, pp. 113-116.
84 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

cussed. The following statement prepared by Mr, T. W. Stauton from 

the collections of the U. S. Geological Survey shows the number of 

species from Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas, which he has clearly 

identified with species that have been published from, the New Jersey 

marl beds. It is to be expected that many others will be identified 

when the faunas have been fully studied.

Statement of the number of New Jersey Cretaceous species that have 

been identified in southern States :

Species identified in Alabama |...... ................ ............ 35

Species identified in Mississippi ................................ 8G

Species identified in Texas > .................................... 54

STATEN ISLAND AND LONG ISLAND.

As early as 1838 Prof. W. W. Mather indicated his opinion that certain of the Long Island deposits are of similar age with the New Jersey Cretaceous,2 and in 1843 he expressed that opinion in plain terms 

for both Staten and Long Islands.3 On page 272 of the publication 

last referred to he said that 

The white, red, mottled, brown, and blue clays, and variegated and some other 

sands of Long and Staten islands are similar in their general character and in their 

mineral and fossil coutents to certain beds of clays and sands in New Jersey, aud 

are undoubtedly a continuation of the same formation.

This opinion has been confirmed by the observations of Prof. J. S. 

Newberry and other geologists.

Upon the ge ological map of the United States, prepared by Prof. C. 

H. Hitchcock,4 as well as the one compiled by Mr. W J McGee,5 the 

northern half of Long Island and the southeastern half of Staten Island are represented as being occupied by Cretaceous deposits. Those 

maps also represent the southern half of Long Island as being occupied 

by Tertiary deposits. The northwestern half of Staten Island being 

occupied by rocks which are older than the Cretaceous, it is evident 

that deposits of the latter age can exist only in the southeastern half. 

The proximity of this part of the island to the northern end of the 

Cretaceous belt of New Jersey, the trend of that belt, and the known 

oceanward dip of the Cretaceous strata would all be suggestive of the 

presence there of at least a portion of the Cretaceous series, even if 

the fact were not already well known.

Only the clays of the non-marine division, however, have been found 

upon Staten Island, and it is not probable that any portion of the 

marine division exists there, because no part of the island extends far 

enough southeastward to bring it within range of the trend of that 

portion of the New Jersey Cretaceous belt, aud because nothing has

1 Those Alabama aucl Texas species \vero also all identified among the Mississippi species.

2 Rep. Gool. First District Now York, 8vo. Albany, 1838, p. 138.

3 Geol. New York, Part I, Geol. First District, 4to. 1843, pp. 643.

4 Geol. Map TJ. S. and part of Canada, compiled for Am. Inst. Mining Engineers, 1886,

5 Fifth Ann. liep. TJ. S. Geol. Survey.
STATEN AND LONG ISLANDS, 85

been found overlying the clays upon Stateu Island except the soil and 

the glacial drift The clays have been found at numerous places upon 

the southeastern portion of the island; and at several of these localities fossil plants have been obtained, the condition of preservation of 

which renders them capable of classification. A considerable proportion of these plants have been identified by Prof. Newberry with species collected from the New Jersey clays j ust referred to.

The southern outline of that portion of the Archean region which 

lies within the southern New England States indicates that beyond 

New Jersey and Staten Island the trend of the belt of the Cretaceous 

outcrop is swerved strongly eastward. That is, it is evident that the 

trend of that outcrop holds a similar relation to the seaward margin 

of that northern portion of the Archean region which, it does to the 

eastern margin of the Piedmont portion of the Archeau region along

the entire Atlantic border region, southward from Stateu Island. Such 

a change of the trend of the Cretaceous outcrop as is thus suggested 

brings nearly or quite the whole of Long Island within its range. It 

is therefore probable that the conditions represented upon the maps 

referred to once existed, but the changes which have been wrought there 

by erosion and by glacial action since the close of Cretaceous time are 

great, and the actual evidence of the present existence of such conditions upon this island is at best very meager.

Several persons have written upon, or referred to, the discovery of 

Cretaceous fossils upon Long Island; but a large proportion of these 

reported discoveries lack confirmation. Beyond the identification by 

Prof. Newberry of a few species of fossil plants which have been obtained at different localities along and near the north shore of the western portion of the island, the evidence of the existence of Cretaceous 

deposits there is mostly or entirely confined to the known or assumed 

trend of the Cretaceous outcrop which has just been mentioned, and 

to lithological similarity of certain deposits there to those of portions 

of the nonmarine division of the New Jersey Cretaceous section.

All the admissible evidence of the present existence of Cretaceous 

deposits upon Long Island relates to the non-marine division alone. 

If the reputed discovery of a specimen of Exogyra costata Say, in digging a well near Brooklyn, 1 were satisfactorily confirmed, and it were 

shown to have been found in situ, the fact would be accepted as proof 

of the present existence there of at least a portion of the marine division, because this species is characteristic of, and confined to, that 

division of the New Jersey Cretaceous and to its equivalents elsewhere. But the specimen referred to is not now extant, and there is no 

available evidence that it was found in situ. Still, the presence, from 

natural causes, of this species where it is reported to have been found, 

even if not in situ, is an indication of at least the former existence of

'See Cozzens, lasachar, Gool. Hist. Manhattan or Now York Island, p. 52. Also Merrill, F. J. 

Ann. N. Y. Acad. Soi., vol. 3, p.346, and Rodtiold, \V. C., Am. Jour. Sci., 1843, vol. 5, p. 150.
86 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

strata of the marine division upon or near that portion of the island. 

That is, in such a case it may be presumed to have been transported by 

glacial action from some not far distant northern locality.

The geology of Long Island has lately been investigated by Mr. F. J. 

II. Merrill, 1 and in summing up the results of his investigations he 

says:

The locality at which the strata most resemble the Cretaceous beds of New Jersey 

is Glen Cove, where the strata already described are probably of this age. If the 

Cretaceous formation extends under the whole of Long Island it must occur at very 

great depth, since deep sections east of Glen Cove do not reveal its presenceis! ARTHA'S VINEYARD.

The existence of Cretaceoust deposits upon the island of Martha's 

Vineyard has, from time to time during nearly 60 years, been either 

announced or suggested by different authors, and the facts presented 

seemed to leave little reason to doubt that rocks of that age were originally formed there as well as upon much of the adjacent area now occupied by Vineyard and Long Island Sounds. Until lately, however, the 

evidence that unaltered or undisturbed Cretaceous strata now exist 

upon the island has been far from satisfactory.

The earliest published suggestion of the existence of Cretaceous deposits there appears to be the somewhat indefinite one made by Prof. 

Edward Hitchcock in 1833,2 and which he repeated more definitely in 

1841.3 At the western end of the island there is a prominent bluft 

lacing the sea known as Gay Head, the strata composing which are 

strongly folded, apparently by an orogeuic movement which took place 

after the close of the Cretaceous period. Keporting upon these strata 

Prof. Hitchcock spoke of them as of Tertiary age, and as chronologically 

equivalent to the plastic clay of England. He says, however, on page 

423 of the volume last referred to:

I did suspect that a single stratum of grecnsand found there might indicate an 

older formation. But the organic remains which it contains are much worn, proving 

that this stratum consists of ruins of older strata; ex. gr. the greeusaud and clay of 

the Cretaceous formation.

In 1800 Dr. Willliam Stipson visited Gay Head and reported the discovery there of 

Cretaceous bones, vertebra;, and teeth of sharks, .some brachyurous Crustacea, 

twelve species of bivalve mollusca, one univalve, leaves, fragments and seeds of 

"dicotyledonous plants, etc. 4

He mentions no identification of any of these with already known 

species, and gives no names, either specific or generic, to any of those 

which he collected.

Those discoveries were interesting but not conclusive as to the question of the existence of Cretaceous deposits on that island. Lately,

1 Annals N. T. Acad. Sci., vol. 8, pp. 341-304, plates 27, 28.

2 Rep. Geol. Massachusetts, Amherst, 1833, p. 183.

3 Fin ill Rop. Geol. Massachusetts, vol. 2, p. 423. 

"Am. Jour. Sci., I860, vol. 29, p. 145.
wniTE.] PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE. 87

however, others have been made upon different parts of the island by 

Prof. N. S. Shaler 1 and Mr. David White 2 respectively, which.leave no 

donbt that Cretaceous deposits in situ now exist upon Martha's Vineyard. Prof. Shaler obtained a collection of molluscan fossils from a 

locality about 5 miles south westward from the town of Vineyard Haven. 

These fossils consist almost entirely of casts and molds in thin layers 

of ferruginous sandstone, and comprise about a dozen species, among 

which is an Exogyra. The facies of the collection, as a whole, is also 

suggestive of its Cretaceous age, but none of the species have been 

identified with any published forms. The fragments of strata containing the fossils were, however, not found in situ. They were found scattered among drift material upon and near the surface, but their position 

and their condition indicate that they have not been transported any 

considerable distance from the place of their original deposition. These

fossils are of marine origin, and if really of Cretaceous age, doubtless 

belong to the Upper Cretaceous. A suggestion as to their stratigraphical position is given on a following page.

The discoveries of Mr. White relate entirely to deposits which are 

shown by the fossil plants they contain to be equivalent to the Raritan 

and Ainboy clays of New Jersey. The condition in which he found 

those remains is such as to indicate that the strata inclosing them are 

really in situ. It therefore appears that the non-marine division of the 

New Jersey Cretaceous is certainly represented on Martha's Vineyard ; 

and it is probable that marine Upper Cretaceous strata also exist 

there.

PENNSYLVANIA. AND DELAWARE.

Prof. EL. D. Rogers, in his final report of the Pennsylvania survey 3 

says:

Tertiary and Cretaceous strata border the State upon the southeast in New Jersey, 

but they do not cross the Delaware River into Pennsylvania.

It is now known, however, that clays and gravels of what in this 

memoir is designated as the non-marine division of the New Jersey 

Cretaceous series occur upon the Pennsylvania side of the Delaware 

Eiver, those found near Edge Hill and Chestnut Hill perhaps being 

best known. These exposures, as well as a few others, have been 

recognized by members of the present Pennsylvania survey, and by 

other geologists, at various localities not far from the river, between a 

point opposite Trenton, New Jersey, and the Delaware State boundary.

The belt of outcrop of the whole New Jersey series, preserving about 

the same width that it has in that State, is continued across the narrow northern portion of the State of Delaware, but very little has been 

published concerning the existence of the marine division there. The

'Seventh Ann. Rep. TJ. S. Gool. Survey, pp.'J97-3G3, platea 19-29. Alao Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 

Harvard Col., 1889, vol. 16, pp. 89-07, pi. 1.

2 Am. Jour. Sci., 1890, vol. 39, pp. 93-101, plate 2.

3 Geology of Pennsylvania, vol. 2, page 59.
88 THE CRETACEOUS. [HULL. 82.

western border of the belt, which of course is that of the non-marine 

division, passes through the city of Wilmington, and thence to the 

northwestern corner of the State.

J. C. Booth, in his report on the geology of Delaware, recognized 

in that State both of the divisions which are found in Few Jersey, 

to the lower one of which he gave the name of Red Clay formation, and 

to the upper one that of Greensaud formation. Although the belt of 

outcrop has about the same width in Delaware that it has in the adjacent part of New Jersey, in the former State it begins to be encroached 

upon by the overlapping of the Tertiary deposits, and the position of its 

eastern border is therefore a matter of uncertainty in some places.

MARYLAND AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.

The Cretaceous belt, which has already been described as extending 

through New Jersey and across the northern part of Delaware, also 

crosses the State of Maryland. In doing so it is known to embrace the 

northern end of Chesapeake Bay, but the outlines of the belt have not 

yet been so clearly defined as they have been in New Jersey and Delaware. This is largely due to the overlapping of the Tertiary and later 

deposits, and to the few and small exposures of strata in the comparatively level area occupied by those formations.

Dr. Philip T. Tyson, in his reports on the geology of Maryland, 1 recognized the existence in that State of the deposits which in this region 

are now referred to the marine and non-marine divisions of the Cretaceous respectively. He did not separate or clearly define them from 

each other, but he separated one portion of the non-marine division 

from the remainder of it, under the name of Iron-ore clays. The difference, however, between these two subdivisions seems to be merely 

local, or at least not constant for the whole division, as he recognized it.

Comparatively few outcrops of Cretaceous strata are found in Maryland because of the flatness of the country and the prevalence of overlying later deposits; but Mr. P. E. Uhler 2 and Dr. W. B. Clark 3 have 

lately made considerable additions to our knowledge of the Cretaceous 

of that State. They show that both the marine and non-marine divisions of the Cretaceous series of this region extend across Maryland as 

they have been shown to extend across New Jersey and Delaware, and 

in the same general direction. The western border of the non-marine 

division, which may be traced with some accuracy, after passing through

1 First Kep. of Philip T. Tyson, State Ag. Chemist, to the House of Delegates of Maryland : Annapolis, 1860.

Second Bep. of Philip T. Tyson, State Ag. Chemist, to the House of Delegates of Maryland: Annapolis, 18C2.

2 Observations upon the Eocene Tertiary and its Cretaceous Associates in the State of Maryland. 

Trails. Maryland Acad. Sci., 1888, vol. 1, pp. 11-32.

'Discovery of Fossil-bearing Cretaceous Strata in Anne Arundel and Prince George Counties, Maryland. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, 1889, vol. 8, No. C9, pp. 20-21. Seoalso Circular No. 81, 

1890, vol. Si, pp. 09-71.
WHITE.] MARYLAND AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 89

Baltimore, enters the District of Columbia, passes through Washington, 

and thence continues southward across the Potornac River into Virginia.

The eastern border of the marine division is not so clearly defined as 

is the western border of the non-marine, but some of the characteristic 

fossils of the former division have been found hear Fort Washington, 

about 12 miles south of the city of Washington, and also at a locality 

5 or 6 miles eastward from that city . These, together with certain 

facts which are stated by Messrs. Clark and Uhler, indicate that the 

Cretaceous belt retains about the same width through Maryland and 

np to its crossing of the Potomac River into Virginia that it is known 

to have in New Jersey and Delaware.

The smaller subdivisions of the Cretaceous as they are known in New 

Jersey have not been fully recognized in Maryland, and it is probable

that they lose .their identity to a large extent in the latter State. Along 

Sassafras River, in the northeastern part of the State, according to Mr. 

. McGee, the strata which are referred to the marine division rest uuconformably upon those referred to the non-marine, 1 which indicates the 

probable absence there of the Clay Marl, if not also of the Raritan and 

Araboy clays. No equivalent of those clays have yet been satisfactorily recognized so far south as this locality, and all the strata there 

which are referable to the non-marine division are understood to be 

such as are characteristic of the Potomac formation. Therefore the 

unconformity reported by Mr. McGee accords with other observed conditions.

The clays of the non-marine division which are found between Baltimore and Washington have yielded both vertebrate and plant remains. 

The latter were thought by Dr. Tyson to be of Cretaceous age,2 and the 

former have been referred to the Jurassic by Prof. Marsh.3

No trace of the marine division of the Cretaceous has yet been found 

in the District of Columbia, although small exposures of it have been 

discovered in Maryland not far from the District boundary, as already 

mentioned. Considerable exposures of the lower division, however, 

occur there, which have been described by Mr. McGee in his publications concerning the Potomac formation.4

It ought to be mentioned here that Mr. P. R. Uhlor has reported the 

existence in Maryland of a deposit of light-colored sands and clays 

unconformably overlying the Potomac formation, to which he gave the 

name of Albirnpean.5 Tbis deposit is also mentioned by Dr. W. B. 

Clark,6 but comparatively little is yet known concerning it. It possibly

1 Seventh Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 634.

»First Rep. Ag. Chemist, Maryland, 1860, p.42.

3 Am. Jour. Sci., 1888, vol. 35, pp. 80-04, mid Ninth Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 115.

"Soo Three Formations of the Middle Atlantic Slope, in Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 35,1888, pp. 120-143.

6 Proc. Anier.Philos. Soc., vol. 25, pp. 42-58.

6 Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 81, p. 69.
90 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

represents in part those deposits which in New Jersey include the 

Earitau and Ainboy clays.

Southward from this portion of Maryland no deposits seem to exist 

in the Atlantic Border region which may be regarded as representing 

either the Raritau and Amboy clays or0 the Clay Marl of New Jersey. 

That is, all the deposits southward from here which are referable to 

the non-marine division evidently belong to the Potomac formation.

VIRGINIA.

From the District of Columbia southward, exposures of the marine 

division of the Cretaceous of the Atlantic Border region are rarely met 

with, no discovery of any in Virginia having yet been reported. This 

is doubtless due, in large part at least, to the overlapping of the Cretaceous by the Tertiary deposits; but it is worthy of remark that while 

the non-marine division was recognized by Eogers in an artesian boring 

at Fort Monroe at a depth of 835-907 feet, 1 the materials of the marine 

division were not there recognized by him.

From the District of Columbia a narrow, irregular, and interrupted 

belt of outcrop of the non-marine division, which, as before intimated, 

consists entirely, of the Potomac formation, extends southward into 

Virginia by way of Alexandria, Fredericksburg, and Richmond to the 

vicinity of Petersburg. It is well exposed at numerous places along 

the Potomac, Eappahannock, and James Eivers, but only slightly so 

along the Appomattox. Southward from Petersburg the known exposures are few and comparatively unimportant. Indeed, nearly or 

quite the whole of the Cretaceous series is, in that part of the Atlantic 

Border region, covered from view by later deposits, and subsequent 

erosion has seldom bared any Cretaceous strata.

The Potomac formation, which alone constitutes the non-marine division in Virginia, has been described by Mr. McGeeas consisting largely 

of lithified arkose, a single exposure of which reaches a thickness of 80 

feet, but the full thickness of the division there has not been ascertained. 

He estimates it, however, at 500 or 600 feet. 2

A large and very important flora has been discovered in the lower 

portion of the Potomac formation in Virginia, mostly near Fredericksburg, which has been especially studied by Prof. W. M. Fontaine, and 

published by him in connection with other species from the same horizon in Maryland. 3 It does not yet appear that any of the species of 

this flora are identical with any of those found in the Amboy and Karitari clays, and Prof. Lester F. Ward has stated that a large proportion 

of the species of the Fredericksburg flora are of Jurassic types.4 It is a

1 lleprint of Annual Eeports and other papers on tbe Geology of the Virginias, 1884, pp. 733-736.

2 Am. Jour. Sci., 1888, vol. 35, p. 134.

3 The Potomac or Younger Mesozoie Flora, Monog. U. S. Geol. Survey, 1889, vol. 15.

4 Am. Jour. Sci., 1888, vol. 36. pp. 119-131.
WRITE.] NORTH CAROLINA. 91

significant fact in this connection, that a large proportion of the plant 

remuins described and figured by Prof. Fontaiue from the Potomac 

formation of Virginia are found in rounded and lenticular masses of indurated clay imbedded in the sandstone or arkose deposit. One is 

therefore disposed to inquire whether these plants may not represent a 

somewhat older deposit than is that part of the Potomac formation in 

which they are found.

NORTH CAROLINA.

Neither Prof. W. C. Kerr'nor Dr. Ebenezer Emmons speaks of the 

existence of the non-marine division, as such, in North Carolina, but 

other geologists have since recognized a few exposures of it, all of 

which are referable to the Potomac formation. Prof. Kerr, however, 

has shown that there are considerable exposures of the marine division. 

He says:

This formation is visible in North Carolina only in the river bluffs of the southeastern portion of the State, from the Neuse (and its tributary, Contentnea) southward. Dr. Eramons also spealrs of it as occurring on Tar River. It is best exposed 

in the bluffs along the Cape Fear between Fayetteville and Wilraington. The Cretaceous beds of North Carolina are not usually very rich in fossils, the Greensand 

containing generally scattered specimens of Belemuites, Ostrea larva, Exogyra costata, and an occasional Anomia; but at several points on the Cape Fear the Exogyras are very numerous, and at Kelly's Cove, about 40 miles from Wilmington, 

there is a stratum of 2 to 4 feet thick which is filled with marine shells. These beds 

occupy everywhere the lowest position, and nowhere expose a thickness above 50 or 

00 feet, so that there is nothing on which to ground even a conjecture of their vertical extent. 1

It is not probable that any extensive exposures of the non-marine 

division of the Cretaceous exist in North Carolina, and those now known 

are few and unimportant, except that they demonstrate its existence 

there and afford presumptive evidence that the formation is, or originally 

was, continuous throughout the whole length of the Atlantic border 

region. Mr. McGee records an exposure of it at Weldon, on the Boanoke Eiver, where it consists only of a thin bed of arkose.2 It is, however, to be expected that future investigations will demonstrate the 

"presence of this division within a belt of considerable width extending 

across the State.

All the Cretaceous deposits of North Carolina are so generally covered from sight by the Tertiary and later deposits that it is difficult to 

present a satisfactory section of the former. Indeed, the latter stretch 

entirely across the portion of the State which is embraced within the 

Atlantic Border region, so that along its western boundary those later 

formations are at different places found to lap directly upon the Triassic, 

Cambrian, and Archean rocks respectively.

The accompanying section, constructed from data derived from Prof. 

Kerr's report, illustrates the relative position of the formations of the

1 Geology of North Carolina, 1875, vol. 1, pp. 147-149. * Am. Jonr. Sci., 1888, vol. 35, p. 12C.
92 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

CPstern part of the State; and it also shows the slightness of the 

ocean ward dip of the Cretaceous and later formations. The line upon 

which it is drawn extends from New Berne, on the Lower Neuse Eiver, 

to Haywood, at the confluence of Haw and Deep Eivers, those two 

streams there uniting to form the Cape Fear Eiver.

FIG. 4. Section from Hay wood to New Berne, North Carolina; 1, Arcliean rocks; 2, Cretaceous resting directly and tmcout'ormably npou the Archean; 3, Tertiary strata overlapping both.the Cretaceous and Archean; A, New Berne; B, Haywood.

 SOUTH CAROLINA.

With the exception of a few exposures of the strata of the marine 

division of the Cretaceous, the Tertiary and later deposits occupy the 

surface of all that part of the Atlantic Border region which lies within 

the State of South Carolina, along the inland border of which they rest 

unconformably upon the Triassic, Cambrian, and Archean rocks, respectively, as they do in North Carolina. Prof. M. Tuomey says the 

Cretaceous formation of South Carolina is a continuation of the beds 

so finely exposed on the Cape Fear Eiver in North Carolina. 1 He mentions exposures of the strata as occurring only in the banks of the Great 

Pedee and neighboring rivers in the eastern corner of the State. A 

considerable number of the fossil species which characterize the upper 

marine division of the New Jersey Cretaceous have been found in the 

South Carolina beds, but neither the base nor the top of that division

appears to hav&been anywhere recognized in the State.

There seems to be no reason to doubt that both divisions of the Cretaceous of the Atlantic Border region exist in considerable force within 

the limits of South Carolina, and that they are now covered by the 

later formations, but it is not practicable to define the outlines of the 

area which they now occupy, or once occupied. That they are, or originally were, continuous in a southwesterly direction with the Cretaceous 

series of the Gulf Border region has already been indicated.

CONCLUDING.REMARKS ON THE ATLANTIC BORDER REGION.

From the foregoing statements it will be seen that the deposition of 

the whole marine division of the Atlantic Border Cretaceous is regarded 

as having suffered little if any interruption from beginning to end; and 

it has also been shown that its molluscan fossils indicate not only that 

they are of Upper Cretaceous age, but that they represent a fauna, the 

integrity of which was not entirely broken during the deposition of the 

whole division.

1 Rep. Geol. South Carolina, 1848, pp. 132-135.
WHITE.] ATLANTIC BOEDER REGION CONCLUDING REMARKS. 93

The upper delimitation of the marine division is understood to be by 

a time-hiatus between itself and the overlying Tertiary. Its lower delimitation is known in some places to be marked by unconformity upon 

characteristic strata of the Potomac formation, although it is apparently conformable upon the Earitau and Amboy clays in New Jersey.

The most northerly point in the Atlantic Border region at which 

strata of the marine division have been certainly recognized is upon the 

shores of Raritau Bay in New Jersey, and the most southerly point is 

in the valley of the Great Pedee River in South Carolina. The best 

exposures of its strata are in New Jersey; southward from that State 

they become so much covered by Tertiary and later deposits that it is 

mainly in the river banks that exposures o£it are found. There is no 

reason to doubt that this division is, or originally was, continuous 

from Raritau Bay to the southern boundary of the Atlantic Border region. For reasons already indicated, and for others yet to be mentioned, it will appear that there is just as little cause for doubt that it 

is, or originally was, continuous with the marine division of the Cretaceous in the Gulf Border region. It is probable that deposits of this 

division were originally made upon Long Island and Martha's Vineyard, as has already been mentioned, but no positive evidence has been 

obtained that any of its undisturbed strata now exist there.

The thin layers of fossiliferous sandstone which were discovered by 

Prof. N. S. Shaler on the island of Martha's Vineyard, ure found to 

contain a number of molluscan species, all of which, so far as they are 

distinguishable, are unlike any known forms which occur in either of 

the divisions of the New Jersey Cretaceous. They are marine species, 

and can not therefore be referred to the non-marine division. As a 

whole, this fragmeutal representative of a molluscan fauna has certaiu 

similarities with one which occurs in some Cretaceous layers that immediately underlie strata which represent the Rotten limestone in the 

banks of the Chattahoochie Eiver near Columbus, Georgia. As the 

Eotteu limestone is regarded as equivalent to the basal portion of the 

marine division in New Jersey, the Martha's Vineyard deposit is provisionally referred to the base of the marine division of the Atlantic 

Border Cretaceous, and to the horizon of the Touibigbee Sand, which 

will be described in connection with, the Cretaceous deposits of Alabama.

The non-marine division of the Atlantic border Cretaceous consists 

of certain deposits the taxonomic position of which corresponds to 

that of some not yet well ascertained stage or stages between Triassic 

beneath and the marine Upper Cretaceous above. These deposits lie 

unconformably upon the former-rocks in some places and in others upon 

Paleozoic and Archean rocks, respectively. The contained fossils are 

in part such as indicate a brackish and in part a fresh-water origin, no 

true marine fossils having been found in any part of the division. 

These facts, together with the lithological character of the deposits, indi-
94 THE CKETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

cate that they are all of either estuary or littoral origin, or of both. Laudplant remains, sometimes in abundance, have been found in the deposits of the lower division, and some of them have yielded remains of laud 

animals. All these deppsits together have been thought by some geologists to be referable to the Potoinac formation as it has been defined 

by Mr. McGee, but there are good paleontological reasons for regarding 

the Arnboy and Karitan clays of New Jersey as of later origin than the 

Potomac formation proper.

The deposits referable to the non-marine division which have been 

found OQ Stateu, Long, and Martha's Vineyard islands are shown by 

their fossil plants to represent the Earitan and Ainboy clays. No deposits thought to represent the Potoinac formation proper have been 

recognized northward from New Jersey, and none thought to represent 

the Earitan and Amboy clays have been recognized south of that State, 

unless it shall appear that they are partially represented in Maryland 

by the Albirupean of Uhler, which has already been mentioned.

All the deposits which in the Atlantic border region are referred to 

the Cretaceous and which lie beneath the horizon of the Clay Marl of 

New Jersey are provisionally grouped together as constituting the nonmarine division, coordinate with the overlying division which is composed wholly of marine deposits. Although it has not yet been found 

practicable to separate the strata of the non-marine division into distinct formations upon stratigraphical grounds, the paleontological evidence which is referred to in following paragraphs indicates that not 

less than two distinct geological epochs are represented by them.

According to Prof. Ward the Fredericksburg flora, which has been so 

elaborately studied by Prof. Foutaine, contains no known Jurassic species, but it contains a large number of what he regards as characteristic 

Jurassic types. He identifies specifically, or as close allies, a considerable number of the members of the Fredericksburg flora with Cretaceous species, which he indicates as ranging from the Wealden to Middle 

Cretaceous inclusive, in view of which he thinks it difficult to believe 

the Potomac formation to be higher than Wealdeu or Neocomian.1

Because Prof. Newberry has not yet published the important work 

which he has prepared on the plants of the Earitan and Amboy clays 

it is not yet known whether any of those species are common to the 

flora of the Potomac formation which Prof. Foutaine has published, 

but it is unquestionable that the former flora, as a whole, is very different from the latter. The following data have been furnished by Prof. 

Newberry in advance of their publication: The Earitan and Amboy 

flora is now known to embrace about 150 species. Of these, 120 are 

angiosperms, 5 are conifers, 12 are ferns, and 2 are cycads. Besides the 

intrinsic evidence of Cretaceous age which this flora is found to possess, certain of the species among them are identified with some found 

in the Atane beds of Greenland, in the Dakota beds of the interior of

1 Aw. Jour. Sci., 1888, vol. 38, p. ISO,
WHITE.] ATLANTIC BORDER REGION CONCLUDING REMARKS. 95

North America, aiid in the Upper Cretaceous of Aacheu, respectively. 

None of these species suggests the Jurassic age of the strata from which 

they were collected.

The dinosaurian remains which were obtained from the clays of the 

non-marine division in Maryland at certain localities between Baltimore 

and Washington are confidently referred to the Jurassic by Prof. Marsh. 

From the same formation, and not far distant from where the vertebrate 

fossils were found, remains of cycads and conifers were obtained by Dr. 

Tyson. It is possible that these plant remains are specifically identical 

with certain members of the Fredericksburg flora, or at least it is be- . 

lieved they all belong to one and the same flora.

It is such facts as the foregoing that seem to make it necessary to conclude that the deposits which are in .this essay designated as the noninariue division of the Cretaceous of the Atlantic border region represent at least two geological epochs. Indeed, it seems not improbable 

that those deposits collectively represent all or portions of the time from 

late Jurassic to Middle Cretaceous, inclusive. My present impression 

is that the Potomac formation is properly referable to the Lower Cretaceous upon the confines of the Jurassic ;1 and that the Karitau and 

Amboy clays are referable to the lower part of the North American 

Upper Cretaceous.

The character of the deposits which constitute the full Cretaceous 

series of the Atlantic border region indicates that the materials composing them were derived mainly if not wholly from preexisting rocks 

in their neighborhood.

The prevalence of arkose among the component materials of portions 

of the non-marine division indicates the origin of those deposits in disintegrated masses of crystalline Archeau rocks, such as are now to be 

observed along the eastern border of the Piedmont region. The abundant clays are doubtless decomposed feldspars, the sands, comminuted 

quartz, and the gravel and small bowlders5 water-worn fragments of the 

harder parts of the same rocks. It is true that a part of the materials of 

this division may have been derived from adjacent Triassic and Cambrian rocks, but the amount furnished by those rocks was evidently 

small, and even in these cases it was no doubt originally derived from 

the Archean rocks just mentioned.

' While it is evident that the whole of the overlying division was deposited in marine waters, the character and composition of these deposits 

also are such as to indicate that the materials composing them originated 

in the immediate vicinity or that they were not transported to their 

place of deposition from any considerable distance. Although there is a 

good degree of variety in the materials which constitute the strata of. 

this division, the bulk of all the beds consists of sand or clay, or both, 

all of which was doubtless mainly if not wholly derived from destroyed 

portions of the lower division.

1 Sec remarks on following pages, which suggest some doubt whether the Potomac formation really 

belongs so low ia the geological scale,
96 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

In view of the facts just mentioned it is apparent that in treating 

of the geology of the Atlantic Border region the subject of the foreign 

or distant origin of the materials need not be considered, at least so 

far as the Cretaceous deposits are concerned. The subject of the displacemen s of strata within this region during and since Cretaceous 

time will also be treated as of less importance than that of those which 

have occurred in the other regions. That there was, however, a general subsidence of at least the greater part of the region between earlier 

Cretaceous and post-Tertiary time, and a similar elevation after that 

time together with considerable and somewhat diverse tilting, is evident.

The present position of the Cretaceous strata, as is shown by the 

sections given on preceding pages, indicates that the elevation referred 

to was not quite uniform over the whole region. The more northerly 

of the two sections across the State of New Jersey which are there 

given shows that the Cretaceous strata which are represented by its 

western end have been elevated more than 300 feet above sea level, 

while those which are represented by the eastern end are now two or 

three times as many feet beneath that level. Even allowing for a 

considerable ocean ward slope of the bottom upon which these deposits were made, it is plain that in the final elevation the whole mass 

has there been tilted as just mentioned. The North Carolina section, 

a figure illustrating which is given on page 92, shows that a similar 

oceanward tilting did not occur there in the final elevation. Those 

North Carolina Cretaceous strata apparently have a less degree of 

oceanward dip than had the sea bottom upon which they were deposited, which indicates that a slight landward tilting of the strata has 

probably occurred there.

These displacements are such as properly come under the head of 

epeirogenic, 1 and not orogenic movements, because their final effect has

been merely to add a broad border of slightly disturbed materials to 

the continental area. Orogenic movements, or abrupt foldings of strata, 

appear not to have occurred within the limits of the Atlantic Border 

region alter the close of the Triassic period, with the exception of portions of Long Island and Martha's Vineyard. The strata at Gay Head, 

on the latter island, as well as some of those near the western end of 

Long Island, are considerably folded, and the folding seems to have 

taken place in the latter part of Tertiary time.

In the study of the several formations which occur in each of the regions the names of which are given on page 72, and whose outlines 

are shown on the map opposite page 72, it is particularly desirable that the upper and lower limits of the full series in each case 

should be defined with reference to the character of their delimitation 

and to recognizable general paleontological horizons. Eeviewing the

1 This word, in my former use of it, was spoiled " epirogenic." The preseut spelling is used in deference to Mr. G. K. Gilbert, who was the first to propose the word, although both orthographic forms 

are regarded aa allowable.
WHITE.) ATLANTIC BORDER REGION CONCLUDING REMARKS. 97

foregoing discussions of the Cretaceous deposits of the Atlantic Border 

region with these objects in view, we find that the lower limit of the full 

series is especially difficult of definition, both paleoutologically and 

stratigraphically; and also that certain questions bearing upon its 

upper delimitation are in more or less doubt. With regard to the latter we are aided by a great marine paleontological horizon which we 

shall find to be recognizable over a large part of the area which is occupied by Cretaceous deposits in North America; but with regard to the 

lower delimitation of the series we are not aided by a horizon so trustworthy as that, the one with which we have to deal in this case being 

of non-marine origin.

Although the Earitan and Aniboy clays probably represent the base 

of the Upper Cretaceous, they are in some places known to rest directly 

upon Triassic rocks, between which awl the clays there is, of course, a

wide time-hiatus. It has also been shown that characteristic strata of 

the Potomac formation rest in some places directly upon the Triassic 

rocks and in others upon the Cambrian and Archeaii rocks respetively. 

The Totomac strata are herein provisionally classed as Cretaceous, but 

it has been shown that they contain fossils which certain authors regard 

as of Jurassic types. Even if these strata should finally be assigned to 

the Jurassic they must do ubtless be classed wi th the upper part of that 

system, and this would also show a considerable time-hiatus between 

the base of the Potomac formation and the latest of the rocks upon 

which it has been found to rest.

Comparatively little can be said concerning the lower delimitation of 

the series from a paleontological standpoint because theevidence relating 

to it is so far from complete, and because it is maiuly confined to those 

fossil forms which indicate the existence of continental and not of true 

marine conditions. That is, we must use a different class of criteria iu 

considering the lower delimination of the series from those employed in 

the discussion of the upper. For the latter we exclusively rely upon 

marine molluscau forms, and for the former mainly upon land plants.

If no doubt were entertained as to the Cretaceous age of the Potomac 

formation the lower limit of the series in the Atlantic Border region 

could be more clearly defined than is now practicable, but the foregoing 

facts give little hope that this question is likely soon to be definitely 

settled.

The upper limit of the full Cretaceous series in the Atlantic Border 

region, although more satisfactorily definable than thelower, issomewhat 

indefinite, or at least certain stratigraphical and paleoutological questions concerning it are not yet settled. The opinion has prevailed with 

some geologists that the Eocene strata of this region always rest conformably upon the uppermost Cretaceous strata, but this apparent 

conformity is not real in all cases. Prof. Cook has shown that in New 

Jersey the general dip of the Eocene strata is constantly less in degree 

than that of the Cretaceous strata. This condition is also indicated in 

Bull. 82 7
98 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL,S2.

other parts of the region by the great overlapping of the Tertiary upon 

the Cretaceous deposits.

Besides these stratigraphical indications of unconformity between 

the Cretaceous and Eocene, and consequently of a time-hiatus between 

them, the paleontological conditions also point to a similar conclusion. 

That is, the Cretaceous and Eocene strata being both of marine origin, 

the molluscan fauna of each is too different from that of the other to 

permit the supposition that there is not a distinct faunal hiatus between 

them representing a lapse of time during which all, or nearly all, the 

characteristically Cretaceous types were extinguished, and at least a 

large part of the Tertiary types were introduced.

There is a condition of things in.the southeastern part of North Carolina and the adjacent part of South Carolina that needs to be specially 

referred to in this connection because of its bearing upon the general 

question of chronology. This is the commingling in one and the same 

stratum of molluscan forms that are characteristic of the Eocene with 

those that are equally characteristic of the'Cretaceous, the two best 

known localities where this commingling is reported to occur being 

Castle Haynes and Eocky Point, 9 and 15 miles, respectively, northward 

from Wilmington, North Carolina. The authors who have specially discussed this subject are Prof. Tuomey, 1 Mr. Conrad,2 and Dr. Clark.3

The fact of the commingling of Cretaceous and Tertiary types of fossil mollusks in the manner referred to is too well attested by competent 

observers to allow of any reasonable question upon that point. Therefore the question to be considered is whether that commingling is mechanical or faunal. That is, whether the stratum in question was 

formed in Tertiary waters of material derived at least in part from preexisting Cretaceous strata, by which means some of the then fossil shells 

of the latter formation became commingled with the then living Tertiary

shells, or whether that stratum was formed at a time intermediate between the Cretaceous and Tertiary, and the mollusks whose remains are 

found commingled coexisted as members of one and the same then 

living fauna.

Prof. Tuomey was disposed to believe that all the commingled forms 

referred to coexisted, and that the position of the strata in which they 

are now found is consequently intermediate between the Cretaceous 

and Tertiary. On the contrary,Mr. Conrad was positive in his opinion, 

that the commingling took place in Tertiary time and that the fossils 

of Cretaceous types were, after their fossilizatiou, derived by mechanical means from preexisting strata.

Dr. Clark, while he is cautious as to the expression of a final conclusion, is clearly of the opinion that the commingling is mechanical 

and not faunal. I also regard the commingling of the fossil forms

1 Tuomey, M.: Report on the geology of South Carolina, 1848, pp. 169,170; Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. 

Sci., 1848, vol. 3, p. 33; Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1852, vol. C, p. 193.

2 Conrad, T. A.: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1865, vol. 17, p. 72 ; Am. Jour. Sci. 1867, vol. 43, p. 260. 

8 Clark, W.B.: Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 1, pp. 537-540.
WHITE.] MINGLING OF CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY FOSSILS. 99

referred to as haviiig been produced by mechanical means, which view 

is supported by the following facts besides those mentioned by the 

authors just quoted.

The Cretaceous species which are found in this stratum are well 

known and widely distributed forms which elsewhere are not known to 

have Tertiary associates. The Tertiary species are those which occur 

abundantly elsewhere without any Cretaceous associates. The Cretaceous species are few in number in the layers in which the commingling occurs, while the Tertiary species are abundant arid characteristic.

There is apparently nowhere among the fossils of the uppermost 

known undisputed Cretaceous strata of this region any premonition of 

an immediately impending faunal change of the character implied by 

regarding that commingling as a faunal one, nor is there any known 

lingering of characteristic Cretaceous types in the fauna of the earliest 

known undisputed Eocene strata in this part of the continent.

Again, the Larainie, a great formation that necessarily represents 

the lapse of a long epoch of time, is understood to belong in the scale of 

North American formations between the equivalent of the uppermost 

undisputed Cretaceous strata of the Atlantic Border region and the 

lowermost of the undisputed Eocene strata of the same region. Therefore it is understood that there is an important hiatus between the 

Cretaceous and Eocene of the Atlantic Border region, and that this 

hiatus is represented by the Larainie in the scale of formations which 

prevail in the Great Interior area.

The lower portion of the upper marl bed in New Jersey and its 

equivalent in other parts of the Atlantic Border region may be regarded 

as the present delimiting member of the Cretaceous series there. Much 

erosion of this upper member has evidently occurred, but no evidence 

has been observed that a still higher member of the Cretaceous was 

ever deposited there and since removed by denudation. Still it is believed that the present upper limit of the Cretaceous in this region 

falls somewhat short of representing the full completion of what may 

be regarded as Cretaceous time in North America. These facts seem 

to imply the absence of any deposits in the Atlantic Border region 

which might have been formed in an epoch of transition from Cretaceous to Tertiary time.

Mr. T. W. Stanton, of the U. S. Geological Survey, has lately visited 

Rocky Point and Castle Haynes and made some important observations. At the latter place he found the layers which contain the commingled forms to be underlain by a layer which holds characteristic 

species of the Eipley Cretaceous, mingled with which he could find no 

Tertiary forms. At Rocky Point also he found strong indications that 

tlie layers in which the commingling of forms occurs are underlain by a 

similar characteristic Cretaceous layer. This observation points out 

the evident source of the Cretaceous forms which are commingled with 

a Tertiary fauna,
100 THE CKETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

Those who have been disposed to regard this commingling of Cretaceous and Tertiary forms as faunal and not mechanical have referred 

to the fact that at some of the localities at least all the shells of both 

series of forms are now in a similar condition of fossilizatiou, the 

greater part of them being in the condition of casts and molds in impure limestone. It, however, seems reasonable to suppose that when 

the Cretaceous shells were washed out of their soft matrix by Tertiary 

waters and mingled with those of then living forms they were comparatively unchanged by the conditions of their previous entombment, and 

that subsequently they were all subjected to the conditions which resulted in their present common state of fossilization.

The following table gives a synoptical view of the interrelation of 

the different members which constitute tho full Cretaceous series of the 

Atlantic Border region, and the relation of the series to the underlying 

and overlying formations, in accordance with the explanations and discussions which have been presented on preceding pages:

Table of the Atlantic border Cretaceous formations, together witli overlying and underlying

rocks.

Tertiary.... .... .... ...... .......... ..Eocene arid later deposits.

(Hiatus.) 

Marine division. .....5 gew Jersey marl beds.

( JNew Jersey clay marls and tneir equivalents'.

Cretaceous . . \ f Ra/^ai. 1 au.d 

Non-marine division. J _ (Hiatus.)

| | Potomac formation.

L I (Hiatus.) 

Older rocks Triassic, Cambrian, and Archean.

THE GULF BOEDER REGION.

In both its geological and topographical characteristics the Gulf 

Border region is much like the Atlantic Border region. Indeed, SO 

closely similar are the geological features of these two regions that 

there are probably no Cretaceous strata in the one that are not represented in the other. The whole area of this region is in fact a portion 

of the great coastal plain which, extends from New England to Mexico, 

but this great plain is broader here than it is in either of the regions 

which adjoin it. It embraces the whole of the Florida peninsula and 

reaches up the Mississippi Valley a little beyond the confluence of the 

Mississippi and Ohio Eivers.

The Gulf Border region includes a portion of each of the States of 

Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Tennessee, and Kentucky, 

and the whole of Florida. It also includes a small area in the extreme 

southern portion of Illinois. Its northeastern boundary is the Savannah Eiver which, as before stated, has been arbitrarily chosen as the 

common boundary between this and the Atlantic Border region. The

'This is supposed to be approximately tho horizon of tho marine Martha's Vineyard Upper Cretaceous deposit. 

*See remarks on the Albirupean of Ubler ou page 89,
WHITE. I GULF BOEDER REGION. 101

Atlantic Ocean forms its eastern boundary and the Gulf of Mexico forms 

its entire southern boundary. For its western boundary the Mississippi 

Eiver has been chosen as a matter of convenience because it is not practicable to select a geological feature for this purpose. The latter boundary nominally separates this region from the Texan region but so far 

at least as certain of the Cretaceous formations are concerned, which 

occur in both regions, it is as arbitrary in its character as is the northeastern boundary. The inland boundary coincides with an ancient shore 

line of the Cretaceous sea, 1 and the dividing line between the southern 

portion of the great Archean and Paleozoic area of eastern North America on the one hand and the broad border area which is occupied by 

rocks of Mesozoic and later age on the other. That is, the inland boundary line of this region, like that of the Atlantic Border region, is so 

drawn as to include only the area within which the later Mesozoic and 

the Tertiary and post-Tertiary deposits are exposed.

The inland boundary is indicated by outlines on the map opposite 

page 72, and by the foregoing description; but it maybe further designated as extending from a point on the Mississippi Eiver a few miles 

above its confluence with the Ohio to a point on the Savannah River 

near Augusta, Georgia, where it meets the inland boundary of the Atlantic Border region. From the place of beginning just mentioned it 

extends eastward to a point on the Ohio Eiver a few miles above its 

confluence with the Tennessee Eiver, and from there it may be followed 

along a strongly convex and not very irregular line to the eastern terminus. From its northerly point within western Kentucky the direction of this line is almost due south through western Tennessee and 

northeastern Mississippi. Here it takes a southeastward direction and 

passes into northwestern Alabama. Thence, by a broad curve, it passes 

nearly centrally through Alabama and through a part of Georgia to 

the point near Augusta before mentioned.

From the point near Augusta to central Alabama the inland boundary line is approximately coincident with a continuation of the socalled fall line, which has already been referred to as a conspicuous 

physical feature approximately coincident and nearly coextensive with 

the inland boundary of the Atlantic Border region. That is, the fall 

line, which is so prominent a feature along the ocean ward border of the 

Piedmont region, is distinctly recognizable as far southward as the 

Archean portion of that region extends. Its course is approximately 

indicated by the location of some of the principal cities in Georgia and 

Alabama, such, for example, as Augusta, Macon, Columbus, and Montgomery, through or near which cities this line passes. Westward, beyond the southern terminus of the Archean area in central Alabama, 

and thence northward, Paleozoic rocks only, that is, those of Carbon1 Certain facts seom to indicate that this shore lino may have extended iinbrolcenly far northward 

from the north limit of this region and that it was continuous with a shore lino which seems to have 

npproxhnatoly corresponded in position with the present course of the Mississippi and of the Red 

Uiver of the North.
102 THE CEETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

iferous and Silurian age, appear in juxtaposition with the Mesozoic and 

later rocks. Along this western portion of the inland boundary the fall 

Hue loses something of the distinctive character which it has along the 

border of the Archean area; but still the lithological and topographical 

contrast upon either side of that part of the boundary line is nearly as 

great as it is elsewhere.

The average elevation of this region above the level of tbe sea, if we 

except its northern portion in the Mississippi Valley, is not much greater 

than that of the Atlantic Border region, and the whole of it is quite as 

worthy of being regarded as a part of the great coastal plain as is the 

region last mentioned. Indeed, the northern portion of the Gulf Border 

region, that which extends as far north as southern Illinois, can not be 

topographically separated from the remainder of the region, because 

the general slope from the mouth of the Ohio River to the Gulf is quite 

uniform, and the maximum elevation at the northern end of the region 

is scarcely more than 600 feet, although it is 500 miles from the Gulf 

coast.

Notwithstanding the comparatively slight general elevation above the 

sea of the Gulf Border region, it is not so deeply nor so frequently indented with bays and estuaries as is the Atlantic Border region; and 

therefore the presence of tide water within its limits is not so conspicuous a feature as it is in the latter region. All the larger rivers which 

traverse it are navigable, but navigation usually ends at or near the 

inland boundary line, because the rivers are there more or less obstructed 

by the presence in their channels of the older and harder rocks. In 

short, the hydrographic features of the whole region are those of a great 

plain. The topographic features are also those of a plain country, the 

hills being only those of circumdenudation, and the bluffs, as a rule, 

have resulted from river corrasion.

The geological structure of the Gulf Border region is quite as simple 

as that of the Atlantic Border region, and the Cretaceous formations of 

the one, as already stated, closely correspond with those of the other. 

The formations which are exposed within its limits are referable to the 

Cretaceous, Tertiary, and post-Tertiary, respectively. They all have 

the general appearance of lying conformably with one another, although 

certain observed conditions indicate at least slight unconformity in 

some cases. Their line of strike corresponds approximately with the 

inland boundary of the region, and their general dip, omitting those of 

the peninsula of Florida, apparently averages about 20 feet to the mile. 

The strike line being so strongly curved, the general dip of the formations in different parts of the region varies in direction from west to 

southeastward 5 and lines which may be drawn upon a map to represent 

the dip at intermediate places between the terminal points of the line 

of strike will radiate from the southern terminus of the broad Cumberland uplift. It may be mentioned in passing that this fact is taken to 

indicate that in the elevation of the Gulf Border region the Cumberland
WUITE.I GULP BORDER REGION. 103

erogenic uplift was, during the Cretaceous period, still in excess of the 

surrouudiDg epeirogenic movement.

The peninsula of Florida is omitted from consideration in the following discussions because no rocks of earlier than Tertiary age appear at 

the surface there, and because it is remote from the outcrops of the Cretaceous formations which only will be specially discussed in this memoir. 

A very large proportion of the remainder of the region will also receive 

only incidental consideration for a similar reason.

The displacements of strata which have occurred within the limits 

of this region since the earliest of its visible strata were laid down are 

mainly of an epeirogenic character, no true orogenic folds involving 

the formations under discussion having taken place within its limits. 

Indeed, their almost uniform gentle seaward dip suggests the idea that 

the only general displacement which they have suffered is their gradual elevation to their present height above the level Of the Sea, and that 

the undulations and minor faults which are observable in difierent districts are merely accompaniments of that general elevation. But the 

character, fossil contents, and present condition of the Cretaceous strata 

indicate that a considerable subsidence and a greater or less number of 

gentle oscillatory movements took place from time to time before they 

reached their present elevation. Still, it is evident that any true orogenic movements that may have taken place within the limits of this 

region occurred before the earliest of its Cretaceous deposits were 

formed.

Although the geological formations of the Gulf Border region closely 

correspond with those of the Atlantic Border region they have a greater 

ag£re<?ate thickness in the former than in the latter region, especially 

those which are herein designated as of Cretaceous age. A greater 

proportion of the strata of the Gulf Border than of the Atlantic Border 

region are of stony compactness, and calcareous rocks are also more 

prevalent. Escarpments and other exposures are not uncommon, 

especially along the streams, but the surface of the whole region is very 

largely covered with soil and the debris of the incoherent or easily denuded rocks, and one must often go many miles before finding any 

exposures of unaltered strata. Besides the general correspondence of 

the deposits which in this region are referred to the Cretaceous with 

those of the Atlantic Border region, two divisions of the full series are 

likewise here recognized, the upper division there, together with Earitan and Amboy clays, being regarded as equivalent to the upper one 

here, and the lower one here as identical with the Potomac formation 

there. In each region also the recognition of the two general divisions 

of its Cretaceous strata have a similar basis. That is, in each case the 

upper division consists wholly of marine, and the lower division wholly 

of non-marine strata.

The Cretaceous formations of the Gulf Border region occupy a belt 

of outcrop which is much wider than that of the Atlantic Border region,
104 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL 82.

its average width in those States which border upon the Gulf being not 

far from 50 miles. The width is greatest in the district through which 

the Chattahoochee River flows, and this increased width is apparently 

due to an aggregate thickening of the Cretaceous strata there. The 

general trend of this outcrop, as before indicated, coincides with the 

strongly curved inland boundary of the region. This belt embraces 

only a comparatively small part of the whole area of the region, and 

its visible extent is curtailed at each end by the overlapping of Tertiary deposits upon those parts of it. Therefore no exposures of Cretaceous strata are known to occur farther eastward in this region than 

central Georgia, and the portion of the outcrop which reaches into 

western Kentucky is very small. The area occupied by this belt of 

Cretaceous outcrop, so far as now known, is indicated on the map at 

the end of this bulletin.

The total maximum thickness of the Cretaceous series in the Gulf 

Border region does not, according to the authors who have written upon 

it, exceed 2,600 feet; but this, it will be observed, is more than double 

the thickness that is estimated for the corresponding series of the Atlantic Border region. The strata of this southern series have been 

somewhat differently divided into groups by the geologists who have 

studied them; but there has been no material difference of opinion 

among them as to the character of the series as a whole.

The Cretaceous series of the Gulf Border region has been made 

known principally through the labors of Tuomey. 1 Winchell,2 and Smith 

& Johnson 3 in Alabama, of Hilgard 4 in Mississippi, and of Safford 5 in 

Tennessee. The series is doubtless essentially the same in Georgia that 

it is in the States just named, but the published reports on the geology 

of that State have not contained a clear description of it or of its extent. Prof. J. M. Safford's reports show that the series is essentially 

the same in Tennessee that it is in Mississippi, although somewhat 

modified in its northern extension; but as the best developments occur 

in the last-named State and in Alabama, the following descriptions will 

be based mainly upon the strata exposed in those two States. The 

first of the following descriptive sections is of the Mississippi Cretaceous, published by Prof. E. W. Hilgard in 1S71,6 and is a slight modification of the one published by him in his state report in I860. The 

second is that of Smith & Johnson for Alabama.7

'First Biennial Report on the Geology of Alabama, pp. 176 and map, 8vo. Tuscaloosa, 1850.

2 Notes on the Geology of Middle and Southern Alabama. Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., voJ. 10, part 2, 

pp. 82-93, with section.

3 Tertiary and Cretaceous strata of the Tuscaloosa and Alabama Rivers. Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, 

No. 43, pp. 189 and plates.

4 Report on the Geology and Agriculture of the State of Mississippi, pp. 389, Svo.and plates and map. 

Geol. Hist. Gulf of Mexico, Am. Jour. Sci., 1871, vol. 2, pp. 391-404.

6 0n the Cretaceous and Superior formations of West Tennessee. Am. Jour. Sci., 18C4, vol. 37, pp. 

360-372. Geology of Tennessee, 8vo, pp. 550, plates and map. Nashville, 1869.

°Seo Am. Jour. Sci., 1871, vol. 2, p. 391-404.

7Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 43, p. 189.
WHITE.I MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA. 105

Ki/s MISSISSIPPI SECTION, 1871.

(1) Ripley group: crystalline, Handy limestones, alternating with dark-colored 

glaucouitic marls containing finely preserved fossils. Thickness, 300 to 350 feet.

(2) The Middle, or Rotten limestone group, not less than 1,200 feet in maximum 

thickness. Soft, mostly somewhat clayey, whitish, micro-crystalline limestones and 

calcareous clays; very uniform on the whole, if we except the locally important but 

not generally extant feature of the "Tombigboe Sand," the special home of Inocerami, Selachians, and gigantic Ammonites.

(3) Coffee group of Safford (Eutaw group mihi), 300 to 400 feet thick, consisting of 

non-calcareous sands and blue or reddish laminated clays, with occasional beds of 

lignite.

The last-named formation in Hilgarcl's section is found to rest unconformably upon the Carboniferous strata in the State of Mississippi, the 

earlier Mesozoic being absent. The Archean rocks upon which the lower 

portion of the Cretaceous series rests in Alabama and Georgia, as well 

as along nearly the whole length of the Atlantic Border region, do not 

reach the surface in the State of Mississippi. Eocene deposits containing beds of lignite are found to rest upon the upper member of this section, with which they appear to the eye to be conformable.

SMITH: AND JOHNSON'S ALABAMA SECTION, 1888.

(1) A series of yellow sands, dark gray or bluish sandy micaceous clays, impure 

limestone, and sands again, in all between 200 and 300 feet in thickness. This has 

been called the Ripley formation by Hilgard, and the name is retained for Alabama.

(2) An impure argillaceous limestone, of tolerably uniform composition and about 

1,000 feet in thickness, known as the Rotten limestone.

(3) A series of laminated sands and sandy clays, at least 300 feet in thickness, 

which has been named the Eutaw formation.

(4) The most conspicuous rocks are purple and mottled clays iuterstratified with 

white micaceous sands, and near the base of the formation dark gray, nearly black, 

thinly huninated clays, with sand partings. All the beds of this formation, being 

loose clays and stillloss coherent sands, have suffered a great amount of denudation, 

and in consequence they form the banks of the river at only a few points.

Smith and Johnson unhesitatingly refer the first three divisions of 

their Alabama section to the Cretaceous system, but of the Cretaceous 

age of No. 4, which they call the Tuscaloosa group, they are in doubt. 

They estimate its aggregate thickness at about 1,000 feet, and show that 

it rests unconformably upon the Archean in the eastern part of Alabama, and in a similar manner upon the Carboniferous in the western 

part of the same State. At the western border of the State those 

authors find their Tuscaloosa group to be identical and continuous with 

at least a part of the series of beds to which Hilgard applied the name 

Eutaw group in Mississippi.

The foregoing description of the Alabama section seems to apply 

more nearly to the central and western parts of the State than to the 

eastern part. In the valley of Chattahoochee River, where, as already 

shown, the full Cretaceous outcrop is wider than elsewhere, the whole 

series above the Tuscaloosa formation is evidently represented, but 

here it consists of argillaceous and shaly strata, with comparatively lit-
10G THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

tie calcareous material, among which strata the three divisions of the 

section farther westward are not satisfactorily recognizable upon lithological ground. Besides this there is such an interlocking of the vertical range of fossil species in the whole" of this Chattahoochee valley 

series that its paleontological division into such formations as have been 

recognized farther westward also seems to be impracticable.

The following diagram will show what is understood to be the true 

relation between the Mississippi and Alabama Cretaceous sections as 

determined by the authors that have been named and briefly described 

in the foregoing paragraphs. The portions of each section, which are 

respectively designated as marine and non-marine divisions, are also 

respectively referred to the Upper and Lower Cretaceous of North 

America. The object of the diagram being only to show the understood 

equivalency of the formations of the two States, the width of each of its 

divisions bears no relation to the thickness of the formation which it 

represents.

Diagram showing the relation of the Mississippi and Alabama Cretaceous sections to each 

other and to overlying and underlying rocks.

Mississippi. Alabama.

Tertiary.,

f Marine Division.......

Cretaceous ...

.Noil-marine Division .. }

Older rocks

Eocene.

Ripley.

Rotten limestone.

Tombigbee Sand, 

i

Eutaw.

i

Carboniferous.

Eocene, 

i

Ripley.

Rotten limestone.

Upper Eutaw. 

i

Lower Eutaw.

Tuscaloosa. 

i

Carboniferous and 

Archeau.

There is no reason to question the exact equivalency of the Kipley 

formation of Mississippi to the one to which the same name is applied 

in Alabama, nor to question the equivalency of the Eotten limestone 

of Mississippi, less the basal portion of it, which Prof. Hilgard called 

the Tombigbee sands, to the Kotten limestone of Alabama. That is, 

the only question of exact equivalency which has been raised applies to 

the Tombigbee sand and the upper part of Tuomey's Eutaw group.

The upper portion, about 80 feet in thickness, of the Eutaw group 

of Alabama is stated by Smith and Johnson to be fossiliferous, and in

'A time hiatus exists at each of the planes represented by these horizontal lines, but unconformity 

is conspicuously seen only at the lowest of the three.
WHITE.] MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA. 107

those strata at Choctaw Bluff in that State fossils are somewhat abundant. All the known fossils of those upper strata of the Eutaw group 

of Tuomey are of marine and not of non-marine origin, as are those of 

the lower strata., which he referred to that formation. These fossils of 

the upper strata appear to be largely identical with those of the Tombigbec sand in Mississippi, the whole also showing close faunal relationship with the overlapping Cretaceous formations in each State. 

Upon paleontological ground, therefore, there seems to be good reason 

for not separating the Tombigboe sand from the Rotten limestone group 

of Mississippi, and this was the final opinion of Prof. Hilgard concerning it.1 For a similar reason the evident equivalent of the Tombigbee 

sand, namely, the upper part of the Alabama Eutaw group, should be 

placed with the Botten limestone formation in the Cretaceous section 

for that State. Thus all the strata from the horizon of the top of the 

Ripley down to that of the base of the Tombigbee sand and its equivalent are known by their contained fossils not only to have been marine 

deposits, but to be intimately related to one another, and we shall see 

that they are all probably referable to one great paleontological horizon. The stratigraphical condition of this series of deposits also favors 

the foregoing opinion as to their paleontological unity.

Because of their lithological character the abundant presence of 

plant remains in many places, and the absence of marine fossils in all 

parts, so far as is now known, the deposits constituting the Eutaw 

group of Hilgard in Mississippi, the Tuscaloosa group of Smith & Johnson in Alabama, and the lewer 220 feet of the Eutaw group of 

Tuomey in Alabama are regarded as of non-marine origin 5 that is, of 

littoral or estuarine origin, or of both. Therefore, if we include all the 

marine deposits of the Cretaceous series of this region in the upper 

division, and all the presumably non-marine deposits in the lower, as 

was done in the case of the series of formations in the Atlantic Border 

region, we must draw the line of separation at the base of the Tombigbee sand, which is here treated as a portion of the Rotten limestone 

formation of Mississippi, and at about 80 feet below the top of the 

Eutaw group of Tuomey in Alabama. This dividing line of the two 

divisions, which are designated as the marine and non-marine divisions, respectively, is indicated by the meeting of braces at the lefthand side of the foregoing diagram.

The accompanying section, Fig. 5, the location of which is approximately along the 87th meridian in Alabama, has been compiled mainly 

from dat? derived from Smith and Johnson's memoir on the Tertiary 

and Cretaceous rocks of a portion of that State.2 Mr. McGee 3 and Prof. 

Hitchcock 4 both represent upon their maps a narrow belt extending 

along the northern edge of the Cretaceous outcrop across the States of

1 Am. Jour. Sci., 1871, vol. 2, pp. 391-394.

2 Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 43.

3 Map accompanying tlio Fifth Ann. Hop. U. S. Geol. Survey.

4 Map compiled for Am. lust. Mining Engineers.
108 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

 3 ** 

a *

o

Georgia and Alabama as being occupied by post-Tertiary deposits. 

It seems more probable that that belt is really occupied by remnants

of the clayey Tuscaloosa group, which once 

covered it, but which has there suffered much 

denudation. The map of Smith & Johnson 

(op. cit.) shows that those authors were also 

of this opinion.

The upper and lower delimitation of the full 

Cretaceous series in the Gulf Border region is 

closely like that of the full series in the Atlantic Border region, which has already been 

described. The upper and lower delimitation 

of each of the two divisions of the series is 

also closely similar in each of the two regions.

The rocks which underlie the lowest member of the full Cretaceous series in the Gulf 

Border region, namely, the Tuscaloosa formation, are, so far as is yet known, only the 

Archean and Carboniferous. Wherever the 

contact between that formation and these 

older rocks has been observed, unconformity 

is unmistakable, but in the case of the Carboniferous rocks it is not so conspicuous as it 

is in the case of the Archean, because the 

former rocks have not been so greatly disturbed since their deposition as have the latter. The time-hiatus, however, between the 

Carboniferous rocks and the Tuscaloosa formation is very great, even if the latter should 

finally be referred to the Jurassic, because all 

representation of the Triassic is wanting 

there; and probably a considerable part of 

the Upper Carboniferous is also wanting.

The outcrop of the Tuscaloosa formation 

occupies a comparatively narrow belt which 

is evidently coextensive with the line of general outcrop of the Cretaceous formations of 

the whole region, but as it is understood to 

be of littoral or of estuarine origin, or of 

both, it is not likely that it has great seaward 

extension beneath the Upper Cretaceous and 

Tertiary deposits.

It may also be suggested that the other 

Cretaceous formations beneath the surface 

which is now occupied by the Tertiary and 

later deposits in this region may have a

._ in 

01 p

a PL, 

o

t-i to

2«
WUITK.] GULF BORDER REGION GENERAL REMARKS. 109

somewhat different relation to one another from those which appear 

along the belt of outcrop. No known facts seem to point to a solution 

of this question, but some information concerning it may perhaps yet 

be obtained by artesian borings.

The upper delimitation of the full Cretaceous series in the Gulf 

Border region is understood to be by a time-hiatus between its uppermost strata and the lowermost of the overlying Tertiary rocks, 

although the latter are plainly of Eocene age, and are found to rest 

with apparent conformity upon those Cretaceous strata along the 

greater part of the whole line of outcrop. This hiatus is regarded as 

being similar in character to that which has been shown to exist between the Cretaceous and Tertiary of the Atlantic Border region, and 

the conditions which are held to prove its existence are similar to those 

which were mentioned in that case. It may be, however, thatthe hiatus

referred to is not quite so great in the Gulf Border region as it is in 

the Atlantic Border region, especially in the western part of the former, 

because it is thought probable that the lower Tertiary lignite-bearing 

beds of Mississippi represent the upper part of the Laramie formation. 

Still, it is believed that the hiatus in this region, as well as that in 

the other, represents both the earliest portion of the Eocene epoch and 

the latest portion of the closing epoch of the Cretaceous.

Although unconformity between the marine and the non-marine 

divisions of the Cretaceous in the Gulf Border region has rarely if 

ever been observed, it can hardly be doubted that there is really more 

or less unconformity, because the paleontological characteristics of each 

division indicate so wide a time-hiatus there.

The great importance of this time-hiatus will appear more plainly 

when the formations of the other regions are discussed, but it is proper 

to make some reference to its character in this connection. The nonmarine division of the Cretaceous in this region is understood to represent the Potomac formation of the Atlantic Border region, and the marine division is regarded as equivalent to the corresponding division in 

the same region, including also the Earitan and Amboy clays. The 

non-marine division is also regarded as probably constituting the lowermost of all the North American Cretaceous formations,1 if referable to 

the Cretaceous at all, and the upper division is understood to contain no 

representation of any North American strata beneath the horizon of the 

Dakota formation. Therefore the great Comanche series, which is so 

well developed in the Texan and North Mexican regions, is understood 

to have no representation between the lower and upper divisions of the 

Cretaceous series of either the Gulf or Atlantic Border regions, although 

that is believed to be its taxonomic place.

Besides this, it will be plainly shown on following pages that there is 

a marked time-hiatus between the uppermost strata of the Comanche 

series and the lowermost of the Cretaceous formations which overlie

1 Sco a following page for expression of doubt upon this point.
110 THE CKETACEOUS. l»uLL.82.

them. This fact adds materially to a proper estimate of the width of 

the hiatus that has been shown to exist between the marine and nonmarine divisions of the Cretaceous series in both the Gulf Border and 

Atlantic Border regions. Furthermore, it is probable that the timehiatus between these two divisions is still wider than has been intimated, because it is quite reasonable to assume that there is still another hiatus between the horizon of the base of the Coniauche series 

and that of the top of the Potomac and Tuscaloosa formations.

By separating the Cretaceous formations of the Gulf Border region 

into two divisions, in the manner that has been shown on preceding 

pages, their classification not only corresponds to that of the formations in the Atlantic Border region in having a marine and a non-marine 

division, but the specific identity of a large proportion of the molluscan 

forms which are found in the strata of the marine division in the Atlantic Border region with these found in the corresponding division of 

the Gulf Border leaves no room for reasonable doubt as to their actual 

equivalency, especially as it is so evident that the strata containing these 

fossils are, or were originally, continuous from one region to the other. 

The identification of several species of fossil plants which have been 

found in the lower part of the Tuscaloosa formation in Alabama with 

members of the Fredericksburg flora in the Potomac formation of Virginia1 may be accepted as presumptive proof of the equivalency of at 

least a part of the non-marine division in the one region with that of the 

corresponding division in the other, especially as we have reason to 

believe that those deposits are, or once were, physically continuous. It 

is the lower portion of the non-marine division that has furnished the 

identical plants in each of the cases referred to, and it remains to be 

seen whether the upper portion of each will show an identical or similar 

floral relationship.

No important discoveries of vertebrate fossils have yet been made 

in the non-marine division of the Cretaceous series of the Gulf Border 

region, and therefore no paleontological comparisons of that kind can 

now be made. From the little positive-evidence which is now attainable, 

and the general agreement of negative evidence, it appears to be entirely probable that this division as a whole is, in each of the two 

regions, chronologically equivalent to that of the other. That is, it is 

probable that the non-marine division in each of these regions represents certain portions of the time that elapsed from the close of the 

latest epoch of the Jurassic to the middle of the Cretaceous period, 

inclusive; but as it has not yet been found practicable satisfactorily to 

divide these deposits, the whole division is in each case referred to the 

Cretaceous.

The paleontological equivalency of the marine division of the Cretaceous series of the Atlantic Border region to that of the Gulf Border

1 Soo Ward, Leater F.: Geographical Distribution of Fossil Plants. Eighth Ann. Rep. U. S. Gool. 

Survey, p. 870,
WIIITK. I GULF BOEDER REGIOtf GENERAL REMARKS. Ill

region is strikingly shown by Mr. Stanton's statement on page 84, and 

by the tabular statements published by Prof. Whitfield with reference 

to the invertebrates of the New Jersey marls, which he has studied in 

connection with the geological survey of that State.1 Further study 

of collections of fossils yet to be made from the Upper Cretaceous of 

the Atlantic and Gulf Border regions, besides that of the collections 

now in the U. S. National Museum, will doubtless show a still more 

intimate fauna! relationship between the northern and southern formations, respectively, as well as between them and other formations in the 

interior portions of the continent.

It will doubtless also appear from father study that a still larger 

proportion of the molluscan species are common to the different recognized formations of the marine division in both regions than is now 

known, thus fur/Dishing additional proof that no faunal break has occurred between any of them. This faunal relationship seems to be 

especially close in the case of the Botten limestone and Eipley formations, and the proof afforded by the fossils is supported by the appearance which the strata present that sedimentation was continuous from 

the lower to the higher formation.

These comparisons, together with other facts yet to be noted, place 

it beyond question that the geographical range of this great Upper Cretaceous marine fauna was not only throughout the whole extent of the 

Atlantic and Gulf Border regions, but that it extended far beyond their 

limits into the North Mexican and Interior regions.2 Such facts also, in 

connection with other evidence, indicate that the physical conditions 

within the Great Interior area were very nearly uniform during the 

whole time represented by the strata in which the remains of that fauna 

are found.

It will be observed that in the foregoing remarks some of the subdivisions of the marine division of the Cretaceous series which geologists 

have recognized in different parts of the Atlantic and Gulf Border regions have been to a great extent ignored. While these subdivisions 

are of local interest, they have not been deemed of sufficient importance 

to be specially considered in these discussions, because it is general 

rather than special facts that it is proposed to discuss in this memoir. 

The disposition of all the strata constituting the marine division in each 

of those regions was evidently continuous from base to top, and certain 

species are known to have sufficient vertical range to show a direct 

faunal connection with one another of all the subdivisions. It is true 

that Prof. Whitfield states that many of the species which characterize

1 Bull. AID. Mus. Nat. Hibt., vol. 2, pp. 113-116.

2 If, as 8omeha\o supposed, the Crotaccona deposits at the extreme northern end of the Gulf Border 

region were made in a deep embayment of marine waters which received abundant fluviatile waters 

from the region now drained by the Upper Mississippi and Ohio Rivers we ought to expect to discover 

a Cretaceous estuary fauna there. The fact that no remains of such a fiiuna have yet been found accords witli tho suggestion made on page, 101 that marine Cretaceous waters were then continuous 

northward from tho Gulf Border region to tho Great Interior area.
112 THE CRETACEOUS. I BULL. 82.

the upper division of the New Jersey Cretaceous are ^confined in vertical range to certain subordinate horizons, a majority of them having 

been found in the lower marl bed alone. Some of the species, however, 

which are thus restricted in New Jersey have a large vertical range in 

Alabama and other parts of tlieGulf Border region, aud also in theTexan 

region. For example, some of the forms which are reported to occur 

only in the lower marl bed in New Jersey range through the whole 

thickness of both the Rotten liinestome and of the Ripley formation. 

These facts are again alluded to here to emphasize the statement previously made that the marine division in both the Atlantic aud Gulf Border regions constitute portions of one and tbe same great paleontological horizon, which will be further traced on following pages.

There are certain beds overlying the typical Ripley strata in Alabama, and also some equivalent beds in Arkansas, which deserve to be 

specially mentioned in this connection, because they have been supposed to be of Cretaceous age. 1 These have been called the Enclimatoceras beds because of tbe prevalence in them of a species of that 

Nautiloid genus. But an examination of the fauna of these beds lias 

thus far failed to show the presence of any unmistakable Cretaceous 

species, while they are found to contain Eocene forms, notably Cardita 

planicosta, which I regard as characteristic of an early, but not necessarily the earliest, Eocene horizon. Therefore the uppermost strata 

which have been positively recognized as of Cretaceous age in the Atlantic and Gulf Border regions are represented by the uppermost beds 

of the Ripley formation in the Gulf States, by the lower portion of the 

upper marl bed in New Jersey, and by their equivalents in other parts 

of those two regions.

Briefly reviewing the subject of the Cretaceous deposits of the Atlantic 

and Gulf Border regions, as it has beeii presented upou the preceding

pages, we find that they consist of a series of beds which were laid 

down along a portion of the coast of what was then a part of the eastern and southern boundary of the continent 5 and that, excepting their 

subsequent gentle oscillations and their final elevation to a dry laud 

condition, they have not been materially disturbed by displacement. 

.For reasons already stated the whole of this series of deposits is here 

referred to the Cretaceous, although it is thought probable that the 

earliest beds of the non-marine division were laid down at or near the 

close of the Jurassic period.2 The essential unity of the Cretaceous 

series for both regions has already been shown.

The eastern part of the ancient shore line along which these Cretaceous 

deposits were formed was approximately parallel with the present Atlantic coast. A part of its southern portion coincided somewhat nearly 

with the present Gulf coast, but the larger part of the southern portion

1 See White, C. A., on certain Cretaceous fossils from Arkansas and Colorado. Proc. TJ. S. Nat. Mus., 

vol. 4, pp. 136-139, pi. 1. 

2 See remarks on a following page indicating doubt upon this point.
GULF BORDER REGION GENERAL REMARKS. 113

of that shore line extended to the northern limit of the present Gulf 

Border region, and it is thought probable that it reached much farther 

northward into what is now the interior portion of the continent.

The principal portions of both of the divisions of Cretaceous strata 

which have been recognized in these two regions are nearly or quite 

coextensive within the extreme limits of each, and therefore the separation 

of that great area into two regions is more a matter of convenience than 

of natural requirement. The principal ground upon which the separation of the Cretaceous series into two divisions has been made is the 

recognition of a true marine origin for the upper and a non-marine, that 

is estuariuo and littoral, origin for the lower division.

The marine division is referred to the Upper Cretaceous mainly upon 

paleontological ground; that is, it is so referred because of its general

paleoutological agreement with certain portions of the Upper Cretaceous

of Europe, and because of its contrast as a whole with the North American formations that are referred to the Lower Cretaceous. The Haritan 

and Amboy clays of the lower division are provisioually referred to the 

Upper Cretaceous because of the agreement in large part of its plant 

remains with those of the Dakota formation, which is regarded as representing the basal portion of the Upper Cretaceous of North America.

That portion of the non-marine division which is represented by the 

Potomac aud Tuscaloosa formations, which are regarded as fully equivalent to each other, is provisionally referred to the Lower Cretaceous, 

not because of any satisfactory pnleontological agreement with any part 

of the Lower Cretaceous of Europe, but for the following more general 

considerations.

The place of those deposits is beneath strata that are regarded as 

belonging at the base of the Upper Cretaceous, and above strata that 

are regarded as upper Triassic, while no fully characterized Jurassic 

strata are known to exist in all that part of the continent.

The great structural break which occurs between the base of the nonmarine division and the Trias, the latest of the deposits upon which it 

is known to rest in the Atlantic and Gulf Border regions, has been 

already referred to, but it may properly here be emphasized. Still more 

emphasis may be given to the fact that within the Gulf Border region 

the latest strata upon which the non-marine division rests are of Carboniferous age.

The following diagram is intended to show the relation of the general 

section of the Atlantic to that of the Gulf Border region. The relation 

of the latter section to the general section of the Texau region will be 

similarly shown on a following page. 

Bull. 82 8
114 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

Diagram showing the relation of the Atlantic to the Gulf Border Cretaceous formations.

Atlantic Border region. Gulf Border region.

1

f New Jersey Marl beds.. 

I New Jersey Clay-Marl . .

| Raritan and Aiuboy 

I Clays.*

i

Archean.

Ripley formation. 

Rotten limestone.

Tombigbee sands, 

i

formations, 

i

Archean.

THE TEXAN REGION.

The boundaries which have been chosen for this region, a part of 

which, like some of those of the other regions, are entirely arbitrary, 

are indicated upon the map opposite page 72, but a verbal definition 

of them will show more clearly their character and relations. The 

eastern and southern boundaries consist of the Mississippi Eiver and 

the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. The former having been chosen as 

the western boundary of the Gulf Border region, is necessarily the 

eastern boundary of the Texan region. Beginning at a point on the 

west bank of the Mississippi Eiver opposite the extreme northern limit 

of the Gulf Border region, the inland boundary of the Texau region 

extends along the gulf ward border of the southern extremity of the 

great Paleozoic area to and around the southern extremity of the same, 

and thence northward along its western border to the point where the 

one hundred and first meridian crosses Eed Eiver. Thence the chosen 

boundary is made to extend by a straight line to the point where the 

thirty-third parallel of north latitude crosses Pecos Eiver. The western boundary is formed by Pecos Eiver from its mouth to the point just 

mentioned, and by the Eio Grande from the mouth of the Pecos to the 

Gulf of Mexico.

This region, therefore, embraces portions of the States of Missouri^ 

Arkansas, and Louisiana, a part of Indian Territory, and much the 

greater part of Texas. It possesses topographical features that in 

many respects are much like those of the Gulf Border region, but it 

presents material differences in its geological features. It is within its 

boundaries that the relations between the Cretaceous formations of the 

eastern and central portions of the continent are to be favorably 

observed, and where important Cretaceous deposits are found that are 

not known in either the eastern or more northern parts of the continent.

1 A time-hiatus exists at each of the planes represented by these horizontal lines, but unconformity 

is not readily detected by the eye except at the lower one. 

2 The marine Upper Cretaceous rocks of Martha's Vineyard probably belong at about this horizon.
WHITE.] THE TEXAN REGION. 115

The southward prolongation into Texas of the great interior Paleozoic 

area nearly divides this region into two portions, an eastern and a western, the Cretaceous formations of each portion having certain characteristics which make it desirable to discuss them separately for each 

part of the region. The eastern portion is mainly a continuation of 

the great coastal plain, other portions of which constitute both the 

Atlantic and Gulf Border regions and a part of the North Mexican 

region, but that plain here gradually merges into the higher lands of the 

great plains of the interior portion of the continent.

The inland boundary of the eastern part of the Texan region corresponds to the line of surface junction between the Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks. All the area which is occupied by the former rocks is therefore excluded from this region, although it makes so large and deep 

an indentation in its northern boundary. The junction between those 

older and later rocks does not produce so conspicuous a surface feature 

upon the inland margin of the region as it does in the case of both the 

Atlantic and Gulf Border regions. Indeed, the contrast between the 

surface features on each side of that boundary line which is produced 

by a difference in the character of the underlying formations is not generally any greater thau it is on either side of certain lines of outcrop of 

the formations within the limits of the region.

The surface of the western portion of the Texan region is more diversified than that of the eastern portion. It, however, contains only a 

few mountainous elevations, diversification being mainly due to corrasion of the river valleys, to hills of circumdenudatiou, and to the unequal erosion of the outcropping formations which vary in their resistance to erosive action. The general elevation above the sea of much 

the greater part of the surface of the region is comparatively slight, 

and that along the inland boundary seldom reaches 1,000 feet, even at 

points which are fully 400 miles from the Gulf coast.

As the Paleozoic formations are excluded from this region by the 

boundary lines that have just been indicated, and those of the earlier 

Mesozoic are assumed to be absent, the only formations which are recognized within its limits are referred to the Cretaceous, Tertiary, 

and post-Tertiary respectively. Those of Tertiary and post-Tertiary 

age are mostly uncompacted rocks, as are also a part of those of Cretaceous age, but a considerable part of the Cretaceous strata consist of 

more or less compact limestones and sandstones. Within a large part 

of the region all these formations are either strictly conformable with 

one another, or they are so nearly conformable that to the eye they 

have the appearance of being so. There is, however, true unconformity 

between the Upper and Lower Cretaceous, which is in some places 

strongly marked, as will be shown on following pages.

The general dip of the Cretaceous formations east of the Paleozoic 

area is toward the present outline of the Gulf coast, or in part toward 

that of its Tertiary embaymeufc, now traversed by the Mississippi 

JRiver j while those west of that area have a gentle general westward
116 THE CEETACEOUS. lBuu,.82.

dip. No true erogenic uplifts appear to have taken place within the 

limits of this region since the deposition of the earliest of its Cretaceous 

strata, except perhaps near its western border, although many such 

uplifts occurred in the adjacent parts of the North Mexican region. 

Consequently the principal displacements which they have suffered, 

while they are more varied than those of the Atlantic and Gulf Border 

regions, were mostly connected with their epeirogenic elevation to their 

present moderate height above sea level, and with sundry minor elevations and oscillations which occurred from time to time during the 

period which was occupied in their deposition.

The structural geology of the Texan region, as regards its Cretaceous formations, is somewhat more complex than that of the Atlantic 

and Gulf Border regions, but it is less complex than might be supposed 

from the different and conflicting accounts that have been published 

concerning it. In former years there were many difficulties in the way 

of arriving at a correct knowledge of the Texan formations and of their 

relation to one another, and it is only within the last few years that 

this knowledge has been obtained, and that the correlation of the Texan 

Cretaceous with the formations of that age in the other parts of the 

continent has been demonstrated.

Not only have the relations of these formations been misunderstood, 

but their nomenclature has been greatly confused j that is, different 

writers have applied different names to the same formations, and others 

have subdivided certain of the formations, giving separate coordinate 

names to the subordinate divisions. This confusion has been increased 

by mistaking in some instances their true order of superposition.

The names of the Texan Cretaceous formations that are used in this 

memoir are not all unobjectionable, but they are retained, because to 

change them would doubtless increase rather than lessen the confusion 

that has heretofore arisen concerning their classification and taxonomic 

order. The following list contains the names of all the formations that 

have been recognized within the limits of the Texan region and referred 

in this memoir to the Cretaceous, beginning with the latest.1

List of the Cretaceous formations of Texas.

1. Larainie formation.

2. Kipley formation and Eagle Pass beds.

3. Austin formation and " Ponderosa 

marls."

4. Eagle Ford formation.

5. Timber Creek formation.2

6. Comanche series.3

7. Trinity formation.

1 Prof. Jules Marcoa was the first to publish the true taxonomic order of the Cretaceous formations*1 

of Texas, his section being essentially the same as that afterward published by myself and by Mr. 

Hill. SeeBost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Proc., vol.8, pp. 86-98.

2This name is not to be confounded with that of Timber Creek in Now Jersey, a well known locality of Cretaceous fossils. The Texan strata belong to a lower stage of the Upper Cretaceous.

8 The term Comancjie Peak group was proposed by Dr. B. F. Shumardin 1860 (Trans. A.cad. Sci, 

St. Louis, vol. 1, p. 584), and the same term for at least a part of the same strata was used by Prof., 

Marcou in 1861 (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 8, pp. 86-97). In both these cases, however, the strata 

referred to comprise less than the full vertical range of the strata which in this memoir are designated 

as the Comanche series.
WHITE.] THE TEXAN REGION. - 117

Although the order of superposition of the formations shown in the 

^ foregoing list has been clearly ascertained in this region, in no part of 

it have all of them been found in juxtaposition. Moreover, the section 

of the formations in the western part of the region differs considerably 

from that of the eastern part, which differences are mainly shown by 

the introduction there of the Laramie formation and by the coal bearing and other characteristics of the Eagle Pass beds, as compared with 

the Eipley Group. Hitherto to these two western formations have not 

been so well known in this region as have the others whose names are 

given in the foregoing list, and which generally have been regarded as 

constituting the Texan section. Mention is therefore made of them in 

the two following paragraphs, but they will be again considered in connection with the other formations of the list.

The Laramie has been referred to in the discussion of the formations 

of both the Atlantic and the Gulf Border regions, not as being present 

there, but as probably representing in time the hiatus between the uppermost Cretaceous beds and the overlying Eocene that was shown to 

exist in those regions. The uppermost Cretaceous beds there are regarded as not representing the closing portion of Cretaceous time in 

North America, and for this and other reasons the Laramie formation 

1 is treated in this memoir as of Cretaceous age. 1

The Laramie formation 2 prevails over a large part of the Great Interior 

area, but within the Texan region it has been recognized only in western 

Texas, and it has hitherto been observed there only in the valley of the 

Eio Grande and in that of the Nueces Eiver, but there seems to be little 

room for doubt that the Lignitic beds of eastern Texas, as well as those 

of the State of Mississippi, which are usually regarded as of early 

Eocene age, are really equivalent to the upper part of the Laramie.

The Eagle Pass beds,3 upon which the Laramie formation rests in 

the valley of the Eio Grande, and with which it is strictly conform able, 

is regarded as equivalent to the Eipley formation of eastern Texas, and 

also to the Fox Hills strata of the Great Interior area, as will presently 

be shown.

The following section, Fig. 6, is in part the result of personal observations made by the writer, but in part it has been compiled from data 

furnished by Mr, W. F. Cummins and from publications of Mr. E. T. 

Hill. It is believed to represent correctly in a general way the formations of the eastern part of the Texan region, but it does not include 

by name the two members which have just been referred to as occurring in western Texas. 4 The line upon which it has been traced extends

"See White, C. A.,On the relation of the Laramie Group to earlier and later formations. Am. 

Jour. Sci., 1888, vol. 35, pp. 432-438. 

*Tho characteristics and relations of this formation will be discussed on following pages.

3 Those beds must not bo confounded with the Eagle Ford formation, which belongs to a lower stage 

of the Upper Cretaceous. The similarity of the latter name with the former is unfortunate, but it is 

thought best not to change either of them at the present time.

4 It should be borne iu mind that very little has yet been published in the way of mapping and 

measuring the Cretaceous formations of the Texau region. It is therefore to be expected that when 

 uch maps of the region are published some modification of the account here given of them will be 

iiocessarv-
118 THE CRETACEOUS. (BULL 82.

from the western part of Parker County to the eastern part of Navarro 

County, its direction being approximately northwest and southeast. 

This line also approximately corresponds to that of the general dip of 

the Cretaceous formations which lie upon the eastern side of that portion of the Great Interior Paleozoic area which extends southward into 

the Texan region.

FIG 6. Section from Parker County to Navarro County, Texas. 1, Lignitic Beds (Tertiary); 2 

Kipley formation; 3, Austin formation and "Ponderosa marls 1 '; 4, Eagle Ford formation; 5, Timber 

Creek formation; 6, Comanche series: 7, Trinity formation; 8, Carboniferous.

In this figure all the formations from No. 1 to No. 7 inclusive are 

represented as being strongly uncouforraable with the carboniferous; 

but I am not certain that the latter strata do not dip abruptly eastward where they come in contact with the Cretaceous formations, instead of being truncated by erosion there as they are represented in 

this figure.

All the formations in the district traversed by this section which are 

of later age than the Carboniferous have the appearance of being conformable with one another. In a majority of cases this apparent conformity is unquestionably real, but it is now well known that there is 

at some places conspicuous unconformity between No. 5 and No. 6 that 

is, between the Timber Creek formation and the Comanche series, and 

it is clear from paleoutological evidence that there is also an important 

time-hiatus between them. There is probably also unconformity between No. 6 and No. 7 that is between the Comauche series and the 

Trinity formation especially as it is regarded as certain that there is a 

time-hiatus between these two formations.

For our present purpose the foregoing section may be taken as representing the Cretaceous formations of the whole eastern portion of the 

Texan region, the greater part of which is also recognizable in the western portion. For general description, its members will be taken up 

serially, beginning with the lowest, namely, the Trinity formation.

This group was originally designated as the Dinosaur sands by both 

Mr. E. T. Hill 1 and myself,2 but Mr. Hill afterward changed the name 

to Trinity division,3 which latter name I have adopted in this memoir 

as being more satisfactory than the former. The deposit in question is 

provisionally placed with the Lower Cretaceous formations, and assigned 

to the horizon of the Potomac and Tuscaloosa formations, although little 

other than stratigraphical evidence has yet been obtained as to its taxonomic position in the general geological scale.

1 Am. -Tour. Sci., 1887, vol. 33, pp. 291-303. *Geol. Survey Texas, Bull. No. 4, p. xrv. 

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. PMla., 1887, p. 40.
WHITE.) THE TEXAN REGION. 119

The Trinity formation was first studied in Texas, where it was found 

to consist mainly of coarse siliceous sand, usually only slightly compacted. Its average thickness east of the Texan Paleozoic area was 

estimated at about 100 feet, and at somewhat less than that thickness 

west of the Paleozoic area. Mr. Hill reports it to reach a thickness of 

400 feet in Arkansas and to differ materially in lithologicnl character 

from that which it exhibits in Texas.1 He says that it there consists 

of 

a series of calcareous, gypsiferous, argillaceous sands, alternating with numerous thin 

strata of firm yellow crystalline bauds of limestone, which vary from 1 inch to 1 foot 

in thickness.

The whole of the Trinity formation, like the Potomac and Tuscaloosa 

formations, seems to have been of littoral, or at least not of open sea 

origin. This is indicated by lithological and also by paleontological 

characteristics, so far as the latter are known.

When this formation was first studied in Texas the only fossils it was 

known to contain were some imperfect dinosaurian remains, but Mr. 

Hill has since reported the discovery in Arkansas of a considerable 

number of molluscan fossils, some of which species lie also reports to 

have been found in the same formation in Texas.2

The outlines of the surface area which is occupied by the Trinity 

formation are not yet well known, or not yet published, but it is known 

that the aggregate area of all its outcrops is comparatively small. 

These outcrops consist of a somewhat irregular narrow belt along the 

eastern, and another along the western, border of the Texan Paleozoic 

area, which it probably fringes, thinning out at no great distance from 

that area. The eastern belt is coextensive with the forest-covered belt 

of country in Texas which is known as the Upper Cross Timbers, but 

it seems to reach its maximum width, as well as its greatest thickness 

of strata, in Arkansas; and the whole formation seems to be only 

slightly developed around the southern end of the Paleozoic area. The 

belt of outcrop upon the western side of the Paleozoic area is narrow 

and more or less irregular, but its outlines and full extent have not yet 

been made known.

For certain reasons the Comanche series, the whole of which is 

plainly of marine origin, possesses peculiar interest. It apparently 

stands alone in representing a great division of the Lower Cretaceous 

of North America. It is not only separated by a time-hiatus from the 

earliest formation which overlies it as well as from the latest one which 

underlies it, but the characteristics of its. fossil fauna are such as to 

give no indication of its relation to any other Lower Cretaceous formation upon this continent. Besides this, none of the epeirogenic or 

orogenic move neuts which are known to have occurred on the continent

'Ann.Eep.Gfiol.Snrv. Ark. for 1888, vol. 2, pp. 116-123. Later, Mr. Hill indicates tliat this formation in Arkansas reaches a thickness of 800 feet. Bull. No. 4, Geol. Surv. Tex., p. is. 

2 Ann.Rep. Geol. Surv. Ark. for 1888, vol. 2, pp. 127-152, plates 1-7.
120 THE CRETACEOUS. '[BULL.82.

give any satisfactory suggestion as to its contemporaneity with any 

other formation. The character of its fossil invertebrate fauna is in 

large part similar to that of the Upper, and in part to that of the Lower, 

Cretaceous of Europe, but because its known taxonomic position is 

much below the horizon of the Dakota formation it is placed with the 

North American Lower Cretaceous. Among the characteristics of its 

fauna, which to a European geologist would doubtless suggest its 

Upper Cretaceous age, is the prevalence of the Kudistae and of the 

aberrent forms of the Chamidse. In the North American Upper Cretaceous such forms are very rare. Indeed, with the exception of the 

Eadiolites austinensis Boern., in the Austin formation and its equivalents, of the Caprotina bicornis of Meek, reported to have come from 

a similar horizon, and of Coralliochama orcutti White, in the Wallala 

formation of the Pacific coast, I do not now know of the existence of 

any of the forms referred to in any North American Cretaceous formation except in the Comanche series.1

In the Texan region the Comanche series consists of limestones, calcareous shales, and earthy calcareous material with stony concretions,. 

but we shall see that the whole series changes materially in lithological 

character in its westward extension, mainly by the greater consolidation of its strata.

The Comanche series in the Texan region is well defined both above 

and beneath by its contact with the sandy Timber Creek formation which 

overlies it, and with the equally sandy Trinity formation which underlies it. In Texas it has been much subdivided by the different geologists 

who have studied it. This is perhaps well for purposes of local or minute investigation, but for the present purpose it seems only necessary 

to treat these strata as constituting one large formation, or as a series 

of strata capable of local subdivision into subordinate groups.

No equivalent of the Comanche series has yet been recognized among 

the formations which occur eastward from Texas, and it probably thins 

out in that direction beneath the later formations before reaching the 

Mississippi River. Moreover, much the greater part of the area which it 

occupies in the Texan region lies within the boundaries of that State. 

By means of certain of its characteristic fossils, which are often abundant, portions of the series have been recognized in southwestern Arkansas, in southern Indian Territory, and in both eastern and western 

Texas. A few of its characteristic fossils also are reported to have been 

found in southern Kansas, which probably come from outliers of its 

strata there.

Mr. Hill reports the full series to reach 2,400 feet in thickness in Texas, 

but in much the larger part of the area which it occupies in that State 

its thickness is much less. We shall see that the series reaches its 

greatest known thickness in the North Mexican region, and that it 

everywhere, so far as has been observed, rests unconformably upon the

1 Fragments of a Radiolites, which are perhaps referable to R. austinensis, have been found in the 

Ripley strata of Mississippi and Texas.
THE TEXAN REGION.

underlying rooks, even upon those of the Trinity formation where the 

unconformity is doubtless real, although not clearly discernible by the 

eye.

The boundaries of the area which the Comanche series occupies in 

the Texau region have not yet been accurately determined, but in Texas 

it is known to constitute an irregular belt of country extending from 

Cook County on the north to Bexar County on the south, the northern 

part of which, belt is bounded upon its western and eastern sides by 

the narrow belts of forest-covered land known as the Upper and Lower 

Cross Timbers, respectively, the Upper Cross Timber belt being occupied 

by the Trinity Formation and the Lower Cross Timber belt by the Timber Creek Formation. From Bexar County northward to the northwest 

boundary of the Texan region the Comanche strata outcrop along the 

western side of the Paleozoic area, and numerous outliers of them are 

found resting upon Carboniferous and Permian strata, the Trinity apparently being absent in many cases in the western portion of that 

area and entirely absent in the western part of the Texan region. In 

Arkansas 1 a very small area is occupied by the outcrop of this series, 

and there are probably only small areas in Indian Territory that are 

occupied by such outcrops.

The Timber Creek formation,2 which comprises the lowest strata of 

the Upper Cretaceous of Texas, consists of coarse ferruginous sandstones, a few layers of impure limestone, and occasional sandy and 

clayey layers. Its estimated thickness is about 250 feet. It has not yet 

been recognized as a separate formation elsewhere than in this region, 

nor within it north of Bed Eiver or south of Brazos River. It, or its 

equivalent, doubtless exists west of the Paleozoic area in this region, 

but it has not yet been recognized there as a separate formation. All 

of its present known outcrops lie between those two rivers of Texas 

which have just been named and along the eastern border of the area 

which is occupied by the Comanche series. The area of its outcrop is 

nearly identical with that of the Lower Cross Timbers in Texas, which 

is the eastern one of the two conspicuous north and south belts of forestcovered land in the central part of that State, both of which have been 

erroneously represented as occupied by Quaternary deposits.3

The molluscau fossils of the Timber Creek formation are of marine 

origin, all of which are of different species from those which are found in 

the Comanche series or in any other horizon beneath that of its own 

strata.4 A few of the species, however, pass up into the next overlying

1 See map accompanying Ann. Rep. G-eol. Surv. Ark. for 1888, vol. 2.

2 Mr. Hill has lately designated this formation as the Lower Cross Timher Sands. Bull. No. 4, Geol. 

Surv. Texas, p. ix, and AnL. Eep. Geol. Surv. Ark. for 1888, vol. 2, p. 72.

3 See McGee's map accompanying Fifth Ann. Eep. TL S. Geol. Surv. and Hitchcock's map, compiled 

for Am. lost. Mining Engineers.

4 Both Professor Newborry and myself have published a Qryphcea from strata referable to the Colorado formation which we identified with the G.pitchcri of the Comancbe group. See M.-icomb'fi Report, pp. 87 and 99, and Expl. & Surv. West of 100th Merid. p. 117, pi. 17, figs. 1, a, b, c, d, o, and f. I am 

unw confident tbatthe Qryphcea iu question ia a different but closely aimilar species, or at least thut 

in l.he absence of other proof it (night not to be regarded as indicating a fauual relationship of the 

Comanche with the overlying formations.
122 THE CRETACEOUS. [BUM,82.

formation m the eastern part of the region, and in the western part of 

the same the equivalents of both those formations and of their faunas 

seem to blend together.

Some of the molluscan species which characterize the Timber Creek 

formation are identical with some of the marine species which have been 

found in the Dakota formation in Kansas, which have been published 

by Mr. Meek 1 and myself.2 This, together with other facts yet to be 

mentioned, indicates that the Dakota, which is a non-marine formation 

occupying a large part of the Great Interior area, and which is distinct 

from all the overlying and underlying formations there, merges into the 

marine strata in its southward extension, which constitute the Timber 

Creek formation and its equivalents. It is also an interesting fact in 

this connection that these marine strata are paleontologically connected 

with the overlying formations, as has already been intimated.

The Timber Creek formation is probably equivalent, at least in part, 

to the Tombigbee sands of the Alabama section, but no direct paleoutological proof of it bas yet been observed. It is, perhaps, also equivalent 

in part to the Earitan and Amboy clays, such equivalency being suggested by the identity of certain species of fossil pi ants which are found 

in those clays with some which are found in the Dakota formation and 

the strati graphical relations of the two formations are also similar in 

their respective regions.

The Eagle Ford formation of the Texan region consists mainly of 

bluish clayey and yellowish sandy shales, with occasional layers of impure limestone and also occasional layers of sandstone, the whole reaching an estimated thickness of about 300 feet. It is only upon the eastern side of that portion of the great Paleozoic area which extends southward into the Texan region that this group of strata has been recognized as a distinct formation, but strata equivalent to it evidently exist

in the Upper Cretaceous series upon the western side of that area.

Paleontologically this formation appears to be intimately related to 

the overlying Austin formation and its relation to the underlying Timber Creek formation has already been mentioned. Indeed, it appears 

to be as intimately related to the Austin formation as are the Fort 

Benton shales of the Upper Missouri section to the Niobrara beds of 

that section. It is regarded as at least approximately equivalent to the 

Fort Benton shales just mentioned and as probably equivalent to the 

lower part of the Rotten limestone formation of the Gulf States and to 

the Clay Marl of the New Jersey section. In fact this formation is also 

understood to have representative strata in numerous districts from 

the North Mexican region to the North Interior region inclusive.

The Eagle Ford formation, as it has been defined for the Texan region, outcrops only along a comparatively narrow belt lying mainly in

1 See figures on plate 2, Kep. TJ. S. Geol. Sarv. Terr., vol. 9, and references to those assigned to the Dakota formal ion. 

*See Proc. U. S. Nat. Mas., vol. 2, pp. 292-298, plates 1-5.
WHITE.] THE TEXAN REGION.

Grayson, Denton, Dallas, Ellis, and Hills Counties, Texas. Southward 

Jrom Hills County it seems to disappear or to blend with the Austin 

formation, because in Bexar and adjacent counties strata that seem to 

represent the latter formation rest directly upon the Comanche series, 

the Timber Creek formation also being absent there. There are probably some outcrops of the shales of this formation in the southern part 

of Indian Territory, but Mr. Hill reports l that they do not outcrop in 

Arkansas.

The Austin formation, which is one of the more important of the 

Upper Cretaceous formations of the Texan region, was first named the 

Austin limestone by Dr. B. F. Shumard,2 characteristic exposures of 

its strata being common in the neighborhood of the city of Austin. It 

has long been known by that name, but Mr. Hill has lately given it the 

name of Austin and Dallas chalk.3 It has been recognized by its characteristic fossils in southwesternArkansas, southern Indian Territory, 

and along a belt of country in Texas which extends from Lamar County 

on the north to Bexar County on the south. Westward from Bexar 

County to the Eio Grande its fossils have been recognized at several 

points, but no reports of any considerable exposures of the formation 

there have been published. It is one of the more conspicuous of the 

Cretacous formations in Texas because it is composed largely of a lightgray limestone which is frequently exposed in escarpments and also 

because of its often abundant characteristic fossils.

From Texas northward nearly to British America the equivalents of 

this formation constitute a somewhat definite stratigraphical subhorizon, which is largely calcareous in the southern and middle portions and largely argillaceous in the northern. The strata beneath 

the calcareous portion of this subhorizon are usually more or less clayey, 

and those immediately above it in the south are often clayey, but in the 

north more often arenaceous. These facts will be again referred to in 

connection with the discussion of the two interior regions.

Where the upper layers of the Austin limestone are to be observed 

they are found to be overlain by or to merge gradually into clayey or 

marly layers which, .in eastern Texas at least, pass up into strata that 

bear an abundance of characteristic fossils of the Eipley formation. 

Because of the ease with which these soft strata have been eroded, of 

the usually level character of the country in which they occur, and of 

the abundant soil and subsoil which cover them, good exposures of 

them are not numerous anywhere in the Texan region. For these reasons also the full thickness of those strata can not be satisfactorily 

measured, and it is difficult to estimate it. Mr. Hill, however, has estimated their thickness at 1,500 feet, giving the name of Glauconitic 

ilivision to the upper 300 feet and that of Ponderosa marls to the lower

1 Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Ark. for 1888, vol. 2, p. 72. 

2 Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., vol. 1, p. 585. 

 Bull. No. 4, Geol. Surv. Texas, p. ix.
124 ' THE CRETACEOUS. {BUM, 82.

1,200 feet.1 My own examinations of the geology of the Texan region 

have not led me to estimate so great a thickness as this between the 

Austin limestone and the Eipley formation of eastern Texas, and it 

seems probable that they do not at all places reach that thickness 

between those two formations.

The uppermost and only member of the Upper Cretaceous section 

in the eastern part of the Texan region which remains to be considered 

is the one which is so evidently equivalent to the Eipley formation of 

the Gulf Border region that it is obviously improper to apply another 

name to it. This equivalency is plainly shown by the fact that Mr. T. 

W. Stanton has. identified 90 molluscan species which prevail in the 

Bipley formation of Mississippi out of 124 species which he has collected 

from the Eipley strata of Texas.

Stratigraphically, it seems to be impracticable to delimit the beds 

which represent the Eipley formation in the Texan region from those 

underlying clayey or marly strata which have just been described. Indeed, the beds which bear au abundance of Eipley fossils appear to 

differ from the other clayey strata beneath them mainly by containing, in many places, calcareous layers and large concretionary masses 

of limestone in which the fossils are usually found imbedded. Furthermore, it is a well ascertained fact that certain molluscan species range 

through all the strata from the base of the Austin formation to the top 

of the Eipley, inclusive.

The best exposures of characteristic Eipley strata that are now known 

in the Texan region are found in Navarro, Travis, and Kaufman Counties, Texas, but beneath the overlying soil they doubtless extend continuously from southwestern Arkansas south westward beyond the Colorado Eiver in Texas. Southward and westward from the Colorado 

Eiver these strata seem to lose in part their distinctive paleontological 

character, or they are overlapped by the lignite-bearing beds which, in 

eastern Texas, border them on the east.

Where these lignite-bearing beds have been seen to overlie the Texan 

Eipley strata they appearto the eye to be conformable, but if those beds 

are to be regarded as equivalent to the upper part of the Lararaie formation, as has been suggested, there must be a hiatus between them and 

the Eipley strata which is equal to the greater part of the thickness of 

the Laramie. That is, the hiatus is understood to be similar to that 

which has been shown to exist between the Cretaceous and Tertiary in 

both the Atlantic and Gulf border regions.

There seems to be sufficient evidence that the Eipley strata, in eastern 

Texas were much eroded before the lignite bearing beds were deposited 

upon them, notwithstanding the fact that they are now apparently conformable, and this erosion doubtless took place while the lower and

1 Bull. No. 4, Geol. Survey Texas, p. ix.

The name Pontlerosamarls appears to have been applied because of the prevalence in those strata 

of Exogyraponderosa, but it ought to be mentioned that this species is common in both the Austin 

limestone and the Ripley formation and that it also occurs in the Eagle Pass beds.
WHITE.] THE TEXAN REGION. 125 

1

greater part of the Larainio formation was being deposited. The time 

during which this erosion of the Ripley strata in eastern Texas and the 

deposition of the Laramie strata in western Texas took place probably 

represents the time-hiatus between the Cretaceous and Tertiary that 

has been several times referred to in preceding paragraphs.

The paleontological interrelationship of the whole Upper Cretaceous 

series in the eastern part of the Texan region has been indicated in the 

foregoing discussions of its separate formations, but the great importance of this fact makes it desirable that special attention should be 

called to it. While the physical changes that took place between the 

time of the deposition of the earliest and the latest strata of that series 

resulted in considerable changes in tbeir character and lithological composition, it is evident that during the whole time, not only did no complete faunal break occur, but there seems to have been only a partial 

fauual change with each change in the character of the deposits. That 

is, the evidence seems to be conclusive that all the Upper Cretaceous 

strata of the eastern part of the Texan region are referable to one great 

paleontological horizon,1 which, with others, is to be -discussed on following pages.

Much is yet to be learned of the geology of the eastern part of the 

Texau region, and that of the western part has been still more imperfectly studied; but enough is now known of it to warrant the confident 

belief that all the Cretaceous formations which have been shown to exist in the eastern part are more or less completely represented in the 

western part. Originally most of them doubtless were geographically 

continuous from one part to the other, and some of them have escaped 

erosion and are now continuous around the southern end of the Paleozoic area, where, however, they are mostly covered from view by soil 

and subsoil.

The lower Cretaceous formations seem to be of essentially the same 

general character in the western that they are in the eastern part of 

the region. The existence of both the Trinity formation and the Comauche series in the western part of the Texan region has already been 

stated. The Trinity there is not so well developed as it is in the eastern part of the region, and the whole formation evidently thins out 

toward the west before reaching its western border.

The Comauche series has been much eroded and covered from sight 

in the western part of the region, and therefore it does not seem to be 

so well developed there as it is in the eastern part, but it is known that 

the whole series thickens toward the west and southwest, and that it 

has also materially changed in lithological character in those directions. 

The gradation of this lithological change has not yet been observed, and 

the strata in which it has occurred are now covered by later formations.

The Upper Cretaceous series of the western part of the Texan region 

is surmounted by the Laramie formation, which has no representation

> The term horizon as used in this extended sense will bo explained upon a following page.
126 THE CKETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

in the eastern part unless it shall prove to be partially represented by 

the lignitic beds. Beneath the Larainie the western series is understood fully to represent the eastern series, although the separate formations of the latter have not all been clearly recognized in the former 

series.

The Austin formation, overlain by marly shales, is observable in the 

valley of Medina Eiver, Medina County, Texas, where all those strata 

have a gentle westerly dip. In the marly shales overlying the Austin 

strata there 1 have found some fossil species that are known to occur 

in the Eipley formation, and those overlying strata probably represent 

both the Ponderosa marls of Hill and the Eipley formation proper. 

Certain coal-bearing strata are found in the valley of Nueces Eiver, 

in Zavalla and Uvalde Counties, which are believed to represent the 

Laramie formation in part, but little is yet known of the structural 

geology of the district between the Medina and the liio Grande.

In the valley of the Eio Grande there is a formation which immediately underlies the Laramie to which I have given the local name of 

Eagle Pass beds. By means of its fossils and by its intimate stratigraphical relation to the overlying Laramie formation these beds have 

been satisfactorily identified with the Fox Hills portion of the Upper 

Missouri Eiver section, or the upper part of the Montana formation of 

the interior regions. Like both of those formations, and unlike any of 

the Cretaceous formations of the Atlantic and Gulf Border regions, so 

far as is now known, the Eagle Pass strata are coal-bearing. The Eipley formation of eastern Texas has not been traced continuously to a 

connection with the Eagle Pass beds, but the relative position of each 

of these formations to those which underlie and overlie them respectively, and the specific identity of certain fossils found in each, leaves 

no reason to doubt that the two are really identical and that they were

of contemporaneous origin.

The Eagle Pass beds are well exposed in the vicinity of Eagle Pass, 

Texas, but within a few miles toward the north from there they appear 

to thin out or to have been removed by erosion. Southward from 

Eagle Pass, in the southern part of Maverick County, they pass beneath the Laramie toward the east, so that strata believed to represent 

the latter formation in part are found resting upon them in the valley 

of the Nueces in Uvalde and Zavalla Counties, as already mentioned.

The full outlines of the area which is occupied by the Laramie formation in the western part of this region have not been determined, 

but it has been recognized at various points in Maverick,Webb, Zavalla, 

and Uvalde Counties, Texas. In Webb County, about 10 miles above 

Laredo, near the Eio Grande, it is seen to pass by a southerly dip 

beneath marine Eocene strata. Eastward from Zavalla and Uvalde 

Counties it thins out or loses the character of a distinct formation which 

it has in the valley of the Eio Grande and farther northward. It is 

the upper part of the formation which, in the valley of the Nueces and
WHITE. | THE TEXAN KEGION. 127

that of the Bio Grande, is coal bearing, and which is understood to 

represent those ligniticbcds of eastern Texas which are usually referred 

to the Eocene Tertiary.

The following diagram shows the relation of the Cretaceous formations of the eastern part of the Texan region with those of the western 

part, including those which lie along the western border of the Paleozoic area in Texas. The width of the respective spaces in the table 

has no reference to the proportional thickness of the formations, the 

names of which they contain, or of the length of time represented by 

a hiatus. The object of the diagram is only to indicate their understood equivalences.

Diagram showing interrelation of Texan formations.

Western Texas. Eastern Texas.

Tertiary

Upper Cretaceous..

Lower Cretaceous..

Eocene.

Eocene portion of Laramie.

Laramio formation.

Eagle Pass bed.

marls, and of the Austin, 

Eagle Ford, and Timber 

Creek formations.

Hiatus.

Coruanche series.

Hiatus.

Trinity formation.

Eocene.

Lignitic beds.

Hiatus.

Itipley formation.

Austin formation and 

Ponderosa marls.

Eagle Ford formation.

Timber Creek formation.

Hiatus.

Cornanwhe series.

Hiatus.

Trinity formation.

The formations which in the Atlantic and Gulf border regions are 

referred to the Cretaceous are arranged under two divisions, a marine 

and a non-marine. The correctness of referring the whole of the marine 

division to the upper Cretaceous need not be questioned, and the character of the plant remains of the upper part of the non-marine division 

in New Jersey is such as to indicate that those deposits ought also to 

be so referred; but iu view of certain paleontological characteristics of
128 THE CRETACEOUS.

the Potomac and Tascaloosa formations doubt has been expressed by 

some persons whether they ought not to be referred to the Jurassic. 

The formations of the Texan region which are hereiu discussed as of 

Cretaceous age are likewise arranged under two divisions as shown in 

the foregoing table, and respectively referred to the Upper and Lower 

Cretaceous; but the considerations which prompted this separation 

are wholly of a chronological character, while those which suggested 

the separation in the Atlantic and Gulf Border regions are of a physical character. That is, in the latter case the earlier division is wholly 

of non-marine and the later wholly of marine origin, while in the Texan 

region there are both marine and non-marine deposits in both the upper 

and lower divisions.

The formations of the upper division of the general Cretaceous section of the Texan region, beneath the Laramie, are understood to 

represent in full the marine division in both the Atlantic and Gulf 

Border regions. The Comanche series of the lower division, which constitutes the greater part of it, is understood to have no representative 

in the Atlantic and Gulf Border regions, and the remainder of the 

division, that is, the Trinity formation, is doubtfully regarded as 

representing a part of the non-marine division in each of those regions.

The upper and lower delimitation of the full Cretaceous series in the 

eastern part of the Texan region may be regarded as being nearly 

identical with that of the Atlantic and Gulf Border regions. That is, 

the uppermost Cretaceous strata are understood to be at least approximately equivalent in each case, and in each case also those strata are 

overlain by Eocene beds with evidence of a time hiatus between them. 

The lower delimitation in the eastern £art of the Texan region is by 

the Trinity formation, which perhaps represents the Poiomac and 

Tuscaloosa formations and which has been found resting upoii Carboniferous and older rocks, where its base has been observed.

The upper delimitation of the full series in the western part of the 

Texan region is by the Laramie formation, which, as has been shown, 

is overlain by characteristic Eocene strata. The lower delimitation of 

the series in the western part of the region is not so well known. It 

is, however, known that near the western border of the Texan Paleozoic area the Trinity strata rest upon the Carboniferous and Permian; 

but in a considerable portion of the western part of the region the 

Comanche series is known to rest directly upon Carboniferous and Permian rocks.

The upper delimitation of the Lower Cretaceous in the Texan region 

is by the upper strata of the Comanche series, between which and the 

lowermost strata of the Upper Cretaceous there is unconformity and a 

time hiatus. There is also understood to be a time-hiatus between the 

two subdivisions of the Lower Cretaceous, which are recognized in this 

region.
WHITE.] DIVISIONS OF THE TliXAN CKETACEOUS. 129

The lower delimitation of the Upper Cretaceous of the eastern part 

of the Texau region is by the Timber Greek formation, which is understood to represent the Dakota formation of the Interior regions. In the 

western part of the Texau region that delimitation is by strata equivalent to the Timber Creek formation, but which are not there recognized as constituting a separate formation.

The assignment of the upper division of the Texan section to the, 

Upper Cretaceous has been made because of its general paleontological 

agreement with the formations that have been so assigned in other 

regions and because of the intimate relation, either paleontological or 

stratigraplncal, or both, of those Texan formations with one another, 

including the Laramie. Its lower delimitatiou by the Timber Creek 

formation has been recognized because it is regarded as the marine 

equivalent of the Dakota formation, the horizon of which is, in all the 

other regions, understood to represent the basal portion of the Upper 

Cretaceous of North America. Although the Laramie formation is 

regarded as in part of Tertiary age it is in this memoir treated as the 

upper delimiting member of the Upper Cretaceous because of its 

intimate strati graphical relation to the immediately underlying formations of its common involvement with them in great displacements, and 

of the presence in its strata of such vetebrate remains as are usually 

referred to the Cretaceous.1

While it is admitted that a considerable number of fossil forms which 

characterize the Comanche series are closely similar to forms which 

prevail in the Upper Cretaceous of Europe that series is referred to the 

North American Lower Cretaceous because it underlies and is separated 

by an evident time-hiatus from the recognized base of the Upper Cretaceous and because its fossil fauna is wholly different from that of any 

known North American Upper Cretaceous formation.

The upper strata of the Comanche series are regarded as the upper 

delimiting portion of the Lower Cretaceous of the Texan region, no deposits having been discovered which are assignable to a place between 

them and the base of the Upper Cretaceous.

The Trinity formation has been provisionally recognized as the lower 

delimiting member of the Texan Lower Cretaceous upon comparatively 

slight evidence of any kind. It is supposed to be, either wholly or in 

part, equivalent to the Potomac and Tuscaloosa formations, and it is 

therefore provisionally assigned to the same horizon upon the upper 

confines of the Jurassic.

Although no deposits are yet known which are assignable to a place 

between the Trinity formation and the base of the Comanche series their 

great physical and paleontological differences indicate that there is an 

important time-hiatus between them.

1 Reasons are given on following pageg for regarding the Laramie formation as in part of Tertiary 

age.

Bull. 82 9
130 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

The next following diagram is intended to show the relation of the 

Cretaceous formations of the Texan region to those of the Gulf Border 

region. Like the foregoing diagram its divisions are intended only to 

indicate known and supposed equivalences of the formations in each 

region to those of the other, and the width of its respective spaces has 

therefore no reference to the proportional thickness of the formations 

the names of which they embrace nor to the length of time represented 

by a hiatus. It also illustrates the assumed fact that the Comanche 

series, which is one of the most distinctive features of the Texan section, 

is wholly absent from that of the Gulf Border region. Besides this it 

illustrates the tentative opinion of the writer that the Trinity formation of the Texas section represents the non-marine division of the Gulf 

Border section, and that the horizon of that division is beneath that of 

the Comanche series.

Both of these tables are so constructed as to show the relation of the 

Laramie formation to the overlying Tertiary, as well as to the underlying marine Cretaceous formations. Both also represent the hiatus 

which is understood to exist between the uppermost marine Cretaceous 

formation and the overly ing Eocene deposits, which hiatus is understood 

to exist in the Atlantic Border region as well as in the other two. That 

hiatus is, however, assumed to be absent in the western part of the Texan 

region, where the Laramie formation exists.

Comparison of the Texan and Gulf Border Cretaceous formations.

Texap "Region. Gulf Border Region.

Tertiary

Upper Cretaceous ....

Lower Cretaceeus

Eocene.

Eocene part of Laramie.

Laramie formation.

Ripley Formation 

and Eagle Pass beds.

Austin formation 

and Ponderoaa marls.

Eagle Ford formation.

c Timber Creek formation.

Hiatus.

Comanche series.

Hiatus.

Trinity formation.

 

Eocene.

Hiatus.

Ripley formation.

Rotten limestone.

Tombigbee sands.

Hiatus.

En taw and 

Tuscaloosa formations.

THE NORTH MEXICAN REGION.

In connection with the discussion of the Cretaceous formations of the 

Texau region it was shown that the geology of its western part is not yet 

so well known a§ that of the eastern part, or as that of the Atlantic and
WIIITS.] NORTH MEXICAN REGION GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 131

Q-ulf Border regions. It is proper also to say that our knowledge of 

the geology of the region which lies to the west and southwest of the 

Texan region, which I have designated as the North Mexican region, is 

less perfectly known than that of the other regions mentioned, because 

little or no systematic investigation of any considerable part of it has 

yet been made.

The North Mexican region, as denned by the boundaries which have 

been selected for the present purpose, lies mainly within the Republic 

of Mexico, but it also includes a portion each of western Texas and 

southern New Mexico, and nominally a portion of southern Arizona. 

The twenty-sixth parallel of north latitude, which crosses the coast line 

of the Gulf of Mexico at or near the mouth of the Eio Graude, has been 

arbitrarily chosen as il;s southern boundary, because too little is yet 

known of the- geology of the region which lies south of that parallel to 

allow of the selection of a natural boundary. The eastern boundary is 

the same as the western boundary of the Texan region, and consists of 

the Eio Graude, from its mouth up to the mouth of its tributary, the 

Pecos, and of the Pecos from its mouth to the point where the thirtythird parallel of north latitude crosses it. The northern boundary is 

the thirty-third parallel of north latitude, and the western boundary is 

the eastern shore of th'3 Gulf of California, together with that portion 

of the Colorado Eiver vrhich lies between the northern extremity of the 

gulf and the parallel last named.

In designating the boundaries of those regions that already have been 

described it was thought expedient to make the inland boundaries coincide as nearly as practicable with the surface junction of the Paleozoic 

with the Mesozoic and later rocks, thus excluding all the Paleozoic and 

earlier rocks from thoaa regions. It will not be practicable, however, 

to use such geological features for boundary lines in the case of the 

North Mexican region, nor of that of the other regions yet to be discussed, because the Cretaceous areas within their designated boundaries are more irregular, and sometimes isolated, and also because so 

much remains to be learned concerning their outlines.

The following brief and incomplete account of the topography and 

geology of the North Mexican region is based upon the few and meager 

reports that have been published, supplemented by some of my own 

personal observations. While lack of knowledge renders this account 

necessarily incomplete, enough has been acquired to indicate that the 

region in question is one of the most important of the Cretaceous 

regions of the continent.

The general surface of this region is more uneven than that of either 

of the other regions which have been discussed, and the average elevation above the sea is sAso greater. The valley of the Eio Grande is a 

prominent surface feature, and a considerable number of short mountain ranges exist in the eastern part, while the central part is largely 

occupied by a broad, irregular, high plateau. Other inequalities of sur-
132 THE CRETACEOUS.

face are due to the immense erosion which it has suffered during either 

Tertiary or post-Tertiary time, or during both those periods.

The small ranges referred to are mostly orogenic uplifts, and usually 

these are separated by broad spaces of comparatively plain country 

which are more or less thickly covered with the abundant debris that 

has resulted from the great erosion which has contributed so largely to 

the present surface features of the region. Besides these ranges there 

are in the same districts numerous hills and isolated mountains which 

are remnants of great volcanic outflows that have occurred since the 

close of Cretaceous time and that have escaped the great erosion.

The exposures of the greater part of the Cretaceous strata which have 

been observed in this region have been more or less directly connected 

with the orogenic uplifts that have been mentioned, but some of the 

more important exposures are found in the lower, comparatively plain 

country, and many more would doubtless have occurred there if it Avere 

not for the presence of the abundant de~bris which has resulted from 

the great erosion just mentioned.

For reasons already mentioned it is impracticable to give a satisfactory account of the several Cretaceous formations, which exist within 

this region, but from present information it seems to be safe to assume 

that they occupy only a small proportion of its surface area. The most 

important report that has been published concerning these formations 

is contained in volume i of the United States and Mexican Boundary 

Survey; but even in this publication little indication is given of the 

separate identity of the Cretaceous formations, equivalents of which 

are now known to occur there. Prof. Antonio del Castillo, director of 

the Mexican National School of Mines, has informed me that he has 

prepared a geological sketch map of the Eepublic, but no copy of it has 

yet reached me. 1 The following statements concerning the formations 

of this region are therefore based mainly upon my personal observations 

during the several journeys which I have made in different parts of it.

The personal observations referred to were made in western Texas, 

southern New Mexico, and in the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Cohahuila, and Nuevo Leon. Within these parts of the region both an Upper 

and Lower Cretaceous series of strata have been recognized. The 

upper series is understood to represent the whole of the Upper Cretaceous as it occurs in western Texas, and in the two Interior regions. 

That is, it is understood to represent all the formations from the Dakota 

to the Laramie formation inclusive, although as separate formations 

they have not yet been definitely recognized there. The lower series 

appears to embrace only strata that are referable to the Comauche 

series of the Texan region, no trace of the Trinity or of any other Lower 

Cretaceous formation than the Comanche having been observed in the 

North Mexican region.

1 This map is received while this memoir is passing through the press. It is an important publication and conveys much information that has not before been published.
WHITE.] NORTH MEXICAN REGION GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 133

It is mainly the formations that are known to occur in Texas between 

the Pecos and the Rio Grande and in the Mexican States mentioned in 

the last paragraph that will be considered on the present occasion, but 

reference should be m ade to certain rocks of Cretaceous age that were 

some years ago reported by Mr. Gabb to exist in the Mexican State of 

Souora. This report was based on the discovery and collection of some 

fossils by Mr. Auguste Esmond in the " Sierra de las Conchas near 

Arivechi, Sonora."1

A part of the species of this collection are identical with certain characteristic species of the Comanche series, and a part of them appear to 

be of Upper Cretaceous age. The former are of especial interest because they represent the most westerly known extension of Comanche 

Strata; and the latter are also important as indicating that both divisions of the North American Cretaceous are represented there. Another 

matter of interest in connection with the whole collection is that its 

species have closer relationship to those of the formations which occur 

toward the east than to those of the Pacific Coast Cretaceous, although 

the locality in question is upon the drainage slope of the Gulf of California, and comparatively near to the Pacific coast.

It is to be expected that strata referable to the Comanche series will 

be found to extend far southward into the Republic of Mexico beyond 

the designated limits of the North Mexican region, but the only direct 

indication of it at present known to me is the unpublished discovery 

by Mr. James T. Gardner of some fossils belonging to that series in the 

State of Tamaulipa/s.2 It is also to be expected that large exposures 

of both Upper and Lower Cretaceous strata other than those now 

known will be discovered in various parts of the North Mexican region, 

but we are now necessarily confined to the consideration of those which 

occur in the districts that are best known.

It is believed that the Comanche series exists in considerable force in 

the Mexican State of Cohahuila, where the Upper Cretaceous is known 

to be well developed, but in this region it has been observed mainly in 

Texas, between tho Pecos and the Rio Grande, and in the Mexican State 

of Chihuahua. Much the most important exposures of these Lower 

Cretaceous strata that are yet known are found in the State of Chihuahua, exposed in a short range of mountains known as the Sierra San 

Carlos, about 75 miles southeastward from Presidio del Norte.3 Dr. C. 

C. Parry, however, mentions a great thickness of Cretaceous strata as 

forming the walls; of the Cafioii San Carlos, through which flows the 

Rio Grande, from 50 to 75 miles below Presidio.4 These strata have 

not been seen by myself, but they seem from Dr. Parry's description to 

belong to the Cotaauche serieis.

'Geol. Surv. California, Paleontology, vol. 2, pp. 257-276, and plates 35,36. 

8 See remarks on Prof. Heilprin's observations in Mexico on a following page.

3 Am. Jour. Sci., 1389, vol. 38, pp. 440-445.

4 See Keport on tho United States and Mexican Boundary Survey, vol. 1, part 2, pp. 49-61.
134 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

It has been shown that west of the Paleozoic area in Texas the Comanche series disappears toward the west by a gentle general dip. West 

of the Pecos those strata are brought up again by the uplifting of the 

short mountain ranges that have been referred to. Here they are not 

only found to have increased in aggregate thickness, but they are found 

to have changed materially in lithological character. As has been 

shown on a preceding page, the Oomanche strata in the Texan region 

consist of moderately compacted limestones, calcareous shales, and 

earthy, or sometimes chalky, material with stony concretions, all having a grayish color, usually light; but when the formation appears again 

in the mountain uplifts before mentioned, the series as a whole has 

changed to a hard compact bluish limestone so closely resembling the 

Carboniferous limestone of the interior portion of the continent that the 

two formations are not easily distinguishable from each other except 

by their fossils.

Some interesting exposures of these rocks occur at the eastern end 

of the Chinate Mountains about 25 miles north of Presidio, 1 where the 

bluish Comanche limestone is found to rest with apparently true conformity upon the similarly colored Carboniferous limestone. Much the 

most important exposure of the Comanche series yet known, however, 

is the one found in the canon of a creek which flows eastward out of the 

Sierra San Carlos, and which has already been referred to. A section 

of these strata is represented by Fig. 7.

FIG. l. The Sierra San Carlos section. *

No. 1. Gray, crystalline rock, weathering light brown. Thickness not known. Feet. 

No. 2. Greenish, brown, and light colored quartzites............................................. 2,000

No. 3. Dark blue and brownish limestones, much altered, but showing traces of fossil shells... 500 

No. 4. Dark bine and bluish gray compact limestones, in part comparatively pure, but in part

argillaceous, bearing Lower Cretaceous fossils......................................... 4,000

No. 5. Dark blue and drab colored shales alternating with layers of bluish, argillaceous, and 

sometimes concretionary limestone, gradually changing to lighter-colored arenaceous 

layers .................................................................................. 800

No. 6. Fallen d6bris, covering No. 5.

Concerning the geological age of Nos. 1 and 2 of this section no direct paleontological evidence has been obtained; and while traces of 

fossils were observed in No. 3 they were too indistinct to serve as trust1 Presidio is a Texan town on the left bank of the Rio Grande, and Presidio del Norte, a Mexican 

town on the right bank of that river, directly opposite.

2 With the exception of the'brief verbal explanation of this important section in the American 

Journal of Science, already referred to, this is the first publication. Therefore it is more fully elaborated than is any one of the other sections which are discussed in this memoir.
WHITE.! tHE SIERRA SAN CARLOS SECTION. 135

worthy indices in that regard. Therefore the following suggestions as 

to the age of these members must be understood to have little or no 

direct paleontological warrant.

It is suggested that No. 1 of the section may be of Archean age, but 

its lithological similarity to rocks of intrusive origin, which largely 

enter into the composition of certain mountains in New Mexico, notably 

some of those in the vicinity of the town of White Oaks, in Lincoln 

County, which are largely composed of Cretaceous strata, favors the 

belief that; the San Carlos crystalline rock is also of similar origin.

No. 2 of the section consists of stratified, but much altered sedimentary rock. No satisfactory view of its contact with No. 1 has been 

obtained, but the uuexposed space between them is so small that there 

can be 110 doubt of their actual contact. No fossils have been found in 

these strata, and they are highly altered. The Carboniferous rocks in 

all that part of the continent are usually very fossiliferous and not very 

highly altered.1 Therefore it is inferred that they are not Carboniferous, and it is suggested that they may be of pre-Silurian age.

No. 3 is composed of somewhat regularly bedded strata, mostly limestone, but some of the layers are more or less arenaceous. It rests with 

apparent conformity upon No. 2, but if the latter is really of preSilurian age there must necessarily be a great time-hiatus between 

them.

While the fossils which were originally inclosed in the strata of No. 

3 have been so nearly obliterated by the alteration of the rock as to 

give no satisfactory indication of their geological age, they offer no 

suggestion that they are not referable to the Cretaceous. Besides this, 

these strata are so similar in character to those of No. 4, except that 

they have suffered greater alteration, and their conformity with them, 

is so perfect, that it seems necessary to regard them all as belonging 

to one and the same series. These strata, as well as their equivalents 

in the Chinate Mountains, are silver-bearing.

In both lithological and paleontological character No. 4 of the section is quite uniform from bottom to top, but the greater part of the 

contained fossils are too compactly imbedded in the rock to be removed. 

It is true that some species of its fossils were found only at certain 

horizons in the series, but other species range through its whole thickness, among which are some that are common in the Comanche series, 

as it is known in Texas.

The general character of the molluscan fauna of the whole Comanche 

series is such as to suggest that while its habitat was marine, it existed 

in comparatively shallow waters. This implies that during the whole 

time that the series, as it is represented by the San Carlos section, was 

accumulating there was a continuous subsidence of the sea bottom upon 

which the fauna lived, and that this subsidence was approximately 

equal to the rate of that accumulation.

1 It is a significant fact that while the Comanohe series is found resting directly upon Carboniferous 

strata at many and widely separated places in western Texas, no strata of Carboniferous age are 

recognized in the Sierra San Carlos section.
136 THE" CRETACEOUS. IBULUSS.

The Upper Cretaceous strata represented by No. 5 were equally involved in the erogenic movement which placed the adjacent strata of 

No. 4 into a vertical or past vertical position; but as they were not able 

to resist erosive action so well as the latter, they have been so largely 

removed and covered with debris that I found them exposed only in the* 

banks and beds of the creek where the strata of the foregoing section 

are exposed, and at a few other places in the same neighborhood along 

the eastern base of the Sierra San Carlos. These strata not only differ 

lithologically from the others, but they contain a different fossil fauna, 

several species of which are identical with those which characterize 

the lower portion of the Upper Cretaceous of the Interior regions.

Actual contact of these Upper Cretaceous with the contiguous Lower 

Cretaceous strata was not seen at the Sierra San Carlos locality, but 

that of their equivalents was seen at a point nearer to Presidio del 

Norte. The Upper Cretaceous strata were traced in the bed of the 

creek at the mouth of the canon1 in which the San Carlos section was 

observed so far toward the line of strike of the uppermost layers of 

the upturned Lower Cretaceous series that not more than 50 feet of 

unobserved strata can exist between them. Because of this obscuration of the contact between the Upper and Lower Cretaceous strata 

there the question of actual conformity remains undetermined, although, 

as before shown, it can not be doubted that there is closely approximate conformity, but still an important time-hiatus, between them.

The whole Upper Cretaceous series was not observed in the neighborhood of the Sierra San Carlos, the upper portion having been removed by erosion or covered from sight by the abundant debris. The 

whole series, however, is observable between those mountains and 

Presidio del Norte.

The Opinion that was expressed in a previous paragraph that there 

is a great time-hiatus between the Lower Cretaceous of the Sierra San 

Carlos and the next underlying rocks is supported by the fact that a 

great hiatus is also known to exist between the base of the Lower Cretaceous and the next underlying rocks elsewhere in the North Mexican 

region. A notable example of such a hiatus, occurring with apparent 

conformity of strata, is fco be observed, as already indicated, at the eastern end of the Chinate Mountains, about 25 miles north of the town of 

Presidio, Texas. Here the Lower Cretaceous rocks rest directly upon the 

Carboniferous, and their conformity is so perfect at the point where 

they were observed that the junction between them was not readily 

distinguishable. Still, the time-hiatus between them amounts to the 

whole of the Jurassic and Trias sic periods, and apparently a considerable part of the Carboniferous also.

A great thickness of the Comanche Lower Cretaceous is exposed in 

a large hill that rises near the right bank of the Eio Grande below 

Presidio del Norte. Upon the southern flank of this hill strata bearing

'This cauon mast not be confounded with tho Canon San Carlos, through which the Rio Grarde 

flows, and which is mentioned on p. 133.
WHITE] NORTH MEXICAN REGION GENERAL SUMMARY. 137

Upper Cretaceous fossils rest upon those Lower Cretaceous rocks and 

have a well marked southerly dip. Following the direction of the dip 

higher and higher strata are observed, and at a point a few miles from 

the hill just inentioned^strata are reached which are believed to represent the Laramie formation. The whole thickness of these Upper Cretaceous strata, not including the supposed Laramie, is estimated at 

5,000 feet.

The following paragraphs are offered as a partial summary of the 

foregoing statements and discussions:

It has been shown that four more or less distinctly definable groups 

of strata are recognized as constituting the Upper Cretaceous series of 

that portion of the Texan region which lies east of the Paleozoic area 

of Texas, namely, the Ripley, Austin, Eagle Ford, and Timber Crock 

formations. The Upper Cretaceous series of that portion of the Texan 

region which lies west of the Paleozoic area is there capped by the Laramie, which is treated in this memoir as a portion of the Upper Cretaceous. The Upper Cretaceous strata, which lie beneath the Lararaie 

in western Texas, apparently are not so distinctly separable into different formations, either stratigraphically or paleontologically, as is the 

corresponding series in eastern Texas, but the discovery of characteristic fossils of each of the formations of the eastern section in strata 

of the western one leaves no room for reasonable doubt as to the real 

equivalency of the two sections as represented by the diagram on 

page 130.

This lack of separate definition of formations observable in the Upper 

Cretaceous series of the western part of the Texan region is also observable in the Upper Cretaceous of the North Mexican region. For 

example, the Timber Creek formation of eastern Texas, which is regarded as equivalent to the Dakota, is not recognized as a distinct 

formation in either the western district of the Texan region or in the 

North Mexican region, but certain strata at the base of the Upper Cretaceous in that district are recognized as representing the Timber Creek 

formation because of the presence in them of some of its characteristic 

marine fossils.

Again, fossils which characterize the Eagle Ford, Austin, and Eipley 

formations of eastern Texas are found iu similar vertical order of occurrence in the Upper Cretaceous series of the North Mexican region as 

well as in that of the western part of the Texan region; but our present 

knowledge of the strata composing the Upper Cretaceous series there 

will not justify their grouping into formations so distinctly definable as 

are those that have just been named, or as those which in other regions 

are regarded as the true equivalents of this series. Besides this, the 

Laramie formation in these two regions, as well as elsewhere toward 

the north, blends so intimately with the next formation beneath it that 

the horizon of their interdelimitation has been recognized as identical 

with that at which the change from a marine to a brackish-water fauna 

took place.
138 THE CRETACEOUS. (ami 8*.

The foregoing statements show that we are not now able to treat the 

Upper Cretaceous of the North Mexican region and of the adjacent 

western part of the Texan region under the head of separate formations 

so satisfactorily as we are to thus treat its equivalent series of strata 

elsewhere. Therefore the Upper Cretaceous strata of the North Mexican region are in this memoir discussed or referred to as a whole, except 

in those cases of separate recognition of the Laramie formation and of 

the Eagle Pass beds. In thus discussing them, however, it is not intended to assume that further study of the North Mexican Upper Cretaceous strata may not show good reason for their separation into several more or less distinct formations.

The Upper Cretaceous strata, which for the western part of the Texan 

region were designated as the Eagle Pass beds, have been recognized 

at several places in the valley of the Eio Grande, on the Mexican as 

well as on the Texan side of that river, ranging from a point a few 

miles above the town of Piedras Negras to one within a few miles of 

Laredo. Exposures of equivalent strata occur in and near the valley 

of Sabinas River, in the central part of the Mexican State of Cohahuila, 

as well as at a few localities between the Rio Sabinas and the Rio 

Grande in the same State. They have also been observed at several 

points in the northern part of the State of Chihuahua, where some of 

the exposures embrace strata which are believed to represent the whole 

range of the Upper Cretaceous as it is known in the Texan and South 

Interior regions, and where they are capped by strata believed to 

belong to the Laramie, as that formation caps the Upper Cretaceous in 

the last-named regions.

It has been shown that strata bearing characteristic fossils of the 

lower marine member of the Upper Cretaceous of the two interior regiODS are found Superimposed upon the Lower Cretaceous in the Sierra 

San Carlos and at other places in the State of Chihuahua. At the 

locality not far from the town of Presidio del Forte the whole Upper 

Cretaceous series seems to be present and to reach a thickness of not less 

than 5,000 feet, not including the strata provisionally referred to the 

Laramie formation. This Upper Cretaceous section, when added to 

the Lower Cretaceous as observed elsewhere in the North Mexican 

region, gives an estimated aggregate thickness of more than 10,000 feet 

for the whole system as it is represented in that region.

The Laramie,1 which is such an important formation in the two interior regions, is also an important one in the North Mexican region, 

especially in the States of Chihuahua, Cohahuila, and Nuevo Leou. Its 

presence in the first-named State has just been mentioned, and it is 

also well developed in the Sabiuas Valley, in Cohahuila, where it is an 

important coal-bearing formation.2

'The characteristics of this formation are discussed on following pages. 

2 See Am. Jour. Sci., 1887, vol. 33, pp. 18-20.
WIIITK.J NORTH MEXICAN REGION GENERAL SUMMARY. 139

It has also been recognized by its characteristic fossils as far south 

as the vicinity of Lampazos, in the State of Nuevo Leon.1 In this 

State, near to the Eio Grande, as well as on the Texan side of that 

river, it has been found to rest upon the equivalent of the Eagle Pass 

beds and in turn to pass by a gentle southerly dip beneath the marine 

Eocene beds which occur there.2

The stratigraphical relation of the Laramie to the immediately underlying marine Cretaceous formation is quite as intimate in the North 

Mexican region as it is elsewhere. The two formations appear to have 

been the result of continuous sedimentation, their interdelimitation 

being marked only by a material change in the paleontological character 

of the strata. The characteristics and limitations of the Laramie formation, however, will be discussed in connection with the formations of

the South Interior region,

The leading features of the Cretaceous geology of the North Mexican 

region are similar to those of the Texan region; that is, the same 

formations, and no others, are represented in one region that occur in 

the other, with the apparent exception of the Trinity formation, which 

has not yet been satisfactorily identified in the North Mexican region. 

Therefore, according to our present knowledge, the Comanche Series 

alone constitutes the Lower Cretaceous of this region. The series here, 

however, is lithologically different from what it is farther eastward, 

being composed mainly of compact limestone; and it also reaches a 

much greater thickness than it is known to attain in any part of the 

Texan region.

The Upper Cretaceous series apparently is as well developed in this 

region as it is in any other part of the continent, and it embraces a full 

representation of all the formations that occur in the great interior 

area, including the Laramie and the marine strata which are understood to represent the Dakota formation.

The imperfection of the foregoing account of the formations which in 

the North Mexican region are referable to the Cretaceous system is due 

to our present imperfect knowledge of them. Therefore a complete 

statement of the upper and lower delimitations of the system as it is 

developed there can not be expected. The facts at present known, 

however, indicate that the system is there limited by the base of the 

Comanche series beneath and by the top of the Laramie formation 

above.

Because it is evident that the Comanche series, fully as it is developed 

in the North Mexican region, does not represent the earliest epoch of 

Cretaceous time in North America, it is expected that earlier Cretaceous deposits may yet be discovered in that region beneath the Co-

'Seo Am. Jour. Sci., 1883, vol. 25, pp. 207-209.

'See A in. Jour. Sci., 1888, vol. 35, pp. 432-438. A small collection of fossils has been obtained by Prof. 

0. St. John from an artesian boring in strata at La Zarra, in the State of Tamaulipas, which possibly 

represent the Laramie whore it merges into a marine formation. As Prof. St. John's observations 

were unavoidably limited, the fact mentioned can be regarded only as a very suggestive one.
140 THE CRKTACEOUS. IBULI. 82.

raanche. At present, however, we know of no such deposits there, and 

the latest strata that the Comanche series has been found to rest upon 

in that region are of Carboniferous age. In some places, for example 

in the Sierra San Carlos, they seem to rest upon earlier rocks than the 

Carboniferous.

The Laramie formation appears to reach full development in this 

region. Its strata underlie and apparently pass gradually up into marine Eocene strata in the southeastern part of the region. Furthermore, some imperfect molluscan fossils which have been found in the 

Laramie strata there seem to indicate that its fauna was, in that district, influenced by neighboring marine conditions, but the evidence 

upon this point is slight. Farther inland the Laramie has not been 

found overlain by any other deposits than the loose debris that has resulted from the great erosion which has been referred to; that is, it 

has not there been found overlain by such lacustrine deposits as are 

found resting upon it in some parts of both of the interior regions.

It has already been stated that the full Upper Cretaceous series of 

the Texan and of the South Interior region is represented in the North 

Mexican region. Therefore the lower delimitation of the Upper Cretaceous there is understood to be by those marine strata which are 

regarded as the equivalent of the Dakota formation.

The uppermost strata of the Comauche series in the North Mexican 

region are thought to be equivalent to the uppermost strata of tliat 

series in the Texan region. The upper delimitation of the Lower Cretaceous is therefore understood to be the same in both regions, as is 

also the time-hiatus between the Upper and Lower Cretaceous. No 

suggestion other than that to be inferred from the tables of sections on 

following pages, is at present offered as to the extent of that hiatus, or 

as to what portion of the time which it represents ought to be referred 

to each of the two divisions of the system.

The Upper Cretaceous of the North Mexican region being regarded 

as the full equivalent of that of the western part of the Texau region, 

its recognized upper and lower delimitations are based upon the same 

data. The Lower Cretaceous of the Texan region, consisting only of 

the Comanche series, is of course delimited by the well marked paleontolQgical and stratigraphical characteristics of that series.

THE GREAT INTERIOR AREA.

Although some of the boundaries which have been selected for the 

Cretaceous regions of North America are in large part arbitrary, most 

of those of the three regions which have been discussed on preceding 

pages are sufficiently natural to have been advantageously recognized in those discussions. Coming now to the central portion of the 

continent, we find the Cretaceous formations there to occupy an area 

which is so very large that it is inconvenient to discuss them under
WHITE.] GKEAT INTERIOR AREA- GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 141

the head of a single region. We also find that because of their greater 

irregularity and obscurity it is even more difficult to define the boundaries of this great area in a satisfactory manner than it was those of 

the three regions just mentioned. These conditions have arisen from 

the extensive denudation and from the intricate displacements which 

the Cretaceous formations have suffered there, and from the superposition of later formations and of debris resulting from erosion, which have 

covered them from sight over large districts.

For the present purpose, however, the eastern boundary of the great 

Cretaceous area of the interior may be designated as corresponding to the western border of the great Paleozoic area which extends 

northward and southward through the central part of the continent, 

and which terminates by a comparatively narrow prolongation in the 

Texan region, as has already been shown. Tracing the line of such a 

boundary, we find it to extend northward through western Texas to the 

southern boundary of Kansas, near the northwestern corner of Indian 

Territory, thence northeastward to northeastern Kansas, thence northward through eastern Nebraska to the mouth of Big Sioux Eiver, thence 

north to the Red Eiver of the North and down that river to its mouth at 

the southern end of Lake Winnipeg, and thence northwestward to the 

northeast corner of the district of Athabaska. The western boundary 

of this great area may be designated as approximately corresponding to 

the line of the great watershed which separates the Pacific drainage 

from that of the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, and as extending from the 

sixtieth parallel of north latitude to where the watershed line meets the 

one hundred and thirteenth meridian in western Montana, thence south 

upon that meridian to the thirty-third parallel of north latitude, which 

has been chosen as the north boundary of the North Mexican region. A 

natural northern boundary can not now be definitely indicated, because 

so little is yet known of the geology of that far northern portion of the 

co'ntineat. The sixtieth parallel of north latitude, which constitutes the 

north boundary of the district of Athabaska and that of the province of 

British Columbia has been chosen for the north boundary of this region 

both for present convenience and because it approximately corresponds 

to the present northern limit of systematic geological investigation. 

The southern boundary of the great area is identical in part with the 

northwestern boundary of the Texan region, and in part with the 

north boundary of the North Mexican region, as they have been respectively indicated on the preceding pages and shown on the small 

map (PI. I, p. 72).

It being inconvenient to discuss this great area as a single region, T 

have divided it by a line which corresponds to the course of Platte 

River from its mouth to the mouth of the North Platte, thence to a line 

coincident with the course of the latter stream, extending westward to 

the point of its nearest approach to the forty-third parallel of north
142 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

latitude, and thence to a line coincident with that parallel aud extending 

to the western boundary of the Great Interior area. That portion of the 

area which lies north of this line I have designated the North Interior 

region and that portion south of it the South Interior region.

During a number of years past evidence has been accumulating that 

the Cretaceous area of the central portion of the continent was originally much greater than that which is included within the boundaries 

that have just been indicated. That is, there is evidence that a considerable portion of the great interior Paleozic region, which lies east 

of and adjacent to the eastern border of the interior Cretaceous area, as 

it has just been defined, was originally covered by Cretaceous deposits, 

and that these were mostly removed by Tertiary denudation and the remainder obscured by the action and accumulation of the great northern 

drift. In Iowa and Minnesota, for example, many small outliers and 

limited accumulations of both disturbed and undisturbed Cretaceous 

strata have been found resting directly upon Paleozoic rocks of various 

epochs and also upon Archean rocks. Besides these remnants of undisturbed Cretaceous strata much material, which was evidently derived 

from the same original deposits, has been found in many places mixed 

with the glacial drift. These discoveries indicate that the Upper Cretaceous sea extended in some places fully as far eastward as the present 

channel of the Mississippi Eiver, and that it probably occupied certain 

adjacent portions of western Wisconsin and Illinois, and perhaps also 

of northern Missouri. The district within which the remnants and debris 

of the Cretaceous formations referred to are found is so great that if it 

were included in the present Great Interior Cretaceous area its eastern 

boundary would be extended more than 200 miles farther eastward than 

the one which has been indicated in the definition given in a previous 

paragraph.

Because of the incompleteness of the information which has yet been 

published concerning these small, isolated, aud widely scattered exposures of Cretaceous deposits they will not be discussed in connection 

with the formations of any of the regularly defined regions, but the district within which they occur will be included among the extra-regional 

districts which are to be briefly discussed on following pages.

Except along its western border, the Great Interior area is a comparatively plain country, in which the Cretaceous formations lie approximately horizontal. Along its western portion these formations have 

suffered much displacement by the numerous erogenic uplifts which 

have taken place since the close of the Cretaceous period. Coincident 

with those uplifts was the principal part of the great epeirogenic movement by which the formations of the more level portion of the area have 

reached their present elevation, ranging from a little less than 1,000 

feet to more than 5,000 feet above the sea. It is from the western border of these higher levels of comparatively undisturbed strata that the
WHITE I FORMATIONS. OF THE GREAT INTERIOR AREA. 143

abrupt erogenic uplifts rise, giving grand exposures of the Cretaceous 

formations such as are to be seen at the base of the Kocky Mountain, 

and other ranges. Besides these abrupt uplifts, the evidence of which 

is so conspicuous at the base of the ranges mentioned, those portions of 

the Cretaceous formations which are found in the higher intervales and 

among the mountains are, as a rule, also much disturbed.

The chief of the erogenic movements which have occurred within 

this area are those which have resulted in the great Rocky Mountain 

system of ranges, which extends entirely through it from north to 

south. Other movements, which apparently were simultaneous with 

this, resulted in the elevation of other ranges, several of which, of 

less extent than the others, Ho west of the Eocky Mountain system 

proper. The uplifting of these ranges has, with slight if any exceptions within this great area, brought up all the Upper Cretaceous

formations, including the Laramie, to such a height that now they are 

sometimes found at an elevation of 10,000 feet or more above the level 

of the seaThe formations of the Great Interior area which in this memoir are 

referred to the Cretaceous system or are discussed as being intimately 

connected with those which are unquestionably of that age are in part 

of marine, in part of brackish, and in part of fresh water origin. That 

is, while a part of those formations had their origin in open sea waters, 

as is shown by the character of their fossils, others are as plainly 

shown 10 be of non-marine origin, they evidently having been deposited 

in interior waters, or those which respectively were either wholly or 

almost entirely landlocked.

It is an interesting fact, as bearing upon the subject of Mesozoic continental conditions, that the Kootanie formation, the only member of 

the Lower Cretaceous yet recognized in this great area, and also the 

Dakota formation, the oldest member of the Upper Cretaceous, are of 

non-marine origin, and that the latter formation was immediately succeeded by two others of true marine origin, namely, the Colorado and 

Montana formations. These two marine Upper Cretaceous formations 

were in turn succeeded by the non-marine Laramie formation, and in 

the northern part of the area another non-marine formation, namely, 

the Belly Kiver formation, is intercalated between the Colorado and 

Montana formations. It thus appears that during Cretaceous time, as 

it is represented by the formations of this continent, groat portions of 

its present interior were alternately above and below sea level. Indeed, 

a large proportion of the North American Cretaceous formations relate 

to continental, rather than to marine conditions. 1

The uppermost of the marine Cretaceous formations of the Great Interior area seem to have been of as late origin as any marine Creta1 There is also evidence that daring the pre-Cretaceous portion of Mesozoic time continental conditions prevailed over the greater part of the present continent.
144 THE CRETACEOUS JBULL.82.

ceous strata that are now known to exist within the Atlantic Border, 

Gulf Border, Texan, or North Mexican regions. Therefore the Cretaceous age of the non-marine Laramie formation, and of the Pnerco, Arapaho, and Denver beds, all of which lie above the marine Cretaceous 

strata in the interior area and which are to be discussed in following 

paragraphs, may naturally be questioned in the absence of paleontological evidence. Paleoutological evidence in the case of these overlying 

formations is, as a whole, so conflicting that when all of it is taken into 

consideration it is difficult to reach a definite conclusion as to their taxonomy. Those who have studied the fossil vertebrates alone, and those 

who have attempted the study of these formations with little or no reference to paleontology, have generally referred them to the Cretaceous 

system; the former, mainly on the ground of their containing dinosaurian remains, and the latter because of their intimate strati graphical 

relationship to and of their common involvement with undoubted marine 

Cretaceous strata in erogenic folds and other displacements. So far 

at least as concerns the Laramie formation which rests directly upon 

the marine Cretaceous strata referred to, there are certain other conditions which bear upon the question of its true geological age. This 

question has been discussed by myself in a former publication,1 where 

reasons are given for provisionally including the Laramie among the 

Cretaceous formations, notwithstanding the Tertiary character of certain of its fossils and its superposition upon the latest known marine 

Cretaceous strata. Those reasons will be further considered in following paragraphs.

For many years after the geology of the Great Interior area began 

to be studied none of the strata which in this memoir are referred to 

the Lower Cretaceous were known to exist there. That is, all the then 

known Cretaceous formations are in this memoir referred to the Upper

Cretaceous, the Dakota formation being the earliest one then known 

in all that great area. The earlier investigators there also always referred the strata which are now known as the Laramie formation to 

the Tertiary. Therefore the only Cretaceous strata which were then 

recognized in all that area are embraced in the section commonly known 

as the Upper Missouri Eiver section, which ranges only from the Dakota to the Fox Hills member of that section inclusive.2 This section 

was first published by Meek & Hayden, and it has long been recognized as the standard for reference in the study of the Cretaceous deposits of all the interior portion of the continent. Within its vertical 

range it is in substance still so used, although it has been modified by 

various authors for different portions of that great area and also for 

general use there, the changes referred to being mainly confined to differences in nomenclature and in the grouping of the strata which con1 Am. Jour. Sci., 1888, vol. 35, pp. 432-438.

3 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1856, vol. 8, pp. 250-286.
WHITE.] FORMATIONS OF THE GREAT INTERIOR AREA. 145

stitute the section. The following table represents this section compared 

with the modification of it which has been adopted in this memoir. 1

Upper Missouri section of Adopted modification of 

Meek & Hayden. the same.

 Later Cretaceous.. { g»; = ^i^SSp -" I ~~~ -M<"""»"'

 Earlier Cretaceous, fo. I SKlSS^'p" }"" --Colorado Nation. 

( No. 1. Dakota group ........ ............ ......Dakota formatiou.

The above modification of the Upper Missouri section does not include 

the Kootauie, Belly River, and Laramie formations, all of which are 

now known to occur in the Great Interior area, because they either were 

not known to exist, or were not recognized as Cretaceous formations 

when the Upper Missouri section was first published. The relation of 

those three formations to the three whose names are given in the above 

modification will be shown on following pages.

It is proper to mention here that in the discussion of the formations 

of the North Interior region it will appear that it is more difficult to recognize in its western part the separate divisions of the Meek & Hayden section, or even those of its modification, than it is in the eastern 

part.

The Laramie formation has been noticed several times on preceding 

pages with reference to the formations which occur in the three regions 

that have already been discussed, but because that great formation 

prevails in both the South aud North Interior regions and extends 

through the whole length of the Great Interior area, as well as into 

portions of the Texan and North Mexican regions, it seems desirable 

to present some remarks upon its characteristics as a whole before proceeding to a discussion of the separate formations of each of the two 

Interior regions.

The present geographical outlines of the area within which strata of 

this formation occur are not yet well known, but it apparently is as great 

as that within which any other North American formation has been 

observed. Their presence has been recognized at so many and such 

widely separated localities that they safely may be assumed to once 

have formed a continuous deposit from near the twenty-sixth to near the 

fifty-fifth parallel of north latitude, and in certain districts from near the 

one hundred and third to near the one hundred aud fifteenth meridian. 

That is, it is evident that this formation originally consisted of a coutiu1 This modification is the same as that of Newberry, Powcll, and White, as will be shown on following pages, but the nomenclature is that of Mr. Geo. H. $ldridge as proposed by him in Am. Jour. Sci.i 

1889, vol. 33, pp. 313-321, except that the term formation has been substituted for that of group.

2 The terras earlier and later were not applied by Meek & Hayden in the first publication of their 

section, but they were afterwards used by them. See Dana's Manual of Geology, 2d ed., pp. 456, 457. 

In Am. Jour. Sci., 1889, vol. 38, pp. 120-127, Dr. Geo. M. Dawson used those terms iu a different sense, 

applying them to those strata which in this memoir are referred to the Upper and tower Cretaceous, 

respectively.

l, 82 10
146 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

uous deposit nearly or quite 2,000 miles loug from north to south and 

more than 500 miles across from east to west. 1

In thickness the Laramie formation varies greatly in different districts, a part of which variation is due to erosion and a part to the difference in the amount of material originally deposited. In western 

Colorado it has been found to be nearly 4,000 feet thick, and in C<ma- 

.dian territory its maximum thickness is reported to be much greater. 

Mr. W. Lindgren reports a still greater thickness for the Laramie in 

Montana, but this matter will be further referred to in connection with 

the discussion of the Belly River formation. Often, however, the Larainie formation is much thinner, sometimes reaching a maximum of only 

a few hundred feet within large districts.

In lithological character the Laramie formation is remarkably uniform throughout both its geographical aud vertical extent, and it seems 

everywhere to have been the result of continuous sedimentation from 

base to top. Its strata within the whole of the great area which they 

occupy are mostly composed of sandy material, but frequently they 

are more or less argillaceous, aud rarely calcareous. Sandstones of 

much firmness often occur among them, but a large part of the sandy 

strata are soft and friable. Shaly strata not infrequently occur, and 

these are often carbonaceous. The formation throughout its whole extent is coal-bearing, aud fossilized wood aud other plant remains are 

often abundant.

The paleontological characteristics of the Laramie formation are to 

 a great degree constant throughout its great geographical and vertical 

extent, although its strata appear to be unfossiliferous within comparatively large districts. Few or no fossil invertebrate forms, similar to 

those which now specially characterize marine faunas have been found 

in any of them, and it is reasonable to assume that no true marine fauna 

existed in the waters in which these strata were deposited. Remains of 

brackish-water molluscan forms, including Ostrea, Anomia, Corbula, CorUcula, and Neritina are frequently found in strata alternating with others 

containing only fresh-water forms, such as Unio, Viviparus and Goniobasis.2 The molluscan faunas of both brackish and fresh-water origin 

which characterize the Laramie formation have remarkable integrity 

throughout both its vertical and geographical extent.

The plant remains which are found so plentifully in the Laramie3 show 

that an abundant flora prevailed throughout the whole region in which

1 The geologists of the Canadian Geological Survey have discovered deposits containing Laramie 

species of plants at certain localities far north of the northern limit of the Laramie area hero iudlcated, but it is probable that while tnose deposits may have been contemporaneous with the Laramie 

they were made in separate bodies of water. Therefore it is not yet necessary to concliuio that the 

Laramie sea extended so far north as the far northern localities referred to.

See Dr. G. M. Dawson's table on a following page and in Eep. Geol. Surv. Canada for 1887-'88, part 

t. See also Dawson, J. W., Trans. Ray. Soc. Canada, vol. 7, sec.4, pp. 69-74.

2 For a summary of the invertebrate fossils of the Laramie group, see White, C. A., Eeview of the 

Non-Marino Fossil Mollusca of N. A. Third Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Survey for 1881-'82.

3 For a general account of these remains see "Ward, Lester F., Synop. Flora Laramie group, Sixth 

Ann. Rep. IT. S. Geol. Survey for 1884-'85.
WHITE.] DISCUSSION OF THE LAKAMIE FORMATION. 147

its strata occur, and during the whole time iu which they were deposited, 

but considerable differences in that flora have been observed in different districts and at different stages in the Laramie. These differences 

indicate that there were greater changes in the character of the flora 

during the Lararnie epoch than there were in that of the inolluscan 

fauna during the same time.

The vertebrate remains which have been found in the Laramie formation are those of mammals, reptiles, and fishes, the latter, like the molluscau remains, indicating either brackish or fresh-water conditions of 

habitat. The mammalian remains are those of small animals of low 

orders, which are apparently more nearly related to some of those which 

have been found in strata of Jurassic age than to the Tertiary faunas 

whose remains are found iu strata immediately overlying the Laramie.

It is the reptilian remains that possess peculiar Interest in connection

with the paleontology of the Laramie formation, because so large a portion of them belong to adiuosauriaufauna, and because the discussions 

concerning the geological age of this formation have usually had especial reference to them.

The localities at which Laramie strata were first studied by geologists were often distant from one another, and they were not then 

recognized as constituting one great formation. Because they were 

found to contain uiolluscan remains of brackish-water types, and none 

of exclusively marine types, they were generally spoken of by their 

earlier investigators as estuary deposits. These deposits having been 

regarded as of estuariue origin those found at each locality were necessarily thought to be of limited extent, and they consequently received 

a different name in each district. They thus have received such names 

as Fort Union group, Judith Eiver group, Lignitic group, and Bitter 

Creek series. The term Lignitie soon came to be applied to the strata 

of several districts which are now included iu tlie Laramie, and it was 

then believed that they alone contained the coal of that part of the continent. Afterward, Mr. King and Dr. Hayden, recognizing all these 

deposits as constituting a single formation, jointly proposed the name 

Laramie for it.1 Soon afterward, while studying the invertebrate fauna 

of this great group and that of those which underlie and overlie it, I 

was led to the conclusion that the Laramie strata were deposited in a 

great land-locked sea,2 and subsequent investigations have confirmed 

that opinion.

Those who have investigated only the vertebrate remains of the Laramie formation have referred it unqualifiedly to the Cretaceous;3 the

1 See TJ. S. Geol. Expl. 40th Parallel, vol. 1, p. 331. Mr. King, however, in 1875, several years before 

the publication of this volume, distributed advance sheets of his atlas, upon which the name Laranlie 

was used.

2 See Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. Torr., 1887-'88. vol. 4, pp. 724, 8GG; and Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr, 

for 1877, p. 203.

3 Prof. Cope as early as 1872, claimed that the Laramie strata of Wyoming are of Cretaceous age. 

Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., vol. 12, pp. 481-483. See also Proc. Acacl. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 26, pp. 12, 13,
148 THE CRETACEOUS. l8i.-u.82.

judgment of paleobotanists generally has been in favor of its Tertiary 

age, especially of the upper part of the formation, while students of its 

invertebrate fauna have found the forms composing it to be of little 

value in chronological inquiry. The question whether this great formation ought to be referred to the Cretaceous or to the Tertiary is of far 

less importance than is the acquisition of all the available facts relating 

to it as representing one of the most interesting epochs in North American geological history. I have, however, found it desirable to treat 

the Laramie formation as holding a transitional position between the 

Cretaceous and Tertiary; but I have also found it desirable provisionally to place the whole of it with the Cretaceous formations lor dicussiou in this memoir.

The alternation of brackish and fresh waters in one and the same 

part of the Laramie sea, evidence of which has been observed in so 

many and so widely separated localities,is assumed to have been caused 

by oscillatory movements of the bottom. The presence of remains of 

an abundant land flora and of numerous coal beds indicates that as a 

result of those oscillatory movements large portions of the great Laramie area were from time to time occupied by low islands.

Within a large part of the area which the Laramie formation is known 

to occupy nothing is found to rest upon it except the surface debris 

which has resulted from the erosion of its own and other strata. In 

other parts, however, several separate stratified deposits, all of which 

now are, and originally were, of much less geographical extent than the 

Laramie, are respectively found to rest upon it and all are of freshwater origin. These formations are separable from the Laramie in part 

upon stratigraphical and in part upon paleontological grounds, but 

they need to be briefly mentioned in this connection to show the upper

delimitation of the Laramie and to indicate the strata in which occur

the latest fossil forms that any authors have regarded as of Cretaceous 

types. Those which have peculiar relation to the Laramie are the Wasatch formation, the Puerco beds, and the Arapaho and Denver deposits. The others are of later age than any of these and need not be specially discussed in this connection.

The Wasatch formation is regarded as of Eocene age, and usually its 

strata are found to rest unconformably upon the Laramie, but in portions of Utah, at least, they rest conformably upon the strata of the 

latter formation. Here also some of the fresh-water Laramie inolluscau 

species are found to pass up into the lower strata of the Wasatch formation and to become members of its fresh-water molluscan fauna.1 

Some of the Laramie species of plants have also been identified in the 

Wasatch formation. None of the Laramie brackish-water mollusca, 

however, and no members of its diuosaurian fauna, although occurring 

in its uppermost strata, seem to have passed up into the Wasatch, even 

where the fresh-water mollusca have passed up into that formation.

1 Bull. TJ. S. G-eol. Survey, No. 34, vol. 5, pp. 391-442.
WHITE.] DISCUSSION OF THE LARAMIE FORMATION. 149

Furthermore, none of the characteristic Wasatch mammalian remains 

have been found in the Lararnie formation, not even in its uppermost 

strata, although they occur in the lowermost Wasatch strata.

The fresh-water mollusca which passed from the Lararaie into the 

Wasatch formation having belonged to gill-bearing families, we necessarily infer that they had a continuously congenial aqueous habitat 

from the Laramie iuto the Wasatch epoch. Aqueous conditions having 

been unbroken, sedimentation must also have been, at least in some 

places, continuous from the one formation to the other. In eastern 

Montana and western North Dakota the Laramie strata are similarly 

connected, by specific identity of inolluscan remains and by apparent 

continuity of sedimentation, with those which there are reported to 

bear a purely Tertiary flora, and which have generally been designated 

the Fort Union group.

In short we find that the Laramie and fresh-water Eocene formations 

are, on the one hand, separated from each other by the great dissimilarity of their vertebrate faunas and, in many places, by stratigraphical 

unconformity, and, on the other hand, that they are closely connected 

with each other by specific identity of some of their inolluscan remains 

and, in some places, by continuity of sedimentation. In the latter cases 

there is no time-hiatus between the Laramie and the fresh-water Eocene, 

and we also find their interdelimitation paleontologically incomplete. 

In these cases the upper limit of the Laramie formation is taken to 

coincide with the upper limit of the upward range of brackish-water 

inolluscan fossils which appears to coincide closely with the limit of the 

upward range of dinosauriau remains and the downward limit of the 

range of Eocene mammalia, especially of the Coryphodonts.

In northwestern New Mexico and southwestern Colorado an assemblage of strata is found resting upon the Laramie that structurally is 

not clearty distinguishable from the Wasatch. These strata, however, 

contain remains of a vertebrate fauna which Prof. Cope finds to be 

very different from that of any other known North American formation. Because of this he has given them a separate name, that of the 

Puerco group,1 but which I designate as the Puerco beds because I do 

not now regard that assemblage of strata as structurally coordinate 

with those to which the term formation is generally applied. Because 

of certain characteristics possessed by the vertebrate fauna of these 

Puerco strata. Prof. Cope refers them to the Cretaceous system, although that fauna contains some admitted Tertiary types. No species 

of any kind are yet known to pass from the Laramie up into the Puerco, 

but it is probable that some of the inolluscan forms of the latter group 

are common to the Wasatch.2

I regard it as reasonable to suppose that the Puerco beds, notwithstanding their peculiar vertebrate fauna, were deposited contemporaneously with the lower part of the Wasatch, which all admit to be of

1 See Ain. Naturalist, vol. 19, pp. 385,493, and 985. 2 See Bull. TJ. S. Gool. Survey, No. 34, p. 15.
150 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

Eocene age, but these beds are herein noticed in connection -with the 

Cretaceous formations because they have been so assigned by Prof. Cope 

and because it is desirable to present all the principal facts relating to 

the upper delimitation of the full Cretaceous series of formations in the 

Great Interior area.

The other strata that have been mentioned as superimposed upon 

the Laramie and requiring notice in this connection are those to which 

the names Arapaho and Denver groups respectively have been applied, 

both of which occur together, and both have yet been found only in 

the district around Denver, Colorado, at the eastern base of the Itocky 

Mountains. 1 The lower of these two assemblages of strata, the Arapaho, rests uuconformably upon the Laramie, and the Denver rests 

unconformably upon the Arapaho. Both the Denver and the Arapaho 

deposits are of fresh-water origin, and both are lithologically different 

from the Laramie and from each other. Although they are stratigraphically and lithologically different from the Laramie they appear to be 

related to that formation by molluscan and pi ant remains ; but this relationship appears to be more complete than is that of the Laramie 

with the Wasatch formation in Utah, which already has been mentioned.

In view of these facts, especially in view of their stratigraphical 

separateness, the Tertiary age of the Arapaho and Denver deposits 

would doubtless have never been questioned if it were not that both are 

found to contain diuosaurian remains which are of such a character as 

to give no indication of a decadence of that great reptilian subclass 

or of its approaching extinction.

Dinosaurian remains of similar types are found in the Laramie formation at various and widely separated localities, and in view of the fact 

that those Laramie strata upon which the Arapaho deposit rests are 

not known to constitute the latest part of the Laramie, the question 

may be raised whether the Arapaho and Denver deposits were not 

formed in the latter part of the Laramie epoch, and consequently 

whether they were not contemporaneous with the upper part of the 

Laramie where that formation is complete. My present belief favors 

the affirmative side of this question, but there seems to be no reason 

why a continuation of the existence of dinosaurs into Tertiary time 

should be denied, and none why the Arapaho and Denver deposits 

should not be regarded as Tertiary, as is the stratigraphically inseparable upper part of the Laramie formation. Hitherto the upper limit of 

the vertical range of dinosaurian remains in the Laramie has appeared 

to be coincident with that of brackish water molluscan remains, but 

if the Arapaho and Denver deposits are to be assigned to the Tertiary 

it will not be unreasonable to look for dinosaurian remains in the 

Wasatch formation also.

'See Mining Industry, Denver, Colorado, for July 13, 20,and 27,1888. Am. Jonr.Sci., vol.37,1889 

pp. 261-282, and Proc. Colorado Sci. Soc., vol. 3, part 1, p. 97.
WHITE.] DISCUSSION OF THE LARAMIE FORMATION. 151

The Tertiary age of all the stratified deposits of the Great Interior 

area, which are later than the Denver deposit, is unquestioned, and this 

fact, together with those which before have been noticed, sufficiently 

indicates that no other deposits than those which have just been 

discussed need be further mentioned in this connection.

Turning now to the base of the Laramie formation, we find its lower 

delimitation to be in some respects indefinite. In the great area within 

which the Larainie occurs it has been found to rest with strict conformity upon the next underlying marine Cretaceous formation, and 

usually also the strata of both formations present an appearance which 

indicates that sedimentation was continuous from the lower to the 

higher formation.

Certain observed facts make it evident that between the last marine 

Cretaceous epoch, as represented by the strata which have just been 

mentioned, and the Laramie epoch, certain land faunas and floras were 

unbroken, but it is plain that there was an abrupt break of the aqueous 

faunas there. That is, in exposures of strata where the base of theLaramie 

and the top of the marine Cretaceous series occur, marine fossils may 

be traced upward, to a certain level, where they cease; but this level is 

unmarked by any material change in the character of the strata. Still 

tracing these strata upward, a level is soon reached at which brackish 

and fresh-water fossils are found, and here also there is no material 

change in the character of the strata, and none also between the two 

levels indicated.

These brackish water molluscan remains, together with those of freshwater mollusks in alternating beds, range through the whole thickness 

of the Laramie formation and constitute its distinctive paleontological 

feature; and they are, as I believe, the most trustworthy indicators of 

the identity, and of the delimitations of that formation.

The base of the Laramie is therefore understood to be stratigraphically unmarked at all points where it has been observed, but the level 

upon which the aqueous faunas change from a marine to a brackish 

water character is assumed to mark its base. The level where the 

brackish-water uiollusca became extinct and a purely fresh-water fauna 

prevailed is assumed to mark the top of the Laramie, even though at 

some points some of the fresh-water species of the latter formation continued to live afterward, and even though sedimentation was unbroken 

at such points.

From the foregoing statements it will be seen that the upper and 

lower delimitation of the Laramie formation which I have recognized 

agrees with and is dependent upon the full vertical range of its brackish water fauna. This basis is regarded as more trustworthy than any 

other, because all the members of that fauna were denizens of the waters 

in which the strata containing their remains were deposited, while the 

presence of remains of land faunas and floras in those strata is in all 

cases the result of accidental circumstances. Moreover there is good
152 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

reason for assuming that the great flora and the land vertebrate fauna 

which characterize the Laramie began their existence as such not later 

than the later portion of the Montana epoch, and probably before, and 

that a large part of the flora just mentioned, as well as certain members of the Laramie fresh water and land molluscan faunas, continued 

their existence into the Wasatch Tertiary epoch.

In making these statements I neither forget that several of the characteristic Laramie species of invertebrates have been found in the Belly 

Eiver formation, nor deny that those species had their origin as early 

as that epoch, but the paleontological lower delimitation of the Laramie 

by its invertebrate fossils is not therefore the less trustworthy wherever 

that formation is found to rest upon the Montana formation.

By some persons the opinion has been held that during the Laramie 

epoch proper, open sea waters made occasional incursions at different 

places upon the area occupied by the non-marine waters whose fauna 

characterizes the Lararnie formation, 1 but although the frequent alternation of strata bearing brackish water fossils with those bearing only 

fresh-water forms show that within certain districts brackish waters 

alternated with fresh, I have, in my extensive examinations of this formation, never detected any evidence of the incursion of open sea waters. 

The opinion referred to, which I think has not yet been demonstrated, 

has perhaps arisen from a supposed identification of coal-bearing strata 

of the upper part of the Montana formation with similar coal bearing 

strata of the Laramie. Because it is my present belief that all true 

marine waters were withdrawn from the interior portion of this continent at the beginning of the Laramie epoch, no true marine strata are 

in this memoir recognized as belonging to the Laramie formation.

While I am not now prepared to admit that the open ocean made incursions upon the great Laramie inland sea after it had become established 

as such at the close of the Montana epoch, it is reasonable to infer that 

it had somewhere a more or less restricted outlet to oceanic waters until 

all the area which it had occupied became in part dry land and in part 

the bed of the great fresh-water Tertiary lake or lakes which immediately succeeded it. What we now know of the various epeirogenic movements which resulted in the production of the present continent leads 

me to believe that such an outlet, if one existed, was at the southern 

end, and this suggestion is supported by certain paleontological conditions which have been observed in Laramie strata in the Texan and 

North Mexican regions. That is, certain fossil forms have been observed 

in those strata which seem to indicate a greater saltness of the water in 

which they were deposited than prevailed elsewhere in the Laramie sea; 

but these observations are too incomplete to be confidently relied upon 

in an inquiry of this kind.2

In 1875 a small collection of marine Tertiary fossils, purporting to 

have been found in Colorado, 40 miles east of Denver, was placed in

1 See for sample, U. S. Geol. Expl. 40th Parallel, vol. 1, p. 352. 2 See foot note on page 139.
WHITE.] THE SO-CALLED BEAR RIVER LARAMIE 153

my hands for examination. This led me to believe that the relation of 

the Laramie to the marine Tertiary would be discovered in that district, 

but subsequent examination showed that no marine Tertiary strata 

exist in that part of the continent, and that the fossils in question came 

from another locality.1

The molluscan fauna of the Laramie, as that great formation has been 

defined in preceding paragraphs, has, as already stated, remarkable 

integrity from base to top and throughout its whole geographical extent ; but there is a series of strata in the central portion of the Great 

Interior area which generally has been referred to the Laramie formation, but which paleontologically is very different. These strata, which 

have become generally known as the Bear River Laramie because their 

best known exposures occur in the valley of Bear Kiver, in southwestern Wyoming, have been represented by all the geologists who 

have reported upon them as holding the same relation to the overlying 

Wasatch and the underlying marine Cretaceous strata that the typical 

Laramie strata do elsewhere; but wherever they have been observed 

they are found to have been so displaced by faulting and folding as to 

render their true relation to underlying and overlying formations a 

matter of great uncertainty. I have long believed that these strata are 

older than those of the Laramie formation, both because of the dissimilarity of their molluscan fauna to the Laramie and later faunas, and 

because I had seen marine Cretaceous strata in the valley of Bear Eiver 

 which I believed to belong above them, although I have hitherto failed 

to demonstrate it satisfactorily.

The branchiferous molluscan fauna of these strata is so different from 

the typical fauna of the Laramie that not only have none of the species of the former fauna been identified with any of the latter, but some 

of the generic forms are different. So far as I am aware no important 

collections of either plant or vertebrate remains have been made from . 

the Bear Eiver Laramie strata, the paleontological comparisons referred 

to liaving been confined to their fossil mollusca. The difference between 

the molluscan fauna of the Bear ^River strata and that of the typical 

Laramie formation is so great as to indicate that they were not deposited 

in one and the same body of water, and both faunas give litfcle or no 

indication by their characteristics whether they were contemporaneous 

or not; therefore, this question must be decided by stratigraplfical observations, aided by the ascertained paleontological characteristics of all 

the formations involved in the investigation.

Investigation of this question is now in progress by the division of 

the survey in my charge, which, it is believed, will demonstrate that 

the so-called Bear River Laramie strata are considerably older than the 

Laramie formation proper. In this case I shall discontinue the use of 

the term Laramie, as applied to these deposits.

1 Sco Geology of the TTinta Mountains, pp. 106,107; also, Ann. Rep. TJ. S. Gool. Surv. Terr, for 1876, pp. 

191,192.
154 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82. 

THE SOUTH INTERIOR REGION.

The boundaries of the South luterior region are of course those of 

the southern part of the Great Interior area, together with its line of 

division, which have been defined on pages 141 and 142. These boundaries nre at best only nominal, and are given merely to indicate the 

general limits of the southern portion of that area which includes all 

the numerous irregular districts which are occupied by Cretaceous rocks 

and which lie between the great Paleozoic area of the continental interior on the east and the Pacific Border region on the west. The region 

as thus defined comprises the whole of Colorado and portions of Kansas, Nebraska, Wyoming, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and of northwestern Texas. It is more than 600 miles across from north to south 

and more than 800 miles from east to west.

The great interior plains extend over the eastern portion of this region, but the western portion is almost everywhere more or less mountainous, and in large part extremely so. These erogenic uplifts, the 

numerous volcanic outflows, and the immense denudation which the 

rocks have suffered there, together with the overlapping of subsequent 

sedimentary deposits, have obliterated or covered from sight a large 

part of the Cretaceous rocks which were doubtless originally formed 

there. This has left the visible Cretaceous areas much broken, very 

irregular, and often small and isolated. For this reason, and because 

the geology of the region has not yet been thoroughly studied, it is not 

at present practicable to give so complete an account of the Cretaceous 

formations which are known to exist there as might be desired.

So far as is now kno.wn, all the Cretaceous formations which exist in 

this region belong to the Upper Cretaceous as defined in this memoir 

if we except a small area in southern Kansas where a few Lower Cretaceous fossils are reported to have been found. That is, these strata 

range in the vertical series from the equivalent of the Dakota to the 

Laramie formation inclusive and, for reasons stated on preceding pages, 

some other deposits which in this region rest upon the Laramie are 

discussed in connection with the Cretaceous formations.

The whole Upper Cretaceous series, including the Laramie formation, is upturned against the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains, 

conspicuously so in Colorado, and the thickness and character of the 

separate formations may there be satisfactorily studied. The series 

thins out toward the east, perhaps partly by erosion, but southward, in 

New Mexico and in northern Mexico, the whole series thickens, as it 

also does west of the Rocky Mountains.

A considerable number of authors have written upon the Cretaceous 

formations of the South Interior region, all of whom have classified them, 

for the respective districts in which they studied them, in a somewhat 

different manner, and all have used a more or less different nomenclature. 

These disagreements were a natural result of the independent labors 

of the different investigators, and of the then generally prevalent imper-
SOUTH INTERIOK REGION GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 155

feet knowledge of the geology of that part of the continent, and were not 

clue to inaccuracy of observation. Furthermore, the essential features 

of a correct classification of those formations appear in the reports of all 

those authors because of theintegrity of the great general horizons which 

will be defined on following pages and which we now know embrace the 

greater part of the strata in question, not only throughout the whole 

of the South Interior region, but throughout much of the great interior 

portion of the continent. We therefore find that in its leading features 

each classification referred to closely agrees with that of the Upper 

Missouri Cretaceous section of Meek and Hayden which has been given 

on page 145. Because of the differences of detail and of nomenclature 

in the published sections of different authors it is desirable to compare 

them with one another and with the Upper Missouri section.

In his earlier geological exploration of the region which now in part 

constitutes the Territories of New Mexico and Arizona, Prof. Ncwberry 

seems to have recognized only two divisions of the Cretaceous series 

 which he found there and which he designated as Upper and Lower 

Cretaceous respectively. 1 It is evident, however, that he did not regard the latter as equivalent to any part of the European Lower Cretaceous or to any strata which are in this memoir referred to the North 

American Lower Cretaceous. In his later work in portions of the same 

region he divided the same series into lower, middle, and upper divisions.2 These lie correlated with the designated groups of Meek and 

Haydeu's Upper Missouri section, making the lower one equivalent to 

the Dakota group, the middle, to the Fort Benton and Niobrara groups 

together, of that section, and the upper, to the Fort Pierre and Fox 

Hills groups together. His omission in the former case to recognize 

separately the equivalent of the Dakota formation was probably due to 

the blending of those strata with the next overlying ones, in the southern part of the region which he examined, such as I have referred toon 

preceding pages as occurring in the Texan and North Mexican regions. 

The line of separation of his middle and upper divisions corresponds to 

that which Meek and Hayden recognized as separating their Earlier 

from their Later Cretaceous. The following table represents Prof. Newberry's section compared with that of the Upper Missouri Eiver region 

by Meek and Hayden.

Newberry's Now Mexican section. Meek and Haydon's Upper Missouri section. 

Upper dlThUH, .....:..... ...... ......................

-..--in Middle v (No. 3; Niobrara croup. division. ......--.....-.....-..................< KT ~ ' ,, . , H L

I No. 2 ; 1 ore Benton group.

Lower division . .... ...... .... .............. ...... ......No. 1 ; Dakota group.

Newberry estimates the thickness of his upper division at 1,500 feet, 

the middle division at from 1,200 to 1,500 feet, and the lower division 

at from 250 to 400 feet.

For the district embracing the eastern end of the Uinta Mountain

'Licut. Ives'a Report upon the Colorado River of the West, Part JTI.

2 Macomh's Expl. Exped., Geol. Report, pp. 121, 122.

3 Prof. Newberry seems also to have iuclnded at least a part of the Laramie in his Upper division.
156 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

range Maj. J. W. Powell proposed a classification of the Cretaceous 

series, which differs from all others in nomenclature, and which he divides into four formations. 1 The first or lower one of these he called 

the Henry's Fork group, the second the Sulphur Creek group, the third 

the Salt Wells group, and the upper one the Point of Eocks group. 

The first three are equivalent to Newberry's lower, middle, and upper 

divisions, respectively, and the upper one is equivalent to the greater 

part of the Laramie formation. The upper portion of the Lararaiehe 

referred to the overlying Eocene formation, to which he gave the name 

of Bitter Creek group. His Salt Wells group is equivalent to the Montana formation as defined on page 158, and also to both the Fox Hills 

and Fort Pierre groups of Meek and Hayden's Upper Missouri section. 

Powell's Sulphur Creek group is equivalent to the Colorado formation 

as defined on page 158, and to the Niobrara and Fort Benton groups 

together of the Upper Missouri section. The Henry's Fork group is 

equivalent to the Dakota group of the Upper Missouri section. It is 

clearly recognizable as a separate formation in the Uinta district, but 

it apparently is not so clearly recognizable in at least some. parts of 

New Mexico or at any point south of that Territory, as has just been 

intimated.

The strata between the equivalent of No. 1, of the Upper Mississippi 

section, and of that of the Laramie, that is between his Henry's Fork 

and Point of Rocks groups, Powell divided into two parts upon the 

same plane that was recognized by Meek and Hayden as dividing the 

Earlier from the Later Cretaceous and by Newberry as dividing his 

Middle from his Upper Cretaceous. The following table represents 

Powell's section compared with the Upper Missouri section :

Fowell's section. Upper Missouri section. 

Point of Eocks group...... .................. ...... Wanting.

8.1pm,, CreeK group...... .......... ...... .... .... j £ »;

Henry's Fork group..... ............ .... .......... No. 1; Dakota group

Powell gives the following statement of the thickness of each of the 

groups of his section: Point of Eocks, 1,800 feet; Salt Wells, 1,800 

feet; Sulphur Creek, 2,000 feet, and Henry Fork, 500 feet.

Clarence King divided the marine Cretaceous series as he found it in 

Colorado and Wyoming into three parts, to which he added the Laramie as a Cretaceous formation.2 The lower member of King's section is 

strictly equivalent to the lower members of the three sections already 

mentioned, which were published by Meek and Hay den, Newberry and 

Powell respectively, and for it King retained the name Dakota group, 

which the first-named authors had given it. Instead, however, of dividing the strata between the Laramieand Dakota formations at the plane 

of junction between the equivalents of Nos. 3 and 4 of the Upper Missouri section, as Meek and Hayden and Powell did, he divided them at

1 Geology of the TTinta Mountains, p. 70. 2 Seo TJ. S. Geol. TSxpl. 40th Parallel, vol. 1 anil Atlas.
WHITE.] SECTIONS OF SOUTH INTERIOR REGION. 157

the junction of the equivalents of Nos. 4 and 5. That is, he placed the 

equivalents of Nos. 2, 3, and 4 in one and the same formation which he 

called the Colorado group, apparently overlooking or ignoring the fact 

that such a grouping of those strata is unnatural on paleontological 

ground. For a comparison of this section with others, see the next following table and also the series of tables on following pages.

Prof. J. J. Stevenson, in his earlier work in New Mexico and adjacent parts of Colorado, 1 divided the Cretaceous into upper, middle, and 

lower divisions, as Prof. New berry had done. In his later work there,2 

however,2 he adopted the classification of Mr. King, which has just 

been explained, so far as to combine the equivalents of the Fort Benton, Niobrara, and Fort Pierre groups of Meek and Hayden's section to 

form the Colorado formation, but he also combined the equivalents of 

the Fox Hills and Larauiie strata under the name of the latter formation. Therefore he represents the Laratnie as resting upon the Colorado formation. Dr. F. M. Eudlich also reported a similar condition of 

those strata in southern Colorado.3

The assumption of such a condition implies an important time-hiatus 

in the Cretaceous series there,which I am not disposed to admit, because I 

believe that all the formations of the series are represented throughout 

the South Interior region, with the partial exception in Middle Park, 

which is indicated by slight unconformity which has been reported by 

Mr. A. U. Marvine 4 to exist there between the Larainie and Montana 

formations.

In 1877 I employed a form of classification for the Cretaceous series 

of northwestern Colorado similar to that of King, retaining the names 

which were proposed or adopted by him, i.ut I divided the series differently into formations.5 That is, the Dakota and Larainie formations 

of that section were then recognized as King had defined them, but the 

Colorado formation was restricted to include only the equivalents of the 

Fort Beutou and Niobrara groups of the Upper Missouri section, while 

the equivalents of the Fort Pierre and Fox Hills groups Of that section were placed together under the single name of Fox Hills group.

The following table represents White's section compared with that of 

King and with the Upper Missouri section. For further comparisons 

of these and other sections, with the names of the formations as used 

by different authors, see the series of tables on following pages.

White's section. Upper Missouri section. King's section. 

Laraiuie.................. Wanting ..................... Laramie.

Fox Hills Proiin $ No> 5 > Fox Hilla group........ Fox Hill group.6 * ox Hills group .......... | NQ 4> For<; pierre group ,

Colorado frroun ! No' 3) Niobrara Srou P -------- >Colorado group. Coloiacio group........... J No. 2, Fort Benton group..... )

Dakota group ............ No. 1, Dakota group.... ...... Dakota group.

1 U. S. Geog. &. Geol. Expl. & Surv. West of the 100th meridian (Wheeler), Chap. 13, pp. 361-410, vol. 3. 

? Ibid., vol. 3, supplement, geology, pp. 240, and 3 maps.

3 Ninth Ann. Kep. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., pp. 192-215. 

"Seventh Ann. Kep. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., pp. 83-192. 

5 See Tenth Ann. Kep. TJ. S. Gool. Surv. Terr., 1878, p. 22.

4 King gives this name as "Hill," not "Hills," as in Meek and Hayden's section.
158 THE CRETACEOUS. I BULL. 82.

The estimated thickness of the formations constituting White's section 

is, for the Laramie, 3,500 feet, for the Fox Hills, 1,800 feet, for the 

Colorado, 2,000 feet, and, for the Dakota, 500 feet.

Since the publication of the works just referred to, there has been a 

tendency among those who have studied the Cretaceous of the Great 

Interior area to recognize only two formations between the top of the 

Dakota and the base of the Laramie, instead of four, as was done by 

Meek and Hayden in the Upper Missouri section, and to indicate the 

plane of separation as occurring at the junction of the equi\7 aleuts of 

Nos. 3 and 4 of that section, as was done by Hewberry, Powell, and 

White.

The modified classification of the Upper Cretaceous formations of the 

South Interior region which I have adopted in this memoir is that which 

has already been given on page 145, the nomenclature of which was 

proposed by Mr. Eldridge.1 The following table shows the relation 

of the adopted section, with the addition of the Laramie formation, to 

the Upper Missouri section :

Upper Missouri section of Meek and Hnyden. Adopted classification. 

Not recognized .......................................... .......Laramie formation

No. 5, Fox Hills group ? ,, , » ,. No. 4, Fort Pierre group \ ........ .Montana formation

No. 3.

No. 1, Dakota group.... ...... . .... ...... ............ .... .... ....Dakota formation

It will be seen that in the classification which is herein adopted for 

the South Interior region, and also for all the interior portion of the continent, the use of the numbers introduced by Meek and Haydeu is discou. 

tinned, and that only one of the names of formations which those authors 

used, namely, the Dakota, has been retained.

The partial confusion in the classification of the Cretaceous rocks of 

this region which has been referred to has evidently arisen from the 

blending together in certain parts of the Great Interior area of the 

equivalents of the formations which were by Meek and Hayden recognized as distinct from one another in more northern districts, and from 

changes in the character of others of those formations. For example, 

the Dakota is as clearly distinguishable as a separate formation in the 

northern and central portions of the South Interior region as it is at 

the typical localities in the North Interior region, in all of which districts the strata are plainly of nonmariue origin. In the southern part 

of the South Interior region, however, as well as in central Kansas and 

in eastern Texas, the strata which are confidently regarded as representing the Dakota formation are found to bear true marine fossils, and, 

in some cases, both paleontologically and stratigraphically, to bl^ud so 

intimately with the next overlying strata which are regarded as equivalent to the lower part of the Colorado formation as to render their 

interdelimitatiou indistinct.

'See Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 38, pp. 313-321.
FORMATIONS OF SOUTH INTERIOR REGION. 159

Again we find the Colorado formation to possess unmistakable integrity throughout this region, and although there is in different districts 

considerable difference in the lithological character of the different 

beds of which the great formation is composed, and in certain districts 

considerable modifications of the character of its inolluscan fauna, the 

group, as a whole, is such as to make any division of it into separate 

formations either unnatural or unnecessary. The integrity of the Montana as a single formation, although its modifications are in some respects similar to those of the Colorado, is also as unmistakable in this 

region as that of the latter formation.J

There are apparently good reasons for believing that no material 

time-hiatus exists between the Colorado and Montana formations as 

they are developed in the South Interior region, but the paleontologicai 

difference between them is such as to warrant their recognition as

separate formations, and their separation is made upon the same plane 

that has been recognized as a natural one by much the larger number 

of the geologists who have studied the Cretaceous series of the Great 

Interior area. Some interesting facts relating to this plane of separation will be discussed in connection with remarks upon the Belly River 

formation, which is found in the North Interior region.

In the larger part of the South Interior region the Dakota is readily 

recognizable as a separate formation. In the northern and northwestern part of the region it consists of coarse sandstones, usually heavily bedded, and, especially in the Rocky Mountain district, often having 

a bed of variegated clayey shales at the base, the whole reaching a 

maximum thickness seldom exceeding 500 feet. In these districts the 

sandstone is often found to contain plant remains, but it appears that 

few or no vertebrate remains have yet been discovered iu this formation; those which were collected by Dr. Haydeu and published by 

Prof. Cope,2 as coming from the Dakota, are now referred by the latter 

author to the Jurassic.3

In the eastern part of the region, for example in southeastern Nebraska, fresh and brackish water inolluscan remains have been found 

in Dakota strata by Prof. L. E. Hicks (unpublished), and in central 

Kansas Prof. B. F. Mudge found remains of many true marine inolluscan forms in strata which occupy the horizon of the Dakota formation.4 

Some of these Kansas species have been identified among the molluscan remains of the Timber Creek formation of the Texan region, for 

which reason, among others, that formation is regarded as equivalent 

to the Dakota, as already explained.

In the Rocky Mountain and Uinta Mountain districts the Dakota 

formation rests conformably upon the Jurassic, and some of the strata

 It is nevertheless true that more or less distinct faunal stages are recognizable in certain parts of 

both the Colorado and Montana formations.

2 See Am. Naturalist, vol. 12, pp. 71-85; also, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., vol. 17, pp. 233-247.

3 See preface to vol. 3, Book i, U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr.; also, Compte roudu Sten. du Cong. Int. de 

Geol., Paris, 1878. 

<"Seo U. S. Geol. Surv.Terr., vol. 9; and Proc.U. S. Nat. Mus., vol.2, pp. 292-298.
160 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

of each formatiou are there so similar in lithological character that it 

is often difficult to determine the plane of delimitation of each. In 

the eastern part of this region, however, as well as in the eastern 

part of the North Interior region, the Dakota strata rest uucouforniably upon the Carboniferous, and apparently also, in some cases, upon 

still older rocks.

In the northern and northwestern parts of the South Interior region 

the contrast between the Dakota formation and the lowermost strata 

of the overlying Colorado formation, which usually consist of bluish 

shales, is well marked both lithologically and paleoutologicallyj but as 

before stated, the distinction between the respective equivalents of 

those two formations is apparently either obliterated or obscured in the 

southern part. This matter will be further mentioned in connection 

with the separate discussion of each of the great Cretaceous horizons 

of the continent.

As a rule, to which, however, there are some exceptions, the lower portion of the Colorado formatiou, or that which in this province represents 

No. 2 of the Upper Missouri section, is shaly, often consisting of bluish, 

^ssile shales, and is, in a portion of this region, overlain by more sandy 

strata, while the portion which represents No. 3 of that section is more 

or less calcareous. Sometimes, however, the last named portion consists 

of regularly bedded limestone, and sometimes it is friable or chalky. 

Overlying this calcareous portion of the formation there are usually 

several hundred feet of argillaceous, or sometimes sandy, strata.

The chalky condition referred to is observable in portions of western 

Kansas, where limited deposits of true chalk are sometimes found. In 

that district these beds have furnished many important vertebrate 

remains. But the best known development of the calcareous member

of the formation in tliis regiou is found in the valley of tbe Artasas

River, west of the city of Pueblo, Colorado, where it consists of about 

50 feet in thickness of light gr.iy, regularly bedded limestone, which is 

equivalent to, and closely resembles, the limestone of the Austin 

formation of Texas. The following table shows the principal members 

of the section near Pueblo and their approximate correlation with those 

of the Upper Cretaceous section of eastern Texas :

Pueblo section. Eastern Texas section. 

Montana formatiou ................... ......Ripley formation and underlying shales.

n , -. , ,. ( Gray limestone.. .. ..Austin limestone. Colorado formation . > ^^ 8hale8 ........ Eagle Ford 8uaies.

Dakota formation .................. ........Timber Creek formation.

Although the calcareous member of the Colorado formation is better 

developed along the east front of the Kocky Mountains from central to 

southern Colorado than elsewhere, the average thickness of the whole 

formation seems to be less east of the mountains than it is west of 

them. Still, it is probable that the eastern strata represent the whole 

of the Colorado epoch.
WHITE.] FORMATIONS OF SOUTH INTERIOR REGION. 161

The paleontological characteristics of the Colorado formation are, 

with exceptions presently to be mentioned, closely similar on both sides 

of the Rocky Mountains. Its physical characteristics, west of those 

mountains, are described by Powell 1 and White,2 who show that, in a 

general way, they are similar to those which the formation presents east 

of the mountains. The calcareous member of the formation, however, 

is seldom recognizable west of the Eocky Mountains or southward fr&m 

southern Colorado or north of the 45th parallel of north latitude.

The lithological characteristics of the Montana generally present a 

considerable contrast with those of the underlying Colorado formation. 

Usually, however, a shaly condition of the strata similar to that ©f t?he 

upper portion of the Colorado prevails in that portion of the Mew tana 

formation which represents No. 4 of the Upper Missouri seefriea. In 

such cases it is difficult to distinguish the lower strata of the Montana 

from the upper ones of the Colorado formation, except by means of 

their respective fossils. It appears to have been this lithological similarity of portions of the two groups which led King to add the lower 

portion of the Montana formation to his Colorado group.

Above this lower shaly portion of the Montana formation sandstones 

of considerable thickness usually prevail, which are succeeded by argillaceous shales again, and these pass up into more sandy strata, upon 

which the Laramie rests.

The sandstone portion of the Montana formation is often well developed, especially west of the Eocky Mountains, where those strata frequently form high, bold escarpments. They are often fossiliferous, and 

many species of the fossil mollusks which characterize, them range to 

the uttermost limits of this region as well as to those of the North 

Interior region. In the discussions of the Cretaceous horizons of the 

continent we shall also see that certain of the Upper Cretaceous strata 

of the Gulf and Atlantic Border regions are closely connected with these 

and other strata of the Montana formation by their molluscan fossils.

Estward from the eastern base of the Eocky Mountains the Montana 

formation is much obscured by the debris of the plains, and its identity as a separate formation has not been clearly recognized along the 

eastern border of the region, near which the recognizable Cretaceous 

strata seem to belong either to the Dakota or Colorado formation, or to 

both. That is, Montana and Laramie strata do not appear to extend 

so far eastward in this region as do those of the two formations beneath 

them. Southward, in New Mexico, and also west of the Kocky Mountains in Colorado and Wyoming, the Montana formation is perhaps the 

most conspicuous member of the Cretaceous series, and it reaches a 

great maximum thickness in both those districts.

While there is usually not much difficulty in distinguishing the Montana from the Colorado formation in this region, in the absence of fossils it is, as already stated, always difficult to determine the plane of 

delimitation between the Montana and Laramie formations because of

> Geology of the Uinta Mountains, 3 Tenth Annual Jleport U, S. Geol. Surv. Terr.

Bull, 82 IX
162 THE CEETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

the close similarity of the strata of each, because both formations, as a 

rule, have the aspect of having been produced by uninterrupted sedimentation, and because both have been equally involved in all stratigraphical displacements which either has suffered. The only trustworthy 

means of distinguishing between them is their invertebrate fossils, and 

these within large portions of the region are often absent or undiscovered, and they are especially rare in the greater part of the Laramie 

strata. The separation of the two formations, as already stated, is made 

upon some conveniently but usually indistinctly recognizable plane between the uppermost strata which bear characteristic fossils of the Montana formation and those which are found to bear only brackish and 

fresh water molluscan forms, such as are known to be characteristic of 

the Laramie formation. Both the Laramie and Montana formations are 

coal-bearing, and this similarity has served to increase the difficulty of 

discriminating between the strata of each.1

Although the modification of the Upper Missouri section, which has 

been given on page 158, is applicable to the whole South Interior region, 

the two upper divisions of it, namely, the Colorado and Montana formations, are paleontologically somewhat differently characterized in certain 

parts of it. For example, at certain localities near the east base of the 

Wasatch range in Utah and Wyoming, and near the east base of the 

Sangre de Cristo range in Colorado, where those two groups are stratigraphically more or less clearly recognizable, the species of molluscan fossils which there characterize each, although all are of marine types, are 

largely different from those which elsewhere characterize those formations respectively. Still, each formation contains a sufficient number of 

the forms which characterize it elsewhere to make its identification satisfactory, especially when such identification is aided by stratigraphy. 

The localities at which these modified faunas, especially that of the Colorado formation, have been most satisfactorily examined areN in the 

valley of Weber River, near Coalville, Utah, in the southwestern corner 

of Wyoming, and in Huerfano Park, Huerfano County, Colorado.

The modification of the molluscan fauna of the Montana and Colorado 

formations, although it extended over quite a large area, was evidently 

due to local conditions, which can not now be discussed. The fact, 

however, has much interest in this connection, because the molluscan 

fauna of the Colorado and of the Montana formation generally has great 

integrity throughout their geographical extent.

All the strata of the Cretaceous section at the Coalville locality, beneath the Laramie, are plainly of marine origin, except one bed which 

contains estuarine forms.2 Some of these estuarine species are so closely

1 For further discussion of this subject, see following pages.

2 See Twelfth Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., Part 1, pp. 5-34, and plate 12.

The character of some of these estuarine fossils is so nearly like that of certain forms which are 

found in the Laramie formation as to suggest that the molluscan fauna of the great inland Lararaie 

sea was derived from the estuarine and flaviatile faanas thatcxisted along the borders of the preexisting Cretaceous sea, which gradually gave place to the Laramie sea. It will, however, be seen that 

some of the Laramio molluscan forms had a still earlier origin in the waters in which the Belly Kiver 

formation was deposited.
WHITE.J SOUTH INTERIOR REGION CONCLUSIONS. 163

like certain forms found in the Lararaie formation that the two faunas 

have been confounded by some geologists, but this estuary bed lies 

beneath fully 1,000 feet of the marine Cretaceous strata upon which the 

Larainie rests.

The remarks which have been made upon the Laramie formation on 

preceding1 pages render a general discussion of it unnecessary in this 

connection. In the South Interior region it appears to reach its minimum thickness east of the Rocky Mountains. In the vicinity of the 

valley of the South Platte it is often found to be no more than 100 to 

400 feet thick, and it evidently thins out toward the east, beneath the 

debris of the plains. Its eastern boundary is not definitely known, but 

it has been recognized a few miles east of the western boundary of both 

Kansas and Nebraska. West of the Rocky Mountains it is much 

thicker, reaching in western Colorado a max!mum thickness little, if 

any, less than i,000 feet. In New Mexico it also reaches a great thickness, and its strata are so similar to those of the Montana formation, 

upon which they rest, that they have often been confounded together 

by geologists. This has arisen mainly from the fact that not only are 

the strata of both formations similar in lithological and stratigraphical 

character, but both are coal-bearing and fossils in large portions of that 

district are rare, especially in the Laramie.

It is within the limits of the South Interior region that the Arapaho, 

Denver, and Puerco deposits occur, the general characteristics of all 

three of which have been given on preceding pages. In the northwestern part of this region occurs the apparently exceptional blending of 

the Laramie and Wasatch strata, which has been described, and it is 

in that part of the region that the strata already noticed under the 

probably erroneous name of the Bear River Laramie are found.

Reviewing the foregoing discussion of the Cretaceous formations of 

the South Interior region we observe that, with the possible exception 

of some Comanche outliers in southern Kansas, their vertical range 

includes none that are older than the Upper Cretaceous; but it has 

been found desirable to discuss some later deposits, concerning the Cretaceous age of which opinion is divided. Practically, then, we may 

regard the Dakota formation and its equivalent strata as constituting 

the base of the Cretaceous series in this region, while its upper delimitation is indefinite, blending in some places with the overlying Tertiary. 

There is good reason to believe, also, that during the deposition of the 

whole Cretaceous series of the South Interior region from the base of 

the Colorado to the base of the Wasatch formation, inclusive, continuity of sedimentation was never at all points wholly interrupted. 1

It has also been shown that, with the probable, exception of some 

outliers of Comanche strata in southern Kansas, all the Cretaceous 

formations of the South Interior region are referable to the Upper Cretaceous. These formations have been distinguished from one another

1 See White, C. A.., Bull. TJ. S. Geol. Surv. No.34, vol. 5, pp. 391-442.
164 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

upon both paleontological and stratigraphical ground, mainly upon the 

former, and, for reasons already explained, invertebrate fossils have in 

most cases been more relied upon than have plant and vertebrate remains.

The Dakota formation is so well denned that no difference of opinion 

as to its identity, characterization, and delimitation has ever arisen 

among the geologists who have studied it in the South Interior region. 

All these geologists who have given due attention to paleontological 

evidence in connection with field studies have agreed upon the delimitations of the Colorado and Montana formations which have been stated 

upon preceding pages, although some of them have subdivided both of 

these great formations. It is probable, however, that some paleontologists have referred certain vertebrate and plant remains to the Laramie 

that were really obtained from the Montana formation. That is, for 

reasons already mentioned, it seems probable that the upper delimitation of the Montana and the lower delimitation of the Laramie formation cannot be clearly defined by means of plant and vertebrate remains.

The delimitation of the Laramie formation and the data upon which 

it has been recognized have already been discussed.

The following table represents the order of superposition of the formations in three different portions of the South Interior region that 

have been discussed on preceding pages; but its arrangement is not 

intended to have any reference to the question of equivalency to one 

another of the formations, especially of those above the Laramie:

New Mexico. Utah. Colorado.

1. Puerco beds. 1. Wasatch formation. 1. Denver formation.

2. Laramie formation. 2. Laramie formation. 2. Arapaho formation.

3. Montana formation. 3. Montana formation. 3. Laramie formation.

4. Colorado formation. 4. Colorado formation. 4. Montana formation.

5. Dakota formation. 5. Dakota formation. 5. Colorado formation.

6. Not definitely known. 6. Jurassic. 6. Dakota formation,

	7. Jurassic.

THE NORTH INTERIOR REGION.

The boundaries of this region, so far as they are definable, have 

already been indicated in connection with the definition of the boundaries of the whole Interior area, 1 and they are also shown on the 

map (PI. l) opposite page 72. Those boundaries embrace a large portion of both United States and Canadian domain. Nearly the whole 

of Montana and nearly or quite the whole of both North and South 

Dakota are included in the former portion of the region, as well as 

parts of Nebraska, Wyoming, and Idaho; and the Canadian portion 

includes the whole of the districts of Assiniboia and Alberta, the greater 

part of Saskatchewan and Athabasca, and the western part of the 

province of Manitoba.

1 See pages 141 and 142.
WHITE.] NOETH INTERIOR REGION GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 165

Besides the great area included within these boundaries evidence has 

already been referred to as indicating that a large part of both Iowa 

and Minnesota, and perhaps also the eastern part of Manitoba, were 

once occupied by Cretaceous deposits which were then continuous with 

those of this region. The evidence of this former eastward extension 

of the Cretaceous sea far beyond the limits of the North Interior region 

as they have been defined on preceding pages, consists of the presence 

of numerous outliers of Cretaceous deposits beneath, and of much of 

their debris mingled with, the glacial drift at numerous places in the 

two States mentioned, the most easterly of these discoveries being near 

the Mississippi River. Because it is impracticable to define a boundary 

which will accurately include all those outliers, the one proposed is 

thought to be more convenient for the discussion of this region, and the

outliers just mentioned will be again referred to under the head of

Extra Regional Districts.

Including the Laramie among the Cretaceous formations, these 

boundaries embrace the broadest unbroken Cretaceous area which is 

known to exist upon this continent, it being fully 600 miles across both 

from east to west and from north to south. A large, and perhaps the 

larger, part of the whole region is occupied by the Laramie formation.

The Cretaceous series of the North Interior has a greater chronological range than that of the South Interior region. That is, beneath the 

Upper Cretaceous series of the North Interior region, which is held to 

have the same chronological range as that of the South Interior region 

there is found, within limited areas, another formation which is not 

known to occur in any other region. This formation, because of its 

known position beneath the equivalent of the Dakota and of the character of its fossil flora, is referred to the Lower Cretaceous, and it is 

the lower delimiting formation of the whole series in this region. In 

this region, as in the South Interior, North Mexican, and Texan regions,, 

the Laramie formation constitutes the upper delimiting member of the 

series and reaches a greater thickness than is elsewhere known. Coal, 

or lignite as it is usually called, prevails throughout the Laramie iui 

this region at many horizons. Much of it is of good quality, but afc 

present a large proportion of it has little economic value.

Next to the Cretaceous rocks of the Atlantic and Gulf Border regions, those of the North Interior region have been more exhaustively 

studied than have any others that are discussed in this memoir; and 

yet considerable differences of opinion have arisen among geologists as 

to the proper delimitation of the formations which constitute the series 

there, and also as to the true geological age of some of them. These 

facts have been discussed to some extent in remarks upon the Cretaceous geology of the South Interior region, but it is well to refer to them 

again because it is in the North Interior region that occurs the best 

known and earliest published section of the Cretaceous rocks of the 

Great Interior area. This section, which already has been frequently
166 THE CRETACEOUS, [BULL.82.

referred to under the name of the Upper Missouri Cretaceous section 

of Meek and Hay den, has, up to the present time, really remained a 

standard for the study of the marine Cretaceous formations of the 

whole of the Great Interior area, although subsequent investigations 

have shown the necessity for modifying and adding to it.

At the time Meek and Hayden published their section, as stated on a 

preceding page, they regarded the Laramie strata at the few localities 

where they had studied them, not as the great formation which it is now 

known to be, but as separate estuary deposits, all of which they referred to the Tertiary. They also then had no knowledge of the strata 

which are now known as constituting the Kootanie, or of those which 

constitute the Belly Eiver formation.

The following table represents the Cretaceous formations which are 

now recognized in the North Interior region, compared and correlated 

with the Upper Missouri Eiver section as published by Meek and Hayden.

General section of the North Interior region. Meek and Hayden's Upper Missouri

section.

f Laramie formation ...........Not recognized as Cretaceous.

Montana formation ......... \ £ox. 8 Sron P' } Fort Pierre group.

Upper Cretaceous .. <( Belly River formation ........Not recognized.

I Colorado formation......... J Niobrara group.

( Port Benton group. 

(^ Dakota formation ............ Dakota group.

Lower Cretaceous ....Kootanie formation...........Not recognized.

The modification for the South Interior region of the section which 

Meek and Hayden adopted for the formations of the Upper Missouri 

country and the reasons for that modification have been discussed on 

preceding pages. A similar modification of the classification of the 

Cretaceous formations in the North Interior region is indicated in the

left-hand column of the foregoing table, where also is shown the introduction of members not included in Meek and Hayden's section. So 

far as the real equivalents of the different members of the Upper 

Missouri section are concerned, the modification which it is thought 

necessary to recognize in the North Interior region is approximately 

the same as that which has been proposed for the South Interior region. 

The general section for the whole region is, however, still further modified by the presence in the former region of two formations Avhich have 

been made known mainly by the labors of the Canadian geologists, since 

Meek and flayden's section was published. These are the Kootauie 

and Belly Eiver formations, the place of the former being beneath the 

horizon of the Dakota formation and referable to the Lower Cretaceous, 

and that of the latter at the base or perhaps in part intercalated within 

the lower portion of the Montana formation, and therefore a> member of 

the Upper Cretaceous.

Among the noteworthy features of the Cretaceous series of the Forth 

Interior region are three non-marine formations of great thickness and 

geographical extent. One of these formations is the Kootauie, of the
WHITE.] FORMATIONS OF NORTH INTERIOR REGION. 167

Lower Cretaceous, and the other two are the Belly Eiver and Laramie, of the Upper Cretaceous. These uon-mariue deposits together 

apparently exceed in bulk all the marine deposits of this region, and 

they perhaps represent a longer lapse of time than the latter. It is 

therefore evident that a consideration of continental conditions is 

essential in the study of the Cretaceous geology of this part of the 

continent.

It should be understood that the section which is indicated in the lefthand portion of the foregoing table is intended only for general application to the whole North Interior region, and that in some portions of 

the region the modification of the Cretaceous formations is such as to 

make it difficult to recognize the exact identity of some of those which 

are designated in the table. It has already been shown that the divisions of the Cretaceous section which were adopted for the South Interior 

region are not so clearly recognizable in its extreme southern part as 

they are in its more northern parts. It is a somewhat similar modification that certain of the formations of the general section of the North 

Interior region which are named in the foregoing table seem to have 

undergone that makes them less clearly recognizable in some parts of 

the region than they are in others, especially in the western and northern parts as compared with the eastern. For example, it is often difficult there to separate the Dakota from the Colorado formation. Besides 

this, the Kootanie and Belly Eiver formations are wanting in large portions of the region, even where other Cretaceous formations occur, and it 

is rarely if ever the case that all the recognized formations of the general section have been found in contact with one another in any one 

district of this region.

It has been shown in connection with discussions of the formations 

of the South Interior region that, while it is practicable in many cases 

to indicate approximately the limits of the areas which are occupied by 

the Cretaceous deposit as a whole, it is seldom practicable to define the 

geographical boundaries of the areas occupied by separate formations, 

and their discussion therefore has had reference mainly to the known 

localities in which they occur. This imperfect condition of our knowledge is largely due to the fact that many of the geologists who have 

reported upon those formations have more or less completely ignored 

paleontological characteristics, by which alone their identity can be 

certainly determined.

A similar condition of things exists in the Forth Interior region as 

regards the mapping of separate Cretaceous formations, especially south 

of the northern boundary of the United States. Much more accurate 

work has been done in this respect in the Canadian portion of the region 

than in the southern portion. Still, it frequently will be found impracticable to define the outlines of the areas occupied by the separate 

formations.
168 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

THK LOWER CKETACEOUS.

It lias been shown that while both the Upper and Lower Cretaceous 

occur in the Texau and North Mexican regions, only the Upper Cretaceous has been certainly recognized in the South Interior region. In 

the North Interior region, however, a formation occurs, namely the 

Kootauie, which is in this memoir classified as Lower Cretaceous, and 

it is the only formation in this region which is referable to that division 

of the system.

The first recognition of the Kootanie as a distinct formation was made 

by Dr. G. M. Dawsou in 1885, and in the same year-the name which it 

now bears was proposed by Sir J. William Dawson. 1 The district within 

which Dr. Dawson first recognized the existence of this formation is in 

western Alberta. It embraces a portion of the Rocky Mountain Eange, 

together with the adjacent eastern foothills. Its length north and south 

is about 140 miles, and its width- about 40 miles. The whole district 

within which the Kootanie strata referred to exist lies between the 

parallels of 49° and 52° north latitude,2 but equivalent strata have since 

been recognized elsewhere by means of its peculiar fossil flora. By 

means of the specific identification of fossil plants Prof. Newberry has 

recognized a series of coal-bearing strata, which occur in the vicinity of 

the Great Falls of the Missouri, in Montana, as equivalent to the 

Kootanie of western Alberta.3 The geologists of the Canadian Survey, 

as just intimated, have also recognized identical or equivalent strata at 

various localities, some of which are far northwestward from the district 

in which the Kootauie was first discovered. An important observation 

concerning the stratigraphical relation of the Kootauie to marine Cretaceous strata of the Pacific Border region has been made at one of these 

localities, which will be again referred to in the discussions of the formations of that region.

According to Dr. Dawson, the Kootanie formation in western Alterta 

rests uncomformably upon the Carboniferous and Devonian limestone 

series, and reaches a maximum thickness of more than 7,000 feet, the 

beds being chiefly shales and sandstones of various texture and appearance, characteristic Kootauie species of plant remains ranging through 

the whole.4

He finds these strata conformably overlain by others in many respects resembling them, which he refers to the Dakota formation j and 

the latter overlain by others referred by him to the Beuton group (the 

lower part of the Colorado formation). The former reference of course 

implies the existence of a time-hiatus between the Dakota and the Kootanie strata. Still, no plane of their interdelimitation has yet been 

definitely recognized.

'Hoy. Soc. Canada, Proc. and Trans., vol. 3, sec. 4, pp. 1-22.

2 Geol. Surv. Canada, Aim. Rep. for 1886, pp. 1-169 B.

3 See School of Mines Quarterly, vol. 8, pp. 327-330. 

«GcoL Surv. Canada, Ann. Rep. for 1886, pp. 1-167 B.
WHITE.] NORTH INTERIOR REGION LOWER CRETACEOUS. 169

The sum of all the evidence yet obtained is in favor of regarding all 

the strata referable, or equivalent, to tbQ Kootauie ay of non-marine 

origin, and I have therefore so treated them in this memoir. Certain 

marine fossils, however, have been discovered in Kootauie strata in 

western Alberta. 1 These discoveries do not seem sufficient to indicate 

a fall marine origin for the strata in which they were made, but taken 

in connection with the observed relation of the Kootanie to marine Cretaceous strata, which is to be noticed in treating of the formations of 

the Pacific Border region, they seem to support the opinion which the 

Canadian geologists apparently entertain, that the Kootauie was in 

part at least contemporaneous with the marine Queen Charlotte formation of the Pacific Border region, and that it in some degree merged 

into that formation.

The only invertebrate fossils that have been reported as occurring 

in the Kootanie strata of the Great Falls region in Montana are some 

sandstone casts of a bivalve shell, apparently a species of Unio, 2 which 

were found by Prof. Newberry, and it is not improbable that these strata 

were deposited in fresh waters at the same time with, but perhaps separated from, those in which the northern Kootanie strata were deposited, by intervening land upon which grew the plants whose deciduous 

leaves were cast into the waters upon either side.

The Montana Kootanie strata occupy, or originally occupied, several 

hundred square miles, but its limits are unknown. The area occupied 

by them in British America was evidently much greater, but their original extent is also unknown.

The obscuration of any plane of separation which may exist between 

the Dakota and Kootanie strata that Dr. Dawson observed in western 

Alberta appears also to obtain in Montana. For example, as one traces 

the Cretaceous formations up the valley of the Missouri, upon approaching the G reat Falls he observes a series of strata arising from beneath 

the Fort Benton shales which have the general aspect of those of the 

Dakota formation, and upon reaching the falls he finds that it is strata 

of this series over which the Missouri Eiver plunges there and which 

form the bluffs of the river upon both sides. All the strata at and 

near the falls are referred to the Kootauie by Prof. Newberry and 

although it is probable that the Dakota formation is represented by similar and conformable strata in that neighborhood, it seems not yet to have 

been definitely recognized there as separate from the Kootanie strata. 

Since such chronological evidence as marine fossils might afford is wanting in the case of the Kootanie formation, it has been assigned to the 

Lower Cretaceous upon the evidence furnished by its fossil plants and 

by its stratigraphical relation to other formations the taxonomic po1 See Whitoavcs, J. F., Cont. Can. Paleont., vol. 1, part 2, p. 163 et seq.

Also Ann. Kep. Geol. Surv. Canada for 1885, p. 162 B.

* These casts suggest that the so-called American types of Unio were introduced much earlier than 

wasbefore known. That is, the surface is sculptured in a pattern which in a general way resembles 

that of certain species of TJnio now living in the Mississippi drainage system.
170 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

sition of which is known. The character of some of the plants is such 

as to have originally raised a doubt whether the formation ought not 

to be referred to the Upper Jurassic,1 but the subequent discovery of 

strata bearing several marine species belonging to the fauna of the 

Queen Charlotte group beneath strata bearing characteristic Kootanie 

plants 2 leaves no reason to doubt the Cretaceous age of the latter.

Dr. Dawson has shown that in western Alberta the Kootanie is an 

important coal-bearing formation, and Prof. Newberry also has shown 

that important coal beds occur in the strata near the Great Falls of the 

Missouri which he refers to the Kootanie.

THE UPPER CRETACEOUS.

The names of the formations which constitute the Upper Cretaceous 

series of the North Interior region have been given on page 166. Four 

of them, the Dakota, Colorado, Montana, and Laramie, are regarded as 

essentially identical with those which are designated by the same names 

in the South Interior region, and the other, the Belly River formation, 

is peculiar to the North Interior region. Only two of them, the Colorado and Montana formations, are of marine origin, the other three, 

the Dakota, Belly River, and Laramie, being of non-marine, all three of 

them apparently having been deposited in part in brackish and in part 

in fresh waters. It will thus be seen that of the whole Cretaceous 

series in the North Interior region all the Lower Cretaceous strata 

and the greater part of those of the Upper Cretaceous, in which the 

Laramie is included, are of non-marine origin. This fact has already 

been mentioned as implying that the greater part of all the Cretaceous 

strata in this region was accumulated under continental, that is, not 

under true marine conditions.

The reports of the field geologists of both the Canadian and United 

States surveys make it evident that in the eastern part of the North 

Interior region the Dakota, Colorado, and Montana formations present 

considerable differences from the groups of strata which respectively 

represent them in the western part. That is, in the eastern part the 

strata constituting or representing these three formations are more 

readily referable to the Upper Missouri section of Meek and Hayden, or 

to the modification of it which I have adopted in this memoir, than 

they are in the western part. These differences, although largely 

lithological, are in part paleontological, but in the latter respect the 

hitherto observed difference appears to be due more to the paucity of 

fossils than to actual faunal and floral variance. Unfortunately it has 

not yet been practicable to harmonize these differences by tracing their 

physical connection across the broad Cretaceous area of this region.

Although it is in the North Interior region that the Dakota formation 

was first recognized it has been found exposed in only a small part of its

'See remarks of Sir J. Win. Dawson in Koy. Soc. Canada, Proc. and Trans., vol. 3, sec. 4, pp. 1-22. 

8 Am. Jour. Sci., 1890, vol. 38, p. 120.
WHITE.] NORTH INTERIOR REGIONS UPPER CRETACEOUS. 171

area, even where other Cretaceous formations occur. In no part of the region, except perhaps in the vicinity of the Kocky Mountains, does its 

thickness appear to exceed the few hundred feet that it reaches in the 

South Interior region. Although it is not frequently exposed at the surface, it has been reached by artesian borings at many localities in both 

North and South Dakota, where ithas lately attracted considerable attention as the strata which have furnished abundant flows of water from artesian wells.1

The most characteristic exposures of the Dakota formation are found 

in the southern districts of this region, where also its identity is clearly 

distinguishable. Farther westward and northwestward, as already 

mentioned, the strata which are regarded as its equivalent have not 

been found to present all the distinctive characteristics which the formation presents at the typical localities, and it is probable that in its 

extreme northward extension it either disappears or loses its identity 

by blending with the next overlying Upper Cretaceous formation, as it 

is now understood to do in its extreme southward extension.

The lithological character and fossil contents of some of the Cretaceous outliers which have been discovered in Iowa eastward from the 

nominal boundary of the North Interior region, where they rest uuconformably upon Paleozoic rocks, indicate that the Dakota deposits probably were nearly or quite coextensive in that direction with those which 

are referable to the immediately succeeding epochs.

The Dakota formation has been discussed or referred to in connection 

with what has been written of the Texan, North Mexican, South Interior, 

and North Interior regions, but the following general remarks are added 

as applicable to the formation in its whole extent and they are regarded 

as proper in this place because the formation is not represented in the 

region that remains to be discussed.

As has already been stated, this formation is of non-marine origin 

and originally covered a remarkably large area for a deposit of that 

kind. In some districts the presence of the remains of Unio and of other 

forms similar to those which are usually associated with living species 

of that genus shows that fresh water conditions prevailed. In other 

districts molluscan forms are found which indicate the presence of 

brackish water, and in the southern and southeastern portion of the 

great area which the formation occupies its contained fossils show that 

the waters in which it was accumulated gradually changed from a fresh 

water to a marine character.

Until these marine remains were discovered few or none of the purely 

paleontological data derived from the Dakota formation itself gave 

satisfactory indications as to its age, and that question was vigorously 

discussed by geologists and paleontologists for several years, some con1 See Robert Hay, in Senate Mis. Doc. No. 179, Fifty-first Congress, first session, p. 5. Also Warren 

TJphfuu, in Am. G-eologist, vol. G, pp. 211-221. Mr. Upliam gives a list of thirty wells in which water 

flows from tbo Dakota sandstone.
172 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

tending for its Tertiary and some for its Cretaceous age. 1 The fact that 

all the other formations which in this memoir are referred to the Upper 

Cretaceous are found in their order of superposition above the Dakota 

and the comparatively late discovery that its strata merge into an uniistakably marine Cretaceous formation would seem to leave no further 

room for such discussion; but it is nevertheless true that within the 

last 5 or 6 years the Tertiary age of the Dakota formation has been 

again suggested, if not asserted.2 This opinion has been based upon 

the character of its plant remains, which prevail in nearly all the districts in which the formation occurs, its other fossils, which are comparatively rare, never having entered into discussions concerning its 

age.

It has already been mentioned that in the South Interior region the 

Dakota formation rests with apparent conformity upon the Jurassic,, 

where the two formations are found in contact, and that at some placesit rests unconformably upon the Carboniferous. It is also known that 

while the Dakota rests with apparant conformity upon both the Kootanie and the Jurassic in the North Interior region its outliers in Iowa 

rest unconformably upon the Paleozoic rocks. Because the Dakota formation is referred to the Upper Cretaceous it can not be conceded that 

its apparent conformity upon the Jurassic is real or at least that there 

is not a great time-hiatus between them; and in view of the comparatively recent character of the Dakota flora and the ancient character of 

that of the Kootanie we have necessarily inferred that there is a very 

great time-hiatus between these two formations also.

That a marine formation should be found to preserve its identity over 

a great geographical area need excite no surprise, but it is remarkable,, 

even in view of what we know of the great extent and integrity of theLarainie, that a non-marine frequently coal-bearing formation like the 

Dakota, which has a thickness seldom exceeding 500 feet, should preserve its integrity of character over an area little, if any, less than 1,000 

miles in extent, both north and south and east and west, not including 

its marine equivalents in the Texan and North Mexican regions.

Strata representing the Colorado formation as it has been defined in 

connection with discussions of the formations of the South Interior 

region, that is, those which represent both the Fort Ben ton and the 

Niobrara groups of Meek and flayden's Upper Missouri section, have 

been recognized, not only in the southern, but in the far northern portions of the North Interior region. In the southern portions of the region the lithological, and in part the paleontological,differences between 

the upper and lower portions of the Colorado formation are such that 

Meek and Hayden regarded each portion as properly constituting a. 

separate group, as has already been shown; but north of the forty-ninth! 

parallel, where the Canadian geologists have studied it with care, the

1 See the historical sketch in the introductory portion of this memoir.

"See J. Starkie Gardner, British Association Eeport of the 54th Meeting, London, 1885, pp. 739-741..
WHITE.] NORTH INTERIOR REGION UPPER CRETACEOUS. 173

presence of the Niobrara portion as separate from the equivalent of the 

Fort Ben ton portion has not been clearly recognized upon paleontological 

ground. Indeed, those geologists seem to have experienced some difficulty in recognizing both the upper and lower limit of the equivalent of 

the Colorado formation north of the forty-ninth parallel. This difficulty 

appears to have arisen in part from the presence of the Belly Kiver 

formation within a considerable area, audfrom the apparent uncertainty 

whether that formation rests wholly between the Colorado and Montana or is intercalated in the latter formation near its base.

That the true equivalent of the Colorado formation is coextensive 

with the other marine members of the Upper Cretaceous series in 

British America there seems to be abundant reason for believing, and if 

it were not for certain modifications which all those formations have 

undergone in their northerly extension, and for the presence there of 

the Belly Kiver formation, the relation of the equivalent of the Colorado to that of the Dakota and Montana formations would doubtless be 

essentially the same as it is in other parts of the Great Interior area. 

Still, if the Cretaceous series north of the forty-ninth parallel had been 

fully and independently investigated before the publication of Meek & 

Hayden's section, it is doubtful whether the results would not have 

varied from that section, even more than the modification of it which is 

proposed on page 158.

However indefinite the upper and lower limits of the Colorado formation may be in certain districts, it is true that the strata which constitute it and its equivalents form a very distinct Cretaceous horizon or 

subhorizon within a large part of the interior portion of North America.1 By comparing with one another the various tables which have 

been presented on preceding pages it will be seen that the Colorado 

horizon may be traced from the district of Alberta, and apparently 

from much farther northward in British America, southward through 

the Great Interior area to the valley of the Eio Grande, and thence 

eastward, where it is understood to blend with the horizon that is represented by the Montana formation in the Interior regions. This matter 

will be further discussed on following pages under the head of Horizons 

of the North American Cretaceous.

The Belly Biver formation is found occupying the surface within a 

large area which embraces portions of the Canadian districts of Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, the Canadian geologists having traced 

it continuously as far north in northern Alberta as the parallel of 53° 

30'. This area is not less than 300 miles across by its longer diameter, 

but that which the deposit originally occupied was evidently much 

larger. The Belly River strata, which reach a known maximum thickness of not less than 1,000 feet, as well as its fossil fauna and flora, are

'Because of the intimate relation of the equivalents of the Colorado with those of the Montana 

formation in the southern and eastern Cretaceous regions, I have treated the strata which those formations respectively represent in the North Interior region as sub-horizons. See following pages, 

where this unusual use of the term horizon is explained.
174 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL 82.

similar in character to those of the Laraurie, many of the fossil species 

of both formations including vertebrates, invertebrates and plants, being regarded as identical. The Belly Eiver strata also constitute an 

important coal-bearing formation. 1

Typical exposures of these strata are found in the valley of the Belly 

Eiver, a tributary of the South Saskatchewan, from which circumstance 

Dr. G. M. Dawson gave them the name by which the formation is now 

known.2 Certain observed conditions of strata exposed' along the M issouri Eiver in northern Montana apparently indicate its presence there. 

It also seems not improbable that some of the strata in the upper part 

of the valley of Musselshell Eiver, in Montana, which have been referred to the Laramie,3 really belonged to the Belly Eiver formation. 

If strata of this formation really exist there they probably were originally continuous with those of the Belly Eiver Valley. At present, 

however, almost nothing is known of either its southern or eastern 

limit, but it is known not to reach so far east as western Manitoba. 4

Within a district drained by Peace Eiver, and near the fifty-sixth parallel of north latitude, there are certain beds of non-marine origin which 

are underlain and overlain by marine Cretaceous strata apparently representing the Colorado and Montana formations respectively. These beds 

are designated as the Dunvegan series by the Canadian geologists, who 

regard them as corresponding to tbe Belly Eiver formation, more or 

less completely, and as representing the northwestern continuation 

along the eastern base of the Eocky Mountains of the conditions under 

which the Belly Eiver strata were deposited,5 but the northern and southern areas have not yet been definitely connected by continuous tracing 

of outcrops. It is evident that the Duuvegan series thins out toward 

the east from the base of the Eocky Mountains,6 and it already has been 

shown that the strata whi ch are definitely referred to the Belly Eiver 

formation also thin out in that direction. Mr. E. G. McCouuell's section 

on Athabasca Eiver also indicates an eastward thinning out of the Dunvegan series.7 The following remarks, however, are intended to apply 

more especially to the Belly Eiver group as represented by its exposures on Belly Eiver.

Like the Laramie, this formation rests directly upon marine Cretaceous strata, and its faunal and floral remains are also closely like those 

of that group, both indicating an iutracontinental, non-marine, but not

1 Canadian Naturalist, vol. 10, pp. 423, et seq.

2 Geol. Surv. Canada, Report of Progress for 1880, '81, '82, pp. 1-23 B.

8 See Lindgren, W., Tenth Census of the United States, vol. 15, pp. 743-746.

* See Tyrrell, J. B., Am. Jour. Sci,, vol. 40,1890, p. 228.

8 See Ann. Report Geol. Surv. Canada for 1882-'84, p. 118 C; ih. for 1881-'82, p. 8 B; and Trans. Roy. Soc. 

Canada, vol. 3, sec. 4, p. 18. Compare also Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Canada for 1879-'80, pp. 115,116, et seq, 

where the lower sandstones and shales, or Dunvegan series, are characterized, and the existence of a 

great clayey frosh-water intercalation in the Cretaceous ia recognized.

6 See column V on p. 128 B, of report last cited, where a thickness of only 100 feet is assigned to this 

series on Smoky River.

'See report last cited, pp. 132, 133 B; Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Canada, for 1884,p.40,and Am. Jour. 

Sci., 1881, vol. 21, p. 393.
WHITK.J BELLY RIVER FORMATION. 175

wholly fresh-water origin. Unlike the Laramie, the Belly River formation is immediately overlain, as well as underlain by marine Cretaceous strata. The marine strata which overlie the Belly Eiver are certainly referable to the Montana formation, but whether they represent the 

whole of that formation or not it is at present impossible to say. That 

is, it is not yet certainly known whether the Belly Eiver formation is interposed between the top of the Colorado and the base of the Montana or 

betweenalargeupper and a small lower part of the last-named formation. 

The former condition is assumed to exist, although it is not yet certain 

that some of the fossil species discovered beneath Belly Eiver strata do 

not also occur in the Montana formation.

Although the area occupied by this non-marine formation is, or originally was, several thousand square miles in extent, its presence as 

such among the Cretaceous formations excites no surprise in view of 

the existence of such non-marine formations as the Kootanie, Dakota, 

and Laramie, at least two of which have much greater geographical 

extent than has the Belly Eiver formation. What gives this formation 

especial interest is the intimate relation of its fauna and flora to those 

of the Laramie, although these two non-marine formations are, in the 

district within which both are now known to occur, separated by a 

great thickness of strata which are unmistakably of marine origin.

This faunal and floral relationship is not only of that character which 

appears upon a general comparison, and which is shown by identity of 

certain of the families and genera which are found in the strata of each 

formation, but a considerable number of the species in each are identical with those of the other. 1 That certain species of plants and of airbreathing animals should have survived from the Belly Eiver epoch 

through the Montana and into the Laramie epoch is in accord with well 

known facts of that character. In this case, however, we find that certain of the Laramie species which survived from the Belly Eiver into 

the Laramie epoch are gill-bearing mollusks of fresh and brackish water 

types. Their survival implies the continuity of congenial aqueous conditions of habitat from one epoch to the other through an intervening 

one, because their specific identity in both the earliest and latest of 

these three epochs implies direct genetic descent.

It Is not to be supposed that the molluscan fauna referred to could 

have survived in the marine waters of the Montana epoch that subsequently prevailed over the ground which they had occupied, and we 

therefore must conclude that the fresh-water habitat of the Belly Eiver 

molluscan fauna was shifted, not destroyed, during that epoch. Such 

a shifting must necessarily have been caused by subsidence and elevation respectively of land and sea bottom or by subsidence and gradual 

filling of aqueous areas. The conditions that have been observed suggest a subsidence which, at the close of the Belly Eiver epoch, brought 

marine waters upon the whole or a part of the area which had pre-

' Seo Whitoaves, J. F., Gout. Canadian Paleont., vol. 1, pp. 56-63.
176 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

viously been occupied by the land-locked Belly Eiver sea, and probably shifted a portion of that sea upon districts -which previously 

were occupied by dry ground. An elevation or filling, or both, is also 

suggested, which, at the close of the Montana epoch, caused the withdrawal of the marine waters of that epoch from the area upon which 

they had previously encroached, not only restoring the previous nonmarine condition there, to be continued during the Laramie epoch, but 

probably then completing the final retirement of all marine Cretaceous 

waters from the interior portions of the continent.

Although the suggestions which have just been made as totheoccurrence of certain physical changes and to their resulting conditions seem 

to bo fully warranted by the facts referred to, it is true that no observation has yet been made of a complete thinning out of the Belly Eiver 

formation in any direction, or of its blending with the Laramie by the 

absence or by the thinning out of the Montana formation. It is reasonable, however, to infer that such conditions existed and to expect 

that observations confirming these suggestions may yet be made. The 

following diagram represents the supposed chronological relation of 

the Belly Eiver formation with other members of the Upper Cretaceous 

series of the North Interior region, and its supposed community of 

origin with the Laramie formation. The vertical width of the divisions of the diagram has no reference to the relative thickness of the 

formations which they respectively represent.

Diagram showing the relations to one another of the Upper Cretaceous

formations.

iTaramie*

I Montana'^

Colorado,

'Dako&;

LaramieJ,

* Montana. __ 

 ;""" Belly River.,

Colorado,

Dakota, ;

Laf'amie.anH 

Ti.

.Belly River.)'

Colorad o

Dakota,

The left-hand portion of the diagram represents the relation of the 

four Upper Cretaceous formations as they are known in the southern 

part of the North Interior region, the middle portion represents the 

observed relations of those formations including the Belly Eiver, while 

the right-hand portion represents the supposed passage of the Belly 

Eiver into the Laramie formation. A, assumed point where the Belly 

Eiver thins out between the Colorado and Montana formations. 1 B, 

assumed point of union of the Belly Eiver and Laramie formations.

From the foregoing diagram and the remarks preceding the same it 

will be seen that the continental conditions which produced the Lara1 Mr. J. B. Tyrrell has recently shovrn that the Belly Biver formation is not present between the 

equivalents of the Colorado and Montana formations in western Manitoba. It therefore haa thinned 

out toward, toe east. See 4.m- Jew Sch 1890> vol, 40, p. 228.
wniTK.1 NORTH INTERIOR REGION UPPER CRETACEOUS. 177

mie formation and favored the development of the fauna and flora which 

characterize it are understood to have prevailed over a portion of that 

part of the continent which is now designated as the North Interior 

region long before the begining of the Laramie epoch .as it is represented by the formation which now bears that name. That is, those conditions are understood to have been continuous from the beginning of the 

Belly Eiver epoch, if not from a preceding one, to the close of the Laramie epoch; and if the Belly River and Laramie formations are ever 

found in contact they will doubtless constitute a single formation, the 

lower part of which only was formed contemporaneously with the Montana formation.

The Montana formation extends, or originally extended, over much 

the greater part of the North Interior region, recognizable exposures 

of it having been observed at numerous localities from the northern to 

the southern and from the eastern to the western borders. Fossils 

found in the Cretaceous outliers in Iowa and Minnesota, which already 

have been mentioned, indicate that these strata originally extended as 

far eastward as the Mississippi River.

The lithological characteristics of the Montana formation are quite 

uniform over large portions of this region, in which respect it does not 

greatly differ from that part of it which lies in the South Interior 

'region. The Canadian geologists find that in this region, especially 

in its eastern part, the upper portion of the formation is largely composed of sandy material, and that the lower portion, that which represents the Fort Pierre group of the Upper Missouri section, is frequently 

clayey or shaly.

In all parts of the North Interior region, as well as elsewhere, wherever the Laramie has been found resting upon the Montana formation, 

their conformity with each other appears to be, and doubtless is, complete j and, as before stated in connection with the discussion of the 

Great Interior area, both formations appear to have been the result of 

continuous sedimentation from the lower to the upper formation, notwithstanding the freshening of the waters in which the latter was deposited. The conformity of the Montana with the Belly River formation, wherever it has been observed, also appears to be complete j but, 

if the suggested shifting of the areas which their respective waters 

occupied really occurred, some degree of unconformity must have resulted, although it may not anywhere have been important. Still, 

wherever the Montana formation has been found resting upon the 

Colorado their conformity seems to be complete.

The general characteristics of the Laramie formation have already 

been stated on preceding pages, and as they are practically the same 

in the 'North Interior region that they are elsewhere the subordinate 

differences only need be pointed out. Its southern extension into the 

South Interior, North Mexican, and Texan regions has already been 

.discussed, and it has also been shown to extend to near the fifty-Mth, 

Bull, 82 13
178 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

parallel of north latitude, or to within five degrees of the designated 

northern boundary of the North Interior region. The strata at the 

localities north of this northern boundary, in which Laramie species 

of plants have been found, were doubtless deposited in two or more 

separate bodies of water, as mentioned on page 146.1

The Laramie is really the most conspicuous of the Upper Cretaceous formations of this region, on account of its great maximum thickness, which the Canadian geologists estimate at not far from 7,000 \ 

feet, and of the great area within which it occupies the surface. Being ~ 

not only the latest of the Cretaceous series, but with slight exceptions 

the uppermost of all the sedimentary deposits of this great region, it 

covers from view a large part of all the Cretaceous formations there 

which are older than itself. Therefore, in the greater part of that portion of this region which upon the accompanying map is represented 

as being occupied by Cretaceous rocks, it is the Laramie alone that 

occupies the surface beneath the soil.

Students of the plant remains of the Laramie formation often have 

recognized a considerable difference between those of the upper and 

lower portions respectively, but except in the Canadian districts no definite division of the great formation has been made upon stratigraphical 

grounds. There the Canadian geologists have recognized three divisions of the Laramie on account of certain differences in the character 

of the strata, and they also find that certain species of plants are characteristic of each division.2 The molluscan fauna of the whole formation in this region is, however, so nearly identical with that of all other 

portions of it in other regions that further reference to it is now deemed 

unnecessary. 

The two upper divisions of the Laramie, which are recognized by the 

Canadian geologists, are distinguishable over a great part of the North \ 

Interior region. They are not understood as respectively representing, 

except perhaps in a general way, those strata in central Colorado which 

have received the names Denver and Arapaho groups, although those 

northern upper divisions probably represent them approximately as to 

time.

The lower delimitation of the full Cretaceous series in the North Interior region is by the Kootanie formation, which, according to Dr. Dawson,3 rests unconformably upon the Carboniferous and Devonian limestone series. The Kootanie formation, as already mentioned, was formerly thought to occupy the lowest position in the Cretaceous system, and 

some doubt was entertained whether j.t ought not to be referred to the 

Jurassic; in the discussion of the formations of the Pacific Border re- { 

gion, we shall see that, while it is now regarded as referable to the Lower

1 See Dawson, G-. M., Later Phys. Geol. Kocky Mt. Region in Canada. Trans. Hoy. Soo. Canada, 1890, 

vol. 8, sec. 4, sketch map No. 3.

2 See Dawson, Sir J. W., Roy. Soc. Can. Trans., vol. 4, sec. 4, pp. 19-34.

3 Dr. Dawaon seems now to be in doubt whether any of these underlying strata ought to be referred 

to the Devonian.
WHITE.] NOETH INTERIOR REGION CONCLUSIONS. 179

Cretaceous, certain other Cretaceous strata underlie it. The upper 

delimitation of the Lower Cretaceous of this region is also by the Kootauie,no other formation having been recognized as occupying a position 

between it and the base of the equivalent of the Dakota.

The lower delimitation of the Upper Cretaceous series of this region 

is by the Dakota formation, and its upper by the Laramie.

Sedimentation is believed to have been continuous within at least some 

portions of this region from base to top of the series, the interruptions 

at the places where the shifting of the waters of the Belly Eiver and the 

Montana seas took place, as suggested in preceding paragraphs, not 

having been general. That is, it is believed that sedimentation was at 

no time at all points wholly interrupted from the beginning of the 

Dakota to the close of the Laramie epoch.

The folio wing table shows the relation to oue another of the formations 

of the North Interior region and their order of superposition, and Dr. 

G. M. Dawson's table on a following page will show to some extent his 

view of their correlation with the formations of the Pacific border 

region.

Table of the Cretaceous formations of the North Interior region.

1. Laramie.

2. Montana.

3. Belly Eiver.

4. Colorado.

5. Dakota. 

(Probable hiatus.) 1

6. Kootanie. 

(Hiatus.)

7. Carboniferous and Devonian.

Briefly reviewing the preceding discussion of the Cretaceous geology 

of the six regions which occupy the central, southern, and eastern portions of the continent we observe that certain of the facts there recorded have special significance and importance with reference to the 

character, and to the order, of the events which took place on this continent during Cretaceous time. Among the most remarkable facts pertaining to the geology of the regions that have been discussed are those 

which show that a large part of the formations which are referred to 

the Cretaceous are of non-marine origin, that they range in age from 

the earliest to the latest epoch of Cretaceous time, and that they are 

all of great, and some of them of remarkable, geographical extent.

A part of the facts referred to relate, on the one hand, to the correlation of certain of the Cretaceous formations in each of the regions

1 Some hundreds of feet in thickness of strata occur in the Kootanie section between the uppermost 

stratum known to bear Kootanie fossils and the lowermost one, which Dr. Dawson has found to bo 

satisfactorily referable to the Dakota. Ho informs me in a private note that ho therefore docs not 

now feel sure that these strata do not represent all the time between the Kootanie and Dakota epochs.
180 THE CRETACEOUS. IBULL. 82.

mentioned with others respectively, which occur in all the other regions ; and on the other hand, to the existence of certain deposits in 

each of the regions that are not known to be represented in others. For 

example, the difficulty, if not the impracticability, of correlating nonmarine with marine formations makes it quite uncertain whether the 

Kootanie of the North Interior region was, or was not, contemporaneous in its origin with the Comanche series of the Texan and North 

Mexican regions; and none of the great physical changes which are 

known to have occurred on the continent appear to offer any valuable 

suggestions on this subject. For similar reasons none of the non-marine formations of the Great Interior area have been satisfactorily correlated with the formations of the Atlantic and Gulf Border regions. 

Therefore the correlation which has been recognized as extending to all 

six of the regions referred to is confined primarily to the marine formations of the Upper Cretaceous, but secondarily extended to the nonmarine because of their known stratigraphical relation to some of the 

former.

While approximately definite correlation is practicable for the regions 

mentioned we shall see that satisfactory correlation of any of the Cretaceous formations of the Pacific Border region with any of those of 

all the other regions has not yet been accomplished. This statement 

applies to the marine as well as to the non-marine formations, and even 

to those which presumably were of contemporaneous origin. It is expected that the nearest approach to their correlation will be made 

through the Cretaceous formations of British Columbia, some progress 

in which has already been made by the Canadian geologists; and it is 

highly probable that future investigation of the Mexican Cretaceous 

formations will throw much light upon this subject.

No evidence of the existence of coal has yet been found among any 

of the Cretaceous strata of either the Atlantic border or the Gulf border 

regions, but some unimportant beds of lignite are reported to exist in 

strata of the lower division of the Cretaceous series in the first-named 

region. In the Texan region coal has been found in Cretaceous strata 

only in the valley of the Rio Grande, and only in the upper formations 

of the Upper Cretaceous, namely, the Eagle Pass beds, and the Larainie formation, and a similar condition prevails in the North Mexican 

region. That is, in these two southern regions coal is not known to 

have been found in either the Lower Cretaceous or in the lower portion 

of the Upper Cretaceous. In the South Interior region, however, all the 

Cretaceous formations, from the Dakota to the Laramie inclusive, have 

been found to be coal-bearing, and coal-producing conditions prevailed 

there through the Laramie into the Wasatch epoch.

It has been shown also that coal-producing conditions prevailed in 

Upper Cretaceous time in the North Interior region, large carbonaceous 

accumulations having taken place there, especially in the Belly River 

and Laramie epochs. Furthermore, it has been shown that the Kootanie', which has been recognized only in the North Interior region, is
WIHTK.J PACIFIC BORDER REGION GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 181

an important coal-bearing formation. This fact, together with others 

yet to be presented, demonstrates that coal-producing conditions prevailed extensively in the western portion of North America in Lower, 

as well as in Upper, Cretaceous time. Indeed, the Cretaceous system 

as it is developed in North America seems to be as worthy the name of 

Carboniferous as is the system to which that name has been specifically 

applied.

THE PACIFIC BORDER REGION.

This region is very long and narrow, and for want of knowledge of 

the distribution of the Cretaceous formations in the greater part of 

that portion of the continent its northern, southern, and inland boundaries are not clearly definable. The thirty-first parallel of north latitude may, however, be selected as the south boundary and the sixtieth parallel as the north boundary, the latter parallel being the same 

that was selected for the north boundary of the North Interior region. 

The western boundary of the Pacific border region is naturally the 

shore line of the Pacific Ocean, or rather a line so drawn between the 

sixtieth and thirty-first parallels as to include the islands adjacent to 

the coast. The eastern boundary may be designated as being identical 

with the western boundary of the North Interior region from the sixtieth parallel of north latitude to where that boundary meets the one 

hundred and eighteenth meridian, and from that point along the one 

hundred and eighteenth meridian to where the latter meets the Pacific 

Coast line in southern California. In other words, the southern portion 

of the boundary is the meridian just named, and the northern portion 

is the watershed between the Pacific drainage on the one hand and 

the Arctic and Atlantic drainage on the other. 

The existence of certain geographical and geological features has 

made it convenient to divide the eastern and southern portions of the 

continent into smaller regions than the one here designated as the 

Pacific Border region, but although the latter is so very long and narrow our present knowledge does not seem to warrant its division. Therefore this portion of the continent will for the present purpose be regarded as constituting a single Cretaceous region.

The displacements of the strata constituting the different formations 

are found to be so great in all the Pacific Border region, especially as 

compared with the moderate displacements in the greater part of both 

the Interior regions, that it is often difficult to study those western 

Cretaceous formations in a comprehensive manner. The reports, however, of the California State geological survey, of the United States 

survey for portions of California, Oregon, and Washington, and of the 

Canadian survey for western British America afford some good data 

for at least their general classification.

From those reports and from other sources we learn that both the 

Upper and Lower Cretaceous are in this region represented by formations which respectively bear distinguishing types of fossils. Besides
182 . THE CKETACEOUS.

these formations certain others are found iu different parts of the rogion resting upon undoubted Upper Cretaceous strata, concerning the 

true geological age of which the opinions of geologists differ, some regarding them as of Cretaceous and others as of Tertiary age. Facts 

will be presented or cited in following paragraphs which are accepted 

as evidence that at least apart of these formations occupy a transitional 

position between the Cretaceous and Tertiary.

The first published account of Cretaceous rocks in this region seems 

to have been by Prof. Newberry* in 1855 and the next by Sir James 

Hector in 1861,2 the former referring to strata occurring in California, 

and the latter to those occurring upon, and in the vicinity of, Vancouver 

Island. The publications in which distinctive names were first given to 

the Cretaceous formations in this region were those of Prof. J. D. Whitney and Mr. Wm. M. Gabb, of the California State survey.3 The section for northern California, published by Mr. J. S. Diller,4 and that for 

Queen Charlotte Islands, published by Dr. G. M. Dawson 5 and republished by Mr. J. F. Whiteaves,6 are the most comprehensive and important ; and together they embrace nearly or quite the full vertical range of 

all the known deposits which in this region are certainly referable to the 

Cretaceous.

By the aid of these two sections we are able to determine the relation to one another of all, or nearly all, the formations of the Pacific 

border region which will be discussed on this occasion; but, as will be 

plainly shown on following pages, we are not yet able satisfactorily 

to correlate these Pacific Coast formations with those of the other 

regions which have been discussed on preceding pages.

The following table contains the names of the formations, in their 

order of superposition, which constitute the California Cretaceous section as published in the geological reports of that State and which are 

retained in this memoir, to which is added in brackets the name of the 

subsequently recognized Wallala group.7

The table also indicates the portions of the California section which 

are referred to the Upper and Lower Cretaceous respectively.

Table of the California Cretaceous formations.

( Tejou gronp. 

Upper Cretaceous ...................... . .....^ Chico group.

( [Wallala group.] 

Lower Cretaceous................................................... Shasta group.

The next following table represents Dr. Geo. M. Dawson's section of 

the Cretaceous formations of Queen Charlotte Islands,8 which is also

'Pacific Railroad Reports, vol. C, part 2, pp. 9-68. 

'Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lond., vol. 17, pp. 388-485. 

8 See, for example, Paleontology of California, vol. 2, pp. xii, xiii. 

4 Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 40,1890, pp. 476-478.

6 Geol. Survey of Canada, Rep. Progress for 1878-'79, pp. 1-10, and map. 

6 Geol. Survey Canada, Mesozoic Fossils, vol. 1, part i, pp. 1-92. 

7 Ball. TJ. S. Geol. Surv. No. 22, vol. 3, p. 8.

8 Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Progress for 1878-79, pp. 1-101, Also, Geol. Snrv. Canada, Meuozoic Fossils, vol. 1, part 3, p. 192.
WHITE.] PACIFIC BORDER REGION LOWER CRETACEOUS. 183

made to indicate the formations that are, according to the plan adopted 

in this memoir, referred to the Upper and Lower Cretaceous, respectively,

Table of the Cretaceous formations of Queen Charlotte Islands.

i TT««^ rw+ « $ A. Upper shales and sandstones. Upper Cretaceous ............................. j B Coarse Conglomerates.

( C. Lower shales and sandstones. 

'Lower Cretaceous ....................... ......< D. Agglomerates.

( E. Lower sandstones.

An assemblage of strata to which the name Puget group has been 

applied, and of which further mention will be made, occurs in the State 

of Washington. It is an estuary deposit, and is probably equivalent 

to a portion of the Tejon group of the California geologists and perhaps 

also to a portion of the Laraurie formation,

THE LOWER CRETACEOUS.

The Lower Cretaceous, as it is represented by portions of the California and Queen Charlotte Islands section, respectively, has been recognized in various parts of the Pacific Border region, from near its north 

boundary to central California, and it is believed to have been originally continuous between the two points indicated, if not throughout 

the whole length of the region. If these formations were originally 

thus continuous much the greater part of all of them has been obscured 

by later deposits or removed by erosion. It is evident that at least 

between the two points mentioned they have been largely covered from 

view by subsequent accumulations of strata and of debris resulting 

from erosion; and where they have been brought to the surface by the 

great displacements which have occurred in this region they have been 

largely removed by subsequent erosion. Mainly because of these displacements and of the erosion which the strata have suffered, they have 

been observed only at a few localities in those portions of the region 

which have been examined. Some of the localities at which they have 

been observed are in California, some in Oregon, some in Washington, 

and the remainder in British America. It will be convenient to begin 

the discussion of the Lower Cretaceous of this region with the deposits 

which are found in California.

The name Shasta group was applied by the geologists of the California State Survey to all the Cretaceous strata which they found in that 

State and knew to be older than the strata which they designated as 

the Chico group; and under this head they embraced all the California 

strata which in this memoir are referred to the Lower Cretaceous. It 

was believed by those geologists that the* strata which they referred to 

the Shasta group represent two epochs, or that they constitute two 

divisions of a series of strata which are respectively characterized by

'Dr. Geo. M. Dawson designates these divisions as Earlier andLater Cretaceous, respectively. See 

Am. Jour. Sci., 1889, vol. 38, pp. 121-127.
184 THE CKETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

a more or less distinct inolluscan fauna; and they recognized them both 

together as probably representing the European Cretaceous from the 

Neocomian to the Gault.1 In the course of my own field studies of these 

rocks I have found it convenient to recognize those two divisions, and 

I designated them respectively as the Horsetown beds and the Knoxville beds, from the names of the localities at which typical exposures 

of each division occur.2

These divisions, of which the Knoxville is understood to be the older, 

are each characterized by a molluscau fauna, of which few or no species 

are yet known to be common to both within the limits of California, but 

there is probably no time-hiatus between them. The Knoxville division 

is characterized by the prevalence of shells of Aucella, which are often 

abundant, and it is believed that none of those fossil forms occur in 

the Pacific Border region in strata that are older than the Knoxville 

division, although northward from California they are now known to. 

range above it into the equivalent of the Horsetown division. That is, 

although specimens of Aucella have seldom if ever been found in the 

Horsetown division within the State of California, they have been found 

in the equivalents of that division in Oregon, Washington and British 

Columbia. Cephalopods are the leading fossil forms in th@ Horsetown 

beds of northern California, the greater part of those which are published 

in the paleontological reports of that State as coming from the Shasta 

formation having been in found in those beds.

The foregoing remarks, of course, imply that the Aucella -bearing 

strata of the Pacific Border region characterize a great paleontological 

horizon of the Lower Cretaceous. They also imply that this horizon 

includes not only strata which all geologists agree in referring to the 

Cretaceous, but certain others that some geologists have regarded as 

of Jurassic age. Not only is the lower division of the Shasta formation especially characterized by Aucella, but while, northward from 

California, that fossil form ranges higher in the series it is still the 

northern equivalent of the lower division that is especially characterized by it; that is, strata in which Aucella, is found to prevail abundantly are regarded as belonging at or near the base of the Pacific 

Border Lower Cretaceous; but it is believed that these lowest strata of 

that region do not represent the beginning of Cretaceous time.

The Cretaceous strata just mentioned as having by some geologists 

been referred to the Jurassic are found in Mariposa County, California,3 

and constitute a portion of the so-called auriferous slates. These 

strata, although greatly altered and much disturbed by orogenic movements, have been found to bear fossils the Mesozoic age of which has 

not been questioned, opinion*having differed only as to whether they 

indicate the earlier or later Mesozoic age of the strata containing them.

1 Paleontology of California, vol. 2, p. xiv.

2 Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 15, vol. 3, p. 19.

3 See Gabb, Win. JL, Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. 3, pp. 172,173. Also Meek, F. B., Geol. Surv. Cal. 

Geology, vol. 1, pp. 477-482, and plates.
WHITE.] PACIFIC BORDER REGION LOWER CRETACEOUS. 185

.Recognizing the specific identity of the Aucella, which these strata bear 

with those which prevail in the Kuoxville division of the Shasta formation, I have referred these slates to that horizon, and therefore regard 

them as of Lower Cretaceous age.1 This view is supported by the 

probable identity of other fossil forms in the auriferous slates with 

some found in the Shasta formation.

Other strata, which occur in the Coast Eange and in other parts of 

California, and which are much altered or metamorphosed, have been 

by Dr. Becker referred to the Lower Cretaceous, although other geologists have regarded them as of much greater age.2

The specimens of Auoella which have been obtained from the Cretaceous strata of different parts of California have received various specific names from different authors, some of which specimens were referred to other genera j but I regard all these, and also all the forms of 

Aucella which are found in the Kuoxville division, and, in short, all the 

forms referable to that genus which have yet been found in North 

America, as belonging to one and the same species, albeit a very variable one.3

Aucella-be&iiug strata have been discovered at numerous places in 

northern California, all of which are referred to the Knoxville division 

of the Shasta formation. They also have been found in the vicinity of 

Monte Diablo, in the central part of the State. Those which occur at 

the most southerly known locality, as already shown, were formerly referred to the Jurassic, but they are now referred to the Shasta formation of the Lower Cretaceous. The latter locality, which is near the 

parallel of 37° 30' north latitude, is the most southerly point to which 

Aucella is certainly known to reach in the northern hemisphere,4 and it 

is the most southerly known locality of fossil-bearing Lower Cretaceous 

strata in the Pacific Border region.

All the Lower Cretaceous strata of California have been so much disturbed, eroded, and covered from view by later formations, that their 

study has been a matter of much difficulty. Mr. J. S. Diller, of the U. S. 

Geological Survey, who has done much field work upon these California 

formations, has lately published a statement concerning some sections

1 See White, C. A., Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 15, vol. 3, pp. 24,25; and Monog. TJ. S. Geol. Surv., vol. 

13, pp. 226-232. See also Becker, Geo, P., in last named volume, and iu Bull. TJ. S. Geol. Surv., No. 19, 

vol. 5.

2 See Bull. IT. S. Geol. Surv., No. 19; Monog. U. S. Geol. Surv., vol. 3; and Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 2, 

pp. 201-206.

3 See Bull. TJ. S. Geol. Surv., No. 15, vol. 3, p. 23, and Monog. U. S. Geol. Surv., vol. 13, pp. 226-232, pis. 

3 and 4.

4 After the foregoing paragraphs were written Prof. S. Nikitin published in the Neues Jahrbnch 

Jahrgang, 1890, II. Band, drittes Heft, pp. 273,274 the discovery of some fossil shells near San Luis, 

Potosi, Mexico, which he believes to be identical with forms which I have referred to Aucella concen, 

trica. Should his determination prove to bo correct it will also prove to be a very important fact in 

North American geology. It ia probable that an investigation of the strata from which Prof. Nikitin's 

fossils were obtained, together with that of associated formations, will reveal the true relation of the 

Shasta formation and its equivalents to Comanche series. It will also add an important fact to our present knowledge of the geographical distribution of Aucella, since this Mexican locality lies upon the 

twenty-second parallel of north latitude.
186 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

which he has measured in the northern part of the State.1 He gives 

the maximum, ascertained thickness of the Knoxville division of the 

'Shasta formation on Elder Creek, Tehama County, at nearly 20,000 

feet, but suggests that this apparent great thickness may have been 

increased by faulting. In the same neighborhood he finds the Horsetown division to reach a thickness of over 6,000 feet.

The following tables copied from the publication just referred to contain the results of Mr. Diller's measurements of the full Cretaceous 

series in two districts in northern California.

Section on Elder Creole, Tehama County.

Feet.

Upper Cretaceous- .................. ....Chico group...... ................. 3,897

Lower rrpfapflmiH 5 Shasta group, Horsetown division.. 6, 109 L.O * er Lretaceous .................... j Knoxville divi8ion . . 19, 974

Total ............ ..... ...... ....................................... 29,978

Section of the north fork of Cottonwood Creek, Shasta County.

Feet. 

Upper Cretaceous ...... .......... ...... Chico group.... ........ . ....... 3,6.23

Lower Cretaceous. .. . .......... ......Shasta group, Horsetown division.. 5,218

Total...................................'..............,.............. 8,841

The first of these two sections shows that the Lower Cretaceous in 

California reaches a thickness of over 26,000 feet, and that much the 

greater part of this thickness is referred to the Knoxville division. Although the thickness of these strata, as ascertained by Mr. Diller, is 

so great, his announcement will occasion less surprise when one remembers the conclusions which Dr. Becker has reached as to the Cretaceous 

age of a great thickness of strata in the coast range and elsewhere in 

California, which has been by most other geologists regarded as of 

much greater age.

While it is understood that the lower portion of the Shasta formation of California and its equivalent strata in other portions of the Pacific Border region are the oldest Cretaceous strata in that region, they 

are not believed to represent the very earliest portion of Cretaceous 

time in North America. The Potoinac, Tuscaloosa, and Trinity formations of the Atlantic, Gulf Border, and Texan regions, respectively, 

are, in this memoir, assumed to be older, at least in part, than the lower 

portion of the Shasta formation, but we have yet found no satisfactory 

means of comparing them with the Lower Cretaceous of the Pacific 

Border region.

Just as this memoir is going to press, however, Prof. Newberry has 

published an article,2 in which he announces the certain identification 

of at least ten species of fossil plants from the coal-bearing strata in the 

vicinity of the Great Falls of the Missouri River in Montana with 

species that have been published by Prof. Fontaine from the Potomac

1 Note on the Cretaceous rocks of northern California. Am. Jonr. Sci., vol. 40, 1890, pp. 477, 478.

2 Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 41, 1891, pp. 191-201.
WHITE.] PACIFIC BORDER REGION LOWER CRETACEOUS. 187

formation. By means of specific identity of fossil plants Prof. Newberry had previously identified the Montana strata referred to with the 

Kootanie strata of the district of Alberta, as has already been mentioned.

If the specific identification of these fossil plants is held to prove the 

contemporaneity, as that term is usually employed by geologists, of the 

respective formations containing them, this discovery is a very remarkable one. It is shown in this memoir that in western Alberta Kootanie 

strata have been found resting upon others which bear marine Cretaceous fossils specifically identical with members of the fauna which 

characterizes the Shasta and Queen Charlotte formations, which geologists generally do not regard as representing the earliest epoch of Cretaceous time. If we admit the contemporaneity of the Kootanie strata 

of Alberta and of Montana with the Potomac formation, we must 

admit that the Potomac is of later age than at least a portion of the 

Shasta and Queen Charlotte formations, notwithstanding the fact that 

the Potomac formation has been referred to the Jurassic. This matter 

will be further referred to on a following page, in connection with the 

discussion of the Potomac horizon.

The oldest of the rocks that have been found immediately to underlie 

the Lower Cretaceous strata of the Pacific Border region are presumably of Archean age. Others are of Paleozoic, and still others are of 

Triassic age. That is, none of the immediately underlying strata have 

yet been satisfactorily shown to be of Jurassic age. Indeed, entirely 

satisfactory proof of the existence of any strata of the latter age in the 

Pacific Border region has not yet been published.

Although Mr. Diller has found apparent conformity between the 

Shasta and Chico formations in California l the great difference between 

their respective fossil faunas indicates that there is a time-hiatus between them. The time relation of the Wallala formation to the Shasta 

and Chico formations, as indicated on page 193, has not yet been demonstrated, but its place is understood to be between the two last-named 

groups. As the comparatively little known Wallala formation is regarded as Upper Cretaceous, it follows that no strata in California of 

a later age than the Shasta formation are referred to the Lower Cretaceous.

As already indicated, Lower Cretaceous strata have been found at a 

number of localities in southern Oregon, and some are also known to 

exist in the State of Washington; but, beyond the commingling there of 

species which in California characterize the Knoxville and Horsetown 

beds, respectively, these discoveries have afforded no general facts that 

have not been mentioned in connection with the California section.

The Lower Cretaceous strata of British Columbia will next be considered. The most complete section of those rocks that has yet been 

investigated in this part of the Pacific Border region is found on Queen

»Bull. TJ. S. Geol. Surv. No. 33, pp. 1-23.
188 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

Charlotte Islands, arid a table representing the full Cretaceous series 

there as studied by Dr. G. M. Dawson has been given on page 183.

This series of formations is found exposed within a comparatively 

small district embracing a portion of each of the two islands, but they 

constitute one of the most important Cretaceous sections that are yet 

known in the Pacific Border region.1 Dr. Dawson found the lowest 

member to rest unconformably upon Triassic rocks, and the uppermost 

member to be unconformably overlain by Tertiary deposits. His divisions A and B, which cousitute the upper portion of the section, are 

referred to the Upper Cretaceous and will be discussed in following 

paragraphs, while divisions C, D, and E constitute the lower portion 

and are referred to the Lower Cretaceous.

Dr. Dawson found division 0 to be very fossiliferous, and Mr. Whiteaves identified a large proportion of its species with those which characterize the Shasta formation in California. According to Dr. Dawson, 

division D is of volcanic origin, and yet divisions C and E are closely 

related to each other by the specific identity of some of their fossils. 

Indeed, it seems evident that these three members represent in time not 

only the Shasta formation, but all other Lower Cretaceous strata that 

are yet known to occur in the Pacific Border region.

Because of this identity of species, notwithstanding the intercalation 

of the volcanic formation before mentioned, these three members of the 

Queen Charlotte section will, for our present purpose, be regarded as 

representing an unbroken epoch of Lower Cretaceous time, and for the 

sake of brevity they will be referred to as the Queen Charlotte formation. The paleontological recognition of these strata, as representing 

the Shasta formation of California, is of great importance in the correlation of the different and widely separated exposures of Lower Cretaceous rocks in the Pacific Border region. The extent to which specific identification of the fossils of the two series has been made is 

shown by Mr. Whiteaves.2

Lower Cretaceous rocks have been found by members of the Canadian Geological Survey at the following localities in British Columbia, 

which in each case were recognized as equivalent to at least a portion 

of the Queen Charlotte formation by means of the specific identity of 

fossils: the northern part of Yancouver Island,Tatlyoco Lake, Jackass 

Mountain, Skagit Eiver, and Upper Skena River.3

The full series of strata as represented by the Shasta and Queen 

Charlotte sections appears not to have been found exposed at any of 

these localities, but one gets the impression from, the reports of the 

Canadian geologists that their original thickness in that part of the

'See Dawson, G. M., Geol. Surv.Canada., Hep.Prog.for 1878, pp. 1-101. Also, Richardson, James, 

Ibid., for 1882-'83, pp. 42-65.

2 Greol. Surv. Canada, Mesozoic Fossils, vol.1, parts.

3 See Canadian Keports for 1875-76,1876-77,1877-78, 1878-79, 1879-'80. Also, Dawson,G-. M., Am. 

Jour. Sci., 1889, vol. 38, pp. 120-127.
WHITE.] PACIFIC BORDER REGION LOWER CRETACEOUS. 189

Pacific Border region was hardly inferior to that which has been reported by Mr. Diller for northern California.

The Canadian geologists report exposures of presumably Cretaceous 

rocks on Stikine River, in British Columbia, nearly east from Sitka,1 

and W. P. Blake has suggested that the coal-bearing strata of Sitka 

Island are of Cretaceous age, but whether they belong to the Upper or 

Lower Cretaceous, or to both, is not yet known.2

An important discovery, already two or three times referred to, has 

been made in western Alberta, near Devil's Lake,3 which, although the 

locality is within the North Interior region, it has been left for special 

mention in connection with the Lower Cretaceous of the Pacific Border 

region. At the locality mentioned strata bearing characteristic Kootanie species of plants were found resting upon others which contain 

equally characteristic marine invertebrates of the Queen Charlotte formation. Furthermore, those Kootanie strata rest so conformably upon 

the others that they all have the aspect of constituting one formation, 

and the impression seems to prevail among the Canadian geologists 

that the Kootanie and Queen Charlotte groups were, at least in part, 

contemporaneous. However this may be, it is now clear that at least a 

part of the Kootauie is of later age than at least a part of those strata 

upon Queen Charlotte Islands, which are regarded as equivalent to the 

Shasta formation of California.

There are several points of great interest connected with this discovery, among which are the fallowing: The locality at which it was made, 

being upon the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, lies east of the 

nominal boundary of the Pacific Border region. It is also the most 

easterly point at which fossils of the Queen Charlotte and Shasta formations have been found, if we except the circumpolar distribution of the 

Aucella, which occurs so abundantly in those strata and their equivalents, and the lately reported occurrence of the same near San Luis 

Potosi, mentioned on page 185.

The fact that these Lower Cretaceous strata, in western Alberta, underlie a portion, if not all, of the Kootanie formation is of especial 

importance: first, because the character of the Kootanie flora has heretofore caused that group to be regarded as of the lowest Cretaceous, if 

not of the Jurassic, age, and, second, the Upper and Lower Cretaceous 

strata, on Queen Charlotte Islands, are reported to have the aspect of 

one unbroken series of deposits. If the upper strata of the full section 

on those islands really are of Upper Cretaceous age it seems necessary 

to assume that notwithstanding their conformity with the lower portion 

of the series there is a material time-hiatus between them "similar to,

1 See Dawson, G. M., An. Eep. Geol. Surv. Canada for 1887-'88, pp. 5C and 57 B; also, map accompanying this report.

2Seo bibliographical entry onj>. 27.

s See Dawson, G. M., Am. Jour. Sci., vol.38, p. 122; McConnell, R. G., Geol. Survey Canada, Eep. 

Prog, for 1886, p. 17 D, and Whiteaves, J. F., Cont. Canadian Paleont., vol. 1, part 2, pp. 163-172,
190 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82. '

but not so great as, that which is assumed to exist between the Shasta 

and Ohico groups of California. Neither on Queen Charlotte Islands 

nor in any other part of British Columbia, or in California, has any trace 

of a formation yet been found which may be understood to represent 

the Kootanie formation, unless it be represented by a portion of the , Queen Charlotte and Shasta formations, respectively, and of this we yet \ 

have no definite evidence.

The discovery of the taxonomic relation of the Kootanie to the Queen \ 

Charlotte formation gives almost the only direct clew yet obtained as 

to the correlation of the Cretaceous series of the Pacific Border region 

with that of the Great Interior area; but the opinion of an experienced 

geologist upon the subject of their general correlation is worthy of consideration. Therefore the following table by Dr. G. M. Dawsoii1 is 

reproduced here for the purpose of illustrating his view of the relation 

of the Lower Cretaceous formations of the Pacific Border region to those 

of the adjacent North Interior region, and to the Upper Cretaceous of 

several districts in those regions.

1 Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 38,1889, p. 127.
Table illustrating the relations of the earlier Cretaceous formations of British Columbia and of adjacent parts of the Northwest Territory. (After Daivson.)

Queen Charlotte Islands.

A. Upper shales and

B. Coarse conglomerates............. 2,000'

C. Lower shales and 

sandstones (with 

coal) .............. 5,000'

D. Agglomerates ... 3,500' 

E. Lower sandstones 1,000'

(Local base of Cretaceous.)

Comox, Vancouver Island.

Upper conglomerates 320'

Mid. conglomerates 1, 100' 

Middle shales ........ 76' 

Lower conglomerates 900'

Productive coal meas. 739'

(Local base of Cretaceous.)

Mainland of British 

Columbia.

Tatlayoco beds (7,000'), 

Nechacco beds (6,0000 

Skeenabeds, Skagitbeds 

(4,400' or more), Jackass 

Mt. beds (5,000'). All 

sandstones and qnartzites, with shales, and 

generally coarse conglomerates above. "Porphyrite" series of Utasyouco 10,000' (probably 

passing up into above) 

of Tatlayoca, and possibly of Nechacco and 

Skeena.

(Local base of Cretaceous.)

Yukon District. 

(North of 60th parallel.)

(Intermediate formations 

pr o b a b 1 y represented 

but not recognized.

Conglomerates of Rink 

Rapids, etc.

Fossiliferous shales and 

sandstones, on Kink 

Rapid, L. Labarge, etc.

(Local base of Cretaceous.)

Eocky Mountains proper. 

(Between 49° and 51° 30'.) '

Pierre (including Fox Hill).

Benton (possibly with part 

of Niobrara, 1,400').

Dakota, apparently represented in part by coarse 

conglomerates, and including on Crow Nest 

Pass, 2,200', of volcanic 

ejectamenta. 

Kootanie formation, 7,000' 

or more. Sandstones, 

shales, etc., with coal.

(Local base of Cretaceous.)

Southern Alberta.

Pierre (incl. Fox Hill) . 830'

Lower dark shales .... 800' 

Dakota (probably).

(Local base of Cretaceous.)
192 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

In closing the remarks upon the Lower Cretaceous of the Pacific Border region it is well to refer to the fact that not only have plant remains 

been found in the Shasta formation, bat the Queen Charlotte is an important coal-bearing formation. This shows that considerable land 

areas existed in those districts, although the strata referred to are ot 

marine origin, as is shown by their fossils.

THE UPPER CRETACEOUS.

The Upper Cretaceous of the Pacific Border region, so far as our present knowledge goes, is mainly represented by the Chico-Tejon series of 

California and the coal-bearing Cretaceous strata of Vancouver and 

adjacent islands, and by their recognized equivalents elsewhere; but 

the strata which have received the names of Wallala group and Puget 

group respectively will also be considered under this head. The names 

of the divisions of the Upper Cretaceous which have been recognized 

in California have been given on page 182, and it will be convenient to 

consider them separately in that order, beginning with the yet imperfectly known Wallala formation.

For many years after the geological formations of California began 

to be studied the only strata that were recognized as of Cretaceous age 

were those of the Shasta formation and the Chico-Tejon series. In 

1884, however, Dr. Gr. F. Becker discovered exposures of strata near 

the town of Wallala, in Mendocino County, California, from which he 

obtained molluscan fossils that are different from any known to occur 

in either of the two series of strata just mentioned. No stratified rocks 

were found overlying these Wallala strata, or none that could be regarded as of Cretaceous age. The underlying rocks also were not observed where the Wallala strata were found exposed, but presumably 

they rest upon the metainorphic rocks which are known to prevail in 

that district. 1

Nearly coincident with Dr. Becker's discovery Mr. C. E. Orcutt sent 

to the Smithsonian Institution a collection of fossil mollusca from the 

shores of Todos Santos Bay, in Lower California, a part of the species 

of which are identical with those found in the Wallala strata.2 In 

general character a part of the fossils from these two localities so much 

resemble certain of the forms which characterize the European Gosaugebilde that one naturally infers that the strata containing them are 

referable to the Upper Cretaceous, especially as none of the species 

have been recognized in the Shasta formation. None of them having 

been recognized in the Chico formation or in any other North American 

Upper Cretaceous strata, I suggested for those in which the fossils 

referred to were found a place between the Shasta and Chico formations and proposed for them the name of Wallala group. This sugges1 See White, C. A., Bull. TJ. S. Geol. Surv., No. 15, vol. 3; and JBecker, G. F., ibid., No. 19, vol. 3. 

2 P ull. "U. S. Geol, Survey, No. 22, vol. 3,
PACIFIC BORDER REGION UPPER CRETACEOUS. 193

tiou seemed also to be warranted by the generally accepted opinion 

that there is a considerable time-hiatus between the Shasta and Ohico 

formations.

The localities at which these strata have been recognized by means 

of their peculiar fossils are only two, and these are fully 500 miles 

apart. If these strata are to be regarded as representing a separate, 

formation, it is reasonable to infer that originally they were continuous 

between those localities, and that they constituted a distinct Upper 

Cretaceous horizon which probably extends far down into Mexico. 

Since, however, these strata have yet furnished only a few species of 

fossils, and have been discovered only at the two localities mentioned, 

our present knowledge of them is confined to a few almost isolated facts. 

Much more, therefore, remains to be learned concerning the Wallala 

strata before they can take a permanent place in the list of Cretaceous

formations of the Pacific Border region.

When the geologists of the California State survey began their work 

they were disposed to recognize the strata which I have called the 

Chico Tejon series as constituting three separate formations, namely, 

the Chico, Martinez, and Tejon; but they afterward suggested the propriety of abandoning their name, Martinez group, because they recognized those strata.which occur between the Chico and T6jou divisions as 

transitional in character.1 They also recognized the fact that the two 

last-named divisions are intimately connected with each other by specific identity of a large proportion of the fossils found in each.

While most, but not all, of the geologists who have written concerning this series of strata have admitted the Cretaceous age of the lower 

or Chico portion, some have contended earnestly that the upper or 

Tejon portion is of Eocene age.2 The geologists of the California State 

survey referred the whole series to the Cretaceous, evidently assuming 

that being an unbroken series, and containing unmistakable Cretaceous 

fossils in certain parts of it, the whole must be Cretaceous.

In former publications 3 I have shown that the Chico-Tejon strata 

form an unbroken series, the lower portion bearing characteristic Cretaceous forms, and the upper portion bearing equally characteristic 

Eocene forms. In short, I regard the deposition of this series as having 

been begun in Cretaceous time and continued without interruption to 

its termination in Eocene time. While the upper or Tejon division of 

this series is regarded as probably referable to the early Tertiary, it is, 

like the Laramie formation, discussed in this memoir among the Cretaceous formations because it is impracticable or inexpedient to separate it by definable limits from the lower or Chico division of the series, 

either upon stratigraphical or paleontological grounds. Because of 

this indivisible character of the series I have adopted the compound

1 Paleontology of California, vol. 2, pp. xii, xni.

3 See for example, Conrad, T. A., Am. Jour. Sci., 1867, vol. 44, pp. 376,377.

3 Bull. TJ. S. Geol. Survey, No. 15, voj. 3, and No, 51, vol. 8.

Bull. 82 13 '
194 THE CRETACEOUS. tsuLL.82.

term, Chico-Tejon, to designate the whole of it as it is known in California.

The most southerly known limit of this series of strata is in Santa 

Barbara County, southern California, where, however, only the upper 

or Tejon division seems to have been recognized. In Fresno County 

both divisions are well developed and they are to some degree separately recognizable in other parts of central California, but northward 

from those districts the strata which represent the upper division appear 

to diminish, or at least they do not appear to reach as far northward as 

do the equivalent strata of the lower division, as will be shown when 

the Vancouver Island strata are discussed.

With the exception of a locality in eastern Oregon which lies approximately upon the intersection of the one hundred and twentieth meridian and the fortieth parallel of north latitude, where strata equivalent to those of the Chico division have been found,1 all the known 

strata referable to, or representing any part of, this series lie west of 

the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges.

The known exposures of equivalents of the Chico-Tejon strata in 

Oregon and Washington are few, and the limits of the areas occupied 

by them have not been fully determined.2 While sorne of them are 

plainly referable to the lower division of the series, others represent a 

part of the upper, or Tejon division, among which are probably some 

that have by some authors been referred to the Eocene and Miocene 

Tertiary3 respectively.

Aside from the Chico-Tejon series in California, which in some places 

is coal-bearing, the coal-bearing series of the southern part of Vancouver Island and the adjacent smaller islands of the Gulf of Georgia 

constitutes the best representation of th e Upper Cretaceous that is 

known to occur in the Pacific Border region. In the Vancouver district, however, the strata are apparently all referable to the Chico 

division, no representative strata of the Tejon division having yet been 

recognized there; that is, no fossils have been found in the Vancouver 

strata or in any strata northward from the Vancouver district which 

are understood to be restricted to the Tejon division in California.

The section of these Vancouver rocks has been made known mainly 

through the publications of Mr. James Eichardson and Dr. G. M. Dawson, references to whose works have been made on preceding pages; 

but a number of other authors have written upon their paleontology. In 

one of my own publications concerning the fossils of this series of strata 

I proposed the name Vancouver group 4 for those which are known to 

bear many of themolluscan species that characterize the Chico strata inCalifornia, intending that the name should be only of restricted geographical application. I then overlooked the fact that Dr. G. M. Daw1 See Bull. TJ. S. Geol. Surv., No. 15, p. 8, and Bull. TJ. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., vol. 2, p. 359.

2 For references to these localities see Bull. TJ. S. Geol. Surv.t N.o.,51, vol. 8, pp. 28.-S2..

3 Bull. TJ. S. Geol. Surv., No. 51, vol. 8, pp. 30-32. 

A Bull, TJ, S. Geol. Sury,, No. 51, p. 33.
WHITE.I PACIFIC BOEDER REGION UPPER CRETACEOUS. 195

son had in 1886 applied the same name to another assemblage of strata 

which he regarded as of Triassic age and had suggested the name Nanaimo group for the Upper Cretaceous strata in question.1

Subsequently Dr. Dawson confirmed his selection of the name Nanaimo group for those Cretaceous strata, and briefly discussed their 

relations and characteristics.2 I have therefore abandoned the name 

Vancouver group for the Upper Cretaceous strata of the Vancouver 

district, and adopted the name Nanaiino in its stead.

The occurrence of certain Lower Cretaceous strata near the northern 

end of Vancouver Island has been referred to, but no Upper Cretaceous strata appear to have been found in connection with them, and 

no Lower Cretaceous strata have been found in the Vancouver district 

in connection with the Nanaimo formation. The latter formation, as 

already stated, is understood to embrace no strata that are not referable to the epoch of the Chico group of the California geologists exclusive of the Tejou; and, as defined by Dr. Dawson, it seems to embrace 

all the strata of Vancouver district which are referable to, or that need 

be discussed in connection with, the Upper Cretaceous.

The invertebrate fossils of the Nanaimo formation have been published by Mr. Whiteaves,3 Mr. Meek,4 Mr. Gabb,5 and by myself,6 and 

the plants have been published mainly by Dr. J. S. Newberry, Sir 

William Dawson, Dana, Lesquereux, and Heer.7

Because of the paucity of exposures of Upper Cretaceous strata north 

of the Vancouver district, the next and only other section that will be 

considered on this occasion is that of Dr. G. M. Dawson on Queen 

Charlotte Islands, which has already been referred to as embracing 

both Upper and Lower Cretaceous strata, the former division reaching 

a thickness there of 3,500 feet.

It appears that very few fossils have been obtained from these upper 

strata, but Mr. Whiteaves regards those which have been found as 

establishing their equivalency to certain of those which I have designated as of Upper Cretaceous age.8 They perhaps represent in part 

the Nanairno formation of Vancouver Island, but I am at present disposed to regard them as referable to a somewhat earlier Upper Cretaceous horizon. These strata are not reported to contain any coal although the Nanaimo formation contains very important beds, and coal 

is known to exist in both the upper and lower divisions of the ChicoTejon series in California.

Aside from the important formations that have already been discussed 

little or nothing appears to be known of strata in all the Pacific Border

1 See Geol. Surv. Canada, Ann. Rep., 1886, p. 10B.

* Am. Jour. Sci.. vol. 39,1P90, pp. 180-183.

3 Geol. Surv. Canada, Mesozoic Fossils, vol. 1, part II.

*Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., vol. 2, pp. 351-374, and 6 plates, and Trana. Albany Inst., vol. 4, pp. 37-49.

6 Paleontology of California, vols. 1 and 2.

6 Bull. TJ. S. Geol. Surv., No. 51, vol. 8, pp. 33-48, plates 6 and 7.

7 For Newberry's publication, see Jour. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 7, pp. 506-525.

8 Geol. Surv. Canada, Mesozoic Fossils, vol. 1, part 3, pp. 193,194.
196 THE CEETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

region, which may confidently be referred to the Upper Cretaceous, and 

we are especially in want of knowledge concerning strata to represent 

Cretaceous time between the close of the Shasta and the beginning of 

the Chico epoch. This lack of knowledge is perhaps largely due to the 

great displacements and to the immense erosion which all the formations of that region have suffered, but it is doubtless in part due to the 

fact that the region has yet been only partially examined.

All the Cretaceous formations of the Pacific Border region which have 

been discussed on the preceding pages are shown by their fossils to have 

been of marine origin, except that some fresh water molluscan forms 

have been found in layers connected with the coal beds of the Nanaiino 

formation. One important formation of non-marine origin, however, 

occurs in this region which it is desirable to notice in this connection 

although its Cretaceous age may well be questioned. This formation, 

to which I have applied the name of Puget group,1 is found occupying a 

considerable district which embraces a part of the eastern side of Puget 

Sound basin and extends upon the flanks and among the mountains 

of the range which borders the basin on the east. Comparatively little 

is yet known as to the relation of this formation to those which underlie it, but it has been observed in one or two localities to overlie strata 

which are evidently equivalent to a portion of the Nanaimo formation.

The only fossils that have yet been obtained from these strata are a 

few inolluscan forms and remains of a considerable number of plants. 

The flora to which the latter belong is regarded by Dr. Newberry as 

probably identical with that of the Laramie formation, a part at least 

of the species being identical. None of the molluscan species have 

been found in any other formation, and their character indicates their 

estuarine origin, besides which no associated trace either of true marine 

or of purely fresh-water forms has been observed. According to the 

original estimates of Mr. Bailey Willis 2 the Puget formation reaches 

a maximum thickness of 12,000 feet, but his later observations have led 

him to reduce this estimate.3 Still there can be no reasonable doubt 

that this formation is a remarkably thick one for a deposit of that kind.

The Puget formation has been definitely recognized only in the districts already indicated, and its geographical limits are not yet known, 

but Dr. Dawson has observed a formation in the district around the 

mouth of the Frazer Eiver, in British Columbia,4 which reaches a thickness of several thousand feet. It seems to possess the general characteristics of the Puget formation and to occupy a similar taxonomic 

position, but no fossils have yet been found in its strata by which the 

two series of strata may be identified with each other. Still, it is 

thought probable that the British Columbian deposit was contemporaneous with the Puget formation and it is possible also that the two 

were originally continuous. The Puget formation in Puget Sound

1 SeeBull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 51, vol. 8. pp. 49-63. 3 See Bull. U". S. Gcol. Surv. No. 51, vol. 8, p. 52. 

*§ee Kep. Tenth Census TJ. S., voL 15, pp. 759-771, * See 4.TO- Jour. Sci,, 1890, vol. 39, pp. 182,183,
WHITE.] PACIFIC BORDER REGION THE PUGET GROUP. 197

basin bears several coal beds, a part of which are of great commercial 

importance, but no coal has yet been reported to exist in the similar 

deposit near the mouth of JFrazer Eiver.

In my publication of the Puget formation, I suggested that it was 

probably synchronous in its origin with a part of the Tejon group of 

California, but no direct evidence on this point has yet been obtained. 

As already mentioned, the Puget formation has furnished very little intrinsic evidence which bears upon the question of its geological age; 

but, as it is supposed to have been contemporaneous with at least portions of the Laramie and Tejon formations, respectively, it is in this 

memoir briefly referred to in connection with the Upper Cretaceous of 

the Pacific Border region. It is of some importance also as still further 

indicating the indefiniteness of the upper delimitation of the North 

American Cretaceous.

In the table which is copied on page 191, Dr. Dawson has given his 

view not only of the correlation of the Lower Cretaceous formations in 

the Pacific Border au'd North Interior regions, but of certain of the 

Upper Cretaceous deposits also. These and other assumed correlations will be further shown in tables on following pages, but it cau not 

be denied that the correlation of any of the Cretaceous formations of 

the Pacific Border region with any of those of all other regions is still 

a matter of much uncertainty. The discovery of Kootanie strata 

superimposed upon others which bear characteristic fossils of the 

Queen Charlotte group, which has been several times mentioned on 

preceding pages, is of great importance, but it is not yet conclusive as 

to the full correlation of any of the formations in question.

The Kootanie being a non-marine formation, its true equivalency to 

other Lower Cretaceous formations may never be known, but one naturally indulges a hope that marine faunas may yet afford a clew to the 

correlation of the different Lower Cretaceous formations of the continent. As a matter of fact, however, the abundant marine fauna of 

the Shasta and Queen Charlotte formations of the Pacific Border 

region contains no form that has yet been satisfactorily identified with 

any form found in any other North American formation, not even with 

auy member of the abundant marine fauna of the Comanche series. 1 

This is all the more noteworthy because it is now known that the 

latter fauna extended westward in the North Mexican region to a point 

within the drainage area of the Gulf of California.

In the case of the Atlantic Border, Gulf Border, Texan, North Mexican, and the two Interior regions, the correlation of certain of the 

Upper Cretaceous formations of each with certain of those or all the 

others has been confidently determined by specific identity of fossils, 

and in many cases by geographical continuity of strata also. But while 

one can not doubt that the Upper Cretaceous deposits of the Pacific 

Border region were contemporaneous with some of those which occur

1 See foot-note relative to certain Oatreid forms, on page 121.
198 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

in all the other regions, no geographic continuity of their strata has 

yet been observed and no satisfactory recognition of their faunal relationship has been made. It is, however, true that a large number of 

specific forms in the molluscan fauna of the Chico formation are represented by closely similar forms in the Upper Cretaceous of those more 

eastern regions, especially in the Eipley formation of the Gulf Border 

and Texan regions.

General remarks concerning the Cretaceous of the seven North American

regions.

In the course of the foregoing discussion of the Cretaceous formations 

of the different regions, the coal-bearing character of a large part of them 

has been several times referred to. The presence of coal among these 

strata is important from an economic view, and it has much significance 

with reference to the physical conditions which prevailed during Cretaceous time in North America.

The vegetal substance of which the coal is composed having originated upon land or marsh surfaces implies that, although it may be, as 

it in some cases is, intercalated between marine strata, non-marine conditions prevailed when and where its material was produced, although 

marine conditions immediately preceded and followed its production. 

It is true, however, that much the greater part of the coal and socalled lignite of the Cretaceous formations of Nortk America, which 

in the aggregate probably exceeds the coal of the Carboniferous Coal 

Measures of the continent, has been accumulated among the strata of 

wholly non-marine formations, which implies the existence of broad 

continental areas.

Thus the coal of the Colorado, Montana, Chico, Nanaimo, and Queen 

Charlotte formations being both overlain and underlain by marine 

strata indicates the preponderance of marine over land conditions when 

and where those formations were accumulated. But the coal of the 

Kootanie, Dakota, Belly Eiver, Laramie, and Puget formations occurring among strata of wholly non-marine origin implies that marine 

waters had retired from the districts or regions where they were deposited and that broad continental conditions prevailed.

These facts, together with the evidence of the existence of various 

breaks in the order of succession of the formations which has been 

pointed out, show that during the whole of Cretaceous time continental 

conditions prevailed over large portions of what is now the North 

American continent. Therefore, the study of its Cretaceous geology 

ought to have large reference to continental conditions.

Closing the discussion of the formations of each of the Cretaceous 

regions of the continent, remarks were made upon the upper and lower 

delimitations of the full Cretaceous series as found within its borders, 

but the following summary will give a more comprehensive view of the
winm] GENERAL REMARKS ON NORTH AMERICAN CRETACEOUS. 199

relation of the North American Cretaceous as a whole to the earlier 

Mesozoic and to the Eocene.

The entire absence of Lower Cretaceous formations from large, geographical areas where Upper Cretaceous formations prevail and the 

comparatively slight development of them in other areas, together with 

the great paleontological differences between the characteristics respectively of the Lower Cretaceous formations which are now known, indicate the existence of large continental areas during Lower Cretaceous 

time, of which no record has yet been discovered, and necessarily render the lower delimitation of the Cretaceous system in North America 

as a whole a matter of much uncertainty. Besides this the Triassic 

and Jurassic systems are nowhere well represented, in North America, 

particularly as regards their paleoiitological characteristics.,

At no known place in North America where Jurassic strata have been 

recognized do their fossil contents give any clear indication of an impending change to Cretaceous characteristics, and in no case have 

Lower Cretaceous strata been found to bear fossil remains which indicate a gradual transition from the Jurassic, unless the Potomac formation and its equivalents shall prove to be an exception. Moreover, 

with that possible exception, no Lower Cretacous strata have been 

found resting upon those which may satisfactorily be referred to the 

Jurassic.1 Admitting the possible exception just mentioned, the Potomac formation is, in the tables on following pages, represented as occupying a transitional position between the Jurassic and Cretaceous j 

but this question is not regarded as by any means a settled one. In 

all other cases the facts hitherto- observed indicate on the one hand 

that the lowermost known Cretaceous strata do not represent the very 

earliest portion of Cretaceous time, in North America, and on the other 

that no strata yet discovered represent the close of North American 

Jurassic time.

It will thus be seen that, with the possible exception referred to, the 

lower delimitation of the North American Cretaceous is everywhere 

marked by a hiatus which is an important one even where the shortest 

interval of time is indicated, and which over a great geographical area 

is so great as to reach upward to the base of the Dakota formation, 

which is regarded as the base of the Upper Cretaceous. Moreover, 

this hiatus is, in many places, extended downward by the absence of 

older formations, so that Cretaceous strata, even as late as those of the 

Dakota formation, are found resting upon Paleozoic, and even upon 

Archean rocks.

The lower delimitation of the North American Cretaceous system is indefinite because of the facts just mentioned, and because of the impracticability of correlating with one another those formations that in the

'It is possible that the Trinity formation of tlio Texan region, upon which the Comancho series 

rests there, may yet prove to be of Jurassic age, but it is in this memoir referred provisionally to the 

Lower Cretaceous.
200 THE CRETACEOUS. [HULL.82.

different regions of the continent constitute the local base of the full 

series of Cretaceous formations. The upper delimitation of the system 

is frequently the result of removal of strata that have been deposited, or 

that of a failure of their deposition, but in certain cases it is indefinable 

because of the blending of the uppermost strata of the Cretaceous with 

those the Eocene age of which can not reasonably be doubted.

The plainest and most unmistakable case of blending of Upper Cretaceous with Eocene strata is that of the Chico-Tejon series in California, where it is both paleontological and stratigraphical. This 

series is known to reach an aggregate thickness of not less than 10,000 

feet, through which ranges a marine molluscan fauna embracing both 

Cretaceous and Tertiary types. In the lower portion of the series the 

Cretaceous types are so numerous that one is not justified in referring 

it to other than the Cretaceous system j and in the upper portion the 

fauna, a large proportion of the members of which are also found in 

the lower portion, is equally characteristic of the Tertiary, the Cretaceous forms having gradually disappeared.

It seems to be unquestionable that the passage from Cretaceous to 

Tertiary time was accomplished while the marine area in which the 

Chico-Tejon series of strata was deposited was undisturbed by any 

movements of the earth's crust which resulted disastrously to its fauna 

or in any general interruption of its sedimentation.

Another case of the blending of the Cretaceous and Tertiary is 

understood to have occurred within or iu connection with the Laramie 

formation, which subject has been discussed on preceding pages. In 

this case, however, while the stratigraphical evidence is quite as good 

as it is in the case of the Chico-Tejon series the paleontological evidence is not so direct. That is, in the case of the Chico-Tejon series, 

unbroken marine conditions existed, but in the other case there was, 

near the close of Cretaceous time, a change from marine to non-marine 

conditions, while there was evidently no general interruption of sedimentation within the great area where the evidences of that transition 

from marine to non-marine conditions have been observed.

It is probable also that the Puget formation represents the Laramie, 

and therefore a transitional epoch between Cretaceous and Tertiary 

time; but the Puget formation occupies a comparatively small area, while 

the aggregate area occupied by the Chico-T6jon series 'and by the Laramie formation are each many thousands of square miles in extent.

These facts are sufficient to show the indefinable character of the 

upper delimitation of the North American Cretaceous system, at least 

in two important regions, a condition that must necessarily have existed in many other parts of the world, but evidence of which has seldom been recognized.

One can not review the facts that have been ascertained concerning 

the North American Cretaceous without being impressed with the evidence already referred to of the prevalence of continental conditions at 

different epochs during the whole of Cretaceous time, some of them
WHITE.] EXTRA-REGIONAL DISTRICTS. 201

having been contemporaneous with those in which important marine 

formations were deposited; and he is still farther impressed with the 

diet that continental conditions prevailed in North America even more 

extensively during the earlier Mesozoic.

It is true that, upon at least the western border of the continent, we 

find the marine Cretaceous merging into the marine Eocene, but within 

a large part of its great interior portion we find the marine Cretaceous 

formations immediately succeeded by those which were deposited in 

either brackish or purely fresh waters, all of which necessarily were 

more or less completely landlocked. The prevalence of such bodies of 

water implies the contemporaneous existence of surrounding continental 

conditions which we have reason to believe never afterward suffered 

from marine invasion. The subsequent continental changes involved 

the final draining away of those uon-marine waters, and the elevation

of the principal now existing mountain ranges, but the occurrence of 

those changes was evidently coincident with, or after the close of, Cretaceous time.

EXTRA-REGIONAL DISTRICTS.

Reference has already been made to the existence of Cretaceous 

deposits in certain portions of North America which are not included 

within the limits of any one of the seven regions which have been 

defined and discussed on preceding pages. These deposits have been 

left to be discussed or referred to under the head of extra-regional districts, because their known exposures are small and it is impracticable 

to clearly define the respective areas which they occupy, or because 

little has yet been learned of their character or extent.

From a few desultory publications and from casual items of information which have from time to time reached geological investigators 

there is reason to believe that large portions of central and southern 

Mexico and of Central America are occupied by Cretaceous formations. The Upper Cretaceous doubtless prevails in that great southern 

area, and it is probable that the marine Lower Cretaceous has there a 

more important development than it has elsewhere upon this continent. 

This is indicated by the increase in thickness of the Comanche series 

toward the west and southwest from the Texau region, which has been 

noted, as has also the evidence that the whole series thins out toward 

the north and east within the Texau region. The little that is yet 

known of the geology of this great southern portion of the continent 

makes it probable that when it has been systematically investigated it 

will be found to constitute one of the most important Cretaceous regions 

within its limits in North America.

The following publications, besides those which have already been 

referred to, contain the most that Iras yet been made known concerning 

the Cretaceous geology of Mexico:

CASTILLO, ANTONIO DEL.. Bosquejo de una Carta de la Repiiblica Mexicana, formado por disposicion del Secretario de Foruento.
202 tHft CRETACEOUS. iwiLL.82.

GALEOTTI, H. Notice sur le Calcaire Cretace des environs de Jalapa au Mexique.

Bull. Soc. g6ol. de France, vol. 10,1838 a 1839, pp. 32-39. 

RAMIREZ, SANTIAGO. Informe que como resultado de su Exploracion en la Sierra

Mojada. Anales del Ministerio de Foraento de la Republica Mexicana, vol. 3, pp.

G'27-687.

 . Informe sobre el Mineral de Guadalcazar en el Estado de San Luis Potosi, 

ibid, pp. 339-404

 . Mernoria para la Carta Geologica del Distrito de Zumpango. 

BARCENA, MAKIANO. Noticia cientih'ca de una parte del Estado de Hidalgo. Anales 

del Ministerio de Fomento de la Repitblica Mexicana, vol. 1, pp. 331-351.

 . Materiales para la Formaciou de una Obra de Paleontologia Mexicana.

Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico, vol. 1, pp. 85-87,195-202, 283-286. 

URQUIZA, MANUEL. Exploracion del Distrito de Coalcoman, Estado de Michoacan.

Anales del Ministerio de Fomento de Republica Mexicatia, vol. 7, pp. 195-261. 

WHITE, CHARLES A. Descripcion de un gran fossil Gasteropodo del Estado de

Puebla. La Naturaleza, vol. 6, pp. 219-221. 

HEILPRIN, ANGELO. The Geology and Paleontology of the Cretaceous Deposits of

Mexico. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., for 1890, pp. 445-469, and 3 plate?. 

NIKITIN, S. Eiuiges ueber den Jura in Mexico und Ceutralasieu. Neues Jahrbnch

fur Min., Geol. u.Palaeont., Jahrgang, 1890, II Baud, drittes Heft, pp. 273-274.

Just as the manuscript of this memoir is going to press an article by 

Prof. Angelo Heilprin has appeared, entitled The Geology and Paleontology of the Cretaceous Deposits of Mexico. 1 He says :

Cretaceous deposits cover, or are scattered over, the greater part of Mexico, from the 

Atlantic plains to the Pacific, and from the Rio Grande to (or through) the States of 

Colima, Michoacan, Guerero, and Oaxaca. These deposits are continuous with the 

Cretaceous area of the interior basin of the United States, and are largely the equivalents in age of the deposits which are represented in Texas and in the other Gulf 

States.

The geological map by Prof. Castillo is also received while this memoir 

is in press. It is an important contribution to the knowledge of the 

geology of the Mexican Bepublic, and contains much matter hitherto

unpublished, but it is accompanied by no descriptive text.

Several authors have published reports of the existence of Cretaceous 

deposits upon certain of the West India Islands, namely, upon Jamaica, 

St. Thomas, San Domingo, and Trinidad.2 For the present purpose, 

however, these discoveries are comparatively unimportant, and the reported characteristics of the deposits afford few if any data by which 

they may be correlated with any of the North American Cretaceous 

formations. Indeed, a part of them, especially those of the Island of 

Trinidad, appear to have less affinity with these than with those of 

South America.

Naturalists connected with the various expeditions to the far north 

have brought back collections of fossils, comprising both invertebrate 

and plant remains, which indicate the existence of Cretaceous deposits

'Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Doc., 1890, pp. 445-469; Plates xi-xiii.

2 See Barrett: On some Cretaceous Rocks in the Southeastern portion of Jamaica. Quart. Jour. 

Geol. Soc. Loncl. for 1860, pp. 324-320.

Duncan, P. M., and G. P. Wall: A notice of the Geology of Jamaica. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Loud, 

for 1884, pp. 1-15.

Sawkins, J. G.: Report on the Geology of Jamaica, or Part 2 of the West Indian Survey.
WHiTK.1 EXTRA-REGIONAL DISTRICTS. 203

in different portions of Arctic North America. The best known collections of plant remains were obtained in western Greenland, and these 

represent floras that are respectively referable to the Upper and Lower 

Cretaceous of North America.1 The collections that have been obtained 

at the two localities, respectively designated as Atane and Patoot, are 

each regarded as representing a separate stage of the Upper Cretaceous, 

that of Atane being the older, and probably equivalent to the Dakota 

formation. The collections made at the Kome locality are referred to 

the Lower Cretaceous.

The second North Pole expedition obtained a collection of invertebrate fossils on Kuhn Island, off the east coast of Greenland,2 which 

contained among other forms numerous examples of the Aucella, which 

is found so plentifully at various places in the Pacific Border region 

and in northwestern North America north of the sixtieth parallel of 

north latitude. The strata from which these Greenland fossils were 

obtained are therefore referred to the Lower Cretaceous and not to the 

Jurassic.

There is in the central portion of the continent, and not included within 

any of the regions that have been defined on preceding pages, a large 

district which has been already referred to as one within which Cretaceous deposits formerly prevailed, but which have been mostly removed 

by erosion or obscured by glacial action. This district lies east of and 

adjacent to the eastern boundary of the Great Interior area as denned 

on page 141, and north of the Texan region. The eastern boundary is 

not clearly definable, but it may be designated as passing northward 

through the western border of Illinois and that of Wisconsin to the 

northeast corner of Minnesota, and thence northwestward through Manitoba. That is, it is assumed that the sea in which the Cretaceous deposits of the Great Interior area were formed originally extended eastward nearly or quite as far as the boundary just indicated.

Small outliers or local exposures of Cretaceous strata have been found 

at numerous localities in Minnesota, and a less number in Iowa, the 

principal of which are shown upon the map accompanying this memoir. 

In the former State these discoveries range from its southern to near 

its northern boundary, but in the latter they are confined mainly to the 

western and northern portions.3

1 Oswald Heer, Flora Fossils Arctica.

2 Toula, F.: Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt, vol. 2, pp. 497-507.

s For the various published accounts of these exposures and of the discovery of Cretaceous fossils in 

the drift, consult the following -works:

Hall, James, U. S. and Mexican Boundary Survey, vol. 1, pp. 101-140, 4 maps. 

Hall, James, Trans. Am. Philos. Soc., vol. 13 (n. s.), pp. 329-339. 

White, C. A., Rep. Geol. Surv. Iowa, vols. 1 and 2. 

White, C. A., Proc. Am. As'n Adv. Sci., vol. 21, pp. 187-192. 

Wmchell, N. H., Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Miiin., Rep. for 1873, pp. 127-212. 

Winchell, N. H., Minn. Acad. Sci. Bull., vol. 1, pp. 347-350.

"Winchell, N. H.,and Warren Upham, Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Minn., Final Report, vol. 2. 

Kloos. J. H., Am. Jour. Sci., 1872, vol. 3, pp. 17-26. 

Worthen, A. H., Rep. Geol. Surv. Dlinois, vol. 8, pp. 3-7.
204 l£HE CRETACEOUS.

Besides these discoveries in Iowa and Minnesota, Cretaceous fossils 

and material believed to have been derived from Cretaceous deposits 

have been found in the drift of western Illinois [ and the drift of certain 

portions of western Wisconsin is believed by some geologists to contain 

similar material. The character of these latter discoveries is such as to 

indicate that original deposition of Cretaceous deposits occurred in the 

neighborhood where the observations were made.

No such deposits, or unmistakable traces of them, are yet known to 

have been discovered in Missouri, but it is thought not improbable that 

they may yet be found at least in the northern part of that State. Indeed it seems probable that the waters in which the interior Cretaceous 

deposits were made were continuous with those in which were deposited 

the Cretaceous formations of the Gulf Border region, by way of a narrow strait passing through what is now a portion of southwestern 

Illinois. That the Cretaceous sea extended eastward as far as has just 

been indicated seems to be unquestionable, but that a narrow strait 

connected it with the southern sea has not yet been proved.

The exposures of Cretaceous deposits in situ that have been discovered in this district are all so small that they are represented only 

by mere dots on the accompanying map, but there are trustworthy indications that in certain parts of the district they really occupy considerable unbroken areas beneath the drift, especially in Iowa and 

Minnesota, and that in some of those places they reach several hundred 

feet in thickness. There is no reason to doubt that this is the case 

within a considerable area in northwestern Iowa and within similarly 

important areas in southern Minnesota. So fully convinced was I, 

while investigating the geology of northern and western Iowa, that Cretaceous deposits occupy a large area beneath the drift that I so represented it upon the maps of my reports.3

All the Cretaceous deposits which have been recognized within this 

district belong to the Upper Cretaceous, remnants of the Dakota, Colorado, and Montana forma'oions having been recognized in different 

parts of it by means of characteristic fossils, but no evidence has been 

observed that the Laramie ever existed within it, and none that this 

formation ever extended so far eastward as its western border. Because 

these deposits are generally found resting upon Paleozoic and older 

rocks it is not thought probable that any Lower Cretaceous strata were 

ever deposited within the limits of the district.

It is probable that the Cretaceous formations of this district never 

reached so great a thickness as did their representatives in the regions 

to the west of it, and this may in part account for the small bulk of the 

remnants which now exist there. But evidently this paucity of Cretaceous deposits there is largely due to the fact that they were not only 

exposed to erosion during Tertiary time, but they were still further

1 Geol. Sui-v. Illinois', vol. 8, pp. 3-7.

2 See Eep. Geol. Surv. Iowa, 1870, vola. 1 and 2, with maps.
WHITE.] EXTRA-REGIONAL DISTRICTS. 205

removed and obscured by glacial action. Tbese causes together have 

left the record of Cretaceous history for this part of the interior of the 

continent ill a very fragmentary condition.

The other extra-regional districts which remain to be noticed embrace 

Alaska and other portions of the northwestern part of the continent, 

north of the 60th parallel. The discovery of Cretaceous deposits in 

western Alaska and adjacent islands have been made by persons connected with several different expeditions. These discoveries have given 

comparatively little information concerning the general Cretaceous 

geology of the district, and therefore our knowledge of it is mainly 

confined to the inferences which properly may be drawn from the character of the fossils collected there. This information is scattered 

through a considerable number of publications in different countries. 1

The localities at which the fossils referred to were discovered are 

nearly all indicated upon the accompanying map by spots of the color 

used to designate other Cretaceous areas, but the following statements 

indicate the localities that were visited by each discoverer.

The fossils published by Grewiugk were collected by Ilia Wosnessensky at the bay of Katmai on the southern coast of the Alaskau 

peninsula, approximately upon 58° north latitude and 155° west longitude. It was near this locality that some Mesozoic fossils were obtained 

that were published by myself, but which I could not then confidently 

refer to the Cretaceous.2 It is now thought probable that these fossils 

belong to the same general horizon as the Aucella-bearing beds, and if 

so they ought to be referred to the Cretaceous.

The few fossils that were published by Fischer were obtained by 

Alph. Pinart at " le baie d'Amakshak, pres de Soutkhouni, et le baie 

Nokkhalilik, pres du volcan Chigihinagak." The former locality is 

approximately upon north latitude 56° 58' and longitude 159° 40', and 

the latter upon 56° 58' north latitude and longitude 159° 10' west, 

both localities being upon the north side of the Alaskan peninsula.

The few species which were published by myself and collected by 

W. H. Ball at Fossil Point, Port Miiller, were found approximately upon 

longitude 160° 31' minutes west*and latitude 55° 14' north, the locality 

being upon the north side of the Alaskan peninsula, and not far distant 

from the localities which were visited by Pinart.

Eichwald's fossils were obtained by Peter Doroschin from several 

localities upon both sides of the Alaskan peninsula, the principal of 

which may approximately be indicated as follows by north latitude 

and west longitude: lat. 59° 20', long. 152°; lat. 60° 32', long. 152° 25'; 

lat. 58°, long. 155° 25'; lat. 56° 30' long 157° 30'.

1 Eicliwald, E., Geognost. Palaeout. Bemerkungen ii. d. Halbinsel Mangischlak u. d. Aleutischen Inseln, pp. 88-200; White, C. A., Bull. TJ. S. Geol, Surv. No. 4, pp. 1015; Grewingk, C., Kuss. Kais. Min. GoBollsch., St. Petersburg, 1848-'49, pp. 344-347; Fischer, P., Voyage Ma cote nordouest de I'Ameriqne, par 

M. Alph. Pinart, pp. 33, et seq. For a brief sketch of the geology of the Alaskan Peninsula, see W. H. 

Uall in Am. Jour. Sci. for July, 1882. pp. 67-68. Compare also White, C. A., Mesozoic Mollusca from 

the Southern Coast of tbo Alaskan Peninsula, Bull. TJ. S. Geol. Surv. No. 51, vol. 8, pp. 494-500, and plates 

12-14.

*See Bull. TJ. S. Geol. Surv. No. 51, vol. 8, pp. 494-500 and Plates 12-14.
206 THE CEETACEOUS. [DULL.82.

The fossils found at all the localities which have been mentioned in 

the foregoing paragraphs are all invertebrates, and all are referred to 

the Lower Cretaceous, although Eichwald refers a part of his species 

to the Gault. Furthermore, I have little or no doubt that the strata 

from which all these fossils were obtained belong to the great horizon 

of the Shasta group of California, and of the Queen Charlotte group of 

British Columbia.

The only other published evidence of the existence of Cretaceous 

strata in the western Alaskan district of which I have any knowledge 

consists of some fossil plants which have been discovered at Cape Lisburue, and which have been referred to the Neocomian by Lesquereux.1 

These plants probably represent a portion of one of the Greenland 

floras, but direct evidence upon that point is wanting.

The discoveries of Cretaceous deposits, which have been made in 

British America north of the sixtieth parallel of north latitude and in 

the adjacent parts of eastern Alaska, are among the results of explorations undertaken by the Canadian geological survey, only a part of 

which are yet published.2 Besides the information derived from the 

published reports of that survey, I have been favored with notes from 

reports by Dr. G. M. Dawson and Mr. E. G. McConnell, which are yet 

unpublished. The following statements, as well as the outlines of the 

areas which are colored as Cretaceous upon the map at the end of this 

bulletin, are in part made in accordance with those notes and in part 

from the published reports referred to.

The color upon the map includes all deposits, from those of the Shasta 

horizon to the Laramie, inclusive, and the observations that have been 

made have not yet been sufficient to define all the intervening formations which presumably exist in that northern region. It is certain, 

however, that strata of the Shasta horizon originally extended over a 

large part of it, especially in the area drained by the Yukon. It appears also that marine Upper Cretaceous deposits also occur nearly or 

quite as far north as the mouth of Mackenzie Eiver. These latter deposits presumably are, or originally were, continuous with those farther 

south, in the Great Interior area, but it does not necessarily follow that 

those deposits which, in the valley of Mackenzie Eiver, have been found 

to contain Laramie species of plants were originally continuous with the 

great Laramie formation. It is more probable that they were contemporaneously deposited in separate bodies of water and that the leaves 

of then existing deciduous plantr. were cast into those waters on either 

hand, as has been intimated by L>r. G. M. Dawson.3

1 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mas., vol. 11,1888, pp. 31-33, ard plates 10 and 16.

2 See Dawson, G. M., Report on an Exploration in the Yukon District, N. W. T., etc., Geol. Surv. Canada, Ann. Kep. Prog, for 1887-'88, pp. 5-178 B; also. Notes to accompany a geological map of the northern 

portion of the Dominion of Canada east of the Rocky Mountains. Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Canada for 

1886, pp. 1-62 E, and map.

Mr. R. G. McConnell, of the Canadian geological survey, has now in press an important report concerning his explorations in the valley of Mackenzie River and that of the Yukon,

3 Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, vol. 8, sec. 4, sketch map 3, following page 74,
WHITE.] CORRELATION AND TAXONOMY. 207 

CORRELATION AND TAXONOMY ILLUSTRATED BY TABLES.

The relation of the Cretaceous formations in each of the seven recognized regions of the continent to those which lie adjacent to it and the 

known or supposed taxouomic position of each of those formations with 

relation to a recognizable scale, have to some extent been shown upon 

preceding pages, but it is desirable that the subject of the correlation 

and taxonomy of the North American Cretaceous formations should be 

presented somewhat more concisely. Therefore, the principal sections, 

18 in number, that have been published from time to time by different 

authors have been selected for tabular arrangement in such a manner 

as to be synoptically comparable with one another, and these tables 

are presented on following pages. This tabular presentation of the 

subject not only gives my own views as to the correlation and taxonornic position of each formation, but it shows the limitation of the 

formations which other authors have recognized and the identity of 

certain formations that have received different names from different 

authors. The spaces which in each table are inclosed by lines respectively represent the formations which have been recognized and also 

the position in the scale to which each is assigned. The spaces which 

are open at the right-hand side represent the assumed absence of 

strata necessary to make the section complete.

One always finds it more or less difficult to present satisfactorily in 

tabular form his views as to the correlation of formations which occur 

in different and widely separated portions of a continent, but perhaps 

one of the best methods is to tabulate them by name in parallel columns 

upon a single sheet. In the present case a sheet would be inconveniently large, especially as explanations are deemed necessary for each 

section to be represented. I have therefore devoted one table to each 

section, a whole page to each table, and the whole of the opposite page 

to its explanation.

To show the actual or supposed relation of each section with the 

others I have adopted for each table a graduated scale, the unitary divisions of which are represented by the letters of the alphabet, a full 

alphabet being devoted to both the Upper and Lower Cretaceous. 

Thus " a" of the Upper Cretaceous division of the scale represents the 

terminal portion of Cretaceous time; and " z " of the Lower Cretaceous 

division, the initial portion of the same.

The scale for each table being an exact counterpart of all the others, 

the position, with reference to its unitary divisions, of the space which 

in each table is devoted to each formation of the section represented 

approximately expresses my views as to its correlation with, or its taxonomic position with reference to, the formations represented in all the 

other tables.

Conspicuous among the objections that may be made against the use 

of this scale is the aspect of mathematical exactness which is produced
208 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

by the equal spacing of the unitary divisions; but this objection would 

apply i;o any scale the purpose of which is to express subdivisions of 

geological time. I therefore wish distinctly to-state that the correlation 

aud taxouomic arrangement of formations which are shown in the tables 

in connection with the use of this scale are intended only to represent 

my present views, a part of which, at least, are likely to be changed by 

further investigation.

In some cases, for example in the case of the Lower Cretaceous formations represented in the following tables, it is likely that the true position of each formation with reference to the base and top of the series 

and also with reference to the other formations may not be accurately 

represented, but their present assignment in the scale has been made in 

accordance with my present interpretation of ascertained facts. In 

other cases, however, the correlation and taxonomy represented in the 

tables are regarded with much confidence, and in certain cases the correlation is necessarily correct because similar or identical sections are 

compared, the formations of which have received different names from 

different authors; that is, the differences in the latter cases are only 

or mainly those which relate to their momenclature.

In the discussion of the formations of the Pacific Border region it has 

beeu shown that the correlation of separate formations there with those 

of any of the other regions is a matter of much uncertainty, although 

one can not doubt that at least the Upper Cretaceous formations of that 

region were really contemporaneous with some of those of the other regions. It will therefore be understood that the correlation which is 

implied in the tables embracing those formations has not yet been 

directly demonstrated.

Other cases, in which I have only indicated 'my present views rather 

than given expression to established facts, are the placing of the Dakota formation and its equivalents at the base of the Upper Cretaceous, 

and of the Potomac formation and its real and supposed equivalents at 

the base of the Lower Cretaceous, with a partial extension of them into 

the Jurassic.

The student of European geology will doubtless be disappointed by 

not finding in these tables an attempt to correlate the subdivisions of 

the American with those of the European Cretaceous, but, as was stated 

in the introduction, I believe that much more extensive studies of these 

formations ought to be made before any such correlation can be satisfactorily established. It has already been shown that North American 

Cretaceous geology is not a continental unit, and until we are able to 

satisfactorily correlate the Pacific Border formations with those of the 

other regions of this continent, it is well to hold in abeyance any definite attempt at the correlation of the subdivisions of the North American Cretaceous with those of any other continent.

It may not be amiss, however, to say that the time-scope of the Amercan scale which I have here introduced being regarded as jdeallv equl^
WHITB.J CORRELATION AND TAXONOMY. 209

aleut to that of the European scale, it is thought that the plane of "c" 

in the Upper Cretaceous portion of tbe former corresponds to a plane 

that will fall within the approximate homotaxial equivalent of the subdivision of the European scale known as the Upper Chalk. This somewhat indefinite statement and the general inferences that may be drawn 

from it as to further correlation of the North American with the European Cretaceous constitute all that I feel warranted in saying upon 

that subject in this connection.

It is in part my belief that the time has not yet arrived for a full correlation of the subdivisions of the American with those of the European 

Cretaceous, but it is mainly the inherent characteristics of the various 

formations which constitute our North American Cretaceous that has 

caused me to recognize only two general divisions of the system, an 

upper and a lower, instead of upper, middle, and lower divisions which 

are usually recognized in Europe. 

Bull. 82 14
210 THE CRETACEOUS. | BULL. 82.

MEEK & HAYDEN'S UPPEK MISSOURI RIVER SECTION.

The section which for many years has been known as Meek & Hayden's Upper Missouri Eiver section is represented by the table on the 

opposite page. It embraces all the Cretaceous formations that were 

recoguized by those authors as existing in the region which is traversed 

by the Missouri Eiver from Fort Benton in Montana to the mouth of 

Big Sioux Eiver in western South Dakota. By most geologists this 

section has been recognized, with or without modification, as a. standard 

for the classification of the formations of the interior portion of the 

continent, which in this memoir are referred to the North American 

Cretaceous.

The modifications which have been proposed by different authors are 

shown in the tables upon pages 213, 226, 231, 233, 235, and 237. For 

discussions of the section and tables representing it see pages 144,145, 

155 and 158.
TABLES OF CO1UIELATION AND TAXONOMY.

fc c)1- Hayden'a Upper Missouri Eiver Section.

211

EOCENE.

UPPER

CRETACEOUS

LOWER

CRETACEOUS

.

JURASSIC.

X

Y

z

A

B

C

O

F

§

H

\_

'J

H

r

F

o

p

C

R

S

T

U

V

w

X

Yz"

A

B

C

D

£

F

G

H

J~

K

L

M

N

O

P

O

Rs"

T

U

V

W

X

Y

'A

B

C

9?

No. 5. Fox Hills Group. g

S

> ^

O

0

No. 4. Fort Pierre Group. S

H

No, 3. Niobrara Group. g

o

%

\ ~9

/ O

No. 2. Fort Benton Group. M

.2fu

cS W

No. 1. Dakota Group.
212 THE CRETACEOUS. |uuLL.82.

GENERAL SECTION OP THE UPPER CRETACEOUS FOR THE GREAT INTERIOR AREA.

The opposite table represents the general section of the Upper Cretaceous formation of the Great Interior area in the form which was proposed and published by Mr. George H. Eldridge as a modification of 

the classification and nomenclature of the strata and their equivalents 

which were embraced in the Upper Missouri River section of Meek and 

HaydeD, and not as being exclusively applicable to any particular one 

of the several districts in which the strata referred to occur.

This modified classification has the same scope and is essentially the 

same as that which was used by Newberry, Powell, and White respectively, the difference being only or mainly that of nomenclature. Both 

the nomenclature and classification proposed by Mr. Eldridge are in 

this memoir adopted for general use in those districts where the formations in question are known to occur. See pages 144 and 158.
WHITE.) TABLES OF CORRELATION AND TAXONOMY. 213

General Section of the Upper Cretaceous for the Great Interior Area.

EOCENE. *

Y

UPPER

Laramie Formation.

Mouta.ua Formation.

Colorado Formation.

Dakota Formation.

CRETACEOUS. 

.JURASSIC: H 

C
214 THE CEETACEOUS. (BULL. 82.

THR NEW JERSEY SECTION.

The section which is represented by the table upon the opposite page 

is that which has been described and illustrated by Prof. Geo. H. Cook 

in several of the publications of the New Jersey State Geological Survey, but which was first defined by Prof. H. D. Rogers. The tabular 

arrangement of the formations with reference to the scale adopted for 

this memoir shows that the Potomac formation proper is supposed to 

belong in part to the Jurassic, and also that the Earitan and Amboy 

clays are thought to be equivalents, at least in part, of the Dakota 

formation. See tables on pages 211 and 213. The arrangement of the 

formations in this table also shows that there is understood to be a timehiatus between the lower and upper parts of the Upper Marl bed equal 

to at least the greater part of the epoch of the Laramie formation, the 

taxonomic position of which is shown in the tables on pages 213, 223, 

225, 233, 237 and 239, where it occupies essentially the same portion of 

the scale that the hiatus does in this. For description of the members 

of the New Jersey section, see pages 80-83.
WHITE.] TABLES OF CORRELATION AND TAXONOMY.

The New Jersey Section.

215

EOCENE. *

Y

Z

UPPER

CRETACEOUSN .- H 

q

p 

Q

Middle Marl Bed,

Lower Marl Bed,

Clay Marl,

and

Raritan and Amboy Clays.

,/Z ""A

LOWER 

CRETACEOUS.

Potomac Formation.

JURASSIC.
216 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

SMITH AND JOHNSON'S ALABAMA SECTION.

The greater part of this section, which may be taken to represent the 

full Cretaceous series of Alabama, was published many years ago by 

Prof. M. Tuomey aod by Prof. A. Winchell, but as it is presented in 

this memoir it has been compiled mainly from Bulletin No. 43 of the 

U. S. Geological Survey, of which Prof. E. A. Smith and Mr. L. O 

Johnson are the authors. The section, as a whole, is understood to be 

equivalent to that of New Jersey and also to that of Mississippi, which 

are shown in the tables on pages 215 and 219 respectively.

The time-hiatus which is shown in the opposite table to occur above 

the Ripley group of those authors occupies the same part of the scale 

that the corresponding hiatus does in that of both the New Jersey and 

Mississippi sections, and like the hiatus represented in the two latter 

sections it is understood to represent the whole or nearly the whole of 

the epoch of the Laramie formation of the Interior regions, the position 

of which formation is shown in the tables on pages 213, 223, 225, 233, 

237 and 239.

Immediately above this hiatus certain beds occur in Wilcox County 

which contain numerous specimens of the uautiloid genus Enclimatoceras of Hyatt, which beds are represented here because they and their 

equivalents near Little Bock, Arkansas, have been erroneously referred 

to the Cretaceous. See also table on page 221.

The upper portion of the Eutaw group of Alabama is understood to 

be equivalent to the Tombigbee sands of the Mississippi section and, 

like the latter, to be not properly separable from the Eotteu limestone. 

The horizon of the Tombigbee sands is believed to be approximately 

the same as that of the Dakota formation, as will be seen by comparing its tabular position with that of the latter formation upon 

pages 211, 213, 229,231, 233, 237 and 239. For discussions of the formations of the Alabama section and a figure representing it see pages 

105-108.
WHITE.] TABLES OF CORRELATION AND TAXONOMY.

Smith and Johnson's Alabama Section.

217

EOCENE.

UPPER

CRETACEOUS.

fli

LOWER

CRETACEOUS.

JURASSIC.

_

>

B

C

D

i

F_

G

tJ

P

L

M

4 tT

; o

p

c

F

T

U

V

w

X

Y

z

A

i

C

0

E

F

G

H

1

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

X

z"

A

B

C

Enclimatocerae Bed.

Ripley Group.

Rotteu^Limestoue Group.

Upper portion of Entaw Group.

s

,

Lower portion of Entaw Group 

and Tuscaloosa Group.
218 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

HILGARD'S MISSISSIPPI SECTION.

Prof. B. W. Hilgard, in his Geological Survey of the State of Mississippi, found there essentially the same section of Cretaceous rocks 

that exists in the adjoining State of Alabama, and these are assigned to 

similar positions with reference to the scale, as will be seen by comparing the table on page 217 with this. The same time-hiatus also is recognized in the Mississippi section which has been indicated in the tables 

representing the New Jersey and Alabama sections as having occurred 

between the deposition of the uppermost Cretaceous strata and that of 

the overlying Eocene. Furthermore, it is understood that this hiatus, 

as in the other cases referred to, represents either the whole or much 

the greater part of the Laramie epoch.

The Eutaw group of the Mississippi section is understood to represent the Tuscaloosa group and the lower, greater part of the Eutaw 

group of the Alabama section, and to be equivalent to the Potomac 

formation of the Atlantic Border region.

The Tombigbee Sand is understood to be not properly separable as a 

distinct formation from the Kotten limestone, and, like the upper part 

of the Eutaw group of Alabama, to belong to approximately the same 

horizon as that of the Dakota formation. See tables on pages 211, 

213, 229, 231, 233, 237 and 239; and for discussions of the formations, 

see pages 105,106.
WHITE.] TABLES OF CORRELATION AKD TAXONOMY. 

Hilgard's Mississippi Section.

219

EOCENE. 21

Y

UPPER 

CRETACEOUS.

Kipley-Group.

Eotten Limestone Group.

Tombigbee Sand.

B 

C

0

E 

F 

G 

H 

T 

J 

K 

L

LOWER

CRETACEOUS.' - 

o

p 

o

F 

S 

T 

U

Eutaw Group.

JURASSIC,.
220 THE CRETACEOUS, [BULL. 82.

THE EAST TEXAN SECTION.

Aside from the Coinanche series the Cretaceous section of the eastern 

part of the Texan region is regarded as essentially equivalent to those 

of New Jersey, Alabama, and Mississippi, respectively, which are represented in the tables on pages 215, 217 and 219.

The time-hiatus above the Eipley formation is understood to be approximately identical with that which is shown in those three sections, 

and to represent at least the greater part of the epoch of the Laramie 

formation, the position of which is shown in the next and other tables. 

The Enclimatoceras bed of the Eocene is shown in the opposite table for 

the reason given on page 112. It is not known whether this bed really 

constitutes the base of the Eocene, as it is represented to do in these 

two tables, but its position is evidently not far from the base.

The true position of the Comanche series in the Lower Cretaceous 

scale is not known, and it is only provisionally placed in the position 

shown iu the opposite table, as well as in the two next following tables.

The true place of the Trinity formation is a matter of much doubt. 

It is perhaps equivalent to the Potomac formation of the Atlantic 

Border region, the assumed position of which is shown in the table on 

page 215, and upon that supposition the Trinity is given a similar place 

in the opposite table. For references to the Potoinac formation, see 

pages 80, 90; and to the Trinity, pages 118,119.
WHITE.] TABLES OF COKRELATION AND TAXONOMY.

The East Texan Section.

221

EOCENE. *

Enoliuiatoceras Bed, near Little Kock, Ark.

j^j 

h

L

UPPER

CRETACEOUS. , N

9. p_

9 

s

T

u 

w

X 

Y 

Z

Eipley Formation, "Ponderosa Marls," and Austin Formation.

Eagle Ford Formation.

Timber Creek Formation.

Couianche Series.

f LOWER 

CRETACEOUS.|-

Trinity Formation.

JURASSIC. s!
222 THE CEETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

THE WEST TEXAN SECTION.

In the western part of theTexau region the Cretaceous series is capped 

by the Larainie, which formation there reaches its most southeasterly 

known extension. Beneath the Laramie, this section as a whole is regarded as equivalent to the EastTexan section, but all of the separate 

formations of the eastern section have not yet been satisfactorily recognized in the western one. The Comanche series and the Trinity formation, however, have been recognized in the "western section, which 

fact is shown in the opposite table. The thickness of the Trinity is less 

in this section than in the preceding one.

In this table also it is shown that marine Eocene beds overlie the 

Laramie, which fact is recorded on page 126,

For discussion of these formations, see pages 125-127.
WHITE.] TABLES OF CORRELATION AND TAXONOMY.

The West Texan Section.

223

EOCENE. *.

Y

z

B

c

O 

£ 

F_ 

G 

M 

J_ 

J^ 

IK

UPPER 5

CRETACEOUS. . ! >° 

p

Q

R

T 

U_ 

y^ 

w

X 

Y

Z

Marine Eocene Beds.

Larauiie.

Eale Pass Beds.

Equivalents of the " PonderOsa Marls," aud of the Austin, Eagle Ford, aud Timber 

Creek Formations.

LOWER

c

D

C

F

G

r j.

K 

L^

M

CRETACEOUS..>- 

 o 

p 

o 

n 

s.

,T_

y_ 

v 

w 

x

,Y

2

. . ..._ ^

JURASSIC, e^ 

c

Cornauche Series.

Trinity Formation.
224 THE CRETACEOUS. |uuLL.82.

THE NORTH MEXICAN SECTION.

Too little is definitely known of the Cretaceous geology of the North 

Mexican region to enable one to construct a satisfactory section of those 

formations. Enough, however, is known to indicate that all the Upper 

Cretaceous series, from the Dakota to the Larainie formation inclusive, 

is represented in that region as shown in the opposite table. The separate formations of the series, as they exist in the interior regions, have, 

however, not yet been recognized in the North Mexican region.

The Comanche series here reaches its greatest known development, 

but no other Lower Cretaceous strata have yet been recognized in that 

region.

For discussions of these formations, see pages 134-140.
TABLES OF COREELATION AND TAXONOMY.

The North Mexican Section.

225

EOCENE. *. '" I

z

UPPER 

CRETACEOUS.

Laruniie Forinatiou.

Equivalents of the Montana, Colorado, and Dakota Formations.

'LOWER

CRETACEOUS. .

JURASSIC.

j 

R 

L

N

g 

p 

o

s

I

w 'x

Y

JL_ 

A 

B_ 

C

Coruanche Series.

Bull. 82 15
226 THE CKETACEOUS. [BULL, 82.

NEWBEKRY'S NEW MEXICAN SECTION.

The opposite table represents the three divisions of the Upper Cretaceous series which Prof, Newberry recognized iu New Mexico. This 

section agrees with that which is adopted in this memoir for general use 

in the Great Interior area, and with the sections of White and Powell, 

respectively, as shown on pages 235 and 237, except that it differs in 

nomenclature, and his upper division seems to include a portion of the 

Laramie formation. The terms upper, middle, and lower are relative 

only as applied to the portions of the series which they represent, and 

were not used by Newberry as applicable to the whole Cretaceous system. For references to the work of Prof, dewberry in New Mexico see 

page 155.

In his first geological work in New Mexico, Prof. J. J. Stevenson 

used substantially the same classification as that of this section of Dr.

Newberry's, but in his later work there he adopted the classification 

which was used by King in his survey of the fortieth parallel, so far as 

the marine Cretaceous formations are concerned. See page 157.
WHITE./ TABLES OF CORRELATION AND TAXONOMY.

Newbcrry'a New Mexican Section.

227

EOCENE. *

Y

z

 A 

B 

C 

p

e

F 

O

H

UPPER

CRETACEOUS. ' il 

o 

p

QJ 

s

T 

U 

V 

W 

X 

Y

Upper Cretaceous.

Middle Cretaceous.

Lower Cretaceous.

LOWER

CRETACEOUS. - 

o

p 

o

R 

S 

T

M

V

w

X

Y

Z

JURASSIC.
THE CRETACEOUS. lBULL.82.

COPE'S GENERAL SECTION.

The opposite table is constructed mainly from an article by Prof. E. 

D. Cope, entitled " The Mesozoic and Cenozoic Kealrns of the Interior 

of North America," in the American Naturalist, volume 21, page 445- 

459 inclusive. Prof. Cope does not therein present a formal section 

but adopts the Upper Missouri Eiver section of Meek & Hayden with 

the addition of subsequently discovered or recognized formations. It 

is introduced here mainly for the purpose of showing the relation to the 

Laramie of the assemblage of strata to which ho gave the name Puerco 

group, and its taxonouaic position with relation to the other formations. 

See page 149,
WHITE.] TABLES OF CORRELATION AND TAXONOMY.

Cope's General Section.

229

EOCENE. *

Y

,z

A 

B 

£ 

D

e_

G

H

'7

lit

UPPER g

CRETACEOUS.; '!L

v

a]

Puerco and Laramie Groups.

Fox Hills Group.

Fort Pierro Group.

Niobrara Group.

Dakota Group.

Comanche Series.

LOWER

CRETACEOUS. -51 

o

p 

o 

R 

s

,T 

U 

V

W 

X 

,Y

^_____ , 2 

A

JURASSIC. B 

c
230 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

THE EASTERN COLORADO SECTION.

This table, which is essentially identical with the one on page 213 representing the general section of the Upper Cretaceous of the Great 

Interior area, but to which is added space representing the Arapaho 

and Denver deposits, is introduced to exhibit the position of the latter 

with relation to the other members of the section which occur in the 

same district.

For discussion of these deposits, see pages 154-160.
WHITK-I TABLES OF COREELATION AND TAXONOMY. 

The Eastern Colorado Section.

231

EOCENE. * Y

z

UPPER ft

CRETACEOUS. M 

o 

p 

c

R

Denver and Arapaho deposits and Laramio Formation.

Montana Formation.

Colorado Formation.

Dakota Formation.

LOWER

CRETACEOUS. 

o

P>

S R

JURASSIC.
232 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

KING'S FORTIETH PARALLEL SECTION.

The vertical range of this section is the same as that of White, which 

is represented on page 257, and it is also the same as that of Meek and 

Hayden's Upper Missouri Eiver section, with the addition of the Laramie formation. In nomenclature and in the delimitation of a part of 

the formations, however, King's section differs from the two sections 

just named, that is, the equivalents of the Fort Benton, JSTiobrara, 

and Fort Pierre groups of Meek and Hayden are united under the name 

of the Colorado group, while the equivalents of the Dakota and Fox 

Hills groups of the latter section are retained as separate groups by 

King.

In his later geological work in New Mexico Prof. J. J. Stevenson followed Mr. King with regard to those features of his classification of 

the Cretaceous formations which are here shown to distinguish it from 

that which is adopted in this memoir.
WHITE.] TABLES OF CORllELATION AND TAXONOMY.

King's Fortieth Parallel Section.

233

EOCENE. * Y

UPPER 

CRETACEOUS.

F 

G

H

j 

R

 M

N 

O 

P

9J

R 

S

,U

LOWER

CRETACEOUS. *

_>z

JURASSIC.

Laramie Group.

Fox Hill Group.

Colorado Group.

Dakota Group.
234 THE CEETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

POWELL'S UINTA SECTION.

The section represented by the opposite table was published by Maj. 

J. W. Powell in his report on the eastern portion of the Uiuta Mountains. Its ^ertical range is nearly the same as that of the sections of 

King and White respectively, which sections are represented by the 

tables on pages 233 and 237. The only difference as to the vertical range 

of Powell's section, as compared with the two others just named, consists 

in the assignment of the extreme upper portion of his Point of Eocks 

group, that is of the Laramie, to the overlying Eocene formation. 

With that exception also, the separate formations of Powell's section 

are exactly equivalent to those of the general section which is represented on page 213, and to those of White's section, which is represented 

by the next following table. That is, PowelPs section, with the slight 

exception mentioned, differs from those two sections only in nomenclature. For discussion of Powell's section see pages 155,156.
WHITE.] TABLES OP CORRELATION AND TAXONOMY.

Powell's Uinta Section.

235

EOCENE. *

Y

Z

A 

B_ 

£

F 

,F 

G

ST 

T '7 

£

UPPER M

CRETACEOUS. £ 

o

p

a

R

T

U

Point of Rocks Group.

Salt Wells Group.

Sulphur Creek Group.

Henry's Pork Group.

K 

U

LOWER M

ORETACCOWS. tl 

o

r

Q 

R5"

ff 

y 

w

;v

JURASSIC, e. 

c
THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

WHITE'S NORTHWEST COLORADO SECTION.

The formations embraced in this section occur in part in the same 

district as that in which Maj. Powell's section, represented in the immediately preceding table, was constructed. It is equivalent to that 

section in all respects except that the Laramie formation extends to a 

somewhat higher horizon than does the Point of Rocks group as defined 

by Powell. In this section, however. King's nomenclature, which is 

shown in the table on page 233, is adopted, but the division into formations of that portion of the series which comes between the Dakota and 

Laramie formations is different from that which was made by King. 

This portion of the section is medially divided upon the same horizon 

as that which was recognized by Meek and Hayden, Powell and Newberry, as is shown in the tables on pages 211,235, and 227,

For remarks on this section see page 157.
WHITE.] TABLES OF CORRELATION AND TAXONOMY.

White's Northwest Colorado Section.

237

EOCENE. *

Y

Z

UPPER

CRETACEOUS.

"A Laramio Group.

Fox Hills Group.

Colorado Group.

Dakota Group.

LOWER ivf

CRETACEOUS. - 

o

p 

o

R 

5

T

U 

v

W 

X 

Y

Z

JURASSIC. £ 

c
238 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

THE NORTH INTERIOR GENERAL SECTION.

The opposite table represents all the Cretaceous formations which 

have been recognized in the North Interior region, together with their 

position with relation to one another. The Upper Cretaceous series there 

has the same vertical range as have the sections which are represented 

by the tables on pages 213, 231, 233, and 237, but the non-marine Belly 

Kiver formation, to which the Dunvegan beds are regarded as equivalent, is added to the series, its taxonomic position, as shown in the table, 

being between the Colorado and Montana formations. A non-marine 

Lower Cretaceous formation also occurs in this region, namely, the 

Kootanie. Its relative position in the Lower Cretaceous series is represented in the table in accordance with my present views. It is known 

to be later than at least a part of the Queen Charlotte formation, the 

relative position of which, as at present understood, is shown in the 

table on page 245. That table also shows that the latter formation is 

not understood to represent the earliest part of Lower Cretaceous time. 

In that table also, for reasons just indicated, the Kootanie, as a whole, 

is placed higher in the scale than js the base of the Queen Charlotte 

formation. For discussion of the formations which constitute the North 

Interior section see pages 165-171.
WHITE.] TABLES OF CORRELATION AND TAXONOMY.

The North Interior General Section.

239

EOCENE. *

Y

UPPER M

CRETACEOUS. tH

Laramie Formation.

Montana Formation.

Belly River Formation.

Colorado Formation.

Dakota Formation.

LOWER

CRETACEOUS. «.-

Kootanio Formation.

*A

JURASSIC. £. 

c
240 THE CKETACEOUS. [nuLu82.

THE CALIFOKNIA SECTION.

The opposite table shows the author's present views as to the relative 

position of the different Cretaceous groups that have been recognized 

in California. The Chico-Te"jon series is thus shown to extend upward 

from a level that is well down in the Cretaceous scale to one that is 

much above the base of the Eocene, as has been explaineti on page 193.

Too little is yet known concerning the character and relative position 

of the Wallala formation to confidently assign its place in the scale, but 

its probable place is represented in'the table. For remarks upon this 

group, see page 192.

The lower portion of the Upper, and the upper portion of the Lower, 

Cretaceous are both understood to be absent from California, but the 

Shasta formation is believed to occupy a place near the base of the 

Lower Cretaceous scale, and to be equivalent to the Queen Charlotte 

formation, as is shown by the table on page 245. For remarks upon this 

subject, see pages 184,188.
WHITE.] TABLES OF CORRELATION AND TAXONOMY.

The California Section.

241

EOCENE. *

Y 

-Z

UPPER

CRETACEOUS.

JURASSIC.

j LOWER M 

CRETACEOUS.!!-

Chico-Tejon Series.

Probable place of the Wallala Formation.

Shasta Formation.

Bull. 82 16.
242 THE CKETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

THE NANAIMO SECTION.

The opposite table is presented only for the purpose of representing 

the position in the scale that the Nanaimo formation, as defined by Dr. 

G. M. Dawson, and which occurs on Vancouver Island, as well as upon 

several smaller islands in the adjacent waters of the Gulf of Georgia, 

is understood to occupy. As is shown by the table, and as stated on 

preceding pages, those strata are regarded as equivalent to the lower 

or Chico portion of the Chico-Tejon series of California, which is represented in the immediately preceding table. For remarks concerning 

the name and characteristics of this formation see page 194.
WHITE.] TABLES OF CORRELATION AND TAXONOMY.

The Nanaimo Section.

243

EOCENE. *

Y

z

UPPER M

CRETACEOUS.* o5 1

p

oj

R 

S 

T

y 

v 

w

X 

Y

Z 

A 

§ 

C

0

E

G 

H 

J_7

K

r

/ LOWER ,M 

CRETACEOUS. j!l

p 

o

R

s 

yV7

wl x"

Yz"

JURASSIC.

Nanaiino Group.
244: THE CKETACEOUS. luuLL.82.

DAWSON'S QUEEN CHARLOTTK ISLANDS SECTION.

Although this is one of the most important Cretaceous sections of the 

Pacitic border region the opposite table shows definitely little more 

than that the divisions C, D, and B of Dr. G. M. Dawson are regarded 

as equivalent to the Lower Cretaceous Shasta formation of California, 

as is shown by the table on page 241, and that divisions A and B probably belong to the base of the Upper Cretaceous.

For references to the Queen Charlotte Islands section, see pages 183, 

187, 188, and 189.
WHITE.] TABLES OF CORRELATION AND TAXONOMY. 

Daivson's Queen Charlotte Islands Section.

245

EOCENE. *

Y

Z

UPPER

CRETACEOUS.}*!

.'P 

Q 

R

Probable place of divisions A and B.

K 

L

LOWER M 

CRETACEOUS. ^

Q 

R 

s

T

V 

VV 

X 

,Y

___________ Z

JURASSIC.

Divisions C, D, and E, or Queen Charlotte formation = Earlier Cretaceous of Davvsou.
246 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

The foregoing 18 graduated tables representing the principal published Cretaceous sections of North America are intended to exhibit the 

relation to one another of the formations which they respectively embrace, their taxonomic position with reference to a recognizable general 

scale, and the identity with one another of certain of those formations 

to which different names have been applied by different authors.

The folded plate opposite (PI. n), entitled " Summary of the published 

Cretaceous sections for each region," is intended to represent at a single 

glance a part of the conclusions that have been expressed in the foregoing tables and to form a visible basisfor afew general remarks concerning them. The scale upon which it is constructed is the same as that of 

the preceding tables. It is divided into seven columns, each respectively bearing the name and representing the full Cretaceous sectioa of 

one of the seven regions which have been denned and discussed upon 

preceding pages. The upper and lower dotted lines across the table 

respectively represent, theoretically, the earlier and later limits of Cretaceous time.

The Cretaceous section of each region, omitting all its subdivisions, 

is represented in its appropriate column by line-shading. The blank 

spaces indicate the assumed absence of any strata which would represent those portions of the scale if the section were complete, and the 

extension of the shading beyond the dotted lines indicates that in those 

cases certain Cretaceous characteristics have been recognized, or reported to exist, beyond the theoretical time-limit of the system.

Thus the deposits which occur at the base of the full Cretaceous series 

in the Atlantic Border, Gulf Border, and Texaii regions are represented 

by the shading in the table as extending below the dotted line into the 

space assigned to the Jurassic, because certain of the vertebrate and 

plant remains which those strata contain are reported to possess Jurassic characteristics.

Again, the shading in the columns which respectively represent the 

Texan, North Mexican, and North Interior regions extends above the 

upper dotted line into the space assigned to the Eocene. This is in accordance with the view that has been expressed on preceding pages 

that the Laramie formation which prevails in those regions is properly 

referable in part to the Eocene and in part to the Cretaceous.

The shading in the columns which represent the South Interior and 

the Pacific Border regions, respectively, extends still farther into the 

space assigned to the Eocene than it does in'the former cases. In the 

case of the South Interior region the additional extension represents 

the Puerco beds which rest upon the Laramie, both of which Prof. Cope 

has referred to the Cretaceous. The extension of the shading in the 

column representing the section of the Pacific Border region far up into 

the space assigned to the Eocene, is in accordance with the evidence 

that has been given and referred to on the preceding pages that the 

Chico-Tejon epoch extended from Cretaceous far into Eocene time.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN NO. 82 PL. II

ATLANTIC BORDER 

REGION.

EOCENE 

CRETACEOUS. N

p 

Q

R 

S

U 

X 

A

1 

I

F 

G 

H 

1 

J

K 

j_

LOWER w 

CRETACEOUS ^ 

p^

Q 

R

s

T 

U 

V

w

X

Y

JURASSIC. I 

c

L"

^

GULF BORDER 

REGION. TEXAN REGION.

-= 

 

IQRTH MEXICAN SOUTH INTERIOR NORTH INTERIOR PACIFIC BORDER 

REGION. REGSON. REGION REGION

 =====

1

- - - - 

 _

A SUMMARY OF THE PUBLISHED CEOUS SECTIONS FOR EACH REGION.
WHITE. I EXPLANATION OF PLATE II. 247

This plate conspicuously illustrates the fact that much the greater 

part of the Cretaceous deposits of North America are referable to the 

Upper Cretaceous according to the classification adopted in this memoir and it also shows conspicuously that the base of the Upper Cretaceous in each of the seven sections is referred to one and the same 

horizon. Because the delimitation of formations and series of formations must from the nature of the case be more or less indefinite, the 

last-named feature of this table will doubtless strike the observer as 

unnatural. It should be explained, however, that the opinion indicated 

by this tabular arrangement of the formations is the result of a somewhat definitely ascertained equivalency of the basal member of the 

Upper Cretaceous section of each region with that of all the others.

For example the basal formation in both the North and South Interior regions is the Dakota formation, the identity of which in both 

regions can not be questioned. Evidence has been presented on preceding pages that the basal member of the Texan Upper Cretaceous is equivalent to the Dakota formation, and there are also paleontological indications that the base of the North Mexican Upper Cretaceous belongs 

to the same horizon. The identity of certain plant remains which are 

found in the Raritan and Amboy clays of the Atlantic Border region 

wi.th Dakota species, together with the position of those clays with reference to overlying formations, is thought to be acceptable proof of at 

least the approximate equivalency of the former to the Dakota formation. The evidence that has been given on preceding pages of the equivalency of the Gulf Border section to those of New Jersey and Eastern 

Texas, respectively, seems to make it reasonable to refer the basal portion of the Gulf Border Upper Cretaceous also to the horizon of the 

Dakota formation.

These facts seem to warrant the selection of a common horizon for 

the base of the Upper Cretaceous in each of the six regions designated, 

1 ut it can not be denied that the reference of the upper part of Dawson's Queen Charlotte Islands section to the same horizon has been made 

on comparatively slight evidence.

The horizon of the Dakota.formation has been chosen as the base of 

the North American Upper Cretaceous because its marine representative has been found to blend both paleontologically and stratigraphically. with overlying formations the Upper Cretaceous age of which 

need not be questioned, and because no older formation, which is not 

plainly referable to a much lower horizon, has yet been recognized. 

All the formations above and including the Dakota are referred to 

the Upper Cretaceous because the character of their respective fossil 

faunas approximately indicates that age and because their paleontological and strati graphical relation to one another is too intimate to 

admit of their natural separation. That is, all the time from the beginning to the end of the Upper Cretaceous seems to be represented in 

North America by a series of formations that was not in any case 

everywhere completely broken.
248 THE CRETACEOUS. [BUM-82.

HORIZONS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN CRETACEOUS.

The term horizon, aside from its ordinary signification, has been 

variously used by geologists and paleontologists in its application to 

their respective branches of investigation. Sometimes this term or 

others which convey the same idea have been used in a purely biological and sometimes in a purely stratigraphical sense. That is, some 

paleontologists, confining their studies to a biological basis and prosecuting them with reference to an erroneously assumed uniform rate 

of the past secular evolution of all organic forms, recognize the vertical 

or time range of a given class of faunal or floral types of fossil remains 

as constituting a sufficiently well defined horizon, and confine their 

work to that class of remains alone, disregarding the time range of all 

other associated types and paying little or no regard to the structural 

geology of the region in which their discoveries are made. Again, it 

has been the habit of some field geologists to recognize horizons only 

frorn a physical point of view, and to prosecute their studies in structural geology with little or no reference to paleontology.

While a knowledge of certain important facts may be obtained by 

each of these exclusive methods they are quite insufficient for the acquirement of the fullest obtainable biological results on the one hand 

or for acquiring those of general structural geology on the other. 

Therefore, the recognition of geological horizons for the purposes of 

general investigation can be rationally made only after due consideration of all obtainable facts relating.to them. A rational recognition of 

geological horizons as an indispensable aid to the comprehensive study 

of structural geology, while always implying their material existence 

in definable series of strata, is in all cases based, either directly or indirectly, upon paleontological data. These data, however, are of unequal 

value, and for obvious reasons preference in such cases should always 

be given to such of them as relate to the remains of denizens of the 

waters in which were deposited the strata wherein they are found.

The North American Cretaceous horizons which are thus recognizable differ considerably from one another in their character and scope, 

some embracing no more than a single well defined formation and some 

embracing a series of more or less distinctly recognizable formations 

which, to some degree and in some places, blend with one another both 

paleontologically and strati graphically. The former may be designated as simple and the latter as complex horizons. The strata which 

physically constitute the former are, of course, regarded as having 

been deposited in a body of water which was geographically unbroken 

and not materially changed from the beginning to the end of the deposition of the strata which now represent it. The sedimentation by which 

the formations constituting the latter class of horizons was produced is 

regarded as not having been everywhere wholly broken or interrupted, 

although it was at times so largely arrested or modified as to mark off
WHITK.] CRETACEOUS HORIZONS. 249

the great series of strata into more or less readily distinguishable 

formations. Such arrests or modifications of the sedimentation were 

accompanied by material changes of the fauna which lived in the waters 

in which the sedimentation took place, but they were not sufficient 

to produce at any time and in all places a complete break in the natural genetic succession of the denizens of those waters. The formations constituting the Cretaceous horizons which are discussed in following paragraphs having been produced under diverse conditions, 

further definition of the term as here employed will necessarily be expressed or implied in the following description of each.1

The paleontological and physical characteristics of each horizon naturally convey much information as to the physical conditions which 

prevailed during the time when and within the area where the deposits 

which constitute them were accumulated, It is by this means that the 

respective formations which have been discussed on preceding pages 

are known to have originated under a wide diversity of conditions, and 

these facts necessarily have an important bearing upon their paleontological investigation. The value of such facts will be enhanced and 

their character emphasized by the recognition arid study of thehorizous 

which those formations are found to constitute. Furthermore, because 

the vertical and geographical limits of such horizons are coincident with 

our attainable knowledge of both the geographical and time limits of 

faunas and floras, the advantages to be derived from their recognition 

and study are very important from a biological as well as a geological standpoint.

By most paleontologists the Cretaceous fossils of North America, 

especially those of aqueous origin, heretofore have been studied only 

or mainly with reference to the formations which were recognizable 

 within the respective districts where their collections were made, and 

not with reference to extended horizons throughout which a greater or 

less proportion of such species are now known to have ranged with 

only local variations. Furthermore, those authors often failed to recognize the fact that certain species range vertically from one formation 

to another. One result of such a treatment of the subject has been a 

great duplication of specific names and a burdensome synonymy in 

our paleontological literature that might in large part have been 

avoided by a proper recognition of great horizons as representing both 

the time and geographical range of specific forms.

I am well aware that objection may be raised to this manner of treating the subject, especially to the great difference in the relative scope 

of the horizons that have been indicated and are to be briefly discussed 

on following pages, but I ana confident that in future paleontological 

work upon the North American Cretaceous the recognition of such hori-

'It is obvious tbat the term horizon is heroin employed in au unusually extended sense, but even in 

tbe absence of a bettor one it is believed that the idea intended to bo convoyed will readily bo understood.
250 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

zons will be indispensable. Such recognition will enable the paleontologist to correct many of the errors that have been committed either 

by himself or others and will largely tend to the establishment of both 

the geology and paleontology of those formations upon a more philosophical basis than heretofore has been recognized.

Eight horizons and two subhorizons have, with sufficient distinctness for separate discussion, been recognized among the North American Cretaceous formations, each of which is more or less clearly distinguishable over a large area, and the following names have been selected 

to indicate them.

f Laramie horizon.

f Shasta horizon.

. Potomac horizon.

The areas occupied by some of these horizons embrace portions of 

several of the regions which have been defined and named in this memoir and some are confined to a single region. Some of them plainly succeeded one another in time, but the order of succession of others is not 

accurately known. Some were probably either wholly or in part contemporaneous with one or more others, but in accordance with the foregoing definition they are treated separately because of their geographical restriction and of their paleontological dissimilarity to any others.

The formations which physically constitute these horizons have been 

produced under two classes of conditions, a part of them having been 

marine and a part non-marine or continental. Those of the former class 

are naturally more uniform than most of the others and, as a rule, they 

had greater geographical extent. They therefore generally constitute 

the best and most distinctive horizons, although some of the lacustrine 

formations are quite as distinctive as are those of marine origin and a part 

of them have as great geographical extent as have many marine formations. The non-marine formations have various and in some cases quite 

diverse characteristics, and they also originated under various and diverse conditions. That is, some of the formations of this class were 

accumulated under littoral, some under estuarine, and some under 

lacustrine conditions. Some of the latter, as is shown by their molluscan fossils, were accumulated in fresh waters and others in waters that 

were in part fresh and in part brackish.

The estuarine deposits have naturally been too limited in geographical extent to be profitably discussed as horizons, as that term has been 

defined for present use> and this is also true to some extent with, the 

littoral deposits. Most of the lacustrine deposits that have been 

described on preceding pages us pertaining to the North American Cretaceous, however, are remarkable not only for their great geographical
WHITE.] THE POTOMAC HORIZON. 251

extent but for their general lithological resemblance to marine formations, and the horizons which they represent are among the most important of those which are to be discussed on this occasion.

THE POTOMAC HORIZON.

Those deposits which occur in the Atlantic and Gulf Border regions 

respectively, and which, in the discussion of those regions, have been 

assigned to the non-marine division of the Cretaceous series as it is 

developed there, may be designated as constituting the Potomac horizon 5 to which may be provisionally added the Trinity formation of the 

Texan region, but from which the Earitan and Ainboy Clays of New 

Jersey and their equivalents evidently must be excluded. So far as 

this horizon can now be definitely characterized it consists of the Potomac formation of the Atlantic Border region and the Tuscaloosa formation of the Gulf Border region, together with their known equivalents.

Excluding the Baritan and Auiboy Clays of Few Jersey and their 

equivalents on Staten, Long, and Martha's Vineyard Islands and elsewhere, as being of later date, and the Trinity formation of the Texan 

region as being of doubtful equivalency, the Potomac horizon may be 

traced from central New Jersey through the Atlantic and Gulf States 

to northern Mississippi, a distance of fully 1,000 miles.1 It is true that 

the deposits which physically constitute it are not now continuously 

visible along the whole distance mentioned, but there is apparently no 

reason to doubt that they were originally continuous through the whole 

of that distance, and they perhaps extended much beyond the limits 

just indicated.

Although this horizon is traceable for so great a distance, its known 

geographical extent is approximately linear, because its visible width 

is everywhere very small. There can be no doubt that its original 

width was somewhat greater than is now discernible, but the deposits 

which constitute it having been of littoral and estuarine origin, their 

width must necessarily always have been small, as compared with that 

of marine and the larger lacustrine deposits.

The lithological characteristics of the deposits which physically constitute the Potomac horizon have been discussed on preceding pages, 

but, as has already been intimated, its known paleontological characteristics are few. Because so few paleontological data which might be 

used to characterize the Potomac horizon are available we rely upon the 

general evidence of homogeny which it presents throughout its entire 

extent, and upon its great physical dissimilarity from the deposits 

which respectively are known to underlie and overlie it. The few 

paleontological characteristics which the Potomac horizon presents have 

not given an entirely satisfactory indication of its geological age. For

1 Deposits belonging to this horizon doubtless extend northward through Tennessee, and probably 

through Kentucky also.
252 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

reasons already stated, however, it is in this memoir provisionally 

assigned to the base of the Cretaceous system.

The deposits which constitute the Potomac horizon being of nonmarine origin, and those which constitute the next overlying horizon 

being of true marine origin, the discovery of any direct paleontological 

relationship could not reasonably be expected. Besides this, the next 

overlying horizon being of Upper Cretaceous age, there is understood to be a wide time hiatus between them, and there is also a wide 

time-hiatus between the Potomac horizon and the underlying deposits, 

the latest of which are regarded as of Triassic age. Therefore this 

horizon is well defined from both the underlying and overlying horizons. 

Furthermore, there appear to be no deposits among the other North 

American Cretaceous formations that are closely similar to the Potomac and its known equivalents, and none which have afforded any evidence of contemporaneity with the latter, with the possible exception 

.of the Kootanie.

In view of the statements that have been made on page 186 concerning the identification of several species of fossil plants in the Kootanie 

strata of Alberta and Montana, and iii the Potomac strata of the Atlantic Border region, the question may be raised whether the Potomac 

horizon, as it is recognized "in this memoir, ought not to include the Kootanie formation, and whether that specific identification of plants does 

not prove the contemporaneity of the Potomac and Kootanie formations. Neither of these questions, however, is regarded as settled by 

this discovery for the following, among other, reasons: The horizons 

which are recognized in this memoir are only those which have, besides 

their biological characteristics a material existence in strata that were 

deposited in one continuous, or nowhere wholly broken, body of water. 

Such a definition will not apply to the case in hand, because it is evident that although the Kootanie may be shown to contain remains of 

plants which are specifically identical with some found in the Potomac 

formation, it is certain that the waters in which the two formations 

were deposited were geographically widely separated. Again the specific identification of fossil plants can not in all cases be accepted as 

proof of the contemporaneity of origin of the respective formations containing them. For example, it is claimed that five of the species 

which constitute the flora of the Dakota formation have been .identified as members of the flora which characterizes the Laramie. Several species of the latter flora have been published as identical with 

Belly Eiver forms, several have been recognized in the overlying 

Green Eiver Tertiary, and three species from the Upper Laramie 

have been identified with living species.1 And yet, no one would 

think of suggesting that the Dakota, Belly Eiver, Laramie, and Green 

Eiver formations ought to be referred to one and the same hori1 Seo Ward, Lester F., Synopsis of the Flora of the Laramie Group. Sixth Annual Report U. S. Geol. 

Surv., pp. 405-557, plates 31-65.
WHITE.] THE CRETACEOUS HORIZON. 253

zon, even upon purely paleontological ground, and a suggestion that 

those formations were contemporaneous in their origin would be too 

absurd for consideration.

In future studies of the characteristics of the Potomac horizon little 

aid can be expected from invertebrate fossils because of the paucity of 

such remains in the deposits which physically constitute it, and because 

of the comparatively slight value of non-marine invertebrates as indicators of the geological age of the strata containing them. Therefore a 

knowledge of the paleontological characterization of the deposits which 

physically constitute the Potomac horizon, and of the upper and lower 

delimitation of the same must be sought for mainly by means of vertebrate and plant remains, which in all cases ought to be specially 

studied in connection with strati graphical details.

THE COMANCHE HORIZON.

While I have in this memoir assigned the Potomac horizon to the 

base of the Cretaceous system, I have at the same time admitted the incompleteness of the evidence upon that point, and I do not hesitate to 

admit my inability to indicate more than approximately the taxouornic 

position of the Comauche horizon, with relation to any of the other 

North American Lower Cretaceous horizons in the scale which is used 

in the preceding tables. For example, we do not yet know whether 

the strata which coustitue the Comanche horizon were deposited before, 

after, or contemporaneously with any given one of the other Lower 

Cretaceous formations which have been defined on preceding pages; 

and therefore the relative place which is assigned to each of these formations in the tables referred to must be understood to represent only iny 

present judgment in this case.

So far as is now certainly known, the Comanche horizon is represented only in the Texan and Forth Mexican regions, and only by the 

strata which, in connection with the discussion of the geology of those 

regions, have been described under the head of the Comanche series. 

The area within which strata of this horizon are now known to occur 

is about 800 miles across from east to west, and about 500 miles from 

north to south. It can not be doubted, however, that they extend far 

southward into the central and southern portions of the Mexican 

Kepublic, and it is even probable that they reach their greatest development there. 1 No sufficient evidence has yet been obtained that strata 

referable to this horizon were ever deposited to the north or east of 

the Texan region, if we except some inconspicuous outliers that have 

been reported to exist in southern Kansas.

The Comauche is a purely marine horizon, and for that reason it can 

not be compared paleontologically with two of the other Lower Cretaceous horizons, namely, the Potomac and Kootanie, which are of nonmarine origin. The Shasta horizon, like the Comanche, is physically

1 See remarks on p. 202 relative to late observations of Prof. Heilprin.
254 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. 82.

represented by marine strata, but their faunas are wholly different from 

each other, not a single species having yet been recognized as common 

to both. The molluscan fauna as a whole of the Comanche horizon 

appears to range through the entire thickness of the series of strata 

which constitute it, and with a few doubtful exceptions consisting of 

ostreid forms, none of its species has been found in other formations. 

The Comanche, therefore, is paleontologically one of the most distinctly 

defined horizons that the geologist is likely to encounter on this continent. It is identical in all respects with the Comanche series of strata, 

and its physical definition is quite as clear as its paleontological.

Up to the present time no plant remains have been discovered in any 

strata of the Comanche horizon, and few, if any, vertebrate remains, even 

of fishes, have yet been detected. Invertebrate remains, other than those 

of mollusks, are also comparatively rare; and it is evident that the 

paleontological characterization of the horizon must mainly be accomplished by means of its abundant molluscan fauna.

THE KOOTANIE HORIZON.

The Kootanie horizon is represented only by the strata of the Kootanie formation, which now are only known to occur in the North Interior region, where there is evidence that they originally occupied an 

area many hundred square miles in extent. These strata are of nonmarine origin, and their blending with, or passage horizontally into, 

those of marine origin, as the non-marine strata of the Dakota horizon 

are understood to do in their southern extension, has not yet been demonstrated, although it seems to be the impression of the Canadian geologists that they thus blend with equivalents of Queen Charlotte strata. 

It is, however, uot unlikely that such a horizontal blending did occur 

somewhere, but for want of more knowledge upon that point it is HOW 

necessary to treat the Kootanie strata as forming a geographically 

isolated horizon.

The upper and lower delimitation of the Kootanie horizon, both physically and biologically, is in its typical district the same as that of the 

Kootanie formation, which has been defined on preceding pages. So 

far as I am aware, no strata of later age than the Carboniferous have 

yet been reported as underlying it except in the case which is recorded 

on page 189, where the immediately underlying strata are found to bear 

certain characteristic fossils of the Shasta horizon, the lower delimitation of the Kootanie in Montana not having yet been clearly defined. 

No strata of earlier age than those of the Dakota horizon have yet been 

found to overlie those of the Kootanie, and these are reported to lie conformably with them in Alberta. Still, the paleontological characteristics of each of these horizons is such that it is necessary to assume 

that there is an important time-hiatus between them.

Very few invertebrate fossils have yet been found in strata of the 

Kootanie horizon, and if more were found they would probably be of
WHITE.] THE SHASTA HORIZON. 255

little value in its characterization, because the differentiation incident 

to the secular evolution of non-marine invertebrates has been so 

slight as compared with that of marine invertebrates. No vertebrate 

fossils have yet been reported from Kootanie strata, the most important fossils yet discovered being those of plants, upon the character of 

which, together with their contrast with those of the overlying Dakota 

horizon, they have been referred to the Lower Cretaceous. It ought 

to be remarked in this connection that the identity of the Alberta and 

Montana Kootanie deposits having been assumed only upon the evidence afforded by the specific identity of fossil plants, they may have 

been simultaneously formed in separate bodies of water. This being 

true would not necessarily disprove their identical taxouomic position, 

but it would make the Kootanie, as now understood, a paleontologically 

aud not a physically, continuous horizon.

There is no apparent reason why an important vertebrate fauna may 

not yet be discovered in the strata of this horizon, but at present we 

must rely almost alone upon its flora for its paleontological characterization.

The importance of this horizon is not confined to its taxonomic relation to the other horizons herein discussed, nor to its paleontologoical relation to them. It ought to be studied as representing one of the phases 

of development of the present North American continent and as one 

of the series of remarkable continental conditions that existed from time 

to time from the beginning to the end of the Mesozoic era.

THE SHASTA HORIZON.

The Shasta horizon embraces all the strata in the Pacific Border 

region which have been referred to the Lower Cretaceous. The best 

known and most characteristic exposures of the strata of this horizon 

are those which have been described on preceding pages under the 

head of the Shasta formation of California and of the Queen Charlotte 

formation of British Columbia. The Shasta formation, as it is developed in California, consists of two divisions, which are found to differ 

from each other paleontologically; but it is now known that a sufficient 

number of fossil forms are common to equivalents of both divisions 

which occur in other parts of the region to warrant the placing of both 

of them in one and the same general horizon. Again, because divisions 

" C " and " E " of the Queen Charlotte section contain certain identical 

fossils, they are both referred to one and the same great horizon, notwithstanding the presence between them of the eruptive formation " D " 

of the same section.1 That is, while these strata and their fossil contents constitute one great horizon it is to be expected that within certain districts more or less distinct paleontological stages may be recognized within the full vertical range of the strata which physically con-

' See page 188.
256 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL. J>2.

etitute the whole horizon. This practically has been done in the recognition of the Horsetown and Knoxville divisions of the Shasta group, 

and that condition indicates some degree of complexity for this horizon 

as compared with the simpler ones.

The most constant and most widely distributed of the fossil forms 

which characterize the Shasta horizon is the variable Aucella which in 

my writings I have generally referred to the A. concentrica of Keyserling, but it is likely that when the fossils of the whole horizon come to 

be fully studied and catalogued it will be found that other species also 

have so wide a geographical range as to be equally valuable for such 

general use.

By means of its characteristic fossils the Shasta horizon has been 

recognized at numerous places in the Pacific Border region from central 

California to its northern boundary and from there to points within the 

Arctic Circle, and also upon the peninsula of Alaska and adjacent islands; 

but at only one point are its strata yet known to have extended eastward within the designated limits of the Great Interior area.1 If, however, we accept the Aucella that has been referred to as indicating the 

presence of strata belonging to this horizon, it is circurnpolar in its 

extension,2 and prevails over large areas iu northern Europe and northern Asia.3 Only the North American strata which have been referred 

to the Shasta horizon will, however, be considered in this memoir.

The lower delimitation of the Shasta horizon is a matter of uncertainty, because there is plainly a wide time-hiatus between its earliest 

known strata and the latest of those upon which they are found to rest, 

which are regarded as of Triassic age, and also because we do not yet 

know whether the earliest known strata of this horizon are the earliest 

that anywhere pertain to it. We also do not know whether the earliest known strata of the Shasta horizon represent the beginning of Cretaceous time in North America, but it is my present opinion that they 

represent a somewhat later epoch than the earliest one.

The upper delimitation of the Shasta horizon is also a matter of 

uncertainty because we do not yet know that any of the later Cretaceous strata which have been found resting upon those pertaining to 

this horizon immediately succeeded them in time. In California the 

earliest overlying strata seem to be of Upper Cretaceous age j and the 

local superposition of Kootanie upon Queen Charlotte strata4 is the 

only known case of other Lower Cretaceous strata resting upon those 

of this horizon. %

So far as I am aware no vertebrate remains have yet been found in 

strata referable to this horizon. Numerous fragments of wood and of 

other plant remains have been found at various localities, but few, if

1 See page 189.

'See Monog. TT. S. Geol. Surv., vol. 13, pp. 227,228.

* See foot note on page 185 for reference to the probable discovery of this Aucella in southern Mexico.

4 See page 189.
WHITE.I THE DAKOTA HORIZON. 257

any, of these are of any paleontological value. The presence of 

important coal beds, however, indicates that vegetation was abundant 

during' the epoch in which these strata were deposited, and it is not 

improbable that collections of fossil plants of taxonoinic value may yet 

be obtained.

.The strata of the whole horizon are, however, almost entirely of 

marine origin, and because of the paucity of vertebrate and plant 

remains we must doubtless rely upon invertebrate fossils for its paleontological characterization. These at present show a very wide, and 

apparently an entire, faunal difference between the Shasta and Comanche horizons, although their geographical separation is not very great 

toward the south. The other Lower Cretaceous horizons having been 

of non-marine origin the paleontological difference between them and 

the Shasta horizon is necessarily very great.

THE DAKOTA HORIZON.

The Dakota horizon, as I now recognize it, is represented only by the 

Dakota formation, which, as a distinct formation, is known only in the 

interior parts of the continent. It is believed that certain strata at 

the base of the Upper Cretaceous series in the Atlantic and Gulf Border regions represent this horizon taxonomically, and, being confident that it is represented by certain marine strata at the base of 

the Upper Cretaceous of the Texan and North Mexican regions, I have 

so treated those strata in this memoir. 1 It is, however, only the noninarine Dakota formation proper that I shall consider as physically 

constituting the Dakota horizon, and its real or supposed marine equivalents will be considered in connection with the strata *which pertain to 

the great complex Maritime and Interior horizon. Therefore, the description of the Dakota formation which has already been given 2 is a 

description of the Dakota horizon as it is physically constituted.

The Dakota horizon is regarded as constituting the base of the Upper 

Cretaceous, but the deposition of its strata is not known to have immediately succeeded that of any of those which are herein referred to Lower 

Cretaceous. It is true that strata referred by Dr. Dawson conformably 

overlie the Kootanie in western Alberta, but he is apparently not yet 

satisfied that certain of those strata which intervene between the characteristic underlying Kdotanie and the overlying Dakota do not represent all the intervening time between those epochs. Marine equivalents 

of Dakota strata rest upon those of the Comanche horizon in the Texau 

region, and elsewhere the characteristic strata of the Dakota horizon 

have been found to rest upon both Jurassic and Paleozoic rocks. Therefore, while the base of the Dakota formation apparently everywhere 

represents the beginning of the sedimentation which produced it, the 

lower delimitation of the horizon is, in different districts, by formations

1 Seo page 122. * See pages 159 and 171.

Bull. 82 17
258 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

of widely different ages. Its upper delimitation, where any strata have 

been found to rest upon it, is always by the marine Upper Cretaceous 

strata of the Colorado formation and of its equivalents.

The character of the strata which constitute the Dakota horizon is 

such as to indicate conditions favorable to vertebrate life during their 

deposition, but they have yet furnished few or no vertebrate fossils. 

Invertebrate fossils also are rare, and, being of non-marine origin, they 

are of little value as indicating the geological age of the strata which 

bear them. At present, therefore, we must rely almost alouo upon 

fossil plants for the paleontological characterization of this horizon; 

and, in this, great caution is necessary because several of its species 

have already been identified in later horizons.1

Although this horizon is now known to occupy a position at what in 

this memoir is treated as the base of the Upper Cretaceous, certain 

paleontologists have insisted on referring it to the Tertiary because of 

the character of its flora.2 While, therefore, this flora as a whole may 

be relied upon to distinguish the horizon,3 a true understanding of its 

geological age has been arrived at only by means of its ascertained 

stratigraphical relation to other formations, the age of which has been 

determined by their invertebrate marine fossils.

THE MARITIME AND INTERIOR HORIZON.

This is one of the most important of the North American Cretaceous 

horizons, because of its great geographical extent and because it comprises the greater part of the Upper Cretaceous strata of the interior 

and eastern portions of the continent. Some of the other horizons are 

simple or they embrace only one recognizable formation, but this, the 

most complex of them all, embraces several formations, each of which

is characterized by certain stratigraphical and paleontological peculiarities. Still all of those formations are more or less directly connected by 

the ranging of certain species of fossil mollusks from one to another, 

except where this great horizon becomes differentiated and finally 

divided into two subhorizons, as will presently be shown. That is, while 

certain formations are distinguishable, no complete biological break 

took place within the vertical range of the series of strata which represents this horizon in the two eastern maritime regions, namely, the Atlantic and Gulf Border regions; but the upper and lower portions of the 

series which represent it in the Great Interior area are respectively 

characterized by a greater degree of paleoutological difference than obtains between any of the other distinguishable formations. Therefore

1 See Ward's tables, Sixth Ann. Kep. TT. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 443-514.

8 See pages 36 and 70.

3 There is now passing through tha press an important work, entitled " The Flora of the Dakota 

Group," which flora is shown to consist of 460 known species, the larger part of them being published 

therein for the first time. See Mon. TJ. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 17, pp. 1-400, pis. I-LXVI. A posthumous 

work by Leo Lesquereux, edited by P. H. Knowlton.
WHITE.] THE MARITIME AND INTERIOR REGION. 259

those upper and lower portions of this great horizon are, in that part 

of the continent, respectively designated as subliorizous.

The strata which constitute this great horizon are all of marine origin. 

Those which represent it in the Atlantic Border region are the New 

Jersey rnarl beds and their equivalents, and those which represent 

it in the Gulf Border region are the Rotten limestone and the Kipley 

formations, all of which have been defined on preceding pages. In 

the eastern part of the Texan region this horizon is represented by 

all the Upper Cretaceous formations, from the top of the Eipley down 

to the base of the Eagle Ford formation, inclusive. To these should 

doubtless be added the Timber Creek formation, which, although regarded as the time representative of the Dakota, is of marine origin 

and paleontologically related to the formations which immediately overlie it. In the western part of the Texan region and in the North Mexican 

region this horizon is represented by all the Upper Cretaceous strata 

which are now known to occur there between the top of the Comaueue 

and the base of the Laramie horizon. In the South Interior region the 

Colorado and Montana formations constitute the full equivalent of all 

the Upper Cretaceous strata just referred to, and while they were evidently produced by continuous sedimentation from the lower to the 

higher of these two formations, their paleontological relation to each 

other seems less intimate than is the relation to one another of the 

formations which constitute the full horizon in the more southern and 

eastern regions.

Upon going northward into the .North Interior region we find the 

Colorado and Montana formations to be as well developed there as they 

are in the South Interior region, and also that the before-mentioned 

paleontological difference between them continues, but it does not increase to such an extent as to materially change the faunal character 

of each of those great formations. Furthermore, upon passing the 

northern boundary of the United States we find that the interposition 

of the non-marine Belly River between the Colorado and Montana 

formations, in quite a large district there, has divided the great 

horizon into the two subhorizons which have just been referred to, the 

lower being represented by the Colorado and the upper by the Montana 

formation. They are designated as subhorizons because they are so 

separated, and are not treated as distinct horizons because each portion there largely retains the paleontological features that characterize 

it farther southward and eastward, where the two portions are in conformable contact, where their paleontological relation to each other is 

recognizable, and where their lithological character indicates that they 

were produced by continuous sedimentation from the lower to the 

higher strata.

The geographical extent, the vertical range, and the stratigraphical 

diversity of this complex horizon, as it has just been defined, are so great 

that it is difficult to characterize it as a whole. It is, however, treated
260 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

as a single horizon, because all its stratigraphical subdivisions are understood to be paleontologically more or less intimately related to one 

another, and because of the evidence we have that marine conditions 

prevailed continuously in time from the deposition of its earliest to that 

of its latest strata. It is true that the evidence of direct continuity of 

sedimentation is lacking in many places, and in many places it is plain 

that such continuity was broken, but the result of extended observations leaves no room for reasonable doubt that it was never everywhere 

wholly interrupted within the vertical range indicated.

The strata of this horizon are, in many places, very fossiliferous, and 

a great number of species have been published by various authors, the 

most important of whose publications are mentioned in the bibliographical list which is given in the introductory part of this memoir.

Although vegetation was abundant over a large part of the great area 

which is occupied by the strata of this horizon, as is indicated by the 

presence of numerous and important coal beds, comparatively little is 

yet known of the character of the floras that existed during the time 

which is represented by them. Judging from the character of the remains that have been discovered in the Montana formation, however, 

vegetation seems to have been similar to that which existed during both 

the Dakota and Larainie epochs.

Important discoveries of vertebrate remains have been made at various localities and in various strata of this horizon from, its base to its 

top, the greater part of which have been published by Profs. Leidy, 

Marsh, and Cope.

The abundant invertebrate fossils of this horizon are, and doubtless 

always will be, the most important for its characterization, and for 

this purpose a thorough revision of all the known species from the various recognized formations of this great horizon is greatly neededWhen this revision is made it will appear that there are within the 

vertical range of the horizon several more or less distinct faunal stages, 

the greater part of the species of which are unlike those of the other 

stages, while some of them will be found to be common to two or more 

of them. No one species, or any set of species can yet be selected as 

characteristic of this horizon throughout its entire geographical extent, 

or through its entire vertical range, but enough is now known upon 

this point to show that it will always be unsafe to assume that any 

given marine molluscan species obtained from any formation belonging 

to this horizon will not be found in any overlying or underlying one 

which pertains to it. This last mentioned fact is a significant one in its 

bearing upon the subject of a connected history of geological events 

within the present limits of the North American continent during Upper 

Cretaceous time, and with reference to the interdelirnitation of the 

Upper and Lower Cretaceous of this continent.

The lower delimitation of this great horizon is the same as that of 

the whole Upper Cretaceous of the interior and eastern portions of the
WIIITB.I SUBHORIZONS. 261

continent except where the Dakota formation and its non-marine equivalents prevail. Its upper delimitation is by a time-hiatus between it 

and the Tertiary in the Atlantic and Gulf border regions and in the 

eastern part of the Texan region; but elsewhere, that is, in the western 

part of the Texan region, in the North Mexican region, and in the two 

Interior regions, its upper delimitation is by the Laramie horizon, the 

aqueous fauna of which is wholly different, although the stratigraphical 

relation between the two horizons is remarkably intimate, as has 

already been pointed out.

THE COLORADO SUBHORIZON.

If it were not that in the North Interior region the non-marine Belly 

liiver formation intervenes between the Colorado and Montana formations, the propriety of considering the two latter formations as subhorizons might well be questioned. In any case paleontological study 

of these two subhorizons should always be prosecuted with direct reference to all other portions of the great complex Maritime and Interior 

horizon, especially to the lower portion of the Upper Cretaceous series 

in the North Mexican, Texan, Gulf Border, and Atlantic Border regions. 

That is, a large proportion of the species constituting the fauna of this 

subhorizou are believed to be geographically distributed in all those 

regions, and it will be unsafe to assume that any one of its species may 

not be found in more than one district within which strata of this subhorizon occurs. -

Within limited districts more or less distinct paleontological stages 

are recognizable in this subhorizou, such, for example, as those of Meek 

and Hayden's Fort Benton and Niobrara groups, but even in such cases 

certain species may be expected to range from one stage to another. 

Besides this, considerable modifications of its invertebrate fauna are 

observable in different districts, such, for example, as those which have 

been noticed as occurring in Colorado and Utah.]

THE MONTANA SUBHOR1ZON.

The Montana, like the Colorado subhorizon, is physically represented by a single great formation of that name, which has been discussed on preceding pages. As in the case of the Colorado subhorizon, 

certain stages are recognizable in portions of the Montana subhorizon, 

such, for example, as the Fort Pierre and Fox Hill stages, which were 

regarded as separate formations by Meek and Hay den.

Besides this, it is now known that a considerable number of the invertebrate species of fossils which characterize this subhorizon occur 

in the upper part of the Upper Cretaceous series in the North Mexican, Texan, Gulf Border, and Atlantic Border regions. Therefore, the 

invertebrate fauna of this subhorizou ought always to be studied with 

direct reference to that of those formations.

1 See page 162.
262 THE CRETACEOUS. [DULL. 82.

In some respects the character of the Belly River formation is such 

as to suggest its designation as a separate subhorizon, but too little is 

yet known of its geographical extent and of that of its assumed equivalents to enable one to satisfactorily define the physical limits of a separate subhorizon that shall include them. The Dunvegan series, while 

it is assumed to have been contemporaneous with the Belly Eiver formation, was perhaps deposited in a separate body of water. Originally 

the Belly Eiver formation proper doubtless had a large geographical 

extent. It seems to occur at several places in Montana1 as well as at 

the typical localities in the adjacent part of British America, yet little 

or nothing is definitely known of its presence at intervening localities.

Besides this there are peculiar difficulties in defining this subhorizon 

paleontologically, mainly because so considerable a number of Belly 

Eiver species of vertebrates, invertebrates, and plants have been recognized in the Laramie. Therefore, it is doubtful whether an attempt to 

recognize these deposits as constituting a separate subhorizon will lead 

to results as valuable as those to be obtained in the other cases referred 

to. This brief reference to the question is, however, herewith presented, because of the fact that the Belly Eiver formation, where it is 

known to occur, distinctly separates the Colorado and Montana subhorizons from each other, as has been already shown.

THE LARAMIE HORIZON.

This horizon physically consists of the Laramie formation alone, but 

it is probable that the Denver and Arapaho deposits" are not clearly 

separable from it on paleoutological ground. Its abundant flora has 

been published by Profs. Newberry, Lesquereux, and Ward, and Sir 

J. Win. Dawson; and its vertebrate fauna mainly by Profs. Leidy, 

Cope, and Marsh. Its invertebrate fauna has been published by Mr. 

Meek, Mr. Wbiteaves, and myself. It is wholly composed of such forms 

as either characterize, or are known to occur in brackish and fresh 

waters, no remains of forms like those which occur only in the open 

ocean having been discovered in any of its strata. This horizon is 

therefore, like the Potornac, Kootanie, and Dakota horizons, a nonmarine one; and although nearly or quite as distinct in its character 

as any of the horizons herein recognized, it is held to represent both 

the close of Cretaceous and the beginning of Tertiary time.

It has been explained on preceding pages that wherever the Laramie strata have been found resting upon the uppermost of those which 

belong to the Maritime and Interior horizon, there is the appearance 

not only of strict conformity, but of vertical continuity of sedimentation also. It has been shown that in consequence of this intimate 

stratigraphical relation between the two horizons the plane of separation between them can be determined only by means of invertebrate

1 See page 174.
WHITE.] THE LARAMIE HORIZON. 263

fossils, and this plane has been designated as that at which exclusively marine forms ceased, and brackish water forms began to appear. It is regarded as certain that some of the characteristic Laramie species of plants and of air-breathing vertebrates began their 

existence before the beginning of the Laratnie epoch as thus physically limited, even as early as the Belly Eiver epoch. Therefore it is 

likely that remains of certain plants and of vertebrate species are to 

be found in both Montana and Laramie strata, but this fact does not 

make the lower delimitation of the Laramie horizon which I have 

adopted an unnatural one. for it has never yet been recognized except 

in contact with the Montana horizon. My reasons for selecting this 

plane of separation between the two horizons are based upon the physical changes in the surrounding portions of the continent which the 

observed strati graphical and paleontologieal conditions imply. It 

may be that we shall yet discover the physical blending of the Laramie 

and Belly Eiver formations, in which case the foregoing statement 

of the lower delimitation of the Laramie horizon will not be applicable, 

but this does not affect the definiteness of that delimitation in all the 

cases yet known.

The Laramie sea is understood to have occupied a very large portion 

of the area which in the immediately preceding epoch was occupied by 

the marine waters in which the Montana formation was deposited, and 

that at its close the waters of the Laramie area became more or less 

completely surrounded by land resulting from an elevation of sea bottom 

above water level. Its waters consequently became partially freshened 

by the surrounding surface drainage, producing a habitat in which it 

was impossible for true marine forms to live, but which was a congenial 

one for those whose remains we find there. Thus was recorded a great 

physical, as well as a great biological, event in the geological history 

of the continent, our estimate of the importance of which is enhanced 

when we remember how great was the geographical area over which it 

occurred.

It is reasonable to assume that the habitat of many of the vertebrate 

and other land animals which existed within and around that area before the event referred to occurred was not made uncongenial by its occurrence. But be that as it may, the strata which physically constitute 

such geological horizons as I have defined in this case are the result of 

sedimentation in great bodies of water, and physical changes which 

altered the conditions relating to those bodies of water and materially 

affected the character of their denizens, were leading events in geological history. As such they are more properly used to mark its subdivisions than are those which have, or which are assumed to have, only 

produced certain changes in land faunas and floras.

A part of the foregoing remarks have special reference to the lower 

delimitation of the Laramie horizon which, so far as it is yetknown, has 

been shown to be clearly definable only upon paleontological ground,
264 THE CRETACEOUS. [BULL.82.

and apparently only by means of invertebrate fossils. Its upper delimitation is usually by the unconformity of overlying formations and by 

a material change in the character of its invertebrate fossils, but at 

certain places neither of these two conditions are complete. That is, 

at certain places, which have been mentioned on preceding pages, the 

immediately overlying fresh-water Tertiary strata are conformable and 

vertically continuous with those of the Laramie, and a few of the fresh 

water rnolluscan forms of the latter pass up into those of the former formation. In such cases the chosen plane of separation between them is 

that upon which all the brackish water forms, which prevail at frequent 

levels in the Laramie, finally cease to appear, which plane also is apparently identical or nearly so, with the upper limit of the range of dinosaurian remains.

As has already been intimated, the Denver and Arapaho deposits 

perhaps ought to be referred to the Laramie horizon upon paleontological, although not upon structural, grounds, but it does not follow that 

the Puerco beds ought to be so referred, although Prof. Cope assigns 

them to the Cretaceous system. These beds, as well as the Denver 

and Arapaho deposits, are of comparatively small geographical extent, 

and they therefore can not be profitably discussed as constituting 

separate horizons. The Laramie strata therefore constitute the latest 

horizon which will be defined as belonging to the series of Upper Cretaceous formations in the great interior portion of the continent.

Although much is known concerning the strata which constitute the 

Laramie horizon, the limits of the great area which it occupies, and 

those which distinguish it from underlying and overlying formations 

have not, as a rule, been well defined by the field geologists who have 

reported upon the regions in which its strata occur. It is true that

the Canadian geologists have defined with considerable clearness that

part of the Laramie horizon which lies within their domain, but in 

many of the reports which have been made upon that part of the 

United States within which the horizon occurs the lack of discrimination in the matter referred to is especially noticeable. These omissions 

have much retarded the acquirement of a comprehensive knowledge of 

one of the most interesting phases in the geological history of the North 

American continent.

THE CHICO-TEJON HORIZON.

It has been shown that although the Laramie horizon is paleontologically an indivisible one it represents both the close of Cretaceous and 

the beginning of Tertiary time. A similar statement may be made concerning the Chico-Tejon horizon, and with even greater force because 

the evidence is clearer and more abundant.

This horizon is physically represented by the Chico-Tejon series of 

strata as they are developed in California, and by its equivalents in 

Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. It comprises all the
WIIITE.J THE CHICO-TEJON HORIZON. 265

Upper Cretaceous deposits of the Pacific Border region with the probable exception of the strata which have been designated as the Wallala 

group, 1 and the possible exception of the upper members of the Queen 

Charlotte Islands series. The strata constituting the Chico-Tejou series 

have been discussed on preceding pages, where it is shown that, with 

unimportant exceptions, they are all'of marine origin, but these exceptions show only local breaks in the direct succession of marine deposits 

which was complete elsewhere.

Among these strata at different localities continuity of deposition and 

unbroken faunal succession may be traced from the base to the top of 

the series, although the observations must be made at favorable localities, owing to the great disturbance that all the strata have suffered. 

This shows that the whole series was all deposited in a comparatively 

undisturbed marine area, and the character of its fossil fauna plainly 

indicates the Cretaceous age of its lower, and the Tertiary age of its 

upper, portion.

The presence of important coal beds in this series indicates that an 

abundant flora existed during the time of its deposition, but few classifiable remains of it have yet been found except in those strata which 

occur on Vancouver Island. Few or no vertebrate remains have been 

discovered in its strata, although it can not be doubted that an abundant vertebrate fauna existed while they were deposited. We are 

therefore now under the necessity of relying upon invertebrate fossils 

for the paleontological characterization of the horizon.

The invertebrate fauna of this horizon is so varied and abundant, and 

so different from that of the Tertiary strata which overlie and the Cretaceous strata which underlie it, that little difficulty need be experienced 

in its identification. Such a difficulty is still further obviated by the 

geographical separateness of the strata of this horizon from all others 

which were presumably contemporaneous with them, and by the fauual 

difference between the latter strata and those which physically constitute this horizon.2

The geographical area which the Chico-Tejori horizon originally occupied was very long, but comparatively narrow. Its present known 

northern and southern limits are fully 1,000 miles apart, but with the 

exception of a limited area in Oregon 3 its strata have not been discovered east of the Sierra Nevada, or of the Cascade Mountains.

GREAT DISPLACEMENTS OF, AND VOLCANIC MATERIAL IN, THE 

NORTH AMERICAN CRETACEOUS.

The Cretaceous strata of the continent have suffered important displacements which occurred at different epochs of Cretaceous time, besides those which occurred at and after its close. The results of these 

displacements affecting the questions concerning correlation which are 

discussed in this memoir, are especially noticeable among the Lower

1 See page 192. »See page 190. 8 See page 194.
266 THE CRETACEOUS. [BOLL. 82.

Cretaceous horizons as they have been denned on preceding pages. 

That is, they have resulted in the nearly or quite complete geographical 

isolation of those horizons from one another, while the Upper Cretaceous 

formations have not been thus isolated, but have all been equally involved in the great post-Cretaceous displacements. It is at present impracticable to discuss these displacements and the phases of continental 

history with which they were connected, but it is to be expected that a 

careful general study of them will throw much lighfupon the taxonomic 

relation to one another of the different Lower Cretaceous horizons, which 

in all cases is now more or less obscure.

It is well known that immense outflows of volcanic material took 

place in many and widely separated districts after the close of Cretaceous time; that this material was erupted through the Cretaceous formations, and that in many cases it covered the later Cretaceous strata 

over great areas. It is also true that much volcanic material was 

erupted at various intervals between the opening and close of the Cretaceous time, and that much of this material is found in approximately 

horizontal beds alternating with sedimentary Cretaceous strata. It is 

probable that a comprehensive investigation of these last mentioned 

phenomena would afford some aid-in an attempt to correlate with one 

another the horizons of the Lower Cretaceous. Too little is yet known 

upon this subject, however, to allow of its satisfactory discussion in 

this memoir, but a considerable number of publications, mainly the 

work of Canadian geologists, contain accounts of or reference to the 

most that is now known upon this subject.1 Evidence of such outflows 

seems to be abundant in the Cordillera belt north of the forty-ninth 

parallel of north latitude, where such rocks form great intercalations 

among Cretaceous deposits. Similar intercalations have also been 

observed in Montana and elsewhere.

1 See Ann. Rep. Geol, Surv. Canada for 1880-'82, part 2, p. 2 B. tb. for 1882-'84, p. 109 0. Ib. for 1885, pp. 

164-166 B. Ib.for 1876-'77,p.90. Ib. for 1878-79,p.66 B, et seq. Geol.Mag., London, vol.4, decade 2. 

Ib. vol. 8, decade 2. Also Bailey Willis, Tenth TJ. S. Census, vol. 15, p. 768.
WHITE.J EXPLANATION OF THE MAP. 267

EXPLANATION OF THE MAP.

The following map is intended to show by means of the color 

applied to it the areas within and the localities at which those rocks 

appear at the surface which have been discussed upon preceding pages, 

all other parts of the map being left uncolored. The vertical range of 

the strata thus represented embraces not only those the Cretaceous age 

of which has never been questioned, but those groups which have been 

recognized as lying at the base and top respectively of the Cretaceous 

system, concerning which there exists a difference of opinion as to their 

true geological age. Thus the color upon the map represents not only 

the areas occupied by the fully characteristic Cretaceous formations, 

but those within which the Potomac, Tuscaloosa, and Trinity forma-. 

tions occur on the one hand, and the Laramie, Tejon. and Puget formations, etc., on the other. The size of the map is too small to allow such 

a modification of the color as would show a distinction between those 

doubtful formations and the others, even if we were able to point them 

out, and too small also to admit of any such distinction between the 

separate formations, or even between the Upper and Lower Cretaceous. 

Therefore only one color is used.

Although the colored spaces upon the map indicate only those areas 

where the Cretaceous rocks are found at the surface or immediately 

beneath the soil, those rocks without doubt extend beneath other formations within adjacent areas, some of which areas are perhaps as great 

as some of those within which they are visible; but it is of course 

impracticable to represent even approximately the areas occupied by 

those hidden deposits. Again, it cannot be questioned that Cretaceous 

deposits once occupied large areas where they do not now exist, because 

they have been removed by erosion.

It will thus be seen that the outlines of the present areas within which 

Cretaceous deposits are known to occupy the surface bear no necessary 

relation to those of the areas within which they were originally deposited. These outlines are necessarily only approximately correct, because of the small size of the map and also because of the incompleteness of the details of the surveys that have been made of many of those 

areas. This is especially true of the small areas or localities which are 

represented by mere dots, for even the size of those dots are exaggerations of the real areas they are intended to represent. Therefore the 

principal use of this map will be to indicate in a general way the parts 

of the continent in which occur the strata that are discussed in this 

memoir.
268 THE CRETACEOUS. [ButL.82.

The sources from which the information concerning the outlines of 

those areas has been derived are the various reports which have been 

quoted in their discussion, the geological maps of the United States by 

Mr. McGee and Prof. 0. H. Hitchcock, respectively, personal observation, and information personally communicated by different geologists. 

Among the latter are Dr. George M. Dawson, to whom I am indebted 

for information, concerning portions of the Dominion of Canada, Dr. 

G. F. Becker, Mr. J. S. Diller, Mr. H. W. Turner, concerning California, 

and Prof. N. H. Winchell, concerning the Cretaceous outliers of Minnesota.
u.S.GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. BULLETIN N9 82. PL.m.

MAP

SHONVING THE DISTRffiUTION

CRETACEOUS FORMATIONS

NORTH AMERICA

BY

C. A. WH !TE.
INDEX.

A.

Page. 

Alabama, Cretaceous deposits of .........104-108

Tuomey, M., on........................ 104

"Wiuchell, Alexander, on .............. 104

section of, by Smith and Johnson..... 105,108

graduated table of section of.......... 217

Alaska, Cretaceous of ..................... 205

Albirupean formation of Uhler ............ 89

Arnpaho group of G. H. Eldridgo, remarks

ou ................................. 150

Arctic regious, Cretaceous of.............. 202

Artesian water from Dakota formation.... 171

Atlantic Border region, boundaries of..... 74

Cretaceous series of................... 76

geological features of.................. 76-78

general description of ................. 77

marine and non-marine divisions of.... 77

concluding remarks on ................ 92

table of formations of.................. 100

B.

Bear Ki vor Laramie, so called ............. 153

Becker, Or. F., publications on California

, Cretaceous......................... 26

discovery of Wallala Cretaceous strata

by ................................. 192

aid received from...................... 268

Belly Eiver formation, district occupied by. 173 

discussion of..........................174-177

physical relation to the Laramio. ...... 174

biological relation to the Laramie...... 175

Bibliographical list, annotated............. 26-60

Biological evolution, propositions concerning................................. 20

Blake, W. P., Cretaceous age of Sitka coal

suggested by ...................... 189

British America, Cretaceous of north...... 206

C.

California Cretaceous, W. M. Gabb's publications on.......................... . 36

J.D. Whitney's section of ............. 182

general section of ..................... 182

first noticed by J. S.Newberry......... 182

J. S.Diller's sections of................ 186

graduated table of.........._........ 241

Page. 

Castillo, Antonio del, geological map of

Mexico by......................... 132

Chalk in the Cretaceous of Kansas......... 160

Chico-Tejon series, controversy concerning

age of.............................. 68

defined ................................ 193

geographical limits of ................. 194

transition from Cretaceous to Tertiary

in.................................193, 200

Chinate Mountains, Cretaceous strata in .. 136 

Clark, W. B., on the Maryland Cretaceous. 88 

ou commingling of Cretaceous and Tertiary fossils.......................... 98

Comanche series, of Texas................. 120

of the Sierra San Carlos................ 134

Conrad, T. A., writings of, on the Cretaceous .............................. 28

on commingling of Cretaceous and Tertiary fossils........................ 98

Contemporaneity of formations, F. J. Pictet quoted on...................... 20

W. Ph. Schiniper quoted on............ 20

Cook, G. H., on the New Jersey Cretaceous 78-83 

Cope, E. D., writings on the Cretaceous ... 29-30 

early reference of the Laramie to the

Cretaceous......................... 147

on the Puerco group................... 149

graduated table of Cretaceous section

by ................................. 229

Correlation, criteria of, discussed ......... 17

of American and European Cretaceous

uncertain..........................11, 208

Correlation and Taxonomy, statement of

methods of illustrating............. 207

graduated tables of, for N. American

Cretaceous........................210-245

Cozzens, Issachar, on the Cretaceous of

Long Island........................ 85

Credner, Hermann, on the New Jersey Cre-

' taceons ............................ 71

Cretaceous system of North America, recognition of......................... 15

subdivisions of, nnlike those of Europe 15 

regions of, defined ..................... 72

Cross, Whitman, publications on Denver

group.............................. 30

Cummins, W. F., information obtained

from............................... 117

269
270 INDEX.

D.

Page. 

Dakota formation, controversy concerning

age of.............................. 66

Timber Creek formation, equivalent to. 122 

in South Interior region............... 159

in North Interior region............... 170

artesian water in ...................... 171

Dawson.G. M.,aid received from..........14,268

on terms earlier and later Cretaceous .. 16 

Belly River formation named by....... 174

Queen Charlotte Islands section by.... 183

table of Cretaceous formations by...... 191

Nanaimo section by.................... 195

on a probable equivalent of the Puget

group.............................. 196

graduated table of Nanaimo section... 243 

graduated table of Queen Charlotte Islands section....................... 245

Dawson, J. W., Kootanie formation named

by ................................. 168

on the character of the Kootanie flora. 170 

Delaware, Cretaceous deposits of.......... 87

J.C. Booth on.......................... 88

Denver group, publications of Whitman

Cross on........................... 30

remarks on ............................ 150

Diller, J. S., sections of California Cretaceous by........................... 186

aid received from ...................... 268

Displacements of the Forth American Cretaceous ............................ 265

District of Columbia, Cretaceous deposits of 88 

Dunvegan aeries, probably equivalent to

the Belly Kiver.................... 174

E. 

Earlier and later Cretaceous...............16,145

East Texan section, graduated table of.... 221

Eastern Colorado section, graduated table of 231 

Eichwald, E., refers Aucella-bearing Alaskan strata to the Neocomian....... 71

Eldridge, G. H.. on Cretaceous coal fields of

Montana........................... 35

modified Cretaceous section by....... .145-158

Enclimatoceras beds referred to the Tertiary ................................ 112

Extra-regional districts, Mexico........... 201

Arctic regions ......................... 202

Westlndies ........................... 202

Upper Mississippi Valley States....... 203

Alaska........................ .... 205

North British America................. 206

F.

Fall line defined............................ 75

Finch, John, first recognition of American

Cretaceous by ..................... 61

Fischer, P., on Alaska fossils.............. 205

Fontaine, ~W. M., work on Potomac fossil

flora .......... .................. 90

G.

Gabb, "W. M., publications on California

Cretaceous......................... 36

Aucella-bearin;* strata referred to Jurassic by........................... 68

Page.

Gabb, W. M. Continued.

Tejon strata referred to Cretaceous by. 68,193 

Mexican Cretaceous fossils published by 69

Gardner, J. S., on the age of the Dakota formation............................. 172

Gardner, James T., discovery of Mexican

fossils by .......................... 133

Graduated table, Meek & Hayden's section 211 

Great Interior section.................. 213

New Jersey section.................... 215

Alabama section....................... 217

Mississippi section .................... 219

East Texan section .................... 221

West Texan section .................... 223

North Mexican section................. 225

New Mexican section .................. 227 i

Cope's general section ................. 229

Eastern Colorado section............... 231

Fortieth parallel section....... ........ 233

TJinta section .......................... 235

Northwest Colorado section ........... 237

North Interior section ................. 239

California section...................... 241

Nanaimo section....................... 243

Queen Charlotte Islands section........ 245

Great Interior area, general description of. 140 > 

boundaries of.......................... 141

Grewingk, C., on Alask an foss ils.......... 205

Gulf Border region, boundaries of......... 100

general description of.................. 102

Cretaceous series of ................... 103

Marine and non-marine divisions of

Cretaceous. ........................ 106

H.

Hall, James, on Cretaceous deposits in

Minnesota......................... 37, 203

early studies of Western Cretaceous... 65 

on correlation of Eastern and Western

Cretaceous......................... 65

Hay, Robert, on artesian water in the Dakota formation................. 171

Hicks, L. E., non-marine invertebrates

found by, in the Dakota formation . 159 

Hilgard, E. W., Mississippi Cretaceous section by............................. 105

graduated tabloof...................... 219

Hill, E. T., on the Texan Cretaceous...... 116-123

on the Arkansan Cretaceous........... 119

Hind, Henry Yule, early observations on

Western Cretaceous ............... 66

Hitchcock, C. H., geological map by....... 40

Hitchcock, E., on Cretaceous of Martha's

Vineyard.......................... 63,86

Homogeny a means of identifying formations..... .......................... 24

Homotaxy, T. H. Huxley q uoted on........ 20

Horizon, unusual use of the term explained 248 

Potomao defined....................... 251 > Comanche defined ..................... 253

Kootanie defined....................... 254

Shasta defined ......................... 255

Dakota denned......................... 257

Maritime and Interior defined ......... 258

Laramie defined ............. ....... 262

Chico-Tejon defined.................... 264
INDEX. 271

Page. 

Horizons of North American Cretaceous,

necessity for recognizing .......... 249

names of............................... 250

Horsetown beds of the Shasta group....... 184

Huxley, T. H., quoted on homotaxy ....... 20

I.

Irving, K. D., lithological classification of

formations by........... .. .. 24

K.

Kerr, "W. C., on the North Carolina Cretaceous .............................. 91

King, C., Cretaceous section of the fortieth

parallel by........... -...-- -- 157

graduated table of..................... 233

Knoxvillo beds of the Shasta formation..... 184

Kootanio formation, named by J.W. Dawson 168 

original discovery of................... 168

casts of TJnio found in............ . 169

identified in Montana.................. 169

coal-bearing ..........................170,181

identified in Pacific Border region .... 189

strata of, found resting on marine Cretaceous .................. ....... 189

L.

Larimie formation, controversy concerning

age of.............................. 66

in Texan region........................ 125

a transitional series of strata........127,148

in North Mexican region............... 138

general discussion of................... 145

fossil plants of, in far northern districts 146 

name proposed by King and Hayden... 147 

name previously used by King......... 147

Bear River, so called, an older formation................................ 153

in South Interior region............... 163

in North Interior region............... 178

fossil plants of, in Puget formation.... 196

Lea, Isaac, description of TJuiones from the

Camden clays...................... 81

Lesquereux, Leo, list of publications of.... 42

on Alaska fossil plants................. 206

posthumous report on Dakota flora by. 258

Lindgrcn, W., on great thickness of the

Laramie in Montana............... 146

Lithological criteria of correlation, remarks

on.................................. 24

Long Island, Cretaceous deposits of........ 84

Lower Cretaceous of North America designated ........................16,246,247

Gulf Border region...................114,217

Texan region .........................118,127

North Mexican region.................. 132

North Interior region.................. 168

Pacific Border region .................. 183

Atlantic Border region................ . 215

Lyell, Charles, on the Atlantic Border Cretaceoujj............................. 63

M.

Pago. 

Map, explanation of, colored............... 267

Marcou, Jules, on American Lower Cretaceous............................... 16

on the Texan Cretaceous section.......68,116

Marine Tertiary deposits in Colorado, erroneous report of..................... 152

Marsh, 0. C., publications by .............. 43,44

on the age of the Potomac formation... 89 

Martha's Vineyard, Cretaceous deposits of. 80,87 

Maryland,Cretaceous series of. ........ 88

Clark, TV.B.,on ........................ 88

Tyson, P.T., on ........................ 88

Uhler, P.E.,on......................... 88

Mather, "W. W., on Cretaceous of Long and

Staten Islands ..................... 63

McConnell, E. G., quoted................... 174

important work of, now in press........ 20(5

McGee, W. J., geological map by .......... 44

publications of, on the Potomac formation ................................ 44,45

on the Maryland Cretaceous ........... 89

Meek, P. B., publications of, on the Cretaceous........................... .... 45,46

Meek & Hayden, earlier and later Cretaceous proposed by.................. 16,145

early studies of "Western Cretaceous... 65 

Upper Missouri Cretaceous section by. 141 

tables representing Upper Missouri section of ........................145,156,158

graduated table of Upper Missouri section of.............................. 211

Merrill, F. J. H., on the Cretaceous of Long

Island.............................. 86

Mexico,Cretaceous of south ............... 201

Morton, S. G., publications of, on American

Cretaceous.......................... 47

L. Vanuxem's first announcement of

American Cretaceous, published by 61

N.

Nanaimo group, Dr. Dawson's name used

for................................. 195

graduated tableof...................... 243

New Jersey, Cretaceous series o'f.......... 78

figures of sections of.................79,80, 82

Non-marine division of................. 80

Marine division of...................... 82

origin of materials of.................. 95

graduated table of...................... 215

Newberry, J. S., early observations of the

Cretaceous by...................... 64

summary of Raritan and Amboy fossil

floras by............................ 94

New Mexican section by............... 155

on identity of Kootanio and Potomac

fossil plants....................... 186, 252

graduated tableof New Mexican section

by.................................. 227

Nikitin, S., announcement of Aucella in

Southern Mexico by................ 185

North American Cretaceous, two divisions

of.................................. 11

abundantly coal-bearing................ 198

general delimitation of................. 199
272 INDEX.

Page.

North American Cretaceous Continued.

great displacements of.. ............ 265

 volcanic materials in................... 265

North Carolina, Cretaceous deposits of..... 91 

W.C.Kerr on.......................... 91

North Interior region, boundaries of....... 165

general Cretaceous section of.......... 166

tables of Cretaceous formations of ... .166,179

Kootanie formation of.................. 168

Lower Cretaceous of................... 168

Dakota formation of.................... 170

Colorado formation of.................. 172

Belly River formation of............... 173

Dunvegan series of..................... 174

Montana formation of.................. 177

graduated table of, Cretaceous section

of.................................. 239

North Mexican region, boundaries of ...... 131

general description of.................. 131

Comanche series of..................... 134

formations of, not yet well defined..... 137

Upper Cretaceous fully represented in. 137 

graduated table of formations of....... 225

0.

Orcutt, C. R., discovery of "Wallala fossils at

Todos Santos Bay by............... 192

P.

Pacific Border region, boundaries of.. . 181 

Lower Cretaceous of................... 183

Shasta formation of.................... 183

Queen Charlotte formation of.......... 188

Tipper Cretaceous of................... 192

"Wallala group of....................... 192

Pacific railroad surveys authorized ........ 64

Parry, C. C., on Cretaceous rocks in San

Carlos Canon ...................... 133

Pennsylvania, Cretaceous deposits of ...... 87

Pictet, F. J., on contemporaneity of formations ............................... 20

Potomac formation in Virginia............. 90

referred to the Jurassic, by 0. C. Marsh. 89

flora of, published by W. M. Fontaine .. 90

W. J.McGee on........................ 90

fossil plants of, in the Kootanie .......186,252

Powell, J. W., Uinta Cretaceous section.... 156

graduated table of TTinta section....... 235

Presidio del Norte, Cretaceous section near. 136

Puerco group, E. D. Cope's designation of.. 149 

relation to other formations shown ...149,164

Pugot formation, Bailey AVillis on.......... 196

J.S.Newherry on fossil plants of ...... 196

probable relation to other formations of. 197

Q.

Queen Charlotte Islands, Cretaceous section of,by G. M. Dawson .......... 183

graduated table of..................... 245

R.

R6mond, A., discovery of Comancho fossils

in Sonora by ....................... 133

Roeiner, Ferdinand,on Texan Cretaceous.. 63 

Rogers, H. D., New Jersey Cretaceous section, first published by............. 62

Page.

Safford, J. M., on the Cretaceous of Tennessee................................. 104

Saint John, 0., fossils from artesian borings

at Lazarra obtained by............. 139

Schimper, "W. Ph., on contemporaneity of

formations......................... 20

Shaler, N. S., on Martha's Vineyard Cretaceous .............................. 87

Shunmrd, B. F.,on Texan Cretaceous ...... 67

Sierra San Carlos, section in ............... 134

Cretaceous strata of ................... 135

Sitka, coal-hearing strata of probably Cretaceous .............................. 189

Smith and Johnson, Alabama Cretaceous

section by.......................... 105

graduated table of ..................... 217

South Carolina, Cretaceous deposits of..... 92

M. Tuomey on......................... 92

South Interior region, d escription of....... 154

work of various geologists in .......... 154

J. S. Newberry's section in ............. 155

J."W.Powell's section in .. ......... 156

C. King's section in ................... 157

C. A. White's section in ............... 157

general section of ...................... 158

tables of formations of................. 164

Stanton, T. "W., comparison of New Jersey 

and Gulf States Cretaceous faunas, 

by................................. 84

Staten Island, Cretaceous deposits of ...... 84

Stevenson, J. J., on New Mexican Cretaceous ...........................157,226,232

Stimpson, W., on the Martha's Vineyard

Cretaceous......................... 86

Subhorizon,term explained ................ 258

Colorado............................... 261

Montana............................... 261

T.

Table of Alabama and Mississippi Cretaceous formations................... 106

Atlantic Border and Gulf States Cretaceous formations................... 114

Texan Cretaceous formations .......... 127

California Cretaceous formations ...... 182

Queen Charlotte Islands formations.... 183

Taxonomy discussed....................... 17

illustrated by tables ................... 207

Terms and methods, explanation of........ 72

Texan region, boundaries of................ 114

general description of.................. 115

Cretaceous series of... .............. 116

figure of, Cretaceous section of......... 118

Timber Creek formation, equivalent to the

Dakota .............................. 122

Time-hiatus between Cretaceous and Tertiary in Atlantic Border region...... 83, 97

in Gulf Border region....... .. . 109

in eastern Texas....................... 124

Toula, F., refers Aucella-bearing strata of

Greenland to the Jurassic............ 71

Tuomey, M., on commingling of Cretaceous

and Tertiary fossils............. .. 98

on the Alabama Cretaceous..... .. 104

Turner, H. "W"., aid received from...,....,. 268
ti.

Ubler, P. R., on Maryland Crotaceons..... 88

Upham, Warren, on artesian waters from

theDakota........................... 171

Upper Cretaceous, Atlantic Border region.. 82,83

114 

Gulf Border region ...................113,114

Texau region .........................121,1:7

North Mexican region ................. 13i>

North Interior region .................. 170

formations of the interior all coal-bearing ...... ............................ 180

Pacific Border region.................. 192

North America, defined ...........11,246,247

Upper Mississippi Valley, Cretaceous of... 203

V.

Vanux<»m, Lardner, early recognition of

A merican Cretaceous by............. 61

Vertebrate remains erroneously reported

from the Dakota..................... 159

Virginia, Cretaceous deposits of........... 90

W. J. McGeeon ....................... 90

Volcanic materials in the North American

Cretaceous........................... 265

INDEX. 273

w.

Page. 

Ward. Lester F., views of, on the age of the

Potomac fossil flora...... ............ 90

West Indies, Cretaceous deposits of....... 202

White, C. A., Cretaceous section by....... 157

on Alaskan fossils ..................... 205

graduated table of Cretaceous section.. 237 

White, David, 011 Maltha's Vineyard Cretaceous .............................. 87

Whiteaves, J. I\, Belly River and Laramie

fossils................................ 175

republication of G. M. IJawsou's section by....................... ...... 182

on identity of Queen Charlotte and

Shastafossils....................... 188

Whitfield, R. P., description of Uuiones

from Cirtnden clays by ............... 81

Jurassic age of Raritau clays suggested 

by ................................. 81

summary of New Jersey fossils by..... 83

Whitney, J. D., publication of California

Cretaceous section by................ 182

Willis, Bailey, on the Puget. group......... 196

Wiuchell, Alexander, on the Alabama Cretaceous .............................. 104

Wiuchell. N. H., aid received from........ 268

Bull. 82 18