# US Environmental Protection Agency



# Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Final Report July 2 0 , 2010

Prepared for Amy Kopin Environmental Protection Agency 2000 Traverwood Dr. Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105 Prepared by Louis Browning, Seth Hartley, Larry O’Rourke, Jennifer Brickett, Ryan Thompson, Lisa McNally ICF International 620 Folsom S treet, Suite 200 San Francisco, CA 94107 415.677.7100

EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05

## bl ank pageICF International 

### i US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 - 05 July 20, 2010 

# Table of Contents 1. Introduction ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 1 1.1. Purpose, Regulatory Background, and Scope

................................ ............................ 1 1.2. Division of Tasks

................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 2 1.3. Report Organization

................................ ................................ ................................ ... 2 2. Description of Technologies ................................ ................................ ............................. 3 2.1. Baseline Vehicles and Technologies

................................ ................................ .......... 3 Class 7 and 8 T

ractors

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 3 Trailers

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 4 Class 3 through 8 Vocational Trucks

................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 16 Class 7 and 8 buses

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 20 

### 2.2. Summary of Technologies and Strategies

................................ ................................ 22 2.3. Aerodynamic improvements

................................ ................................ ..................... 25 Aerodynamic Hoods

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 25 Aerodynamic Mirrors

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 27 AeroConesTM

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 27 AirtabsTM

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 28 Boat Tails

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 28 Aerodynamic Bumpers

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 29 Tractor Gap Fairing

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 29 Roof Fairings

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 30 Tractor Side Fairings

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 30 Trailer Side Skirts

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 31 Trailer Gap Fairings

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 31 

### 2.4. Rolling resi stance improvements

................................ ................................ ............. 32 Automatic Tire Inflation (ATI)

................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 32 Low - Rolling Resistance Tires

................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 33 Single Wide (Wide -Base) Tires

................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 35 

### 2.5. Operational improvements

................................ ................................ ....................... 36 Advanced Driver Training

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 36 Speed Limiter

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... 37 

### 2.6. Idling reduction technologies

................................ ................................ .................... 38 Anti -idle System (

a.k.a., Automatic Engine Stop System)

................................ ................................ .... 38 Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems

................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 38 Thermal Storage Systems

................................ ................................ ................................ ............................... 39 Engine Recovery Systems (ERS)

................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 40 Auxiliary Power Units (APUs)

................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 41 Direct Fired Heaters

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 42 Fuel Cell APU

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 44 Truck Stop Electrification

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ . 45 

### 2.7. Engine i mprovements

................................ ................................ .............................. 47 Integrated Starter/Alternator

................................ ................................ ................................ ........................... 47 Turbo Compounding

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 48 Variable Geometry Turbocharger

................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 49 Variable Valve Actuation

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 50 

### 2.8. Transmission and Drivetrain improvements

................................ ............................. 51 Early Torque Convertor Lock- up ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 51 Hybrid Powertrain

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 51 Low - Friction Engine L ube and Drive Train Lubricants

................................ ................................ ........... 53 Rankine Bottoming Cycle

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ . 54 

### 2.9. We ig ht reduction technologies

................................ ................................ ................. 55 Aluminum Air Tanks

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 55ICF International 

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EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Aluminum Axles and Axle Hubs

................................ ................................ ................................ ..................... 56 Aluminum Wheels

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 56 Lightweight Brake Drums

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ . 57 Lightweight Cab Components

................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 59 Lightweight Suspension Systems ................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 60 Reduced Number of Batteries

................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 60 Aluminum Structural Components for Trailers

................................ ................................ .......................... 61 

### 2.10. Electrification

................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 61 Electrification of Accessory Loads

................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 61 

### 2.11. Air conditioning and transport refrige rated unit (TRU) improvements

....................... 62 Alternative Refrigerants

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 62 Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials

................................ ................................ ............................ 63 Low Power Draw A/C

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 65 Use of Advanced Electrical Transport Refrigeration Unit (TRU) Systems

................................ ....... 67 Use of Cryogenic CO 2 Unit

................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 68 Use of Leakage Reducing Components

................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 70 

### 3. Cost Tables ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 71 

## List of Figures Figure 2 - 1: Peterbilt 379 Traditional Sleeper Cab

................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 4 Figure 2 - 2: Dry Freight Van (W abash National)

................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 5 Figure 2 - 3: Aluminum Combination Flatbed (W abash national)

................................ ................................ ..................... 6 Figure 2 -4: Aluminum Flatbed Drop Deck

................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 7 Figure 2 - 5: Reefer (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)

................................ ................................ ........................... 8 Figure 2 - 6: Dry Van (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)

................................ ................................ ......................... 9 Figure 2 - 7: Flatbed (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)

................................ ................................ ........................ 10 Figure 2 - 8: Aluminum Frame Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)

................................ ................................ ................ 11 Figure 2 - 9: Aluminum Frameless Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)

................................ ................................ ......... 11 Figure 2 - 10: Steel Tub Body Frame Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)

................................ ................................ .... 12 Figure 2 - 11: Grain Hopper (Timpte)

................................ ................................ ................................ ............................. 12 Figure 2 - 12: Chemical Transport Tanker (Polar Tank)

................................ ................................ ................................ . 13 Figure 2 - 13: Petroleum Tanker (Polar Tank)

................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 13 Figure 2 - 14: Sanitary Food Tanker (Polar Tank)

................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 14 Figure 2 - 15: Lowboy, 2 -Axle (Trail King Industries)

................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 14 Figure 2 - 16: Lowboy, 3 -Axle (Trail King Industries)

................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 15 Figure 2 - 17: Flatbed / Step Deck (Trail King Industries)

................................ ................................ .............................. 15 Figure 2 - 18: Class 6 Box Truck

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 18 Figure 2 - 19: Class 6 Dump Truck

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 18 Figure 2 - 20: Class 4 W ork Truck

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 19 Figure 2 - 21: Class 8 Refuse Truck

................................ ................................ ................................ ............................... 20 Figure 2 - 22: Class 7 School Bus

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ . 21 Figure 2 - 23: Class 8 Transit Bus

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 22 Figure 2 - 24: Automatic Start/Stop System

................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 38 Figure 2 - 25: Thermal Storage Unit

................................ ................................ ................................ ............................... 40 Figure 2 - 26: Engine Recovery System

................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 41 Figure 2 - 27: APUs

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 42 Figure 2 - 28: Direct Fired Heater

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 43 Figure 2 - 29. Turbo Compounding Turbine

................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 48 F igure 2 - 31: Lightweight Brake Drum Components

................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 58 Figure 2 - 31: Solar Energy Reflection Improvement through Application of SolarCool Coatings Paint

......................... 64 Figure 2 - 33: Evaporative A/C Unit

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 66 Figure 2 - 34: Rooftop Low Power Draw A/C

................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 66 Figure 2 - 34: Transport Refrigeration Units

................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 67 Figure 2 - 35: ThermoKing's Cryogenic CO2 Unit

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## List of Tables Table 2 - 1: Baseline Tractors and Prices

................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 3 Table 2 - 2: Trailer Types and Manufacturers

................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 4 Table 2 - 3: Baseline Trailer Prices

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 16 Table 2 -4: Baseline Vocational Truck and Bus Prices

................................ ................................ ................................ .. 16 Table 2 - 5: Baseline Bus Prices

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 20 Table 2 - 6: Strategies Investigated in this Report

................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 22 Table 2 - 7: Low Rolling Resistance Tire Types

................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 34 Table 2 - 8: Hybr id system component sizes

................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 52 Table 2 - 9: Hybrid Vehicle Incentives

................................ ................................ ................................ ............................ 53 Table 3 - 2: Class 7 and 8 Trailer Technology Cost/Price Summ ary ................................ ................................ .............. 90 Table 3 - 3: Class 3 through 8 Vocational Truck Technology Cost/Price Summary

................................ ....................... 98 Table 3 -4: Class 7 and 8 Bus Technology Co st/Price Summary

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### 1 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 - 05 July 20, 2010 

# 1. Introduction 1.1. Purpose, Regulatory Background, and Scope Regulation of greenhouse gases is underway. EPA issued an Advanced Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (ANPRM) for Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Jul y 2008 in response to the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision on Massachusetts v. EPA 1



### . The EPA issued the Proposed Endangerment and Cause or Contribute Findings for Greenhouse Gases under the Clean Air Act in April 2009. The standards shall give appropriate consideration to the cost, energy, and safety factors associated with the application of the technologies. The new GHG reporting rule (40 CFR Parts 86, 87, 89 et al. Mandatory Reporting of Greenhouse Gases; Final Rule 2 

### ), from October 2009 requires that sou rces including fossil fuel suppliers and industrial gas suppliers, direct greenhouse gas emitters and manufacturers of heavy- duty and off- road vehicles and engines with emissions above certain threshold levels monitor and report their emissions. On April 1 , 2010, EPA and NHTSA announced the National Program to Cut Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Improve Fuel Economy for Cars and Trucks, establishing a national program consisting of new standards for model year 2012 through 2016 light- duty vehicles, including t he fi rst- ever national GHG emissions standards under the Clean Air Act and CAFE standards under the Energy Policy and Conservation Act. In addition , President Obama directed EPA and NHTSA to take the next steps to reduce GHG emissions and fuel consumption by developing the first- ever GHG and fuel consumption regulations for heavy- duty engines and vehicles in an announcement made on May 21, 2010. The heavy- duty truck sector includes Class 2b through Class 8 trucks that can have a gross vehicle weight ratin g (GVW R) of more than 8,500 lbs. This sector is powered primarily by diesel engines, but gasoline powered vehicles are also used. Heavy- duty trucks were responsible for 18 percent of the U.S. Transportation GHG emissions in 2006 and the CO 2 

### emissions are expected to grow nearly 30 percent by 2030. Reductions can be achieved through engine, vehicle, and operational improvements, with vehicle improvements expected to make up the bulk of the achievable reductions

. The purpose of this analysis i s to estimat e the cost impacts of technologies that can be used to reduce GHG emissions on heavy- duty trucks and engines. The cost estimates have been determined for a number of different truck classes and a variety of technologies and operating strategies to which t hey apply

. The improvements are organized into one of the following nine categories:

 Aerodynamic improvements,  Rolling resistance improvements,  Operational improvements,  Idling reduction technologies,

1 http://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/06pdf/05 - 1120.pdf 2 http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/downloads09/GHG - MRR- Full%20Version.pdfInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Introduction

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### 2 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010



###  Engine improvements,  Transmission and drivetrain improvements,  We ig ht reduction,  Electrification, and  Air conditioning improvements and improvements in transport refrigerated unit (TRU) technology. The vehicles analyzed include Class 7 and 8 tractors, trailers, class 3 - 8 work trucks, and class 6 - 8 bu ses. This report presents the results of this research. 

# 1.2. Division of Tasks Analysis was done in a series of tasks, each encompassing specific type s of vehicle s . In each case, baseline vehicle s were defined along with appropriate technologies. For the purpo ses of this report, the tasks are defined as and include :

 Task 2: Class 7 and 8 regional tractors and Class 8 long - haul tractors  Task 3: Trailers hauled by Class 7 and 8 regional and long - haul tractors  Task 5: Class 3 through 8 vocational trucks  Task 6: Cl ass 7 and 8 buses Throughout this report, analysis may refer to categories by task or by vehicle class. 

# 1.3. Report Organization Th e remainder of this report is organized along the following structure. Section 2 summarizes the baseline vehicles in the current fleet and presents an overview of the nine categories of technologies that can provide reductions in greenhouse gas emissions . Section 3 presents a summary of costs associated with each technology. Tables showing the cost analyses are presented by t ask , wi th each technology category broken out within these tasks .ICF International 

### 3 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 - 05 July 20, 2010 

# 2. Description of T echnologies 2.1. Baseline Vehicles and Technologies Class 7 and 8 Tractors One sleeper and one day cab model were selected as baseline vehicles for the Class 7 and 8 tractor application

. Error! Reference source not found. Table 2 - 1 shows these vehicles, their specifications, and associated prices. Table 2 - 1 : Baseline Tractors and Prices Baseline Tractor Category Baseline Tractor Type Vehicle Specific ations New Price Day Cab 2010 FREIGHTLINER

– CL12064ST- COLUMBIA 120 Engine Make Mercedes $89,500 Engine Type MBE4000 Horsepower 450 Transmission 10 Sp ee d Check for Over Drive Yes Engine Brake Yes Suspension Air Ride Gear Ratio 3.73 Tires 11R22.5 Wheels All Steel Wheelbase 179" Number of Rear Axles Tandem Front Axle Lbs 12,000 Rear Axle Lbs 40,000 Sleeper Cab 2010 FREIGHTLINER CL12064ST- COLUMBIA 120 Sleeper S ize 70" $11 3 , 000 Sleeper Mid Roof XT Sleeper Engine Make Detroit Diesel Engine Type 14.0 Horsepower 455 Transmission 10 Speed Check for Over Drive Yes Engine Brake Yes Suspension Air Ride Gear Ratio 3.42 Tires 22.5LP Wheels All Aluminum Source: http://www.truckpaper.com

Source: http://www.truckpaper.comInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 4 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### It is noteworthy that many improvements, especially aerodynamic improvements, may already be incorporated in these vehicles. Thus it could be advantageous to assess a more traditional style cab , such as the Peterbilt 379 sleeper cab. However, this vehicle was discontinued in 2007 and cannot serve as a current technology baseline. Figure 2 - 1 : Peterbilt 379 Traditional Sleeper Cab

Source: http://www.truckpaper.com 

## Trailers There are numerous types of trailers hauled by Class 7 and 8 tractors. Baseline retail prices and we ight ranges were indentified for the trailer types listed in Table 2 - 2 , based on leading manufacturers . The following discusses these manufacturers and the corresponding trailer types. Table 2 - 2 : Trailer Types and Manufacturers Chief Manufacturer Trailer Types Baseline Trailer Category Details Great Dane van box N/A Wabash National van box Dry van Wabash National (formerly Transcraft) flatbed specialized 48' aluminum combination flatbed Wabash National (formerly Transcraft) flatbed drop deck specialized 48' flatbed drop deck Hyundai container chassis box N/A Utility Trailer Manufacturing re efer box re efer; dry van; 48' flatbed East Manufacturing dump specialized 3 types of dump trailers Timpte grain specialized 2 price ranges for grain hoppers Polar Tank Traile rs tanker specialized 4 types of tankers Trail King Industries /Landall lowbed specialized 2 lowboys; 1 48' step deck flatbedInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 5 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### Great Dane Price and weight range data for the Great Dane manufacturer of box trailers were not available 

### Wabash National Retai l price data and weight data were identified for a dry freight van, flatbed, and flatbed drop deck trailers: 

### Dry Freight Van Wa bash offers three types of dry freight van 2 - axle trailers: DuraPlate® ; FrieghtPro TM ; and DuraPlate HP, the latter being the most expensive. The average curb weight is approximately 14,000 pounds. The DuraPlate dry van trailer's standard features include :  The ultra -wide design of the DuraPlate trailer provides an interior width of 101 - 1/2" (scuff-to - scuff)  The DuraPlate composite si dewall panel is constructed of a high - density polyethylene plastic core bonded between two high - strength steel skins.  Steel interior to resist tears, punctures and related damage.  Postless sidewall design.  High - strength, corrugated steel scuff is fasten ed to the DuraPlate sidewall every 8". Figure 2 - 2 : Dry Freight Van (Wabash National)

Source: http://www.wabashnational.com/Images/popups/DuraPlatePop.jpg 

### Aluminum Combination Flatbed ( 48-foot ) The combination flatbed 2 - axle trailer is available in extreme, heavy, and standard. Basi c features, including approximate weight of each are listed below. Extreme Duty : Available i n 42', 45', 48' and 53' lengths; 96" or 102" widths; a dditional lightweight features are available. Basic features include:  Tandem axles with various axle spacingsInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 6 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

###  Aluminum floor, front and rear plate  Aluminum side rails  Includes 5" aluminum floor sills  GV WR 80,000 lbs.  Approx. 10,760 lbs. w/standard options Heavy Duty : Avai lable in 42', 45', 48' and 53' lengths; 96" or 102" width. Basic features include:  Tandem , various axle spacings  Aluminum floor, front and rear plate  Aluminum side rails  Includes 5" aluminum floor sills  GV WR 80,000 lbs.  Approx. 9,960 lbs. w/standard options Standard Duty : Avai lable in 42', 45', 48' and 53' l eng ths; 96" or 102" w idths

. Bas ic features include:  Tandem, various axle spacings  Aluminum floor, front and rear plate  Aluminum side rails  Includes 5" aluminum floor sills  GV WR 73,000 lbs.  Approx. 9,760 lbs. w/standard options

Figure 2 - 3 : Aluminum Combination Flatbed (Wabash national)Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 7 US Environmen tal Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Source : http://www.transcraft.com/Transcraft/images/products/Eagle.jpg 

### Flatbed Drop Deck (

48-foot ) The D - Eagle flatbed drop deck 2 - axle trailer is a vail able in 45', 48' and 53' lengths with 102” width. The approximate weight is 10,120 pounds with the following standard option s:  Tandem, various axle spacings  Aluminum floor, front and rear plate  Includes 5" aluminum floor sills  80,000 lbs. over lower deck Figure 2 -4 : Aluminum Flatbed Drop Deck

Source: http://www.transcraft.com/Transcraft/images/products/D - Eagle.jpg 

### Transcraft (Wabash) Transcraft is now a Wa bash company. See above for descriptive information about Wa bash trailers. 

### Hyundai Cost data were not available for Hyundai’s container chassis. 

### Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company Re efer The curb weight of Utility’s 2 - axle re efe r trailer i s approximately 14 , 200 pounds. The 3000R series re efer trailer is available with the following standard features:  Patented Barrier Rear Doors  Utility- Designed Door Hardware  5/16" Thick Dock Board Guide Plates  Integrated Heavy- Duty 10" High W earband  Lan ding Leg Support and Bracing  Foam - In - Place Insulation Air Ride Suspension  5 -Year Stemco® Platinum Performance W heel End SystemInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 8 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20 , 2010 

###  Thermal Barriers  Tensioned Roof Skin  LED Lights Figure 2 - 5 : Re efer (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)

Source: http://www.utilitytrailer.com/reefers/3000R.asp 

### Dr y Van Utility’s 4000D series dry van 2 - axle trailer is a traditional plywood lined dry van. The approximate weight is 13,500 pounds. Standard features include:  12" Galvanized Steel W earband  Stainless Steel Rear Door Frame  Integrated Threshold Plate Assem bly  Air Ride Suspension  We ather Tight Floor System  Reliable Support Leg Bracing  Heavy- Duty King Pin Assembly  High - Strength Front Wa ll  Unique Roof Design  5 -Year Stemco® Platinum Performance W heel End System  Bendix® TAB - 6 ABS System  Modular Electrical SystemInvestigation of Costs for Strategie s to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 9 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 Figure 2 - 6 : Dry Van (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)

Source: http://www.utilitytrailer.com/dryvans/4000d_x_composite.asp 

### Flatbed (48-foot) The 4000A TM series 2 - axle aluminum (also available in a steel 4000S series) flatbed trailer (commercial length is 48 -feet) is approximately 9,800 pounds in curb weight. The standard features for this trailer include:  Hendrickson Narrow Hanger AANT 23k Spread Air Rid e Suspension  80,000 PSI High Tensile Steel, Hat- Shaped Main Beam Top Flange  6,500 lbs. W orking Load Limit Rated Pipe Spools  Aluminum Front Rail  100% Plug - in Connectors  Durable Outrigger Attachments  Higher Quality Paint Process for Lower Life Cycle Co sts  Integral Cinch Track  Front Stainless Steel Corners  5 -Year Stemco® Platinum Performance W heel End System  Durable Suspension Design  Plasma - Cut One - Piece Main Beam W ebs  Microencapsulated Adhesive on All Screws  Side Rails are Mechanically Fastened  Contoured Beam at Rear for Proper Axle Loading  Rear Corners Designed for High Impact LoadsInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 10 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 Figure 2 - 7 : Flatbed (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)

Source: http://www.utilitytrailer.com/flatbeds/4000A.asp 

### East Manufacturing Specialized dump trailers comprise about 3 to 4 percent of the mark et. The following three 2 - axle, “lightweight” dump trailers range in weight between 10,000 - 17,000 pounds. 3 

### Dump trailers are available in a range of axles, up to 8 - axles. 

### Aluminum Frame Dump Trailer The aluminum frame dump trailer is available in 2 - axle, 3 - axle and four- axle configurations . This trailer comes in two additional models: The East Qu a d TM and East Michigan series. The East Quad provides up to 25 -tons of legal payload to accommodate especially heavy loads like asphalt and construction material. The East Quad has a maneuverable turning radius that’s up to 16 feet tighter tha n a traditional straight truck, with about the same dumping height. East Quads are available from 24 to 28 feet long . The East Michigan Series offers a wide variety of frame dump trailers with multi - axle configurations that meet the requirements of hauling in Michigan. Both GenesisTM and traditional sheet and post body styles are available for triple -ten (gravel train), super- train, break- up double, twelve wheelers and up to 8 - axle semi - trailer configurations. Steel bodied dump trailers are also available.

3 Personal communication, Charlie Wells, Manager of Dump Trailer Product Line, E ast manufacturing, on 2/25/10.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 11 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -0 5 July 20, 2010 Figure 2 - 8 : Aluminum Frame Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)

Source: http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_dump.html 

### Aluminum Frameless Dump Trailer F rameless dump trailers are design ed for the ideal balance between low weight for more payload, and heavy- duty strength for durability. Figure 2 - 9 : Aluminum Frameless Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)

Source: http://www.eastmfg.com/t ralrs_framelessal.html 

### Frame Dump Trailer (Steel Tub Body) The body of the East steel trailer is made from AR450 grade steel to handle construction and demolition work.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 12 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Figure 2 - 10 : Steel Tub Body Frame Dum p Trailer (East Manufacturing)

Source: http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_framesteel.html 

### Timpte Grain Hopper The standard 2 - axle hopper trailer is available in 38 - , 40 - , and 42 -feet length s with an average curb weight of approximately 9,000 pounds. Typical application includes transportation of agricultural and industrial bulk commodities. Axles typically have a 22,500 pound beam capacity. Typical baseline tires are eigh t 11R24.5 Bridgestone R195F radials. Figure 2 - 11 : Grain Hopper (Timpte)

Source: http://www.timpte.com/newtrailers.html 

### Polar Tank Trailers Typical applications include transport of chemic al and petroleum products , fertilizer, asphalt, and food items (tanks are stainless steel, sterilized and insulated). 

### Chemical Transport Tanker The 2010 POLAR Chemical Transport has a carrying capacity of 8,500 gallons for the transport of petro chemical solvents. The tanker is made of aluminum , with a curb weight of 9,010 pounds. Standard installed t ires can be Yokohama RY587 - 11R 22.5 and wheel size is 8.25 x 22.5 with aluminum h u b. 4 

### A chemical t ransport trailer that is insulated and made of stainless steel has a curb weight of about 13,000 pounds.

4 “Polar Tank Trailer Inventory Display Page,” Polar Service Centers website. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.polartank.com/display.php? content=display_trailer&file=261

.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 13 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 Figure 2 - 12 : Chemical Transport Tanker (Polar Tank)

Source: http://www.polartank.com/display.php?content=display_trailer&file=261 

### Petroleum Transport Tanker The 2010 POLAR petroleum transport 2 - axle ta nk er has a carrying capacity of 9,500 gallons and a curb weight of 10,000 pounds. The multi - compartment aluminum is used for transporting petroleum from refinery to gas stations. Figure 2 - 13 : Petroleum Tanke r (Polar Tank)

Source: http://www.senecatank.com/91680001.JPG 

### Sanitary Food Tanker The two - axle s anitary food tank er is made of stainless steel and is insulated. The curb weight is approximately 10 , 5 00

.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 14 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 Figure 2 - 14 : Sanitary Food Tanker (Polar Tank)

Source: http://www.trucker.com/TrailerDetail.aspx?SID=1983886 

### Trail King Industries Lowboy (TK70HDG) This two - axle lowboy (hydraulic self- lifting detachable gooseneck) trailer has a 26 -foot deck with a 17,000 - pound curb weight. This series is used for construction applications (e.g., hauling construction equipment). The trailer uses 8.25 x 22.5 disc wheels and 255/70R x 22.5 16PR radial tires. Figure 2 - 15 : Lowboy, 2 -Axle (Trail King Industries)

Source: http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=3 

### L owboy (TK110HDG

) The three - axle lowboy (hydraulic self- lifting detachable gooseneck) trailer has a bility to lift above or below transport positions for commercial applications. The trailer has a 26 -foot deck, steel wheels, oak decking, is 102 feet wide with a 22,000 - pound curb weight.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 15 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 Figure 2 - 16 : Lowboy , 3 -Axle (Trail King Industries)

Source: http://www.trailking. com/trailers/?trailer_id=27 

### Flatbed / Step Deck (TK70ACS) The two - axle flatbed (step deck) TK70ACS model has a curb weight of 9,900 pounds with standard 8.25 x 22.5 disc wheels and 11R x 22.5 16PR radial tires for commercial applications. The flatbed tra iler is 48 feet long and 102 feet wide. Figure 2 - 17 : Flatbed / Step Deck (Trail King Industries)

Source: http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=1 

### Table 2 - 3 lists typical retail prices for each of the generic trailer types. The prices listed here may fluctuate depending u pon on the quantity, timing, and/or other factors during the course of an actual sale.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 16 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 Table 2 - 3 : Baseline Trailer Prices Baseline Trailer Category Trailer Types Curb Weight (lbs) New Price Box Van 13,850 $ 2 5,000 Specialized Flatbed 10,600 $29,500 Box Container chassis N/A N/A Box Re efer 14,200 $52,000 - 100,000 Specialized Dump $50,000 Specialized Grain 9 , 000 $31,750 Specialized Flatbed drop deck 10,900 $32,000 Specialized Tanker 10,628 $61,625 Specia lized Lowbed 17,725 $49,500 

## Class 3 through 8 Vocational T rucks Task 5 addresses class 3 through 8 vocational trucks. These vehicles include service trucks, refuse trucks, delivery trucks and other vocational trucks. Four types of trucks were selected for further exploration: a class 3 - 6 box truck, a class 3 - 6 dump truck, a class 4 utility truck, and a class 8 refuse truck. The descriptions below offer specific information on each type of truck. Baseline costs were collected for each of these types of tru cks as well as for a selected type of each category

. Approximate values are shown in T able 2 - 4

. Retail prices listed here may fluctuate depending on the quantity, timing, and/or other factors during the course of an actual sale. T able 2 -4 : Baseline Vocational Truck and Bus Prices

Category Typical Vehicle Price Class 3 - 6 box truck Kenworth T270 $72,000 for truck with automatic transmission. $67 - 68,000 for truck with manual transmissi on. Approximately $12,000 for a 24 foot box body. Class 3 - 6 dump truck Kenworth T270 $72,000 for truck with automatic transmission. $67 - 68,000 for truck with manual transmission. For a 16 foot dump body, add about $10 - $16K ( depending on steel vs alu minum )

. Class 4 work truck International CityStar CF500 $40,000 for a new 16,000 lb CF500 excluding body. B ody with standard lift gate costs about $7,500. (Note this truck ceased production 6 months ago, although a new version is expected soon)Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 17 US Environmental Protection Age ncy EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Typical Vehicle Price Class 3 - 6 box truck Kenworth T270 $72,000 for truck with automatic transmission. $67 - 68,000 for truck with manual transmissi on. Approximately $12,000 for a 24 foot box body. Class 3 - 6 dump truck Kenworth T270 $72,000 for truck with automatic transmission. $67 - 68,000 for truck with manual transmission. For a 16 foot dump body, add about $10 - $16K ( depending on steel vs alu minum )

. Class 4 work truck International CityStar CF500 $40,000 for a new 16,000 lb CF500 excluding body. B ody with standard lift gate costs about $7,500. (Note this truck ceased production 6 months ago, although a new version is expected soon) Clas s 8 refuse truck Volvo VHD Series ( e.g. VHD64B200) Volvo VHD 65BT200 truck retails for about $120,000 excluding the body. B od ies retail for about $70 - $90,000 for standard rear packers, depending on size and equipment $198,000 is a typical price for a new Volvo class 8 refuse truck, both cab and chassis, with a 25 yard rear loader refuse box, excluding FET. 

### Class 3 - 6 Box Truck A class 3 - 6 box truck is a medium - duty truck with a box body that has a gross vehicle weight range from 10,001 to 26,000 poun ds. A class 6 box truck was selected for further investigation. A Kenworth 270 was identified as a sample class 6 box truck. The Kenwort h T270 is a two - axle truck rated at 26,000 GVW R. The chassis is shared with the Kenworth class 6 dump truck. A 24 foot b ox body for the class 6 truck adds about $12,000 to the price of the truck. Two 22.5” wheels are on the front axle and four 22.5” wheels are on the rear axle . For this medium - duty chassis truck, there is not a singlewide tire application available fro m the manufacturer. 5 

### The standard options for this truck also include a PACCAR PX- 8 engine, steel frames and steel fuel tanks. 6 

### Optional equipment pertinent to GHG emissions reducing features includes a CARB emission reduction drivetrain feature, aluminum whee ls, aluminum fuel tanks, aerodynamic bumper, and aerodynamic mirrors. 7

5 Conversations with Kenworth Truck Dealer: Sales Department, Truck Enterprises, Inc, Harrisonburg, VA. 6 Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure, http://www.kenworth.com/brochures/T270T370.pdf

. 7 Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 18 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 Figure 2 - 18 : Class 6 Box Truck

Source: Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure, http://www.kenworth.com/newspics/T270.jpg 

### Class 3 - 6 Dump Truck A class 3 - 6 dump truck is a medium - duty truck with a dump body that has a gross vehicle we ight range from 10,001 to 26,000 pounds. A class 6 dump truck was selected for further investigation. A Kenworth 270 was identified as a sample class 6 dump truck. The Kenworth T270 is a two - axle truck rated at 26,000 GV WR . The chassis is the same as that of the class 6 box truck. The only difference is the body. A 16 foot dump body for the class 6 truck would cost about $10,000 - $16,000 in addition to the price of the truck. Two 22.5” wheels are on the front axle and four 22.5” wheels are on the rear axle . For this medium - duty chassis truck, there is not a singlewide tire application available fro m the manufacturer. 8 

### The standard options for this truck also include a PACCAR PX- 8 engine, steel frames and steel fuel tanks. Optional equipment pertinent to GHG emissions reducing features includes a CARB emission reduction drivetrain feature, aluminum wheels, aluminum fuel tanks, aerodynamic bumper, and aerodynamic mirrors. 9 Figure 2 - 19 : Class 6 Dump Truck

Source: https://www.truckhunt.com/resources/images/user/trucks/45ee7c68 - a822 -4f2e - bfea- 245b209af584_medium.jpg 8 Conversations with Kenworth Truck Dealer. 9 Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 19 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### Clas s 4 Work Truck A class 4 work truck is a medium - duty truck, with a utility body and often features a lift gate or bucket that has a gross vehicle weight range from 14,001 to 16,000 pounds. An International CityStar TM CF500 was identified as a sample class 4 work truck rated at 16,000 GV WR . Note that this truck is no longer in production as of approximately January 2010 but a comparable version is expected to be released within the year. A body with a lift gate is standard for a utility truck, and would add a bout $7,500 to the truck price. 10 11 

### The two axle truck has two wheels on the front axle and four wheels on the rear axle

. 12 13 

### For this medium - duty chassis truck, there is not a singlewide tire application available fro m the manufacturer. 14 

### The standard feat ures for this truck include a high strength, low alloy steel frame, a n International VT 275 engine and 19.5” wheels. 15 Figure 2 - 20 : Class 4 Work Truck

Source: Ima ge of International City Star CF500 http://www.usedtrucksforsalebyowner.net/image_gd/imagegd_big_inside.php?74257776.jpg 

### Class 8 Refuse Truck A class 8 refuse truck is a heavy- duty truck with a refuse body used for trash, waste or garbage hauling. The GV

WR of the truck is between 33,001 - 60,000 pounds. A standard refuse truck bod y is usually a rear loader body, but price will vary according to the features. 16 

### A rear loader 25 - 32 yard body costs about $70,000 - $90,000 in addition to the truck price depending on the

10 Conversation with International Dealer: Sales Department, International Truck Sales, Richmond, VA. 11 International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure, http://www.navistar.com/Trucks/Trucks/Series/CityStar/CityStar500_600

. 12 Conversation with International Dealer: Sales Department. 13 In ternational City Star CF500 Truck Brochure. 14 International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure. 15 International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure. 16 Conversation with Volvo VHD Truck Dealer: Sales Department, Colonial Truck Sales.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 20 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### size of the equipment and its features (e.g. an overhead attachment). 17 

### A Volvo VHD 65BT200 was identified as a sample class 8 refuse truck. The VHD 65BT200 is a three axle truck that has two wheels on the front axle and four wheels on each of the rear axle s. 18 

### For this heavy- duty chassis truck, singlewide tires are included as an option, but are not recommended for use because of difficulties entering and exiting landfills. 19 Figure 2 - 21 : Class 8 Refuse Truck

Source: http://www.impextrucks.co.uk/img/refuse_collection_wehicle.jpg 

## Class 7 and 8 buses Task 6 addresses class 7 and 8 buses. These vehicles include school, commercial and transit buses. Two types of buses were selected for further exploration: a class 7 school bus and a class 8a transit bus. The descriptions below offer specific information on each type of bus. Table 2 - 5 shows baseline vehicle price estimates. Retail prices listed here may fluctuate depending on the quantity, timing, and/or other factors during the course of an actual sale. Table 2 - 5 : Baseline Bus Prices Category Typical Vehicle Price Class 7 school bus International CE Series Type C bus, 31,000 lbs, 2010 Emission Standards , 77 passengers . Bluebird All American Rear Engine School Bus, Type D, 33,000 lbs, 84 passengers . $78 - 8 0,000 for 2010 Virginia Emissions 2010 Standard Bus - conventional (type C). $95,000 for a new 2011 Bluebird All American Rear Engine School Bus (type D). Class 8 transit bus International RE Series Bus $99 - $100,000 for 2010 Virginia Standards (up to 37,000 pounds).

17 Conversation with Volvo VHD Truck Dealer. 18 Volvo VHD Truck Brochure, http://www.volvotrucks.com/trucks/na/en us/products/vhd_series/vhd/pages/overview.aspx 19 Conversation with Volvo VHD Truck Dealer.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 21 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### Class 7 School Bus A class 7 school bus has a GV WR of between 26,001 - 33,000 pounds. An International CE Series school bus was identified as a sample class 7 school bus. Th is conventional two axle bus has two wheels on the front axle and four wheels on the rear axle s. Singlewide tires are not allowed as options for school buses in many states due to safety concerns. 20 

### The International CE is a 77 passenger bus with a GV WR of 31,000 pounds. Standard options include an International MaxForce® 7 or MaxForce® DT engine, full power hydraulic brakes and electric entrance door. Optional features include factory- installed air conditioner. 21 Figure 2 - 22 : Class 7 School Bus

Source: http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/uploa dedImages/News/Chicago/Images/Business/Bus.jpg 

### Class 8 Transit Bus A class 8a transit bus has a GV WR of between 33,001 - 60,000 pounds. An International RE Series Commercial bus was identified as a sample class 8 transit bus. Th is rear- engine two axle bus h as two wheels on the front axle and four wheels on the rear axle . Th e International RE is a 52 passenger bus with a GV WR of 37,000 pounds. 22 

### Standard options include a n International Ma xForce® DT engine, a roof- mounted HVAC system and air brakes. Optional features include aluminum wheels. 23

20 Conversation with International School Bus Dealer: Sales Department, Kingmor Supply. 21 International CE Series School Bus Brochure, http://www.icbus.com/ICCorp/BusDownloads/School%20Route/CE%20School%20Sell%20Sheet.pdf

.. 22 Conversations with IC Bus, LLC Sales Department. 23 International Re Series Commercial Bus Brochure, http://www.icbus.com/ICBus/Buses/Commercial/Overview/Commercial+RE+Series/

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### 22 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 Figure 2 - 23 : Class 8 Transit Bus

Source: http://www.interstatetransportation.com/buses/3/6/ 

# 2.2. Summary of Technologies and Strategies The technologies investigated in this report are summarized in Table 2 - 6 . Broadly, they are categorized into aerodynamic improvements, rolling resistance improvements, operational improvements, idling reduction technologies, engine improvements, transmission and drivetrain improvements, weight reduction, electrification, air conditioning improvements, and improvements in transport refrigerated unit (TRU) technology. Table 2 - 6 : Strategies Investigated in this Report Improvement Vehicle Class Investigated Aerodynamic Improvem ents Aerodynamic Hoods Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Aerodynamic Mirrors Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Aerocones Trailers Air Tabs Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Boat Tails and Air Tabs Trailers Bumper Class 7 - 8 Tra ctors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Gap Fairings Trailers Roof Fairings Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Side Fairings Class 7 - 8 Tractors Side Skirts Trailers Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Tractor Gap Fairing Class 7 - 8 TractorsInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 23 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 Improvement Vehicle Class Investigated Rollin g Resistance Improvements Automatic Tire Inflation Class 7 - 8 Tractors Trailers Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Low Rolling Resistance Tires Class 7 - 8 Tractors Trailers Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Single Wide Tires Class 7 - 8 Tractors Trailers Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Operational Improvements Advanced Driver Training Class 7 - 8 Tractors Speed Limiters Class 7 - 8 Tractors Idle Reductions Anti - idle System (i.e., automatic engine stop system) Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems Class 7 - 8 Tractors Thermal Storage Systems Class 7 - 8 Tractors Engine Recovery Systems Class 7 - 8 Tractors Auxiliary Power Units Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Direct fired heaters Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Fuel Cell APUs Class 7 - 8 Tractors Truck Stop Electrification Class 7 - 8 Tractors Engine Improvements Electronic Fans Class 7 - 8 Tractors Integrated Starte r/Alternator Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Low Friction Engine Lube Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Turbo compounding Class 7 - 8 TractorsInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Tech nologies

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### 24 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 Improvement Vehicle Class Investigated Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Variable Geometry Turbo Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Variable Valve Actuation Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Transmission and Drivetrain Improvements Early Torque Converter Lockup Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Hybrid Powertrain Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Low- Friction Drivetrain Lube Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buse s Rankine Bottoming Cycle Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Weight Reduction Aluminum Air Tanks Class 7 - 8 Tractors Aluminum Axle Hubs Class 7 - 8 Tractors Aluminum Wheelset Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Light Weight Brake Drums Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Lightweight Cab Components Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Lightweight Suspension System Class 7 - 8 Tractors Reduced Number of Batteries Class 7 - 8 Tractors Tare Weight Reduction via Al structural components Trailers Tare Weight Reduction via Al wheels TrailersInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 25 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 Jul y 20, 2010 Improvement Vehicle Class Investigated

Electrification Accessory Electrification (Power Steering, Water Pumps, Fans, etc.) Class 7 - 8 Tra ctors Air Conditioning Low Power Draw A/C Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Use of Alternative Refrigerants Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Use of highly reflective structural material s Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Use of Leakage - Reducing Components Class 7 - 8 Tractors Class 3 - 8 Vocational Trucks Class 6 - 8 Buses Reefer Improvements Alternative Refrigerants Trailers Low power draw A/C Trailers Advanced Electrical TRU Trailers Use of cryogenic CO 2 units Trailers Use of highly reflective structural materials Trailers Use of leakage - reducing components Trailers 

### The remainder of S ection 2 provides an overview for each of these technolo gies. It is important to note that the combinations of class, vehicle application, and technologies researched here do not reflect every available combination , as it would be impractical to try and identify every combination here. Fleet owners and operato rs are left to decide whic h technology works best for their application. Also, some strategies that appear in the list for Class 7 - 8 Tractors were found to not be applicable in practice. Those were not investigated further. An overview of the findings of the research for each technology investigated is summarized in Section 3

. 

# 2.3. Aerodynamic improvements Aerodynamic Hoods Technology Definition Truck manufacturers offer aerodynamic models that include a streamlined front profile and sloped hood. A more aerodynamic hood and cab design can significantly improve the aerodynamics of the vehicle and reduce drag. Aerodynamic hoods are usually one component in an overall aerodynamic design that includes the bumper, mirrors, headlights and other cabInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 26 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### features. Sig nificant research, including wind tunnel testing, is usually required to design an aerodynamic cab and associated hood design. 

### Availability Most aerodynamic hoods are manufactured by outside suppliers. Aerodynamic hoods a re made of molded composites wi th inexpensive molded compounds. Numerous suppliers are available who can produce custom hoods designed to manufacturer specifications. Some manufacturers also make some of their own hoods. 

### Vehicle Application Aerodyna mic hoods can be installed on single - unit trucks and truck tractors. They can be used on sleeper cab s, day cab s , and on all cab sizes. An aerodynamic hood is customized to a specific truck cab design to achieve superior aerodynamic performance. Aerodynamic hoods may not be appropriate for some vocational trucks. The purpose for which a vehicle is designed also affects the extent to which it can incorporate certain aerodynamic features. For instance, the radiator in a vocational truck is larger than that on a standard highway truck becaus e of the work required from the vehicle. Having a larger radiator makes it more difficult to design an aerodynamic hood with a low sloping profile for a vocational truck. A vocational truck needs more ground clearance and has larger axles, all affecting the aerodynamic features. The vocational truck environment involves more dust and thus requires greater filtration of intake air. Many vocational vehicles with the larger dual 15 inch canisters on their sides are meeting the engine’s need for greater air filtration, although this may not be aerodynamic. The material that tends to be used in vocational products (with non aerodynamic hoods) is more durable and has a higher manufacturing cost. The vocational truck environment tends to cause more damage to t ruck hoods resulting in more vocational hoods designed such that components can be replaced instead of forcing replacement of the entire hood

. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors In general, there would not be a significant difference in piece cost between the shape of an aerodynamic hood and a non - aerodynamic hood. A manufacturer could choose to make the shell of the hood in different designs for minimal cost. Most of the cost for a new aerodynamic design is associated with developing and testing the new design. Once this R&D is conducted, there is little difference in manufacturing cost between producing a new hood shape as compared to the old less aerodynamic hood shape. One cost element that would be different from a standard non - aerodynamic hood would be the styled headlamp that would be required fo r an aerodynamic design. This can require a mul t i million dollar investment program for a truck manufacturer . Engineering testing and tooling costs are large for styled headlamps. It may be difficult to u se off-the - shelf components to create such a styled headlight. Due to the numerous components required for stylized headlights , there is typically a long lead time for this element of approximately 30

– 48 months

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### 27 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

## Aerodynamic Mirrors Technology Definitio n An aero dynamic mirror typically has a curved housing and a minimal number of arms. The arms have an aero shape with curved upper and lower surfaces. An aero dynamic mirror might also have a curved back. Mirrors are typically designed and optimized to improve the flow of air as it moves off of the vehicle and in free stream around the vehicle. Each cab design has a unique air flow profile which can require different aerodynamic mirrors for optimal effect

. 

### Availability The design of the aero dynamic m irror shell is d ictated by the truck manufacturer and is typically manufactured by a supplier. Truck- Lite® is a major manufacturer of a number of different mirrors, including the aerodynamic mirror for Freightliner’ s Cascadia® model. There are numerous s uppliers who are available to manufacture custom mirror designs for truck makers. 

### Vehicle Application Aerodynamic mirrors can be installed on single - unit trucks and truck tractors. They can be used on sleeper cab s, day cab s , and on all cab sizes. An aero dynamic mirror is usually customized to the specific cab and hood design to achieve the best results. Vocational truck mirrors are not typically optimized for the cab. Construction sites and other vocational truck environments tend to cause mirror damage, requiring mirrors to be replaced. Truck fleets thus find it is desirable to use a standard mirror component that can be replaced easily. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors An aerodynamic mirror typically has four way mirror control and the arm structure is mo re robust. Because of the minimal number of arms, the strength and cost of the arms tends to be greater. An aero mirror will typically include boots or special breakaway features. Another difference is that on a standard mirror only the mirror glass rotates while the arms remained in a fixed position, while on an aero mirror the whole assembly turns. These factors tend to increase cost. 

## AeroCones TM Technology Definition An AeroCone TM is used to reduce aerodynamic drag between the tractor and trailer. It can also be used to reduce drag on the front of the cargo compartment of straight trucks. By alleviating crosswinds, an AeroCone improves vehicle stability, road safety and reduces fuel consumption. 

### Availability Trailer aerodynamic devices are offered by a few companies today, for example the AeroCone is available from ATD Dynamics, and the Nose Cone® is currently marketed by the FitzGerald Corp oration of California

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### 28 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### Vehicle Application The Aero C one can be installed on standard dry van trailers or standard van straight trucks. Refrigerated tanks block installation on a reefer truck

. Aerodynamic tractor models generally have tractor fairings, wh ich reduce the benefit of the AeroCone

. 

## Airtab sTM Technology Definition Airt ab sTM are patented vortex generators that can be installed on a truck to reduce drag . The Airt ab is an aerodynamic surface, consisting of a small wishbone shaped ridge that create s a vortex . Air tabs are installed at the back of tractors, trailers or straight trucks to improve the aerodynamics on the vehicle. Each Airtab creates two tight swirls of air or vortices that combine to reduce the suction and drag at the rear of vehicle s traveling at speeds above approximately 35 mph

. 

### Vehicle Application Airtabs enhance aerodynamic performance equally well on cube vans, straight trucks, expeditors, buses, utility trailers, faired "bob tail" tractors, flat beds and tankers. The resul ts may vary somewhat with vehicle type

. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors The length of the vehicle does not affect price . Taller vehicles, such as moving trucks, would have a somewhat higher installation cost. 

## Boat Tails Technology Definition A boat tail, s ometimes called a trailer tail, is a tapering protrusion mounted on the rear of a truck or trailer to reduce aerodynamic drag. There are a number of different boat tail designs. 

### Availability There are a variety of different manufacturers that make boat tails. These include Aerodynamic Trailer Systems, AeroVolution, ATS, Transtex and Solus. 

### Vehicle Application Boat tails can be installed on standard dry van trailers or refrigerated vans. Some boat tail products are only applicable to swing door trailers because the mou nting brackets require a swing door plane

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### 29 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Trailer tails should last the life of the vehicle or 5 to 10 years. Some may require minor repairs because of impacts

. 24 

## Aerodynamic Bumpers Technology Definitio n An aerodynamic bumper typically replace s traditional chrome bumpers found on tractors with a lighter weight material and a design that is integrated with the hood and fenders. Aerodynamic bumpers are typically injection molded and improve the total dra g of the tractor; consideration must be given to not restricting airflow to the engine when designing the bumper

. 

### Availability There are a number of truck bumper suppliers and manufacturers. Hendrickson is one of the largest bumper manufacturers, and they make a number of different aerodynamic bumpers for different truck tractor models. Aerodynamic bumpers are usually designed by truck OEM’s and sourced out to a supplier 

### Vehicle Application Aerodynamic bumpers can be installed on sleeper cab s, day cab s , and on all cab sizes. 

## Tractor Gap Fairing Technology Definition A tractor gap fairing , also known as a cab extender or gap seal, reduces the gap between the tractor and the trailer, reducing aerodynamic drag and improving the fuel economy of the vehicl e. 

### Availability Makers of tractor gap fairings include Airodyne Industries and Laydon Composites although there are numerous suppliers. Truck manufacturers sometimes contract with a range of different suppliers for custom gap seals that are include d as standard components on aerodynamic truck models. 

### Vehicle Application Tractor gap fairings can be installed on either a sleeper cab or a day cab, and on all cab sizes. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors The cost of the gap fairing will vary depending on t he height of the tractor. For instance, a taller sleeper cab will require a taller gap fairing, with the cost difference being related to the additional material that is required.

24 Phone conversation with truck aerodynamics manufacturer representative.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 30 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

## Roof Fairings Technology Definition A roof fairing extends over the cab of a tractor and has enclose d sides. Roof fairings are designed to improve the flow of air over and around a tractor- trailer, reducing aerodynamic drag and increasing fuel efficiency. Some roof fairing designs are collapsible to allow for the fairing to be taken down when the tractor is operated without an attached trailer. 

### Availability Major s uppliers of roof fairings include Airodyne Industries and Laydon Composites. Roof fairings can be purchased as a retrofit, but truck manufacturers also contract with a number of different suppliers to manufacture roof fairings for aerodynamic models where the roof fairing comes as a standard integrated component. 

### Vehicle Application Roof fairings can be installed on sleeper cab s or day cab s , and on most cab sizes , although they would not be needed on a high - roof sleeper cab, since the tall roof functions as a fairing

. Aerodynamic truck models may come with roof fairings as standard equipment

. In addition, roof fairings would not be purchased for a tractor haulin g a flatbed trailer, since this would have a negative impact on the aerodynamics of this vehicle configuration. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors In some cases, a company that orders roof fairings for a new vehicle may have brackets installed on the vehicle at the factory , but have the fairings shipped separately and installed by the dealer. T he extra height of fairings can cause problems with clearances during transit in some cases . 

## Tractor Side Fairings Technology Definition Tractor side fairings, also k nown as cab fairings, extend downward from the base of the cab between the wheels of the tractor, covering the open space and streamlining the fuel tank(s). Most cab side fairings have steps to reach the cab molded directly into the fairing. In some cases , the fairing may consist of a single component that is a wheel to wheel fairing. In other cases, the side fairing consists of two components, a partial side fairing and a fuel tank fairing. Tractor side fairings can be used on both day cabs and sleeper cabs. 

### Availability Makers of side fairings include Airodyne Industries and Laydon Composites, although there are numerous suppliers. Truck manufacturers often contract with suppliers for custom fairings that are included as standard components of aerod ynamic truck models.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 31 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### Vehicle Application Tractor side fairings can be installed on either a sleeper cab or a day cab, and on all cab sizes. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors The cost of the side fairing will vary depending on the size of the truck tractor. For instance, a truck with a longer wheelbase , such as sleeper cab, will require a longer and typically more expensive fairing than a day cab. 

## Trailer Side Skirts Technology Definition T railer side skirts, or trailer fairings, extend down from the botto m of the trailer to cover part of the open space between the tractor and the rear wheels. These fairings improve airflow around the trailer and reduce drag. 

### Availability Trailer side skirts are widely available from a number of different companies , inc lud ing: AT D Dynamics, Freight W ing, Solus, Carrier Transicold, Fleet Engineers, Laydon Composites, Ridge Corp., GreenWi ng, Silver Eagle, Transtex and Utility Trailer. 

### Vehicle Application Trailer side skirts can be installed on dry van and refrigerated trai lers , and are being testing on flatbed applications . Side skirts can also be installed on tank er trucks , but they have achieved limited penetration in this market. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Side fairings are more expensive on trailers with a higher de ck

. S ide fairings for tanker trucks can be slightly more expensive , primarily due to additional costs fo r mounting. 

## Trailer Gap Fairings Technology Definition A trailer gap fairing performs the same function as a tractor gap fairing, the difference bein g a trailer gap fairing is installed on a trailer while the tractor gap fairing is installed on the tractor. Trailer gap fairings, also known as gap reducers , are usually rounded additions to the sides and /or top of the front of the trailer that reduce th e gap between the tractor and trailer. 

### Availability Trailer gap fairings are available from a number of different suppliers. Firms that produce SmartW ay verified gap reducers include Carrier Transicold, FreightW ing, Laydon Composites and Nosecone

. 

### Veh icle Application Trailer gap fairings can be installed on standard dry van and refrigerated trailers.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

ICF International 

### 32 US Environmental Protection Age ncy EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

# 2.4. Rolling resistance improvements Automatic Tire Inflation (ATI) Technology Definition Wi th properly inflated tires, tire rolling resistance is decreased and fuel use is reduced compared to under- inflation. Automatic tire inflation systems (ATI) monitor and continually adjust the level of pressurized air in tires, maintaining proper tire inflation automatically, even while the truck is moving. The Me ritor Tire Inflation System by Pressure Systems International uses the vehicle’s air- brake compressor to supply air to all of the tires

. Air from the existing trailer air supply is routed to a control box, then into each axle. The axles act as conduits to distribute air through rotary union assemblies at the spindle ends, which then distribute air to each tire as needed. 25 

### Another system uses self- contained compressors mounted on each hub that are powered by the rolling motion of the wheels. Once an ATI sys tem is installed, it should not require any special attention from the driver. 26 

### Availability Leading brands for automatic tire inflation systems include Pressure Systems International (Meritor Tire Inflation System; Meritor Tire Inflation System with ThermALERT TM ) and Hendrickson (TIREMAAX® Electronic Controller; TIREMAAX® Constant Pressure). 

### Vehicle Application The application and price information discussed below is based on research acquired from Pressure Systems International (PSI) Meritor tire inflation systems. 27 

###  Class 8 Long - Haul Trailers. For long haul trucking, PSI’s inflation system is only available for the trailer, (and dollies and chassis) only. [For a two -axle trailer, the cost is approximately $750 if system is installed at manufacturing level. For labor, add another $200 if system is added to an existing trailer as a retrofit truck. (The cost is around $550 to be added to a single axle trailer or dollies.) In either case a return on investment, with all things considered, is reported to be less than one year and typically about 8 months

.]

.  Vocational Trucks (e.g., service trucks, refuse trucks, delivery trucks, etc.)

. Service trucks that have air brake systems can be fitted with external ATI.  Urban/Transit Buses . Buses of all types can also be fitted with external ATI typically for the steer tires , drive tires , and a tag (non - drive) axle tires. These types of systems would not require the governing of engines or the deflation feature

. [Therefore, these systems for six wheel end positions would cost approximately $1000 to $1,250 price

25 “Literature,” Pressure Systems International website. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.psi - atis.com/literature.htm

. 26 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies

– Automatic Tire Inflation Systems,” SmartWay Transport Partnership. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/tireinflate.pdf

. 27 Interviews with Frank Sonzala, Executive VP of Sales and Marketing , Pressure Systems International, 2010.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 33 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010



### range. Monitoring systems would run $650 to $900 per vehicle if that type of system is used.] 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Prices vary depending on the number of axles. For a two axle trailer, one kit will handle all 8 ti res on a tandem dual axle system or all 4 tires on wide - base single tire system, the addition of the ThermALERT option would increase the cost. [ See “Vehicle Application” section above. ] The wear part of PSI’s ATI is the “Through -T” component. The price of a replacement Through T is in the range of $25 if purchased from a parts sales house ; it does not require special tools to install and can be installed in approximately 15 minutes

. The Through -T is the rotary connection that delivers stationary air from the spindle end of axle to rot ating tires through the hoses. The Through -T component’s lifespan has been tested to be up to 1 million miles, but in reality , the component typically gets about 500K- 750K miles of wear life. 28 

## Low- Rolling Resistance Tires Tec hnology Definition Tire rolling resistance refers to a frictional effect associated with the contact of the tread of the tire with the road surface, and the flexing of the tread. Reduction of rolling resistance can be accomplished through the use of new m aterials, such as the combination of silica and synthetic elastomer. Given that many trucks have a large number of tires in contact with the road (e.g., 18 wheels), rolling resistance can have a significant effect on efficiency . Thus, tire rolling resistan ce is an important component of the total engine power demand on a truck. Rolling resistance can be reduced by avoiding under- inflation of existing tires (to reduce unnecessary flexing), substituting one wide - tire for a pair of dual tires (leading to a net reduction in total tread area, sidewall flexing, or both), use of alternative tire materials to reduce rolling resistance. To the extent that rolling resistance can be reduced, total engine power demand is also reduced. This, in turn, leads to reductions in fuel use and exhaust CO 2 

### emission from the truck. 29 

### Tire manufacturers seek to reduce the rolling resistance in order to improve fuel economy. 30 

### There are 2 recognized categories of Low Rolling Resistance Tires: Single W ide - base (see below for further di scussion about this technology) and Low Rolling Resistance Dual Tires. 31 

### A

28 Interviews with Frank Sonzala, Executive VP of Sales and Marketing, Pressure Systems International, 2010. 29 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, October 4, 2007. 30 California Energy Commission. “Tires a nd Fuel Efficiency.” June 2006. http://www.energy.ca.gov/2006publications/CEC - 600 - 2006 - 003/CEC - 600 - 2006 - 003 - FS.PDF 31 “ Low Rolling Resistance Tires,” SmartWay Finance Center Technology website. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.smartwayfinancecenter.com/technology.cfm?productTypeID=4&productTypeCategoryID =9

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### 34 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### we ll designed wide - base single tire has lower rolling resistance than traditional dual tires. Manufacturers also offer low rolling resistance versions of dual tires. 32 

### Availability Leading brands for low- rolling resistance tires (common steer, drive, and trailer models ) are shown in Table 2 - 7

. Table 2 - 7 : Low Rolling Resistance Tire Types

Brand St reet Drive Trailer Bridgestone R287A, R280, R250F,

R260F, R287 M720, Greatec R195, Greatec Trailer, Greatec R125, R197, S197 BF Goodrich ST244 DR 444 TR144

Continental HSL - 2 (replaces HSL), HSR1

ECO Plus, HSR2 ECO Plus HDL ECO Plus, HDL2 DL ECO Plus, HDR1 ECO Plus, HSR1 ECO Plus, HSR2 ECO Plus HTL ECO Plus, HTL1

Double Coin N/A FD405 FT105 Dunlop Tire SP384 FM SP456 FM SP193 FM Firestone FS590 PLUS, FS507 FD662 FT455 PLUS General S371, S581 D660, S371, S581 ST250 Goodyear G395 LHS Fuel Max, G399

Fuel Max, G662 Fuel Max G305 LHD Fuel Max, G392 SSD, G305 Fuel Max AT G316 LHT Fuel Max, G316 Fuel Max DuraSeal

Michelin XZA3, XZA2, XZA1+, XZE,

XZE2, XZA2 Energy, XDA2+ Energy, XDA Energy, XDA3, X- One XDA, X- One XDN2, XOne XDA Energy, XDE2+, XDN2, XDE M /S XTA Energy, XT1, X- One XTA, X- ONE XTE, XTE Toyo Tires M137, M154 M657 M127 Yokohama RY617, 103ZR, 101ZL 703ZL, TY517mc2 RY587mc2, RY587 Hankook AL07+, AL11 Z35a, DL11 TL01 

### Vehicle Application Class 8 combination Line - Haul Tractor-Trailers, includ ing day cabs and mid - and full - size sleeper cabs.

32 NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX , LLC. Reducing Heavy- Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel Consumption and CO2 Emissions, October 2009. http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy- duty-truck- ghg_report_final 200910.pdf

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### 35 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

## Single Wide (Wide - Base) Tires Technology Definition Single -wide tires are used by a number of carriers and private fleets on combination vehicles to reduce rolling resistance. The benefits of reducing rol ling resistance are more substantial on combination vehicles, and single -wide tires are not currently available for single - unit trucks. 33 

### A single wide - base tire with an aluminum rim is lighter than two standard tires and wheels. 34 

### Combination trucks usuall y have two sets of dual tires at each end of an axle. Dual tires are heavy and also produce high rolling resistance. Single wide - base tires, which are commercially available products, can replace these dual tires in most applications

. Wi de - base tires that have a combined lower weight (e.g., there are only two sidewalls for one tire, versus four sidewalls for two tires) and produce lower rolling resistance reduce energy use. This best practice is suitable for combination trucks that have van trailers, which are the majority of the total truck fleet. By using single instead of dual tires, there is a need for increased attention to tire inflation pressure for safety reasons

. 35 

### Single -wide tires have mainly been confined to niche markets and installed on combinat ion vehicles. For vehicles that weigh - out, they can have the added benefit of reducing the truck’s tare weight and increasing the payload that can be carried. Tare weight reduction is important in making the business case for investing in these tires and t heir wheels. 36 

### Availability Leading b rands for Single W ide Tires include Michelin, Goodyear, and Bridgestone. These are available from a variety of tire manufacturers and retailers. Retailers may specialize by vehicle application or type. Michelin makes th e X- One® single wide tire for trucks. Goodyear makes a wide based tire called the Super Single. Bridgestone also makes a wide based tire. 

### Vehicle Application Class 8 combination Line - Haul Tractor-Trailers, including day cabs and mid - and full - size sleeper cabs. Traditional dual tires are replaced with one single wide tire and aluminum wheel , and can be applied to all tractor and trailer tire positions except for the steer tires. 37 

### The new generation of wide - base tires has a section width of up to 17.5 inch es, for a typical tandem axle combination

33 ICF International, “ Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense Fund, December 2009. 34 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freigh t Strategies

–Single Wide - Based Tires,” SmartWay Transport Partnership. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.epa.gov/smartway/transport/documents/tech/supersingles.pdf

. 35 N C State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, October 4, 2007. 36 ICF International, “ Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense F und, December 2009. 37 US EPA and Community Development Transportation Lending Service, SmartWay Clean Diesel Financing loan application form. http: //www.ctaa.org/webmodules/webarticles/articlefiles/SmartWay_Brochure_and_Application.pdf

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### 36 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### truck these tires comply with pavement weight laws in all 50 states

. For some non - tandem axle combination trucks, wide - base tires may not comply with "inch -width" laws in certain states. 38 

### Note that s ingle -wide tires are not currently manufactured for single - unit trucks or buses. 

# 2.5. Operational improvements Advanced Driver Training Technology Definition Courses on fuel efficiency teach fleet managers and drivers fuel saving techniques such as:  using cruise control;  coasting;  block- shifting;  braking and accelerating smoothly and gradually;  progressive shifting;  limiting unnecessary truck idling;  starting out in a gear that does not require use of the throttle when releasing the clutch;  limiting unnecessary shift ing;  driving at the lowest engine speed possible; and  reducing parasitic energy losses by limiting the use of accessories. 39 

### There are numerous training options:  Subscription with lessons : in this type of training, a company may pay a monthly subscript ion fee to another company, such as Instructional Technologies, that offers many types of electronic training courses, including fuel efficiency courses. 40 

###  High - Level Training without a Subscription : a trucking company may also develop an internal training program where a trainer meets individually with drivers to teach fuel efficiency techniques and to monitor driver performance. 41 

###  Classroom Lessons : A trucking company may require its drivers to take a course through a vocational school or for- profit train ing organization that teaches drivers fuel saving techniques.

38 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Stra tegies

–Single Wide - Based Tires. ” http://www.epa.gov/s martway/documents/supersingles.pdf 39 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies Drivers Training.” http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/drivertraining.pdf

. 40 Conversation with Jim Voorhees, Instructional Technologies. 41 Environmental Awareness and Outreach Measures to Reduce GHG Emissions From the Trucking Sector, L - P Tardif & Associates Inc., August, 1999.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 37 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### Availability Training can be provided by employers, vocational schools, and for- profit training organizations

. 

### Vehicle Application Driver training courses are most often utilized by trucking fleets with Class 8 vehicles. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Estimates vary based on the type of training, number of hours of driver time required and wage rates. 

## Speed Limiter Technology Definition A maximum vehicle speed can be pre - programmed into the engine’s electronic control unit. 42 

### The American Trucking Association estimates that approximately 77 percent of its members have speed limiters set at 68 mph or lower. 43 

### Programming is most often done by the engine manufacturer. 

### Availability Most engines a re capable of being programmed for a maximum speed. 44 

### Vehicle Application A speed limit can be pre - programmed for Class 8 tractor trailer trucks, and is most likely applicable to other vehicle classes as well. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Although the programming is most often done by the engine manufacturer, costs may arise to truck owners if the speed needs to be adjusted after the vehicle is purchased. The maximum speed can be adjusted at a dealer and involves connecting to the engine’s electronic cont rol unit to a computer using proprietary software and reprogramming the engine software. 45

42 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 43 “Truckers Back a National 65 - mph Speed Limit,” U.S. News and World Report, March 26, 2008. 44 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association. 45 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 38 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

# 2.6. Idling reduction technologies Anti - idle System (a.k.a ., Automatic Engine Stop System) Technology Definition Truck engines can be pre - programmed to shut off after a certain amount of time spent idling. 46 , 47 

### The idling time can be specified when ordering a truck. 48 

### Availability All new Class 8 truck engines can be pre - programmed. 49 , 50 

### For example, this system is part of the Cummins 2007 engine. 51 

### However, the use rate for this technology is small. 52 

### Vehicle Application An automatic engine stop system can be pre - programmed for Class 8 tractor trailer trucks. 

## Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems Technology Definition Automatic engine start/stop systems are used to start and stop the truck engine automatically to maintain oil temperature, a specified cab temperature, and/or to maintain battery voltage. Drivers typically activate the system while resting and program a desired temperature range; the engine will start and shut off automatically in order to operate the heating or air conditioning systems and maintain the desired temperature range. 53 Figure 2 - 24 : Automatic Start/Stop System

Source: http://groups.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis525/term/f00/ian/Optimized%20Idle.htm

46 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association. 47 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 48 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 49 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association. 50 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 51 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummi ns. 52 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association. 53 ICF International, Industry Options for Improving Ground Freight Fuel Efficiency, Prepared for EPA, 2002Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

ICF International 

### 39 US Environmental Protection Age ncy EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### Availability Detroit Diesel currently offers an automatic engine start/stop system. 54 

### Cummin s previously offered the ICON Idle Control System, however, they are currently working to develop a new system. 55 , 56 

### As part of this development phase, they are developing an engine that further minimizes bearing wear due to frequent start/stops of the engi ne. 57 

### Vehicle Application This technology is most often used on Class 8 sleeper cabs. 58 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors There are additional costs for programming the engine computer that are incurred from the use of technology. Volume discounts are availabl e for purchases of 10 units or more. 59 

### Installation costs will vary depending on the complexity of the installation. 60 

## Thermal Storage Systems Technology Definition Thermal storage units provide cooling to the bunk of a truck’s cab without using any fue l or creating any emissions. 61 

### It serves as an alternative to diesel fueled APUs. The unit charges wh ile you drive and is considered fully charged in approximately 4 to 6 hours and then can provide up to 10 hours of cooling off of one charge while the engin e is off. 62 , 63 

### Wh ile driving, a thermal storage core made of patented graphite/water matrix is frozen to 12 degrees Fahrenheit by an electric refrigeration compressor driven by the truck’s standard electrical system

. Once the truck is parked and the engine is off, a high - efficiency pump circulates coolant through the storage core to a heat exchanger in the air handling system

. Four fans then blow cool air through the heat- exchanger directly into the bunk

. The cold storage unit mounts to the truck’s rail frame and the in - cab air handler delivers chilled air to the bunk. 64 

### Note that a Hybrid Blue Cool Truck thermal storage system is now available ; it operates similarly to the Blue Cool Truck thermal storage unit but also includes shore power functionality.

54 Conversation with John Beavers, Western Branch Diesel. 55 ICF Internation al, Industry Options for Improving Ground Freight Fuel Efficiency, Prepared for EPA, 20 02.. 56 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 57 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 58 Detroit Diesel. 59 Conversation with John Beavers, Western Branch Diesel

. 60 Detroit Diesel. 61 Webasto Blue Cool Truck Product Brochure, http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_aircon.html

. 62 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Re port, 2008 Fall Edition https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS - Guide - Fall08 -Web.pdf 63 www. webasto showroom.com/ bluecool truck/.../Webasto

_ BlueCool _Hybrid_Fact_Sheet_Final.doc 64 Webasto Blue Cool Truck Product Brochure, http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_aircon.html

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### 40 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### Ava ilability We basto manufactures the Blue Cool Truck thermal storage unit. No other manufacturers have been identified. 

### Vehicle Application Thermal storage units , such as the Blue Cool Truck, are designed for use by heavy duty trucks, not for medium duty trucks. 65 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors There are no expected operations/maintenance costs for thermal storage units, such as the Blue Cool Truck. Since there are very few moving parts, once installed, there should be no expected operations/maintenance costs for 3 - 5 years. 66 

### Note that the Blue Cool Truck Hybrid System costs approximately $2,000 more than the standard Blue Cool Truck unit and includes shore power functionality. Figure 2 - 25 : Thermal Storage Unit

Source: Blue Cool Truck Image, http://www.smartwayfinancecenter.com/images/vendorImages/vendor_307244/product_26/C5_Truck_Prod_Circle_300rg b.jpg 

## Engine Recovery Systems (ERS) Technology Definition An engine recovery system ke eps a cab warm while at rest without burning fuel by enabling an existing vehicle heater to operate with the engine off. The coolant in a warm engine contains considerable amounts of stored heat energy. An ERS recovers this energy to keep the vehicle inter ior warm without the need to idle the engine. By continuing the circulation of the hot coolant through the cab heater with the engine off, the system recovers this heat for useful purposes , it 65 Conversation with Josh Lucas, Webasto, May 19, 2010 66 Conversation with Josh Lucas, Webasto, May 19, 2010.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 41 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### is estimated that the Authotherm ® ERS will keep a Class 7 or 8 truck warm for 3 - 4 hours

. 67 

### The system functions automatically and shuts off when the coolant temperature drops to 95 degrees Fahrenheit. 68 

### Availability Autotherm ® Systems manufactures an engine recovery system

– Autotherm T - 2500. 

### Vehicle Application Eng ine recovery systems can be used for medium and heavy duty trucks. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors There are no maintenance costs for the unit beyond installation. 69 Figure 2 - 26 : Engine Recovery System

Source: http://www.autothermusa.com/company.html 

## Auxiliary Power Units (APUs) Technology Definition APUs are generally mounted externally on the truck cab. An APU typically consists of a small combustion engine and generator combination that can provide power to the truck when the main engine is shut off. Electricity from an APU can be used to power heating, air conditioning, and other electrical accessories for the cab and sleeper. 70 

### Non - traditional elect ric battery-

67 http://autothermusa.com/wordpress/no - engin - idle -facts/ 68 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS - Guide - Fall08 -Web. pdf 69 Conversation with Autotherm Sales Department, May 5, 2010 70 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies

– Idle Reduction.” http://www.epa.gov/smartway/transport/documents/carrierstrategy- docs/apu.pdf

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### 42 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### operated APUs are also a vailable. Fuel cell APUs are currently in the research phase, but are expected to be offered by 2012. 71 Figure 2 - 27 : APUs

Source: C ascade Sierra Solutions. “Guide t o Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions.” 2008 Fall Edition. 

### Availability Examples of companies that offer APU systems include: Pony Pack® , Inc., RigMaster, and Thermo King. Glacier Bay Inc., Thermo King, Idle Free® and others offer an electric batteryopera ted APU; Delphi is developing a fuel cell APU. Some APUs may be sold directly from the APU manufacturer, but most APUs are sold through retailers. 

### Vehicle Application Industry interviews indicate that APUs are most often installed on Class 8 sleeper cabs, but may be installed on day cabs. APUs are not generally installed on Class 5 box trucks or buses. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Non - traditional electric battery- driven systems are available and slightly cheaper than diesel powered APUs. Costs associated with APUs include: capital and installation, and may include warranty costs. Large volume discounts are common. 

## Direct Fired Heaters Technology Definition Direct fired heaters serve as climate control systems that do not rely upon either the large truck engine or small diesel engine powered units to supply energy for heating , which reduces fuel consumption and GHG emissions

. 72 

### A direct fired heater is sometimes referred to as a fuel operated heater, a bunk heater or an air heater. There are several categ ories of heaters, including preheated engine coolant heaters and in - cab air heaters. A preheated engine coolant heater is used to warm the cab before the engine

71 “Delphi truck fuel - cell APU to hit road i n 2012,” SAE International. May 12, 2010. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.sae.org/mags/AEI/8222 72 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS - Guide - Fall08 -Web.pdfInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 43 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### is started to eliminate cold starts and provide engine pre - heat. An in - cab air heater provides immediate heat and offers capacity to heat a cab overnight while the driver sleeps. 73 

### The preheated engine coolant heater is often less expensive than the in - cab air heater, but offers less capacity. Some manufacturers offer combination units which combine the pre - heating and in - cab heating functions. Figure 2 - 28 : Direct Fired Heater

Source: How an Air Heater Works, Espa r, http://www.espar.com/html/products/technology_air.html 

### The primary focus for this report is in - cab air heaters. A direct fired air heater uses a small combustion flame to supply hea t through a heat exchanger. W hen the heater is turned on (without the engine on), a burner motor starts and a blower unit draws combustion air into a heat exchanger. Simultaneously, fuel is drawn from the truck’s fuel tank

– generating a fuel - air mixture that ignites. A flame is formed and hot combustion gases are circulated through the heat exchanger. A hot air fan draws in room or fresh air and the heat of the combustion gases is then transferred by the heat exchanger to the hot air. Wa rm air then flows through the cab. 74 

### Availability There are many models of direct fire heaters. Some manufacturers include Espar Heater Systems, and We basto T hermosystems. Each company manufactures units suitable for class 3 - 8 vehicles including long - haul trucks and schoo l buses. Some manufacturers also offer combination units that include functionality for pre - engine heating and in - cab heating. For instance, W ebasto’s Tandem 717 combines the engine pre - heating function of the TSL 17 with

73 Webasto Product Brochure: Engine pre - heating, in - cab heating and bunk cool ing. http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_heaters.html

. 74 How an Air Heater Works, Espar, http://www.espar.com/html/ products/technology_air.html

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### 44 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### the in - cab heater Air Top 2000 ST

. 75 

### These combination units are more expensive than single units. 

### Vehicle Application Most direct fire heaters are applicable to class 3 - 8 vehicles. Some units, such as a direct fire combination unit with an engine pre - heater, are targeted more for full - s ize sleeper cabs due to their capacity. Nonetheless, the single - unit direct fire heaters are appropriate for use in any vehicle type for class 3 - 8. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Notable discounts, taxes, fees or applicable cost factors are not available. 

## Fuel Cell APU Technology Definition It is expected that t he first vehicle to be equipped with a fuel cell in production, although not for main propulsion power, is likely to be a Class 8 tractor- trailer truck

. A number of companies including: Delphi, Pro tonex, Boeing, and others are working to develop a fuel cell APU. Delphi is working on a solid - oxide fuel cell (SOFC) that operates on multiple types of fuel. 76 

### M ounted behind the fairings , the SOFC will start up and power lighting and other accessories as well as heat provide for sleeper cab warmth in winter and electricity for sleeper cab air- conditioning in warm weather. The truck's diesel engine will not need to run for those purposes. The Delphi SOFC, which produces nearly zero emissions, has a fuel co nsumption of 0.13 gal/h r at no load and about 0.2 gal/h r in typical operation. That's at least 15% lower than the small two - cylinder diesels that normally power the APUs and is about 80% lower than an idling truck engine. The Delphi SOFC uses an electrolyt e that is called yttria - stabilized zirconia, a zirconium - oxide - based ceramic. The material, which is stable at room temperature, is hard and chemically inert, and it also is used in dental crowns. According to Delphi , t he SOFC has an operating efficiency of 30% on die sel fuel and 40% on natural gas and lends itself to mass production, and because it contains no precious metals and is cost- effective

. 77 

### Availability Delphi indicated that the SOFC would be available in the 2012 timeframe. However, Cummins has estimated that this technology may not be available until 2014. 

### Vehicle Application Class 8 sleeper cabs.

75 Webasto Product Brochure: Engine pre - heating, in - cab heating and bunk cooling. http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_heaters.html

.. 76 http://fuelcellsworks.com/news/2010/05/13/delphi -field -testing - solid - oxide -fuel - cell - apu -with - a - heavy- duty-truck- manufacturerand -the -technology- is - scheduled -to - be - in - production - in - 2012/ 77 Automotive Engineering Online, Delphi truck fuel- cell APU to hit road in 2012, May 12, 2010. http://www.sae.org/mags/AEI/8222

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### 45 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Delphi said it would compete against "midrange" APUs

—i.e. , in the $8000 - $9000 installed price range (some diesel APUs are as much as 50% higher). 77 

## Truck Stop Electrification Technology Definition Truck stop electrification (TSE) provides power to vehicles while they are docked at service bays to avoid overnight idling. TSE systems are either "off- board" (a.k.a., Advanced Truckstop Electrification, ATE) or "truck- board" (which may also be referred to as, TSE). ATE is an external system that connects to the truck cab via a window or other access point, and consists of an HVAC subs ystem mounted off- board the tractor which may also provide 120 -Volt AC outlets and an entertainment package (internet, telephone, cable television). The systems commonly referred to as TSE are typically a combination of truck- board and facility power syste ms – a.k.a. shore - power. Shore - power provides access to 120 - or 240 -Volt power from a land - based source and separates the electrical supply from the accessory system installed in the tractor. Commercial shore - power facilities may also include credit card readers, cable television, and communication interface. An example of a traditional off- board (a.k.a. ATE) system was that of IdleAire TM , deployed at several facilities throughout the U.S (see “Availability” section below). It included heating, cooling, AC electrical outlets, touch screen monitor with Internet access, and phone and cable television connections. The HVAC system was mounted atop an overhead truss assembly, where the wiring and ductwork originated and reached the truck via a drop down, protecti ve, flexible shield which supports the integrated computer service console. The service console was connected to the tractor through the passenger- side window by a mounting template, which retailed at the facility for $10. The service cost was $1.25 per ho ur for registered fleets and $1.50 per hour to others for basic services, payable via an automatic card reader. There was no required on - board componentry for the IdleAire TM off- board system, although internet service could be made available via user- suppli ed equipment and use of the telephone service requires the user’s phone. 78 

### No standard truck- board equipment set exists for shore - power, although OEM tractor installations may be developed. One test system includes a Smart Energy Management System (EMS), a Cab Comfort (Dometic) HVAC system, wiring kits and receptacles, and an inverter/charger and may operate on 120 Volt/20A up to 240 Volt/50A. The electrical connection hardware is on - board the truck and a stationary pedestal at the truck stop houses electri cal power connections. An exterior- grade wire harness connects the two subsystems. Prices for the on - board system depend on the truck configuration. 79

78 Perrot et al., Truck Stop Electrification As A Long - Haul Tractor Idling Alternative, TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD - ROM. 79 Perrot et al., Truck Stop Electrification As A Long - Haul Tractor Idling Alternative, TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD - ROM.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Tech nologies

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### 46 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### Shorepower Technologies TM (formerly Shurepower) now provides shore - power fa cilities via a basic installati on kit (extension cord, exterior receptacle, interior wiring kit, GFCI, portable heater/fan) for $199. 80 

### Use of their system retails for $1 for activation and $1/hour for usage. EnviroDock TM provides ATE that includes one 120V/15amp duplex outlet, two 6” du cts for supply and return air, switches to adjust temperature, fan speed and to switch between on/off, heat or a/c, and optional Cat 5 internet connection. 81 

### Use of the system retails fo r $2/hr (or $1/hour if $50 worth of fuel is purchased). A $20 refundabl e deposit is required for the required insert. CabAire TM also provides ATE via a fitted window unit that supplies UV filtered air, heat, A/C, power, internet, cable, and intercom communications. Some also include block heater power. Use of the system is currently free, but requires purchase of a required inser t which retails between $11 - 25 depending on the truck. 

### Availability The IdleAire TM Corporation filed for bankruptcy protection on May 12, 2008 82 

### and, after failing to find a buyer, closed on January 29, 2010. 83 

### News reports do state, however, that some facili ties are expected to be operational in July, 2010. 84 

### The facilities IdleAire TM was operating appear to be shut down. However, other companies are operating some stations. These currently seem to be limited to EnviroDock in NY, Shorepower Technologies in CA, OR, WA , and NC, CabAire in CT and NC. The DOE lists TSE sites that are available. 85 

### Envirodock offers a range of systems depending on the limitations of the truck stop architecture, and have installations of both AT E and shore - power (TSE) types. They have reported little use of the TSE - only system, which they attribute to truckers being resistant to modifying their (very expensive investment in their) cab. Envirodock reports having two beta sites in New York and will open one in Tennessee, as well as noting a driving concern for any truck stop electrification program is that there is little enforcement of anti - idling laws nationwide since it is unclear who has jurisdiction. 86 

### CabAire TM has received $1.1M in federal funding to install 100 truck electrification spaces at two truck stops in Alabama ($11k/space). 87 

### Vehicle Application TSE applies to principally to overnight idling vehicles, i.e. Class 8 sleeper cabs.

80 http://www.shorepower.com/ 81 http://www.envirodock.com/index.php 82 http://www.knoxnews.com/news/2008/may/14/idleaire -turns - off - its - engines/ 83 http://www.knox news.com/news/2010/jan/28/idleaire -fails -find - buyer- closing -friday/ 84 http://www.etrucker.com/apps/news/article.asp?id=85394 . However, as of July 20, 2010, no active locations are repo rted on their website. 85 http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/locator/tse/ 86 Ed Maxwell, EnviroDock, 5/10/2010. 87 http://www.controlmod.com/pdfs/pr_releases/AlabamaPressRelease.docInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### Notable Cost- Related Factors Avoided operating and maintenance costs from truck idling service are directly proportional to the hours an engine idles. LP Tardif & Associates Inc. found that an additional $0.92 is spent on service, maintenance, and repairs for every hour the truck spends idling. 88 

### Most of the cost to operate truck stop electrification is in the electric infrastructure, including needed transformers. Total estimates of infrastructure installation costs for a full ATE system are $7500 - 8000 per system, including electric, islands, mounting, lighting, etc. The cost of shore - power type system s is less. The cost depends on many factors, including input power rating, A/C BTU rating, heat kW h rating, etc. These costs must be passed on to the user ultimately, if the systems are to be profitable. Most truck stop electrification deployments do not provide power for TRUs, which require much greater load and A- rating and thus are more expensive. 89 

# 2.7. Engine improvements Integrated Starter/Alternator Technology Definition The integrated starter/alternator system provides additional electric motor boost fo r extra power. It is a concept that is referred to as a mild hybrid. The integrated starter/alternator is mounted between the engine flywheel and the transmission and provides engine start/stop capabilities. In addition, the larger battery pack provides some limited duration auxiliary power capability if coupled with electrified accessories . Regenerative braking provides additional power to the battery. T he battery is size d modest ly to minimize cost and weight increases

. 90 

### The integrated starter/alternator replaces the existing starter and alternator supplying those functions in addition to being able to provide regenerative braking, automatic engine shut- off at idle, instant restart and limited launch assist. 

### Availability Some manufacturers are consideri ng these systems as a less costly alternative to a full hybrid electric system. 

### Vehicle Application All vocational trucks

88 Perrot et al., Truck Stop Electrification a s a Long-Haul Tractor Idling Alternative , TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD - ROM. 89 Ed Maxwell, EnviroDock, 5/10/2010. 90 NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX , LLC. Reducing Heavy- Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel Consu mption and CO2 Emissions, October 2009. http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy- duty-truck- ghg_report_final 200910.pdf

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### 48 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

## Turbo Compounding Technology Definition Turbo compounding adds a power turbine downstream of the conventional turbocharger

. By capturi ng waste heat from the exhaust stream, the power turbine generates additional work wh ich can be fed back to the engine crankshaft using a sophisticated transmission (mechanical systems) or by generating electricity (electrical systems). The power turbine, shown in Figure 2 - 29 , has a gear or generator connected to the shaft instead of a compressor. In addition, the conventional turbocharger turbine is down - sided to provide more power to the power turbine. This small er turbocharger provides better transient response and higher boost pressure at lower speeds as well. Optimal matching of the turbocharger and power turbine is required. 91 Figure 2 - 29 . Turbo Compounding Turb ine

Source: Cummins Turbo Technologies 91 

### Power turbines are available in two types, namely radial and axial. T he radial turbine is best suited to variable speed applications. The axial power turbine is more efficient with single engine speed application s. However, t he axial turbine is more compact but it is not as well suited to truck applications that operate at variable engine speeds. Using a turbo compounding system increases the engine overall thermal efficiency from 42% to 46%. 

### Availability Several manufacturers are making turbo compounding units including Holset for Cummins, DDC and Volvo Powertrain. 

### Vehicle Application All Trucks

91 “Turbocompound System,” Turbo Technologie s website. Cummins. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.holset.co.uk/mainsite/files/2_5_1_3 -turbocompound%20system.php

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### Notable Cost- Related Factors Mechanical turbo compounding systems would include port liners, variable valve actuation an d a high - efficiency power turbine. Electrical systems would include the mechanical turbo compounding components plus a 40 kWmotor/generator, power electronics and balance of plant modifications. Electric auxiliaries can be added with electric turbo comp ounding. Cummins estimates mechanical turbo compounding to be approximately $2,000 for a mechanical system and approximately $6, 500 for an electric system which does not include electrifying the auxiliary loads. 92 

### The prices quoted are intended to be rep resentative of end user prices. 

## Variable Geometry Turbocharger Technology Definition Variable geometry turbochargers (VGTs) have been developed in an effort to match turbocharger performance to engine operation over a wider speed - load range. VGTs also allow for quicker transient response by restricting the turbine nozzle during accelerations. Their ability to provide additional air to the engine over a wider range of operating conditions also allows for emissions reductions. VGTs all ow modification of the aspect ratio depending upon loads and speeds. The aspect ratio is the ratio of the area of the cone to radius from the center hub as shown in Figure 2 - 30

. Optimal aspect ratios at low speed are considerably different from those at high speeds. By varying the aspect ratio, the turbocharger is more efficient at all conditions. Figure 2 - 30 : Turbocharger Aspect Ratio

Source: http://www.myturbodiesel.com/1000q/turbocharging.htm#A/R ratio 

### Being able to vary the aspect ratio is very important as aspect ratio that is too small will cause the turbo to choke the engine leading to lower engine power output. Also by being able to alter

92 Conversation with Brian Mormino. Cummins.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 50 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### the aspect ratio as the engine accelerates, the turbo response can be increased

. It can also be used to introduce EGR to lower emissions. 

### Availability Most heavy duty engine manufacturers are using VGTs on their engines to meet 2010 emission standards. 

### Vehicle Application Al l Trucks 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Price is incremental to a fixed geometry turbocharger. 

## Variable Valve Actuation Technology Definition Variable valve actuation (VVA) allows valves to open and close through use of mechanical, electro - hydraulic or elect ronic solenoids (camless). Being able to control valve timing, valve lift and the amount of time the valve is open can greatly improve engine performance during transient conditions. Generally valves are controlled by a cam which fixes valve timing and l if t. This usually reduces engine performance at some loads and speeds and leads to less optimal drivability, fuel economy and emissions. VVA’s benefits are less for diesel engines than for gasoline engines because of the narrower range of operating speeds . VVA does allow better emission control by controlling exhaust temperatures for aftertreatment devices. It also allows the turbocharger to operate more efficiently at a variety of engine operating modes. Turbo compounding can also benefit from VVA beca use it can control the amount of energy in the exhaust stream. 

### Availability Eaton is developing both camless and mechanical systems. 

### Vehicle Application All Trucks 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Price depends strongly on engine configuration (e.g., number of cylinders), whether applied to intake and/or exhaust valves, and whether the system is cam operated or camless.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 51 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

# 2.8. T ransmission and D rivetrain improvements Early Torque Convertor Lock- up Technology Definition Torque convertors act as a clutch for automatic or automated manual transmissions. They also multiply torque, absorb torsional vibration of the engine and drivetrain. The torque convertor sits between the engine and transmission and is filled with automatic transmission fluid. It uses an impeller/tur bine system to transmit torque from the engine to the transmission. If the impeller (connected to the engine) is going at a higher speed than the turbine (connected to the transmission), the torque is multiplied from the engine to the transmission. W hen the impeller is moving at the same speed as the turbine, there is no torque multiplication but there is a 4 to 5 percent loss in energy. To prevent this, torque convertors contain a lock - up clutch that mechanically connects the impellor and turbine. Generally this lock- up event occurs around 37 mph. This is actuated by the transmission controller. By reprogramming the controller, earlier lock - up can occur which can provide additional fuel economy benefits at lower speeds. 

### Availability Allison Transmissio ns builds most of the heavy- duty vehicle transmissions. 

### Vehicle Application All long - haul trucks with automated manual transmissions . This concept is less viable on vocational trucks due to the lower and transient nature of their duty cycle. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Allison 93 

### mentions that in most cases early torque convertor lock- up is just a software change and won’t require any additional labor on new trucks. In some cases the springs in the clutch would need to be changed to minimize noise, vibrati on and harshness . In new trucks, even this would result in little or no cost increase. 

## Hybrid Powertrain Technology Definition These systems are similar in concept to the full hybrids used in light- duty applications. Hybrids come in both a parallel - hybrid and a series - hybrid design. In a series - hybrid, the electric generator is driven by a small engine which is used to charge the batteries. The batteries are used to power an electric motor or motors that drive the vehicle. In a series - hybrid, the engine d oes not provide power to the wheel but is only used to charge the batteries. As such, the engine can operate at a more efficient condition. However, because

93 C onversation with Bob Leopold of Allison Transmission, May 6, 2010.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### mechanical energy needs to be converted to electrical energy and back again, this can lead to los ses. Generally series systems are not used on higher speed applications but have been used on some transit buses. Parallel - hybrid systems employ a small electric motor coupled to the engine crankshaft. In a parallel - hybrid, both the engine and motor can drive the wheels. These systems are more efficient in higher speed applications. There have been a number of demonstrations of this technology on heavy duty vehicles. 

### Availability Parallel - hybrid systems are currently available in transit bus, motor coac h, and Class 3 - 6 box and bucket trucks, and in the fleet demonstration stage for refuse haulers. There have been a few demonstrations of Class 8 tractor trailers using a parallel architecture. 

### Vehicle Application All vocational trucks and short haul Class 8 trucks. This concept has limited value in line haul trucking applications. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Components include a motor/generator, battery pack, power electronics, a modified clutch assembly, electrification of auxiliary loads and balance of plant. Table 2 - 8 shows motor/generator and battery pack and convertor sizes for various truck types. Table 2 - 8 : Hybrid system component sizes Components Class 4

Utility Truck Class 6

Box Truck Class 8 Refuse

Truck Class 8 Transit

Bus Class 8 Short

Haul Truck Motor/Generator 30kW 30 kW 100 kW & 30 kW 100 kW & 30 kW 50 kW DC to DC Convertor 5 kW 5 kW 8 kW 8 kW 5 kW Battery 4 kW h 4 kW h 8 kW h 8 kW h 4 kW h 

### As manufacturers indicated th at costs of hybrid systems were considered proprietary, ICF estimated prices for the 6 truck types based upon component costs with associated mark- ups. End - user costs were as follows:

 Class 4 Utility Truck -- $3 3,000  Class 6 Box Truck -- $37, 000  Class 8 Refuse Truck -- $ 69 , 000  Class 8 Transit Bus -- $60, 000  Class 8 Short Haul Truck -- $25,000 The Class 8 short haul truck assumes that the R&D costs could be spread over a larger sales volume than the other categories. These costs match fairly well with the incentives that ARB isInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### offering under AB 118 funding for the Air Quality Improvement Program 94 

### . Generally the incentive amounts comprise 50 percent of the incremental costs. Incentive amounts are shown in Table 2 - 9

. Table 2 - 9 : Hybrid Vehicle Incentives Vehicle Class Base Vehicle Incentive Class 4 - 6 (14,000

– 26,000 lbs GV WR ) $20,000 Class 7 (26,001

– 33,000 lbs GV WR ) $25,000 Class 8 (33,001

– 38,000 lbs GV WR ) $30,000 Class 8 (> 38,000 lbs GV WR ) $35,000 

## Low- Friction Engine Lube and Drive Train Lubricants Technology Definition Conventional mineral oil lubricants may have too high viscosity to effectively slip between and lubricate the moving parts, particularly new truck componen ts that are designed with close tolerances and tight fits. Conventional lubricants may also be heavy, making it harder fo r pumps, gears and shafts to move. These effects create energy and friction losses that waste fuel. 95 

### Alternatively, low-friction l ubricants reduce friction and wear of critical vehicle systems including the engine, transmission and drive train. Wi thout lubricants, moving parts inside these systems would grind together causing heat, stress, and excessive wear. Friction losses in the drive train (transmission and differential) and engine can be reduced by using low- viscosity lubricants. Most manufacturers of lubricants produce “fuel economy” options that have lower viscosity than standard lubricants. However, use of low viscosity lubricants can result in higher drive train or engine wear, which increases maintenance costs. In selecting lubricants, most fleet managers believe they currently have struck the proper balance between fuel savings and maintenance costs. 96 

### Low- viscosity lubricants are less resistant to flow than conventional lubricants, and may contain additives designed to withstand the extreme pressure that could occur as the lubricant flows between tight fitting parts. Low viscosity lubricants may be made from synthetic or mineral oil blends with extreme pressure additives.

94 ARB, AB 118: Air Quality Improvement Program (AQIP), FY 2010- 11 Funding Plan Discussion Document, April 2010. http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/aqip/meetings/fy%202010 - 11/aqip_fy10 - 11_fp_discussion_doc_040810.pdf

. 95 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies

– Low-Viscosity Lubricants,” SmartWay Transport Partnership. Accessed Jun e 10, 2010. http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/lowviscositylubes.pdf

. 96 ICF International , “ Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking, ” Prepared for Environ mental Defense Fund, December 2009.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 54 US Environmental Protection Age ncy EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### Transmission (Drive Train) Lubricants Lubricants can reduce gear contact friction in transmissions, but they also reduce fuel efficiency because of their viscosity. 97 

### Low- viscosity transmission fluid is made fro m synthetic or mineral oil blends and is reported to decrease transmission friction and also reduce fuel consumption. 98 

### Engine Lubricants Some energy losses in an engine are due to mechanical friction. Reduction in internal engine friction can be achieved using improved lubricants. Low- viscosity engine lubricants are made from synthetic or mineral oil blends for the purpose of reducing internal engine friction. Lowviscosity engine l ubricants can reduce energy use. Low- viscosity engine fluid typically costs more than conventional lubricants. 99 

### These strategies have wide applicability to all types of truck classes and operations. 100 

### Availability Available types of low-friction lubricants (engine and transmission) include Valvoline, Chevron Delo® , and Mobile1. 

### Vehicle Application

 Vocational truck engine, transmission and drive train (Class 3 - 8)  Transit b us engine, engine, transmission and drive train (Class 6, 7) 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Additional cost savings may be possible due to reduced engine wear and maintenance, and by providing a longer period between engine overhauls. 101 

## Rankine Bottoming Cycle Technology Definition A Rankine bottoming cycle system converts otherwise wasted thermal energy from the engine to provide additional work. The heat is used to heat a working fluid that can be used to drive a turbine. Wa ste heat is captured from :  the exhaust after any aftertreatment ,  the EGR cooler , 97 NC State, “ Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation ,” Prepared for U.S. DOT , October 4, 2007. 98 ICF International , “ Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking , ” Prepared for Environmental Defense Fund, December 2009. 99 NC State, “ Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation ,” Prepared for U.S. DOT , October 4, 2007. 100 ICF International , “ Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking, ” Prepared for Environmental Defense Fund, December 2009. 101 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS - Guide - Fall08 -Web.pdf

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###  t he engine coolant, and  t he charge air cooler. 102 

### The turbine is used to drive a generator to create electricity which can then be used by and electric motor connected to the engine crankshaft. Wh ile bottoming cycles provide good energy for continuous high speed operation, their transient response is poor. This can be mitigated by combining the system with a hybri d electric drive system. In this case the electricity provided by the Rankine bottoming cycle can be used to supplement engine power when at higher continuous speeds and store power at other conditions. 

### Availability Discussions with manufacturers suggest that they envision the bottoming cycle as a promising technology that could come into the market in the 2015 timeframe. However, this technology is still in the early stages of development, and there are significant capital cost and packaging issues to be resolved. 

### Vehicle Application All Trucks 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors The Rankine bottoming cycle system would include a turbine, generator and flywheel producing 30 kW , an air cooled condenser, an EGR boiler, a stack boiler, controls and power electronics , energy storage and modifications to the balance of plant. Cummins estimates such a system would cost the end user approximately $ 7,00 0. 103 

# 2.9. Weight reduction technologies Aluminum Air Tanks Technology Definition Air tanks made out of aluminum rather than s teel are one method to reduce overall truck weight

. The reduced weight savings improves fuel economy. Standard steel tanks range in size from 1⁄4 gallon to 20 gallons. Prices are difficult to estimate since there is not an industry-wide fixed number of air tanks per truck . Air tanks are used for a variety of functions, ranging from tire

102 NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX , LLC. Reducing Heavy- Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel Consumption and CO2 Emissions, October 2009. http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy- duty-truck- ghg_report_final 200910.pdf

. 103 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### inflation, air brakes, air horns and air- powered seats. 104 

### Class 8 trucks may have two to four air tanks depending on the functionality of the air in the truck. 105 

### Availability C onversations with industry representatives indicate that steel air tanks are currently the standard and that the use of aluminum for air tanks is fairly rare, particularly for class 8 trucks. 

### Vehicle Application Air tanks are used in all classes of 3 - 8 vehicles depending on the functionality of the air for the vehicle. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Note that aluminum usually costs about 50

– 100% more than steel. 106 

## Aluminum Axles and Axle Hubs Technology Definition Attempts to replace traditional axles and axle hubs with lightweight versions composed chiefly of aluminum, although other materials have been considered, such as carbon fiber. 

### Availability To date, industry opinion is that this technology will not make it into production due to heat and integri ty issues. Although some research has been done on axle tubes, center carrier areas, cover plates, etc., this is still in the research and development phase and difficult to provide cost estimates for. 

### Vehicle Application Not currently applicable to any ve hicles. 

## Aluminum Wheels Technology Definition Forged and cast aluminum wheels are lighter than traditional steel wheels. Aluminum wheels provide enhanced performance advantages over standard steel wheels, including weight savings, and lower maintenance and operating costs . The mounting system for aluminum wheels can be ball seat or hub piloted. Alcoa offers a full set of options for heavy duty trucks and buses including 22.5”, 24.5”, and 14" wide - base wheels, that when partnered with the right tire, can increase fuel and tire efficiency as well as save weight. For example, the all - purpose commercial wheel (i.e., 24.5” LvL ONETM) weighs 56 pounds compared to a typical 86 pound

104 Conversation with Mich igan Truck Supplies Sales Department, March 5, 2010. 105 Note that aluminum fuel tanks are more frequently offered as optional equipment than aluminum air tanks. 106 As estimated by Franklin Josey, Volvo, February 9, 2010Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### steel wheel. 107 

### For a standard dry flatbed trailer, a 2 axle

– 8 wheel configuratio n with 22.5 by 8.25 inch wheels, replacing steel wheels with aluminum would reduce the trailer’s weight by 176 pounds. 108 

### W heel manufacturers are offering aluminum wheels in 22.5x14 - in. sizes to help bring additional we ight and fuel savings to fleets. Alcoa offers a wide base wheel engineered to work with low profile long - haul tires on drive and trailer axles. In the wide base tire system, one wide wheel and tire replaces a set of dual wheels and tires

. 109 

### Wide base wheel and tire assemblies save fuel, in part, because they include only half as many flexing sidewalls as a set of dual tire s. Accuride DupleX- One wide - base 22.5x14 - in. aluminum wheels, the company notes, reduce fuel expense or increase payload capacity when used in place of traditional dual wheel se ts on tandem - axle tractors and trailers. Developed in conjunction with Michelin, the forged aluminum wheels can save 120 lbs. per axle. 110 

### Availability Aluminum wheels are widely available for use on trailers and are frequently a manufacturer optional featu re of trailers. Manufacturers of aluminum wheels include Alcoa and Accuride. 

### Vehicle Application Aluminum wheels are available for heavy duty trucks (Class 6 - 8) and Class 8 buses for drive, steer, and trailer axles for dual ( 22.5 and 24.5 x8.2 ) and singl e wide tires ( 22.5x14 - in. ) 111 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Additional benefits of aluminum wide - base (single -wide) tires and wheels include reduced maintenance costs. Maintenance costs can be lower because there are only four wheel positions per tandem compa red to eight. In addition, without an inner tire/wheel, inflation and visual inspection becomes much easier and more effective. Super wide aluminum wheels also tend to help keep brake packages running cooler and, therefore, lasting longer. 112 

## Lightweight Bra ke Drums Technology Definition Lightweight brake drums offer an opportunity to reduce truck weight and thereby reduce fuel consumption. A lightweight brake drum is considered an effective weight - savings option for

107 Alcoa 24.5” LvL One. http://www.alcoa.com/alcoawheels/north_america/en/brochures/docs/Alcoa_LvL_One24.pdf

. 108 Conversation with Utility Trailers Sales Contact, March 2, 2010. 109 “New Alcoa 22 .4x14 wide base wheel fits low profile longhaul needs,” Fleet Equipment, November 1, 2001. http://www.allbusiness.com/transportation -warehousing/828191 - 1.html

. 110 Skydel, Se th. “Fuel efficiency: aluminum wheels, side base singles.” Fleet Equipments, April 1, 2009. http://www.allbusiness.com/government/government- bodies - offices/1231 9270 - 1.html

. 111 Heavy Duty Truck/Trailer. Alcoa Wheels website. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.alcoa.com/alcoawheels/north_america/en/hdtt/index.asp

. 112 ICF International , “ Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking, ” Prepared for Environmental Defense Fund, December 2009.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 58 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### trucks. These brake drums can save nearly 25 pounds per drum compared to standard steel brake drums, and replace standard or heavy duty full steel cast drums. 113 

### Lightweight brake drums, like the CentriFuse® drums are made of an iron alloy core but have a steel outer shell. 114 

### The lightweight drums a re often combined with aluminum wheels and aluminum hubs for additional weight savings. Figure 2 - 31 : Lightweight Brake Drum Components

Source: CentriFuse® Product Brochure http://ppimw.archercom.com/assets/centrifuse_brake_drums_brochure.pdf 

### Availability Motor W heel Commercial Vehicle Systems. Inc. manufactures the CentriFuse® Brake Drum. Several types of brake drum are available including CentriFuse Lite, CentriFuse W ide Break, and CentriFuse Plus. 

### Vehicle Application Lightweight brake drums can be used on any type of medium or heavy duty truck and are frequently used for vehicles seeking lighter components. Usually t here are two brake drums per axle of a vehicle. 115 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors CentriFuse lightweight brake drums are reported as lasting four times longer than conventional steel drums

– therefore extending lifecycle and reducing maintenance co sts. 116 

### Drums are alloy

113 CentriFuse Product Brochure, http://ppimw.arche rcom.com/assets/centrifuse_brake_drums_brochure.pdf

. 114 Conversations with Product Development Specialist, Motor Wheel Commercial Vehicle System, July 16, 2010. 115 Conversations with Product Development Specialist, Motor Wheel Commercial Vehicle Systems, March 19, 2010.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 59 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### with a steel shell which offers an added element of safety against breakage, thereby improving cost- effectiveness. 

## Lightweight Cab Components Technology Definition Like other lightweight options, replacing cab structural and surface materials w ith lighter weight alternatives will reduce vehicle weight and increase efficiency, assuming the vehicles are operating full in terms of volume, but not at their full weight rating or what is known as “cubed out.” In the case of operating with the reverse scenario, or “weighed out” any gain from the use of lighter weight components would be offset by increased load. Industry has indicated that some progress has been made on lightweight technologies. Plastic cab components are typically sheet molded composi tes (SMC) and are common in cab components where structural strength is not of the utmost importance, such as hoods, air deflectors, and sleeping cabin roofs. The majority of remaining cab components will be made of steel or steel with some portion of alum inum

. Lightweight prototype vehicles have been developed for some vehicle classes. For example, the use of high strength stainless steel for a Class 8 bus body and chassis has been shown to result in a mass savings of about 50% (300% increase in fuel econ omy) with a cost savings of about 30%. 117 

### This has only made it through a prototype phase and had various commercial setbacks. Indications are that industry perceives aluminum frame cabs to be less durable and add significantly to the truck purchase price. However, most manufacturers offer lightweight versions of many other technologies. Price differentials are generally driven by material cost and volume, with aluminum roughly 50 - 100% more expensive than equivalent steel components, although tooling and fi xed costs are roughly the same. SMC components are generally comparable in price to steel, depending on thickness. Price differential estimates are difficult to obtain since lightweight components are often offered only as packages that could includ e tanks , wheels, and other elements. 

### Availability Found with some frequency in existing vehicles, although industry is generally leery of their use. 

### Vehicle Application All vehicles 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Generally lightweight components are only availabl e as packages. Lifetime, operations, and maintenance costs should be comparable to steel.

116 Precision Partners Press Release, March 16, 2009. http://www.precisionpartnersinc.com/cor porate/breaking news/announces - its - new- long - life - severe - service - brake - drums - centrifuse - plus/

. 117 Emmons, Bruce. System Optimization of an Ultralight Electric Transit Bus. Autokinetics, Inc. April 20, 2006. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/hvso_2006/23_emmons.pdf

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### 60 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

## Lightweight Suspension Systems Technology Definition Cab weight reduction and increased efficiency could come from the use of lighter components, including replaceme nt of suspension materials. Currently these materials are made of steel, especially the springs, due to its generally superior performance over other materials. Industry has said that lightweight suspensions could come from the use of aluminum in certain components, however it was generally felt that critical suspension components are expected to remain mostly steel. For example, brackets, stayrods, and port controls could be made from aluminum, while carbon and composite materials have been researched, bu t are not anticipated for near- term use in heavy duty vehicles due to cost and performance concerns. Further research and development for advanced materials are needed. 118 

### Availability This technology is not currently available, except at an R&D level. It i s not anticipated in the near term. 

## Reduced Number of Batteries Technology Definition A possible approach to reduce cab weight and thus engine load could be to reduce the number of batteries installed per truck. 

### Availability Industry has indicated that reducing the number of batteries installed in a truck is not currently a viable option. The number of batteries required (three is standard for Class 8 tractors) is driven by the need for cold - cranking amps. Wh ile other truck classes with smaller engines co uld use fewer than three batteries, they are typically designed with the smallest number necessary. As an alternative, advanced battery technology could offer either lightweight alternatives or potentially greater strength, which could lead to fewer batte ries required. However, industry believes this is in the distant future for heavy duty trucks, and would likely not offer much weight reduction anyway. 119 

### Vehicle Application Not currently applicable to any vehicles.

118 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, October 4, 2007. 119 Franklin Josey, Volvo , 2/9/2010.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 61 US Environmental Protection Age ncy EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

## Aluminum Structural Components for Trail ers Technology Definition Aluminum structural components can significantly reduce weight on trailers for heavy duty trucks, and therefore reduce greenhouse gas emissions. For the purposes of this research, aluminum components apply to trailer types includ ing dry vans, reefers and tankers. Many steel or plywood structural components for trailers can be replaced with aluminum to reduce weight in a variety of applications. Aluminum roof posts (rather than steel) often reduce weight by 75 pounds. Aluminum flo or joists (rather than steel) can reduce weight by 300 pounds. Aluminum floors (rather than wood floors) can reduce weight by 385 pounds. Aluminum cross members (rather than steel) can reduce weight by 155 pounds. Aluminum side posts (rather than steel) may reduce weight by 275 pounds. Finally, aluminum roof bows (rather than steel) can reduce we ight by about 100 pounds. 120 

### Availability Aluminum components are widely available for use on trailers and are frequently a manufacturer optional feature of trail ers. 

### Vehicle Application Manufacturers offer aluminum component upgrades for trailers for class 8 heavy duty trucks. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Aluminum costs about 50 to 100% more than steel, and can sometimes cost more to assemble than steel dependin g on the various fasteners required. Note that some manufacturers are beginning to use plastics for structural components, for which the material costs are comparable to steel 121 

### , but this is not widespread. 122 

# 2.10. Electrification Electrification of Accessory Loa ds Technology Definition Generally most accessory loads such as the power steering pump, the water pump, the air conditioning compressor , engine fan, and the air compressor are driven mechanically by belts connected to the engine crankshaft. If a large so urce of electrical energy is available, such as with hybrid systems or electric turbo compounding, these accessory loads can be electrically driven reducing the direct load on the engine. The engine cooling fan can also be converted to

120 Conversation with Utility Trailers Sales. 121 Franklin Jose y, Volvo, 2/9/2010 122 Conversation with Utility Trailers Sales.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 62 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### electric drive alth ough for line haul applications, the efficiency savings are small because the fan on times are low. 123 

### Availability Not much research has been done on electrifying heavy- duty truck components. However, there will likely be growing interest in electrified acc essories , such as power steering , due to the emergence of hybrid - systems that offer “engine - off” or zero - emissions vehicle mode of operations. 124 

### Vehicle Application All trucks using either hybrid technology or electric turbo compounding. 

# 2.11. Air conditioning a nd transport refrigerated unit (TRU ) improvements Alternative Refrigerants Technology Definition Refrigerants leak, directly emitting GHGs. Moving to refrigerants with a lower global warming potential (GWP ) is one method to reduce the GHG impact of heavy d uty vehicles. Several gases have emerged as contenders with a lower GW P than the current wid ely used refrigerant, HFC - 134a, (GW P of 1,300) including CO 2 

### (GW P = 1), HFC - 152a (GW P = 120), and Propane (GWP= 20). Each of these gases would require a refrigera tion system modified to some extent from the current 134a systems and present their own challenges related to safety, flammability, toxicity, and other health and environmental concerns. Globally, motor vehicle air conditioning manufacturers have appeared to settle on a single future refrigerant, HFO - 1234yf. 125 

### HFO - 1234yf is “acceptable for use in mobile air conditioning from a toxicity perspective”, has low ignition potential, GW P of 4 with lifetime of days, no ozone depleting potential (ODP), low smog -fo rm ing potential, and low ecosystem impact. 126 

### It also requires minimal changes to current system architecture, however, the refrigerant itself is expensive. Currently, research prices are $500 per kg, with final in - production price estimated to be about $50 p er lb 127 

### as compared to R134a which retails today for approximately $7 per lb (with volume discounts as much as $1.20/lb) 128

123 NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX , LLC. Reducing Heavy- Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel Consumption and CO2 Emissions, October 2009. http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy- duty-truck- ghg_report_final 200910.pdf

. 124 Email exchange with Brad Hicks, ArvinMeritor, March 26, 2010. 125 Peter Coll, SAE. Posted at: http://www.refrigeration - engineer.com/forums/showthread.php?t=23669 126 Industry Evaluation of low global warming potential refrigerant HFO - 1234yf, SAE CRP1234 , 11/10/2009

. 127 “Consensus Building on Refrigerant Type”, in September 2008 issue of Automotive Engineering International (an SAE magazine). p.30. 128 E.g., http://www.koolit.net/prod_list.php?sci=9 , 5/25/2010Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 63 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 

### Availability CO 2 

### , Propane, and HFC - 152a are readily available but less likely to be implemented than HFO 1234yf. HFO - 1234yf is current ly unavailable commercially. 

### Vehicle Application All mobile vehicle air conditioning systems, including Class 8 tractors, TRUs, Class 3 - 8 work trucks, and light- duty vehicles. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Current prices are much higher than the baseline HFC - 134a, although expected to come down once in production. Minimal hardware redesign is expected to be necessary, unless it is decided that systems should move to a dual loop design. Assuming the architecture is maintained as a single loop, prices may re asonably be scaled by the vehicle charge size. 129 

## Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials Technology Definition There are several techniques to reflect solar energy from trailers, including:  Replacing a standard aluminum roof with a translucent, whi te fiberglass roof;  Covering trailer sides with reflective tape strips; and  Painting trailer roofs with white reflective paint. These techniques can be applied to refrigerated trailers to reduce the amount of fuel used to regulate the temperature in the t railer. Some of these techniques may also be applied to school buses to reduce the amount of fuel used to air condition the bus. Although white fiberglass roofs reflect solar energy, they are mostly used for their translucency benefits. One disadvantage of using this roof is that it punctures easier than a standard aluminum roof. 130 

### Conspicuity reflective tape may be laid in strips on trailer sides. For example, UPS covers half of each truck side with this tape to increase reflectivity. 131 

### Wh ite reflective pain t, such as SolarCool, an acrylic elastomeric coating with sealed ceramic micro - bubbles may be applied to trailer tops to reflect solar radiation. 132

129 Num erous conversations, including Gary Hansen, RedDotCorp.com, 5/26/2010. 130 Conversation with John, Dan’s Truck Refrigeration. 131 Conservation with John, UPS. 132 SolarCool Coatings Brochure provided by Pat Scanlon of Solar Cool Coatings.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 64 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Figure 2 - 32 : Solar Energy Reflection Improvement through App lication of SolarCool Coatings Paint

Source: SolarCool Coatings Brochure provided by Pat Scanlon of Solar Cool Coatings 

### Availability There appear to be a few companies that man ufacture translucent, white fiberglass roofs. Crane Composites is one of th e main manufacturers of these roofs

. There are several companies that produce reflective tape. 133 

### There are several companies that manufacturer reflective, white paint. 

### Vehicle Application These reflective strategies can be applied to Class 8 trailers. Resea rch indicates that these strategies can also be applied to Class 5 box trucks and Class 7 buses. However, installation of a translucent, white fiberglass roofs is not a widespread strategy for buses. 134

133 “Truck Reflective Tape,” Thomasnet website. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.thomasnet.com/products/truck- reflective tape - 87831160 - 1.html

. 134 Conversation with Bill Beckwith, Crane Comp osites.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### Notable Cost- Related Factors Operation and maintenanc e is an additional cost for these strategies. For example, punctures to fiberglass roofs need to be sealed, reflective tape strips replaced every few years, and reflective paint recoated every few years. Reefer Improvements 

## Low Power Draw A/C Technology D efinition Low power draw air conditioning (A/C) units operate without dependence on a diesel engine powered unit. Eliminating the need to operate based on a diesel powered engine unit reduces the need for idling in order to cool the cab. Low power draw systems usually either use waterbased evaporation or self- contained air conditioners. W ater based cooling is ideal for mild temperatures. 135 

### For more extensive cooling needs, a self- contained air conditioner is ideal. 136 

### Water- based coolers use evaporation to reduce the temperature of the air by an average of 10 to 15 degrees. 137 

### A small amount of electrical current is needed to operate a blower fan to circulate the cooled air. 138 

### One disadvantage of the evaporative cooler is that it can only make small changes in t emperature and therefore is not always suitable for very hot climates. 139 

### For hot climates or extended cooling during rest periods, there are self- contained units which are operated by dedicated batteries

. 140 , 141 

### Availability Many companies manufacture low powe r draw A/C systems, including CoolMoves, DC Power Solutions and Dometic Environmental Corporation.

135 Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves 136 Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves 137 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS - Guide - Fall08 -Web.pdf

. 138 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS - Guide - Fall08 -Web.pdf

. 139 Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves 140 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Em issions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS - Guide - Fall08 -Web.pdf

. 141 Co nversations with Sales Staff at Cool MovesInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 66 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 Figure 2 - 33 : Evaporative A/C Unit

Source: Cool Moves Minicool Product Brochure, http://coolmoves.ca/products/mini - cool/dinamic/ Figure 2 - 34 : Rooftop Low Power Draw A/C

Source: Cool Moves Bycool Product B rochure, http://coolmoves.ca/products/bycool/revolution/ 

### Vehicle Application Many evaporative coolers and self- contained cooling systems can be mounted on multiple types of trucks. Some can be mounted on rooftops for flat- cab or body roof trucks, others mounted within the cab body of the truck. Some units are geared more toward sleeper cabs and others for daytime cooling. Note that the evaporative coolers work best in dry climates. 142 

### For a c lass 7 school bus or a class 8 transit bus, it would be recommended to use a rooftop cooling system or an evaporative unit, ultimately depending on the climate the vehicle operates in. For medium duty trucks like the class 6 box truck, it would be recommen ded to use an evaporative unit

.

142 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS - Guide - Fall08 -Web.pdf

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## Use of Advanced Electrical Transport Refrigeration Unit (TRU) Systems Technology Definition A transport refrigeration unit (TRU) is a refrigeration system designed to refrigerate temperature - sensitive products that are transported in insulated vans, trucks, or rail cars. Traditional, mechanical TRUs are powered by a diesel engine, the most common engine size being 35 hp. Conventional diesel - powered TRUs may be purchased with an electric standby (E/S) option, which allows t he TRU engine to be shut off when a compatible power supply is available at a facility so TRU diesel engine emissions are eliminated. 143 Figure 2 - 35 : Transport Refrigeration Units

Source: Photo provided by David Kiefer of Transicold. 

### A more advanced alternative to the conventional diesel - powered TRU is a hybrid electric TRU. In this system, a diesel engine drives a generator that, in turn, powers an electric semi - hermetic refrigeration compressor and electri cally driven fans, all controlled by an advanced microprocessor

. 144 

### The benefits of a hybrid - electric TRU include: greater fuel - efficiency to reduce carbon emissions, less leakage potential, and significantly less maintenance requirements versus a convention al belt- driver system. 145 

### Because a hybrid electric TRU uses electrical energy, it requires less coolant than a conventional diesel - powered TRU. Because it uses less coolant, it requires fewer valves, which are susceptible to leakage. For example, Transicol d’s Vector ® hybrid unit uses a semi - hermetic

143 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In - Use Diesel - Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU G enerator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, October 28, 2003, p VI - 11. 144 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In - Use Diesel - Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, October 28, 2003, p VI - 11. 145 Conversation with David Kiefer, Transicold.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Tech nologies

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### compressor, uses a third less refrigerant and half the braze joints as a conventional diesel powered TRU. The unit also has an electric standby option for stationary units. 146 

### Solar power TRUs are currently unava ilable, but have been tested in the UK. Solar TRUs consume no fuel, do not suffer the same mechanical failures, and have longer operating lives. 147 

### Availability Carrier Transicold offers a hybrid electric TRU. 

### Vehicle Application The hybrid TRU discussed above may be used on Class 8 trailers. 148 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors A hybrid electric TRU is more expensive than a conventional TRU without E/S, and has less operating and maintenance costs over a conventional TRU with the E/S add - on option. 149 

### Adding the power infrastructure at facilities with TRUs that use E/S is very expensive. Costs for power outlets in parking areas increase significantly due to trenching costs. 150 

## Use of Cryogenic CO 2 

## Unit Technology Definition Cryogenic CO 2 

### refrigeration units he at and cool using liquid CO 2 

### that is routed through an evaporator coil that cools air blown over the coil. 151 

### For example, the ThermoKing cryogenic system moves liquid CO 2 

### from the refillable vehicle tank through a sealed evaporator coil inside the cargo spa ce, thus cooling the coil. Temperature controlled air is circulated over the coil and through the cargo space. Having extracted all the useful energy, it exhausts to the atmosphere. On trailer applications, heat for defrosting the evaporator coil and tempe rature control is generated by a diesel heater when required. 152 

### Infrastructure for these units include: a fuel holding tank at the distribution facility and a pumping station to pressure the fuel and pump it into the TRU. 153

146 Conversation with David Kiefer. 147 DTI, “The Commercialisation of Solar Powered Transport Refrigeration.” 2001. http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file16833.pdf

. 148 Conversation with David Kiefer. 149 Conversation with David Kiefer. 150 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic C ontrol Measure for In - Use Diesel - Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, October 28, 2003, p VI - 11. 151 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne T oxic Control Measure for In - Use Diesel - Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, October 28, 2003, p VI - 11. 152 Thermo King CryoTech Brochure. 153 Conversation with Tom Kampf, ThermoKing.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### 69 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 Jul y 20, 2010 Figure 2 - 36 : ThermoKing's Cryogenic CO2 Unit

Source: Thermo King CryoTech Brochure 

### Availability ThermoKing manufactures a cryogenic CO 2 

### unit, but it is currently only available in the European Union. However, these units are being demonst rated in the United States. 154 

### Vehicle Application These units can be installed on Class 8 trailers. They would most likely be installed on trucks that are operated for local deliveries. 155 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors The capital cost of a cryogenic unit is slightly higher than a standard TRU. However, the facility infrastructure costs for the fuel adds to the capital cost. Fuel costs vary depending on the nature of the operation. As of 2003, operating costs for liquid CO 2 

### are typically double the diesel fue l operating costs and increase with distance from the source. 156 

### Maintenance costs are lower since the systems have fewer moving parts. 157 

### Over the lifetime of the unit, the largest

154 Co nversation with Herman Viegas, ThermoKing. 155 Conversation with Herman Viegas, ThermoKing. 156 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In - Use Diesel - Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units ( TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, October 28, 2003, p VI - 11. 157 ThermoKing CryoTech Brochure.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Description of Technologies

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### maintenance cost is the refurbishing of the liquid cryogen storage tank, which is replaced roughly once every 5 - 7 years. 158 

### Volume discounts for these units are minimal. 159 

## Use of Leakage Reducing Components Technology Definition In general, components to minimize leakages are already incorporated into most modern air conditioning an d transport refrigeration units (TRUs, reefer) systems. A/C system loads in tractors and work trucks are parasitic loads on the engine that only burden the engine when operated, thus reducing fuel efficiency and increasing tailpipe GHG emissions (indirect effect). However, modern refrigerants are also potent greenhouse gases, and leakage of them from the systems lead to direct emissions of GHGs. 160 

### In mobile vehicle air conditioning (MVAC) systems, l eakage can be reduced through the use of enhanced hose comp onents, such as veneer/barrier hose s or ultra - low permeation hose s, improved fittings and connections ( multiple o - rings, seal washers, and seal washers with o rings, and metal gaskets) , and/or multiple - lip seals for the compressor shaft seal

. 161 

### For TRUs, h owever, one area for potential leakage in a conventional diesel - powered TRU is the shaft seal between the compressor and the engine. This leakage potential is removed with a hybrid electric TRU which uses an electric transmission and a semi - hermetic, elect rically powered compressor instead of a leakage - susceptible shaft. This system also uses a third less refrigerant than conventional TRUs, further reducing leakage potential. 162 

### This system is discussed under the section “Use of Advanced Electrical Transport Refrigeration Unit (TRU) Systems”. 

### Availability Leakage reducing components for MVAC systems are readily available and largely already employed by the industry. 

### Vehicle Application This technology is used in all tractors and work trucks, as well as trai lers. 

### Notable Cost- Related Factors Operations and maintenance savings are incurred with the use of leakage reducing components given the longer lifetimes of refrigerant charges.

158 Conversation with Sam Dutta, ThermoKing. 159 Conversation with Tom Kampf. 160 Draft Regulatory Impact Analysis, Proposed Rulemak ing to Establish Light- Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission Standards and Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards, EPA- 420 - D - 09 - 003, September 2009. 161 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, October 4, 2007. 162 Conversation with David Kiefer.ICF In ternational 

### 71 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 - 05 J uly 20, 2010 

# 3. Cost Tables Error! Reference source not found. Table 3 - 1 through Table 3 - 4 show the estimated cost for each technology, organized by the four tasks . A description of each of these technologies is given in Section 2. In each table the following column appear:  Category

– the nine technology categories listed prev iously  Technology

– the technology considered  Incremental To

– if

the technology is incremental to another technology , the baseline technology is listed  Technology Types

– subcategories of the technology  [Vehicle] Type Applied To

– Tractor, Trailer, Bus, o r Vocational vehicle the technology may be implemented on  Manufacturer Cost

– if the price/cost value is manufacturer cost, it is listed in this column  Retail Price

– if the price/cost value is retail price, it is listed in this column  Type of Price/Cost

– a summary of the price/cost value  O&M Costs

– any operations and maintenance costs determined from the research  Discount Information

– any information on discounts available from the research  Notes

– any notes on values or methodologies used in the calcul ations Cost information was gathered through telephone interviews with manufacturers and vendors

. T his was also compared to values found in the literature. All values were combined to hide any proprietary or s ensitive information gathered.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Redu ce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

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### 72 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 Table 3 - 1 : Class 7 and 8 Tractor Technology Cost/Price Summary Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

InformationAerodynamic Improvements Roof Fairing No Fairing Roof Fairing Day Cab $1,100 Retail 10- 15% for large orders Midsize Sleeper $1,400 Retail 10- 15% for large orders Fullsize Sleeper n/a n/a 10- 15% for large orders

Side Fairing No Fairing Fu el Tank Fairing Day Cab $1,500 Retail No Data Available Midsize Sleeper $1,500 Retail No Data Available Fullsize Sleeper $1,500 Retail No Data Available Partial Side Fairing Day Cab $366 Retail 10- 15% for large orders Midsize Sleepe r $530 Retail 10- 15% for large orders Fullsize Sleeper $700 Retail 10- 15% for large orders Wheel to Wheel Full Side Fairing Day Cab $1,700 Retail No Data Available Midsize Sleeper $2,100 Retail No Data Available Fullsize Sleeper $2,2 00 Retail No Data Available Full Aero Mirror Baseline

Mirror Aero Mirror, pair All $660 No Data Available Incremental, per Truck All $428 Incremental Retail Partial Aero Mirror Baseline

Mirror Semi -Aero Wing - Shaped

“Moto” Mirror All $450 No Data Available Incremental, per Truck All $218 Incremental Retail Baseline Mirror Standard Mirror, pair All $232 Retail No Data AvailableInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

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### 73 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Cont ract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information

Tractor Gap Fairing No Fairing Side Extender Day Cab $320 Retail 10- 15% for large orders

Midsize Sl eeper $360 Retail No Data Available Fullsize Sleeper $400 Retail No Data Available Aerodynamic Hood Baseline

Hood Day Cab n/a No Data Available Midsize Sleeper n/a No Data Available Fullsize Sleeper n/a No Data Available

Bumper Classic

Bumper Aero Bumper Day Cab $960 Incremental Retail No Data Available Midsize Sleeper $960 Incremental Retail No Data Available Fullsize Sleeper $960 Incremental Retail No Data Available Classic Bumper Day Cab $390 Incremental Re tail No Data Available Midsize Sleeper $390 Incremental Retail No Data Available Fullsize Sleeper $390 Incremental Retail No Data AvailableRolling Resistance Improvements

Single Wide Tires Baseline

Dualie Drive Tires on Steel Wheels Single W ide Drive

Tire All $1,000 No Data Available Wide

- Base Al Wheel All $650 Additional components All n/a Number/Drive Axle 2 Drive Axles 2Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

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### 74 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Changes/year 0.300 Total (Capital) $6,600 Total per year (O&M ) $1,977 Incremental, per Truck $(228) Incremental Retail Incremental, per (Single - Wide) Wheel $(57) Incremental Retail O&M per Truck per Year $(199) O&M per (Single Wide) Tire per Year $(50) Baseline (Dualie) Drive Tire All $404 Baseline (Dualie) Al Wheel All $450 Number/Drive Axle 4 Drive Axles 2 Changes/year 0.319 Total (Capital) $6,828 No Data Available Total per year (O&M) $2,176 Low Rolling Resista nce Tires Baseline Tire

(no wheel change) LRRT (drive) $424

Number/Drive Axle 4 Drive Axles 2Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Table s

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### 75 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Changes/year 0.296 LRRT (steer) $449 Number/Steer Axle 2 Steer Axles 1 Changes/year 0.252 Total (Capital) $4,286 Total per year (O&M) $1,231 Capital per truck $246 Incremental Retail Capital per tire $25 Incremental Retail 5 - 10% for large orders O&M per truck per year $(18) O&M per tire per year $ (2) Baseline (Dualie) Drive Tire $404 Number/Drive Axle 4 Drive Axles 2 Changes/year 0.319 Baseline Steer Tire $406 Number/Steer Axle 2 Steer Axles 1 Changes/year 0.271 Total (Capital) $4,040 No Data Available Total per year (O&M) $ 1,249 Automatic Tire Inflation No ATI

System External, tractor

system (package) All $1,500Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

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### 76 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Install labor (hrs, included) 8 Labor costs (per hr; for retrofit) $19 components only $1,351 Retail No Data AvailableOperational Improvements Programmable speed limiter No Speed

Limiter Incremental Cost

of System All $

- Time to Program the Engine (minutes) 5 Labor costs (per hr; for retrofit) $1 9

Total $2 Labor n/a

Advanced Driver Training No Training Subscription with Lessons (per driver) All $50 Price per course $15 Number courses on fuel economy 1 Duration (hours/course) 4 Driver Salary/hr $18.6 2 Per Driver Per Year $139 Retail No Data Available High

- Level Training without a AllInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Dut y On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 77 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Subscription Duration (hours/course) 10 Driver Salary/hr $18.62 Trainer Salary/hr $31 Training Materials $19 Per Driver Per Year $515 Retail No Data Available Literature Only All Price per course $125.00 Number courses 1 Duration (hours/course) 8 Driver Salary/hr $18.62 Per Driver Per Year $274 Retail No D ata AvailableIdle Reductions Auxiliary Power Units No APU Most Day Cabs n/a

Traditional APU Midsize and Fullsize Sleepers $7,700 Retail Volume discounts of about 13

- 19% availableInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 78 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Truck overnight idling (hours/year) 1800

APU Fuel Consumption (gal/hour) 0.25

Engine Fuel Consumption (gal/hour) 0.8

Fuel Cost ($/gal) $3

Incremental O&M per truck per year $ (2,970)

Direct Fired Heaters No DFH Simple Bunk Heater/DFH All $1,400 Retail No Data Available Engine Recovery Systems No EFS Simple All $585 Retail Volume discounts available, but unquantified Delux e $710 Retail Volume discounts available, but unquantified Thermal Storage Systems No TSS Full TSS system All $4,500 Retail No Da ta AvailableInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 79 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Truck Stop Electrification Engine Idling Advanced Truckstop Electrification (ATE) Midsize and Fullsize Sleepers Mounting Template $18 Per Site Install Cost $11,000 Use Rate ($/hour) $1.00 May be negotiable Truck overnight idling (hours/year) 1800 Install Cost $0 Capital Per Truck $18 Retail Annual O&M per truck $1,800 Incremental O&M per truck per year $ (2,520) n/a Baseline Engine Fuel Consumption (gal /hour) 0.8 Fuel Cost ($/gal) $3 Annual Cost per Truck $4,320 Shore Power Truckstop Electrification (TSE) Midsize and Fullsize Sleepers Per Truck Install Cost $199 Per Site Install Cost $2,100 Use Rate ($ /hour) $1.00 May be negotiableInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 80 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Truck overnight idling (hours/year) 1800 Capital Per Truck $199 Retail Annual O&M per truck $1,800 Incremental O&M per truck per year $ (2,520) n/a Baseline idling Engine Fuel Consumption (gal/hour) 0.8 Fuel Cost ($/gal) $ 3 Annual Cost per Truck $4,320Idle Reductions Anti - Idle System No System Automatic Engine Shut

- Down All n/a technology $

-

activation $55

Mandated AESD Co st $

-

Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems No System Optimized Idle AllInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 81 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information activation/ programming $400

kit $900 Volume discounts of 17%

Total $1,300 Retail

Fuel Cell APUs $7,550 Retail No Data AvailableEngineImprovements Low Friction Engine Lube Standard

Engine Lubes Lube Costs All

Oil changes/year 3.15 Incremental cost/oil change $ 268.50

Engine Modifications $

- RetailInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhous e Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 82 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Incremental Total per Truck per Year $ 845.78 No Data Available

Integrated Starter/ Alternator Baseline

Starter and Alternator All

10 kW integrated starter/alt system $7,600 Incremental Total per Truck $7,200 Incremental Retail No Data Available Baseline Starter $200 B aseline Alte r nator $200 Total $400 No Data Available

Mechanical Turbo compounding No TBC Mechanical TBC All Port Liners $400 Variable Valve Actuation $300 High efficiency power turbine $1,275 Total $1,97 5 Incremental Total per Truck $1,040 Incremental Retail No Data Available Baseline VGT $935 No Data Available

Electrical Turbo compounding No TBC Electric TBC All Mechanical Turbo compounding components $1,975 40 kW m otor/generator $1,200 Power Electronics $1,200 Electric accessories $1,000 Balance of Plant $2,163 Total $7,538 Incremental Total per Truck $6,603 Incremental Retail No Data AvailableInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 83 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Baseline VGT $935 No Data Available Electronic Fans All n/a n/a

Variable Valve Actuation no VVA VVA System All Number Cylinders 6 Price per cylinder $50 Total $300 Retail No Data AvailableEngine Improvements Variable Geometry Turb o (VGT ) Baseline

Fixed (FGT) VGT system All $935

Incremental to FGT $435 Incremental Retail No Data Available Baseline FGT $500 No Data Available

Rankine Bottoming Cycle No Rankine

System Turbine, generator

and flywheel (30 kW system) All $2,000 Air cooled condenser $500 EGR boiler $400 Stack boiler $1,000 Balance of Plant $1,440 Controls & Power Electronics $1,300 Energy storage $150 Total $6,790 Retail No Data AvailableTransmission and DrivetrainImprovements Hybrid Powertrain Conventional

Powertrain Hybrid System All

50 kW Motor/Generator $3,000 4 kW Battery Pack $6,400 Power Electronics $3,000 Balance of Plant $6,600 Mod ified Clutch Assembly $4,000Investigation of Costs for St rategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 84 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Electrification of Accessories $2,000 Total $25,000 Retail No Data Available

Low Friction Drivetrain Lube Conventional

Transmission Lubes Low Friction Lube All

Changes/year 0.7875 Cost/change $ 339 No Data Available Drivetrain Modifications (none required) $

- Incremental Total per Truck per Year $ 140.96 Baseline (Conventional Lube) Cost/change $160 No Data Available Early Torqu e Converter Lockup No ETCLU All $0 Retail No Data AvailableWeight Reduction Aluminum Wheels Conventional

Steel Wheels Upgrade Dualies to

Al uminum All Al Standard Width Wheel $450 Bulk discounts available but unquantified Baseline ( Dualie) Drive Tire $404 Number/Drive Axle 4 Drive Axles 2 Baseline Steer Tire $406 Number/Steer Axle 2 Steer Axles 1Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 85 US Environmental Protectio n Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Total $8,540 per truck $3,120 Incremental Retail per wheel $312 In cremental Retail Upgrade to Aluminum SWTs Al Wide

- Base Wheel $650 Bulk discounts available but unquantified Single Wide Drive Tire $1,031 Number/Drive Axle 2 Drive Axles 2 Baseline Steer Tire $406 Number/Steer Axle 0 Steer Axles 1 Total $6,724 per truck $1,304 Incremental Retail per wheel $326 Incremental Retail Baseline Steel Standard Width Wheel $138 Bulk discounts available but unquanti fied Baseline (Dualie) Drive Tire $404 Number/Drive Axle 4I nvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 86 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Drive Axles 2 Baseline Steer Tire $406 Number/Steer Axle 2 Steer Axles 1 Total $5,420 Aluminum Axle Hubs n/a n/a n/a n/a

Ligh t Weight Brake Drums Baseline Full

Cast Brake Drums Centrifuse Drums All

Drum $120 No Data Available Number/Axle 2 Axles 3 Total $720 Total Capital per Truck $270 Incremental Retail Total Capital per Axle $90 Incremental Retail Changes/year 0.10 Total per year (O&M) 27.00 Total O&M per Truck $ (3)

Baseline Drum $75 No Data Available Total $450 Changes/year 0.40 Total per year (O&M) $ 30.00Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 87 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information

Aluminum Air Tanks Steel Air

Tanks Aluminum air tank,

3x 4 - Gal configuration All 4 - Gal Al Air Tank $147 Number of Tanks 3 Total $441 Baseline steel air tanks 4 - Gal Al Air Tank $61 Total $183 Incremental per truck $258 Incremental Retail Incremental per tank $86 Incremental Retail No Data Available Aluminum air tank, 2x 20 - Gal configuration All 20 - Gal Al Air Tank $301 Number of Tanks 2 Total $602 Baseline steel air tanks 20 - Gal Al Air Tank $125 Total $250 Incremental per truck $352 Incremental Retail Incremental per tank $176 Incremental Retail No Data Available Aluminum air tan k, 4x 5 - Gal configuration All 5 - Gal Al Air Tank $158 Number of Tanks 4Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 88 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Total $631 Baseline steel air tanks 5 - Gal Al Air Tank $66 Total $262 Incremental per truck $369 Incremental Retail Incremental per tank $92 Incremental Retail No Data Available Reduced Number of Batteries n/a n/a n/a n/a No Data Available Lightweight Suspension Systems n/a n/a n/a n/a No Data AvailableElectrification Electric Water pumps A ll n/a n/a No Data Available Electric Power Steering Incremental per truck All $1,500 Incremental Retail n/a No Data Available Evaporative Unit All $2,000 Retail No Data AvailableAir Conditioning Low Power Draw A/C Standard APU or Battery Driven MVAC All $4,105 Retail Bulk discounts available but unquantifiedInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhous e Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 89 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Tractor Type Applied To Manufacturer

Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information

Complex Battery

Driven MVAC Sleeper Cabs $7,750 Retail No Data Available

Use of Leakage Reducing Components All $30 Manufacturer Cost No Data Available CO 2 as refrig erant All $70 Manufacturer Cost No Data Available

Use of Alternative Refrigerants HFC - 152A All $50 Manufacturer Cost No Data Available Propane as refrigerant All $50 Manufacturer Cost No Data Available HFO - 1234yf hardware ch anges Class 8, Day Cab $10 incremental refrigerant costs $158 Total $168 Incremental Retail Price No Data Available hardware changes Class 8, Sleeper Cab $10 incremental refrigerant costs $198 Total $208 Incremental Retail Price No Data AvailableInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 90 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010 Table 3 - 2 : Class 7 and 8 Trailer Technology Cost/Price Summary Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Disc ount Information O&M CostsAerodynamic Improvements Trailer Side Skirts No trailer

fairings Side fairing/Side

skirt Van, R e efer, Flatbed $ 1 ,900 low volume, 13%; high volume, 28%

Tanker $2,100 high volume, 20% Gap Fairings No gap

fairings Al uminum Gap

Fairing Van, Re e fer $850 No data available Trailer Aerocone No AeroCone AeroCone Van $1,264 high volume, 20%

Boat Tails No Boat Tail Trailer Tail Van $2,800 25 - 30%

Re e fer $3,100 25 - 30%

Air Tabs No Air Tabs Air Tab Van, Re e fer $240 low volume, 15% high volume, 25%Rolling ResistanceImprovements Single Wide Tires Baseline

Dualie Trailer Tires on Steel Wheels, 2

- Axle Trailer Upgrade to SWTs

on Al Wheels, 2

- Axle Trailer All Single Wide Tire $794 Wide

- Base Al Wh eel $650Investigation of Costs for St rategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 91 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Disc ount Information O&M Costs Additional components n/a Number/Axle 2 Axles 2 Changes/year 0.300 Total (Capital) $5,777 Total per year (O&M) $1,731 Incremental, Capital per Trailer $(135) No data available Incremen tal, Capital per (Single

- Wide) Wheel $(34) O&M per Trailer per Year $(154) O&M per (Single Wide) Tire per Year $(38) Baseline, 2

- Axle Trailer Baseline (Dualie) Trailer Tire $289 Baseline (Dualie) Al Wheel $450 Number/Axle 4 Axles 2 Changes/year 0.319 Total (Capital) $5,912 No data available Total per year (O&M) $1,884 Baseline Dualie Trailer Tires on Steel Wheels, 3

- Axle Trailer Upgrade to SWTs

on Al Wheels, 3

- Axle Tra iler All Single Wide Tire $794Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 92 US Environmental Protectio n Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Disc ount Information O&M Costs Wide

- Base Al Wheel $650 Additional components n/a Number/Axle 2 Axles 3 Changes/year 0.300 Total (Capital) $8,665 Total per year (O&M) $2,596 Incremental

, Capital per Trailer $(203) Incremental, Capital per (Single - Wide) Wheel $(34) No data available O&M per Trailer per Year $(230) O&M per (Single Wide) Tire per Year $(38) Baseline, 3

- Axle Trailer Baseline (Dualie) Trailer Tire $289 Baseline (Dualie) Al Wheel $450 Number/Axle 4 Axles 3 Changes/year 0.319 Total (Capital) $8,868 No data available Total per year (O&M) $2,826 Low Rolling Resistance Tires Baseline

Trail er Tire (no wheel LRRT All

LRR Trailer Tire $367I nvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 93 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Disc ount Information O&M Costs change), 2

- Axle Trailer Number/Axle 4

Axles 2 Changes/year 0.296 Total (Capital) $2,935 No data available Total per year (O&M) $870 Incremental, Capital per Trailer $623 Incremental, Capital per Tire $78 No data available O&M per Trailer per Year $(737) O&M per Tire per Year $(92) Baseline Baseline (Dualie) Trailer Tire $289 Number/Axle 4 Axles 2 Changes/year 0.319 Total (Capital) $2,312 No data available Total per year (O&M) $737

Baseline Trailer Tire (no wheel change), 3

- Axle Trailer LRRT All

LRRT $367 Number/Axle 4 Axles 3 Changes/year 0.296 Total (Capital) $4,403 Total per year (O&M) $1,305 Incremental, $935Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 94 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Disc ount Information O&M Costs Capital per Trailer Incremental, Capital per Tire $78 No data available O&M per Trailer per Year $(368) O&M per Tire per Year $(31) Baseline Baseline (Dualie) Trailer Tire $289 Number/Axle 4 Axles 3 Changes/year 0.319 Total (Capital) $3,468 No data available Total per year (O&M) $1,105

Automatic Tire Inflation No ATI

System In ternal, trailer

system 2 - axle or 3

- axle Package $750 No data available Install labor (hrs, included) 4 Labor costs (per hr; for retrofit) $19 components only $676 No data available Internal, trailer system 1 - axle or do lly Package $550 No data available Install labor (hrs, included) 4 Labor costs (per hr; for retrofit) $19 components only $476 No data availableInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 95 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Disc ount Information O&M CostsWeight Reduction Tare weight reduction via Al structural components Baseline Steel

components Roof Posts / Bows Dry Van

Incremental, per Trailer $120 No data available Side posts Incremental, per Trailer $525 No data available Cross members / floor joists Incremental, per Trailer $400 No data available Floor Incremental, per Trailer $1,500 No data available

Tare weight reduction via Al wheels Baseline Steel (dualie) wheels, 2

-

Axle Trailer All

Number/Axle 4 Axles 2 Incremental, per Trailer $1,500 No data available Incremental, per Wheel $188 Baseline Steel (dualie) wheels, 3

- Axle Trailer Number/Axle 4

Axles 3 Incremental, per Trailer $2,250 No data available Incremental, per Wheel $188Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 96 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Disc ount Information O&M CostsAir Conditioning Use of Leakage Reducing Components Re e fer $30 No data available

Use of Advanced Electrical TRU Systems Standard,

Diesel TRU Hybrid, vector TRU Re e fer

Incremental Total $4,000 No data available Annual Operating Costs $1,404 Incremental O&M per Year $(2,106) Electric Standby (E/S) Option TRU option $2,300 Facility upgrade per terminal $1,250 Per terminal, additional for transformer $6,000 per hour use rate $5 TRU overnight usa ge (hours/year) 1800 Incremental Total per Trailer $2,300 No data available Annual O&M per Trailer $9,000 Incremental O&M per Year $5,490 Solar TRU Total n/a N/A Fuel Cell TRU Total n/a N/A Bas eline Fuel consumption (gal/hr) 0.65 Fuel Cost ($/gal) $3Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Table s

ICF International 

### 97 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Disc ount Information O&M Costs Annual Cost per Truck No data available $3,510

Use of Cryogenic CO2 Units Unit cost Re e fer per trailer $30,000 Marginal volume, 5% Annual O&M per Trailer $7,020 Incremental O&M per Year $3,510 Infrastructure costs per facility $150,000 No data available

Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials Baseline Al

Roof Composite

Reflective Roof Van, Re e fer Roof $800 Incremental, per Trailer $0 No data available Number of small holes per year 2 Hole patch cost $100 O&M Cost $200 Coated Roof Van, Re e fer Roof $700 Incremental, per Trailer ($100) No data available A dding Reflective Tape Van, Re e fer 100 ft roll $100 spacing (strips/ft) 1 trailer width (ft) 8.5 trailer length (ft) 53 trailer height (ft) 13.5 Incremental Total, per 53' trailer $1,882 No data available Baseline Roof Van, Re e fer $800Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 98 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Disc ount Information O&M Costs

Use of Alternative Refrigerants CO 2 as refrigerant Re e fer $70 No data available HFC - 152A Re e fer $50 No data available Propane as refrigerant Re e fer $50 No data available HFO - 1234yf Re e fer

ha rdware changes $10 incremental refrigerant costs $551

Total $561 Incremental Retail Price No data

available Table 3 - 3 : Class 3 through 8 Vocational Truck Technology Cost/ Price Summary Categ ory Technology Incremental To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

InformationLow Rolling Resistance Low Rolling Resistance Tires None LRRT Class 6 Box Truck LRRT (drive) $ 379 Number/Drive Axle 4 Drive Axles 1 Changes/year 0.287 LRRT (steer) $329 Number/Steer Axle 2Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Dut y On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 99 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Categ ory Technology Incremental To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Steer Axles 1 Changes/year 0.287 Total (Capital) $2,174 Retail Price No data available Total per year (O&M) $623Engine Improvements Mechanical Turbo compounding No TBC Mechanical TBC Class 6 Box Truck N/A N/A N/A N/A Electric Turbo compounding No TBC Electric TBC Class 6 Box Truck N/A N/A N/A N/A

Variable Valve Actuation no VVA VVA Class 6 Box Truck Cam - operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake only Number Cylinders 6 Total $455 Retail Price No data available Cam - operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake and exhaust Numb er Cylinders 6 Total $910 Retail Price No data available Mechanical, cam

- operated VVA, intake only Total $700 Manufacturer Cost No data available Fully variable, camless VVA Total $2,350 Manufacturer Cost No da ta available Variable Geometry Turbo (VGT) Baseline

Fixed (FGT) VGT system Class 6 Box Truck

Incremental to FGT $675 Incremental Retail No data availableTransmissionand DrivetrainImprovements Hybrid Powertrain Conventional Powertrain Hybrid System – Class 4 Utility Truck Hardware Cost to ManufacturerInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 100 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 201 0

Categ ory Technology Incremental To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information 30 kW Motor/Generator $900 4 kW Battery Pack $3,200 Power Electronics $900 Balance of Plant $2,500 Modified Cl utch Assembly $1,500 Electrification of Accessories $850 Total Hardware Cost $9,850 Labor @ $28/hr $2,800 Labor Overhead @ 40% $1,120 Markup @ 29% $3,993 Warranty Markup at 5% $493 Total Component Cost $18,256 Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer R&D Costs $10,000,000 Tooling Costs $3,000,000 Units/yr. 500 Years to recover 5 Fixed cost/unit $7,159 Total Cost f

rom Engine Manufacturer $25,415 Manufacturer Cost No data available Truck Manufacturer Markup @ 29% $7,370 Total Cost to Truck Purchaser $32,785 Retail Price No data available Hybrid System – Class 6 Box Truck Hardware Cost to Manufacturer 30 kW Motor/Generator $900 4 kW Battery Pack $3,200 Power Electronics $900Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenho use Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 101 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Categ ory Technology Incremental To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Balance of Plant $3,000 Modified Clutch Assembly $2,000 Electrification of Accessories $ 1,000 Total Hardware Cost $11,000 Labor @ $28/hr $3,780 Labor Overhead @ 40% $1,512 Markup @ 29% $4,725 Warranty Markup at 5% $550 Total Component Cost $21,567 Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer R&D Costs $10,000,000 Tooling Costs $3,000,000 Units/yr. 500 Years to recover 5 Fixed cost/unit $7,420 Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer $28,987 Manufacturer Cost No data ava ilable Truck Manufacturer Markup @ 29% $8,406 Total Cost to Truck Purchaser $37,393 Retail Price No data available Hybrid System -- Class 8 Refuse Hardware Cost to Manufacturer 30 kW Motor/Generator $900 1 00 kW Motor/Generator $3,000 8 kW Battery Pack $6,400 Power Electronics $3,900 Balance of Plant $8,500 Modified Clutch Assembly $2,500Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 102 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Categ ory Technology Incremental To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Electrification of Accessories $1,750 Total Hardware Cost $26,950 Labor @ $28/hr $5,600 Labor Overhead @ 40% $2,240 Markup @ 29% $10,089 Warranty Markup at 5% $1,348 Total Component Cost $46,227 Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer R&D Costs $10,000,000 Tooling Costs $3,000,000 Units/yr. 500 Years to recover 5 Fixed cost/unit $7,159 Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer $53,386 Manufacturer Cost No data available Truck Manufacturer Markup @ 29% $15,482 Total Cost to Truck Purchaser $68,867 Retail Price No data availableAir Conditioning Low Power Draw A/C Evaporative Unit Class 6 Box Truck $2,000 Retail Price No data available Use of Leakage Redu cing Components Class 6 Box Truck $25 Incremental Manufacturer Cost No data available

Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials Baseline Al

Roof Class 6 Box Truck (24')

Composite Reflective Roof Roof $460 Incremental, p er Trailer $84 Incremental Retail Price No data available Number of small holes per year 2Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 103 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Categ ory Technology Incremental To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Hole patch cost $100 O&M Cost $200 Coated Roof Incremental Roof $422 Incremental Retail Price No data availab le Cab $250 Incremental Retail Price Adding Reflective Tape 100 ft roll $100 spacing (strips/ft) 1 trailer width (ft) 8.5 trailer length (ft) 24 trailer height (ft) 13.5 Incremental Total, p er 24' trailer $852 Incremental Retail Price No data available Baseline Roof $376

Use of Alternative Refrigerants CO 2 as refrigerant Class 6 Box Truck $70 Manufacturer Cost No data available HFC - 152A Class 6 Box Truck $50 Manufacture r Cost No data available Propane as refrigerant Class 6 Box Truck $50 Manufacturer Cost No data available

HFO - 1234yf Class 6 Box Truck, Day

Cab hardware changes $10 incremental refrigerant costs $124 Total $134 Incremental Retail Price No data availableInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhou se Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 104 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Categ ory Technology Incremental To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Class 6 Box Truck, Crew Cab hardware changes $10 incremental refrigerant costs $140 Total $150 Incremental Retail Price No data available Table 3 -4 : Class 7 and 8 Bus Technology Cost/ Price Summary Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Bus Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

InformationRolling Resistance Improvements

Low Rol ling Resistance Tires None LRRT Class 8 Transit Bus LRRT (drive) $333 Number/Drive Axle 4 Drive Axles 1 Changes/year 0.167 LRRT (steer) $333 Number/Steer Axle 2 Steer Axles 1 Changes/yea r 0.167 Total (Capital) $1,998 Retail Price No data available Total per year (O&M) $333EngineImprovements Mechanical Turbo compounding No TBC Mechanical TBC Class 8 Transit Bus N/A N/A N/A N/AInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 105 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Bus Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Electric Turbo compounding No TBC E lectric TBC Class 8 Transit Bus N/A N/A N/A N/A

Variable Valve Actuation no VVA Class 8 Transit Bus Cam - operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake only Number Cylinders 6 Total $585 Retail Price No data available Cam - operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake and exhaust Number Cylinders 6Engine Improvements Variable Valve Actuation No VVA Total $1,170 Retail Price No data available Mechanical, cam

- operated VVA, intake only T otal $700 Manufacturer Cost No data available Fully variable, camless VVA Total $2,350 Manufacturer Cost No data available Variable Geometry Turbo (VGT) Baseline Fixed

(FGT) VGT system Class 8 Transit Bus

Incremental to FGT $935 Incremental Retail No data availableDrivetrain Improvements Hybrid Powertrain Conventional Powertrain Class 8 Transit Bus Hardware Cost to Manufacturer 30 kW Motor/Generator $900 100 kW Motor/Generator $3,000 8 kW Battery Pack $6,400 Power Electronics $3,900 Balance of Plant $8,500 Modified Clutch Assembly $2,000 Electrification of Accessories $1,250 Total Hardware Cost $25,950Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 106 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Bus Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Labor @ $28/hr $4,480 Labor Overhead @ 40% $1,792 Markup @ 29% $9,344 Warranty Markup at 5% $1,298 Total Component Cost $42,864 Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer R&D Costs $10,000,000 Tooling Co sts $3,500,000Drivetrain Improvements Units/yr. 1000 Years to recover 5 Fixed cost/unit $3,710 Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer $46,574 Manufacturer Cost No data available Truck Manufacturer Markup @ 29% $13,506 Total Cost to Truck Purchaser $60,080 Retail Price No data availableAir Conditioning Low Power Draw A/C Roof

- mounted Evaporative Unit Class 8 Transit Bus $6,000 Retail Price No data available Roof

- mounted A/C System Class 8 Tra nsit Bus $6,650 Retail Price No data available Use of Leakage Reducing Components Class 8 Transit Bus $ 3 0 Incremental Manufacturer Cost No data available

Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials Baseline Al

Roof Class 8 Transit Bus (43’ 5 2 - passenger)

Composite Reflective Roof Roof $645 Fasteners, etc. $100 Total $745 Retail Price No data available Number of small holes per year 2 Hole patch cost $100Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Cost Tables

ICF International 

### 107 US Environmental P rotection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Bus Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information O&M Cost $200 Coated Roof Incremental Roof $620 Incremental Retail Price No data available Adding Reflective Tape 100 ft roll $100 spacing (strips/ft) 1Air Conditioning Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materia ls Baseline Al

Roof bus width (ft) 8.5

bus length (ft) 43 bus height (ft) 9.5 Incremental Total, per 24' trailer $1,183 Incremental Retail Price No data available

Alternative Refrigerants CO 2 as refrigerant Class 8 Transit Bus $70 Manufacturer Cost No data available

HFC - 152A Class 8 Transit Bus $50 Manufacturer Cost No data available Propane as refrigerant Class 8 Transit Bus $50 Manufacturer Cost No data available

HFO - 1234yf Class 8 Transit Bus

hardware changes $10

incremental refrigerant costs $683Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy- Duty On - Road Vehicles Bibliography

ICF International 

### 108 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA Contract EP - C - 06 - 094 -- WA 3 -05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology Incremental To Technology Types Bus Type Applied To Manufacturer Cost Retail Price Type of Price/Cost O&M

Costs Discount

Information Total $ 693 Incremental Retail Price No data available 

# Bibliography “21 st 

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