US Environmental Protection Agency

Investigation of Costs for

Strategies to Reduce 

Greenhouse Gas 

Emissions for Heavy-Duty 

On-Road Vehicles

Final Report

July 20, 2010

Prepared for

Amy Kopin

Environmental Protection Agency

2000 Traverwood Dr.

Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105

Prepared by

Louis Browning, Seth Hartley, Larry O’Rourke,

Jennifer Brickett, Ryan Thompson, Lisa McNally

ICF International

620 Folsom Street, Suite 200

San Francisco, CA 94107

415.677.7100

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05
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ICF International i US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Table of Contents

1. Introduction........................................................................................................................ 1

1.1. Purpose, Regulatory Background, and Scope............................................................ 1

1.2. Division of Tasks........................................................................................................ 2

1.3. Report Organization................................................................................................... 2

2. Description of Technologies ............................................................................................. 3

2.1. Baseline Vehicles and Technologies.......................................................................... 3

Class 7 and 8 Tractors........................................................................................................................................ 3

Trailers ..................................................................................................................................................................... 4

Class 3 through 8 Vocational Trucks ........................................................................................................... 16

Class 7 and 8 buses .......................................................................................................................................... 20

2.2. Summary of Technologies and Strategies................................................................ 22

2.3. Aerodynamic improvements..................................................................................... 25

Aerodynamic Hoods .......................................................................................................................................... 25

Aerodynamic Mirrors ......................................................................................................................................... 27

AeroConesTM........................................................................................................................................................ 27

AirtabsTM................................................................................................................................................................ 28

Boat Tails .............................................................................................................................................................. 28

Aerodynamic Bumpers ..................................................................................................................................... 29

Tractor Gap Fairing............................................................................................................................................ 29

Roof Fairings........................................................................................................................................................ 30

Tractor Side Fairings ......................................................................................................................................... 30

Trailer Side Skirts ............................................................................................................................................... 31

Trailer Gap Fairings ........................................................................................................................................... 31

2.4. Rolling resistance improvements ............................................................................. 32

Automatic Tire Inflation (ATI).......................................................................................................................... 32

Low-Rolling Resistance Tires ......................................................................................................................... 33

Single Wide (Wide-Base) Tires...................................................................................................................... 35

2.5. Operational improvements....................................................................................... 36

Advanced Driver Training ................................................................................................................................ 36

Speed Limiter....................................................................................................................................................... 37

2.6. Idling reduction technologies.................................................................................... 38

Anti-idle System (a.k.a., Automatic Engine Stop System) .................................................................... 38

Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems......................................................................................................... 38

Thermal Storage Systems ............................................................................................................................... 39

Engine Recovery Systems (ERS) ................................................................................................................. 40

Auxiliary Power Units (APUs)......................................................................................................................... 41

Direct Fired Heaters........................................................................................................................................... 42

Fuel Cell APU ...................................................................................................................................................... 44

Truck Stop Electrification ................................................................................................................................. 45

2.7. Engine improvements .............................................................................................. 47

Integrated Starter/Alternator ........................................................................................................................... 47

Turbo Compounding.......................................................................................................................................... 48

Variable Geometry Turbocharger.................................................................................................................. 49

Variable Valve Actuation.................................................................................................................................. 50

2.8. Transmission and Drivetrain improvements ............................................................. 51

Early Torque Convertor Lock-up ................................................................................................................... 51

Hybrid Powertrain............................................................................................................................................... 51

Low-Friction Engine Lube and Drive Train Lubricants ........................................................................... 53

Rankine Bottoming Cycle................................................................................................................................. 54

2.9. Weight reduction technologies ................................................................................. 55

Aluminum Air Tanks........................................................................................................................................... 55
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Aluminum Axles and Axle Hubs..................................................................................................................... 56

Aluminum Wheels .............................................................................................................................................. 56

Lightweight Brake Drums................................................................................................................................. 57

Lightweight Cab Components ........................................................................................................................ 59

Lightweight Suspension Systems ................................................................................................................. 60

Reduced Number of Batteries ........................................................................................................................ 60

Aluminum Structural Components for Trailers .......................................................................................... 61

2.10. Electrification ........................................................................................................... 61

Electrification of Accessory Loads ................................................................................................................ 61

2.11. Air conditioning and transport refrigerated unit (TRU) improvements ....................... 62

Alternative Refrigerants .................................................................................................................................... 62

Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials ............................................................................................ 63

Low Power Draw A/C ........................................................................................................................................ 65

Use of Advanced Electrical Transport Refrigeration Unit (TRU) Systems....................................... 67

Use of Cryogenic CO2 Unit.............................................................................................................................. 68

Use of Leakage Reducing Components ..................................................................................................... 70

3. Cost Tables........................................................................................................................71

List of Figures

Figure 2-1: Peterbilt 379 Traditional Sleeper Cab ..........................................................................................................4

Figure 2-2: Dry Freight Van (Wabash National).............................................................................................................5

Figure 2-3: Aluminum Combination Flatbed (Wabash national).....................................................................................6

Figure 2-4: Aluminum Flatbed Drop Deck ......................................................................................................................7

Figure 2-5: Reefer (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)...........................................................................................8

Figure 2-6: Dry Van (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company).........................................................................................9

Figure 2-7: Flatbed (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)........................................................................................10

Figure 2-8: Aluminum Frame Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)................................................................................11

Figure 2-9: Aluminum Frameless Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing) .........................................................................11

Figure 2-10: Steel Tub Body Frame Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing) ....................................................................12

Figure 2-11: Grain Hopper (Timpte).............................................................................................................................12

Figure 2-12: Chemical Transport Tanker (Polar Tank).................................................................................................13

Figure 2-13: Petroleum Tanker (Polar Tank)................................................................................................................13

Figure 2-14: Sanitary Food Tanker (Polar Tank)..........................................................................................................14

Figure 2-15: Lowboy, 2-Axle (Trail King Industries) .....................................................................................................14

Figure 2-16: Lowboy, 3-Axle (Trail King Industries) .....................................................................................................15

Figure 2-17: Flatbed / Step Deck (Trail King Industries) ..............................................................................................15

Figure 2-18: Class 6 Box Truck....................................................................................................................................18

Figure 2-19: Class 6 Dump Truck ................................................................................................................................18

Figure 2-20: Class 4 Work Truck..................................................................................................................................19

Figure 2-21: Class 8 Refuse Truck...............................................................................................................................20

Figure 2-22: Class 7 School Bus.................................................................................................................................21

Figure 2-23: Class 8 Transit Bus..................................................................................................................................22

Figure 2-24: Automatic Start/Stop System ...................................................................................................................38

Figure 2-25: Thermal Storage Unit...............................................................................................................................40

Figure 2-26: Engine Recovery System.........................................................................................................................41

Figure 2-27: APUs........................................................................................................................................................42

Figure 2-28: Direct Fired Heater...................................................................................................................................43

Figure 2-29. Turbo Compounding Turbine...................................................................................................................48

Figure 2-31: Lightweight Brake Drum Components .....................................................................................................58

Figure 2-31: Solar Energy Reflection Improvement through Application of SolarCool Coatings Paint.........................64

Figure 2-33: Evaporative A/C Unit................................................................................................................................66

Figure 2-34: Rooftop Low Power Draw A/C .................................................................................................................66

Figure 2-34: Transport Refrigeration Units...................................................................................................................67

Figure 2-35: ThermoKing's Cryogenic CO2 Unit..........................................................................................................69
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List of Tables

Table 2-1: Baseline Tractors and Prices ........................................................................................................................3

Table 2-2: Trailer Types and Manufacturers ..................................................................................................................4

Table 2-3: Baseline Trailer Prices ................................................................................................................................16

Table 2-4: Baseline Vocational Truck and Bus Prices..................................................................................................16

Table 2-5: Baseline Bus Prices ....................................................................................................................................20

Table 2-6: Strategies Investigated in this Report..........................................................................................................22

Table 2-7: Low Rolling Resistance Tire Types.............................................................................................................34

Table 2-8: Hybrid system component sizes .................................................................................................................52

Table 2-9: Hybrid Vehicle Incentives............................................................................................................................53

Table 3-2: Class 7 and 8 Trailer Technology Cost/Price Summary..............................................................................90

Table 3-3: Class 3 through 8 Vocational Truck Technology Cost/Price Summary .......................................................98

Table 3-4: Class 7 and 8 Bus Technology Cost/Price Summary................................................................................104
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1. Introduction

1.1. Purpose, Regulatory Background, and Scope

Regulation of greenhouse gases is underway. EPA issued an Advanced Notice of Proposed 

Rulemaking (ANPRM) for Greenhouse Gas Emissions in July 2008 in response to the U.S. 

Supreme Court’s decision on Massachusetts v. EPA1. The EPA issued the Proposed 

Endangerment and Cause or Contribute Findings for Greenhouse Gases under the Clean Air 

Act in April 2009. The standards shall give appropriate consideration to the cost, energy, and 

safety factors associated with the application of the technologies. The new GHG reporting rule 

(40 CFR Parts 86, 87, 89 et al. Mandatory Reporting of Greenhouse Gases; Final Rule2), from 

October 2009 requires that sources including fossil fuel suppliers and industrial gas suppliers, 

direct greenhouse gas emitters and manufacturers of heavy-duty and off-road vehicles and 

engines with emissions above certain threshold levels monitor and report their emissions. On 

April 1, 2010, EPA and NHTSA announced the National Program to Cut Greenhouse Gas 

Emissions and Improve Fuel Economy for Cars and Trucks, establishing a national program 

consisting of new standards for model year 2012 through 2016 light-duty vehicles, including the 

first-ever national GHG emissions standards under the Clean Air Act and CAFE standards 

under the Energy Policy and Conservation Act. In addition, President Obama directed EPA and 

NHTSA to take the next steps to reduce GHG emissions and fuel consumption by developing 

the first-ever GHG and fuel consumption regulations for heavy-duty engines and vehicles in an 

announcement made on May 21, 2010. 

The heavy-duty truck sector includes Class 2b through Class 8 trucks that can have a gross 

vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of more than 8,500 lbs. This sector is powered primarily by diesel 

engines, but gasoline powered vehicles are also used. Heavy-duty trucks were responsible for 

18 percent of the U.S. Transportation GHG emissions in 2006 and the CO2 emissions are

expected to grow nearly 30 percent by 2030. Reductions can be achieved through engine, 

vehicle, and operational improvements, with vehicle improvements expected to make up the 

bulk of the achievable reductions.

The purpose of this analysis is to estimate the cost impacts of technologies that can be used to 

reduce GHG emissions on heavy-duty trucks and engines. The cost estimates have been 

determined for a number of different truck classes and a variety of technologies and operating 

strategies to which they apply. The improvements are organized into one of the following nine 

categories: 

 Aerodynamic improvements, 

 Rolling resistance improvements, 

 Operational improvements, 

 Idling reduction technologies, 

 

1 http://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/06pdf/05-1120.pdf

2 http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/downloads09/GHG-MRR-Full%20Version.pdf
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 Engine improvements, 

 Transmission and drivetrain improvements, 

 Weight reduction, 

 Electrification, and 

 Air conditioning improvements and improvements in transport refrigerated unit 

(TRU) technology. 

The vehicles analyzed include Class 7 and 8 tractors, trailers, class 3-8 work trucks, and class 

6-8 buses. This report presents the results of this research. 

1.2. Division of Tasks

Analysis was done in a series of tasks, each encompassing specific types of vehicles. In each 

case, baseline vehicles were defined along with appropriate technologies. For the purposes of 

this report, the tasks are defined as and include:

 Task 2: Class 7 and 8 regional tractors and Class 8 long-haul tractors

 Task 3: Trailers hauled by Class 7 and 8 regional and long-haul tractors

 Task 5: Class 3 through 8 vocational trucks

 Task 6: Class 7 and 8 buses 

Throughout this report, analysis may refer to categories by task or by vehicle class.

1.3. Report Organization

The remainder of this report is organized along the following structure. Section 2 summarizes 

the baseline vehicles in the current fleet and presents an overview of the nine categories of 

technologies that can provide reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. Section 3 presents a 

summary of costs associated with each technology. Tables showing the cost analyses are 

presented by task, with each technology category broken out within these tasks.
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2. Description of Technologies

2.1. Baseline Vehicles and Technologies

Class 7 and 8 Tractors

One sleeper and one day cab model were selected as baseline vehicles for the Class 7 and 8 

tractor application. Error! Reference source not found.Table 2-1 shows these vehicles, their 

specifications, and associated prices. 

Table 2-1: Baseline Tractors and Prices

Baseline Tractor 

Category Baseline Tractor Type Vehicle Specifications New Price

Day Cab 2010 FREIGHTLINER – CL12064ST-COLUMBIA 120 Engine Make Mercedes $89,500 

Engine Type MBE4000 

Horsepower 450 

Transmission 10 Speed 

Check for Over Drive Yes 

Engine Brake Yes 

Suspension Air Ride 

Gear Ratio 3.73 

Tires 11R22.5 

Wheels All Steel 

Wheelbase 179" 

Number of Rear Axles Tandem 

Front Axle Lbs 12,000 

Rear Axle Lbs 40,000 

Sleeper Cab 2010 FREIGHTLINER CL12064ST-COLUMBIA 120 Sleeper Size 70" $113,000

Sleeper Mid Roof XT Sleeper 

Engine Make Detroit Diesel 

Engine Type 14.0 

Horsepower 455 

Transmission 10 Speed 

Check for Over Drive Yes 

Engine Brake Yes 

Suspension Air Ride 

Gear Ratio 3.42 

Tires 22.5LP 

Wheels All Aluminum 

Source: http://www.truckpaper.com

Source: http://www.truckpaper.com
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It is noteworthy that many improvements, especially aerodynamic improvements, may already 

be incorporated in these vehicles. Thus it could be advantageous to assess a more traditional 

style cab, such as the Peterbilt 379 sleeper cab. However, this vehicle was discontinued in 2007 

and cannot serve as a current technology baseline. 

Figure 2-1: Peterbilt 379 Traditional Sleeper Cab

Source: http://www.truckpaper.com

Trailers

There are numerous types of trailers hauled by Class 7 and 8 tractors. Baseline retail prices and 

weight ranges were indentified for the trailer types listed in Table 2-2, based on leading 

manufacturers. The following discusses these manufacturers and the corresponding trailer 

types. 

Table 2-2: Trailer Types and Manufacturers

Chief Manufacturer Trailer Types Baseline Trailer Category Details

Great Dane van box N/A

Wabash National van box Dry van

Wabash National (formerly Transcraft) flatbed specialized 48' aluminum combination 

flatbed

Wabash National (formerly Transcraft) flatbed drop deck specialized 48' flatbed drop deck

Hyundai container chassis box N/A

Utility Trailer Manufacturing reefer box reefer; dry van; 48' flatbed

East Manufacturing dump specialized 3 types of dump trailers

Timpte grain specialized 2 price ranges for grain 

hoppers

Polar Tank Trailers tanker specialized 4 types of tankers

Trail King Industries /Landall lowbed specialized 2 lowboys; 1 48' step deck 

flatbed
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Great Dane

Price and weight range data for the Great Dane manufacturer of box trailers were not available

Wabash National

Retail price data and weight data were identified for a dry freight van, flatbed, and flatbed drop 

deck trailers:

Dry Freight Van

Wabash offers three types of dry freight van 2-axle trailers: DuraPlate®; FrieghtProTM; and 

DuraPlate HP, the latter being the most expensive. The average curb weight is approximately 

14,000 pounds. The DuraPlate dry van trailer's standard features include:

 The ultra-wide design of the DuraPlate trailer provides an interior width of 101-1/2" 

(scuff-to-scuff) 

 The DuraPlate composite sidewall panel is constructed of a high-density polyethylene 

plastic core bonded between two high-strength steel skins. 

 Steel interior to resist tears, punctures and related damage. 

 Postless sidewall design. 

 High-strength, corrugated steel scuff is fastened to the DuraPlate sidewall every 8". 

Figure 2-2: Dry Freight Van (Wabash National)

Source: http://www.wabashnational.com/Images/popups/DuraPlatePop.jpg

Aluminum Combination Flatbed (48-foot)

The combination flatbed 2-axle trailer is available in extreme, heavy, and standard. Basic 

features, including approximate weight of each are listed below.

Extreme Duty: Available in 42', 45', 48' and 53' lengths; 96" or 102" widths; additional 

lightweight features are available. Basic features include:

 Tandem axles with various axle spacings 
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 Aluminum floor, front and rear plate 

 Aluminum side rails 

 Includes 5" aluminum floor sills 

 GVWR 80,000 lbs.

 Approx. 10,760 lbs. w/standard options 

Heavy Duty: Available in 42', 45', 48' and 53' lengths; 96" or 102" width. Basic features include:

 Tandem, various axle spacings 

 Aluminum floor, front and rear plate 

 Aluminum side rails 

 Includes 5" aluminum floor sills 

 GVWR 80,000 lbs.

 Approx. 9,960 lbs. w/standard options 

Standard Duty: Available in 42', 45', 48' and 53' lengths; 96" or 102" widths. Basic features 

include:

 Tandem, various axle spacings 

 Aluminum floor, front and rear plate 

 Aluminum side rails 

 Includes 5" aluminum floor sills 

 GVWR 73,000 lbs.

 Approx. 9,760 lbs. w/standard options

Figure 2-3: Aluminum Combination Flatbed (Wabash national)
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Source: http://www.transcraft.com/Transcraft/images/products/Eagle.jpg

Flatbed Drop Deck (48-foot)

The D-Eagle flatbed drop deck 2-axle trailer is available in 45', 48' and 53' lengths with 102” 

width. The approximate weight is 10,120 pounds with the following standard options:

 Tandem, various axle spacings 

 Aluminum floor, front and rear plate 

 Includes 5" aluminum floor sills 

 80,000 lbs. over lower deck

Figure 2-4: Aluminum Flatbed Drop Deck

Source: http://www.transcraft.com/Transcraft/images/products/D-Eagle.jpg

Transcraft (Wabash)

Transcraft is now a Wabash company. See above for descriptive information about Wabash 

trailers.

Hyundai

Cost data were not available for Hyundai’s container chassis.

Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company

Reefer

The curb weight of Utility’s 2-axle reefer trailer is approximately 14,200 pounds. The 3000R 

series reefer trailer is available with the following standard features:

 Patented Barrier Rear Doors 

 Utility-Designed Door Hardware 

 5/16" Thick Dock Board Guide Plates 

 Integrated Heavy-Duty 10" High Wearband 

 Landing Leg Support and Bracing 

 Foam-In-Place Insulation Air Ride Suspension 

 5-Year Stemco® Platinum Performance Wheel End System 
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 Thermal Barriers 

 Tensioned Roof Skin 

 LED Lights 

Figure 2-5: Reefer (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)

Source: http://www.utilitytrailer.com/reefers/3000R.asp

Dry Van

Utility’s 4000D series dry van 2-axle trailer is a traditional plywood lined dry van. The 

approximate weight is 13,500 pounds. Standard features include:

 12" Galvanized Steel Wearband 

 Stainless Steel Rear Door Frame 

 Integrated Threshold Plate Assembly 

 Air Ride Suspension 

 Weather Tight Floor System 

 Reliable Support Leg Bracing 

 Heavy-Duty King Pin Assembly 

 High-Strength Front Wall 

 Unique Roof Design 

 5-Year Stemco® Platinum Performance Wheel End System 

 Bendix® TAB-6 ABS System 

 Modular Electrical System
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Figure 2-6: Dry Van (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)

Source: http://www.utilitytrailer.com/dryvans/4000d_x_composite.asp

Flatbed (48-foot) 

The 4000ATM series 2-axle aluminum (also available in a steel 4000S series) flatbed trailer 

(commercial length is 48-feet) is approximately 9,800 pounds in curb weight. The standard 

features for this trailer include:

 Hendrickson Narrow Hanger AANT 23k Spread Air Ride Suspension 

 80,000 PSI High Tensile Steel, Hat-Shaped Main Beam Top Flange 

 6,500 lbs. Working Load Limit Rated Pipe Spools 

 Aluminum Front Rail 

 100% Plug-in Connectors 

 Durable Outrigger Attachments 

 Higher Quality Paint Process for Lower Life Cycle Costs 

 Integral Cinch Track 

 Front Stainless Steel Corners 

 5-Year Stemco® Platinum Performance Wheel End System 

 Durable Suspension Design 

 Plasma-Cut One-Piece Main Beam Webs 

 Microencapsulated Adhesive on All Screws 

 Side Rails are Mechanically Fastened 

 Contoured Beam at Rear for Proper Axle Loading 

 Rear Corners Designed for High Impact Loads 
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Figure 2-7: Flatbed (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)

Source: http://www.utilitytrailer.com/flatbeds/4000A.asp

East Manufacturing

Specialized dump trailers comprise about 3 to 4 percent of the market. The following three 2-

axle, “lightweight” dump trailers range in weight between 10,000-17,000 pounds.3 Dump trailers 

are available in a range of axles, up to 8-axles.

Aluminum Frame Dump Trailer 

The aluminum frame dump trailer is available in 2-axle, 3-axle and four-axle configurations. This 

trailer comes in two additional models: The East QuadTM and East Michigan series. The East 

Quad provides up to 25-tons of legal payload to accommodate especially heavy loads like 

asphalt and construction material. The East Quad has a maneuverable turning radius that’s up 

to 16 feet tighter than a traditional straight truck, with about the same dumping height. East 

Quads are available from 24 to 28 feet long. The East Michigan Series offers a wide variety of 

frame dump trailers with multi-axle configurations that meet the requirements of hauling in 

Michigan. Both GenesisTM and traditional sheet and post body styles are available for triple-ten 

(gravel train), super-train, break-up double, twelve wheelers and up to 8-axle semi-trailer 

configurations. Steel bodied dump trailers are also available.

 

3 Personal communication, Charlie Wells, Manager of Dump Trailer Product Line, East manufacturing, on 2/25/10.
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Figure 2-8: Aluminum Frame Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)

 

Source: http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_dump.html

Aluminum Frameless Dump Trailer

Frameless dump trailers are designed for the ideal balance between low weight for more 

payload, and heavy-duty strength for durability.

Figure 2-9: Aluminum Frameless Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)

 

Source: http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_framelessal.html

Frame Dump Trailer (Steel Tub Body)

The body of the East steel trailer is made from AR450 grade steel to handle construction and 

demolition work.
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Figure 2-10: Steel Tub Body Frame Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)

Source: http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_framesteel.html

Timpte

Grain Hopper

The standard 2-axle hopper trailer is available in 38-, 40-, and 42-feet lengths with an average 

curb weight of approximately 9,000 pounds. Typical application includes transportation of 

agricultural and industrial bulk commodities. Axles typically have a 22,500 pound beam 

capacity. Typical baseline tires are eight 11R24.5 Bridgestone R195F radials.

Figure 2-11: Grain Hopper (Timpte)

Source: http://www.timpte.com/newtrailers.html

Polar Tank Trailers

Typical applications include transport of chemical and petroleum products, fertilizer, asphalt, 

and food items (tanks are stainless steel, sterilized and insulated).

Chemical Transport Tanker 

The 2010 POLAR Chemical Transport has a carrying capacity of 8,500 gallons for the transport 

of petro chemical solvents. The tanker is made of aluminum, with a curb weight of 9,010 

pounds. Standard installed tires can be Yokohama RY587 - 11R 22.5 and wheel size is 8.25 x 

22.5 with aluminum hub.4 A chemical transport trailer that is insulated and made of stainless 

steel has a curb weight of about 13,000 pounds.

 

4

“Polar Tank Trailer Inventory Display Page,” Polar Service Centers website. Accessed June 10, 2010. 

http://www.polartank.com/display.php?content=display_trailer&file=261.
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Figure 2-12: Chemical Transport Tanker (Polar Tank)

Source: http://www.polartank.com/display.php?content=display_trailer&file=261

Petroleum Transport Tanker 

The 2010 POLAR petroleum transport 2-axle tanker has a carrying capacity of 9,500 gallons 

and a curb weight of 10,000 pounds. The multi-compartment aluminum is used for transporting 

petroleum from refinery to gas stations. 

Figure 2-13: Petroleum Tanker (Polar Tank)

Source: http://www.senecatank.com/91680001.JPG

Sanitary Food Tanker

The two-axle sanitary food tanker is made of stainless steel and is insulated. The curb weight is 

approximately 10,500.
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Figure 2-14: Sanitary Food Tanker (Polar Tank)

Source: http://www.trucker.com/TrailerDetail.aspx?SID=1983886

Trail King Industries 

Lowboy (TK70HDG)

This two-axle lowboy (hydraulic self-lifting detachable gooseneck) trailer has a 26-foot deck with 

a 17,000-pound curb weight. This series is used for construction applications (e.g., hauling 

construction equipment). The trailer uses 8.25 x 22.5 disc wheels and 255/70R x 22.5 16PR 

radial tires.

Figure 2-15: Lowboy, 2-Axle (Trail King Industries)

Source: http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=3

Lowboy (TK110HDG)

The three-axle lowboy (hydraulic self-lifting detachable gooseneck) trailer has ability to lift above 

or below transport positions for commercial applications. The trailer has a 26-foot deck, steel 

wheels, oak decking, is 102 feet wide with a 22,000-pound curb weight.
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Figure 2-16: Lowboy, 3-Axle (Trail King Industries)

Source: http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=27

Flatbed / Step Deck (TK70ACS) 

The two-axle flatbed (step deck) TK70ACS model has a curb weight of 9,900 pounds with 

standard 8.25 x 22.5 disc wheels and 11R x 22.5 16PR radial tires for commercial applications. 

The flatbed trailer is 48 feet long and 102 feet wide.

Figure 2-17: Flatbed / Step Deck (Trail King Industries)

Source: http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=1

Table 2-3 lists typical retail prices for each of the generic trailer types. The prices listed here 

may fluctuate depending upon on the quantity, timing, and/or other factors during the course of 

an actual sale. 
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Table 2-3: Baseline Trailer Prices

Baseline 

Trailer 

Category

Trailer Types

Curb 

Weight 

(lbs)

New Price

Box Van 13,850 $25,000

Specialized Flatbed 10,600 $29,500

Box Container chassis N/A N/A

Box Reefer 14,200 $52,000-100,000

Specialized Dump $50,000

Specialized Grain 9,000 $31,750

Specialized Flatbed drop deck 10,900 $32,000

Specialized Tanker 10,628 $61,625

Specialized Lowbed 17,725 $49,500

Class 3 through 8 Vocational Trucks

Task 5 addresses class 3 through 8 vocational trucks. These vehicles include service trucks, 

refuse trucks, delivery trucks and other vocational trucks. Four types of trucks were selected for

further exploration: a class 3-6 box truck, a class 3-6 dump truck, a class 4 utility truck, and a 

class 8 refuse truck. The descriptions below offer specific information on each type of truck. 

Baseline costs were collected for each of these types of trucks as well as for a selected type of 

each category. Approximate values are shown in Table 2-4. Retail prices listed here may 

fluctuate depending on the quantity, timing, and/or other factors during the course of an actual 

sale.

Table 2-4: Baseline Vocational Truck and Bus Prices

Category Typical Vehicle Price

Class 3-6 box truck Kenworth T270 $72,000 for truck with automatic transmission. 

$67-68,000 for truck with manual transmission. 

Approximately $12,000 for a 24 foot box body. 

Class 3-6 dump truck Kenworth T270 $72,000 for truck with automatic transmission. 

$67-68,000 for truck with manual transmission. 

For a 16 foot dump body, add about $10-$16K (depending on 

steel vs aluminum). 

Class 4 work truck International CityStar CF500 $40,000 for a new 16,000 lb CF500 excluding body. 

Body with standard lift gate costs about $7,500. 

(Note this truck ceased production 6 months ago, although a 

new version is expected soon)
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Category Typical Vehicle Price

Class 3-6 box truck Kenworth T270 $72,000 for truck with automatic transmission. 

$67-68,000 for truck with manual transmission. 

Approximately $12,000 for a 24 foot box body. 

Class 3-6 dump truck Kenworth T270 $72,000 for truck with automatic transmission. 

$67-68,000 for truck with manual transmission. 

For a 16 foot dump body, add about $10-$16K (depending on 

steel vs aluminum). 

Class 4 work truck International CityStar CF500 $40,000 for a new 16,000 lb CF500 excluding body. 

Body with standard lift gate costs about $7,500. 

(Note this truck ceased production 6 months ago, although a 

new version is expected soon)

Class 8 refuse truck Volvo VHD Series (e.g.

VHD64B200)

Volvo VHD 65BT200 truck retails for about $120,000 

excluding the body. 

Bodies retail for about $70-$90,000 for standard rear packers, 

depending on size and equipment 

$198,000 is a typical price for a new Volvo class 8 refuse 

truck, both cab and chassis, with a 25 yard rear loader refuse 

box, excluding FET. 

Class 3-6 Box Truck

A class 3-6 box truck is a medium-duty truck with a box body that has a gross vehicle weight 

range from 10,001 to 26,000 pounds. A class 6 box truck was selected for further investigation. 

A Kenworth 270 was identified as a sample class 6 box truck. The Kenworth T270 is a two-axle

truck rated at 26,000 GVWR. The chassis is shared with the Kenworth class 6 dump truck. A 24 

foot box body for the class 6 truck adds about $12,000 to the price of the truck. Two 22.5” 

wheels are on the front axle and four 22.5” wheels are on the rear axle. For this medium-duty 

chassis truck, there is not a singlewide tire application available from the manufacturer.5 The 

standard options for this truck also include a PACCAR PX-8 engine, steel frames and steel fuel 

tanks. 6 Optional equipment pertinent to GHG emissions reducing features includes a CARB 

emission reduction drivetrain feature, aluminum wheels, aluminum fuel tanks, aerodynamic 

bumper, and aerodynamic mirrors. 7

 

5 Conversations with Kenworth Truck Dealer: Sales Department, Truck Enterprises, Inc, Harrisonburg, VA. 

6 Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure, http://www.kenworth.com/brochures/T270T370.pdf. 

7 Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure. 
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Figure 2-18: Class 6 Box Truck

Source: Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure, http://www.kenworth.com/newspics/T270.jpg

Class 3-6 Dump Truck

A class 3-6 dump truck is a medium-duty truck with a dump body that has a gross vehicle 

weight range from 10,001 to 26,000 pounds. A class 6 dump truck was selected for further 

investigation. A Kenworth 270 was identified as a sample class 6 dump truck. The Kenworth 

T270 is a two-axle truck rated at 26,000 GVWR. The chassis is the same as that of the class 6 

box truck. The only difference is the body. A 16 foot dump body for the class 6 truck would cost 

about $10,000 - $16,000 in addition to the price of the truck. Two 22.5” wheels are on the front 

axle and four 22.5” wheels are on the rear axle. For this medium-duty chassis truck, there is not 

a singlewide tire application available from the manufacturer.8 The standard options for this 

truck also include a PACCAR PX-8 engine, steel frames and steel fuel tanks. Optional 

equipment pertinent to GHG emissions reducing features includes a CARB emission reduction 

drivetrain feature, aluminum wheels, aluminum fuel tanks, aerodynamic bumper, and 

aerodynamic mirrors. 9

Figure 2-19: Class 6 Dump Truck

Source: https://www.truckhunt.com/resources/images/user/trucks/45ee7c68-a822-4f2e-bfea-245b209af584_medium.jpg

 

8 Conversations with Kenworth Truck Dealer.

9 Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure. 
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Class 4 Work Truck

A class 4 work truck is a medium-duty truck, with a utility body and often features a lift gate or 

bucket that has a gross vehicle weight range from 14,001 to 16,000 pounds. An International 

CityStarTM CF500 was identified as a sample class 4 work truck rated at 16,000 GVWR. Note 

that this truck is no longer in production as of approximately January 2010 but a comparable 

version is expected to be released within the year. A body with a lift gate is standard for a utility 

truck, and would add about $7,500 to the truck price.10 11 The two axle truck has two wheels on 

the front axle and four wheels on the rear axle.

12 13 For this medium-duty chassis truck, there is 

not a singlewide tire application available from the manufacturer. 14 The standard features for 

this truck include a high strength, low alloy steel frame, an International VT 275 engine and 

19.5” wheels.15

Figure 2-20: Class 4 Work Truck

Source: Image of International City Star CF500 

http://www.usedtrucksforsalebyowner.net/image_gd/imagegd_big_inside.php?74257776.jpg

Class 8 Refuse Truck

A class 8 refuse truck is a heavy-duty truck with a refuse body used for trash, waste or garbage 

hauling. The GVWR of the truck is between 33,001-60,000 pounds. A standard refuse truck 

body is usually a rear loader body, but price will vary according to the features.16 A rear loader 

25-32 yard body costs about $70,000-$90,000 in addition to the truck price depending on the 

 

10 Conversation with International Dealer: Sales Department, International Truck Sales, Richmond, VA. 

11 International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure, http://www.navistar.com/Trucks/Trucks/Series/CityStar/CityStar500_600. 

12 Conversation with International Dealer: Sales Department.

13 International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure. 

14 International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure.

15 International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure.

16 Conversation with Volvo VHD Truck Dealer: Sales Department, Colonial Truck Sales. 
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size of the equipment and its features (e.g. an overhead attachment).17 A Volvo VHD 65BT200 

was identified as a sample class 8 refuse truck. The VHD 65BT200 is a three axle truck that has 

two wheels on the front axle and four wheels on each of the rear axles.18 For this heavy-duty 

chassis truck, singlewide tires are included as an option, but are not recommended for use 

because of difficulties entering and exiting landfills.19

Figure 2-21: Class 8 Refuse Truck

Source: http://www.impextrucks.co.uk/img/refuse_collection_wehicle.jpg

Class 7 and 8 buses

Task 6 addresses class 7 and 8 buses. These vehicles include school, commercial and transit 

buses. Two types of buses were selected for further exploration: a class 7 school bus and a 

class 8a transit bus. The descriptions below offer specific information on each type of bus. Table 

2-5 shows baseline vehicle price estimates. Retail prices listed here may fluctuate depending on 

the quantity, timing, and/or other factors during the course of an actual sale.

Table 2-5: Baseline Bus Prices

Category Typical Vehicle Price

Class 7 school bus International CE Series 

Type C bus, 31,000 lbs, 

2010 Emission Standards,

77 passengers.

Bluebird All American Rear 

Engine School Bus, Type D, 

33,000 lbs, 84 passengers.

$78-80,000 for 2010 Virginia Emissions 2010 Standard Bus -

conventional (type C). 

$95,000 for a new 2011 Bluebird All American Rear Engine 

School Bus (type D).

Class 8 transit bus International RE Series Bus $99-$100,000 for 2010 Virginia Standards (up to 37,000 

pounds). 

 

17 Conversation with Volvo VHD Truck Dealer. 

18 Volvo VHD Truck Brochure, http://www.volvotrucks.com/trucks/na/enus/products/vhd_series/vhd/pages/overview.aspx

19 Conversation with Volvo VHD Truck Dealer.
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Class 7 School Bus

A class 7 school bus has a GVWR of between 26,001-33,000 pounds. An International CE 

Series school bus was identified as a sample class 7 school bus. This conventional two axle bus 

has two wheels on the front axle and four wheels on the rear axles. Singlewide tires are not 

allowed as options for school buses in many states due to safety concerns.20 The International 

CE is a 77 passenger bus with a GVWR of 31,000 pounds. Standard options include an 

International MaxForce® 7 or MaxForce® DT engine, full power hydraulic brakes and electric 

entrance door. Optional features include factory-installed air conditioner. 21

Figure 2-22: Class 7 School Bus

Source: http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/uploadedImages/News/Chicago/Images/Business/Bus.jpg

Class 8 Transit Bus

A class 8a transit bus has a GVWR of between 33,001-60,000 pounds. An International RE 

Series Commercial bus was identified as a sample class 8 transit bus. This rear-engine two axle

bus has two wheels on the front axle and four wheels on the rear axle. The International RE is a 

52 passenger bus with a GVWR of 37,000 pounds. 22 Standard options include an International

MaxForce® DT engine, a roof-mounted HVAC system and air brakes. Optional features include 

aluminum wheels. 23

 

20 Conversation with International School Bus Dealer: Sales Department, Kingmor Supply. 

21 International CE Series School Bus Brochure, 

http://www.icbus.com/ICCorp/BusDownloads/School%20Route/CE%20School%20Sell%20Sheet.pdf.. 

22 Conversations with IC Bus, LLC Sales Department.

23 International Re Series Commercial Bus Brochure, 

http://www.icbus.com/ICBus/Buses/Commercial/Overview/Commercial+RE+Series/..
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Figure 2-23: Class 8 Transit Bus

Source: http://www.interstatetransportation.com/buses/3/6/

2.2. Summary of Technologies and Strategies 

The technologies investigated in this report are summarized in Table 2-6. Broadly, they are 

categorized into aerodynamic improvements, rolling resistance improvements, operational 

improvements, idling reduction technologies, engine improvements, transmission and drivetrain 

improvements, weight reduction, electrification, air conditioning improvements, and 

improvements in transport refrigerated unit (TRU) technology. 

Table 2-6: Strategies Investigated in this Report

Improvement Vehicle Class Investigated

Aerodynamic Improvements

Aerodynamic Hoods

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Aerodynamic Mirrors

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Aerocones Trailers

Air Tabs Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Boat Tails and Air Tabs Trailers

Bumper

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Gap Fairings Trailers

Roof Fairings

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Side Fairings Class 7-8 Tractors

Side Skirts

Trailers

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Tractor Gap Fairing Class 7-8 Tractors
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Improvement Vehicle Class Investigated

Rolling Resistance Improvements

Automatic Tire Inflation

Class 7-8 Tractors

Trailers

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Low Rolling Resistance Tires

Class 7-8 Tractors

Trailers

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Single Wide Tires

Class 7-8 Tractors

Trailers

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Operational Improvements

Advanced Driver Training Class 7-8 Tractors

Speed Limiters Class 7-8 Tractors

Idle Reductions

Anti-idle System (i.e., automatic engine stop system)

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems Class 7-8 Tractors

Thermal Storage Systems Class 7-8 Tractors

Engine Recovery Systems Class 7-8 Tractors

Auxiliary Power Units

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Direct fired heaters

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Fuel Cell APUs Class 7-8 Tractors

Truck Stop Electrification Class 7-8 Tractors

Engine Improvements

Electronic Fans Class 7-8 Tractors

Integrated Starter/Alternator 

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Low Friction Engine Lube

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Turbo compounding Class 7-8 Tractors
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Improvement Vehicle Class Investigated

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Variable Geometry Turbo

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Variable Valve Actuation

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Transmission and Drivetrain Improvements

Early Torque Converter Lockup

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Hybrid Powertrain

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Low-Friction Drivetrain Lube

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Rankine Bottoming Cycle

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Weight Reduction

Aluminum Air Tanks Class 7-8 Tractors

Aluminum Axle Hubs Class 7-8 Tractors

Aluminum Wheelset

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Light Weight Brake Drums

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Lightweight Cab Components

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Lightweight Suspension System Class 7-8 Tractors

Reduced Number of Batteries Class 7-8 Tractors

Tare Weight Reduction via Al structural components Trailers

Tare Weight Reduction via Al wheels Trailers
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Improvement Vehicle Class Investigated

Electrification

Accessory Electrification (Power Steering, Water Pumps, Fans, etc.) Class 7-8 Tractors

Air Conditioning

Low Power Draw A/C

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Use of Alternative Refrigerants

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Use of highly reflective structural materials

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Use of Leakage-Reducing Components

Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Reefer Improvements

Alternative Refrigerants Trailers

Low power draw A/C Trailers

Advanced Electrical TRU Trailers

Use of cryogenic CO2 units Trailers

Use of highly reflective structural materials Trailers

Use of leakage-reducing components Trailers

The remainder of Section 2 provides an overview for each of these technologies. It is important 

to note that the combinations of class, vehicle application, and technologies researched here do 

not reflect every available combination, as it would be impractical to try and identify every 

combination here. Fleet owners and operators are left to decide which technology works best 

for their application. Also, some strategies that appear in the list for Class 7-8 Tractors were 

found to not be applicable in practice. Those were not investigated further. 

An overview of the findings of the research for each technology investigated is summarized in 

Section 3. 

2.3. Aerodynamic improvements

Aerodynamic Hoods

Technology Definition 

Truck manufacturers offer aerodynamic models that include a streamlined front profile and 

sloped hood. A more aerodynamic hood and cab design can significantly improve the 

aerodynamics of the vehicle and reduce drag. Aerodynamic hoods are usually one component 

in an overall aerodynamic design that includes the bumper, mirrors, headlights and other cab 
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features. Significant research, including wind tunnel testing, is usually required to design an 

aerodynamic cab and associated hood design. 

Availability 

Most aerodynamic hoods are manufactured by outside suppliers. Aerodynamic hoods are 

made of molded composites with inexpensive molded compounds. Numerous suppliers are 

available who can produce custom hoods designed to manufacturer specifications. Some 

manufacturers also make some of their own hoods.

Vehicle Application

Aerodynamic hoods can be installed on single-unit trucks and truck tractors. They can be used 

on sleeper cabs, day cabs, and on all cab sizes. An aerodynamic hood is customized to a 

specific truck cab design to achieve superior aerodynamic performance. 

Aerodynamic hoods may not be appropriate for some vocational trucks. The purpose for which 

a vehicle is designed also affects the extent to which it can incorporate certain aerodynamic 

features. For instance, the radiator in a vocational truck is larger than that on a standard 

highway truck because of the work required from the vehicle. Having a larger radiator makes it 

more difficult to design an aerodynamic hood with a low sloping profile for a vocational truck. A 

vocational truck needs more ground clearance and has larger axles, all affecting the 

aerodynamic features. The vocational truck environment involves more dust and thus requires 

greater filtration of intake air. Many vocational vehicles with the larger dual 15 inch canisters on 

their sides are meeting the engine’s need for greater air filtration, although this may not be 

aerodynamic.

The material that tends to be used in vocational products (with non aerodynamic hoods) is more 

durable and has a higher manufacturing cost. The vocational truck environment tends to cause 

more damage to truck hoods resulting in more vocational hoods designed such that

components can be replaced instead of forcing replacement of the entire hood. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

In general, there would not be a significant difference in piece cost between the shape of an 

aerodynamic hood and a non-aerodynamic hood. A manufacturer could choose to make the 

shell of the hood in different designs for minimal cost. Most of the cost for a new aerodynamic 

design is associated with developing and testing the new design. Once this R&D is conducted, 

there is little difference in manufacturing cost between producing a new hood shape as 

compared to the old less aerodynamic hood shape.

One cost element that would be different from a standard non-aerodynamic hood would be the 

styled headlamp that would be required for an aerodynamic design. This can require a multimillion dollar investment program for a truck manufacturer. Engineering testing and tooling 

costs are large for styled headlamps. It may be difficult to use off-the-shelf components to 

create such a styled headlight. Due to the numerous components required for stylized 

headlights, there is typically a long lead time for this element of approximately 30 – 48 months.
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Aerodynamic Mirrors 

Technology Definition 

An aerodynamic mirror typically has a curved housing and a minimal number of arms. The 

arms have an aero shape with curved upper and lower surfaces. An aerodynamic mirror might 

also have a curved back. Mirrors are typically designed and optimized to improve the flow of air 

as it moves off of the vehicle and in free stream around the vehicle. Each cab design has a

unique air flow profile which can require different aerodynamic mirrors for optimal effect. 

Availability 

The design of the aerodynamic mirror shell is dictated by the truck manufacturer and is typically 

manufactured by a supplier. Truck-Lite® is a major manufacturer of a number of different 

mirrors, including the aerodynamic mirror for Freightliner’s Cascadia® model. There are 

numerous suppliers who are available to manufacture custom mirror designs for truck makers.

Vehicle Application

Aerodynamic mirrors can be installed on single-unit trucks and truck tractors. They can be used 

on sleeper cabs, day cabs, and on all cab sizes. An aerodynamic mirror is usually customized 

to the specific cab and hood design to achieve the best results.

Vocational truck mirrors are not typically optimized for the cab. Construction sites and other 

vocational truck environments tend to cause mirror damage, requiring mirrors to be replaced. 

Truck fleets thus find it is desirable to use a standard mirror component that can be replaced 

easily.

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

An aerodynamic mirror typically has four way mirror control and the arm structure is more 

robust. Because of the minimal number of arms, the strength and cost of the arms tends to be 

greater. An aero mirror will typically include boots or special breakaway features. Another 

difference is that on a standard mirror only the mirror glass rotates while the arms remained in a 

fixed position, while on an aero mirror the whole assembly turns. These factors tend to increase 

cost.

AeroConesTM

Technology Definition 

An AeroConeTM is used to reduce aerodynamic drag between the tractor and trailer. It can also 

be used to reduce drag on the front of the cargo compartment of straight trucks. By alleviating 

crosswinds, an AeroCone improves vehicle stability, road safety and reduces fuel consumption. 

Availability 

Trailer aerodynamic devices are offered by a few companies today, for example the AeroCone 

is available from ATD Dynamics, and the Nose Cone® is currently marketed by the FitzGerald 

Corporation of California.
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Vehicle Application

The AeroCone can be installed on standard dry van trailers or standard van straight trucks. 

Refrigerated tanks block installation on a reefer truck. Aerodynamic tractor models generally 

have tractor fairings, which reduce the benefit of the AeroCone. 

AirtabsTM

Technology Definition 

AirtabsTM are patented vortex generators that can be installed on a truck to reduce drag. The 

Airtab is an aerodynamic surface, consisting of a small wishbone shaped ridge that creates a 

vortex. Air tabs are installed at the back of tractors, trailers or straight trucks to improve the 

aerodynamics on the vehicle. Each Airtab creates two tight swirls of air or vortices that combine 

to reduce the suction and drag at the rear of vehicles traveling at speeds above approximately 

35 mph. 

Vehicle Application

Airtabs enhance aerodynamic performance equally well on cube vans, straight trucks, 

expeditors, buses, utility trailers, faired "bob tail" tractors, flat beds and tankers. The results may 

vary somewhat with vehicle type.

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

The length of the vehicle does not affect price. Taller vehicles, such as moving trucks, would 

have a somewhat higher installation cost.

Boat Tails

Technology Definition 

A boat tail, sometimes called a trailer tail, is a tapering protrusion mounted on the rear of a truck

or trailer to reduce aerodynamic drag. There are a number of different boat tail designs. 

Availability 

There are a variety of different manufacturers that make boat tails. These include Aerodynamic 

Trailer Systems, AeroVolution, ATS, Transtex and Solus.

Vehicle Application

Boat tails can be installed on standard dry van trailers or refrigerated vans. Some boat tail 

products are only applicable to swing door trailers because the mounting brackets require a 

swing door plane. 
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Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Trailer tails should last the life of the vehicle or 5 to 10 years. Some may require minor repairs 

because of impacts.

24

Aerodynamic Bumpers

Technology Definition 

An aerodynamic bumper typically replaces traditional chrome bumpers found on tractors with a 

lighter weight material and a design that is integrated with the hood and fenders. Aerodynamic 

bumpers are typically injection molded and improve the total drag of the tractor; consideration 

must be given to not restricting airflow to the engine when designing the bumper. 

Availability 

There are a number of truck bumper suppliers and manufacturers. Hendrickson is one of the 

largest bumper manufacturers, and they make a number of different aerodynamic bumpers for 

different truck tractor models. Aerodynamic bumpers are usually designed by truck OEM’s and 

sourced out to a supplier

Vehicle Application

Aerodynamic bumpers can be installed on sleeper cabs, day cabs, and on all cab sizes.

Tractor Gap Fairing

Technology Definition 

A tractor gap fairing, also known as a cab extender or gap seal, reduces the gap between the 

tractor and the trailer, reducing aerodynamic drag and improving the fuel economy of the 

vehicle. 

Availability 

Makers of tractor gap fairings include Airodyne Industries and Laydon Composites although 

there are numerous suppliers. Truck manufacturers sometimes contract with a range of 

different suppliers for custom gap seals that are included as standard components on 

aerodynamic truck models. 

Vehicle Application

Tractor gap fairings can be installed on either a sleeper cab or a day cab, and on all cab sizes.

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

The cost of the gap fairing will vary depending on the height of the tractor. For instance, a taller 

sleeper cab will require a taller gap fairing, with the cost difference being related to the 

additional material that is required.

 

24 Phone conversation with truck aerodynamics manufacturer representative.
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Roof Fairings

Technology Definition 

A roof fairing extends over the cab of a tractor and has enclosed sides. Roof fairings are 

designed to improve the flow of air over and around a tractor-trailer, reducing aerodynamic drag 

and increasing fuel efficiency.

Some roof fairing designs are collapsible to allow for the fairing to be taken down when the 

tractor is operated without an attached trailer. 

Availability 

Major suppliers of roof fairings include Airodyne Industries and Laydon Composites. Roof 

fairings can be purchased as a retrofit, but truck manufacturers also contract with a number of 

different suppliers to manufacture roof fairings for aerodynamic models where the roof fairing 

comes as a standard integrated component. 

Vehicle Application

Roof fairings can be installed on sleeper cabs or day cabs, and on most cab sizes, although 

they would not be needed on a high-roof sleeper cab, since the tall roof functions as a fairing. 

Aerodynamic truck models may come with roof fairings as standard equipment. In addition, roof 

fairings would not be purchased for a tractor hauling a flatbed trailer, since this would have a 

negative impact on the aerodynamics of this vehicle configuration.

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

In some cases, a company that orders roof fairings for a new vehicle may have brackets 

installed on the vehicle at the factory, but have the fairings shipped separately and installed by 

the dealer. The extra height of fairings can cause problems with clearances during transit in 

some cases. 

Tractor Side Fairings

Technology Definition 

Tractor side fairings, also known as cab fairings, extend downward from the base of the cab 

between the wheels of the tractor, covering the open space and streamlining the fuel tank(s). 

Most cab side fairings have steps to reach the cab molded directly into the fairing. In some 

cases, the fairing may consist of a single component that is a wheel to wheel fairing. In other 

cases, the side fairing consists of two components, a partial side fairing and a fuel tank fairing. 

Tractor side fairings can be used on both day cabs and sleeper cabs. 

Availability 

Makers of side fairings include Airodyne Industries and Laydon Composites, although there are 

numerous suppliers. Truck manufacturers often contract with suppliers for custom fairings that 

are included as standard components of aerodynamic truck models. 
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Vehicle Application

Tractor side fairings can be installed on either a sleeper cab or a day cab, and on all cab sizes. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

The cost of the side fairing will vary depending on the size of the truck tractor. For instance, a 

truck with a longer wheelbase, such as sleeper cab, will require a longer and typically more 

expensive fairing than a day cab.

Trailer Side Skirts

Technology Definition 

Trailer side skirts, or trailer fairings, extend down from the bottom of the trailer to cover part of 

the open space between the tractor and the rear wheels. These fairings improve airflow around 

the trailer and reduce drag. 

Availability 

Trailer side skirts are widely available from a number of different companies, including: ATD 

Dynamics, Freight Wing, Solus, Carrier Transicold, Fleet Engineers, Laydon Composites, Ridge 

Corp., GreenWing, Silver Eagle, Transtex and Utility Trailer.

Vehicle Application

Trailer side skirts can be installed on dry van and refrigerated trailers, and are being testing on 

flatbed applications. Side skirts can also be installed on tanker trucks, but they have achieved 

limited penetration in this market.

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Side fairings are more expensive on trailers with a higher deck. Side fairings for tanker trucks

can be slightly more expensive, primarily due to additional costs for mounting.

Trailer Gap Fairings

Technology Definition 

A trailer gap fairing performs the same function as a tractor gap fairing, the difference being a 

trailer gap fairing is installed on a trailer while the tractor gap fairing is installed on the tractor. 

Trailer gap fairings, also known as gap reducers, are usually rounded additions to the sides 

and/or top of the front of the trailer that reduce the gap between the tractor and trailer. 

Availability 

Trailer gap fairings are available from a number of different suppliers. Firms that produce 

SmartWay verified gap reducers include Carrier Transicold, FreightWing, Laydon Composites 

and Nosecone.

Vehicle Application

Trailer gap fairings can be installed on standard dry van and refrigerated trailers. 
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2.4. Rolling resistance improvements

Automatic Tire Inflation (ATI)

Technology Definition 

With properly inflated tires, tire rolling resistance is decreased and fuel use is reduced 

compared to under-inflation. Automatic tire inflation systems (ATI) monitor and continually adjust 

the level of pressurized air in tires, maintaining proper tire inflation automatically, even while the 

truck is moving. The Meritor Tire Inflation System by Pressure Systems International uses the 

vehicle’s air-brake compressor to supply air to all of the tires. Air from the existing trailer air 

supply is routed to a control box, then into each axle. The axles act as conduits to distribute air 

through rotary union assemblies at the spindle ends, which then distribute air to each tire as 

needed.25 Another system uses self-contained compressors mounted on each hub that are 

powered by the rolling motion of the wheels. Once an ATI system is installed, it should not 

require any special attention from the driver.26

Availability 

Leading brands for automatic tire inflation systems include Pressure Systems International

(Meritor Tire Inflation System; Meritor Tire Inflation System with ThermALERTTM) and 

Hendrickson (TIREMAAX® Electronic Controller; TIREMAAX® Constant Pressure).

Vehicle Application

The application and price information discussed below is based on research acquired from 

Pressure Systems International (PSI) Meritor tire inflation systems.27

 Class 8 Long-Haul Trailers. For long haul trucking, PSI’s inflation system is only 

available for the trailer, (and dollies and chassis) only. [For a two-axle trailer, the cost 

is approximately $750 if system is installed at manufacturing level. For labor, add 

another $200 if system is added to an existing trailer as a retrofit truck. (The cost is 

around $550 to be added to a single axle trailer or dollies.) In either case a return on 

investment, with all things considered, is reported to be less than one year and 

typically about 8 months.].

 Vocational Trucks (e.g., service trucks, refuse trucks, delivery trucks, etc.). 

Service trucks that have air brake systems can be fitted with external ATI. 

 Urban/Transit Buses. Buses of all types can also be fitted with external ATI typically 

for the steer tires, drive tires, and a tag (non-drive) axle tires. These types of systems 

would not require the governing of engines or the deflation feature. [Therefore, these 

systems for six wheel end positions would cost approximately $1000 to $1,250 price 

 

25 “Literature,” Pressure Systems International website. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.psi-atis.com/literature.htm. 

26 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies – Automatic Tire Inflation Systems,” SmartWay Transport Partnership. 

Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/tireinflate.pdf. 

27 Interviews with Frank Sonzala, Executive VP of Sales and Marketing, Pressure Systems International, 2010.
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range. Monitoring systems would run $650 to $900 per vehicle if that type of system 

is used.]

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Prices vary depending on the number of axles. For a two axle trailer, one kit will handle all 8 

tires on a tandem dual axle system or all 4 tires on wide-base single tire system, the addition of 

the ThermALERT option would increase the cost. [See “Vehicle Application” section above.]

The wear part of PSI’s ATI is the “Through-T” component. The price of a replacement ThroughT is in the range of $25 if purchased from a parts sales house; it does not require special tools 

to install and can be installed in approximately 15 minutes. The Through-T is the rotary 

connection that delivers stationary air from the spindle end of axle to rotating tires through the 

hoses. The Through-T component’s lifespan has been tested to be up to 1 million miles, but in 

reality, the component typically gets about 500K-750K miles of wear life.28

Low-Rolling Resistance Tires

Technology Definition 

Tire rolling resistance refers to a frictional effect associated with the contact of the tread of the 

tire with the road surface, and the flexing of the tread. Reduction of rolling resistance can be 

accomplished through the use of new materials, such as the combination of silica and synthetic 

elastomer.

Given that many trucks have a large number of tires in contact with the road (e.g., 18 wheels), 

rolling resistance can have a significant effect on efficiency. Thus, tire rolling resistance is an 

important component of the total engine power demand on a truck. Rolling resistance can be 

reduced by avoiding under-inflation of existing tires (to reduce unnecessary flexing), substituting 

one wide-tire for a pair of dual tires (leading to a net reduction in total tread area, sidewall 

flexing, or both), use of alternative tire materials to reduce rolling resistance. To the extent that 

rolling resistance can be reduced, total engine power demand is also reduced. This, in turn, 

leads to reductions in fuel use and exhaust CO2 emission from the truck.29

Tire manufacturers seek to reduce the rolling resistance in order to improve fuel economy.30

There are 2 recognized categories of Low Rolling Resistance Tires: Single Wide-base (see 

below for further discussion about this technology) and Low Rolling Resistance Dual Tires.31 A 

 

28 Interviews with Frank Sonzala, Executive VP of Sales and Marketing, Pressure Systems International, 2010.

29 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, 

October 4, 2007.

30 California Energy Commission. “Tires and Fuel Efficiency.” June 2006. http://www.energy.ca.gov/2006publications/CEC-600-

2006-003/CEC-600-2006-003-FS.PDF

31

“Low Rolling Resistance Tires,” SmartWay Finance Center Technology website. Accessed June 10, 2010. 

http://www.smartwayfinancecenter.com/technology.cfm?productTypeID=4&productTypeCategoryID=9.
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well designed wide-base single tire has lower rolling resistance than traditional dual tires. 

Manufacturers also offer low rolling resistance versions of dual tires.32

Availability

Leading brands for low-rolling resistance tires (common steer, drive, and trailer models) are 

shown in Table 2-7.

Table 2-7: Low Rolling Resistance Tire Types

Brand Street Drive Trailer

Bridgestone

R287A, R280, R250F, 

R260F, R287

M720, Greatec R195, Greatec Trailer, 

Greatec R125, R197, S197

BF Goodrich ST244 DR 444 TR144 

Continental

HSL-2 (replaces HSL), HSR1 

ECO Plus, HSR2 ECO Plus

HDL ECO Plus, HDL2 DL 

ECO Plus, HDR1 ECO Plus, 

HSR1 ECO Plus, HSR2 ECO 

Plus

HTL ECO Plus, HTL1

Double Coin N/A FD405 FT105

Dunlop Tire SP384 FM SP456 FM SP193 FM

Firestone FS590 PLUS, FS507 FD662 FT455 PLUS

General S371, S581 D660, S371, S581 ST250

Goodyear

G395 LHS Fuel Max, G399 

Fuel Max, G662 Fuel Max

G305 LHD Fuel Max, G392 

SSD, G305 Fuel Max AT

G316 LHT Fuel Max, G316 

Fuel Max DuraSeal

Michelin

XZA3, XZA2, XZA1+, XZE, 

XZE2, XZA2 Energy,

XDA2+ Energy, XDA Energy, 

XDA3, X-One XDA, X-One 

XDN2, XOne XDA Energy, 

XDE2+, XDN2, XDE M/S

XTA Energy, XT1, X-One 

XTA, X-ONE XTE, XTE

Toyo Tires M137, M154 M657 M127

Yokohama RY617, 103ZR, 101ZL 703ZL, TY517mc2 RY587mc2, RY587

Hankook AL07+, AL11 Z35a, DL11 TL01 

Vehicle Application

Class 8 combination Line-Haul Tractor-Trailers, including day cabs and mid- and full-size 

sleeper cabs. 

 

32 NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX, LLC. Reducing Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel 

Consumption and CO2 Emissions, October 2009. http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final200910.pdf.
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

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ICF International 35 US Environmental Protection Agency

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Single Wide (Wide-Base) Tires

Technology Definition 

Single-wide tires are used by a number of carriers and private fleets on combination vehicles to 

reduce rolling resistance. The benefits of reducing rolling resistance are more substantial on 

combination vehicles, and single-wide tires are not currently available for single-unit trucks. 33 A 

single wide-base tire with an aluminum rim is lighter than two standard tires and wheels.34

Combination trucks usually have two sets of dual tires at each end of an axle. Dual tires are 

heavy and also produce high rolling resistance. Single wide-base tires, which are commercially 

available products, can replace these dual tires in most applications. Wide-base tires that have 

a combined lower weight (e.g., there are only two sidewalls for one tire, versus four sidewalls for 

two tires) and produce lower rolling resistance reduce energy use. This best practice is suitable 

for combination trucks that have van trailers, which are the majority of the total truck fleet. By 

using single instead of dual tires, there is a need for increased attention to tire inflation pressure 

for safety reasons.

35

Single-wide tires have mainly been confined to niche markets and installed on combination 

vehicles. For vehicles that weigh-out, they can have the added benefit of reducing the truck’s 

tare weight and increasing the payload that can be carried. Tare weight reduction is important in 

making the business case for investing in these tires and their wheels.36

Availability 

Leading brands for Single Wide Tires include Michelin, Goodyear, and Bridgestone. These are 

available from a variety of tire manufacturers and retailers. Retailers may specialize by vehicle 

application or type. Michelin makes the X-One® single wide tire for trucks. Goodyear makes a 

wide based tire called the Super Single. Bridgestone also makes a wide based tire.

Vehicle Application

Class 8 combination Line-Haul Tractor-Trailers, including day cabs and mid- and full-size 

sleeper cabs. 

Traditional dual tires are replaced with one single wide tire and aluminum wheel, and can be 

applied to all tractor and trailer tire positions except for the steer tires.37 The new generation of 

wide-base tires has a section width of up to 17.5 inches, for a typical tandem axle combination 

 

33 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense 

Fund, December 2009.

34 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies –Single Wide-Based Tires,” SmartWay Transport Partnership. Accessed June 

10, 2010. http://www.epa.gov/smartway/transport/documents/tech/supersingles.pdf.

35 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, 

October 4, 2007.

36 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense 

Fund, December 2009.

37 US EPA and Community Development Transportation Lending Service, SmartWay Clean Diesel Financing loan application 

form. http://www.ctaa.org/webmodules/webarticles/articlefiles/SmartWay_Brochure_and_Application.pdf.
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ICF International 36 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

truck these tires comply with pavement weight laws in all 50 states. For some non-tandem axle 

combination trucks, wide-base tires may not comply with "inch-width" laws in certain states.38

Note that single-wide tires are not currently manufactured for single-unit trucks or buses. 

2.5. Operational improvements

Advanced Driver Training

Technology Definition 

Courses on fuel efficiency teach fleet managers and drivers fuel saving techniques such as:

 using cruise control; 

 coasting; 

 block-shifting; 

 braking and accelerating smoothly and gradually; 

 progressive shifting; 

 limiting unnecessary truck idling; 

 starting out in a gear that does not require use of the throttle when releasing the clutch; 

 limiting unnecessary shifting; 

 driving at the lowest engine speed possible; and

 reducing parasitic energy losses by limiting the use of accessories.39 

There are numerous training options: 

 Subscription with lessons: in this type of training, a company may pay a monthly 

subscription fee to another company, such as Instructional Technologies, that offers 

many types of electronic training courses, including fuel efficiency courses.40

 High-Level Training without a Subscription: a trucking company may also develop an 

internal training program where a trainer meets individually with drivers to teach fuel 

efficiency techniques and to monitor driver performance.41

 Classroom Lessons: A trucking company may require its drivers to take a course 

through a vocational school or for-profit training organization that teaches drivers fuelsaving techniques. 

 

38 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies –Single Wide-Based Tires.”

http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/supersingles.pdf

39 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies Drivers Training.” http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/drivertraining.pdf. 

40 Conversation with Jim Voorhees, Instructional Technologies.

41 Environmental Awareness and Outreach Measures to Reduce GHG Emissions From the Trucking Sector, L-P Tardif & 

Associates Inc., August, 1999.
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

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ICF International 37 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Availability 

Training can be provided by employers, vocational schools, and for-profit training organizations.

Vehicle Application

Driver training courses are most often utilized by trucking fleets with Class 8 vehicles. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Estimates vary based on the type of training, number of hours of driver time required and wage 

rates. 

Speed Limiter

Technology Definition 

A maximum vehicle speed can be pre-programmed into the engine’s electronic control unit.42

The American Trucking Association estimates that approximately 77 percent of its members 

have speed limiters set at 68 mph or lower.43 Programming is most often done by the engine 

manufacturer.

Availability 

Most engines are capable of being programmed for a maximum speed.44

Vehicle Application

A speed limit can be pre-programmed for Class 8 tractor trailer trucks, and is most likely 

applicable to other vehicle classes as well. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Although the programming is most often done by the engine manufacturer, costs may arise to 

truck owners if the speed needs to be adjusted after the vehicle is purchased. The maximum 

speed can be adjusted at a dealer and involves connecting to the engine’s electronic control unit 

to a computer using proprietary software and reprogramming the engine software.45

 

42 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 

43 “Truckers Back a National 65-mph Speed Limit,” U.S. News and World Report, March 26, 2008. 

44 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association.

45 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association.
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ICF International 38 US Environmental Protection Agency

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2.6. Idling reduction technologies

Anti-idle System (a.k.a., Automatic Engine Stop System)

Technology Definition 

Truck engines can be pre-programmed to shut off after a certain amount of time spent idling. 

46,47 The idling time can be specified when ordering a truck.48

Availability 

All new Class 8 truck engines can be pre-programmed.49,50 For example, this system is part of 

the Cummins 2007 engine.51 However, the use rate for this technology is small.52

Vehicle Application

An automatic engine stop system can be pre-programmed for Class 8 tractor trailer trucks. 

Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems

Technology Definition 

Automatic engine start/stop systems are used to start and stop the truck engine automatically to 

maintain oil temperature, a specified cab temperature, and/or to maintain battery voltage. 

Drivers typically activate the system while resting and program a desired temperature range; the 

engine will start and shut off automatically in order to operate the heating or air conditioning 

systems and maintain the desired temperature range.53

Figure 2-24: Automatic Start/Stop System

Source: http://groups.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis525/term/f00/ian/Optimized%20Idle.htm

 

46 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association.

47 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.

48 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 

49 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association.

50 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.

51 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 

52 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association.

53 ICF International, Industry Options for Improving Ground Freight Fuel Efficiency, Prepared for EPA, 2002 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Description of Technologies

ICF International 39 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Availability 

Detroit Diesel currently offers an automatic engine start/stop system.54 Cummins previously 

offered the ICON Idle Control System, however, they are currently working to develop a new 

system. 55,56 As part of this development phase, they are developing an engine that further 

minimizes bearing wear due to frequent start/stops of the engine.57

Vehicle Application

This technology is most often used on Class 8 sleeper cabs.58

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

There are additional costs for programming the engine computer that are incurred from the use 

of technology. Volume discounts are available for purchases of 10 units or more.59 Installation 

costs will vary depending on the complexity of the installation.60 

Thermal Storage Systems 

Technology Definition 

Thermal storage units provide cooling to the bunk of a truck’s cab without using any fuel or 

creating any emissions.61 It serves as an alternative to diesel fueled APUs. The unit charges 

while you drive and is considered fully charged in approximately 4 to 6 hours and then can 

provide up to 10 hours of cooling off of one charge while the engine is off.62,63 While driving, a 

thermal storage core made of patented graphite/water matrix is frozen to 12 degrees Fahrenheit 

by an electric refrigeration compressor driven by the truck’s standard electrical system. Once 

the truck is parked and the engine is off, a high-efficiency pump circulates coolant through the 

storage core to a heat exchanger in the air handling system. Four fans then blow cool air 

through the heat-exchanger directly into the bunk. The cold storage unit mounts to the truck’s 

rail frame and the in-cab air handler delivers chilled air to the bunk.64 Note that a Hybrid Blue 

Cool Truck thermal storage system is now available; it operates similarly to the Blue Cool Truck 

thermal storage unit but also includes shore power functionality.

 

54 Conversation with John Beavers, Western Branch Diesel.

55 ICF International, Industry Options for Improving Ground Freight Fuel Efficiency, Prepared for EPA, 2002.. 

56 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.

57 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.

58 Detroit Diesel. 

59 Conversation with John Beavers, Western Branch Diesel.

60 Detroit Diesel.

61 Webasto Blue Cool Truck Product Brochure, http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_aircon.html. 

62Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition 

https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf

63 www.webastoshowroom.com/bluecooltruck/.../Webasto_BlueCool_Hybrid_Fact_Sheet_Final.doc

64 Webasto Blue Cool Truck Product Brochure, http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_aircon.html.
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Availability 

Webasto manufactures the Blue Cool Truck thermal storage unit. No other manufacturers have 

been identified. 

Vehicle Application 

Thermal storage units, such as the Blue Cool Truck, are designed for use by heavy duty trucks, 

not for medium duty trucks.65

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

There are no expected operations/maintenance costs for thermal storage units, such as the 

Blue Cool Truck. Since there are very few moving parts, once installed, there should be no 

expected operations/maintenance costs for 3-5 years.66 Note that the Blue Cool Truck Hybrid 

System costs approximately $2,000 more than the standard Blue Cool Truck unit and includes 

shore power functionality.

Figure 2-25: Thermal Storage Unit

Source: Blue Cool Truck Image, 

http://www.smartwayfinancecenter.com/images/vendorImages/vendor_307244/product_26/C5_Truck_Prod_Circle_300rg

b.jpg

Engine Recovery Systems (ERS)

Technology Definition 

An engine recovery system keeps a cab warm while at rest without burning fuel by enabling an 

existing vehicle heater to operate with the engine off. The coolant in a warm engine contains 

considerable amounts of stored heat energy. An ERS recovers this energy to keep the vehicle 

interior warm without the need to idle the engine. By continuing the circulation of the hot coolant 

through the cab heater with the engine off, the system recovers this heat for useful purposes, it 

 

65 Conversation with Josh Lucas, Webasto, May 19, 2010

66 Conversation with Josh Lucas, Webasto, May 19, 2010.
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

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is estimated that the Authotherm® ERS will keep a Class 7 or 8 truck warm for 3-4 hours.

67 The 

system functions automatically and shuts off when the coolant temperature drops to 95 degrees 

Fahrenheit. 68

Availability 

Autotherm® Systems manufactures an engine recovery system – Autotherm T-2500. 

Vehicle Application 

Engine recovery systems can be used for medium and heavy duty trucks. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

There are no maintenance costs for the unit beyond installation.69

Figure 2-26: Engine Recovery System

Source: http://www.autothermusa.com/company.html

Auxiliary Power Units (APUs)

Technology Definition 

APUs are generally mounted externally on the truck cab. An APU typically consists of a small 

combustion engine and generator combination that can provide power to the truck when the 

main engine is shut off. Electricity from an APU can be used to power heating, air conditioning, 

and other electrical accessories for the cab and sleeper.70 Non-traditional electric battery-

 

67 http://autothermusa.com/wordpress/no-engin-idle-facts/

68 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition 

https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf

69 Conversation with Autotherm Sales Department, May 5, 2010

70 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies – Idle Reduction.” http://www.epa.gov/smartway/transport/documents/carrierstrategy-docs/apu.pdf .
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

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operated APUs are also available. Fuel cell APUs are currently in the research phase, but are 

expected to be offered by 2012.71

Figure 2-27: APUs

 

Source: Cascade Sierra Solutions. “Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions.” 2008 Fall Edition.

Availability 

Examples of companies that offer APU systems include: Pony Pack®, Inc., RigMaster, and 

Thermo King. Glacier Bay Inc., Thermo King, Idle Free® and others offer an electric batteryoperated APU; Delphi is developing a fuel cell APU. Some APUs may be sold directly from the 

APU manufacturer, but most APUs are sold through retailers. 

Vehicle Application

Industry interviews indicate that APUs are most often installed on Class 8 sleeper cabs, but may 

be installed on day cabs. APUs are not generally installed on Class 5 box trucks or buses. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Non-traditional electric battery-driven systems are available and slightly cheaper than dieselpowered APUs. Costs associated with APUs include: capital and installation, and may include 

warranty costs. Large volume discounts are common.

Direct Fired Heaters

Technology Definition 

Direct fired heaters serve as climate control systems that do not rely upon either the large truck 

engine or small diesel engine powered units to supply energy for heating, which reduces fuel 

consumption and GHG emissions.

72

 

A direct fired heater is sometimes referred to as a fuel operated heater, a bunk heater or an air 

heater. There are several categories of heaters, including preheated engine coolant heaters and 

in-cab air heaters. A preheated engine coolant heater is used to warm the cab before the engine 

 

71 “Delphi truck fuel-cell APU to hit road in 2012,” SAE International. May 12, 2010. Accessed June 10, 2010. 

http://www.sae.org/mags/AEI/8222

72 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition 

https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf
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is started to eliminate cold starts and provide engine pre-heat. An in-cab air heater provides

immediate heat and offers capacity to heat a cab overnight while the driver sleeps.73 The 

preheated engine coolant heater is often less expensive than the in-cab air heater, but offers 

less capacity. Some manufacturers offer combination units which combine the pre-heating and 

in-cab heating functions. 

Figure 2-28: Direct Fired Heater

Source: How an Air Heater Works, Espar, http://www.espar.com/html/products/technology_air.html

The primary focus for this report is in-cab air heaters. A direct fired air heater uses a small 

combustion flame to supply heat through a heat exchanger. When the heater is turned on 

(without the engine on), a burner motor starts and a blower unit draws combustion air into a 

heat exchanger. Simultaneously, fuel is drawn from the truck’s fuel tank – generating a fuel-air 

mixture that ignites. A flame is formed and hot combustion gases are circulated through the heat 

exchanger. A hot air fan draws in room or fresh air and the heat of the combustion gases is 

then transferred by the heat exchanger to the hot air. Warm air then flows through the cab. 74

Availability 

There are many models of direct fire heaters. Some manufacturers include Espar Heater 

Systems, and Webasto Thermosystems. Each company manufactures units suitable for class 3-

8 vehicles including long-haul trucks and school buses. Some manufacturers also offer 

combination units that include functionality for pre-engine heating and in-cab heating. For 

instance, Webasto’s Tandem 717 combines the engine pre-heating function of the TSL 17 with 

 

73 Webasto Product Brochure: Engine pre-heating, in-cab heating and bunk cooling. 

http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_heaters.html.

74 How an Air Heater Works, Espar, http://www.espar.com/html/products/technology_air.html. 
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the in-cab heater Air Top 2000 ST.

75 These combination units are more expensive than single 

units. 

Vehicle Application 

Most direct fire heaters are applicable to class 3-8 vehicles. Some units, such as a direct fire 

combination unit with an engine pre-heater, are targeted more for full-size sleeper cabs due to 

their capacity. Nonetheless, the single-unit direct fire heaters are appropriate for use in any 

vehicle type for class 3-8. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Notable discounts, taxes, fees or applicable cost factors are not available. 

Fuel Cell APU

Technology Definition

It is expected that the first vehicle to be equipped with a fuel cell in production, although not for 

main propulsion power, is likely to be a Class 8 tractor-trailer truck. A number of companies 

including: Delphi, Protonex, Boeing, and others are working to develop a fuel cell APU. Delphi

is working on a solid-oxide fuel cell (SOFC) that operates on multiple types of fuel.76 Mounted 

behind the fairings, the SOFC will start up and power lighting and other accessories as well as 

heat provide for sleeper cab warmth in winter and electricity for sleeper cab air-conditioning in 

warm weather. The truck's diesel engine will not need to run for those purposes.

The Delphi SOFC, which produces nearly zero emissions, has a fuel consumption of 0.13 gal/hr

at no load and about 0.2 gal/hr in typical operation. That's at least 15% lower than the small 

two-cylinder diesels that normally power the APUs and is about 80% lower than an idling truck 

engine. The Delphi SOFC uses an electrolyte that is called yttria-stabilized zirconia, a 

zirconium-oxide-based ceramic. The material, which is stable at room temperature, is hard and 

chemically inert, and it also is used in dental crowns. According to Delphi, the SOFC has an 

operating efficiency of 30% on diesel fuel and 40% on natural gas and lends itself to mass 

production, and because it contains no precious metals and is cost-effective.

77

Availability

Delphi indicated that the SOFC would be available in the 2012 timeframe. However, Cummins 

has estimated that this technology may not be available until 2014.

Vehicle Application

Class 8 sleeper cabs.

 

75 Webasto Product Brochure: Engine pre-heating, in-cab heating and bunk cooling. 

http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_heaters.html..

76 http://fuelcellsworks.com/news/2010/05/13/delphi-field-testing-solid-oxide-fuel-cell-apu-with-a-heavy-duty-truck-manufacturerand-the-technology-is-scheduled-to-be-in-production-in-2012/

77 Automotive Engineering Online, Delphi truck fuel-cell APU to hit road in 2012, May 12, 2010. 

http://www.sae.org/mags/AEI/8222.
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Notable Cost-Related Factors

Delphi said it would compete against "midrange" APUs—i.e., in the $8000-$9000 installed price 

range (some diesel APUs are as much as 50% higher).77

Truck Stop Electrification

Technology Definition

Truck stop electrification (TSE) provides power to vehicles while they are docked at service 

bays to avoid overnight idling. TSE systems are either "off-board" (a.k.a., Advanced Truckstop 

Electrification, ATE) or "truck-board" (which may also be referred to as, TSE). ATE is an 

external system that connects to the truck cab via a window or other access point, and consists 

of an HVAC subsystem mounted off-board the tractor which may also provide 120-Volt AC 

outlets and an entertainment package (internet, telephone, cable television). The systems 

commonly referred to as TSE are typically a combination of truck-board and facility power 

systems – a.k.a. shore-power. Shore-power provides access to 120- or 240-Volt power from a 

land-based source and separates the electrical supply from the accessory system installed in 

the tractor. Commercial shore-power facilities may also include credit card readers, cable 

television, and communication interface.

An example of a traditional off-board (a.k.a. ATE) system was that of IdleAireTM, deployed at 

several facilities throughout the U.S (see “Availability” section below). It included heating, 

cooling, AC electrical outlets, touch screen monitor with Internet access, and phone and cable 

television connections. The HVAC system was mounted atop an overhead truss assembly, 

where the wiring and ductwork originated and reached the truck via a drop down, protective, 

flexible shield which supports the integrated computer service console. The service console was 

connected to the tractor through the passenger-side window by a mounting template, which 

retailed at the facility for $10. The service cost was $1.25 per hour for registered fleets and 

$1.50 per hour to others for basic services, payable via an automatic card reader. There was no 

required on-board componentry for the IdleAireTM off-board system, although internet service 

could be made available via user-supplied equipment and use of the telephone service requires 

the user’s phone. 78

No standard truck-board equipment set exists for shore-power, although OEM tractor 

installations may be developed. One test system includes a Smart Energy Management System 

(EMS), a Cab Comfort (Dometic) HVAC system, wiring kits and receptacles, and an 

inverter/charger and may operate on 120 Volt/20A up to 240 Volt/50A. The electrical connection 

hardware is on-board the truck and a stationary pedestal at the truck stop houses electrical 

power connections. An exterior-grade wire harness connects the two subsystems. Prices for the 

on-board system depend on the truck configuration.79

 

78 Perrot et al., Truck Stop Electrification As A Long-Haul Tractor Idling Alternative, TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD-ROM.

79 Perrot et al., Truck Stop Electrification As A Long-Haul Tractor Idling Alternative, TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD-ROM.
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Shorepower TechnologiesTM (formerly Shurepower) now provides shore-power facilities via a 

basic installation kit (extension cord, exterior receptacle, interior wiring kit, GFCI, portable 

heater/fan) for $199.80 Use of their system retails for $1 for activation and $1/hour for usage. 

EnviroDockTM provides ATE that includes one 120V/15amp duplex outlet, two 6” ducts for 

supply and return air, switches to adjust temperature, fan speed and to switch between on/off, 

heat or a/c, and optional Cat 5 internet connection.81 Use of the system retails for $2/hr (or 

$1/hour if $50 worth of fuel is purchased). A $20 refundable deposit is required for the required 

insert. CabAireTM also provides ATE via a fitted window unit that supplies UV filtered air, heat, 

A/C, power, internet, cable, and intercom communications. Some also include block heater 

power. Use of the system is currently free, but requires purchase of a required insert which 

retails between $11-25 depending on the truck.

Availability

The IdleAireTM Corporation filed for bankruptcy protection on May 12, 200882 and, after failing to 

find a buyer, closed on January 29, 2010.83 News reports do state, however, that some facilities 

are expected to be operational in July, 2010.84 The facilities IdleAireTM was operating appear to 

be shut down. However, other companies are operating some stations. These currently seem to 

be limited to EnviroDock in NY, Shorepower Technologies in CA, OR, WA, and NC, CabAire in 

CT and NC. The DOE lists TSE sites that are available.85

Envirodock offers a range of systems depending on the limitations of the truck stop architecture, 

and have installations of both ATE and shore-power (TSE) types. They have reported little use 

of the TSE-only system, which they attribute to truckers being resistant to modifying their (very 

expensive investment in their) cab. Envirodock reports having two beta sites in New York and 

will open one in Tennessee, as well as noting a driving concern for any truck stop electrification 

program is that there is little enforcement of anti-idling laws nationwide since it is unclear who 

has jurisdiction.86 CabAireTM has received $1.1M in federal funding to install 100 truck 

electrification spaces at two truck stops in Alabama ($11k/space).87

Vehicle Application

TSE applies to principally to overnight idling vehicles, i.e. Class 8 sleeper cabs. 

 

80 http://www.shorepower.com/

81 http://www.envirodock.com/index.php

82 http://www.knoxnews.com/news/2008/may/14/idleaire-turns-off-its-engines/

83 http://www.knoxnews.com/news/2010/jan/28/idleaire-fails-find-buyer-closing-friday/

84 http://www.etrucker.com/apps/news/article.asp?id=85394. However, as of July 20, 2010, no active locations are reported on 

their website. 

85 http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/locator/tse/

86 Ed Maxwell, EnviroDock, 5/10/2010. 

87 http://www.controlmod.com/pdfs/pr_releases/AlabamaPressRelease.doc
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Notable Cost-Related Factors

Avoided operating and maintenance costs from truck idling service are directly proportional to 

the hours an engine idles. LP Tardif & Associates Inc. found that an additional $0.92 is spent on 

service, maintenance, and repairs for every hour the truck spends idling. 88

Most of the cost to operate truck stop electrification is in the electric infrastructure, including 

needed transformers. Total estimates of infrastructure installation costs for a full ATE system 

are $7500-8000 per system, including electric, islands, mounting, lighting, etc. The cost of 

shore-power type systems is less. The cost depends on many factors, including input power 

rating, A/C BTU rating, heat kWh rating, etc. These costs must be passed on to the user 

ultimately, if the systems are to be profitable. Most truck stop electrification deployments do not 

provide power for TRUs, which require much greater load and A-rating and thus are more 

expensive. 89

2.7. Engine improvements

Integrated Starter/Alternator

Technology Definition

The integrated starter/alternator system provides additional electric motor boost for extra power. 

It is a concept that is referred to as a mild hybrid. The integrated starter/alternator is mounted 

between the engine flywheel and the transmission and provides engine start/stop capabilities. 

In addition, the larger battery pack provides some limited duration auxiliary power capability if 

coupled with electrified accessories. Regenerative braking provides additional power to the 

battery. The battery is sized modestly to minimize cost and weight increases.

90

The integrated starter/alternator replaces the existing starter and alternator supplying those 

functions in addition to being able to provide regenerative braking, automatic engine shut-off at 

idle, instant restart and limited launch assist.

Availability

Some manufacturers are considering these systems as a less costly alternative to a full hybrid 

electric system.

Vehicle Application

All vocational trucks

 

88 Perrot et al., Truck Stop Electrification as a Long-Haul Tractor Idling Alternative, TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD-ROM.

89 Ed Maxwell, EnviroDock, 5/10/2010.

90 NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX, LLC. Reducing Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel 

Consumption and CO2 Emissions, October 2009. http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final200910.pdf.
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Turbo Compounding

Technology Definition

Turbo compounding adds a power turbine downstream of the conventional turbocharger. By 

capturing waste heat from the exhaust stream, the power turbine generates additional work 

which can be fed back to the engine crankshaft using a sophisticated transmission (mechanical 

systems) or by generating electricity (electrical systems). The power turbine, shown in Figure 

2-29, has a gear or generator connected to the shaft instead of a compressor. In addition, the 

conventional turbocharger turbine is down-sided to provide more power to the power turbine. 

This smaller turbocharger provides better transient response and higher boost pressure at lower 

speeds as well. Optimal matching of the turbocharger and power turbine is required.91

Figure 2-29. Turbo Compounding Turbine

Source: Cummins Turbo Technologies91

Power turbines are available in two types, namely radial and axial. The radial turbine is best 

suited to variable speed applications. The axial power turbine is more efficient with single 

engine speed applications. However, the axial turbine is more compact but it is not as well 

suited to truck applications that operate at variable engine speeds. Using a turbo compounding 

system increases the engine overall thermal efficiency from 42% to 46%.

Availability

Several manufacturers are making turbo compounding units including Holset for Cummins, DDC 

and Volvo Powertrain.

Vehicle Application

All Trucks

 

91 “Turbocompound System,” Turbo Technologies website. Cummins. Accessed June 10, 2010. 

http://www.holset.co.uk/mainsite/files/2_5_1_3-turbocompound%20system.php.
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Notable Cost-Related Factors

Mechanical turbo compounding systems would include port liners, variable valve actuation and 

a high-efficiency power turbine. Electrical systems would include the mechanical turbo 

compounding components plus a 40 kW motor/generator, power electronics and balance of 

plant modifications. Electric auxiliaries can be added with electric turbo compounding. 

Cummins estimates mechanical turbo compounding to be approximately $2,000 for a 

mechanical system and approximately $6,500 for an electric system which does not include 

electrifying the auxiliary loads. 92 The prices quoted are intended to be representative of enduser prices.

Variable Geometry Turbocharger

Technology Definition

Variable geometry turbochargers (VGTs) have been developed in an effort to match 

turbocharger performance to engine operation over a wider speed-load range. VGTs also allow 

for quicker transient response by restricting the turbine nozzle during accelerations. Their ability 

to provide additional air to the engine over a wider range of operating conditions also allows for 

emissions reductions.

VGTs allow modification of the aspect ratio depending upon loads and speeds. The aspect ratio

is the ratio of the area of the cone to radius from the center hub as shown in Figure 2-30. 

Optimal aspect ratios at low speed are considerably different from those at high speeds. By 

varying the aspect ratio, the turbocharger is more efficient at all conditions.

Figure 2-30: Turbocharger Aspect Ratio

Source: http://www.myturbodiesel.com/1000q/turbocharging.htm#A/R ratio

Being able to vary the aspect ratio is very important as aspect ratio that is too small will cause 

the turbo to choke the engine leading to lower engine power output. Also by being able to alter 

 

92 Conversation with Brian Mormino. Cummins.
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the aspect ratio as the engine accelerates, the turbo response can be increased. It can also be 

used to introduce EGR to lower emissions.

Availability

Most heavy duty engine manufacturers are using VGTs on their engines to meet 2010 emission 

standards.

Vehicle Application

All Trucks

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Price is incremental to a fixed geometry turbocharger.

Variable Valve Actuation

Technology Definition

Variable valve actuation (VVA) allows valves to open and close through use of mechanical, 

electro-hydraulic or electronic solenoids (camless). Being able to control valve timing, valve lift 

and the amount of time the valve is open can greatly improve engine performance during 

transient conditions. Generally valves are controlled by a cam which fixes valve timing and lift. 

This usually reduces engine performance at some loads and speeds and leads to less optimal 

drivability, fuel economy and emissions.

VVA’s benefits are less for diesel engines than for gasoline engines because of the narrower 

range of operating speeds. VVA does allow better emission control by controlling exhaust 

temperatures for aftertreatment devices. It also allows the turbocharger to operate more 

efficiently at a variety of engine operating modes. Turbo compounding can also benefit from 

VVA because it can control the amount of energy in the exhaust stream.

Availability

Eaton is developing both camless and mechanical systems.

Vehicle Application

All Trucks

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Price depends strongly on engine configuration (e.g., number of cylinders), whether applied to 

intake and/or exhaust valves, and whether the system is cam operated or camless. 
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2.8. Transmission and Drivetrain improvements

Early Torque Convertor Lock-up

Technology Definition

Torque convertors act as a clutch for automatic or automated manual transmissions. They also 

multiply torque, absorb torsional vibration of the engine and drivetrain. The torque convertor sits 

between the engine and transmission and is filled with automatic transmission fluid. It uses an 

impeller/turbine system to transmit torque from the engine to the transmission. If the impeller 

(connected to the engine) is going at a higher speed than the turbine (connected to the 

transmission), the torque is multiplied from the engine to the transmission. When the impeller is 

moving at the same speed as the turbine, there is no torque multiplication but there is a 4 to 5 

percent loss in energy. To prevent this, torque convertors contain a lock-up clutch that 

mechanically connects the impellor and turbine.

Generally this lock-up event occurs around 37 mph. This is actuated by the transmission 

controller. By reprogramming the controller, earlier lock-up can occur which can provide 

additional fuel economy benefits at lower speeds.

Availability

Allison Transmissions builds most of the heavy-duty vehicle transmissions.

Vehicle Application

All long-haul trucks with automated manual transmissions. This concept is less viable on 

vocational trucks due to the lower and transient nature of their duty cycle.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Allison93 mentions that in most cases early torque convertor lock-up is just a software change 

and won’t require any additional labor on new trucks. In some cases the springs in the clutch 

would need to be changed to minimize noise, vibration and harshness. In new trucks, even this 

would result in little or no cost increase.

Hybrid Powertrain

Technology Definition

These systems are similar in concept to the full hybrids used in light-duty applications. Hybrids 

come in both a parallel-hybrid and a series-hybrid design.

In a series-hybrid, the electric generator is driven by a small engine which is used to charge the 

batteries. The batteries are used to power an electric motor or motors that drive the vehicle. In 

a series-hybrid, the engine does not provide power to the wheel but is only used to charge the 

batteries. As such, the engine can operate at a more efficient condition. However, because 

 

93 Conversation with Bob Leopold of Allison Transmission, May 6, 2010.
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mechanical energy needs to be converted to electrical energy and back again, this can lead to 

losses. Generally series systems are not used on higher speed applications but have been 

used on some transit buses.

Parallel-hybrid systems employ a small electric motor coupled to the engine crankshaft. In a 

parallel-hybrid, both the engine and motor can drive the wheels. These systems are more 

efficient in higher speed applications. There have been a number of demonstrations of this 

technology on heavy duty vehicles.

Availability

Parallel-hybrid systems are currently available in transit bus, motor coach, and Class 3-6 box 

and bucket trucks, and in the fleet demonstration stage for refuse haulers. There have been a 

few demonstrations of Class 8 tractor trailers using a parallel architecture. 

Vehicle Application

All vocational trucks and short haul Class 8 trucks. This concept has limited value in line haul 

trucking applications.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Components include a motor/generator, battery pack, power electronics, a modified clutch 

assembly, electrification of auxiliary loads and balance of plant. Table 2-8 shows 

motor/generator and battery pack and convertor sizes for various truck types.

Table 2-8: Hybrid system component sizes

Components Class 4 

Utility Truck

Class 6 

Box Truck

Class 8 Refuse 

Truck

Class 8 Transit 

Bus

Class 8 Short 

Haul Truck

Motor/Generator 30kW 30 kW 100 kW & 30 kW 100 kW & 30 kW 50 kW

DC to DC Convertor 5 kW 5 kW 8 kW 8 kW 5 kW

Battery 4 kWh 4 kWh 8 kWh 8 kWh 4 kWh

As manufacturers indicated that costs of hybrid systems were considered proprietary, ICF 

estimated prices for the 6 truck types based upon component costs with associated mark-ups. 

End-user costs were as follows:

 Class 4 Utility Truck -- $33,000

 Class 6 Box Truck -- $37,000

 Class 8 Refuse Truck -- $69,000

 Class 8 Transit Bus -- $60,000

 Class 8 Short Haul Truck -- $25,000

The Class 8 short haul truck assumes that the R&D costs could be spread over a larger sales 

volume than the other categories. These costs match fairly well with the incentives that ARB is 
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offering under AB 118 funding for the Air Quality Improvement Program94. Generally the 

incentive amounts comprise 50 percent of the incremental costs. Incentive amounts are shown 

in Table 2-9.

Table 2-9: Hybrid Vehicle Incentives

Vehicle Class Base Vehicle Incentive

Class 4 - 6 (14,000 – 26,000 lbs GVWR) $20,000

Class 7 (26,001 – 33,000 lbs GVWR) $25,000

Class 8 (33,001 – 38,000 lbs GVWR) $30,000

Class 8 (> 38,000 lbs GVWR) $35,000

Low-Friction Engine Lube and Drive Train Lubricants

Technology Definition 

Conventional mineral oil lubricants may have too high viscosity to effectively slip between and 

lubricate the moving parts, particularly new truck components that are designed with close 

tolerances and tight fits. Conventional lubricants may also be heavy, making it harder for 

pumps, gears and shafts to move. These effects create energy and friction losses that waste 

fuel.95 Alternatively, low-friction lubricants reduce friction and wear of critical vehicle systems 

including the engine, transmission and drive train. Without lubricants, moving parts inside these 

systems would grind together causing heat, stress, and excessive wear.

Friction losses in the drive train (transmission and differential) and engine can be reduced by 

using low-viscosity lubricants. Most manufacturers of lubricants produce “fuel economy” options 

that have lower viscosity than standard lubricants. However, use of low viscosity lubricants can 

result in higher drive train or engine wear, which increases maintenance costs. In selecting 

lubricants, most fleet managers believe they currently have struck the proper balance between 

fuel savings and maintenance costs.96

Low-viscosity lubricants are less resistant to flow than conventional lubricants, and may contain 

additives designed to withstand the extreme pressure that could occur as the lubricant flows 

between tight fitting parts. Low viscosity lubricants may be made from synthetic or mineral oil 

blends with extreme pressure additives. 

 

94 ARB, AB 118: Air Quality Improvement Program (AQIP), FY 2010-11 Funding Plan Discussion Document, April 2010. 

http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/aqip/meetings/fy%202010-11/aqip_fy10-11_fp_discussion_doc_040810.pdf.

95 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies –Low-Viscosity Lubricants,” SmartWay Transport Partnership. Accessed June 

10, 2010. http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/lowviscositylubes.pdf.

96 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense 

Fund, December 2009.
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Transmission (Drive Train) Lubricants

Lubricants can reduce gear contact friction in transmissions, but they also reduce fuel efficiency 

because of their viscosity. 97 Low-viscosity transmission fluid is made from synthetic or mineral 

oil blends and is reported to decrease transmission friction and also reduce fuel consumption.98

Engine Lubricants

Some energy losses in an engine are due to mechanical friction. Reduction in internal engine 

friction can be achieved using improved lubricants. Low-viscosity engine lubricants are made 

from synthetic or mineral oil blends for the purpose of reducing internal engine friction. Lowviscosity engine lubricants can reduce energy use. Low-viscosity engine fluid typically costs

more than conventional lubricants.99 These strategies have wide applicability to all types of truck 

classes and operations.100

Availability 

Available types of low-friction lubricants (engine and transmission) include Valvoline, Chevron 

Delo®, and Mobile1.

Vehicle Application

 Vocational truck engine, transmission and drive train (Class 3-8)

 Transit bus engine, engine, transmission and drive train (Class 6, 7)

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Additional cost savings may be possible due to reduced engine wear and maintenance, and by 

providing a longer period between engine overhauls.101

Rankine Bottoming Cycle

Technology Definition

A Rankine bottoming cycle system converts otherwise wasted thermal energy from the engine 

to provide additional work. The heat is used to heat a working fluid that can be used to drive a 

turbine. Waste heat is captured from:

 the exhaust after any aftertreatment,

 the EGR cooler,

 

97 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, 

October 4, 2007.

98 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense 

Fund, December 2009.

99 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, 

October 4, 2007.

100 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense 

Fund, December 2009.

101 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition 

https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf.
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 the engine coolant, and

 the charge air cooler.102

The turbine is used to drive a generator to create electricity which can then be used by and 

electric motor connected to the engine crankshaft. 

While bottoming cycles provide good energy for continuous high speed operation, their transient 

response is poor. This can be mitigated by combining the system with a hybrid electric drive 

system. In this case the electricity provided by the Rankine bottoming cycle can be used to 

supplement engine power when at higher continuous speeds and store power at other 

conditions.

Availability

Discussions with manufacturers suggest that they envision the bottoming cycle as a promising 

technology that could come into the market in the 2015 timeframe. However, this technology is 

still in the early stages of development, and there are significant capital cost and packaging 

issues to be resolved.

Vehicle Application

All Trucks

Notable Cost-Related Factors

The Rankine bottoming cycle system would include a turbine, generator and flywheel producing 

30 kW, an air cooled condenser, an EGR boiler, a stack boiler, controls and power electronics, 

energy storage and modifications to the balance of plant. Cummins estimates such a system 

would cost the end user approximately $7,000.103

2.9. Weight reduction technologies

Aluminum Air Tanks

Technology Definition 

Air tanks made out of aluminum rather than steel are one method to reduce overall truck weight. 

The reduced weight savings improves fuel economy. Standard steel tanks range in size from 1⁄4 

gallon to 20 gallons. Prices are difficult to estimate since there is not an industry-wide fixed 

number of air tanks per truck. Air tanks are used for a variety of functions, ranging from tire 

 

102 NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX, LLC. Reducing Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel 

Consumption and CO2 Emissions, October 2009. http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final200910.pdf.

103 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.
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inflation, air brakes, air horns and air-powered seats.104 Class 8 trucks may have two to four air 

tanks depending on the functionality of the air in the truck.105

Availability 

Conversations with industry representatives indicate that steel air tanks are currently the

standard and that the use of aluminum for air tanks is fairly rare, particularly for class 8 trucks. 

Vehicle Application 

Air tanks are used in all classes of 3-8 vehicles depending on the functionality of the air for the 

vehicle. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Note that aluminum usually costs about 50 – 100% more than steel.106

Aluminum Axles and Axle Hubs

Technology Definition

Attempts to replace traditional axles and axle hubs with lightweight versions composed chiefly of 

aluminum, although other materials have been considered, such as carbon fiber. 

Availability

To date, industry opinion is that this technology will not make it into production due to heat and 

integrity issues. Although some research has been done on axle tubes, center carrier areas, 

cover plates, etc., this is still in the research and development phase and difficult to provide cost 

estimates for.

Vehicle Application

Not currently applicable to any vehicles. 

Aluminum Wheels 

Technology Definition 

Forged and cast aluminum wheels are lighter than traditional steel wheels. Aluminum wheels 

provide enhanced performance advantages over standard steel wheels, including weight 

savings, and lower maintenance and operating costs. The mounting system for aluminum 

wheels can be ball seat or hub piloted. Alcoa offers a full set of options for heavy duty trucks 

and buses including 22.5”, 24.5”, and 14" wide-base wheels, that when partnered with the right 

tire, can increase fuel and tire efficiency as well as save weight. For example, the all-purpose 

commercial wheel (i.e., 24.5” LvL ONETM) weighs 56 pounds compared to a typical 86 pound

 

104 Conversation with Michigan Truck Supplies Sales Department, March 5, 2010. 

105 Note that aluminum fuel tanks are more frequently offered as optional equipment than aluminum air tanks. 

106 As estimated by Franklin Josey, Volvo, February 9, 2010
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steel wheel.107 For a standard dry flatbed trailer, a 2 axle – 8 wheel configuration with 22.5 by 

8.25 inch wheels, replacing steel wheels with aluminum would reduce the trailer’s weight by 176 

pounds.108

Wheel manufacturers are offering aluminum wheels in 22.5x14-in. sizes to help bring additional 

weight and fuel savings to fleets. Alcoa offers a wide base wheel engineered to work with low 

profile long-haul tires on drive and trailer axles. In the wide base tire system, one wide wheel 

and tire replaces a set of dual wheels and tires.

109 Wide base wheel and tire assemblies save 

fuel, in part, because they include only half as many flexing sidewalls as a set of dual tires. 

Accuride DupleX-One wide-base 22.5x14-in. aluminum wheels, the company notes, reduce fuel 

expense or increase payload capacity when used in place of traditional dual wheel sets on 

tandem-axle tractors and trailers. Developed in conjunction with Michelin, the forged aluminum 

wheels can save 120 lbs. per axle.110

Availability 

Aluminum wheels are widely available for use on trailers and are frequently a manufacturer 

optional feature of trailers. Manufacturers of aluminum wheels include Alcoa and Accuride. 

Vehicle Application 

Aluminum wheels are available for heavy duty trucks (Class 6-8) and Class 8 buses for drive, 

steer, and trailer axles for dual (22.5 and 24.5 x8.2) and single wide tires (22.5x14-in.)

111

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Additional benefits of aluminum wide-base (single-wide) tires and wheels include reduced 

maintenance costs. Maintenance costs can be lower because there are only four wheel 

positions per tandem compared to eight. In addition, without an inner tire/wheel, inflation and 

visual inspection becomes much easier and more effective. Super wide aluminum wheels also 

tend to help keep brake packages running cooler and, therefore, lasting longer.112

Lightweight Brake Drums

Technology Definition 

Lightweight brake drums offer an opportunity to reduce truck weight and thereby reduce fuel 

consumption. A lightweight brake drum is considered an effective weight-savings option for 

 

107 Alcoa 24.5” LvL One. http://www.alcoa.com/alcoawheels/north_america/en/brochures/docs/Alcoa_LvL_One24.pdf.

108 Conversation with Utility Trailers Sales Contact, March 2, 2010.

109 “New Alcoa 22.4x14 wide base wheel fits low profile longhaul needs,” Fleet Equipment, November 1, 2001. 

http://www.allbusiness.com/transportation-warehousing/828191-1.html.

110 Skydel, Seth. “Fuel efficiency: aluminum wheels, side base singles.” Fleet Equipments, April 1, 2009. 

http://www.allbusiness.com/government/government-bodies-offices/12319270-1.html.

111 Heavy Duty Truck/Trailer. Alcoa Wheels website. Accessed June 10, 2010. 

http://www.alcoa.com/alcoawheels/north_america/en/hdtt/index.asp.

112 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense 

Fund, December 2009.
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trucks. These brake drums can save nearly 25 pounds per drum compared to standard steel 

brake drums, and replace standard or heavy duty full steel cast drums.113 Lightweight brake 

drums, like the CentriFuse® drums are made of an iron alloy core but have a steel outer shell.114

The lightweight drums are often combined with aluminum wheels and aluminum hubs for 

additional weight savings.

Figure 2-31: Lightweight Brake Drum Components

Source: CentriFuse® Product Brochure http://ppimw.archercom.com/assets/centrifuse_brake_drums_brochure.pdf

Availability 

Motor Wheel Commercial Vehicle Systems. Inc. manufactures the CentriFuse® Brake Drum. 

Several types of brake drum are available including CentriFuse Lite, CentriFuse Wide Break, 

and CentriFuse Plus. 

Vehicle Application 

Lightweight brake drums can be used on any type of medium or heavy duty truck and are 

frequently used for vehicles seeking lighter components. Usually there are two brake drums per 

axle of a vehicle.115

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

CentriFuse lightweight brake drums are reported as lasting four times longer than conventional 

steel drums – therefore extending lifecycle and reducing maintenance costs.116 Drums are alloy 

 

113 CentriFuse Product Brochure, http://ppimw.archercom.com/assets/centrifuse_brake_drums_brochure.pdf. 

114 Conversations with Product Development Specialist, Motor Wheel Commercial Vehicle System, July 16, 2010.

115 Conversations with Product Development Specialist, Motor Wheel Commercial Vehicle Systems, March 19, 2010. 
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with a steel shell which offers an added element of safety against breakage, thereby improving 

cost-effectiveness.

Lightweight Cab Components

Technology Definition

Like other lightweight options, replacing cab structural and surface materials with lighter weight 

alternatives will reduce vehicle weight and increase efficiency, assuming the vehicles are 

operating full in terms of volume, but not at their full weight rating or what is known as “cubed 

out.” In the case of operating with the reverse scenario, or “weighed out” any gain from the use 

of lighter weight components would be offset by increased load.

Industry has indicated that some progress has been made on lightweight technologies. Plastic 

cab components are typically sheet molded composites (SMC) and are common in cab 

components where structural strength is not of the utmost importance, such as hoods, air 

deflectors, and sleeping cabin roofs. The majority of remaining cab components will be made of 

steel or steel with some portion of aluminum. Lightweight prototype vehicles have been 

developed for some vehicle classes. For example, the use of high strength stainless steel for a 

Class 8 bus body and chassis has been shown to result in a mass savings of about 50% (300% 

increase in fuel economy) with a cost savings of about 30%.117 This has only made it through a 

prototype phase and had various commercial setbacks. 

Indications are that industry perceives aluminum frame cabs to be less durable and add 

significantly to the truck purchase price. However, most manufacturers offer lightweight versions 

of many other technologies. Price differentials are generally driven by material cost and volume, 

with aluminum roughly 50-100% more expensive than equivalent steel components, although 

tooling and fixed costs are roughly the same. SMC components are generally comparable in 

price to steel, depending on thickness. Price differential estimates are difficult to obtain since 

lightweight components are often offered only as packages that could include tanks, wheels, 

and other elements. 

Availability

Found with some frequency in existing vehicles, although industry is generally leery of their use. 

Vehicle Application

All vehicles

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Generally lightweight components are only available as packages. Lifetime, operations, and 

maintenance costs should be comparable to steel. 

 

116 Precision Partners Press Release, March 16, 2009. http://www.precisionpartnersinc.com/corporate/breakingnews/announces-its-new-long-life-severe-service-brake-drums-centrifuse-plus/. 

117 Emmons, Bruce. System Optimization of an Ultralight Electric Transit Bus. Autokinetics, Inc. April 20, 2006. 

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/hvso_2006/23_emmons.pdf.
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Lightweight Suspension Systems

Technology Definition

Cab weight reduction and increased efficiency could come from the use of lighter components, 

including replacement of suspension materials. Currently these materials are made of steel, 

especially the springs, due to its generally superior performance over other materials. 

Industry has said that lightweight suspensions could come from the use of aluminum in certain 

components, however it was generally felt that critical suspension components are expected to 

remain mostly steel. For example, brackets, stayrods, and port controls could be made from 

aluminum, while carbon and composite materials have been researched, but are not anticipated 

for near-term use in heavy duty vehicles due to cost and performance concerns. Further 

research and development for advanced materials are needed. 118

Availability

This technology is not currently available, except at an R&D level. It is not anticipated in the 

near term. 

Reduced Number of Batteries

Technology Definition

A possible approach to reduce cab weight and thus engine load could be to reduce the number 

of batteries installed per truck. 

Availability

Industry has indicated that reducing the number of batteries installed in a truck is not currently a 

viable option. The number of batteries required (three is standard for Class 8 tractors) is driven 

by the need for cold-cranking amps. While other truck classes with smaller engines could use 

fewer than three batteries, they are typically designed with the smallest number necessary. 

As an alternative, advanced battery technology could offer either lightweight alternatives or

potentially greater strength, which could lead to fewer batteries required. However, industry 

believes this is in the distant future for heavy duty trucks, and would likely not offer much weight 

reduction anyway.119

Vehicle Application

Not currently applicable to any vehicles. 

 

118 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, 

October 4, 2007.

119 Franklin Josey, Volvo, 2/9/2010.
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Aluminum Structural Components for Trailers

Technology Definition 

Aluminum structural components can significantly reduce weight on trailers for heavy duty 

trucks, and therefore reduce greenhouse gas emissions. For the purposes of this research, 

aluminum components apply to trailer types including dry vans, reefers and tankers. Many steel 

or plywood structural components for trailers can be replaced with aluminum to reduce weight in 

a variety of applications. Aluminum roof posts (rather than steel) often reduce weight by 75 

pounds. Aluminum floor joists (rather than steel) can reduce weight by 300 pounds. Aluminum 

floors (rather than wood floors) can reduce weight by 385 pounds. Aluminum cross members 

(rather than steel) can reduce weight by 155 pounds. Aluminum side posts (rather than steel)

may reduce weight by 275 pounds. Finally, aluminum roof bows (rather than steel) can reduce 

weight by about 100 pounds.120

Availability

Aluminum components are widely available for use on trailers and are frequently a manufacturer 

optional feature of trailers. 

Vehicle Application

Manufacturers offer aluminum component upgrades for trailers for class 8 heavy duty trucks. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Aluminum costs about 50 to 100% more than steel, and can sometimes cost more to assemble 

than steel depending on the various fasteners required. Note that some manufacturers are 

beginning to use plastics for structural components, for which the material costs are comparable 

to steel121, but this is not widespread.122

2.10. Electrification

Electrification of Accessory Loads

Technology Definition

Generally most accessory loads such as the power steering pump, the water pump, the air 

conditioning compressor, engine fan, and the air compressor are driven mechanically by belts 

connected to the engine crankshaft. If a large source of electrical energy is available, such as 

with hybrid systems or electric turbo compounding, these accessory loads can be electrically 

driven reducing the direct load on the engine. The engine cooling fan can also be converted to 

 

120 Conversation with Utility Trailers Sales.

121 Franklin Josey, Volvo, 2/9/2010

122 Conversation with Utility Trailers Sales.
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electric drive although for line haul applications, the efficiency savings are small because the fan 

on times are low.123

Availability

Not much research has been done on electrifying heavy-duty truck components. However, there 

will likely be growing interest in electrified accessories, such as power steering, due to the 

emergence of hybrid-systems that offer “engine-off” or zero-emissions vehicle mode of 

operations.124

Vehicle Application

All trucks using either hybrid technology or electric turbo compounding.

2.11. Air conditioning and transport refrigerated unit (TRU) improvements

Alternative Refrigerants

Technology Definition

Refrigerants leak, directly emitting GHGs. Moving to refrigerants with a lower global warming 

potential (GWP) is one method to reduce the GHG impact of heavy duty vehicles. 

Several gases have emerged as contenders with a lower GWP than the current widely used 

refrigerant, HFC-134a, (GWP of 1,300) including CO2 (GWP = 1), HFC-152a (GWP = 120), and 

Propane (GWP = 20). Each of these gases would require a refrigeration system modified to 

some extent from the current 134a systems and present their own challenges related to safety, 

flammability, toxicity, and other health and environmental concerns. 

Globally, motor vehicle air conditioning manufacturers have appeared to settle on a single future 

refrigerant, HFO-1234yf.125 HFO-1234yf is “acceptable for use in mobile air conditioning from a 

toxicity perspective”, has low ignition potential, GWP of 4 with lifetime of days, no ozone 

depleting potential (ODP), low smog-forming potential, and low ecosystem impact.126 It also 

requires minimal changes to current system architecture, however, the refrigerant itself is 

expensive. Currently, research prices are $500 per kg, with final in-production price estimated to 

be about $50 per lb127 as compared to R134a which retails today for approximately $7 per lb 

(with volume discounts as much as $1.20/lb)128

 

123 NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX, LLC. Reducing Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel 

Consumption and CO2 Emissions, October 2009. http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final200910.pdf.

124 Email exchange with Brad Hicks, ArvinMeritor, March 26, 2010.

125 Peter Coll, SAE. Posted at: http://www.refrigeration-engineer.com/forums/showthread.php?t=23669

126 Industry Evaluation of low global warming potential refrigerant HFO-1234yf, SAE CRP1234, 11/10/2009. 

127 “Consensus Building on Refrigerant Type”, in September 2008 issue of Automotive Engineering International (an SAE 

magazine). p.30.

128 E.g., http://www.koolit.net/prod_list.php?sci=9, 5/25/2010
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Availability

CO2, Propane, and HFC-152a are readily available but less likely to be implemented than HFO1234yf. HFO-1234yf is currently unavailable commercially. 

Vehicle Application

All mobile vehicle air conditioning systems, including Class 8 tractors, TRUs, Class 3-8 work 

trucks, and light-duty vehicles. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Current prices are much higher than the baseline HFC-134a, although expected to come down 

once in production. Minimal hardware redesign is expected to be necessary, unless it is decided 

that systems should move to a dual loop design. Assuming the architecture is maintained as a 

single loop, prices may reasonably be scaled by the vehicle charge size.129

Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials

Technology Definition 

There are several techniques to reflect solar energy from trailers, including:

 Replacing a standard aluminum roof with a translucent, white fiberglass roof;

 Covering trailer sides with reflective tape strips; and

 Painting trailer roofs with white reflective paint. 

These techniques can be applied to refrigerated trailers to reduce the amount of fuel used to 

regulate the temperature in the trailer. Some of these techniques may also be applied to school 

buses to reduce the amount of fuel used to air condition the bus.

Although white fiberglass roofs reflect solar energy, they are mostly used for their translucency 

benefits. One disadvantage of using this roof is that it punctures easier than a standard 

aluminum roof.130

Conspicuity reflective tape may be laid in strips on trailer sides. For example, UPS covers half of 

each truck side with this tape to increase reflectivity.131

White reflective paint, such as SolarCool, an acrylic elastomeric coating with sealed ceramic 

micro-bubbles may be applied to trailer tops to reflect solar radiation.132

 

129 Numerous conversations, including Gary Hansen, RedDotCorp.com, 5/26/2010.

130 Conversation with John, Dan’s Truck Refrigeration. 

131 Conservation with John, UPS. 

132 SolarCool Coatings Brochure provided by Pat Scanlon of Solar Cool Coatings. 
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Figure 2-32: Solar Energy Reflection Improvement through Application of SolarCool Coatings Paint

Source: SolarCool Coatings Brochure provided by Pat Scanlon of Solar Cool Coatings

Availability 

There appear to be a few companies that manufacture translucent, white fiberglass roofs. Crane 

Composites is one of the main manufacturers of these roofs. There are several companies that 

produce reflective tape.133 There are several companies that manufacturer reflective, white 

paint.

Vehicle Application

These reflective strategies can be applied to Class 8 trailers. Research indicates that these 

strategies can also be applied to Class 5 box trucks and Class 7 buses. However, installation of 

a translucent, white fiberglass roofs is not a widespread strategy for buses.134

 

133 “Truck Reflective Tape,” Thomasnet website. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.thomasnet.com/products/truck-reflectivetape-87831160-1.html.

134 Conversation with Bill Beckwith, Crane Composites. 
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Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Operation and maintenance is an additional cost for these strategies. For example, punctures to 

fiberglass roofs need to be sealed, reflective tape strips replaced every few years, and reflective 

paint recoated every few years. 

Reefer Improvements

Low Power Draw A/C

Technology Definition 

Low power draw air conditioning (A/C) units operate without dependence on a diesel engine 

powered unit. Eliminating the need to operate based on a diesel powered engine unit reduces 

the need for idling in order to cool the cab. Low power draw systems usually either use waterbased evaporation or self-contained air conditioners. Water based cooling is ideal for mild 

temperatures.135 For more extensive cooling needs, a self-contained air conditioner is ideal.136

Water-based coolers use evaporation to reduce the temperature of the air by an average of 10 

to 15 degrees.137 A small amount of electrical current is needed to operate a blower fan to 

circulate the cooled air.138 One disadvantage of the evaporative cooler is that it can only make 

small changes in temperature and therefore is not always suitable for very hot climates.139 For 

hot climates or extended cooling during rest periods, there are self-contained units which are 

operated by dedicated batteries.

140,141

Availability 

Many companies manufacture low power draw A/C systems, including CoolMoves, DC Power 

Solutions and Dometic Environmental Corporation. 

 

135 Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves

136 Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves

137 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition 

https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf. 

138 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition 

https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf. 

139 Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves

140 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition 

https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf. 

141 Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves
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Figure 2-33: Evaporative A/C Unit

Source: Cool Moves Minicool Product Brochure, http://coolmoves.ca/products/mini-cool/dinamic/

Figure 2-34: Rooftop Low Power Draw A/C

Source: Cool Moves Bycool Product Brochure, http://coolmoves.ca/products/bycool/revolution/

Vehicle Application 

Many evaporative coolers and self-contained cooling systems can be mounted on multiple types 

of trucks. Some can be mounted on rooftops for flat-cab or body roof trucks, others mounted 

within the cab body of the truck. Some units are geared more toward sleeper cabs and others

for daytime cooling. Note that the evaporative coolers work best in dry climates. 142

For a class 7 school bus or a class 8 transit bus, it would be recommended to use a rooftop 

cooling system or an evaporative unit, ultimately depending on the climate the vehicle operates 

in. For medium duty trucks like the class 6 box truck, it would be recommended to use an 

evaporative unit. 

 

142 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition 

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Use of Advanced Electrical Transport Refrigeration Unit (TRU) Systems

Technology Definition 

A transport refrigeration unit (TRU) is a refrigeration system designed to refrigerate 

temperature-sensitive products that are transported in insulated vans, trucks, or rail cars. 

Traditional, mechanical TRUs are powered by a diesel engine, the most common engine size 

being 35 hp. Conventional diesel-powered TRUs may be purchased with an electric standby 

(E/S) option, which allows the TRU engine to be shut off when a compatible power supply is 

available at a facility so TRU diesel engine emissions are eliminated.143 

Figure 2-35: Transport Refrigeration Units

Source: Photo provided by David Kiefer of Transicold.

A more advanced alternative to the conventional diesel-powered TRU is a hybrid electric TRU. 

In this system, a diesel engine drives a generator that, in turn, powers an electric semi-hermetic 

refrigeration compressor and electrically driven fans, all controlled by an advanced 

microprocessor.

144 The benefits of a hybrid-electric TRU include: greater fuel-efficiency to 

reduce carbon emissions, less leakage potential, and significantly less maintenance 

requirements versus a conventional belt-driver system.145

Because a hybrid electric TRU uses electrical energy, it requires less coolant than a 

conventional diesel-powered TRU. Because it uses less coolant, it requires fewer valves, which 

are susceptible to leakage. For example, Transicold’s Vector® hybrid unit uses a semi-hermetic 

 

143 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In-Use 

Diesel-Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, 

October 28, 2003, p VI-11.

144 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In-Use 

Diesel-Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, 

October 28, 2003, p VI-11.

145 Conversation with David Kiefer, Transicold.
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compressor, uses a third less refrigerant and half the braze joints as a conventional dieselpowered TRU. The unit also has an electric standby option for stationary units.146

Solar power TRUs are currently unavailable, but have been tested in the UK. Solar TRUs 

consume no fuel, do not suffer the same mechanical failures, and have longer operating lives.147

Availability 

Carrier Transicold offers a hybrid electric TRU. 

Vehicle Application

The hybrid TRU discussed above may be used on Class 8 trailers.148

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

A hybrid electric TRU is more expensive than a conventional TRU without E/S, and has less 

operating and maintenance costs over a conventional TRU with the E/S add-on option.149 

Adding the power infrastructure at facilities with TRUs that use E/S is very expensive. Costs for 

power outlets in parking areas increase significantly due to trenching costs.150

Use of Cryogenic CO2 Unit

Technology Definition 

Cryogenic CO2 refrigeration units heat and cool using liquid CO2 that is routed through an 

evaporator coil that cools air blown over the coil.151 For example, the ThermoKing cryogenic 

system moves liquid CO2 from the refillable vehicle tank through a sealed evaporator coil inside 

the cargo space, thus cooling the coil. Temperature controlled air is circulated over the coil and 

through the cargo space. Having extracted all the useful energy, it exhausts to the atmosphere. 

On trailer applications, heat for defrosting the evaporator coil and temperature control is 

generated by a diesel heater when required.152 Infrastructure for these units include: a fuel 

holding tank at the distribution facility and a pumping station to pressure the fuel and pump it 

into the TRU.153

 

146 Conversation with David Kiefer. 

147 DTI, “The Commercialisation of Solar Powered Transport Refrigeration.” 2001. http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file16833.pdf.

148 Conversation with David Kiefer.

149 Conversation with David Kiefer.

150 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In-Use 

Diesel-Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, 

October 28, 2003, p VI-11.

151 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In-Use 

Diesel-Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, 

October 28, 2003, p VI-11.

152 Thermo King CryoTech Brochure. 

153 Conversation with Tom Kampf, ThermoKing. 
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Figure 2-36: ThermoKing's Cryogenic CO2 Unit

Source: Thermo King CryoTech Brochure

Availability 

ThermoKing manufactures a cryogenic CO2 unit, but it is currently only available in the 

European Union. However, these units are being demonstrated in the United States.154

Vehicle Application

These units can be installed on Class 8 trailers. They would most likely be installed on trucks 

that are operated for local deliveries.155

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

The capital cost of a cryogenic unit is slightly higher than a standard TRU. However, the facility 

infrastructure costs for the fuel adds to the capital cost. Fuel costs vary depending on the nature 

of the operation. As of 2003, operating costs for liquid CO2 are typically double the diesel fueloperating costs and increase with distance from the source.156 Maintenance costs are lower 

since the systems have fewer moving parts.157 Over the lifetime of the unit, the largest 

 

154 Conversation with Herman Viegas, ThermoKing.

155 Conversation with Herman Viegas, ThermoKing. 

156 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In-Use 

Diesel-Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, 

October 28, 2003, p VI-11.

157 ThermoKing CryoTech Brochure.
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maintenance cost is the refurbishing of the liquid cryogen storage tank, which is replaced 

roughly once every 5-7 years.158 Volume discounts for these units are minimal.159

Use of Leakage Reducing Components 

Technology Definition 

In general, components to minimize leakages are already incorporated into most modern air 

conditioning and transport refrigeration units (TRUs, reefer) systems. A/C system loads in 

tractors and work trucks are parasitic loads on the engine that only burden the engine when 

operated, thus reducing fuel efficiency and increasing tailpipe GHG emissions (indirect effect). 

However, modern refrigerants are also potent greenhouse gases, and leakage of them from the 

systems lead to direct emissions of GHGs.160

In mobile vehicle air conditioning (MVAC) systems, leakage can be reduced through the use of 

enhanced hose components, such as veneer/barrier hoses or ultra-low permeation hoses, 

improved fittings and connections (multiple o-rings, seal washers, and seal washers with orings, and metal gaskets), and/or multiple-lip seals for the compressor shaft seal. 

161

For TRUs, however, one area for potential leakage in a conventional diesel-powered TRU is the 

shaft seal between the compressor and the engine. This leakage potential is removed with a 

hybrid electric TRU which uses an electric transmission and a semi-hermetic, electrically 

powered compressor instead of a leakage-susceptible shaft. This system also uses a third less 

refrigerant than conventional TRUs, further reducing leakage potential.162 This system is 

discussed under the section “Use of Advanced Electrical Transport Refrigeration Unit (TRU) 

Systems”. 

Availability 

Leakage reducing components for MVAC systems are readily available and largely already 

employed by the industry. 

Vehicle Application

This technology is used in all tractors and work trucks, as well as trailers. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Operations and maintenance savings are incurred with the use of leakage reducing components 

given the longer lifetimes of refrigerant charges. 

 

158 Conversation with Sam Dutta, ThermoKing. 

159 Conversation with Tom Kampf.

160 Draft Regulatory Impact Analysis, Proposed Rulemaking to Establish Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission 

Standards and Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards, EPA-420-D-09-003, September 2009. 

161 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, 

October 4, 2007.

162 Conversation with David Kiefer. 
ICF International 71 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

3. Cost Tables

Error! Reference source not found.Table 3-1 through Table 3-4 show the estimated cost for each technology, organized by the 

four tasks. A description of each of these technologies is given in Section 2. In each table the following column appear: 

 Category – the nine technology categories listed previously

 Technology – the technology considered

 Incremental To – if the technology is incremental to another technology, the baseline technology is listed

 Technology Types – subcategories of the technology

 [Vehicle] Type Applied To – Tractor, Trailer, Bus, or Vocational vehicle the technology may be implemented on

 Manufacturer Cost – if the price/cost value is manufacturer cost, it is listed in this column

 Retail Price – if the price/cost value is retail price, it is listed in this column

 Type of Price/Cost – a summary of the price/cost value

 O&M Costs – any operations and maintenance costs determined from the research

 Discount Information – any information on discounts available from the research

 Notes – any notes on values or methodologies used in the calculations

Cost information was gathered through telephone interviews with manufacturers and vendors. This was also compared to values 

found in the literature. All values were combined to hide any proprietary or sensitive information gathered.
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 72 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Table 3-1: Class 7 and 8 Tractor Technology Cost/Price Summary

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Aerodynamic Improvements

Roof Fairing No Fairing Roof Fairing

Day Cab $1,100 Retail 10-15% for 

large orders

Midsize Sleeper $1,400 Retail 10-15% for 

large orders

Fullsize Sleeper n/a n/a 10-15% for 

large orders

Side Fairing No Fairing

Fuel Tank Fairing

Day Cab $1,500 Retail No Data 

Available

Midsize Sleeper $1,500 Retail No Data 

Available

Fullsize Sleeper $1,500 Retail No Data 

Available

Partial Side Fairing

Day Cab $366 Retail 10-15% for 

large orders

Midsize Sleeper $530 Retail 10-15% for 

large orders

Fullsize Sleeper $700 Retail 10-15% for 

large orders

Wheel to Wheel 

Full Side Fairing

Day Cab $1,700 Retail No Data 

Available

Midsize Sleeper $2,100 Retail No Data 

Available

Fullsize Sleeper $2,200 Retail No Data 

Available

Full Aero Mirror Baseline 

Mirror

Aero Mirror, pair All $660 No Data 

Available

Incremental, per Truck All $428 Incremental 

Retail

Partial Aero 

Mirror Baseline 

Mirror

Semi-Aero Wing-Shaped 

“Moto” Mirror All $450 No Data Available

Incremental, per Truck All $218 Incremental 

Retail

Baseline Mirror Standard Mirror, pair All $232 Retail No Data 

Available
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 73 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Tractor Gap 

Fairing No Fairing Side Extender

Day Cab $320 Retail 10-15% for 

large orders

Midsize Sleeper $360 Retail No Data 

Available

Fullsize Sleeper $400 Retail No Data 

Available

Aerodynamic 

Hood Baseline 

Hood

Day Cab n/a No Data 

Available

Midsize Sleeper n/a No Data 

Available

Fullsize Sleeper n/a No Data 

Available

Bumper Classic 

Bumper

Aero Bumper

Day Cab $960 Incremental 

Retail

No Data 

Available

Midsize Sleeper $960 Incremental 

Retail

No Data 

Available

Fullsize Sleeper $960 Incremental 

Retail

No Data 

Available

Classic Bumper

Day Cab $390 Incremental 

Retail

No Data 

Available

Midsize Sleeper $390 Incremental 

Retail

No Data 

Available

Fullsize Sleeper $390 Incremental 

Retail

No Data 

Available

Rolling Resistance Improvements

Single Wide 

Tires

Baseline 

Dualie Drive 

Tires on Steel 

Wheels

Single Wide Drive 

Tire All $1,000 No Data 

Available

Wide-Base Al 

Wheel All $650

Additional 

components

All n/a

Number/Drive 

Axle 2

Drive Axles 2
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 74 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Changes/year 0.300

Total (Capital) $6,600

Total per year 

(O&M)

$1,977

Incremental, per 

Truck $(228) Incremental 

Retail 

Incremental, per 

(Single-Wide) 

Wheel

$(57) Incremental 

Retail 

O&M per Truck 

per Year $(199)

O&M per (Single 

Wide) Tire per 

Year

$(50)

Baseline (Dualie)

Drive Tire

All

$404

Baseline (Dualie) 

Al Wheel

All

$450

Number/Drive 

Axle 4

Drive Axles 2

Changes/year 0.319

Total (Capital) $6,828

No Data 

Available

Total per year 

(O&M) $2,176

Low Rolling 

Resistance 

Tires

Baseline Tire 

(no wheel 

change)

LRRT (drive) $424

Number/Drive 

Axle 4

Drive Axles 2
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 75 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Changes/year 0.296

LRRT (steer) $449

Number/Steer 

Axle 2

Steer Axles 1

Changes/year 0.252

Total (Capital) $4,286

Total per year 

(O&M) $1,231

Capital per truck $246 Incremental 

Retail

Capital per tire $25 Incremental 

Retail

5-10% for 

large orders

O&M per truck 

per year

$(18)

O&M per tire per 

year

$ (2)

Baseline (Dualie) 

Drive Tire $404

Number/Drive 

Axle 4

Drive Axles 2

Changes/year 0.319

Baseline Steer Tire $406

Number/Steer 

Axle 2

Steer Axles 1

Changes/year 0.271

Total (Capital) $4,040 No Data 

Available

Total per year 

(O&M) $ 1,249

Automatic Tire 

Inflation

No ATI 

System

External, tractor 

system (package)

All

$1,500
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 76 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Install labor (hrs, 

included) 8

Labor costs (per 

hr; for retrofit) $19

components only $1,351 Retail No Data 

Available

Operational Improvements

Programmable 

speed limiter 

No Speed 

Limiter

Incremental Cost 

of System All $-

Time to Program 

the Engine 

(minutes)

5

Labor costs (per 

hr; for retrofit) $19

Total $2 Labor n/a

Advanced 

Driver Training No Training

Subscription with 

Lessons (per 

driver)

All

$50

Price per course $15

Number courses 

on fuel economy 1

Duration 

(hours/course) 4

Driver Salary/hr $18.62

Per Driver Per 

Year $139 Retail No Data Available 

High-Level 

Training without a All
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 77 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Subscription

Duration 

(hours/course) 10

Driver Salary/hr $18.62

Trainer Salary/hr $31

Training Materials $19

Per Driver Per 

Year $515 Retail No Data Available 

Literature Only All

Price per course $125.00

Number courses 1

Duration 

(hours/course) 8

Driver Salary/hr $18.62

Per Driver Per 

Year $274 Retail No Data Available 

Idle Reductions

Auxiliary Power 

Units No APU

Most Day Cabs n/a

Traditional APU Midsize and Fullsize Sleepers $7,700 Retail

Volume 

discounts of 

about 13-19% 

available 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 78 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Truck overnight 

idling (hours/year) 1800

APU Fuel 

Consumption 

(gal/hour)

0.25

Engine Fuel 

Consumption 

(gal/hour)

0.8

Fuel Cost ($/gal) $3

Incremental O&M 

per truck per year $ (2,970)

Direct Fired 

Heaters No DFH Simple Bunk Heater/DFH All $1,400 Retail No Data Available 

Engine 

Recovery 

Systems

No EFS

Simple All $585 Retail

Volume 

discounts 

available, but 

unquantified 

Deluxe $710 Retail

Volume 

discounts 

available, but 

unquantified 

Thermal 

Storage 

Systems

No TSS Full TSS system All $4,500 Retail

No Data 

Available 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 79 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Truck Stop 

Electrification

Engine Idling Advanced 

Truckstop 

Electrification 

(ATE)

Midsize and Fullsize Sleepers

Mounting 

Template $18

Per Site Install 

Cost $11,000

Use Rate ($/hour) $1.00

May be 

negotiable

Truck overnight 

idling (hours/year) 1800

Install Cost $0

Capital Per Truck $18 Retail

Annual O&M per 

truck $1,800

Incremental O&M 

per truck per year $ (2,520)

n/a 

Baseline

Engine Fuel 

Consumption 

(gal/hour)

0.8

Fuel Cost ($/gal) $3

Annual Cost per 

Truck $4,320

Shore Power 

Truckstop 

Electrification 

(TSE)

Midsize and Fullsize Sleepers

Per Truck Install 

Cost $199

Per Site Install 

Cost $2,100

Use Rate ($/hour) $1.00 May be 

negotiable
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 80 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Truck overnight 

idling (hours/year) 1800

Capital Per Truck $199 Retail

Annual O&M per 

truck $1,800

Incremental O&M 

per truck per year $ (2,520) n/a 

Baseline idling

Engine Fuel 

Consumption 

(gal/hour)

0.8

Fuel Cost ($/gal) $3

Annual Cost per 

Truck $4,320

Idle Reductions

Anti-Idle 

System No System

Automatic Engine 

Shut-Down All n/a

technology $-

activation $55

Mandated AESD 

Cost

$-

Automatic 

Engine 

Start/Stop 

Systems

No System Optimized Idle All
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 81 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

activation/

programming $400

kit $900

Volume 

discounts of 

17% 

Total $1,300 Retail

Fuel Cell APUs $7,550 Retail No Data 

Available

Engine Improvements

Low Friction 

Engine Lube

Standard 

Engine Lubes

Lube Costs All

Oil changes/year 3.15

Incremental cost/oil 

change $ 268.50

Engine Modifications $- Retail
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 82 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Incremental Total 

per Truck per Year $ 845.78 No Data Available

Integrated 

Starter/

Alternator

Baseline 

Starter and 

Alternator

All

10 kW integrated starter/alt system $7,600

Incremental Total per Truck $7,200 Incremental 

Retail

No Data 

Available

Baseline Starter $200

Baseline Alternator $200

Total $400 No Data 

Available

Mechanical 

Turbo

compounding

No TBC

Mechanical TBC All

Port Liners $400

Variable Valve 

Actuation $300

High efficiency 

power turbine $1,275

Total $1,975

Incremental Total 

per Truck $1,040 Incremental Retail

No Data 

Available

Baseline VGT $935 No Data 

Available

Electrical Turbo 

compounding No TBC

Electric TBC All

Mechanical Turbo

compounding 

components

$1,975

40 kW 

motor/generator $1,200

Power Electronics $1,200

Electric accessories $1,000

Balance of Plant $2,163

Total $7,538

Incremental Total 

per Truck $6,603 Incremental Retail

No Data 

Available
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 83 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Baseline VGT $935 No Data 

Available

Electronic Fans All n/a n/a

Variable Valve 

Actuation no VVA

VVA System All

Number Cylinders 6

Price per cylinder $50

Total $300 Retail No Data 

Available

Engine Improvements

Variable 

Geometry 

Turbo (VGT)

Baseline 

Fixed (FGT)

VGT system All $935

Incremental to FGT $435 Incremental 

Retail

No Data 

Available

Baseline FGT $500 No Data 

Available

Rankine 

Bottoming 

Cycle

No Rankine 

System

Turbine, generator 

and flywheel (30 

kW system)

All $2,000

Air cooled 

condenser $500

EGR boiler $400

Stack boiler $1,000

Balance of Plant $1,440

Controls & Power 

Electronics $1,300

Energy storage $150

Total $6,790 Retail No Data 

Available

Transmission and Drivetrain 

Improvements

Hybrid 

Powertrain

Conventional 

Powertrain

Hybrid System All

50 kW 

Motor/Generator $3,000

4 kW Battery Pack $6,400

Power Electronics $3,000

Balance of Plant $6,600

Modified Clutch 

Assembly $4,000
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 84 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Electrification of 

Accessories $2,000

Total $25,000 Retail No Data 

Available

Low Friction 

Drivetrain Lube

Conventional 

Transmission 

Lubes

Low Friction Lube All

Changes/year 0.7875

Cost/change $ 339 No Data 

Available

Drivetrain 

Modifications

(none required) $-

Incremental Total 

per Truck per Year $ 140.96

Baseline 

(Conventional 

Lube)

Cost/change $160 No Data 

Available

Early Torque 

Converter

Lockup

No ETCLU All $0 Retail No Data 

Available

Weight Reduction

Aluminum 

Wheels

Conventional 

Steel Wheels

Upgrade Dualies to 

Aluminum All

Al Standard Width 

Wheel $450

Bulk 

discounts 

available but 

unquantified 

Baseline (Dualie) 

Drive Tire $404

Number/Drive Axle 4

Drive Axles 2

Baseline Steer Tire $406

Number/Steer Axle 2

Steer Axles 1
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 85 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Total $8,540

per truck $3,120 Incremental 

Retail

per wheel $312 Incremental 

Retail

Upgrade to 

Aluminum SWTs

Al Wide-Base 

Wheel $650

Bulk 

discounts 

available but 

unquantified 

Single Wide Drive 

Tire $1,031

Number/Drive Axle 2

Drive Axles 2

Baseline Steer Tire $406

Number/Steer Axle 0

Steer Axles 1

Total $6,724

per truck $1,304 Incremental 

Retail

per wheel $326 Incremental 

Retail

Baseline

Steel Standard 

Width Wheel $138

Bulk 

discounts 

available but 

unquantified 

Baseline (Dualie) 

Drive Tire $404

Number/Drive Axle 4
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 86 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Drive Axles 2

Baseline Steer Tire $406

Number/Steer Axle 2

Steer Axles 1

Total $5,420

Aluminum Axle 

Hubs n/a n/a n/a n/a

Light Weight 

Brake Drums

Baseline FullCast Brake 

Drums

Centrifuse Drums All

Drum $120 No Data 

Available

Number/Axle 2

Axles 3

Total $720

Total Capital per 

Truck $270 Incremental Retail

Total Capital per 

Axle $90 Incremental Retail

Changes/year 0.10

Total per year 

(O&M) 27.00

Total O&M per 

Truck $ (3)

Baseline

Drum $75 No Data 

Available

Total $450

Changes/year 0.40

Total per year

(O&M) $30.00
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 87 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Aluminum Air 

Tanks

Steel Air 

Tanks

Aluminum air tank, 

3x 4-Gal 

configuration

All

4-Gal Al Air Tank $147

Number of Tanks 3

Total $441

Baseline steel air 

tanks

4-Gal Al Air Tank $61

Total $183

Incremental per 

truck $258 Incremental Retail

Incremental per 

tank $86 Incremental Retail

No Data 

Available

Aluminum air tank, 

2x 20-Gal 

configuration

All

20-Gal Al Air Tank $301

Number of Tanks 2

Total $602

Baseline steel air 

tanks

20-Gal Al Air Tank $125

Total $250

Incremental per 

truck $352 Incremental Retail

Incremental per 

tank $176 Incremental Retail

No Data 

Available

Aluminum air tank, 

4x 5-Gal 

configuration

All

5-Gal Al Air Tank $158

Number of Tanks 4
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 88 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Total $631

Baseline steel air 

tanks

5-Gal Al Air Tank $66

Total $262

Incremental per 

truck $369 Incremental Retail

Incremental per 

tank $92 Incremental Retail

No Data 

Available

Reduced 

Number of 

Batteries

n/a n/a n/a n/a No Data 

Available

Lightweight 

Suspension 

Systems

n/a n/a n/a n/a No Data 

Available

Electrification

Electric Water 

pumps

All n/a n/a No Data 

Available

Electric Power 

Steering

Incremental per 

truck All $1,500 Incremental Retail n/a No Data Available

Evaporative 

Unit All $2,000 Retail No Data Available

Air Conditioning

Low Power 

Draw A/C

Standard APU or 

Battery Driven 

MVAC

All $4,105 Retail

Bulk 

discounts 

available but 

unquantified 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 89 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types

Tractor Type 

Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Complex BatteryDriven MVAC Sleeper Cabs $7,750 Retail No Data 

Available

Use of Leakage Reducing 

Components All $30 ManufacturerCost

No Data 

Available

CO2 as 

refrigerant

All $70 Manufacturer

Cost

No Data 

Available

Use of 

Alternative 

Refrigerants

HFC-152A All $50 Manufacturer 

Cost

No Data 

Available

Propane as 

refrigerant All $50 Manufacturer Cost

No Data 

Available

HFO-1234yf

hardware changes Class 8, Day Cab $10

incremental 

refrigerant costs $158

Total $168 Incremental 

Retail Price

No Data 

Available

hardware changes Class 8, Sleeper Cab $10

incremental 

refrigerant costs $198

Total $208 Incremental

Retail Price

No Data 

Available
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 90 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Table 3-2: Class 7 and 8 Trailer Technology Cost/Price Summary

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Discount 

Information O&M Costs

Aerodynamic Improvements

Trailer Side 

Skirts

No trailer 

fairings

Side fairing/Side 

skirt

Van, Reefer, Flatbed $1,900 

low volume, 

13%; high 

volume, 28%

Tanker $2,100 high volume, 

20%

Gap Fairings No gap 

fairings

Aluminum Gap 

Fairing Van, Reefer $850 No data available

Trailer 

Aerocone No AeroCone AeroCone Van $1,264 high volume, 20%

Boat Tails No Boat Tail Trailer Tail

Van $2,800 25-30%

Reefer $3,100 25-30%

Air Tabs No Air Tabs Air Tab Van, Reefer $240

low volume, 

15%

high volume, 

25%

Rolling Resistance 

Improvements

Single Wide 

Tires

Baseline 

Dualie Trailer 

Tires on Steel 

Wheels, 2-

Axle Trailer

Upgrade to SWTs 

on Al Wheels, 2-

Axle Trailer

All

Single Wide Tire $794

Wide-Base Al 

Wheel $650
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 91 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Discount 

Information O&M Costs

Additional 

components

n/a

Number/Axle 2

Axles 2

Changes/year 0.300

Total (Capital) $5,777

Total per year 

(O&M) $1,731

Incremental, 

Capital per Trailer $(135) No data available

Incremental, 

Capital per (Single

-Wide) Wheel

$(34)

O&M per Trailer 

per Year $(154)

O&M per (Single 

Wide) Tire per 

Year

$(38)

Baseline, 2-Axle 

Trailer

Baseline (Dualie) 

Trailer Tire $289

Baseline (Dualie) 

Al Wheel $450

Number/Axle 4

Axles 2

Changes/year 0.319

Total (Capital) $5,912 No data 

available

Total per year 

(O&M) $1,884

Baseline 

Dualie Trailer 

Tires on Steel 

Wheels, 3-

Axle Trailer

Upgrade to SWTs 

on Al Wheels, 3-

Axle Trailer

All

Single Wide Tire $794
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 92 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Discount 

Information O&M Costs

Wide-Base Al 

Wheel $650

Additional 

components

n/a

Number/Axle 2

Axles 3

Changes/year 0.300

Total (Capital) $8,665

Total per year 

(O&M) $2,596

Incremental, 

Capital per Trailer $(203)

Incremental, 

Capital per 

(Single-Wide) 

Wheel

$(34) No data 

available

O&M per Trailer 

per Year $(230)

O&M per (Single 

Wide) Tire per 

Year

$(38)

Baseline, 3-Axle 

Trailer

Baseline (Dualie) 

Trailer Tire $289

Baseline (Dualie) 

Al Wheel $450

Number/Axle 4

Axles 3

Changes/year 0.319

Total (Capital) $8,868 No data 

available

Total per year 

(O&M) $2,826

Low Rolling 

Resistance 

Tires

Baseline 

Trailer Tire 

(no wheel 

LRRT All

LRR Trailer Tire $367
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 93 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Discount 

Information O&M Costs

change), 2-

Axle Trailer

Number/Axle 4

Axles 2

Changes/year 0.296

Total (Capital) $2,935 No data 

available

Total per year 

(O&M) $870

Incremental, 

Capital per Trailer $623

Incremental, 

Capital per Tire $78 No data available

O&M per Trailer 

per Year $(737)

O&M per Tire per 

Year $(92)

Baseline

Baseline (Dualie) 

Trailer Tire $289

Number/Axle 4

Axles 2

Changes/year 0.319

Total (Capital) $2,312 No data 

available

Total per year 

(O&M) $737

Baseline 

Trailer Tire 

(no wheel 

change), 3-

Axle Trailer

LRRT All

LRRT $367

Number/Axle 4

Axles 3

Changes/year 0.296

Total (Capital) $4,403

Total per year 

(O&M) $1,305

Incremental, $935
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 94 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Discount 

Information O&M Costs

Capital per Trailer

Incremental, 

Capital per Tire $78 No data available

O&M per Trailer 

per Year $(368)

O&M per Tire per 

Year $(31)

Baseline

Baseline (Dualie) 

Trailer Tire $289

Number/Axle 4

Axles 3

Changes/year 0.319

Total (Capital) $3,468 No data 

available

Total per year 

(O&M) $1,105

Automatic 

Tire Inflation

No ATI 

System

Internal, trailer 

system

2-axle or 3-axle

Package $750 No data 

available

Install labor (hrs, 

included) 4

Labor costs (per 

hr; for retrofit) $19

components only $676 No data 

available

Internal, trailer 

system 

1-axle or dolly

Package $550 No data 

available

Install labor (hrs, 

included) 4

Labor costs (per 

hr; for retrofit) $19

components only $476 No data 

available
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 95 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Discount 

Information O&M Costs

Weight Reduction

Tare weight 

reduction via 

Al structural 

components

Baseline Steel 

components

Roof Posts / Bows Dry Van

Incremental, per 

Trailer $120 No data available

Side posts 

Incremental, per 

Trailer $525 No data available

Cross members / 

floor joists

Incremental, per 

Trailer $400 No data available

Floor 

Incremental, per 

Trailer $1,500 No data available

Tare weight 

reduction via 

Al wheels

Baseline Steel (dualie) wheels, 2-

Axle Trailer All

Number/Axle 4

Axles 2

Incremental, per 

Trailer $1,500 No data available

Incremental, per 

Wheel $188

Baseline Steel (dualie) wheels, 3-

Axle Trailer

Number/Axle 4

Axles 3

Incremental, per 

Trailer $2,250 No data available

Incremental, per 

Wheel $188
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 96 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Discount 

Information O&M Costs

Air Conditioning

Use of 

Leakage 

Reducing 

Components

Reefer $30 No data 

available

Use of 

Advanced 

Electrical 

TRU Systems

Standard, 

Diesel TRU

Hybrid, vector TRU Reefer

Incremental Total $4,000 No data 

available

Annual Operating 

Costs $1,404

Incremental O&M 

per Year $(2,106)

Electric Standby 

(E/S) Option

TRU option $2,300

Facility upgrade 

per terminal $1,250

Per terminal, 

additional for 

transformer

$6,000

per hour use rate $5

TRU overnight 

usage 

(hours/year)

1800

Incremental Total 

per Trailer $2,300 No data available

Annual O&M per 

Trailer $9,000

Incremental O&M 

per Year $5,490

Solar TRU

Total n/a N/A

Fuel Cell TRU

Total n/a N/A

Baseline

Fuel consumption 

(gal/hr) 0.65

Fuel Cost ($/gal) $3
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 97 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Discount 

Information O&M Costs

Annual Cost per 

Truck

No data 

available $3,510

Use of 

Cryogenic 

CO2 Units

Unit cost Reefer

per trailer $30,000 Marginal 

volume, 5%

Annual O&M per 

Trailer

$7,020

Incremental O&M 

per Year $3,510

Infrastructure 

costs

per facility $150,000 No data 

available

Use of Highly 

Reflective 

Structural 

Materials

Baseline Al 

Roof

Composite 

Reflective Roof Van, Reefer

Roof $800

Incremental, per 

Trailer $0 No data available

Number of small 

holes per year 2

Hole patch cost $100

O&M Cost $200

Coated Roof Van, Reefer

Roof $700

Incremental, per 

Trailer ($100) No data available

Adding Reflective 

Tape Van, Reefer

100 ft roll $100

spacing (strips/ft) 1

trailer width (ft) 8.5

trailer length (ft) 53

trailer height (ft) 13.5

Incremental Total, 

per 53' trailer $1,882 No data available

Baseline Roof Van, Reefer $800
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 98 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Discount 

Information O&M Costs

Use of 

Alternative 

Refrigerants

CO2 as refrigerant Reefer $70 No data 

available

HFC-152A Reefer $50 No data 

available

Propane as 

refrigerant Reefer $50 No data available

HFO-1234yf Reefer

hardware changes $10

incremental 

refrigerant costs $551

Total $561 Incremental 

Retail Price

No data 

available

Table 3-3: Class 3 through 8 Vocational Truck Technology Cost/Price Summary

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Low Rolling Resistance

Low Rolling 

Resistance 

Tires

None

LRRT Class 6 Box Truck

LRRT (drive) $379

Number/Drive 

Axle 4

Drive Axles 1

Changes/year 0.287

LRRT (steer) $329

Number/Steer 

Axle 2
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 99 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Steer Axles 1

Changes/year 0.287

Total (Capital) $2,174 Retail Price No data 

available 

Total per year 

(O&M) $623

Engine Improvements

Mechanical 

Turbo

compounding

No TBC Mechanical TBC Class 6 Box Truck N/A N/A N/A N/A

Electric Turbo

compounding No TBC Electric TBC Class 6 Box Truck N/A N/A N/A N/A

Variable Valve 

Actuation no VVA

VVA Class 6 Box Truck

Cam-operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake only

Number Cylinders 6

Total $455 Retail Price No data 

available 

Cam-operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake and exhaust

Number Cylinders 6

Total $910 Retail Price No data 

available 

Mechanical, cam-operated VVA, intake only

Total $700 Manufacturer Cost No data 

available 

Fully variable, camless VVA

Total $2,350 Manufacturer Cost No data 

available 

Variable 

Geometry 

Turbo (VGT)

Baseline 

Fixed (FGT) VGT system Class 6 Box Truck

Incremental to 

FGT $675 Incremental Retail No data available 

Transmission 

and Drivetrain 

Improvements

Hybrid 

Powertrain Conventional Powertrain

Hybrid System – Class 4 Utility Truck

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 100 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

 30 kW Motor/Generator $900 

 4 kW Battery Pack $3,200 

 Power Electronics $900 

 Balance of Plant $2,500 

 Modified Clutch Assembly $1,500 

 Electrification of Accessories $850

Total Hardware Cost $9,850

 Labor @ $28/hr $2,800

 Labor Overhead @ 40% $1,120

 Markup @ 29% $3,993

 Warranty Markup at 5% $493

Total Component Cost $18,256

Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer

 R&D Costs $10,000,000

 Tooling Costs $3,000,000

 Units/yr. 500

 Years to recover 5

Fixed cost/unit $7,159

Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer $25,415 Manufacturer Cost No data 

available 

 Truck Manufacturer Markup @ 29% $7,370

Total Cost to Truck Purchaser $32,785 Retail Price No data 

available 

Hybrid System – Class 6 Box Truck

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer

 30 kW Motor/Generator $900

 4 kW Battery Pack $3,200

 Power Electronics $900
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 101 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

 Balance of Plant $3,000

 Modified Clutch Assembly $2,000

 Electrification of Accessories $1,000

Total Hardware Cost $11,000

 Labor @ $28/hr $3,780

 Labor Overhead @ 40% $1,512

 Markup @ 29% $4,725

 Warranty Markup at 5% $550

Total Component Cost $21,567

Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer

 R&D Costs $10,000,000

 Tooling Costs $3,000,000

 Units/yr. 500

 Years to recover 5

Fixed cost/unit $7,420

Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer $28,987 Manufacturer Cost No data 

available 

 Truck Manufacturer Markup @ 29% $8,406

Total Cost to Truck Purchaser $37,393 Retail Price No data 

available 

Hybrid System -- Class 8 Refuse

Hardware Cost to 

Manufacturer

 30 kW Motor/Generator $900

 100 kW Motor/Generator $3,000

 8 kW Battery Pack $6,400

 Power Electronics $3,900

 Balance of Plant $8,500

 Modified Clutch Assembly $2,500
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 102 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

 Electrification of Accessories $1,750

Total Hardware Cost $26,950

 Labor @ $28/hr $5,600

 Labor Overhead @ 40% $2,240

 Markup @ 29% $10,089

 Warranty Markup at 5% $1,348

Total Component Cost $46,227

Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer

 R&D Costs $10,000,000

 Tooling Costs $3,000,000

 Units/yr. 500

 Years to recover 5

Fixed cost/unit $7,159

Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer $53,386 Manufacturer Cost No data 

available 

 Truck Manufacturer Markup @ 29% $15,482

Total Cost to Truck Purchaser $68,867 Retail Price No data 

available 

Air Conditioning

Low Power Draw A/C Evaporative Unit Class 6 Box Truck $2,000 Retail Price No data 

available 

Use of Leakage Reducing 

Components Class 6 Box Truck $25 Incremental Manufacturer Cost

No data 

available 

Use of Highly 

Reflective 

Structural 

Materials

Baseline Al 

Roof

Class 6 Box Truck (24')

Composite Reflective Roof

Roof $460

Incremental, per Trailer $84 Incremental Retail Price No data 

available 

Number of small holes per year 2
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 103 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Hole patch cost $100 

O&M Cost $200 

Coated Roof

Incremental

Roof $422 Incremental Retail Price No data 

available 

Cab $250 Incremental Retail Price

Adding Reflective Tape

100 ft roll $100

spacing (strips/ft) 1

trailer width (ft) 8.5

trailer length (ft) 24

trailer height (ft) 13.5

Incremental Total, per 24' trailer $852 Incremental Retail Price No data 

available 

Baseline Roof $376

Use of 

Alternative 

Refrigerants

CO2 as refrigerant Class 6 Box Truck $70 Manufacturer Cost No data 

available 

HFC-152A Class 6 Box Truck $50 Manufacturer Cost No data 

available 

Propane as 

refrigerant Class 6 Box Truck $50 Manufacturer Cost No data available 

HFO-1234yf

Class 6 Box Truck, Day 

Cab

hardware changes $10

incremental 

refrigerant costs $124

Total $134 Incremental Retail Price No data 

available
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 104 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Class 6 Box Truck, 

Crew Cab

hardware changes $10

incremental 

refrigerant costs $140

Total $150 Incremental Retail Price No data 

available

Table 3-4: Class 7 and 8 Bus Technology Cost/Price Summary

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Bus Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Rolling Resistance Improvements

Low Rolling 

Resistance 

Tires

None

LRRT Class 8 Transit Bus

LRRT (drive) $333

Number/Drive Axle 4

Drive Axles 1

Changes/year 0.167

LRRT (steer) $333

Number/Steer Axle 2

Steer Axles 1

Changes/year 0.167

Total (Capital) $1,998 Retail Price No data 

available 

Total per year (O&M) $333

Engine 

Improve

ments

Mechanical 

Turbo

compounding

No TBC Mechanical TBC Class 8 Transit Bus N/A N/A N/A N/A
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 105 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Bus Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Electric Turbo

compounding No TBC Electric TBC Class 8 Transit Bus N/A N/A N/A N/A

Variable Valve 

Actuation no VVA

Class 8 Transit Bus

Cam-operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake only

Number Cylinders 6

Total $585 Retail Price No data 

available 

Cam-operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake and exhaust

Number Cylinders 6

Engine Improvements

Variable Valve 

Actuation No VVA

Total $1,170 Retail Price No data 

available 

Mechanical, cam-operated VVA, intake only

Total $700 Manufacturer Cost No data 

available 

Fully variable, camless VVA

Total $2,350 Manufacturer Cost No data 

available 

Variable 

Geometry 

Turbo (VGT)

Baseline Fixed 

(FGT)

VGT system Class 8 Transit Bus

Incremental to FGT $935 Incremental Retail No data 

available

Drivetrain Improvements

Hybrid 

Powertrain Conventional Powertrain Class 8 Transit Bus

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer

 30 kW Motor/Generator $900

 100 kW Motor/Generator $3,000

 8 kW Battery Pack $6,400

 Power Electronics $3,900

 Balance of Plant $8,500

 Modified Clutch Assembly $2,000

 Electrification of Accessories $1,250

Total Hardware Cost $25,950
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 106 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Bus Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

 Labor @ $28/hr $4,480

 Labor Overhead @ 40% $1,792

 Markup @ 29% $9,344

 Warranty Markup at 5% $1,298

Total Component Cost $42,864

Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer

 R&D Costs $10,000,000

 Tooling Costs $3,500,000

Drivetrain Improvements

 Units/yr. 1000

 Years to recover 5

Fixed cost/unit $3,710

Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer $46,574 Manufacturer Cost No data 

available 

Truck Manufacturer Markup @ 29% $13,506

Total Cost to Truck Purchaser $60,080 Retail Price No data 

available 

Air Conditioning

Low Power Draw A/C Roof-mounted 

Evaporative Unit Class 8 Transit Bus $6,000 Retail Price No data available 

Roof-mounted 

A/C System Class 8 Transit Bus $6,650 Retail Price No data available 

Use of Leakage Reducing Components Class 8 Transit Bus $30

Incremental 

Manufacturer Cost

No data 

available 

Use of Highly 

Reflective 

Structural 

Materials

Baseline Al 

Roof

Class 8 Transit Bus (43’ 52-passenger)

Composite Reflective Roof

Roof $645

Fasteners, etc. $100

Total $745 Retail Price No data 

available 

Number of small holes per year 2

Hole patch cost $100
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Cost Tables

ICF International 107 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Bus Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

O&M Cost $200

Coated Roof

Incremental

Roof $620 Incremental Retail Price No data 

available 

Adding Reflective Tape

100 ft roll $100

spacing (strips/ft) 1

Air Conditioning

Use of Highly 

Reflective 

Structural 

Materials

Baseline Al 

Roof

bus width (ft) 8.5

bus length (ft) 43

bus height (ft) 9.5

Incremental Total, per 24' trailer $1,183 Incremental Retail Price No data 

available 

Alternative 

Refrigerants

CO2 as refrigerant Class 8 Transit Bus $70 Manufacturer Cost No data 

available 

HFC-152A Class 8 Transit Bus $50 Manufacturer Cost No data 

available 

Propane as 

refrigerant Class 8 Transit Bus $50 Manufacturer Cost No data available 

HFO-1234yf Class 8 Transit Bus 

hardware changes $10

incremental 

refrigerant costs $683
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Bibliography

ICF International 108 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

Category Technology

Incremental 

To Technology Types Bus Type Applied To

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price

Type of 

Price/Cost

O&M 

Costs

Discount 

Information

Total $ 693 Incremental Retail Price No data 

available 

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“Assessment of Fuel Economy Technologies for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles”, Final Report to the National Academy of 

Sciences by TIAX LLC, November 19, 2009.
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

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ICF International 109 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

“Automobile Industry Retail Price Equivalent and Indirect Cost Multipliers”, Prepared for EPA by RTI International and Transportation 

Research Institute, University of Michigan, EPA-420-R-09-003, February 2009. 

Automotive Engineering Online, Delphi truck fuel-cell APU to hit road in 2012, May 12, 2010. http://www.sae.org/mags/AEI/8222.

“Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation”, Prepared for U.S. DOT by NC State, October 

4, 2007.

CentriFuse: Commercial Product Brochure. http://ppimw.archercom.com/assets/centrifuse_brake_drums_brochure.pdf.

“Clean, Silent and Efficient Refrigeration: Solutions for Distribution and City Operations”, Thermo King CryoTech Commercial 

Brochure provided by Thermo King Ireland, Ltd. 

“Clean Diesel Financing loan application form”, US EPA and Community Development Transportation Lending Service, SmartWay. 

http://www.ctaa.org/webmodules/webarticles/articlefiles/SmartWay_Brochure_and_Application.pdf.

“Consensus Building on Refrigerant Type”, September 2008 issue of Automotive Engineering International, an SAE magazine.

“Delphi truck fuel-cell APU to hit road in 2012,” SAE International. May 12, 2010. Accessed June 10, 2010. 

http://www.sae.org/mags/AEI/8222

“Documentation of the Development of Indirect Cost Multipliers for Three Automotive Technologies”, August 2009 memorandum from

Gloria Helfand and Todd Sherwood, U.S. EPA.

Draft Regulatory Impact Analysis, Proposed Rulemaking to Establish Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission Standards and 

Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards, EPA-420-D-09-003, September 2009.

Draft Joint Technical Support Document, Proposed Rulemaking to Establish Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission

Standards and Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards, US EPA and National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, EPA-420-

D-09-901, September 2009. 

“Environmental Awareness and Outreach Measures to Reduce GHG Emissions From the Trucking Sector”, L-P Tardif & Associates 

Inc., August, 1999.

Every Idle. IconTM. Cummins. 2005. 

http://international.cummins.com/attachments/public/english/Engine%20Related/ICON/3606293_0205.pdf
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Bibliography

ICF International 110 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010

“Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions”, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition.

Heavy Duty Truck/Trailer. Alcoa Wheels website. Accessed June 10, 2010. 

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